question
stringlengths 15
100
| context
stringlengths 18
412k
|
|---|---|
when was the first day of the dead celebrated | Day of the Dead - wikipedia
Day of the Dead (Spanish: Día de Muertos) is a Mexican holiday celebrated throughout Mexico, in particular the Central and South regions, and by people of Mexican ancestry living in other places, especially the United States. It is acknowledged internationally in many other cultures. The multi-day holiday focuses on gatherings of family and friends to pray for and remember friends and family members who have died, and help support their spiritual journey. In 2008, the tradition was inscribed in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.
The holiday is sometimes called Día de los Muertos in Anglophone countries, a back - translation of its original name, Día de Muertos. It is particularly celebrated in Mexico where the day is a public holiday. Prior to Spanish colonization in the 16th century, the celebration took place at the beginning of summer. Gradually, it was associated with October 31, November 1 and November 2 to coincide with the Western Christian triduum of Allhallowtide: All Saints ' Eve, All Saints ' Day, and All Souls ' Day. Traditions connected with the holiday include building private altars called ofrendas, honoring the deceased using calaveras, aztec marigolds, and the favorite foods and beverages of the departed, and visiting graves with these as gifts. Visitors also leave possessions of the deceased at the graves.
Scholars trace the origins of the modern Mexican holiday to indigenous observances dating back hundreds of years and to an Aztec festival dedicated to the goddess Mictecacihuatl. The holiday has spread throughout the world, being absorbed within other deep traditions for honoring the dead. It has become a national symbol and as such is taught (for educational purposes) in the nation 's schools. Many families celebrate a traditional "All Saints ' Day '' associated with the Catholic Church.
Originally, the Day of the Dead as such was not celebrated in northern Mexico, where it was unknown until the 20th century because its indigenous people had different traditions. The people and the church rejected it as a day related to syncretizing pagan elements with Catholic Christianity. They held the traditional ' All Saints ' Day ' in the same way as other Christians in the world. There was limited Mesoamerican influence in this region, and relatively few indigenous inhabitants from the regions of Southern Mexico, where the holiday was celebrated. In the early 21st century in northern Mexico, Día de Muertos is observed because the Mexican government made it a national holiday based on educational policies from the 1960s; it has introduced this holiday as a unifying national tradition based on indigenous traditions.
The Mexican Day of the Dead celebration is similar to other societies ' observances of a time to honor the dead. The Spanish tradition, for instance, includes festivals and parades, as well as gatherings of families at cemeteries to pray for their deceased loved ones at the end of the day.
The Day of the Dead celebrations in Mexico developed from ancient traditions among its pre-Columbian cultures. Rituals celebrating the deaths of ancestors had been observed by these civilizations perhaps for as long as 2,500 -- 3,000 years. The festival that developed into the modern Day of the Dead fell in the ninth month of the Aztec calendar, about the beginning of August, and was celebrated for an entire month. The festivities were dedicated to the goddess known as the "Lady of the Dead '', corresponding to the modern La Calavera Catrina.
By the late 20th century in most regions of Mexico, practices had developed to honor dead children and infants on November 1, and to honor deceased adults on November 2. November 1 is generally referred to as Día de los Inocentes ("Day of the Innocents '') but also as Día de los Angelitos ("Day of the Little Angels ''); November 2 is referred to as Día de los Muertos or Día de los Difuntos ("Day of the Dead '').
Frances Ann Day summarizes the three - day celebration, the Day of the Dead:
People go to cemeteries to be with the souls of the departed and build private altars containing the favorite foods and beverages, as well as photos and memorabilia, of the departed. The intent is to encourage visits by the souls, so the souls will hear the prayers and the comments of the living directed to them. Celebrations can take a humorous tone, as celebrants remember funny events and anecdotes about the departed.
Plans for the day are made throughout the year, including gathering the goods to be offered to the dead. During the three - day period families usually clean and decorate graves; most visit the cemeteries where their loved ones are buried and decorate their graves with ofrendas (altars), which often include orange Mexican marigolds (Tagetes erecta) called cempasúchil (originally named cempoaxochitl, Nāhuatl for "twenty flowers ''). In modern Mexico the marigold is sometimes called Flor de Muerto (Flower of Dead). These flowers are thought to attract souls of the dead to the offerings.
Toys are brought for dead children (los angelitos, or "the little angels ''), and bottles of tequila, mezcal or pulque or jars of atole for adults. Families will also offer trinkets or the deceased 's favorite candies on the grave. Some families have ofrendas in homes, usually with foods such as candied pumpkin, pan de muerto ("bread of dead ''), and sugar skulls; and beverages such as atole. The ofrendas are left out in the homes as a welcoming gesture for the deceased. Some people believe the spirits of the dead eat the "spiritual essence '' of the ofrendas food, so though the celebrators eat the food after the festivities, they believe it lacks nutritional value. Pillows and blankets are left out so the deceased can rest after their long journey. In some parts of Mexico, such as the towns of Mixquic, Pátzcuaro and Janitzio, people spend all night beside the graves of their relatives. In many places, people have picnics at the grave site, as well.
Some families build altars or small shrines in their homes; these sometimes feature a Christian cross, statues or pictures of the Blessed Virgin Mary, pictures of deceased relatives and other people, scores of candles, and an ofrenda. Traditionally, families spend some time around the altar, praying and telling anecdotes about the deceased. In some locations, celebrants wear shells on their clothing, so when they dance, the noise will wake up the dead; some will also dress up as the deceased.
Public schools at all levels build altars with ofrendas, usually omitting the religious symbols. Government offices usually have at least a small altar, as this holiday is seen as important to the Mexican heritage.
Those with a distinctive talent for writing sometimes create short poems, called calaveras (skulls), mocking epitaphs of friends, describing interesting habits and attitudes or funny anecdotes. This custom originated in the 18th or 19th century after a newspaper published a poem narrating a dream of a cemetery in the future, "and all of us were dead '', proceeding to read the tombstones. Newspapers dedicate calaveras to public figures, with cartoons of skeletons in the style of the famous calaveras of José Guadalupe Posada, a Mexican illustrator. Theatrical presentations of Don Juan Tenorio by José Zorrilla (1817 -- 1893) are also traditional on this day.
José Guadalupe Posada created a famous print of a figure he called La Calavera Catrina ("The Elegant Skull '') as a parody of a Mexican upper - class female. Posada 's striking image of a costumed female with a skeleton face has become associated with the Day of the Dead, and Catrina figures often are a prominent part of modern Day of the Dead observances.
A common symbol of the holiday is the skull (in Spanish calavera), which celebrants represent in masks, called calacas (colloquial term for skeleton), and foods such as sugar or chocolate skulls, which are inscribed with the name of the recipient on the forehead. Sugar skulls can be given as gifts to both the living and the dead. Other holiday foods include pan de muerto, a sweet egg bread made in various shapes from plain rounds to skulls and rabbits, often decorated with white frosting to look like twisted bones.
The traditions and activities that take place in celebration of the Day of the Dead are not universal, often varying from town to town. For example, in the town of Pátzcuaro on the Lago de Pátzcuaro in Michoacán, the tradition is very different if the deceased is a child rather than an adult. On November 1 of the year after a child 's death, the godparents set a table in the parents ' home with sweets, fruits, pan de muerto, a cross, a rosary (used to ask the Virgin Mary to pray for them) and candles. This is meant to celebrate the child 's life, in respect and appreciation for the parents. There is also dancing with colorful costumes, often with skull - shaped masks and devil masks in the plaza or garden of the town. At midnight on November 2, the people light candles and ride winged boats called mariposas (butterflies) to Janitzio, an island in the middle of the lake where there is a cemetery, to honor and celebrate the lives of the dead there.
In contrast, the town of Ocotepec, north of Cuernavaca in the State of Morelos, opens its doors to visitors in exchange for veladoras (small wax candles) to show respect for the recently deceased. In return the visitors receive tamales and atole. This is done only by the owners of the house where someone in the household has died in the previous year. Many people of the surrounding areas arrive early to eat for free and enjoy the elaborate altars set up to receive the visitors.
In some parts of the country (especially the cities, where in recent years other customs have been displaced) children in costumes roam the streets, knocking on people 's doors for a calaverita, a small gift of candies or money; they also ask passersby for it. This relatively recent custom is similar to that of Halloween 's trick - or - treating in the United States.
Some people believe possessing Day of the Dead items can bring good luck. Many people get tattoos or have dolls of the dead to carry with them. They also clean their houses and prepare the favorite dishes of their deceased loved ones to place upon their altar or ofrenda.
As part of the celebration, loved ones eat pan de muerto as well as the relative 's favorite foods.
Pan de muerto is a type of sweet roll. It is a sweetened soft bread shaped like a bun, topped with sugar, and often decorated with bone - shaped phalanges pieces. The bones represent the deceased one (difuntos or difuntas); the bones may be arranged in a circle to portray the circle of life. There is normally a baked tear drop on the bread to represent goddess Chimalma 's tears for the living. Pan de muerto is eaten on Día de Muertos, at the gravesite or altar of the deceased. In some regions, it is eaten for months before the official celebration of Dia de Muertos. In Oaxaca, pan de muerto is the same bread that is usually baked, with the addition of decorations.
Fiambre is a traditional Guatemalan salad, served chilled, and may be made up from over 50 ingredients.
Atole -- a warm, thick masa drink -- is prepared and drunk. The chocolate version, champurrado, is especially popular during Día de Muertos.
Jamaica iced tea is a popular herbal tea made of the flowers and leaves of the Jamaican hibiscus plant (Hibiscus sabdariffa), known as flor de Jamaica in Mexico. It is served cold and quite sweet with a lot of ice. The ruby - red beverage is called hibiscus tea in English - speaking countries and called agua de Jamaica (water of Jamaica) in Spanish.
The Catholic traditions were initiated with the arrival of the Portuguese in 1510. The Almacho Dis (Souls Day) is commemorated on Nov. 2, following all Saints Day (Nov. 1). On this day, the forgotten souls are remembered and spiritual charity is done though prayer for the deceased family and ancestral souls. Charity is practiced also by offering food for the poor called beggars lunch (bikareanchem jevonn) where the poor are invited for lunch, from the village and treated with dignity and respect. The invited down trodden are served as guest and usually commences with prayers for the deceased souls. Following mass on all souls day, the deceased visit the graveyard of the deceased souls and pray and also decorate their graves.
While ancestor veneration is an ancient part of Filipino culture, the modern observance is believed to have been imported from Mexico when the islands (as part of the Spanish East Indies) were governed from Mexico City as part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. During the holiday (observed on the 1st day of November), Filipinos customarily visit family tombs and other graves, which they repair and clean. Entire families spend a night or two at their loved ones ' tombs, passing time with card games, eating, drinking, singing and dancing. Prayers such as the rosary are often said for the deceased, who are normally offered candles, flowers, food, and even liquor. Some Catholic Chinese Filipino families additionally offer joss sticks to the dead, and observe customs otherwise associated with the Hungry Ghost Festival.
In Christian Europe, Roman Catholic customs absorbed pagan traditions. All Saints Day and All Souls Day became the autumnal celebration of the dead. Over many centuries, rites which had occurred in cultivated fields, where the souls of the dead were thought to leave after the harvest, to cemeteries.
In many countries with a Roman Catholic heritage, All Saints Day and All Souls Day have evolved traditions in which people take the day off work, go to cemeteries with candles and flowers, and give presents to children, usually sweets and toys. In Portugal and Spain ofrendas ("offerings '') are made on this day. In Spain, the play Don Juan Tenorio is traditionally performed. In Belgium, France, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain, people bring flowers (typically chrysanthemums in France and northern Europe) to the graves of dead relatives and say prayers over the dead.
In Eastern Europe holiday is called Dziady and also has pagan origins. In Belarus the ancient tradition involved cooking ritual dishes for supper. Part of each dish was put into a separate plate and left overnight for the dead ancestors. Public meetings are often organized on this day to commemorate the victims of Soviet political repressions.
As part of a promotion by the Mexican embassy in Prague, Czech Republic since the late 20th century, some local citizens join in a Mexican - style Day of the Dead. A theatre group produces events featuring masks, candles, and sugar skulls.
Mexican - style Day of the Dead celebrations occur in major cities in Australia, Fiji, and Indonesia. Additionally, prominent celebrations are held in Wellington, New Zealand, complete with altars celebrating the deceased with flowers and gifts.
In Belize, Day of the Dead is practiced by people of the Yucatec Maya ethnicity. The celebration is known as Hanal Pixan which means "food for the souls '' in their language. Altars are constructed and decorated with food, drinks, candies, and candles put on them.
Guatemalan celebrations of the Day of the Dead are highlighted by the construction and flying of giant kites in addition to the traditional visits to grave sites of ancestors. A big event also is the consumption of fiambre, which is made only for this day during the year.
In many American communities with Mexican residents, Day of the Dead celebrations are very similar to those held in Mexico. In some of these communities, in states such as Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, the celebrations tend to be mostly traditional. The All Souls Procession has been an annual Tucson, Arizona event since 1990. The event combines elements of traditional Day of the Dead celebrations with those of pagan harvest festivals. People wearing masks carry signs honoring the dead and an urn in which people can place slips of paper with prayers on them to be burned. Likewise, Old Town San Diego, California annually hosts a traditional two - day celebration culminating in a candlelight procession to the historic El Campo Santo Cemetery.
In Missoula, Montana, celebrants wearing skeleton costumes and walking on stilts, riding novelty bicycles, and traveling on skis parade through town.
The festival also is held annually at historic Forest Hills Cemetery in Boston 's Jamaica Plain neighborhood. Sponsored by Forest Hills Educational Trust and the folkloric performance group La Piñata, the Day of the Dead festivities celebrate the cycle of life and death. People bring offerings of flowers, photos, mementos, and food for their departed loved ones, which they place at an elaborately and colorfully decorated altar. A program of traditional music and dance also accompanies the community event.
The Smithsonian Institution, in collaboration with the University of Texas at El Paso and Second Life, have created a Smithsonian Latino Virtual Museum and accompanying multimedia e-book: Día de los Muertos: Day of the Dead. The project 's website contains some of the text and images which explain the origins of some of the customary core practices related to the Day of the Dead, such as the background beliefs and the offrenda (the special altar commemorating one 's deceased loved one). The Made For iTunes multimedia e-book version provides additional content, such as further details; additional photo galleries; pop - up profiles of influential Latino artists and cultural figures over the decades; and video clips of interviews with artists who make Dia de Muertos - themed artwork, explanations and performances of Aztec and other traditional dances, an animation short that explains the customs to children, virtual poetry readings in English and Spanish.
Santa Ana, California is said to hold the "largest event in Southern California '' honoring Día de Muertos, called the annual Noche de Altares, which began in 2002. The celebration of the Day of the Dead in Santa Ana has grown to two large events with the creation of an event held at the Santa Ana Regional Transportation Center for the first time on November 1, 2015.
In other communities, interactions between Mexican traditions and American culture are resulting in celebrations in which Mexican traditions are being extended to make artistic or sometimes political statements. For example, in Los Angeles, California, the Self Help Graphics & Art Mexican - American cultural center presents an annual Day of the Dead celebration that includes both traditional and political elements, such as altars to honor the victims of the Iraq War, highlighting the high casualty rate among Latino soldiers. An updated, intercultural version of the Day of the Dead is also evolving at Hollywood Forever Cemetery. There, in a mixture of Native Californian art, Mexican traditions and Hollywood hip, conventional altars are set up side - by - side with altars to Jayne Mansfield and Johnny Ramone. Colorful native dancers and music intermix with performance artists, while sly pranksters play on traditional themes.
Similar traditional and intercultural updating of Mexican celebrations are held in San Francisco. For example, the Galería de la Raza, SomArts Cultural Center, Mission Cultural Center, de Young Museum and altars at Garfield Square by the Marigold Project. Oakland is home to Corazon Del Pueblo in the Fruitvale district. Corazon Del Pueblo has a shop offering handcrafted Mexican gifts and a museum devoted to Day of the Dead artifacts. Also, the Fruitvale district in Oakland serves as the hub of the Dia de Muertos annual festival which occurs the last weekend of October. Here, a mix of several Mexican traditions come together with traditional Aztec dancers, regional Mexican music, and other Mexican artisans to celebrate the day.
Dia de los ñatitas ("Day of the Skulls '') is a festival celebrated in La Paz, Bolivia, on May 5. In pre-Columbian times indigenous Andeans had a tradition of sharing a day with the bones of their ancestors on the third year after burial. Today families keep only the skulls for such rituals. Traditionally, the skulls of family members are kept at home to watch over the family and protect them during the year. On November 9, the family crowns the skulls with fresh flowers, sometimes also dressing them in various garments, and making offerings of cigarettes, coca leaves, alcohol, and various other items in thanks for the year 's protection. The skulls are also sometimes taken to the central cemetery in La Paz for a special Mass and blessing.
The Brazilian public holiday of Finados (Day of the Dead) is celebrated on November 2. Similar to other Day of the Dead celebrations, people go to cemeteries and churches with flowers and candles and offer prayers. The celebration is intended as a positive honoring of the dead. Memorializing the dead draws from indigenous, African and European Catholic origins.
In Ecuador the Day of the Dead is observed to some extent by all parts of society, though it is especially important to the indigenous Kichwa peoples, who make up an estimated quarter of the population. Indigena families gather together in the community cemetery with offerings of food for a day - long remembrance of their ancestors and lost loved ones. Ceremonial foods include colada morada, a spiced fruit porridge that derives its deep purple color from the Andean blackberry and purple maize. This is typically consumed with guagua de pan, a bread shaped like a swaddled infant, though variations include many pigs -- the latter being traditional to the city of Loja. The bread, which is wheat flour - based today, but was made with masa in the pre-Columbian era, can be made savory with cheese inside or sweet with a filling of guava paste. These traditions have permeated mainstream society, as well, where food establishments add both colada morada and gaugua de pan to their menus for the season. Many non-indigenous Ecuadorians visit the graves of the deceased, cleaning and bringing flowers, or preparing the traditional foods, too.
Many other cultures around the world have similar traditions of a day set aside to visit the graves of deceased family members. Often included in these traditions are celebrations, food, and beverages, in addition to prayers and remembrances of the departed.
In some African cultures, visits to ancestors ' graves, the leaving of food and gifts, and the asking of protection from them serve as important parts of traditional rituals. One such ritual is held just before the start of the hunting season.
The Qingming Festival (simplified Chinese: 清明 节; traditional Chinese: 清明 節; pinyin: qīng míng jié) is a traditional Chinese festival usually occurring around April 5 of the Gregorian calendar. Along with Double Ninth Festival on the 9th day of the 9th month in the Chinese calendar, it is a time to tend to the graves of departed ones. In addition, in the Chinese tradition, the seventh month in the Chinese calendar is called the Ghost Month (鬼 月), in which ghosts and spirits come out from the underworld to visit earth.
The Bon Festival (O - bon (お盆), or only Bon (盆)), is a Japanese Buddhist holiday held in August to honor the spirits of departed ancestors. It is derived in part from the Chinese observance of the Ghost Month, and was affixed to the solar calendar along with other traditional Japanese holidays.
In Korea, Chuseok (추석, 秋 夕; also called Hangawi) is a major traditional holiday. People go where the spirits of their ancestors are enshrined, and perform ancestral worship rituals early in the morning. They visit the tombs of immediate ancestors to trim plants, clean the area around the tomb, and offer food, drink, and crops to their ancestors.
During the Nepal holiday of Gai Jatra ("Cow Pilgrimage ''), every family who has lost a member during the previous year creates a tai out of bamboo branches, cloth, and paper decorations, in which are placed portraits of the deceased. As a cow traditionally leads the spirits of the dead into the afterlife, an actual or symbolic cow is used depending on local custom. The festival is also a time to dress up in a costume reminiscent of the western Halloween, with popular subjects including political commentary and satire.
Disneyland Resorts ' annual "Halloween Time '' celebrates the art and traditions of Dias de los Muertos located at Frontierland.
The 1998 Grim Fandango video game features Mexican Day of the Dead iconography with Aztec and Egyptian influences.
The 2003 Dead Like Me television series, in the final episode of season one, Joy is told about Day of the Dead celebrations and later Joy and Reggie have a picnic on George 's grave, culminating in Reggie actually catching a momentary non-obscured view of George.
The 2014 The Book of Life film follows a bullfighter who on the Day of the Dead embarks on an afterlife adventure.
The 2015 James Bond film, Spectre, the opening sequence featured a Day of the Dead parade in Mexico City. At the time, no such parade took place in Mexico City; one year later, due to the interest in the film and the government desire to promote the pre-Hispanic Mexican culture, the federal and local authorities decided to organize an actual "Día de Muertos '' parade through Paseo de la Reforma and Centro Historico on 29 October 2016, which was attended by 250,000 people.
The 2016 Elena of Avalor season one episode, "A Night to Remember '', focused on Dias de los Muertos.
The upcoming 2017 Coco film features the Dias de los Muertos holiday in its plot.
Catholic altar of the dead
Xantolo traditional altar in Hidalgo
Altar in Atlanta, Georgia, in memory of Jennifer Ann Crecente, murdered at the age of 18 by her ex-boyfriend, 2007
Day of the Dead, Washington, DC, 2013
Chontal indigenous altar in Tabasco
Mixtec ofrenda
Sculpture with skeletons made for Day of the Dead at the Museo de Arte Popular, Mexico City, 2011
Part of the "megaofrenda '' at UNAM for Day of the Dead, 2012
Letters to the dead in San Francisco, 2013
Day of the Dead parade in Merida, Mexico, 2015
|
what is the name of athlones army barracks | Custume barracks - wikipedia
Custume Barracks (Irish: Dún Chostúim) is a military installation at Athlone in Ireland.
The barracks were completed in 1691. The barracks are named after a Sergeant Custume, who defended the bridge from the forces of King William III during the 1690 Siege of Athlone. The barracks were taken over by forces of the Irish Free State in 1922 and served as the headquarters of 4th Western Brigade until the brigade was disbanded and is now part of 2 Brigade which is headquartered from Cathal Brugha Barracks in Dublin. The barracks remains the home of 6th Infantry Battalion as the lead unit, and 2nd Brigade Artillery Regiment and detachments of 2 Engineer Company and the Medical Corps.
During the Cold War, there were contingency plans in place that, in the event of a nuclear exchange, cabinet ministers, senior civil servants and military advisers would use an underground nuclear bunker at Custume Barracks. The bunker was equipped with a command and control centre with communications equipment -- which had a hotline to the British government in Whitehall -- a map room pointing out important areas for protection, kitchen, bedroom and bathroom facilities to accommodate up to 100 persons.
In 1968 a larger nuclear bunker, housing the Integrated National Control Centre (INCC), was planned for Athlone. This was planned to have capacity to accommodate and feed up to 300 people for a month, and allow the Government to continue in the event of a nuclear emergency. The Department of Defence and the Office of Public Works (OPW) drew up secret plans for a larger 20,000 square foot underground bunker to include operations rooms, message centre, broadcasting studio, kitchens, offices, committee rooms, sleeping accommodation and 100,000 gallons of uncontaminated drinking water. The plans for this new bunker never went ahead.
|
when did down with the sickness come out | Down with the Sickness - wikipedia
"Down with the Sickness '' is a song by the American band Disturbed. The song was recorded in 1999 and was released as the second single from their debut studio album, The Sickness. The song is one of Disturbed 's best - known songs and is a concert staple, usually played as the last song. This was their first single to be certified platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America. The Song Also made an appearance in WWE 2K18 as Background Track.
"Down With the Sickness '' is a nu metal song that features a famous "ooh - wah - ah - ah - ah '' staccato noise from Disturbed 's singer David Draiman at the end of the intro, which reappears from time to time throughout the song. Draiman has stated the sound was made possible by effects on his vocal cords after receiving surgery for acid reflux, but he has dismissed the rumor the noise was actually caused by heartburn, further explaining, "I mean the song originally was written and just had a pause. Mikey 's beat is just so tribal and you know it just made me feel like an animal... (The noise) came out one day. ''
Guitarist Dan Donegan has mentioned that the tuning for the guitar "is drop C - sharp... your bottom five strings are half a step down and your low string will be dropped to C - sharp. '' This is sometimes referred to as "E ♭ Drop D ♭ '', the most common drop tuning for bands who play generally in E ♭ standard instead of E standard.
The musical instruments that were used in the song include guitar, bass guitar, electronics, drums, and vocals. The tempo throughout the song consists of a kick - drum and bass guitar rhythm that gives the song the heavy metal / rock feeling.
A spoken segment near the end of the song seems to describe a child who is physically abused by his mother and who ultimately retaliates. This segment is somewhat controversial and music critics sometimes express a negative opinion of its inclusion in the song. For example, Leor Galil of the Chicago Reader opined, "Yet I still find it hard to believe that the megasingle ' Down With the Sickness, ' with its vocal breakdown in which front man David Draiman crudely describes being beaten by his mom (and vice versa), guided the band on to a path that 's resulted in four albums topping the Billboard 200. ''
However, the band has disavowed that this song is about literal child abuse, and that it is instead about a metaphoric abuse. Lead singer Dave Draiman explained to the Phoenix New Times:
... the screamed psychodramas in metal hits like "Down With The Sickness ''... are merely inspired by personal history, not a literal journal of his own tortured upbringing. "I 'm really talking about the conflict between the mother culture of society, who 's beating down the child yearning for independence and individuality, and the submission of the child. ''
The "abuse '' segment is not included in the radio edit or the music video.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
A music video composed of live concert footage was produced for the song. The song is known for its segment which features a boy being attacked and abused by his mother, which was not featured in the music video. The music video was recorded at the "Hollywood Casino Amphitheatre '' (at the time the Tweeter Center) in Tinley Park, Illinois during Q101 's Jamboree 2001.
The song has been used often as entrance music in sports. Many college football and National Football League (NFL) teams (including the Rutgers Scarlet Knights, the Delaware Blue Hens and the Houston Texans have played it as the players enter the field, and mixed martial artists, Steve Cantwell, Rousimar Palhares, and Mark Bocek have entered to the song at various Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) events. The Carolina Panthers have used the song as the team 's entrance music for home games at Bank of America Stadium in Charlotte, North Carolina, and used the song as its entrance music in Super Bowl 50.
The song is included in several films and video games, including Queen of the Damned, The One, Green Street, Rock Band 2, South Park, Guitar Hero Live, WWE 2K18 and as part of the Guitar Hero 5 downloadable content library (The Guitar Hero, WWE 2K18 and Rock Band version with the "abuse '' segment intact, however all curse words were removed).
The 2004 remake of Dawn of the Dead used the song during the end credits and the piano accompaniment by Richard Cheese that is played throughout the film.
It is currently the opening theme song on the Travel Channel show Paranormal Challenge.
The song is used as the opening track to the J.T. the Brick Show featuring J.T. the Brick and Tomm Looney on Fox Sports Radio.
An instrumental version is used in the opening video for Image Space Incorporated 's game rFactor.
The song was also used by professional wrestlers Chri $ Ca $ h, Lizmark Jr. and numerous other wrestlers as their entrance song.
The song was featured in the season 11 premiere episode of the adult animated comedy South Park, titled "With Apologies to Jesse Jackson ''.
|
who is lying hen my toes are webbed | Webbed toes - wikipedia
Webbed toes is the common name for syndactyly affecting the feet. It is characterised by the fusion of two or more digits of the feet. This is normal in many birds, such as ducks; amphibians, such as frogs; and mammals, such as kangaroos. In humans it is considered unusual, occurring in approximately one in 2,000 to 2,500 live births.
There are various levels of webbing, from partial to complete. For example, the rare Hose 's civet, a viverrid endemic to northern Borneo, has partially webbed feet. Most commonly the second and third toes are webbed or joined by skin and flexible tissue. This can reach either part way up or nearly all the way up the toe.
This condition is normally discovered at birth. If other symptoms are present, a specific syndrome may be indicated. Diagnosis of a specific syndrome is based on family history, medical history, and a physical exam. Webbed toes are also known as "twin toes, '' "duck toes, '' "turkey toes '' and "tiger toes. ''
Severity can vary. Most cases involve the second and third toes but any number of toes can be involved. In some cases the toes are joined part way while in some the webbing can extend right up to the nails. In some cases the entire toes, including the nails and bones, can be fused.
The exact cause of the condition is unknown. In some cases, close family members may share this condition. In other cases, no other related persons have this condition. The scientific name for the condition is syndactyly, although this term covers both webbed fingers and webbed toes. Syndactyly occurs when apoptosis or programmed cell death during gestation is absent or incomplete. Webbed toes occur most commonly in the following circumstances:
It is also associated with a number of rare conditions, notably:
Webbed toes in humans are a purely cosmetic condition. This condition does not impair the ability to perform any activity, including walking, running, or swimming. Depending on the severity and structure of the webbing, there can be some minor consequences.
People with more severe webbed toes may have a slight disadvantage for activities that benefit from prehensile toes, due to the toes being unable to move well. Although not scientifically proven, some believe that this condition can possibly allow for a slight advantage, specifically, in athletics. Considering your big toe is a main source for balance, having your second and third toe webbed could virtually be seen as having two big toes. Thus, allowing for better balance in athletics such as running or dance. However, the webbing may restrict the movement of the toes.
Psychological stress may arise from the fear of negative reactions to this condition from people who do not have webbed toes. In more severe cases the entire toes are held close together. Many people with webbed toes can physically feel the toes touching under the fused skin, which can cause psychological discomfort. This is due to the nerves of each toe fully developing and independent muscles working. In other cases where the toes are partially webbed, the webbing holds the separate tips of the toes against one another and prevents the muscles from spreading the toes apart, causing the toes and sometimes nails to press together.
However a disadvantage would be a difficulty in wearing flip - flops or other such footwear in warm countries. People with webbed toes may be unable to wear Toe socks or Vibram FiveFingers shoes. Difficulty navigating rough terrain barefoot, such as rocks at a beach is also common due to reduced mobility of the toes. In some cases the toes grow at different lengths causing the toes to buckle or bend and many people with severe webbed toes experience cramping in these toes due to the muscles and ligaments being strained.
Webbed toes can be separated through surgery. Surgical separation of webbed toes is an example of body modification.
As with any form of surgery, there are risks of complications.
The end results depend on the extent of the webbing and underlying bone structure. There is usually some degree of scarring, and skin grafts may be required. In rare instances, nerve damage may lead to loss of feeling in the toes and a tingling sensation. There are also reports of partial web grow - back. The skin grafts needed to fill in the space between the toes can lead to additional scars in the places where the skin is removed.
|
in which kingdom the bahubali series mainly set | Baahubali: the Beginning - Wikipedia
Baahubali: The Beginning (stylized as bãhubali; English: The One with Strong Arms: The Beginning), also known by the initialism BBTB, is an Indian epic historical fiction film directed by S.S. Rajamouli. The film was produced by Shobu Yarlagadda and Prasad Devineni and was shot as a bilingual in Telugu and Tamil. The film stars Prabhas, Rana Daggubati, Anushka Shetty, and Tamannaah in the lead roles, with Ramya Krishnan, Sathyaraj, and Nassar in supporting roles. The first of two cinematic parts, The Beginning is a tale of the lost rightful heir of the fictional kingdom of Mahishmati, who learns about his true identity while falling in love with a rebellious warrior, who (among with her group) intends to rescue the former queen of Mahismati.
The film was conceived by Rajamouli 's father K.V. Vijayendra Prasad, who randomly told him a story about Sivagami, a woman who carries a baby in her hand while crossing a river, and a few years later about Kattapa, which intrigued Rajamouli. His fascination with mythology and the tales of Amar Chitra Katha comics further fueled his interest in the story. However, it took the writers three months to finalise the final draft. The soundtrack and background score were composed by M.M. Keeravani while the cinematography, production design, and VFX were handled by K.K. Senthil Kumar, Sabu Cyril and V. Srinivas Mohan respectively.
The film was made on a budget of ₹ 180 crore (~ $27.9 million), making it the most expensive Indian film at its time of release. The film opened worldwide on 10 July 2015, garnering critical acclaim and record breaking box office success. With the worldwide box office gross of ₹ 6.5 billion (~ $100.9 million), it became the highest - grossing film in India and the third - highest grossing Indian film worldwide, and the highest - grossing South Indian film at the time of its release. Its Hindi dubbed version also broke several records by becoming the highest grossing dubbed film in India. Both budget and box office records since has been surpassed by its sequel, Baahubali 2: The Conclusion. The Beginning is the highest grossing Indian film of 2015 and the fourth highest grossing Indian film of all time.
It received several accolades. It won the National Film Award for Best Special Effects and Best Feature Film, becoming the first Telugu film to win the award. At the 63rd Filmfare Awards South, the Telugu version won five awards from ten nominations, including Best Film, Best Director for Rajamouli and Best Supporting Actress for Krishnan. The Beginning became the first Indian film to be nominated for Saturn Awards, receiving five nominations at the 42nd ceremony, including Best Fantasy Film and Best Supporting Actress for Tamannaah. The film 's second and final cinematic part was released on 28 April 2017.
In the ancient kingdom of Mahismati, Sivagami (Ramya Krishnan) emerges from a cave while carrying a baby. She kills two soldiers pursuing her and attempts to wade towards a village across a raging river, but fails and falls in. She clutches a branch, before pleading to the Supreme Lord Parameshvar that "Mahendra Baahubali must live! '' and holds the baby in one hand above her head before dying.
Local villagers notice the baby and rescue it. Sanga (Rohini) and her husband name the infant Sivudu and raise him as their own son. The villagers seal the staircase leading up the waterfall, fearing that someone may come to take away the child.
Sivudu (Prabhas) grows up to be a strong, adventurous young man who tries to climb the waterfall, with minimal success. After carrying a stone Shiva lingam to the waterfalls, he finds a wooden mask on the ground. Driven to find the owner of the mask, he attempts to climb the waterfall again and succeeds. After his ascent, Sivudu discovers that the mask belongs to Avantika (Tamannaah), a rebellious warrior of a group engaged in guerrilla warfare against Emperor Bhallaladeva (Rana Daggubati) of Mahismati. The group, led by Devasena 's brother (Balireddy Pruthviraj), intends to rescue their former queen Devasena (Anushka Shetty) who has been imprisoned in the kingdom for the past twenty - five years. Avantika is given the opportunity to rescue the queen.
Avantika falls in love with Sivudu after finding out that he climbed the waterfall for her. Sivudu pledges to help her in her mission and sneaks into Mahishmati to rescue Devasena. Sivudu rescues Devasena and flees with her, but is chased down by Bhallaladeva 's son, Bhadra (Adivi Sesh) and the king 's royal slave warrior Kattappa (Sathyaraj). After Sivudu beheads Bhadra, Kattappa drops his weapon, realizing that Sivudu is Mahendra Baahubali, the son of late king Amarendra Baahubali. Kattappa narrates the story of Amarendra 's past.
Amarendra 's mother had died giving birth to him, while his father had died long before that. His uncle Bijjaladeva (Nassar) was deemed unfit to rule due to his crooked nature, however he believes he was denied the throne due to the fact that one of his arms is disabled. Bijjaladeva 's wife Sivagami assumed control of the kingdom with Kattappa 's assistance until a new king could be selected. Amarendra Baahubali was brought up together with Bijjaladeva and Sivagami 's son, his cousin Bhallaladeva. Both young men were trained in arts, science, disguise, politics, and warfare, but they had different approaches towards kingship. Amarendra Baahubali was gracious to everyone, and was loved by the people. Bhallaladeva was violent and achieved his goals by any means possible.
It was then discovered that Mahismathi was about to be attacked by an army of savages called Kalakeyas. Bijjaladeva proposed that the prince who killed Inkoshi, the king of Kalakeyas, would be the future king of Mahismati and the chief minister agrees. Sivagami, nevertheless, said that it was prince 's duty to protect and defend their country and orders that Mahismati 's war resources be distributed fairly among the two men. Bijjaladeva used his guile to make sure Bhallaladeva got the maximum war resources.
The Kalakeyas were given an opportunity to change their minds. The Kalakeya king Inkoshi rejected Queen Sivagami 's offer and insulted her by saying he will have children with her. An enraged Sivagami said she wants Inkoshi brought to her alive, but with his limbs chopped off, so that she could feed him to the vultures. During the battle, the Kalakeyas used a dirty tactic of using the prisoners of Mahismati as shields. Bhallaladeva plowed through the line of innocent prisoners with his chariot which had blades turning and killed them. Amarendra, on the other hand, caused them to fall down and attacked the Kalakeyas behind them, thus saving the prisoners. When it seems that Mahishmati would end up being defeated, Amarendra inspired his soldiers to fight back and they ended up crushing the enemy. While Amarendra defeated Inkoshi and was about to obey the words of Sivagami by chopping off his limbs, Bhallaladeva swung his weapon from a distance and killed him. Despite Bhallaladeva being the one to kill Inkoshi, Sivagami announced Amarendra Baahubali as the new emperor because of his courage and leadership and also because of the fact that he shielded and protected his own countrymen throughout the war.
After the flashback, when asked about Amarendra 's current whereabouts, a tearful Kattappa reveals that Amarendra is dead, and that he is the one who killed him.
Baahubali: The Beginning was produced in Tollywood, the center of Telugu language films in India. As of July 2015, the film series was considered the most expensive in India. In February 2011, S.S. Rajamouli announced that Prabhas will star in his upcoming movie. In January 2013, he announced that the working title as Baahubali and the actual film production started at Rock Gardens in Kurnool on 6 July 2013. The waterfall scenes in the film were shot at Athirappilly Falls in Kerala, huge sets for the Mahishmati kingdom were constructed at Ramoji Film City in Hyderabad and the snow episodes in the film were shot in Bulgaria. The screen writer, K.V. Vijayendra Prasad who wrote stories for most of Rajamouli 's films once again penned the story for Baahubali. The film boasts of one year pre production work where in 15,000 story board sketches for the film were created which is highest for any Indian Film till date. More than 90 percent of the film had visually enhanced shots and according to the producer, more than 600 VFX artists worked for the film from 18 facilities around the world led by Makuta VFX and Firefly in Hyderabad, Prasad Studios in Hyderabad and Chennai, Annapurna Studios in Hyderabad, Tau Films in Malaysia, and Dancing Digital Animation and Macrograph in South Korea. Makuta VFX which had prior experience of working with S.S. Rajamouli was chosen as principal visual effects studio. The cinematography of the movie was done by KK Senthil Kumar for 380 days using Arri Alexa XT camera with Master Prime lens marking Rajamouli 's first film using digital camera. Most of the film was shot in ARRIRAW format in 4: 3 aspect ratio while ARRIRAW 16.9 was used for slow motion shots at 120 fps. Open Gate format, which can use the full 3.4 K sensor in the camera to produce frames larger than the standard ARRIRAW format was tapped in to get the maximum image quality in VFX shots. For the first time in Indian movies, 4K movie print was rendered with an aspect ratio of 1: 1.88 as compared to Cinemascope at 1: 2.35 to get the best cinematic experience in screens that support the 4K projection claimed the Producer. Sabu Cyril, production designer for the film created 10,000 different kinds of weaponry ranging from swords, helmets and armors required for the soldiers. To make the swords light weight Carbon - fibre was used instead of steel, the same material used in manufacture of Helicopter blades claimed the art director. 3D printing technology was used to create the head of 100 foot Bhallaladeva 's character in the movie and flexi foam was used to create amours to make them light weight and to have the look of leather. V. Srinivas Mohan was chosen as visual effects supervisor and Kotagiri Venkateswara Rao was the Editor. PM Satheesh was the sound designer and Peter Hein was responsible for the action sequences. The costume designers were Rama Rajamouli and Prasanthi Tipirneni. The line producer was M.M. Srivalli.
National Award Winner V. Srinivas Mohan was roped in as Visual effects supervisor for Baahubali. The film boasts of 90 % CGI work which accounts for 2500 VFX shots. Makuta VFX which is based out of Hyderabad was chosen as principal visual effects studio and was responsible for more than 50 % of the computer - generated imagery in the film. The majority of work done by Makuta involved bringing the 1500 foot mystical waterfall to life, creating enormous mountains and huge landscapes including the kingdom of Mahishmati, with its massive temples and courtyards. Creating the mammoth waterfall took nearly 2 years as Makuta has to deal with a lot of complexity in fluid dynamics and simulations. Each frame involving the water fall sequence was treated as creating a new set and employed a different set of methodology claims Makuta.
Firefly Creative Studio which is also based out of Hyderabad worked primarily on the avalanche and the war sequences which accounts for nearly 25 minutes of the film. Firefly Creative was also involved in creating underwater VFX shots and in establishing backstories for Kalakeya characters. Tau Films from Malaysia was responsible for creating the CGI bison, while Prasad EFX from Hyderabad was responsible for some shots in pre and post battle episodes involving digital multiplication. Prasad was also responsible for creating a 3D image of Kattappa and mapping his head on to a duplicate actor in one of the scenes.
Srushti VFX from Hyderabad was involved in digitally creating some of the shots in the war sequence along with Firefly studios. Annapurna Studios from Hyderabad was chosen as digital intermediate partner for the film which is responsible for generating the digital feed with the best color and audio for editing. For the first time in Indian movies, Academy Color Encoding System workflows were implemented along with Infinitely Scalable Information Storage keeping in mind the mammoth scale of digitally enhanced shots in the film. Arka Media Works, production company of Baahubali, teamed up with AMD to use the state of the art FirePro GPUs W9100 and W8100 during the post production of the film which are capable of rendering 4K content in real time and are considered the best in Industry to date.
Reacting to media reports on the same VFX team for Baahubali and Jurassic World, producer Shobu Yarlagadda denied outright any such collaboration, calling such claims an internet rumor. In an interview with Quartz, the co-founder of Makuta VFX stated, "Most of Baahubali was developed in Hyderabad, home to Tollywood, and used local talent. It was principally a homegrown feature produced by homegrown talent. ''
The fictional language Kilikili (also referred to as Kiliki) used as the language of the Kalakeyas - a ferocious warrior tribe, was created by Madhan Karky for the film. It is said to be the first fictitious language to be created for an Indian film character.
While Karky was pursuing PhD in Australia, he took up a part - time job of teaching and baby - sitting children. During one such interaction, he thought it would be fun to create a new language that could be easily grasped. Basic words were first made up and opposites were represented by word reversals - me was min and you was nim. The language which introduced 100 new words was called "Click '' to highlight its simplicity. This formed the foundation for Kiliki.
Rajamouli 's cousin M.M. Keeravani composed the music for this film and the sound supervision is done by Kalyan Koduri.
The film released on 10 July 2015 in 4,000 screens worldwide in Telugu, Tamil, Hindi and Malayalam languages. A record number of 1600 screens in Telugu, 1500 screens in Hindi, 350 in Tamil and 225 screens in Malayalam were booked for the release. The film was released in USA a day earlier by BlueSky Cinemas in 135 screens. A premier show was also held on 9 July at Prasads IMAX Hyderabad. The film 's release in Kerala was hindered amidst a close down by a section of theatres over the piracy issue of Malayalm film Premam and released only in few theatres. The Telugu version of the film was presented by K. Raghavendra Rao, Tamil version by K.E. Gnanavel Raja, Sri Thenandal Films and UV Creations, Karan Johar presented the Hindi version and Global United Media presented the Malayalam theatrical version. International version of the film which is 20 mins shorter than the original one, done by Vincent Tabaillon was screened at Busan International Film Festival. Producers of the film have planned to release the film in China in over 5000 screens in November 2015 by E Stars Films. Baahubali will be the biggest release in China for an Indian film, beating PK which was released on 22 May 2015. The film is also set to release in Japan. Twin Co which is a leading distributor for international films in Japan has acquired the rights for screening of the film. The producer Shobu Yarlagadda who struck the deal at Busan Asian Film Market also revealed his plans to release the movie in Latin America, Germany and European countries. MVP Entertainment is set to release the movie in Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Timor - Leste countries. Sun Distribution acquired the distribution rights of the movie in Latin American countries while Creative Century Entertainment got the rights for Taiwan. In Korea, the movie is scheduled to be released via Entermode Corp. Arka International, which is the sales arm for International release has made arrangements to release the movie in Germany and 70 other territories.
The Tamil version of the film faced a controversy relating to a word used in the film. On 22 July 2015, activists of Dalit group Puratchi Pulikal Iyakkam hurled petrol bombs outside the ' Tamil, Jaya ' multiplex in Madurai screening the Tamil version of the film. Dalit group Puratchi Pulikal Iyakkam protested against the movie featuring a line Pagadaikku Pirandhavan, words considered derogatory against dalits as they are contemptuous terms used by caste Hindus to address members of the Arunthathiyar Dalit sub-caste. Dialogue Writer of Tamil version, Madhan Karky issued an apology for offending Dalits.
As the sequel Baahubali: The Conclusion was released on 28 April 2017, the producers and distributors re-released the first part (Hindi) again on 7 April 2017.
The film was screened at various film festivals like Open Cinema Strand of Busan International Film Festival, Indian Film Festival The Hague, Sitges Film Festival in Spain, Utopiales Film Festival in France, Golden Horse Film Festival in Taipei, Taiwan, Tallinn Black Nights Film Festival in Estonia, L'Etrange International Film Festival in Paris, Five Flavours Film Festival in Poland, Hawaii International Film Festival in Honolulu, Brussels International Fantastic Film Festival in Brussels, Belgium, Cannes Film Festival in France, Transilvania International Film Festival in Romania, Le Grand Rex in Paris, Kurja Polt Horror Film Festival, Festival de Lacamo, 8th BRICS summit, and the 2016 Indian Panorama section of the International Film Festival of India, Goa. The international version of the film was released in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, Philippines, Timor - Leste along with some European and Latin American countries.
Marketing of the film started 2 years before the shoot by S.S. Rajamouli with the audition campaign in Facebook and YouTube. A number of short promotional Making - of videos were released on ArkaMediaworks YouTube channel and the team unveiled first look posters and videos featuring the film 's lead stars on the occasions of their birthdays. The film used an augmented reality application to play the trailer on smart phones and tablets. The crown used by the character of Baahubali in the film was exhibited at Comic Con, Hyderabad as a part of the film 's promotion. A cosplay event was held in which chosen winners were given a chance to visit the sets of the film. The film 's unit also launched a WhatsApp messenger to give regular updates about the film to the subscribers. On 22 July 2015, Guinness World Records approved the poster created during the audio launch of Baahubali in Kochi on 27 June 2015 as the world 's largest poster. The poster has an area of 4,793.65 m2 (51,598.21 ft2) and it was achieved by Global United Media Company Pvt Ltd. (This record has since been broken with a 5,969.61 m2 poster for the film MSG - 2 The Messenger.) A special skit was performed by the Baahubali team for the event named Memu Saitham to help the victims affected by Cyclone Hudhud. After the film 's release, an interactive quiz was conducted by marketing team on storygag allowing users to find out which Baahubali movie character they were. Producers are also has planning to create a film museum at Ramoji Film City in Hyderabad which will showcase the weapons, armours and costumes used by actors in the film which is first of its kind for any Indian movie till date. Museum is expected to be ready before or right after the release of Baahubali: The Conclusion. The film 's website hosts merchandise which includes apparels, accessories and film 's collectibles.
It is also one of the films featured in BBC 's documentary on 100 Years of Indian cinema directed by Sanjeev Bhaskar.
In early July 2014, the film first part 's Karnataka and Ceded (Rayalaseema) region distribution rights were sold to a prominent distributor for ₹ 23 crore (US $3.6 million) out of which the Ceded region, which included Kadapa, Kurnool, Anantapur, Chittoor and Bellary areas, the rights alone fetched ₹ 14 crore (US $2.2 million) At the same time, the film 's Nizam region theatrical distribution rights were purchased by Dil Raju for an amount of ₹ 25 crore (US $3.9 million). only for the first part. Though he did not confirm the price, Dil Raju said in an interview to Deccan Chronicle that he purchased the first part 's Nizam region rights and added that he would acquire the rights of the second part also for this region. BlueSky Cinemas, Inc. acquired the theatrical screening and distribution rights in United States and Canada.
Critics praised the film for its direction, technical values, and the actors ' performances. Lisa Tsering based on The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "The story has been told many times before -- a child is born destined for greatness and as a man vanquishes the forces of evil -- but in the confident hands of accomplished South Indian director S.S. Rajamouli the tale gets potent new life in Baahubali: The Beginning. '' Allan Hunter, writing for Screen Daily noted that "The broad brushstrokes storytelling and the director 's over-fondness for slow - motion sequences are among the film 's failings but this is still a rousing film, easily accessible epic. There 's rarely a dull moment in Baahubali: The Beginning, part one of a gung - ho, crowd - pleasing Telugu - language epic that has been shattering box - office records throughout India. '' Mike McCahill of The Guardian rated the film four stars out of five, praising the film, "Rajamouli defers on the latter for now, but his skilful choreography of these elements shucks off any cynicism one might carry into Screen 1: wide - eyed and wondrous, his film could be a blockbuster reboot, or the first blockbuster ever made, a reinvigoration of archetypes that is always entertaining, and often thrilling, to behold. '' Suprateek Chatterjee of The Huffington Post wrote, "However, all said and done, Baahubali: The Beginning is a remarkable achievement. What Rajamouli has pulled off here, despite its flaws, is nothing short of a miracle, especially when you take into account India 's notoriously risk - averse filmmaking environment and when the film ends on a tantalising cliffhanger (paving the way for Baahubali: The Conclusion, due to release next year), one ca n't help but applaud his singularly brave vision. As the cliché goes, a journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step, but it does n't really matter if that first step is shaky as long as it lands firmly and confidently. ''
Deepanjana Pal of Firstpost wrote, "This battle is Rajamouli 's tour de force. It 's elaborate, well - choreographed and has some breathtaking moments. Prabhas and Dagubatti are both in their elements as the warriors who approach warfare in two distinctive styles. The outcome of the battle is no surprise, but there are enough clever tactics and twists to keep the audience hooked. The biggest surprise, however, lies in the film 's final shot, which gives you a glimpse into the sequel that will come out next year. And it 's good enough to make you wish 2016 was here already. '' Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV India rated the film with three stars out of five and stated, "The spectacular universe that the film conjures up is filled with magic, but the larger - than - life characters that populate its extraordinary expanse do not belong to any known mythic landscape. To that extent, Baahubali, driven by the titular superhero who pulls off mind - boggling feats both in love and in war, throws up many a surprise that is n't altogether meaningless. '' Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express praised the film: "Right from its opening frames, ' Baahubali ' holds out many promises: of adventure and romance, love and betrayal, valour and weakness. And it delivers magnificently on each of them. This is full - tilt, fully - assured filmmaking of a very high order. ' Baahubali ' is simply spectacular. '' IN her review for The Hindu, Sangeetha Devi Dundoo wrote, "The war formations that form a chunk of the latter portions of the film are the best we 've seen in Indian cinema so far. These portions are spectacular and show the technical finesse of the cinematographer (K.K. Senthil Kumar) and the visual effects teams. The waterfall, the mystical forests and water bodies above the cliffs and the lead pair escaping an avalanche all add to the spectacle. Give into its magic, without drawing comparisons to Hollywood flicks. ''
Sukanya Varma of Rediff gave the film four out of five stars, calling it ' mega, ingenious and envelope pushing! '. Critic Archita Kashyap based at Koimoi also gave the same ratings, "Be it the war sequences, or sword fighting; or a visual spectacle, or pure entertainment it is worth a watch. Kudos to the dedication of SS Rajamouli and his leading men, Prabhas and Rana, for spending years putting this film together. Actually, in its imagination and Indianness, Baahubali might just be a whole new start. '' Rachit Gupta of Filmfare gave the film four stars (out of 5) and summarised, "Baahubali is truly an epic experience. Had the story not been so jaded, this would 've gone into the history books as an all - time classic. But that 's not the case. It has its set of storytelling flaws, but even those are overshadowed by Rajamouli 's ideas and execution. This is definitely worthy of being India 's most expensive film. It 's a definite movie watching experience. '' Suparna Sharma of Deccan Chronicle praised the second half of the film, writing, "Rajamouli has reserved all the grander and grandstanding for later, after interval. That 's when the film stands up and begins to strut like an epic. '' Suhani Singh of India Today pointed out that the film is best enjoyed keeping logic at bay. She added, "SS Rajamouli and his team put up a fascinating wild, wild east adventure. It takes pluck to conceive a world like the one seen in Baahubali and to pull it off on a level which is on par with the international standards. The almost 45 - minute - long battle sequence at the end is not just one of the biggest climaxes, but also the action spectacle rarely seen in Indian cinema. And if Rajamouli can present another one like that in part 2, then he is on course to register his name in cinema 's history books. We ca n't wait to revisit Mahishmati kingdom. '' Critical reception penned by Shubha Shetty Saha for Mid Day rates the film with four stars out of film, exclaiming, "While watching Baahubali, you might have to periodically pick up your jaw off the floor. Because this is not merely a movie, it is an unbelievably thrilling fantasy ride. '' The review extends praising the aspects, "It is to the director 's credit that every aspect of the film -- action, mind - boggling set design and choreography -- lives up to this epic film of gigantic scale. The choreography in the song that has Shiva disrobing Avantika to get her in touch with her feminine side, is an absolute gem. ''
Baahubali: The Beginning on the first day of its release collected ₹ 75 crore (US $12 million) worldwide which was the highest opening ever for an Indian film until Kabali surpassed it in 2016 by earning ₹ 87.5 crore (US $14 million). The film collected ₹ 15 crore (US $2.3 million) alone from United States on its first day. First weekend collections stood around ₹ 162 crore (US $25 million) worldwide from all its versions, the third biggest ever for an Indian film. The film grossed around ₹ 255 crore (US $40 million) worldwide in the first week of its release. It became the first South Indian film to gross ₹ 300 crore (US $47 million) worldwide, reaching there in 9 days, and subsequently grossed ₹ 401 crore (US $63 million) worldwide in 15 days. And has successfully crossed ₹ 500 crore (US $78 million) mark in 24 days. By the end of 50 days, the film grossed an approximate ₹ 595 crore (US $93 million) crore worldwide, based on estimates from International Business Times. Overall collections of the film stood at ₹ 650 crore (US $100 million) as of today. Baahubali: The Beginning grossed ₹ 518 crore (US $81 million) in all languages in India alone, and became the highest - grossing movie in India surpassing the gross of PK (2015) of ₹ 440 crore (US $69 million) from India.
Baahubali: The Beginning opened to 100 percent occupancy in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and close to 70 percent occupancy in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. It grossed around ₹ 50 crore (US $7.8 million) on its first day of release in India from all four versions (Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam and Hindi). The Hindi version earned around ₹ 5 crore (US $780,000) nett which was the highest opening for any film dubbed into Hindi. Baahubali grossed ₹ 49.48 crore (US $7.7 million) on the first day in India. The Hindi version grossed around ₹ 19.5 crore (US $3.0 million) nett in the first weekend.
The Telugu version alone earned around ₹ 65 crore (US $10 million) nett in first weekend in India. The film, from all its versions, earned almost ₹ 100 crore (US $16 million) nett in its first weekend. It had the fourth biggest opening weekend ever in India. The Hindi version collected around ₹ 40 crore (US $6.2 million) nett in its first week. Baahubali: The Beginning grossed more than ₹ 178 crore (US $28 million) nett from all its versions in India in the first week. It added a further ₹ 45 crore (US $7.0 million) nett in its second weekend to take its total to around ₹ 224 crore (US $35 million) nett in ten days. The Hindi version grossed over ₹ 40 crore (US $6.2 million) nett in the Mumbai circuit.
The film collected around ₹ 20 crore (US $3.1 million) in its first day from the international markets. The film opened on the ninth spot for its weekend, collecting around US $3.5 million with a per - screen average of $15,148. The film debuted in the ninth position for the US and Canadian box office collecting $4,630,000 for three days and $3,250,000 for the weekend of 10 -- 12 July 2015 Baahubali: The Beginning grossed £ 66,659 from its Telugu version in United Kingdom and Ireland and A $194,405 from its Tamil version in Australia in till its second weekend (17 -- 19 July 2015). The film also grossed MYR 663,869 in Malaysia from its Tamil version. The film grossed US $540,000 on its opening weekend in China. It has grossed a total of CN ¥ 7.49 million (₹ 7.78 crore) in the country. The film totally earned $10.94 million at the overseas box office.
At the 63rd National Film Awards, The Beginning won the Best Feature Film, becoming the first Telugu film to win the award, and Best Special Effects. At the 63rd Filmfare Awards South, the Telugu version won five awards from ten nominations, including Best Film, Best Director for Rajamouli and Best Supporting Actress for Krishnan. Both the Tamil and Telugu versions won several awards in their respective categories, including Best Film, Best Director for Rajamouli, and Best Supporting Actress for Krishnan at the 1st IIFA Utsavam. The Beginning became the first Indian film to be nominated for Saturn Awards, receiving five nominations at the 42nd ceremony, including Best Fantasy Film and Best Supporting Actress for Tamannaah.
The second part, entitled Baahubali 2: The Conclusion was released worldwide on 28 April 2017.
|
difference between ipad 4th generation and ipad pro | IPad (4th generation) - Wikipedia
Bluetooth 4.0
The fourth - generation iPad (marketed as iPad with Retina display, colloquially referred to as the iPad 4) is a tablet computer produced and marketed by Apple Inc. Compared to its predecessor, the third - generation iPad, the fourth - generation iPad maintained the Retina Display but featured new and upgraded components such as the Apple A6X chip and the Lightning connector, which was introduced on September 12, 2012. It shipped with iOS 6.0, which provides a platform for audio - visual media, including electronic books, periodicals, films, music, computer games, presentations and web content. Like the iPad 2 and the third - generation iPad, it has been supported by five major iOS releases, in this case iOS 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. iOS 11, which was released on 19 September 2017, does not have support for the fourth - generation iPad because of hardware limitations.
It was announced at a media conference on October 23, 2012 as the fourth generation of the iPad line, and was first released on November 2, 2012, in 35 countries, and then through December in ten other countries including China, India and Brazil. The third generation was discontinued following the fourth 's announcement, after only seven months of general availability.
The device is available with either a black or white front glass panel and various connectivity and storage options. Storage size options include 16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB, and 128 GB; the available connectivity options are Wi - Fi only and Wi - Fi + Cellular with LTE capabilities.
The fourth - generation iPad received primarily positive reviews and was praised for its hardware improvements as well as the Retina display, which was also featured in the device 's predecessor. Furthermore, benchmarks reveal that the fourth - generation iPad is able to perform CPU - reliant tasks twice as fast as its predecessor. During the first weekend of sales, an aggregated amount of 3 million fourth - generation iPads and iPad Minis were sold.
Rumors regarding the next - generation iPad emerged shortly after the release of the third - generation iPad. At that point some speculated that the next iPad released would be of a smaller size. Further speculations emerged in July 2012 when DigiTimes, with the help of unspecified sources, claimed that Apple made small revisions to the then upcoming iPad and scheduled its release for late 2012. On October 16, 2012, Apple announced a media event scheduled for October 23 at the California Theatre in San Jose, California. The company did not pre-disclose the subject of the event, but it was widely expected to be regarding the iPad Mini. Photographic images of the device 's dock connector and front camera emerged shortly before the media event.
At the media event, Apple CEO Tim Cook introduced a new version of iBooks and new generations of the MacBook Pro, Mac Mini, and the iMac before unveiling the fourth - generation iPad and the lower - end iPad Mini. During the unveiling, Apple stated that the fourth - generation iPad would be available to pre-order online in a selected number of countries starting October 26. On November 2, Apple released the Wi - Fi model of device in 35 countries across Europe, East Asia and North America. The cellular model was released in - store a few weeks after the initial release of the device.
The release of the fourth - generation iPad led to the discontinuation of its predecessor, which angered many third - generation iPad users. In response, Apple extended its 14 - day return policy to 30 days. ITProPortal noted that, since the price of both models is identical, consumers that purchased the third - generation iPad within this time frame were effectively allowed to exchange their discontinued device for the fourth - generation model.
On January 29, 2013, Apple announced and scheduled the launch of the 128 GB variant of 4th generation iPad. It was released on February 5, 2013.
Following the announcement of the iPad Air on October 22, 2013, sales of the fourth - generation iPad were discontinued. The fourth - generation iPad was reintroduced on March 18, 2014, following the discontinuation of the iPad 2. In order to make its reintroduction a low - end device to the iPad Air, its price was cut by 20 % over its original launch price. On October 16, 2014, the fourth - generation iPad was discontinued in favor of the iPad Air 2; the iPad Air took its place as the entry - level iPad at that time.
The fourth - generation iPad is shipped with iOS 6.0 and later, iOS 7. It can act as a hotspot with some carriers, sharing its Internet connection over Wi - Fi, Bluetooth, or USB, and also access the Apple App Store, a digital application distribution platform for iOS. The service allows users to browse and download applications from the iTunes Store that were developed with Xcode and the iOS SDK and were published through Apple. From the App Store, GarageBand, iMovie, iPhoto, and the iWork apps (Pages, Keynote, and Numbers) are available.
The iPad comes with several pre-installed applications, including Siri, Safari, Mail, Photos, Video, Music, iTunes, App Store, Maps, Notes, Calendar, Game Center, Photo Booth, and Contacts. Like all iOS devices, the iPad can sync content and other data with a Mac or PC using iTunes, although iOS 5 and later can be managed and backed up without a computer. Although the tablet is not designed to make phone calls over a cellular network, users can use a headset or the built - in speaker and microphone to place phone calls over Wi - Fi or cellular using a VoIP application, such as Skype. The device has a dictation application, using the same voice recognition technology as the iPhone 4S. The user speaks and the iPad types what they say on the screen, though the iPad must have an internet connection available (via Wi - Fi or cellular network) due to the feature 's reliance on Apple servers to translate the speech.
The fourth - generation iPad has an optional iBooks application, which displays books and other ePub - format content downloaded from the iBookstore. Several major book publishers including Penguin Books, HarperCollins, Simon & Schuster, and Macmillan have committed to publishing books for the device. Despite being a direct competitor to both the Amazon Kindle and Barnes & Noble Nook, both Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble offer e-reader apps for the iPad.
The 4th generation iPad, unlike its immediate predecessor, the 3rd generation iPad, is supported by iOS 10; however, it was announced at the Apple WWDC 2017 that the 4th generation iPad (along with the iPhone 5 / 5C) will not support iOS 11. iOS 10.3. 3 is the latest and final version of iOS to include support for these devices.
The device has an Apple A6X SoC which comprises a 32 - bit Apple dual - core CPU running at 1.4 GHz and a quad - core PowerVR SGX554MP4 GPU, 1 GB of RAM. It also features a 5 - megapixel, rear - facing camera capable of 1080p video recording; and a 720p HD front - facing videophone camera designed for FaceTime. The device features a 9.7 '' (diagonal) display with a resolution of 2,048 by 1,536 (QXGA) resulting in 3.1 million pixels, this gives the display a pixel density of 264 ppi. The total number of pixels used in the display of the fourth - generation iPad is four times that of the iPad 2 -- providing even scaling from the prior model.
As with all previous generations of iPhone and iPad hardware, there are four buttons and one switch on the fourth - generation iPad. With the device in its portrait orientation, these are: a "home '' button on the face of the device under the display that returns the user to the home screen, a wake / sleep button on the top edge of the device, and two buttons on the upper right side of the device performing volume up / down functions, under which is a switch whose function varies according to device settings, generally functioning either to switch the device into or out of silent mode or to lock / unlock the orientation of the screen. Externally, the fourth - generation iPad is identical to its predecessor apart from the differences between dock connectors used and change of manufacturers that produce the display. In addition, the Wi - Fi only version weighs 652 grams while the cellular model weighs 662 grams -- 2 grams heavier than their respective predecessors. The display responds to other sensors: an ambient light sensor to adjust screen brightness and a 3 - axis accelerometer to sense orientation and switch between portrait and landscape modes. Unlike the iPhone and iPod Touch 's built - in applications, which work in three orientations (portrait, landscape - left and landscape - right), the iPad 's built - in applications support screen rotation in all four orientations, including upside - down. Consequently, the device has no intrinsic "native '' orientation; only the relative position of the home button changes.
The tablet is manufactured either with or without the capability to communicate over a cellular network. All models can connect to a wireless LAN via Wi - Fi. The fourth - generation iPad is available with 16, 32, 64 or 128 GB of internal flash memory, with no expansion option. Apple sells a "camera connection kit '' with an SD card reader, but it can only be used to transfer photos and videos.
The audio playback of the fourth - generation iPad has a frequency response of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Without third - party software it can play the following audio formats: HE - AAC, AAC, Protected AAC, MP3, MP3 VBR, Audible formats (2, 3, 4, AEA, AAX, and AAX+), ALAC, AIFF, and WAV.
This iPad uses an internal rechargeable lithium - ion polymer (LiPo) battery that can hold a charge of 11,560 mAh. The batteries are made in Taiwan by Simplo Technology (60 %) and Dynapack International Technology (40 %). The iPad is designed to be charged with a relatively high current of 2 amps using the included 12 W USB power adapter and Lightning connector. While it can be charged by an older USB port from a computer, these are limited to 500 milliamps (0.5 amps). As a result, if the iPad is in use while powered by a computer, it may charge very slowly, or not at all. High - power USB ports found in newer computers and accessories provide full charging capabilities. Apple claims that the battery can provide up to 10 hours of video, audio playback, or web surfing on Wi - Fi, 9 hours of web surfing over a cellular connection, or one month on standby. Like any rechargeable battery, the iPad 's battery loses capacity over time. However, the iPad 's battery is not user - replaceable. In a program similar to iPod and iPhone battery - replacement programs, Apple promised to replace an iPad that does not hold an electrical charge with a refurbished unit for a fee. During the battery replacement process, user data is not preserved / transferred, and repaired or refurbished units come with a new case. The warranty on the refurbished unit may vary between jurisdictions.
The Smart Cover, introduced with the iPad 2, is a screen protector that magnetically attaches to the face of the iPad. The cover has three folds which allow it to convert into a stand, which is also held together by magnets. The Smart Cover can also assume other positions by folding it. Smart Covers have a microfiber bottom that cleans the front of the iPad, and wakes up the unit when the cover is removed. It comes in five colors of both polyurethane and the more expensive leather.
Apple offers several other accessories, most of which are adapters for the proprietary Lightning connector, the only port besides the headphone jack. A dock holds the iPad at an angle, and has a dock connector and audio line - out port. The iPad can use Bluetooth keyboards that also work with Macs and PCs. The iPad can be charged by a standalone power adapter ("wall charger '') compatible with iPods and iPhones, and a 12 watt charger is included.
The fourth - generation iPad received primarily favorable reviews from critics and commentators. The review by Gareth Beavis of TechRadar praised the device for its high resolution Retina Display, which TechRadar wrote is "... one of the most impressive we 've seen on a tablet to date. '' However, the reviewer also wrote that the screen "lacks the ' punch ' seen in Super AMOLED screens seen on devices like the Samsung Galaxy Note 2. '' The review also praised the interface of the iPad for its simple design and easy to use layout. Additionally, other aspects, such as the design of the iPad and updated SoC were noted and praised in the review. Critically, Beavis noted that the iPad can still moderately heat up under medium usage, however not to the extent seen in the third - generation iPad. Tim Stevens of Engadget praised the Retina Display and labelled it as the best screen available on tablets. Benchmarks and tests conducted by Engadget resulted in Stevens concluding that the fourth - generation iPad is the fastest Apple mobile device available, surpassing a "record '' that the iPhone 5 held for a brief period.
Benchmark tests conducted by SlashGear concluded that the SoC of the fourth - generation iPad is able to perform CPU - reliant tasks more than twice as fast as that of the third - generation iPad. A series of benchmark tests conducted on the graphics performance of the fourth - generation iPad by Anandtech resulted in the device achieving the highest score compared to other consumer mobile devices, including the Samsung Galaxy S III, Nexus 10 and third - generation iPad. The performance increase of the fourth - generation iPad varies between tests, however an increase is nonetheless evident. Furthermore, battery longevity tests conducted by the same organization suggests that the battery of the fourth - generation iPad is able to last longer than its predecessor. However, the battery of the updated iPad 2 is able to outlast the fourth - generation iPad.
In the first weekend of sales of the iPad Mini and fourth - generation iPad, Apple reported that it sold an aggregated number of 3 million units. TechRadar noted that the first weekend sales figures for the fourth - generation iPad are lower than corresponding figures for the third - generation iPad, which sold 3 million units in its first weekend. Subsequent reports and analysis such as that from David Hsieh, a technology analyst, suggest that the iPad mini is selling better than the fourth - generation iPad. Despite the noted slump in sales, Apple 's stock price, in direct response to the figures released, rose by 1.4 % to $584.62 on November 5.
In a repairability review conducted by iFixit, the fourth - generation iPad scored 2 out of 10 (10 being the easiest to repair) due to the use of adhesive to attach components. However, reviewers noted that several components such as the screen and battery could be removed easily for replacement.
|
a food can be labeled as organic if of its ingredients are organic | Organic certification - wikipedia
Organic certification is a certification process for producers of organic food and other organic agricultural products. In general, any business directly involved in food production can be certified, including seed suppliers, farmers, food processors, retailers and restaurants. A lesser known counterpart is certification for organic textiles (or Organic clothing) that includes certification of textile products made from organically grown fibres.
Requirements vary from country to country (List of countries with organic agriculture regulation), and generally involve a set of production standards for growing, storage, processing, packaging and shipping that include:
In some countries, certification is overseen by the government, and commercial use of the term organic is legally restricted. Certified organic producers are also subject to the same agricultural, food safety and other government regulations that apply to non-certified producers.
Certified organic foods are not necessarily pesticide - free, as certain pesticides are allowed.
Organic certification addresses a growing worldwide demand for organic food. It is intended to assure quality and prevent fraud, and to promote commerce. While such certification was not necessary in the early days of the organic movement, when small farmers would sell their produce directly at farmers ' markets, as organics have grown in popularity, more and more consumers are purchasing organic food through traditional channels, such as supermarkets. As such, consumers must rely on third - party regulatory certification.
For organic producers, certification identifies suppliers of products approved for use in certified operations. For consumers, "certified organic '' serves as a product assurance, similar to "low fat '', "100 % whole wheat '', or "no artificial preservatives ''.
Certification is essentially aimed at regulating and facilitating the sale of organic products to consumers. Individual certification bodies have their own service marks, which can act as branding to consumers -- a certifier may promote the high consumer recognition value of its logo as a marketing advantage to producers.
In third party certification, the farm or the processing of the agriculture produce is certified in accordance with national or international organic standards by an accredited organic certification agency. To certify a farm, the farmer is typically required to engage in a number of new activities, in addition to normal farming operations:
In addition, short - notice or surprise inspections can be made, and specific tests (e.g. soil, water, plant tissue) may be requested.
For first - time farm certification, the soil must meet basic requirements of being free from use of prohibited substances (synthetic chemicals, etc.) for a number of years. A conventional farm must adhere to organic standards for this period, often two to three years. This is known as being in transition. Transitional crops are not considered fully organic.
Certification for operations other than farms follows a similar process. The focus is on the quality of ingredients and other inputs, and processing and handling conditions. A transport company would be required to detail the use and maintenance of its vehicles, storage facilities, containers, and so forth. A restaurant would have its premises inspected and its suppliers verified as certified organic.
Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS) represent an alternative to third party certification, especially adapted to local markets and short supply chains. They can also complement third party certification with a private label that brings additional guarantees and transparency. PGS enable the direct participation of producers, consumers and other stakeholders in:
Participatory Guarantee Systems are also referred to as "participatory certification ''.
The word organic is central to the certification (and organic food marketing) process, and this is also questioned by some. Where organic laws exist, producers can not use the term legally without certification. To bypass this legal requirement for certification, various alternative certification approaches, using currently undefined terms like "authentic '' and "natural '', are emerging. In the US, motivated by the cost and legal requirements of certification (as of Oct. 2002), the private farmer - to - farmer association, Certified Naturally Grown, offers a "non-profit alternative eco-labelling program for small farms that grow using USDA Organic methods but are not a part of the USDA Certified Organic program. ''
In the UK, the interests of smaller - scale growers who use "natural '' growing methods are represented by the Wholesome Food Association, which issues a symbol based largely on trust and peer - to - peer inspection.
Organic certification, as well as fair trade certification, has the potential to directly and indirectly contribute to the achievement of some of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which are the eight international development goals that were established following the Millennium Summit of the United Nations in 2000, with all United Nations member states committed to help achieve the MDGs by 2015. With the growth of ethical consumerism in developed countries, imports of eco-friendly and socially certified produce from the poor in developing countries have increased, which could contribute towards the achievement of the MDGs. A study by Setboonsarng (2008) reveals that organic certification substantially contributes to MDG1 (poverty and hunger) and MDG7 (environmental sustainability) by way of premium prices and better market access, among others. This study concludes that for this market - based development scheme to broaden its poverty impacts, public sector support in harmonizing standards, building up the capacity of certifiers, developing infrastructure development, and innovating alternative certification systems will be required.
The body Codex Alimentarius of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations was established in November 1961. The Commission 's main goals are to protect the health of consumers and ensure fair practices in the international food trade. The Codex Alimentarius is recognized by the World Trade Organization as an international reference point for the resolution of disputes concerning food safety and consumer protection. One of their goals is to provide proper food labelling (general standard, guidelines on nutrition labelling, guidelines on labelling claims).
In the United States the situation is undergoing its own FDA Food Safety Modernization Act.
In some countries, organic standards are formulated and overseen by the government. The United States, the European Union, Canada and Japan have comprehensive organic legislation, and the term "organic '' may be used only by certified producers. Being able to put the word "organic '' on a food product is a valuable marketing advantage in today 's consumer market, but does not guarantee the product is legitimately organic. Certification is intended to protect consumers from misuse of the term, and make buying organics easy. However, the organic labeling made possible by certification itself usually requires explanation. In countries without organic laws, government guidelines may or may not exist, while certification is handled by non-profit organizations and private companies.
Internationally, equivalency negotiations are underway, and some agreements are already in place, to harmonize certification between countries, facilitating international trade. There are also international certification bodies, including members of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) working on harmonization efforts. Where formal agreements do not exist between countries, organic product for export is often certified by agencies from the importing countries, who may establish permanent foreign offices for this purpose. In 2011 IFOAM introduced a new program - the IFOAM Family of Standards - that attempts to simplify harmonization. The vision is to establish the use of one single global reference (the COROS) to access the quality of standards rather than focusing on bilateral agreements.
The Certcost was a research project that conducted research and prepared reports about the certification of organic food. The project was supported by the European Commission and was active from 2008 - 2011. The website will be available until 2016.
In the United States, "organic '' is a labeling term for food or agricultural products ("food, feed or fiber '') that have been produced according to USDA organic regulations, which define standards that "integrate cultural, biological, and mechanical practices that foster cycling of resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity. '' USDA standards recognize four types of organic production:
Organic agricultural operations should ultimately maintain or improve soil and water quality, and conserve wetlands, woodlands, and wildlife.
In the U.S., the Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 "requires the Secretary of Agriculture to establish a National List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances which identifies synthetic substances that may be used, and the nonsynthetic substances that can not be used, in organic production and handling operations. ''
Also in the U.S., the Secretary of Agriculture promulgated regulations establishing the National Organic Program (NOP). The final rule was published in the Federal Register in 2000.
USDA Organic certification confirms that the farm or handling facility (whether within the United States or internationally) complies with USDA organic regulations. Farms or handling facilities can be certified by private, foreign, or State entities, whose agents are accredited by the USDA (accredited agents are listed on the USDA website). Any farm or business that grosses more than $5,000 annually in organic sales must be certified. Farms and businesses that make less than $5,000 annually are "exempt, '' and must follow all the requirements as stated in the USDA regulations except for two requirements:
Exempt operations are also barred from selling their products as ingredients for use in another producer or handler 's certified organic product, and may be required by buyers to sign an affidavit affirming adherence to USDA organic regulations.
Before an operation may sell, label or represent their products as "organic '' (or use the USDA organic seal), it must undergo a 3 - year transition period where any land used to produce raw organic commodities must be left untreated with prohibited substances.
Operations seeking certification must first submit an application for organic certification to a USDA - accredited certifying agent including the following:
Certifying agents then review the application to confirm that the operation 's practices follow USDA regulations, and schedule an inspection to verify adherence to the OSP, maintenance of records, and overall regulatory compliance
Inspection The during the site visit, the inspector observes onsite practices and compares them to the OSP, looks for any potential contamination by prohibited materials (or any risk of potential contamination), and takes soil, tissue, or product samples as needed. At farming operations, the inspector will also examine the fields, water systems, storage areas, and equipment, assess pest and weed management, check feed production, purchase records, livestock and their living conditions, and records of animal health management practices. For processing and handling facilities, the inspector evaluates the receiving, processing, and storage areas for organic ingredients and finished products, as well as assessing any potential hazards or contamination points (from "sanitation systems, pest management materials, or nonorganic processing aids ''). If the facility also processes or handles nonorganic materials, the inspector will also analyze the measures in place to prevent comingling.
If the written application and operational inspection are successful, the certifying agent will issue an organic certificate to the applicant. The producer or handler must then submit an updated application and OSP, pay recertification fees to the agent, and undergo annual onsite inspections to receive recertification annually. Once certified, producers and handlers can have up to 75 % of their organic certification costs reimbursed through the USDA Organic Certification Cost - Share Programs.
Federal legislation defines three levels of organic foods. Products made entirely with certified organic ingredients, methods, and processing aids can be labeled "100 % organic '' (including raw agricultural commodities that have been certified), while only products with at least 95 % organic ingredients may be labeled "organic '' (any non-organic ingredients used must fall under the exemptions of the National List). Under these two categories, no nonorganic agricultural ingredients are allowed when organic ingredients are available. Both of these categories may also display the "USDA Organic '' seal, and must state the name of the certifying agent on the information panel.
A third category, containing a minimum of 70 % organic ingredients, can be labeled "made with organic ingredients, '' but may not display the USDA Organic seal. Any remaining agricultural ingredients must be produced without excluded methods, including genetic modification (14), irradiation, or the application of synthetic fertilizers, sewage sludge, or biosolids. Non-agricultural ingredients used must be allowed on the National List. Organic ingredients must be marked in the ingredients list (e.g., "organic dill '' or with an asterisk denoting organic status). In addition, products may also display the logo of the certification body that approved them.
Products made with less than 70 % organic ingredients can not be advertised as "organic, '' but can list individual ingredients that are organic as such in the product 's ingredient statement. Also, USDA ingredients from plants can not be genetically modified.
Livestock feed is only eligible for labeling as "100 % Organic '' or "Organic. ''
Alcoholic products are also subject to the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau regulations. Any use of added sulfites in wine made with organic grapes means that the product is only eligible for the "made with '' labeling category and therefore may not use the USDA organic seal. Wine labeled as made with other organic fruit can not have sulfites added to it.
Organic textiles made be labeled organic and use the USDA organic seal if the finished product is certified organic and produced in full compliance with USDA organic regulations. If all of a specific fiber used in a product is certified organic, the label may state the percentage of organic fibers and identify the organic material.
Organic certification mandates that the certifying inspector must be able to complete both "trace - back '' and "mass balance audits '' for all ingredients and products. A trace - back audit confirms the existence of a record trail from time of purchase / production through the final sale. A mass balance audit verifies that enough organic product and ingredients have been produced or purchased to match the amount of product sold. Each ingredient and product must have an assigned lot number to ensure the existence of a proper audit trail.
Some of the earliest organizations to carry out organic certification in North America were the California Certified Organic Farmers, founded in 1973, and the voluntary standards and certification program popularized by the Rodale Press in 1972. Some retailers have their stores certified as organic handlers and processors to ensure organic compliance is maintained throughout the supply chain until delivered to consumers, such as Vitamin Cottage Natural Grocers, a 60 - year - old chain based in Colorado.
Violations of USDA Organic regulations carry fines up to $11,000 per violation, and can also lead to suspension or revocation of a farm or business 's organic certificate.
Once certified, USDA organic products can be exported to countries currently engaged in organic trade agreements with the U.S., including Canada, the European Union, Japan, and Taiwan, and do not require additional certification as long as the terms of the agreement are met.
In Canada, certification was implemented at the federal level on June 30, 2009. Mandatory certification is required for agricultural products represented as organic in import, export and inter-provincial trade, or that bear the federal organic logo. In Quebec, provincial legislation provides government oversight of organic certification within the province, through the Quebec Accreditation Board (Conseil D'Accréditation Du Québec). Only products that use at least 95 % organic materials in production are allowed to bear the Canadian organic logo. Products between 70 - 95 % may declare they have xx % of organic ingredients, however they do not meet requirements to bear the certified logo. Transitioning from a conventional agricultural operation to an organic operation takes the producers up to three years to receive organic certification, during which time products can not be marketed as organic products, and producers will not receive pricing premiums on their goods during this time. Cows, sheep, and goats are the only livestock that are allowed to be transitioned to organic, under Canada 's regulations. They must undergo organic management for one year before their products can be considered certified organic.
EU countries acquired comprehensive organic legislation with the implementation of the EU - Eco-regulation 1992. Supervision of certification bodies is handled on the national level. In March 2002 the European Commission issued a EU - wide label for organic food. It has been mandatory throughout the EU since July 2010. and has become compulsory after a two - year transition period.
In 2009 a new logo was chosen through a design competition and online public vote. The new logo is a green rectangle that shows twelve stars (from the European flag) placed such that they form the shape of a leaf in the wind. Unlike earlier labels no words are presented on the label lifting the requirement for translations referring to organic food certification.
The new EU organic label has been implemented since July 2010 and has replaced the old European Organic label. However, producers that have had already printed and ready to use packaging with the old label were allowed to use them in the upcoming 2 years.
The development of the EU organic label was develop based on Denmark 's organic food policy and the rules behind the Danish organic food label which at the moment holds the highest rate of recognition among its users in the world respectively 98 % and 90 % trust the label. The current EU organic label is meant to signal to the consumer that at least 95 % of the ingredients used in the processed organic food is from organic origin and 5 % considered an acceptable error margin.
Besides the public organic certification regulation EU - Eco-regulation in 1992, there are various private organic certifications available:
Following private bodies certify organic produce: KEZ, o.p.s. (CZ - BIO-001), ABCert, AG (CZ - BIO-002) and BIOCONT CZ, s.r.o. (CZ - BIO-003). These bodies provide controlling of processes tied with issueing of certificate of origin. Controlling of compliancy (to (ES) no 882 / 2004 directive) is provided by government body ÚKZÚZ (Central Institute for Supervising and Testing in Agriculture). "9 '' Source: "Information on organic produce of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic ''
In France, organic certification was introduced in 1985. It has established a green - white logo of "AB - agriculture biologique. '' The certification for the AB label fulfills the EU regulations for organic food. The certification process is overseen a public institute ("Agence française pour le développement et la promotion de l'agriculture biologique '' usually shortended to "Agence bio '') established in November 2001. The actual certification authorities include a number of different institutes like Aclave, Agrocert, Ecocert SA, Qualité France SA, Ulase, SGS ICS.
In Germany the national label was introduced in September 2001 following in the footsteps of the political campaign of "Agrarwende '' (agricultural major shift) led by minister Renate Künast of the Greens party. This campaign was started after the outbreak of mad - cow disease in 2000. The effects on farming are still challenged by other political parties. The national "Bio '' - label in its hexagon green - black - white shape has gained wide popularity - in 2007 there were 2431 companies having certified 41708 products. The popularity of the label is extending to neighbouring countries like Austria, Switzerland and France.
In the German - speaking countries there have been older non-government organizations that had issued labels for organic food long before the advent of the EU organic food regulations. Their labels are still used widely as they significantly exceed the requirements of the EU regulations. An organic food label like "demeter '' from Demeter International has been in use since 1928 and this label is still regarded as providing the highest standards for organic food in the world. Other active NGOs include Bioland (1971), Biokreis (1979), Biopark (1991), Ecoland (1997), Ecovin (1985), Gäa e.V. (1989), Naturland (1981) and Bio Suisse (1981).
In Greece, organic certification is available from eight (8) organizations approved by EU. The major of them are BIOHELLAS and the DIO (Greek: Οργανισμός Ελέγχου και Πιστοποίησης Βιολογικών Προϊόντων - ΔΗΩ) (1)
In Ireland, organic certification is available from the Irish Organic Farmers and Growers Association, Demeter Standards Ltd. and Organic Trust Ltd.
In Switzerland, products sold as organic must comply at a minimum with the Swiss organic regulation (Regulation 910.18). Higher standards are required before a product can be labelled with the Bio Suisse label.
In Sweden, organic certification is handled by the organisation KRAV (agriculture) with members such as farmers, processors, trade and also consumer, environmental and animal welfare interests.
In the United Kingdom, organic certification is handled by a number of organizations, regulated by The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), of which the largest are the Soil Association and Organic Farmers and Growers. While UK certification bodies are required to meet the EU minimum organic standards for all member states; they may choose to certify to standards that exceed the minimums, as is the case with the Soil Association.
The farmland converted to produce certified organic food has seen a significant evolution in the EU15 countries, rising from 1.8 % in 1998 to 4.1 % in 2005. For the current EU25 countries however the statistics report an overall percentage of just 1.5 % as of 2005. However the statistics showed a larger turnover of organic food in some countries, reaching 10 % in France and 14 % in Germany. In France 21 % of available vegetables, fruits, milk and eggs were certified as organic. Numbers for 2010 show that 5.4 % of German farmland has been converted to produce certified organic food, as has 10.4 % of Swiss farmland and 11.7 % of Austrian farmland. Non-EU countries have widely adopted the European certification regulations for organic food, to increase export to EU countries.
In Australia, organic certification is performed by several organisations that are accredited by the Biosecurity section of the Department of Agriculture (Australia), formerly the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service, under the National Standard for Organic and Biodynamic Produce. All claims about the organic status of products sold in Australia are covered under the Competition and Consumer Act 2010.
In Australia, the Organic Federation of Australia is the peak body for the organic industry in Australia and is part of the government 's Organic Consultative Committee Legislative Working Group that sets organic standards.
Department of Agriculture accreditation is a legal requirement for all organic products exported from Australia. Export Control (Organic Produce Certification) Orders are used by the Department to assess organic certifying bodies and recognise them as approved certifying organisations. Approved certifying organisations are assessed by the Department for both initial recognition and on an at least annual basis thereafter to verify compliance.
In the absence of domestic regulation, DOA accreditation also serves as a ' de facto ' benchmark for certified product sold on the domestic market. Despite its size and growing share of the economy "the organic industry in Australia remains largely self - governed. There is no specific legislation for domestic organic food standardisation and labelling at the state or federal level as there is in the USA and the EU ''.
The Department has several approved certifying organisations that manage the certification process of organic and bio-dynamic operators in Australia. These certifying organisations perform a number of functions on the Department 's behalf:
As of 2015, there are seven approved certifying organisations:
There are 2567 certified organic businesses reported in Australia in 2014. They include 1707 primary producers, 719 processors and manufacturers, 141 wholesalers and retailers plus other operators.
Australia does not have a logo or seal to identify which products are certified organic, instead the logos of the individual certifying organisations are used.
In China, the organic certification is administered by a government agency named Certification and Accreditation Administration of the People 's Republic of China (CNCA). While the implementation of certification works, including site checking, lab test on soil, water, product qualities are performed by the China Quality Certification Center (CQC) which is an agency of Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine (AQSIQ). The organic certification procedures in china are performed according to China Organic Standard GB / T 19630.1 - 4 -- 2011 which was issued in year 2011. This standard has governed standard procedure for Organic certification process performed by CQC, including application, inspection, lab test procedures, certification decision and post certification administration. The certificate issued by CQC are valid for 1 year.
There are 2 logos that are currently used by the CQC for labeling products with Organic Certification, these are the Organic Logo and CQC Logo. No conversion to organic Logo now.
There were more than 19000 valid certificates and 66 organic certification bodies until 2018 in China.
In India, APEDA regulates the certification of organic products as per National Standards for Organic Production. "The NPOP standards for production and accreditation system have been recognized by European Commission and Switzerland as equivalent to their country standards. Similarly, USDA has recognized NPOP conformity assessment procedures of accreditation as equivalent to that of US. With these recognitions, Indian organic products duly certified by the accredited certification bodies of India are accepted by the importing countries. '' Organic food products manufactured and exported from India are marked with the India Organic certification mark issued by the APEDA. APEDA has recognized 11 inspection certification bodies, some of which are branches of foreign certification bodies, others are local certification bodies.
In Japan, the Japanese Agricultural Standard (JAS) was fully implemented as law in April 2001. This was revised in November 2005 and all JAS certifiers were required to be re-accredited by the Ministry of Agriculture.
As of 2014 the Agri - Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore had no organic certification process, but instead relied on international certification bodies; it does not track local producers who claim to have gotten organic certification.
In Cambodia, Cambodian Organic Agriculture Association (COrAA) is the only organization that is authorized to give certificate for organic agricultural products. It is a nationwide private organization working for the promotion of organic and sustainable agriculture in Cambodia. COrAA has developed both organic and chemical - free agricultural standards and provides third - party - certification to producers following these standards. In addition, the services that COrAA provides include technical training for the conversion from chemical / conventional to organic farming, marketing support, organic awareness building among the general public, and a platform for dialogue and cooperation among organic stakeholders in Cambodia.
Organic cert is not without its critics. Some of the staunchest opponents of chemical - based farming and factory farming practices also oppose formal certification. They see it as a way to drive independent organic farmers out of business, and to undermine the quality of organic food. Other organizations such as the Organic Trade Association work within the organic community to foster awareness of legislative and other related issues, and enable the influence and participation of organic proponents.
Originally, in the 1960s through the 1980s, the organic food industry was composed of mainly small, independent farmers, selling locally. Organic "certification '' was a matter of trust, based on a direct relationship between farmer and consumer. Critics view regulatory certification as a potential barrier to entry for small producers, by burdening them with increased costs, paperwork, and bureaucracy
In China, due to government regulations, international companies wishing to market organic produce must be independently certified. It is reported that "Australian food producers are spending up to $50,000 to be certified organic by Chinese authorities to crack the burgeoning middle - class market of the Asian superpower. '' Whilst the certification process is described by producers "extremely difficult and very expensive '', a number of organic producers have acknowledged the ultimately positive effect of gaining access to the emerging Chinese market. For example, figures from Australian organic infant formula and baby food producer Bellamy 's Organic indicate export growth, to China alone, of 70 per cent per year since gaining Chinese certification in 2008, while similar producers have shown export growth of 20 per cent to 30 per cent a year following certification
Peak Australian organic certification body, Australian Certified Organic, has stated however that "many companies have baulked at risking the money because of the complex, unwieldy and expensive process to earn Chinese certification. '' By comparison, equivalent certification costs in Australia are less than $2,000 (AUD), with costs in the United States as low as $750 (USD) for a similarly sized business.
Manipulation of certification regulations as a way to mislead or outright dupe the public is a very real concern. Some examples are creating exceptions (allowing non-organic inputs to be used without loss of certification status) and creative interpretation of standards to meet the letter, but not the intention, of particular rules. For example, a complaint filed with the USDA in February 2004 against Bayliss Ranch, a food ingredient producer and its certifying agent, charged that tap water had been certified organic, and advertised for use in a variety of water - based body care and food products, in order to label them "organic '' under US law. Steam - distilled plant extracts, consisting mainly of tap water introduced during the distilling process, were certified organic, and promoted as an organic base that could then be used in a claim of organic content. The case was dismissed by the USDA, as the products had been actually used only in personal care products, over which the department at the time extended no labeling control. The company subsequently adjusted its marketing by removing reference to use of the extracts in food products.
In 2013 the Australia Consumer Competition Commission said that water can no longer be labelled as organic water because, based on organic standards, water can not be organic and it is misleading and deceptive to label any water as such.
The label itself can be used to mislead many customers that food labelled as being organic is safer, healthier and more nutritious.
Critics of formal certification also fear an erosion of organic standards. Provided with a legal framework within which to operate, lobbyists can push for amendments and exceptions favorable to large - scale production, resulting in "legally organic '' products produced in ways similar to current conventional food. Combined with the fact that organic products are now sold predominantly through high volume distribution channels such as supermarkets, the concern is that the market is evolving to favor the biggest producers, and this could result in the small organic farmer being squeezed out.
In the United States large food companies, have "assumed a powerful role in setting the standards for organic foods. '' Many members of standard - setting boards come from large food corporations. As more corporate members have joined, many nonorganic substances have been added to the National List of acceptable ingredients. The United States Congress has also played a role in allowing exceptions to organic food standards. In December 2005, the 2006 agricultural appropriations bill was passed with a rider allowing 38 synthetic ingredients to be used in organic foods, including food colorings, starches, sausage and hot - dog casings, hops, fish oil, chipotle chili pepper, and gelatin; this allowed Anheuser - Busch in 2007 to have its Wild Hop Lager certified organic "even though (it) uses hops grown with chemical fertilizers and sprayed with pesticides. ''
|
who sings i always feel like someone is watching me | Somebody 's Watching Me - wikipedia
"Somebody 's Watching Me '' is a song recorded by American singer Rockwell, released by the Motown label on January 14, 1984, as the lead single from his debut studio album of the same name. Rockwell 's debut single release, the song features guest vocals by brothers Michael Jackson (in the chorus) and Jermaine Jackson (additional backing vocals).
"Somebody 's Watching Me '' became a major commercial success internationally, topping the charts in Belgium, France and Spain, and reaching the Top 5 in Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States (peaking at No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100). The song reached No. 6 in the United Kingdom, Rockwell 's only Top 40 hit there.
Rockwell is a son of Motown CEO Berry Gordy. At the time of the recording, Rockwell was estranged from his father and living with Ray Singleton, his father 's ex-wife and the mother of his older half - brother, Kerry Gordy. Singleton served as executive producer on the project and would occasionally play some demo tracks to Berry. The elder Gordy was less than enthusiastic about Rockwell 's music until he heard the single with a familiar voice featuring prominently on background vocals.
"Somebody 's Watching Me '' was written in the key of C - sharp minor in time with a tempo of 124 beats per minute. The vocals span from C# to C#.
Produced by Curtis Anthony Nolen, the song featured backing vocals by Michael and Jermaine Jackson, with Alan Murray on percussion.
The music video to "Somebody 's Watching Me '' (which uses the radio edit instead of the album version) underscores the song 's paranoid tone with a haunted house - inspired theme, including imagery of floating heads, ravens, graveyards, and shower scenes referencing Psycho.
The video opens with Rockwell coming home to discover that a newspaper in Chinese has been delivered to his doorstep. As he takes a quick shower, he begins to have strange visions (in a manner recalling The Dead Zone) of himself being pursued around his house by assorted ghoulish appartions, of the looming figure of a cadaverous - looking man, and of finding a tombstone engraved with his own name. His shower is interrupted when he hears something outside and goes out on his balcony to investigate. He is shocked to see the man from his visions standing at his gate, but as he struggles to get a better look in spite of the sun in his face he is greatly relieved to see that he is merely a mailman, coming to deliver the correct newspaper. As the mailman walks up the path towards the front porch, however, a brief close - up of his arm reveals that he is, in fact, a zombie. Rockwell emerges onto the porch to receive the paper, which the mailman genially hands over. As the mailman brings his other arm around to strike, Rockwell has just enough time to notice that he is not human.
Due in part to the popularity of the music video, the song is sometimes used for Halloween celebrations, with cover versions found in various collections of Halloween music.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
DJ BoBo based his 1992 single "Somebody Dance with Me '' on "Somebody 's Watching Me '' with new lyrics and rap. The DJ BoBo single reached No. 1 in Sweden and Switzerland, and the Top 5 in Austria, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands and Norway. In 2012, a remix of the hit was made by Remady titled "Somebody Dance With Me (Remady 2013 Mix) '' by DJ BoBo featuring Manu - L. Released early in 2013, it charted on the Swiss Hitparade, reaching No. 4. The mix was made on the 20th anniversary of the initial hit by DJ BoBo in November 1992.
In 2006, Dutch dance group Beatfreakz recorded a pseudo-cover of the song which sampled the chorus but omitted the verses. This version was a Top 10 hit in Belgium, Finland, Ireland, New Zealand and the United Kingdom.
|
asian games 2018 table tennis mixed doubles results | Table tennis at the 2018 Asian Games -- Mixed doubles - wikipedia
The mixed doubles table tennis event at the 2018 Asian Games took place from 29 to 30 August 2018 at the Jakarta International Expo.
All times are Indonesia Western Standard Time (UTC + 07: 00)
Seeds were based on the individual ITTF World Ranking lists published in August 2018 with a maximum of 2 pairs per country.
|
who wore an ephod with gold chains on it | Ephod - wikipedia
Four gifts given in Jerusalem 11. Firstborn animal 12. Firstfruits 13. Burnt offering (Judaism) 14. Parts of the thank offering and Nazirite 's offering
An ephod (Hebrew: אֵפוֹד ' êp̄ōḏ; / ˈɛfɒd / or / ˈiːfɒd /) was an artifact and an object to be revered in ancient Israelite culture, and was closely connected with oracular practices and priestly ritual.
In the Books of Samuel and the Books of Chronicles, David is described as wearing an ephod when dancing in the presence of the Ark of the Covenant (2 Samuel 6: 14, 1 Chronicles 15: 27) and one is described as standing in the sanctuary at Nob, with a sword behind it (1 Samuel 21: 9). In the book of Exodus and in Leviticus one is described as being created for the Jewish High Priest to wear as part of his official vestments (Exodus 28: 4 +, 29: 5, 39: 2 +; Leviticus 8: 7).
In the Book of Judges, Gideon and Micah each cast one from a metal. Gideon 's was dishonored (Judges 8: 26 - 27); Micah 's was revered (Judges 17: 5).
In the Bible, in the contexts where it is worn, the ephod is usually described as being linen, but did not constitute complete clothing of any kind, as the Books of Samuel describe. The book of 1 Chronicles states that David was "clothed with a robe of fine linen, as were all the Levites who bore the ark... (and) David also wore an ephod of linen, '' (NAS Bible translation; 1 Chronicles, 15: 27) "and David was wearing a linen ephod '' (NAS Bible translation; 2 Samuel, 6: 14). There appears to have been a strong religious and ceremonial implication to wearing an ephod, since the 85 priests at Nob are specifically identified as being the type of people who wore an ephod; though the Masoretic text here describes them as being linen ephods (1 Samuel 22: 18) the word linen is not present in the Septuagint version of the passage, nor is it present when the Septuagint describes David and Samuel as girding themselves with an ephod. Therefore, some textual scholars regard its presence in the Masoretic text as a later editorial gloss.
A passage in the Book of Exodus describes the Ephod as an elaborate garment worn by the high priest, and upon which the Hoshen, or breastplate containing Urim and Thummim, rested. According to this description, the Ephod was woven out of gold, blue, purple, and scarlet threads, was made of fine linen, and was embroidered with skillful work in gold thread (Exodus 28: 6 - 14). The Talmud argues that each of the textures was combined in six threads with a seventh of gold leaf, making 28 threads to the texture in total. Some people attempt to assign meaning to the details of the Ephod, but such meanings are not given in either the biblical description or the Talmud.
The Biblical description (Exodus 28: 16, 39: 9) continues describing the size of the ephod as a square measuring one span by one span (the width of an outstretched hand from little finger tip to out stretched thumb tip). Stating that it was held together by a girdle, and had two shoulder straps which were fastened to the front of the ephod by golden rings, to which the breastplate was attached by golden chains (Exodus 28: 6 - 14). From this description it appears to have been something like an apron or skirt with braces, though Rashi argued that it was like a woman 's riding girdle. The biblical description also adds that there were two engraved gems over the shoulder straps (like epaulettes), made from shoham (thought by scholars to mean malachite, by Jewish tradition to mean heliodor, and in the King James Version translated as "onyx '', and with the names of the 12 tribes written upon them; the classical rabbinical sources differ as to the order in which the tribes were named on the jewels (Sotah 36a).
Textual scholars attribute the description of the Ephod in Exodus to the priestly source and to a date later than the other mentions of Ephod; biblical scholars believe that the Ephod may have evolved over time into this highly ceremonial form from more primitive beginnings (the simple linen form described in the Books of Samuel), much like the manner in which the highly liturgical maniple evolved from an ordinary handkerchief.
Besides use as a garment, an Ephod was also used for oracular purposes, in conjunction with Urim and Thummim; the books of Samuel imply that whenever Saul or David wished to question God via oracular methods, they asked a priest for the ephod. Since the oracular process is considered by scholars to have been one of cleromancy, with the Urim and Thummim being the objects which were drawn as lots, the Ephod is considered by scholars to have been some form of container for the Urim and Thummim; to harmonise this with the descriptions of the Ephod as a garment, it is necessary to conclude that the Ephod must have originally been some sort of pocket, which the priests girded to themselves. However, the biblical text states the Urim and Thummim were placed in the breastplate, not the ephod (Leviticus 8: 8). The integration of the stones in the breastplate, as well as the Hebrew usage of "Urim '' as "lights, '' suggest that the Urim and Thummim may have been a type of ocular device through which the priest would look when receiving divine communication.
The object at Nob, which must have been somewhat freestanding since another object is kept behind it, and the objects made by Gideon and by Micah, from molten gold, logically can not have just been garments. The object made by Gideon is plainly described as having been worshipped, and therefore the idol of some deity (possibly of Yahweh), while the object made by Micah is closely associated with a Teraphim, and the Ephod and Teraphim are described interchangeably with the Hebrew terms pesel and massekah, meaning graven image, and molten image, respectively.
Even the ephods used for oracular purposes were not necessarily just pieces of cloth, as they are not described as being worn, but carried (though some translations render 1 Samuel 2: 28 as wear an ephod rather than carry an ephod); the Hebrew term used in these passages for carry is nasa, which specifically implies that the Ephod was carried either in the hand or on the shoulder. The conclusion thus is that Ephod, in these cases, referred to a portable idol, which the lots were cast in front of; some scholars have suggested that the connection between the idol and the garment is that the idol was originally clothed in a linen garment, and the term Ephod gradually came to describe the idol as a whole.
Other scholars suggest that the ephod originally refers to a container for the stones used to cast lots and later became associated with many objects that also could contain the stones or were used in divination.
According to the Talmud, the wearing of the ephod atoned for the sin of idolatry on the part of the Children of Israel.
|
what is the agonist muscle in a sit up | Sit - up - wikipedia
The sit - up (or curl - up) is an abdominal endurance training exercise commonly performed to strengthen and tone the abdominal muscles. It is similar to a crunch (crunches target the rectus abdominus and also work the external and internal obliques), but sit - ups have a fuller range of motion and condition additional muscles.
It begins with lying with the back on the floor, typically with the arms across the chest or hands behind the head and the knees bent in an attempt to reduce stress on the back muscles and spine, and then elevating both the upper and lower vertebrae from the floor until everything superior to the buttocks is not touching the ground. Some argue that situps can be dangerous due to high compressive lumbar load and may be replaced with the crunch in exercise programs.
Strength exercises such as sit - ups and push - ups do not cause the spot reduction of fat. Gaining a "six pack '' requires both abdominal muscle hypertrophy training and fat loss over the abdomen -- which can only be done by losing fat from the body as a whole.
The movement can be made easier by placing the arms further down away from the head. Typical variations to achieve this include crossing the arms to place the palms on the front of the shoulders and extending the arms down to the sides with palms on the floor. The ' arms on shoulders ' variation is also used to make the incline sit - up easier.
More intense movement is achieved by doing weighted sit - ups, incline sit - ups with arms behind neck and even harder by doing the weighted incline sit - up.
Full sit - ups may cause back pain and arching of the lower back, increasing the risk of back injury. Many experts advise against doing sit - ups.
|
who won 2017 atp mexico open hard court tennis tournament | Mexican Open (tennis) - wikipedia
The Mexican Open, (currently sponsored by Telcel and HSBC and called the Abierto Mexicano Telcel presented by HSBC), is a joint professional tennis tournament played on outdoor hard courts, and held annually in late February at the Fairmont Acapulco Princess in Acapulco, Mexico. It was played on outdoor red clay courts until 2013. The change to hard courts was introduced in 2014. The Mexican Open is part of the ATP World Tour 500 series on the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) World Tour, and of the WTA International tournaments on the Women 's Tennis Association (WTA) Tour.
The tournament was introduced on the ATP Tour in 1993, and began on the WTA Tour in 2001. It was held in Mexico City from 1993 to 1998, and once more in 2000, before being relocated to Acapulco in 2001. It 's the closing leg of the four - ATP tournament Golden Swing. Starting in 2014, the Mexican Open 's surface changed from clay to hard courts, serving as a lead - up to the first ATP World Tour Masters 1000 event of the season in Indian Wells, United States.
In the men 's singles, David Ferrer (2010 -- 2012, 2015) and Thomas Muster (1993 -- 1996) hold the record for most overall titles (four), and Muster has the record for most consecutive wins (four). On the women 's side, Amanda Coetzer (2001, 2003), Flavia Pennetta (2005, 2008), Venus Williams (2009 -- 10) and Sara Errani (2012 -- 13) co-hold the record for most singles titles (two), Williams and Errani being the only players to score two straight wins in Mexico. In the men 's doubles, Donald Johnson (1996, 2000 -- 01) has won the most titles (three), and co-holds with Michal Mertiňák (2008 -- 09) and David Marrero (2012 -- 13) the record for most back - to - back titles (two). In the women 's doubles, María José Martínez Sánchez (2001, 2008 -- 09) is the one holding the most titles (three) and shares with Nuria Llagostera Vives (2008 -- 09) the record for most consecutive wins (two).
For the 2015 edition the distribution of points and prize money was as follows:
Singles
For the 2015 edition the distribution of points and prize money was as follows:
Singles
Coordinates: 16 ° 47 ′ 16 '' N 99 ° 48 ′ 42 '' W / 16.78778 ° N 99.81167 ° W / 16.78778; - 99.81167
|
sa re ga ma pa 2016 - episode 95 - may 31 2017 - full episode | Shreya Ghoshal - Wikipedia
Shreya Ghoshal (born 12 March 1984) is an Indian playback singer. She has received four National Film Awards, six Filmfare Awards including five for Best Female Playback Singer, nine Filmfare Awards South for Best Female Playback Singer (two for Kannada, four for Malayalam, two for Tamil and one for Telugu), three Kerala State Film Awards and two Tamil Nadu State Film Awards. She has recorded songs for film music and albums in various Indian languages and has established herself as a leading playback singer of Indian cinema.
Ghoshal aspired to become a playback singer from a young age. At the age of four, she started learning music. At the age of six, she started with her formal training in classical music. At the age of sixteen, she was noticed by film - maker Sanjay Leela Bhansali when she entered and won the television singing reality show Sa Re Ga Ma Pa. Following that, she made her Bollywood playback singing debut with Bhansali 's romantic drama Devdas (2002) for which she received a National Film Award, a Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer and Filmfare RD Burman Award for New Music Talent.
Apart from playback singing, Ghoshal has appeared as a judge on several television reality shows and she also appears in music videos. She performs in musical concerts around the world. She has been honored by the governor of U.S. state Ohio, where Ted Strickland declared 26 June 2010 as "Shreya Ghoshal Day ''. In April 2013, she was awarded with the highest honour in London by the selected members of House of Commons of the United Kingdom. She was also featured five times in Forbes list of the top 100 celebrities of India. In 2017, Ghoshal became the first Indian singer to have a wax figure of her in Madame Tussauds Museum.
Shreya Ghoshal was born on 12 March 1984 to a Bengali Hindu family in Murshidabad, Murshidabad district, West Bengal. She grew up in Rawatbhata, a small town near Kota in Rajasthan. Her father, Bishwajit Ghoshal is an electrical engineer and works for the Nuclear Power Corporation of India, and her mother, Sarmistha Ghoshal, is a literature post-graduate. She has a younger brother, Soumyadeep Ghoshal. At the age of four, she started learning music.
Shreya Ghoshal completed her schooling up to eighth grade at the Atomic Energy Central School in Rawatbhata. In 1995, she won the All India Light Vocal Music Competition, New Delhi, organised by Sangam Kala Group, in Light Vocal group in sub-junior level. In 1997, when her father was transferred to the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, she was relocated to Mumbai, with her family and studied at the Atomic Energy Central School in Anushakti Nagar. She joined the Atomic Energy Junior College to study science. She withdrew from the junior college and enrolled at the SIES College of Arts, Science, and Commerce in Mumbai, where she took up arts with English as her major.
Her mother used to help her in her rehearsals and she accompanied her on the Tanpura and started practicing mostly Bengali songs. At the age of six, Ghoshal started with her formal training in classical music. She acquired training from Padmashree Late Kalyanji Bhai and Late Mukta Bhideji. Her first stage performance was made at a club 's annual function. When she turned six, she started her lessons in Hindustani classical music. In 2000, at the age of sixteen, she participated and won the television music reality show Sa Re Ga Ma (now Sa Re Ga Ma Pa) on the channel Zee TV.
On 5 February 2015, Ghoshal married her childhood friend Shiladitya Mukhopadhyaya in a traditional Bengali ceremony. In 2016, media spread false news about Ghoshal 's pregnancy but later Ghoshal clarified it by saying that she is not pregnant. According to Ghoshal, apart from being a singer she loves to travel and read books but it 's cooking that has a healing effect on her.
Her first ever recorded song was "Ganraj Rangi Nachato '' which is a cover version of a marathi song originally sung by Lata Mangeshkar. Her first studio album was Bendhechhi Beena, which was released on 1 January 1998, with 14 tracks. Some of her earlier albums are O Tota Pakhi Re, Ekti Katha (1999), and Mukhor Porag (2000). Ghoshal recorded Bengali studio album Rupasi Raate (2002). Ghoshal recorded devotional songs in albums like Banomali Re (2002), and later, Krishna Bina Ache Ke (2007).
Ghoshal caught the attention of director Sanjay Leela Bhansali when she participated in the 75th children 's special episode of Sa Re Ga Ma. Bhansali 's mother was watching the show and during Ghoshal 's performance, she called him to watch her performance, after which he decided to give her a chance in his next film. According to Bhansali, Ghoshal 's voice had the innocence needed for the character of Paro in Devdas (2002).
In 2000, Bhansali and music director Ismail Darbar offered her the opportunity to be the voice of Paro, the lead female character of Devdas, who was portrayed by Aishwarya Rai. Ghoshal sang five songs in the film, namely, "Silsila Ye Chaahat Ka '', "Bairi Piya '', "Chalak Chalak '', "Morey Piya '', and "Dola Re Dola '', with established singers such as Kavita Krishnamurthy, Udit Narayan, Vinod Rathod, KK, and Jaspinder Narula. She was sixteen when she recorded the first song for the film, "Bairi Piya '' with Udit Narayan. Her Higher Secondary Examinations were nearing that time and she would take her books and notebooks to the studio in order to study during downtime. "Bairi Piya '' was an instant success and topped the charts. The film garnered her first Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer for "Dola Re '' (shared with Kavita Krishnamurthy) and a National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer for "Bairi Piya ''. Her performance also won her the Filmfare RD Burman Award for New Music Talent.
She was an immediate success and was called by various regional film industries for recording songs in her voice. Ghoshal was next heard in Darbar - composed Desh Devi, where she performed three tracks for the film.
After rendering traditional semi-classical songs for her previous ventures, Ghoshal performed two seductive numbers for M.M. Kreem 's Jism, which prevented her from being stereotyped. According to Ghoshal, "Jaadu Hai Nasha Hai '' and "Chalo Tumko Lekar Chale '' from the film "made everyone look at (her) in a new light '', opening the doors to a "versatile image ''. She was awarded with another Filmfare trophy for Best Female Playback Singer for the song "Jaadu Hai Nasha Hai ''. She thereupon worked with Anu Malik, where she performed the female version of "Aye Meri Zindagi '', "Seena Pada '' and "Aai Jo Teri Yaad '', along with the bhajan - styled "Har Taraf ''. In spite of providing vocals for "Har Taraf '', Ghoshal also made her first on - screen appearance in Saaya. Apart from Inteha, Ghoshal provided vocals for Malik in two other films, Munna Bhai M.B.B.S. and LOC Kargil, where she recorded the song "Chann Chann '' for the former and "Pyaar Bhara Geet '' for the latter, along with Sonu Nigam. Besides, Ghoshal made her first collaboration with Shankar -- Ehsaan -- Loy by performing the female version of the song "Tu Hi Bata Zindagi ''. Calling her sing "effortless '' in the song, The Hindu mentioned that she was "able to impart the required emotions '' for the song.
In 2004, Ghoshal contributed to the soundtrack album of Thoda Tum Badlo Thoda Hum by performing four tracks, which were labelled with an "average '' tag by Joginder Tuteja from Bollywood Hungama. However, he was "impressed '' with Ghoshal 's rendition from her songs in Khakee, where he affirmed that Ghoshal 's voice suits Aishwarya Rai to the "core '' and she "lends credibility to the entire song '' in "Wada Raha ''. Besides, the two duets with Nigam; "Dil Dooba '' and "Youn Hi Tum Mujhse '', were equally favored by music critics. Further complimenting her vocals in the song "Hum Tumko Nigahon Mein '' and "Soniye '' from Garv, Tuteja asserted that Ghoshal 's "vocals have started to suit the current breed of actresses better and better with each passing day ''. Apart from Dil Bechara Pyaar Ka Maara, Ghoshal worked with Nikhil -- Vinay in other projects, by recording "Betab Dil Hai '' from Phir Milenge, and "Woh Ho Tum '' from Muskaan.
During the time, Nadeem -- Shravan composed Tumsa Nahin Dekha: A Love Story was considered to be the biggest album for Ghoshal, as she sang all the numbers with an exception of one song. She performed a wide variety of songs -- from a jazzy number to soft romantic tunes -- in the album. According to Ghoshal, the album allowed her to "experiment with the entire range '' of her "singing capabilities ''. Besides, Ghoshal lent her voice for Malik, where she sang "Tumhe Jo Maine Dekha '' and "Gori Gori '' for Main Hoon Na apart from the title track -- which received the maximum praise from critics. Mid Day affirmed that Ghoshal provided "perfect accompaniment '' for the track, while Rediff.com was "impressed with her rendition ''. The year marks her first collaboration with Rajesh Roshan and Daboo Malik by singing the melodious track for the former composed "Saansein Ghulne Lagi '' from Aetbaar and performing the track "Shikdum '' from Dhoom, for the latter.
Ghoshal was bestowed with her second National Film Award for her rendition of "Dheere Jalna '' in Paheli. As claimed by Daily News and Analysis, the song "treads the fine balance between the classical and popular genre of Hindi film music ''. Barring the song "Dheere Jalna '', Ghoshal was heard in two other tracks "Kangna Re '' and "Minnat Kare '', composed by M.M. Kreem. She provided vocals for Kreem in one of his another compositions: "Guzar Na Jaye '' from Rog. With the film Parineeta, she made her first collaboration with Shantanu Moitra. She performed four tracks from the film alongside Nigam, which includes "Piyu Bole '', "Kasto Mazza '' and "Soona Man Ka Aangan ''. Thereupon, the duo worked for the soundtrack album of Yahaan, performing a soulful track "Naam Adaa Likhna '', "Urzu Urzu Durkut '' and a Punjabi track "Mele Chaliyan ''. Ghoshal 's work in both the films was widely acclaimed, subsequently being nominated for the Filmfare Awards with the song "Piyu Bole ''. Reportedly, Ghoshal was selected to sing the female rendition of the track after being auditioned by many other artistes. In an interview, Moitra stated; "Pradeep wanted a little trill of laughter in the middle of the song and she did it effortlessly ''.
Along with "Piyu Bole '', Ghoshal received another Filmfare nomination for her rendition of the song "Agar Tum Mil Jao '' from Zeher. The song along with "Jaane Ja Jaane Ja '' from the same film was acclaimed by music critics. Apart from providing supporting vocals for Himesh Reshammiya 's "Aashiq Banaya Aapne '', Ghoshal 's voice had been used in some of his other compositions released during the year. However, while reviewing Malik - composed "Pehle Se '', Bollywood Hungama wrote: "Ghoshal sings in a mature manner and does well once again to prove herself as a dependable playback singer ''. Similar sentiments were echoed for the song "Bolo To '' from Shabd which was composed by Vishal -- Shekhar.
2006 marks Ghoshal 's first collaboration with Ravindra Jain in film Vivah, where she performed three duets with Narayan titled "Mujhe Haq Hai '', "Do Anjaane Ajnabi '' and "Milan Abhi Aadha Adhura Hai ''. For the album, she also recorded "Hamari Shaadi Mein '' with Babul Supriyo and two sisters conversation song "O Jiji '' with Pamela Jain, along with a bhajan performed with Jain. Ghoshal 's "obsessive '' vocals were appraised in Roop Kumar Rathod 's composition, "So Jaoon Main '' from Woh Lamhe. Despite the length, the version was particularly acclaimed from the album. During the year, Ghoshal performed her first ever duet with Sunidhi Chauhan -- though they have contributed in multi-singer songs together -- with the Salim -- Sulaiman 's composition, "Imaan Ka Asar '' from Dor. In spite of providing backing vocals for Lage Raho Munna Bhai 's "Bande Mein Tha Dum '', Ghoshal and Nigam performed a romantic duet titled "Pal Pal '', a composition by Moitra. For the song, she received a Best Female Playback Singer nomination at the 52nd Filmfare Awards. She was next heard with Vishal Bhardwaj in the song "O Saathi Re '', which exudes the feeling of intimacy and deep love. Ghoshal 's low pitch rendition in the song was positively noted by critics.
In 2006, Ghoshal sang "Pyaar Ki Ek Kahani '', "Koi Tumsa Nahin '' and "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke '' for Rajesh Roshan - composed Krrish which were also favored by the critics. Reviewing the album, Bollywood Hungama wrote: "Ghoshal is extremely competent and justifies her continued presence in the big league ''. They also mentioned that Ghoshal has reached to a similar level of Alka Yagnik in terms of "class, quality and style ''.
In 2007, Ghoshal recorded a thumri in the mujra style for Khoya Khoya Chand. Titled "Chale Aao Saiyan '' and composed by Moitra, the song was particularly praised for Ghoshal 's "different '' vocal structure. She even lent her voice for two other songs for the album; "Sakhi Piya '' and "Thirak Thirak ''. She reunited with Moitra for Laaga Chunari Mein Daag, where she performed "Hum To Aise Hain '' along with Chauhan which also had Swanand Kirkire and Pranab Biswas lending supporting vocals. Raja Sen found "Kachchi Kaliyaan '' song from the film less appealing with its "bad remix background '' though praised Ghoshal, Chauhan, KK and Nigam for giving the song "the vim it requires ''. Apart from providing background alaap in Monty Sharma 's composition "Masha - Allah '', Ghoshal was heard in the classically oriented numbers "Jaan - E-Jaan '' and "Sawar Gayi '', included in the album Saawariya. She also recorded her first track in a Sanjay Leela Bhansali 's composition, "Thode Badmaash '' for the same album, providing a "feminine quality '' to her "temperate nuances ''.
During the same year, Ghoshal sang the peppy rain song, "Barso Re '' for Mani Ratnam 's Guru, a composition by A.R. Rahman. A Review from Oneindia praised Ghoshal 's rendition of the song and opined that it was a different incarnation of her in comparison to her previous records. The song won her third Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer. The same year, she came up with the song "Yeh Ishq Haaye '' from Jab We Met, composed by Pritam which was successful in earning her a third National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer.
The duo also worked with the classical track "Mere Dholna '' for Bhool Bhulaiyaa (2007), performed beside M.G. Sreekumar, which was acclaimed with special mention to the taan towards the "climax of the song ''. Ghoshal also lent her voice for Vishal -- Shekhar with few of his compositions and was particularly praised for the theme song of Ta Ra Rum Pum along with the romantic song "Main Agar Kahoon '' and the dance song "Dhoom Taana '' from film Om Shanti Om, where some critics compared her singing style of the latter with S. Janaki. In the year, Ghoshal worked with Ilaiyaraaja for the album Cheeni Kum.
After singing for films such as U Me Aur Hum, Sirf, Ghatothkach, Dashavatar, Mere Baap Pehle Aap, De Taali, Haal - e-Dil, Thoda Pyaar Thoda Magic and Kismat Konnection, Ghoshal recorded another hit song for Singh Is Kinng (2008), titled "Teri Ore '', composed by Pritam Chakraborty. It received mixed reviews from music critics. The song earned her a fourth Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer and overall fifth Filmfare Award. After that, she lent her voice for films like Bachna Ae Haseeno, God Tussi Great Ho, Welcome to Sajjanpur, Kidnap, Karzzzz, Ek Vivaah... Aisa Bhi, Dostana, Yuvvraaj and others. She won her fourth National award for singing "Pherari Mon '' for the Bengali film Antaheen (2008), and "Jeev Rangla '' for the Marathi film Jogwa (2008).
She debuted in the Tamil cinema through the song "Yen Chellam '' in Vasanthabalan 's film Album (2002), and she received success after singing "Munbe Vaa '' from Sillunu Oru Kaadhal under composer A.R. Rahman. She received her first Tamil Nadu State Film Award. She made her Telugu debut for music director Mani Sharma in Okkadu (2003). She made her debut in Kannada cinema with the song "Krishna nee begane baaro '' in the movie Paris Pranaya (2003). Ghoshal debuted in Malayalam cinema through a studio album of composer Alphons Joseph and later gave voice to his song "Vida Parayukayano '' from Big B (2007). In 2010, Ghoshal sang for the English independent film When Harry Tries to Marry. In the same year, Ghoshal rendered her voice for a song "Aadha Ishq '' from film Band Baaja Baaraat which composed by Salim - Sulaiman. Satyajit of Glamsham stated, "Shreya Ghoshal 's feminine vocal textures have always been reliable in ballads ''.
In 2011, Ghoshal recorded hit duet song "Saibo '' in film Shor in the City with Tochi Raina, a composition by Sachin - Jigar. Satyajit from Glamsham reported, "Sweetly toned and mesmerized with mellifluous flows of Shreya Ghoshal singing, the first outing "Saibo '' is a smoothening surprise that extols the feel of romanticism to perfection ". Later that year, Ghoshal sang the duet "Teri Meri '' in film Bodyguard with Rahat Fateh Ali Khan. A Himesh Reshamiya composition, the song received positive to mixed reviews. NDTV labelled the song as "moderately paced and average ''. Ghoshal later collaborated with Bappi Lahiri in the duet "Ooh La La '' from film The Dirty Picture. Abid from Glamsham stated that Shreya Ghoshal manage to keep up the fun tempo with an improvised and highly entertaining and excellent renditions. Ghoshal received further two nominations that year at Filmfare Awards for songs "Saibo '' and "Teri Meri.
In 2012, Ghoshal rendered her voice for popular item song, "Chikni Chameli '' from film Agneepath. The song was composed by Ajay - Atul and was a remake of their own Marathi song "Kombdi Palali '' from film Jatra. Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama stated, "A special word for Shreya Ghoshal too who changes her singing style in a big way and comes up trumps. She gets the kind of rustic flavour that was the need of the hour and is superb in her rendition. '' Ghoshal received her one of the two Filmfare nominations of the year for the song. Ghoshal 's rendition of the female version of theme song of film Kahaani was well received by critics. Satyajit from Glamsham labelled the song as "mesmerizing, both in rendition and soothing decorum ''. During the same year, Ghoshal performed four songs, all composed by Sajid -- Wajid for film Rowdy Rathore which received mixed reviews from critics. For the duet song "Dhadang Dhang Dhang '' performed by Ghoshal alongside Sajid, Devesh Sharma of Filmfare remarked, "Shreya Ghoshal puts the ' 90s ka tadka ' in her rendition '' and for lullaby song "Chandaniya '' he said, "Shreya Ghoshal sounds uncannily like Alka Yagnik and proves that she is a singer for all occasions ''. Joginder Tuteja from Bollywood Hungama stated in relation to "Chandaniya '', "Shreya Ghoshal can fit into any mode as per the demand of the situation ''. The song "Tera Ishq Bada Teekha '' received mixed reviews from music critics. Ghoshal then lent her voice in a Four - part harmony song, "Radha '' of film Student of the Year alongside Udit Narayan, Vishal Dadlani and Shekhar Ravjiani which garnered critical appreciation. In the same year, she again collaborated with A.R. Rahman for a duet song "Saans '' from film Jab Tak Hai Jaan along with Mohit Chauhan. The song received positive to mixed reviews by critics. At the poll conducted by Indiatimes, the song Saans won the title of "Most Romantic Song of the year 2012 ''. The song earned Ghoshal second of her two Filmfare nominations of the year.
In early 2013, Ghoshal sang two duet songs "Naino Mein Sapna '' and "Taki O Taki '' for film Himmatwala. The songs were originally composed by Bappi Lahri and re-created by Sajid -- Wajid. Both songs received positive reviews from music critics. For "Naino Mein Sapna '', critics of NDTV mentioned, "Ghoshal sounds tailormade for the track '' and for "Taki Taki '' they remarked, "Ghoshal proves yet again her mettle in the industry ''. For "Naino Mein Sapna '', Shivi from Komoi stated, "Shreya Ghoshal replace Lata Mangeshkar and do a decent job ''. Ghoshal sang the female version of Sunn Raha Hai in Aashiqui 2 composed by Ankit Tiwari and written by Sandeep Nath. She garnered critical praise over Ankit Tiwari who sang the male version of the song. Apart from rendering vocals for A.R. Rahman composed "Banarasiya '' in Raanjhanaa, Ghoshal lent her voice for duet "God, Allah aur Bhagwan '' in Krrish 3 alongside Sonu Nigam. Though the former song was met with largely positive reviews, the latter was poorly received. Ghoshal next performed two tracks in Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram - Leela namely "Dhoop '' and "Nagada Sang Dhol '' both composed by the director of film, Sanjay Leela Bhansali. She earned positive to mixed response for former and mostly positive reviews for the latter. Mohar Basu of Koimoi stated in regards to "Dhoop '', "Shreya Ghoshal 's voice croons hauntingly and this song evokes a range of deep emotions. Passionately sung and flatteringly themed, this song makes evident the reason why Ghoshal can be compared to music veterans of the industry. '' Ghoshal received two Filmfare nominations for songs "Sunn Raha Hai '' and "Nagada Sang Dhol '' that year.
In 2014, Ghoshal recorded three songs for film PK namely the solo "Nanga Punga Dost '' and duets "Chaar Kadam '' and "Love is a Waste of Time '' with Shaan and Sonu Nigam respectively. Later in the same year, she sang the duet "Manwa Laage '' with Arijit Singh for film Happy New Year composed by Vishal - Shekhar duo and written by Irshad Kamil. Surabhi Redkar of Koimoi stated, "Shreya Ghoshal 's voice brings out the mush in you. '' After its release, "Manwa Laage '' crossed one million views within 21 hours and two millions views in 48 hours on YouTube worldwide. Ghoshal got another nomination at Filmfare Awards for the song.
2015 started with Ghoshal 's another collaboration with A.R. Rahman in Tamil film I. Besides rendering vocals for original Tamil duet "Pookkalae Sattru Oyivedungal '' alongside Haricharan, she also dubbed its Hindi version "Tu Chale '' alongside Arijit Singh and Telugu version "Poolane Kunukeyamantaa '' alongside Haricharan. The original Tamil version song "Pookkalae Sattru Oyivedungal '' was met with positive reviews by critics, with most critics praising the vocals of Ghoshal. Nicy V.P. from International Business Times commented on Tamil version, "Haricharan 's crystal clear voice, Shreya 's Hindustani driven singing lead to a chart - buster, here. With regards to Shreya Ghoshal, we have to dig deep the dictionary to come up with some new adjectives to praise her singing. '' Later that year, Ghoshal sang the female version of song "Hasi '' from film Hamari Adhuri Kahani composed by Ami Mishra which got critical precedence over male version sung by Ami Mishra himself. Devesh Sharma from Filmfare remarked, "The female version of Hasi, sung by Shreya Ghoshal, works better than the male version, sung by guest composer Ami Mishra himself. Ghoshal elevates it with her superb effort and the softer arrangement works better for it overall. '' Ghoshal also performed the female version of the song "Gaaye Jaa '' for the film Brothers composed by Ajay - Atul which received positive reviews from music critics. The Times of India stated, "Shreya Ghoshal scores brownie points for her rendition ''. Glamsham praised Ghoshal 's vocals labelling them "sugary sweet and superbly controlled ''. Bollywood Life commented, "Shreya Ghoshal amazes the listener by making this situational song such a great listen and just for her lovely voice, one has to put this song on a loop '' The same year saw Ghoshal again collaborating with Sanjay Leela Bhansali in Bajirao Mastani.
She performed three songs in the film, namely "Mohe Rang Do Laal '', "Deewani Mastani '' and "Pinga '', all of which met with widespread critical acclaim. She also dubbed these songs in Tamil and Telugu versions of the film 's soundtrack. The qawwali interlude song "Deewani Mastani '' in the film fetched her sixth Filmfare Award, fifth for Best female playback singer.
In early 2016, Ghoshal provided vocals for duet "Tere Bin '' from film Wazir alongside Sonu Nigam. Composed by Shantanu Moitra and written by Vidhu Vinod Chopra, the song opened to positive reviews by critics. Labelling the song as "a beautiful start for the film '', critics from Bollywood Hungama commented, "Though the sound of song is quite classical for a film which is set in the current times, one can well expect that it would fit in well into the narrative. '' Ghoshal was next heard in song "Tum Bin Jiya '' in film Sanam Re, composed by Jeet Ganguly. It was a recreation of a song with same title from 2001 film Tum Bin sung by K.S. Chitra and composed by Nikhil - Vinay. The song received positive to negative reviews. Ghoshal sang the songs "Mere Aankhon Se Nikle Aansoo '' and "Ishq Ki Baarish '' written by Sameer and composed by Nadeem Saifi in the film Ishq Forever for which critics compared Ghoshal singing style to veteran singer Alka Yagnik. For the song "Mere Aankhon Se Nikle Aansoo '', The Times of India commented, "Shreya create magic in (the song), which is straight from the heart. Ghoshal provided vocals for song "Aatach Baya Ka Baavarla '' in Marathi film Sairat composed by Ajay - Atul which was well received by critics. Ghoshal 's collaboration with Ankit Tiwari in song "Jab Tum Hote Ho '' from film Rustom was critically well received. Devesh Sharma of Filmfare labelled the song "sombre '' and praised use of Ghoshal 's "melodious '' voice in the song. Ghoshal was next heard in Tamil film Devi in which she rendered her vocals for song "Rang Rang Rangoli ''. Ghoshal also dubbed Hindi version of the song titled "Ranga Re '' as the film was released along with Tamil in Hindi and Telugu as well with Telugu version "Rang Rang Rangare '' being sung by Swetha Mohan. India West praised the Hindi version by quoting, "Ghoshal proves that she can tread Sunidhi Chauhan terrain effortlessly in parts of the song, and her strong vocals once again put up a strong case for playback singers (females) ''. The Tamil version of song also opened to positive reviews. In the same year, Ghoshal done an album called Gulzar In Conversation With Tagore, which consists of seven songs composed by Shantanu Moitra.
In 2017, Ghoshal sang "Thodi Der '' duet with co-singer and music director Farhan Saeed from the film Half Girlfriend which receives positive reviews. Komoi stated, "Ghoshal 's voice as sweet as honey mesmerizes the listener in Thodi Der ''. Glamsham reported, "Ghoshal is simply fantastic and (song) can be put on repeat mode ''. In the same year, Ghoshal sang two songs in fifth episode of Mixtape, a web series launched by T - Series for which she received positive response.
Ghoshal performs in musical concerts around the world. In 2013, Ghoshal went to Australia and New Zealand and gave performances at the Brisbane Convention Center, Dallas Brooks Center in Melbourne, the Sydney Opera House and Vodafone Events Centre in Auckland. In the same year, Ghoshal performed at the Sharjah Cricket Association Stadium in United Arab Emirates. The same year, she paid her respects to the casualties of an excessive rainfall in Mauritius with a concert at the Swami Vivekananda International Convention Centre in Pailles. Along with Hrishikesh Ranade, she also made a stage performance during the 18th annual day celebration of Airports Authority of India. Ghoshal made London tours where she performed twice in Royal Albert Hall in 2013 and 2014. On the first tour in 2013, Ghoshal also celebrate 100 years of Bollywood by performing many of the old Bollywood hits songs.
In 2006, along with Sonu Nigam, Sunidhi Chauhan and Shiamak Davar, Ghoshal performed the theme song of 2010 Commonwealth Games at its closing ceremony, as an invitation to everyone to the following Commonwealth Games in Delhi. The same year, she along with Nigam, recorded the title track "Haath Se Haath Milaa '' for the album put together by the BBC World Service Trust as part of an AIDS awareness campaign, where profits garnered through the album, was donated to HIV charities.
In 2011, Ghoshal became the brand ambassador for Joyalukkas jewellery.
In 2016, Ghoshal performed a charity event to support a 17 years old patient of Acute lymphoblastic leukemia. In the same year, Ghoshal performed her concert in Sydney Olympic Park.
In 2017, as Ghoshal completed her fifteen years in Bollywood, she done her concerts in the US with a forty member live Symphony band at the Fox Theatre in Detroit. After veteran singer Lata Mangeshkar, Ghoshal is the only Indian singer to have performed at the Fox Theatre.
One of Ghoshal 's earliest musical memories is listening to her mother, Sarmistha Ghoshal, sing classical Bengali songs at clubs. As a very young child, she was introduced to music by her mother, whom she refers as her first "guru ''. She states that her mother is her best critic.
Ghoshal has acknowledged Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, KS Chithra, Geeta Dutt, Mohammed Rafi, Kishore Kumar and Mukesh as her inspirations. Ghoshal has also named Jagjit Singh as her inspiration to perform songs in the genre of Ghazal.
Ghoshal possesses a soprano vocal range of two octaves to C # 6. In spite of her frequent high pitched rendition, Ghoshal has performed songs with a lower vocal range. Her voice has been described as "sweet '' with "slight huskiness ''. In an interview, Ghoshal noted that her voice has transformed from the "girlish tenor '' of the earlier days to a more matured texture. Her voice is characterized in the media for being most suitable for higher - pitched renditions, although some critics have said that her voice tends to screech when she reaches a higher note of scale. Similarly, in the book Confession of a Coward -- an Indian Adventure, it was stated that Ghoshal 's high - pitched vocals are interesting and impressive, but "certainly take some time getting used to it ''. Ghoshal has voiced against correcting pitch with Auto - Tune. About her singing and rehearsing style, she has said, "I have a special way of writing the lyrics when it is dictated to me. No matter what the language of the song, even if it is Bengali, I write it in Hindi. I have certain notations and markings to indicate the way it should be pronounced. I feel the Devanagari script is the closest to the phonetics of the language. English letters are not very good for that purpose. Moreover, I listen carefully and try to grasp as much as possible when the lyrics are read to me ''.
What makes Ghoshal remarkable among her contemporaries, according to The Indian Express is, the "serenity in her voice '' and the "enviable range ''. Further complimenting her versatile vocal range, they noted: "The honey - dipped inflection of (her voice), which once put in the recording studio, can turn into naughty, sensuous, serious, sad, comic and pure classical, depending on the requirement of the job ''. Naming her as the "most versatile singer of this generation '', India West remarked the smoothness of her voice when flowing from "lower registers to higher notes ''. According to The Times of India, Ghoshal maintains the "touch of versatility '' with her music by singing different style of songs from classical to pure commercial music. In 2003, Ghoshal admitted that she modulates her voice well, hence "none of the music directors have yet been able to label me ''.
Ghoshal took vocal lessons and did workshops with Kalyanji Virji Shah, where she learnt the technique about "throw of voice, straight notes, vibratos ''. She considers classical music training as an asset in playback since it "keeps one 's voice fit and fresh ''. Music director Shekhar Ravjiani praised Ghoshal for her singing versatility. According to Sonu Nigam, the best quality about Ghoshal is that the expressions come perfectly along with mannerisms. Music director and singer M. Jayachandran praised Ghoshal by saying, "It is amazing how she writes down the lyrics in Hindi and then gives her signature nuanced expressions to Malayalam words ''. During her interviews, Ghoshal mentioned, "I can not sing double meaning songs or the songs which have vulgar lyrics ''.
Ghoshal is referred to by the media as ' Melody Queen ', ' Queen of Melody ', ' Queen of Hits ', ' Nightingale ' and ' Queen Bee '. Her work has been praised by music directors A.R. Rahman, Ankit Tiwari, Jeet Gannguli, singers Bombay Jayashri, Javed Ali, Neha Kakkar, Pakistani singers Ghulam Ali, Rahat Fateh Ali Khan, Asrar, A cappella band Penn Masala, film actresses Dia Mirza, and Sophie Choudry, film actor Chunky Pandey, television actress Tejaswi Prakash, cricketer Suresh Raina, and Bangladeshi cricketer Imrul Kayes, Ghoshal 's contemporary singers Antara Mitra, Papon, Richa Sharma, and film maker Vishal Bharadwaj, picked Ghoshal as the best female singer from the generation.
Usha Uthup named her among the "voice for the future ''. Veteran singers Vani Jairam and Manna Dey has praised her musical abilities. Manna Dey remarked that "Shreya Ghoshal (is) very talented singer. She can surely take up where Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhonsle and Geeta Dutt left ''. Senior singers Alka Yagnik, Asha Bhosle, Lata Mangeshkar, Kavita Krishnamurthy, Sadhana Sargam, picked Ghoshal as the best female singer from the generation.
One of her contemporary Palak Muchhal, whose singing style is compared with that of Ghoshal 's, replied that she likes Ghoshal 's music. She also said, "Comparing with me with my favourite singer Shreyaji is the biggest compliment for me. (And) I do n't think I sound like her. I can never sing like her because she is a legend ''. Sonu Nigam mentioned Ghoshal as his favourite singer by complimented her "If there 'll be best all - time singers, Shreya will surely be included in that ''. Antara Mitra commented about Ghoshal; "She is and she will always remain perfect voice for heroines ''. Singer Harshdeep Kaur remarked that "She did n't choose music... music chose her ''. Mika Singh and actress Shruti Haasan called her "the most talented singer ''.
Film maker Vidhu Vinod Chopra said, "I genuinely believe that (Shreya) is the best singer in the industry. I do n't have any doubt in that and I do n't have any hesitation in saying so ''. Music director Shankar Mahadevan said, "Shreya Ghoshal is an asset to the music industry ''. Actor Shahid Kapoor mentioned: "Shreya Ghoshal has such a stunning voice ''. Actor Prosenjit Chatterjee called her "one of the most versatile and melodious singer ''. Journalist Neelesh Misra commented on by saying, "Har ore apki awaaz ka ' Jaadu hai nasha hai ' (The magic of your voice is everywhere).
Ghoshal was also honored from the U.S. state of Ohio, where the governor Ted Strickland declared 26 June as "Shreya Ghoshal Day ''. The first Shreya Ghoshal Day (26 June 2010) was celebrated among her fans on popular microblogging and social networking sites. In April 2013, Ghoshal was awarded with the highest honour in London by the members of House of Commons of the United Kingdom.
In 2012, Ghoshal appeared in the Forbes Celebrity 100, a list based on income and popularity of India 's celebrities. She remained in the top fifty spots for five consecutive years, listed at the forty - second spot in 2012 -- 13, the twenty - eighth spot in 2014, the thirty - third spot in 2015 and the twenty - eighth spot in 2016. In 2013, Forbes India placed her in their "Top 5 Celeb100 Singers and Musicians '' list.
Ghoshal is also known for her style and fashion sense. Ghoshal received lots of offers for acting in film industry but she rejected it. In 2013, the UK - based newspaper Eastern Eye placed her forty - third in their "50 Sexiest Asian Women '' list. In 2015, it placed her seventh in their "Greatest 20 Bollywood Playback Singers '' list. Ghoshal was listed third among the "Top Ten Hottest Female Bollywood Lead Singers '' by MensXP.com, an Indian lifestyle website for men.
Ghoshal maintains a Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, account. She is the sixth most liked Indian personality on Facebook and 47th most followed Indian personality on Twitter, according to the statistics of Socialbakers. Ghoshal is among the top ten most searched Indian singers on Google Search. In March 2017, Ghoshal became the first Indian singer to have a wax figure of her made for the display in Indian wing of Madame Tussauds Museum in Delhi.
Ghoshal has appeared as a judge on several television reality shows and she also appears in music videos.
Singer Kanika Kapoor, a Canadian singer Nesdi Jones, a New Zealand singer Shirley Setia, Ananya Nanda, the winner of Indian Idol Junior (Season 2) and The Voice India Kids winner Nishtha Sharma mentioned Ghoshal as their inspiration.
At the age of 26, Ghoshal has won four National Film Awards for Best Female Playback Singing: "Bairi Piya '' for Devdas (2002), "Dheere Jalna '' for Paheli (2005), "Yeh Ishq Haaye '' for Jab We Met (2007), and one award for both songs "Pherari Mon '' for the Bengali film Antaheen (2008) and "Jeev Rangla '' for the Marathi film Jogwa (2008). Ghoshal has won six Filmfare Awards: one RD Burman Award for New Music Talent, and five awards in Best Female Playback Singer category for "Dola Re Dola '' for Devdas (2003), "Jaadu Hai Nasha Hai '' for Jism (2004), "Barso Re '' for Guru (2008), "Teri Ore '' for Singh Is Kinng (2009), and "Deewani Mastani '' for Bajirao Mastani (2016). Ghoshal has won nine Filmfare Awards South for Best Female Playback Singer to date.
Shreya Ghoshal -- Wikipedia book
|
where are most of the divergent boundaries found | Divergent boundary - wikipedia
In plate tectonics, a divergent boundary or divergent plate boundary (also known as a constructive boundary or an extensional boundary) is a linear feature that exists between two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other. Divergent boundaries within continents initially produce rifts which eventually become rift valleys. Most active divergent plate boundaries occur between oceanic plates and exist as mid-oceanic ridges. Divergent boundaries also form volcanic islands which occur when the plates move apart to produce gaps which molten lava rises to fill.
Current research indicates that complex convection within the Earth 's mantle allows material to rise to the base of the lithosphere beneath each divergent plate boundary. This supplies the area with vast amounts of heat and a reduction in pressure that melts rock from the asthenosphere (or upper mantle) beneath the rift area forming large flood basalt or lava flows. Each eruption occurs in only a part of the plate boundary at any one time, but when it does occur, it fills in the opening gap as the two opposing plates move away from each other.
Over millions of years, tectonic plates may move many hundreds of kilometers away from both sides of a divergent plate boundary. Because of this, rocks closest to a boundary are younger than rocks further away on the same plate.
At divergent boundaries, two plates move away from each other and the space that this creates is filled with new crustal material sourced from molten magma that forms below. The origin of new divergent boundaries at triple junctions is sometimes thought to be associated with the phenomenon known as hotspots. Here, exceedingly large convective cells bring very large quantities of hot asthenospheric material near the surface and the kinetic energy is thought to be sufficient to break apart the lithosphere. The hot spot which may have initiated the Mid-Atlantic Ridge system currently underlies Iceland which is widening at a rate of a few centimeters per year.
Divergent boundaries are typified in the oceanic lithosphere by the rifts of the oceanic ridge system, including the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise, and in the continental lithosphere by rift valleys such as the famous East African Great Rift Valley. Divergent boundaries can create massive fault zones in the oceanic ridge system. Spreading is generally not uniform, so where spreading rates of adjacent ridge blocks are different, massive transform faults occur. These are the fracture zones, many bearing names, that are a major source of submarine earthquakes. A sea floor map will show a rather strange pattern of blocky structures that are separated by linear features perpendicular to the ridge axis. If one views the sea floor between the fracture zones as conveyor belts carrying the ridge on each side of the rift away from the spreading center the action becomes clear. Crest depths of the old ridges, parallel to the current spreading center, will be older and deeper... (from thermal contraction and subsidence).
It is at mid-ocean ridges that one of the key pieces of evidence forcing acceptance of the seafloor spreading hypothesis was found. Airborne geomagnetic surveys showed a strange pattern of symmetrical magnetic reversals on opposite sides of ridge centers. The pattern was far too regular to be coincidental as the widths of the opposing bands were too closely matched. Scientists had been studying polar reversals and the link was made by Lawrence W. Morley, Frederick John Vine and Drummond Hoyle Matthews in the Morley -- Vine -- Matthews hypothesis. The magnetic banding directly corresponds with the Earth 's polar reversals. This was confirmed by measuring the ages of the rocks within each band. The banding furnishes a map in time and space of both spreading rate and polar reversals.
|
which organization was created after world war ii in an effort to ensure peace in the world | Aftermath of World war II - wikipedia
The Aftermath of World War II was the beginning of an era defined by the decline of all great powers except for the Soviet Union and the United States, and the simultaneous rise of two superpowers: the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States of America (USA). Allies during World War II, the USA and the USSR became competitors on the world stage and engaged in the Cold War, so called because it never resulted in overt, declared hot war between the two powers but was instead characterized by espionage, political subversion and proxy wars. Western Europe and Japan were rebuilt through the American Marshall Plan whereas Central and Eastern Europe fell under the Soviet sphere of influence and eventually an "Iron Curtain ''. Europe was divided into a US - led Western Bloc and a Soviet - led Eastern Bloc. Internationally, alliances with the two blocs gradually shifted, with some nations trying to stay out of the Cold War through the Non-Aligned Movement. The Cold War also saw a nuclear arms race between the two superpowers; part of the reason that the Cold War never became a "hot '' war was that the Soviet Union and the United States had nuclear deterrents against each other, leading to a mutually assured destruction standoff.
As a consequence of the war, the Allies created the United Nations, an organization for international cooperation and diplomacy, similar to the League of Nations. Members of the United Nations agreed to outlaw wars of aggression in an attempt to avoid a third world war. The devastated great powers of Western Europe formed the European Coal and Steel Community, which later evolved into the European Common Market and ultimately into the current European Union. This effort primarily began as an attempt to avoid another war between Germany and France by economic cooperation and integration, and a common market for important natural resources.
The end of the war also increased the rate of decolonization from the great powers with independence being granted to India (from the United Kingdom), Indonesia (from the Netherlands), the Philippines (from the US) and a number of Arab nations, primarily from specific rights which had been granted to great powers from League of Nations Mandates in the post World War I - era but often having existed de facto well before this time. Also related to this was the US helping Israel gain controversial independence from its previous status as part of Palestine in the years immediately following the war. Independence for the nations of Sub-Saharan Africa came more slowly.
The aftermath of World War II also saw the rise of communist influence in Southeast Asia, with the People 's Republic of China, as the Chinese Communists emerged victorious from the Chinese Civil War in 1949.
At the end of the war, millions of people were dead and millions homeless, the European economy had collapsed, and much of the European industrial infrastructure had been destroyed. The Soviet Union, too, had been heavily affected. In response, in 1947, U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall devised the "European Recovery Program '', which became known as the Marshall Plan. Under the plan, during 1948 -- 1952 the United States government allocated US $13 billion (US $142 billion in 2017 dollars) for the reconstruction of Western Europe.
By the end of the war, the economy of the United Kingdom was one of severe privation. More than a quarter of its national wealth had been consumed. Until the introduction in 1941 of Lend - Lease aid from the US, the UK had been spending its assets to purchase American equipment including aircraft and ships -- over £ 437 million on aircraft alone. Lend - lease came just before its reserves were exhausted. Britain had placed 55 % of its total labour force into war production.
In spring 1945, the Labour Party withdrew from the wartime coalition government, in an effort to oust Winston Churchill, forcing a general election. Following a landslide victory, Labour held more than 60 % of the seats in the House of Commons and formed a new government on 26 July 1945 under Clement Attlee.
Britain 's war debt was described by some in the American administration as a "millstone round the neck of the British economy ''. Although there were suggestions for an international conference to tackle the issue, in August 1945 the U.S. announced unexpectedly that the Lend - Lease programme was to end immediately.
The abrupt withdrawal of American Lend Lease support to Britain on 2 September 1945 dealt a severe blow to the plans of the new government. It was only with the completion of the Anglo - American loan by the United States to Great Britain on 15 July 1946 that some measure of economic stability was restored. However, the loan was made primarily to support British overseas expenditure in the immediate post-war years and not to implement the Labour government 's policies for domestic welfare reforms and the nationalisation of key industries. Although the loan was agreed on reasonable terms, its conditions included what proved to be damaging fiscal conditions for Sterling. From 1946 - 1948, the UK introduced bread rationing which it never did during the war.
The Soviet Union suffered enormous losses in the war against Germany. The Soviet population decreased by about 27 million during the war; of these, 8.7 million were combat deaths. The 19 million non-combat deaths had a variety of causes: starvation in the siege of Leningrad; conditions in German prisons and concentration camps; mass shootings of civilians; harsh labour in German industry; famine and disease; conditions in Soviet camps; and service in German or German - controlled military units fighting the Soviet Union. The population would not return to its pre-war level for 30 years.
Soviet ex-POWs and civilians repatriated from abroad were suspected of having been Nazi collaborators, and 226,127 of them were sent to forced labour camps after scrutiny by Soviet intelligence, NKVD. Many ex-POWs and young civilians were also conscripted to serve in the Red Army. Others worked in labour battalions to rebuild infrastructure destroyed during the war.
The economy had been devastated. Roughly a quarter of the Soviet Union 's capital resources were destroyed, and industrial and agricultural output in 1945 fell far short of pre-war levels. To help rebuild the country, the Soviet government obtained limited credits from Britain and Sweden; it refused assistance offered by the United States under the Marshall Plan. Instead, the Soviet Union coerced Soviet - occupied Central and Eastern Europe to supply machinery and raw materials. Germany and former Nazi satellites made reparations to the Soviet Union. The reconstruction programme emphasised heavy industry to the detriment of agriculture and consumer goods. By 1953, steel production was twice its 1940 level, but the production of many consumer goods and foodstuffs was lower than it had been in the late 1920s.
The immediate post-war period in Europe was dominated by the Soviet Union annexing, or converting into Soviet Socialist Republics, all the countries invaded and annexed by the Red Army driving the Germans out of central and eastern Europe. New satellite states were set up by the Soviets in Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Albania, and East Germany; the last of these was created from the Soviet zone of occupation in Germany. Yugoslavia emerged as an independent Communist state allied but not aligned with the Soviet Union, owing to the independent nature of the military victory of the Partisans of Josip Broz Tito during World War II in Yugoslavia. The Allies established the Far Eastern Commission and Allied Council for Japan to administer their occupation of that country while the establishment Allied Control Council, administered occupied Germany. In accordance with the Potsdam Conference agreements, the Soviet Union occupied and subsequently annexed the strategic island of Sakhalin.
In the west, Alsace - Lorraine was returned to France. The Sudetenland reverted to Czechoslovakia following the European Advisory Commission 's decision to delimit German territory to be the territory it held on 31 December 1937. Close to one quarter of pre-war (1937) Germany was de facto annexed by the Allies; roughly 10 million Germans were either expelled from this territory or not permitted to return to it if they had fled during the war. The remainder of Germany was partitioned into four zones of occupation, coordinated by the Allied Control Council. The Saar was detached and put in economic union with France in 1947. In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany was created out of the Western zones. The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic.
Germany paid reparations to the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union, mainly in the form of dismantled factories, forced labour, and coal. German standard of living was to be reduced to its 1932 level. Beginning immediately after the German surrender and continuing for the next two years, the US and Britain pursued an "intellectual reparations '' programme to harvest all technological and scientific know - how as well as all patents in Germany. The value of these amounted to around US $10 billion (US $125 billion in 2017 dollars). In accordance with the Paris Peace Treaties, 1947, reparations were also assessed from the countries of Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Finland.
US policy in post-war Germany from April 1945 until July 1947 had been that no help should be given to the Germans in rebuilding their nation, save for the minimum required to mitigate starvation. The Allies ' immediate post-war "industrial disarmament '' plan for Germany had been to destroy Germany 's capability to wage war by complete or partial de-industrialization. The first industrial plan for Germany, signed in 1946, required the destruction of 1,500 manufacturing plants to lower German heavy industry output to roughly 50 % of its 1938 level. Dismantling of West German industry ended in 1951. By 1950, equipment had been removed from 706 manufacturing plants, and steel production capacity had been reduced by 6.7 million tons. After lobbying by the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Generals Lucius D. Clay and George Marshall, the Truman administration accepted that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base on which it had previously been dependent. In July 1947, President Truman rescinded on "national security grounds '' the directive that had ordered the US occupation forces to "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany. '' A new directive recognised that "(a) n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany. '' From mid-1946 onwards Germany received US government aid through the GARIOA programme. From 1948 onwards West Germany also became a minor beneficiary of the Marshall Plan. Volunteer organisations had initially been forbidden to send food, but in early 1946 the Council of Relief Agencies Licensed to Operate in Germany was founded. The prohibition against sending CARE Packages to individuals in Germany was rescinded on 5 June 1946,
After the German surrender, the International Red Cross was prohibited from providing aid such as food or visiting POW camps for Germans inside Germany. However, after making approaches to the Allies in the autumn of 1945 it was allowed to investigate the camps in the UK and French occupation zones of Germany, as well as to provide relief to the prisoners held there. On 4 February 1946, the Red Cross was permitted to visit and assist prisoners also in the U.S. occupation zone of Germany, although only with very small quantities of food. The Red Cross petitioned successfully for improvements to be made in the living conditions of German POWs.
The 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy spelled the end of the Italian colonial empire, along with other border revisions. The 1947 Paris Peace Treaties compelled Italy to pay $360 million (US dollars at 1938 prices) in war reparations: $125 million to Yugoslavia, $105 million to Greece, $100 million to the Soviet Union, $25 million to Ethiopia and $5 million to Albania. In the 1946 Italian constitutional referendum the Italian monarchy was abolished, having been associated with the deprivations of the war and the Fascist rule, especially in the North.
Unlike in Germany and Japan, no war crimes tribunals were held against Italian military and political leaders, though the Italian resistance summarily executed some of them (such as Mussolini) at the end of the war; the Togliatti amnesty, taking its name from the Communist Party secretary at the time, pardoned all wartime common and political crimes in 1946.
The Federal State of Austria had been annexed by Germany in 1938 (Anschluss, this union was banned by the Treaty of Versailles). Austria (called Ostmark by the Germans) was separated from Germany and divided into four zones of occupation. With the Austrian State Treaty, these zones reunited in 1955 to become the Republic of Austria.
After the war, the Allies rescinded Japanese pre-war annexations such as Manchuria, and Korea became independent. The Philippines and Guam were returned to the United States. Burma, Malaya and Singapore were returned to Britain and French Indo - China back to France. The Dutch East Indies was to be handed back to the Dutch, but was resisted leading to the Indonesian war for independence. At the Yalta Conference, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt had secretly traded the Japanese Kurils and south Sakhalin to the Soviet Union in return for Soviet entry in the war with Japan. The Soviet Union annexed the Kuril Islands, provoking the Kuril Islands dispute, which is ongoing, as Russia continues to occupy the islands.
Hundreds of thousands of Japanese were forced to relocate to the Japanese main islands. Okinawa became a main US staging point. The US covered large areas of it with military bases and continued to occupy it until 1972, years after the end of the occupation of the main islands. The bases still remain. To skirt the Geneva Convention, the Allies classified many Japanese soldiers as Japanese Surrendered Personnel instead of POWs and used them as forced labour until 1947. The UK, France, and the Netherlands conscripted some Japanese troops to fight colonial resistances elsewhere in Asia. General Douglas MacArthur established the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. The Allies collected reparations from Japan.
To further remove Japan as a potential future military threat, the Far Eastern Commission decided to de-industrialise Japan, with the goal of reducing Japanese standard of living to what prevailed between 1930 and 1934. In the end, the de-industrialisation programme in Japan was implemented to a lesser degree than the one in Germany. Japan received emergency aid from GARIOA, as did Germany. In early 1946, the Licensed Agencies for Relief in Asia were formed and permitted to supply Japanese with food and clothes. In April 1948 the Johnston Committee Report recommended that the economy of Japan should be reconstructed due to the high cost to US taxpayers of continuous emergency aid.
Survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, known as hibakusha (被爆 者), were ostracized by Japanese society. Japan provided no special assistance to these people until 1952. By the 65th anniversary of the bombings, total casualties from the initial attack and later deaths reached about 270,000 in Hiroshima and 150,000 in Nagasaki. About 230,000 hibakusha were still alive as of 2010, and about 2,200 were suffering from radiation - caused illnesses as of 2007.
In the Winter War of 1939 -- 1940, the Soviet Union invaded neutral Finland and annexed some of its territory. From 1941 until 1944, Finland aligned itself with Nazi Germany in a failed effort to regain lost territories from the Soviets. Finland retained its independence following the war, but remained subject to Soviet - imposed constraints in its domestic affairs.
In 1940 the Soviet Union invaded and annexed the neutral Baltic states, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. In June 1941, the Soviet governments of the Baltic states carried out mass deportations of "enemies of the people ''; as a result, many treated the invading Nazis as liberators when they invaded only a week later.
The Atlantic Charter promised self - determination to peoples deprived of it during the war. The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, argued for a weaker interpretation of the Charter to permit the Soviet Union to continue to control the Baltic states. In March 1944 the U.S. accepted Churchill 's view that the Atlantic Charter did not apply to the Baltic states.
With the return of Soviet troops at the end of the war, the Forest Brothers mounted a guerrilla war. This continued until the mid-1950s.
An estimated one million military and civilian Filipinos were killed from all causes; of these 131,028 were listed as killed in seventy - two war crime events. According to a United States analysis released years after the war, U.S. casualties were 10,380 dead and 36,550 wounded; Japanese dead were 255,795.
As a result of the new borders drawn by the victorious nations, large populations suddenly found themselves in hostile territory. The Soviet Union took over areas formerly controlled by Germany, Finland, Poland, and Japan. Poland lost the Kresy region (about half of its pre-War territory) and received most of Germany east of the Oder - Neisse line, including the industrial regions of Silesia. The German state of the Saar was temporarily a protectorate of France, but later returned to German administration. As set forth at Potsdam, approximately 12 million people were expelled from Germany, including seven million from Germany proper, and three million from the Sudetenland.
During the war, the United States government interned approximately 110,000 Japanese Americans and Japanese who lived along the Pacific coast of the United States in the wake of Imperial Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor. Canada interned approximately 22,000 Japanese Canadians, 14,000 of whom were born in Canada. After the war, some internees chose to return to Japan, while most remained in North America.
The Soviet Union expelled at least 2 million Poles from east of the new border approximating the Curzon Line. This estimate is uncertain as both the Polish Communist government and the Soviet government did not keep track of the number of expelled. The number of Polish citizens inhabiting Polish borderlands (Kresy region) was about 13 million before World War II broke out according to official Polish statistics. Polish citizens killed in the war that originated from the Polish borderlands territory (killed by both German Nazi regime and the Soviet regime or expelled to distant parts of Siberia) were accounted as Russian, Ukrainian or Belorussian casualties of war in official Soviet historiography. This fact imposes additional difficulties in making the correct estimation of the number of Polish citizens forcibly transferred after the war. The border change also reversed the results of the 1919 - 1920 Polish - Soviet War. Former Polish cities such as Lwów came under control of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Additionally, the Soviet Union transferred more than two million people within their own borders; these included Germans, Finns, Crimean Tatars, and Chechens.
As Soviet troops marched across the Balkans, they committed rapes and robberies in Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. The population of Bulgaria was largely spared this treatment, due possibly to a sense of ethnic kinship or to the leadership of Marshal Fyodor Tolbukhin. The population of Germany was treated significantly worse. Rape and murder of German civilians was as bad as, and sometimes worse than, Nazi propaganda had anticipated. Political officers encouraged Soviet troops to seek revenge and terrorise the German population. On "the basis of Hochrechnungen (projections or estimations) '', "1.9 million German women altogether were raped at the end of the war by Red Army soldiers. '' About one - third of all German women in Berlin were raped by Soviet forces. A substantial minority was raped multiple times. In Berlin, contemporary hospital records indicate between 95,000 and 130,000 women were raped by Soviet troops. About 10,000 of these women died, mostly by suicide. Over 4.5 million Germans fled towards the West. The Soviets initially had no rules against their troops "fraternising '' with German women, but by 1947 they started to isolate their troops from the German population in an attempt to stop rape and robbery by the troops. Not all Soviet soldiers participated in these activities.
Foreign reports of Soviet brutality were denounced as false. Rape, robbery, and murder were blamed on German bandits impersonating Soviet soldiers. Some justified Soviet brutality towards German civilians based on previous brutality of German troops toward Russian civilians. Until the reunification of Germany, East German histories virtually ignored the actions of Soviet troops, and Russian histories still tend to do so. Reports of mass rapes by Soviet troops were often dismissed as anti-Communist propaganda or the normal byproduct of war.
Rapes also occurred under other occupation forces, though the majority were committed by Soviet troops. French Moroccan troops matched the behaviour of Soviet troops when it came to rape, especially in the early occupations of Baden and Württemberg. In a letter to the editor of TIME published in September 1945, an American army sergeant wrote, "Our own Army and the British Army along with ours have done their share of looting and raping... This offensive attitude among our troops is not at all general, but the percentage is large enough to have given our Army a pretty black name, and we too are considered an army of rapists. '' Robert Lilly 's analysis of military records led him to conclude about 14,000 rapes occurred in Britain, France, and Germany at the hands of US soldiers between 1942 and 1945. Lilly assumed that only 5 % of rapes by American soldiers were reported, making 17,000 GI rapes a possibility, while analysts estimate that 50 % of (ordinary peace - time) rapes are reported. Supporting Lilly 's lower figure is the "crucial difference '' that for World War II military rapes "it was the commanding officer, not the victim, who brought charges ''.
German soldiers left many war children behind in nations such as France and Denmark, which were occupied for an extended period. After the war, the children and their mothers often suffered recriminations. In Norway, the "Tyskerunger "(German - kids) suffered greatly.
In the first few weeks of the American military occupation of Japan, rape and other violent crime was widespread in naval ports like Yokohama and Yokosuka, but declined shortly afterward. There were 1,336 reported rapes during the first 10 days of the occupation of Kanagawa prefecture. Historian Toshiyuki Tanaka relates that in Yokohama, the capital of the prefecture, there were 119 known rapes in September 1945.
Historians Eiji Takemae and Robert Ricketts state that "When US paratroopers landed in Sapporo, an orgy of looting, sexual violence, and drunken brawling ensued. Gang rapes and other sex atrocities were not infrequent '' and some of the rape victims committed suicide.
General Robert L. Eichelberger, the commander of the U.S. Eighth Army, recorded that in the one instance when the Japanese formed a self - help vigilante guard to protect women from off - duty GIs, the Eighth Army ordered armored vehicles in battle array into the streets and arrested the leaders, and the leaders received long prison terms.
According to Takemae and Ricketts, members of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) were also involved in rapes:
A former prostitute recalled that as soon as Australian troops arrived in Kure in early 1946, they "dragged young women into their jeeps, took them to the mountain, and then raped them. I heard them screaming for help nearly every night '. Such behavior was commonplace, but news of criminal activity by Occupation forces was quickly suppressed.
Rape committed by U.S. soldiers occupying Okinawa was also a notable phenomenon. Okinawan historian Oshiro Masayasu (former director of the Okinawa Prefectural Historical Archives) writes:
Soon after the U.S. marines landed, all the women of a village on Motobu Peninsula fell into the hands of American soldiers. At the time, there were only women, children and old people in the village, as all the young men had been mobilized for the war. Soon after landing, the marines "mopped up '' the entire village, but found no signs of Japanese forces. Taking advantage of the situation, they started "hunting for women '' in broad daylight and those who were hiding in the village or nearby air raid shelters were dragged out one after another.
According to Toshiyuki Tanaka, 76 cases of rape or rape - murder were reported during the first five years of the American occupation of Okinawa. However, he claims this is probably not the true figure, as most cases were unreported.
The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union began to deteriorate even before the war was over, when Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill exchanged a heated correspondence over whether the Polish government - in - exile, backed by Roosevelt and Churchill, or the Provisional Government, backed by Stalin, should be recognised. Stalin won.
A number of allied leaders felt that war between the United States and the Soviet Union was likely. On 19 May 1945, American Under - Secretary of State Joseph Grew went so far as to say that it was inevitable.
On 5 March 1946, in his "Sinews of Peace '' (Iron Curtain) speech at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, Winston Churchill said "a shadow '' had fallen over Europe. He described Stalin as having dropped an "Iron Curtain '' between East and West. Stalin responded by charging that co-existence between communist countries and the West was impossible. In mid-1948 the Soviet Union imposed a blockade on the Western zone of occupation in Berlin.
Due to the rising tension in Europe and concerns over further Soviet expansion, American planners came up with a contingency plan code - named Operation Dropshot in 1949. It considered possible nuclear and conventional war with the Soviet Union and its allies in order to counter a Soviet takeover of Western Europe, the Near East and parts of Eastern Asia that they anticipated would begin around 1957. In response, the US would saturate the Soviet Union with atomic and high - explosive bombs, and then invade and occupy the country. In later years, to reduce military expenditures while countering Soviet conventional strength, President Dwight Eisenhower would adopt a strategy of massive retaliation, relying on the threat of a US nuclear strike to prevent non-nuclear incursions by the Soviet Union in Europe and elsewhere. The approach entailed a major buildup of US nuclear forces and a corresponding reduction in America 's non-nuclear ground and naval strength. The Soviet Union viewed these developments as "atomic blackmail ''.
In Greece, civil war broke out in 1946 between Anglo - American - supported royalist forces and communist - led forces, with the royalist forces emerging as the victors. The US launched a massive programme of military and economic aid to Greece and to neighbouring Turkey, arising from a fear that the Soviet Union stood on the verge of breaking through the NATO defence line to the oil - rich Middle East. On 12 March 1947, to gain Congressional support for the aid, President Truman described the aid as promoting democracy in defence of the "free world '', a principle that became known as the Truman Doctrine.
The US sought to promote an economically strong and politically united Western Europe to counter the threat posed by the Soviet Union. This was done openly using tools such as the European Recovery Program, which encouraged European economic integration. The International Authority for the Ruhr, designed to keep German industry down and controlled, evolved into the European Coal and Steel Community, a founding pillar of the European Union. The United States also worked covertly to promote European integration, for example using the American Committee on United Europe to funnel funds to European federalist movements. In order to ensure that Western Europe could withstand the Soviet military threat, the Western European Union was founded in 1948 and NATO in 1949. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, famously stated the organisation 's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down ''. However, without the manpower and industrial output of West Germany no conventional defence of Western Europe had any hope of succeeding. To remedy this, in 1950 the US sought to promote the European Defence Community, which would have included a rearmed West Germany. The attempt was dashed when the French Parliament rejected it. On 9 May 1955, West Germany was instead admitted to NATO; the immediate result was the creation of the Warsaw Pact five days later.
The Cold War also saw the creation of propaganda and espionage organisations such as Radio Free Europe, the Information Research Department, the Gehlen Organization, the Central Intelligence Agency, the Special Activities Division, and the Ministry for State Security.
In Asia, the surrender of Japanese forces was complicated by the split between East and West as well as by the movement toward national self - determination in European colonial territories.
As agreed at the Yalta Conference, the Soviet Union went to war against Japan three months after the defeat of Germany. The Soviet forces invaded Manchuria. This was the end of the Manchukuo puppet state and all Japanese settlers were forced to leave China. The Soviet Union dismantled the industrial base in Manchuria built up by the Japanese in the preceding years. Manchuria also became a base for the Communist Chinese forces because of the Soviet presence.
After the war, the Kuomintang (KMT) party (led by generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek) and the Communist Chinese forces resumed their civil war, which had been temporarily suspended when they fought together against Japan. The fight against the Japanese occupiers had strengthened popular support among the Chinese for the Communist guerrilla forces while it weakened the KMT, who depleted their strength fighting a conventional war. Full - scale war between the opposing forces broke out in June 1946. Despite U.S. support to the Kuomintang, Communist forces were ultimately victorious and established the People 's Republic of China (PRC) on the mainland. The KMT forces retreated to the island of Taiwan in 1949. Hostilities had largely ceased in 1950.
With the Communist victory in the civil war, the Soviet Union gave up its claim to military bases in China that it had been promised by the Western Allies during World War II. The defeat of the US - backed KMT led to a debate in the United States about who in the US government was responsible for this, the debate is commonly labeled "Who lost China? ''
The outbreak of the Korean War diverted the attention of the PRC at the same time as it bolstered US support for Chiang Kai - shek, the two main factors that prevented the PRC from invading Taiwan. Intermittent military clashes occurred between the PRC and Taiwan from 1950 - 1979. Taiwan unilaterally declared the civil war over in 1991, but no formal peace treaty or truce exists and the PRC officially sees Taiwan as a breakaway province that rightfully belongs to it and has expressed its opposition to Taiwanese independence. Even so, tensions between the two states has decreased over time for example with the Chen - Chiang summits (2008 - 2011).
Sino - American relations (between the PRC and the US) continued to be mostly hostile up until US president Nixon visited China in 1972. From this point the relations between them have improved over time although some tension and rivalry remain even with the end of the Cold War and the PRC 's distancing from the Communist ideology.
At the Yalta Conference, the Allies agreed that an undivided post-war Korea would be placed under four - power multinational trusteeship. After Japan 's surrender, this agreement was modified to a joint Soviet - American occupation of Korea. The agreement was that Korea would be divided and occupied by the Soviets from the north and the Americans from the south.
Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, and which had been partially occupied by the Red Army following the Soviet Union 's entry into the war against Japan, was divided at the 38th parallel on the orders of the US War Department. A US military government in southern Korea was established in the capital city of Seoul. The American military commander, Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge, enlisted many former Japanese administrative officials to serve in this government. North of the military line, the Soviets administered the disarming and demobilisation of repatriated Korean nationalist guerrillas who had fought on the side of Chinese nationalists against the Japanese in Manchuria during World War II. Simultaneously, the Soviets enabled a build - up of heavy armaments to pro-communist forces in the north. The military line became a political line in 1948, when separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel, each republic claiming to be the legitimate government of Korea. It culminated in the north invading the south, start of the Korean War two years later.
Labour and civil unrest broke out in the British colony of Malaya in 1946. A state of emergency was declared by the colonial authorities in 1948 with the outbreak of acts of terrorism. The situation deteriorated into a full - scale anti-colonial insurgency, or Anti-British National Liberation War as the insurgents referred to it, led by the Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA), the military wing of the Malayan Communist Party. The Malayan Emergency would endure for the next 12 years, ending in 1960. In 1967, communist leader Chin Peng reopened hostilities, culminating in a second emergency that lasted until 1989.
Events during World War II in the colony of French Indochina (consisting of the modern - day states of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) set the stage for the First Indochina War which in turn led to the Vietnam War.
During World War II, the Vichy French aligned colonial authorities cooperated with the Japanese invaders. The communist - controlled common front Viet Minh (supported by the Allies) was formed among the Vietnamese in the colony in 1941 to fight for the independence of Vietnam, against both the Japanese and prewar French powers. After the Vietnamese Famine of 1945 support for the Viet Minh was bolstered as the front launched a rebellion, sacking rice warehouses and urging the Vietnamese to refuse to pay taxes. Because the French colonial authorities started to hold secret talks with the Free French, the Japanese interned them 9 March 1945. When Japan surrendered in August, this created a power vacuum, and the Viet Minh took power in the August Revolution, declaring the independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam. However, the Allies (including the Soviet Union) all agreed that the area belonged to the French. Nationalist Chinese forces moved in from the north and British from the south (as the French were unable to do so immediately themselves) and then handed power to the French, a process completed by March 1946. Attempts to integrate the Democratic Republic of Vietnam with French rule failed and the Viet Minh launched their rebellion against the French rule starting the First Indochina War that same year (the Viet Minh organized common fronts to fight the French in Laos and Cambodia).
The war ended in 1954 with French withdrawal and a partition of Vietnam that was intended to be temporary until elections could be held. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam held the north while South Vietnam formed into a separate republic in control of Ngo Dinh Diem who was backed in his refusal to hold elections by the US. The communist party of the south eventually organized the common front NLF to fight to unite south and north under the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and thus began the Vietnam War, which ended with the Democratic Republic of Vietnam conquering the South in 1975.
Japan invaded and occupied Indonesia during the war and replaced much of the Dutch colonial state. Although the top positions were held by Japanese, the internment of all Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence. A four and a half - year struggle followed as the Dutch tried to re-establish their colony, using a significant portion of their Marshall Plan aid to this end. The Dutch were directly helped by UK forces who sought to re-establish the colonial dominions in Asia. The UK also kept 35,000 Japanese Surrendered Personnel under arms to fight the Indonesians.
Although Dutch forces re-occupied most of Indonesia 's territory, a guerrilla struggle ensued, and the majority of Indonesians, and ultimately international opinion, favoured Indonesian independence. In December 1949, the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian sovereignty.
British covert operations in the Baltic States, which began in 1944 against the Nazis, escalated after the war. In Operation Jungle, the Secret Intelligence Service (known as MI6) recruited and trained Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians for the clandestine work in the Baltic states between 1948 and 1955. Leaders of the operation included Alfons Rebane, Stasys Žymantas, and Rūdolfs Silarājs. The agents were transported under the cover of the "British Baltic Fishery Protection Service ''. They launched from British - occupied Germany, using a converted World War II E-boat captained and crewed by former members of the wartime German navy. British intelligence also trained and infiltrated anti-communist agents into Russia from across the Finnish border, with orders to assassinate Soviet officials. In the end, counter-intelligence supplied to the KGB by Kim Philby allowed the KGB to penetrate and ultimately gain control of MI6 's entire intelligence network in the Baltic states.
Vietnam and the Middle East would later damage the reputation gained by the US during its successes in Europe.
The KGB believed that the Third World rather than Europe was the arena in which it could win the Cold War. Moscow would in later years fuel an arms buildup in Africa. In later years, African countries used as proxies in the Cold War would often become "failed states '' of their own.
When the divisions of postwar Europe began to emerge, the war crimes programmes and denazification policies of Britain and the United States were relaxed in favour of recruiting German scientists, especially nuclear and long - range rocket scientists. Many of these, prior to their capture, had worked on developing the German V - 2 long - range rocket at the Baltic coast German Army Research Center Peenemünde. Western Allied occupation force officers in Germany were ordered to refuse to cooperate with the Soviets in sharing captured wartime secret weapons, the recovery for which, specifically in regards to advanced German aviation technology and personnel, the British had sent the Fedden Mission into Germany to contact its aviation technology centers and key personnel, paralleled by the United States with its own Operation Lusty aviation technology personnel and knowledge recovery program.
In Operation Paperclip, beginning in 1945, the United States imported 1,600 German scientists and technicians, as part of the intellectual reparations owed to the US and the UK, including about $10 billion (US $125 billion in 2017 dollars) in patents and industrial processes. In late 1945, three German rocket - scientist groups arrived in the U.S. for duty at Fort Bliss, Texas, and at White Sands Proving Grounds, New Mexico, as "War Department Special Employees ''.
The wartime activities of some Operation Paperclip scientists would later be investigated. Arthur Rudolph left the United States in 1984, in order to not be prosecuted. Similarly, Georg Rickhey, who came to the United States under Operation Paperclip in 1946, was returned to Germany to stand trial at the Mittelbau - Dora war crimes trial in 1947. Following his acquittal, he returned to the United States in 1948 and eventually became a US citizen.
The Soviets began Operation Osoaviakhim in 1946. NKVD and Soviet army units effectively deported thousands of military - related technical specialists from the Soviet occupation zone of post-war Germany to the Soviet Union. The Soviets used 92 trains to transport the specialists and their families, an estimated 10,000 - 15,000 people. Much related equipment was also moved, the aim being to virtually transplant research and production centres, such as the relocated V - 2 rocket centre at Mittelwerk Nordhausen, from Germany to the Soviet Union. Among the people moved were Helmut Gröttrup and about two hundred scientists and technicians from Mittelwerk. Personnel were also taken from AEG, BMW 's Stassfurt jet propulsion group, IG Farben 's Leuna chemical works, Junkers, Schott AG, Siebel, Telefunken, and Carl Zeiss AG.
The operation was commanded by NKVD deputy Colonel General Serov, outside the control of the local Soviet Military Administration. The major reason for the operation was the Soviet fear of being condemned for noncompliance with Allied Control Council agreements on the liquidation of German military installations. Some Western observers thought Operation Osoaviakhim was a retaliation for the failure of the Socialist Unity Party in elections, though Osoaviakhim was clearly planned before that.
As a general consequence of the war and in an effort to maintain international peace, the Allies formed the United Nations (UN), which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945. The UN replaced the defunct League of Nations (LN) as an intergovernmental organization. The LN was formally dissolved on 20 April 1946, but had in practice ceased to function in 1939, being unable to stop the outbreak of World War II. The UN inherited some of the bodies of the LN, such as the International Labour Organization.
League of Nations mandates, mostly territories that had changed hands in World War I, became United Nations Trust Territories. South - West Africa, an exception, was still governed under terms of the original mandate. As the successor body to the League, the UN still assumed a supervisory role over the territory. The Free City of Danzig, a semi-autonomous city state that was partly overseen by the League, became part of Poland.
The UN adopted The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, "as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations. '' The Soviet Union abstained from voting on adoption of the declaration. The US did not ratify the social and economic rights sections.
The five major Allied powers were given permanent membership in the United Nations Security Council. The permanent members can veto any United Nations Security Council resolution, the only UN decisions that are binding according to international law. The five powers at the time of founding were: the United States of America, the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union and the Republic of China. The Republic of China lost the Chinese Civil War and retreated to the island of Taiwan by 1950 but continued to be a permanent member of the Council even though the de facto state in control of mainland China was the People 's Republic of China (PRC). This was changed in 1971 when the PRC was given the permanent membership previously held by the Republic of China. Russia inherited the permanent membership of the Soviet Union in 1991 after the dissolution of that state.
Japanese holdouts persisted on various islands in the Pacific Theatre until at least 1974. Although all hostilities are now resolved, a peace treaty has never been signed between Japan and Russia due to the Kuril Islands dispute.
By the end of the war, the European economy had collapsed with some 70 % of its industrial infrastructure destroyed. The property damage in the Soviet Union consisted of complete or partial destruction of 1,710 cities and towns, 70,000 villages / hamlets, and 31,850 industrial establishments. The strength of the economic recovery following the war varied throughout the world, though in general it was quite robust, particularly in the United States.
In Europe, West Germany, after having continued to decline economically during the first years of the Allied occupation, later experienced a remarkable recovery, and had by the end of the 1950s doubled production from its pre-war levels. Italy came out of the war in poor economic condition, but by the 1950s, the Italian economy was marked by stability and high growth. France rebounded quickly and enjoyed rapid economic growth and modernisation under the Monnet Plan. The UK, by contrast, was in a state of economic ruin after the war and continued to experience relative economic decline for decades to follow.
The Soviet Union also experienced a rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era. Japan experienced rapid economic growth, becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s. China, following the conclusion of its civil war, was essentially bankrupt. By 1953, economic restoration seemed fairly successful as production had resumed pre-war levels. This growth rate mostly persisted, though it was interrupted by economic experiments during the disastrous Great Leap Forward.
At the end of the war, the United States produced roughly half of the world 's industrial output. The US, of course, had been spared industrial and civilian devastation. Further, much of its pre-war industry had been converted to wartime usage. As a result, with its industrial and civilian base in much better shape than most of the world, the US embarked on an economic expansion unseen in human history. US Gross Domestic Product increased from $228 billion in 1945 to just under $1.7 trillion in 1975.
|
crh and oxytocin are two important hormones that trigger the beginning of | Corticotropin - releasing hormone - wikipedia
3EHU, 3EHT, 1GOE
1392
12918
ENSG00000147571
ENSMUSG00000049796
P06850
Q8CIT0
NM_000756
NM_205769
NP_000747
NP_991338
Corticotropin - releasing hormone (CRH) (also known as corticotropin - releasing factor (CRF) or corticoliberin; corticotropin may also be spelled corticotrophin) is a peptide hormone involved in the stress response. It is a releasing hormone that belongs to corticotropin - releasing factor family. In humans, it is encoded by the CRH gene.
Its main function is the stimulation of the pituitary synthesis of ACTH, as part of the HPA Axis.
Corticotropin - releasing hormone (CRH) is a 41 - amino acid peptide derived from a 196 - amino acid preprohormone. CRH is secreted by the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus in response to stress. Increased CRH production has been observed to be associated with Alzheimer 's disease and major depression, and autosomal recessive hypothalamic corticotropin deficiency has multiple and potentially fatal metabolic consequences including hypoglycemia. In addition to being produced in the hypothalamus, CRH is also synthesized in peripheral tissues, such as T lymphocytes, and is highly expressed in the placenta. In the placenta, CRH is a marker that determines the length of gestation and the timing of parturition and delivery. A rapid increase in circulating levels of CRH occurs at the onset of parturition, suggesting that, in addition to its metabolic functions, CRH may act as a trigger for parturition.
A recombinant version for diagnostics is called corticorelin (INN).
CRH is produced by parvocellular neuroendocrine cells within the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and is released at the median eminence from neurosecretory terminals of these neurons into the primary capillary plexus of the hypothalamo - hypophyseal portal system. The portal system carries the CRH to the anterior lobe of the pituitary, where it stimulates corticotropes to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and other biologically - active substances (β - endorphin). ACTH stimulates the synthesis of cortisol, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids and DHEA.
In the short term, CRH can suppress appetite, increase subjective feelings of anxiety, and perform other functions like boosting attention. Although the distal action of CRH is immunosuppression via the action of cortisol, CRH itself can actually heighten inflammation, a process being investigated in multiple sclerosis research.
The CRH - 1 receptor antagonist pexacerfont is currently under investigation for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Another CRH - 1 antagonist antalarmin has been researched in animal studies for the treatment of anxiety, depression and other conditions, but no human trials with this compound have been carried out.
Also, abnormally high levels of CRH have been found in the cerebrospinal fluid of people that have committed suicide.
Recent research has linked the activation of the CRH1 receptor with the euphoric feelings that accompany alcohol consumption. A CRH1 receptor antagonist developed by Pfizer, CP - 154,526 is under investigation for the potential treatment of alcoholism.
Alpha - helical CRH - (9 -- 41) acts as a CRH antagonist.
CRH is also synthesized by the placenta and seems to determine the duration of pregnancy.
Levels rise towards the end of pregnancy just before birth and current theory suggests three roles of CRH in parturition:
In culture, trophoblast CRH is inhibited by progesterone, which remains high throughout pregnancy. Its release is stimulated by glucocorticoids and catecholamines, which increase prior to parturition lifting this progesterone block.
The 41 - amino acid sequence of CRH was first discovered in sheep by Vale et al. in 1981. Its full sequence is:
The rat and human peptides are identical and differ from the ovine sequence only by 7 amino acids.
In mammals, studies suggest that CRH has no significant thyrotropic effect. However, in representatives of all non-mammalian vertebrates, it has been found that, in addition to its corticotropic function, CRH has a potent thyrotropic function, acting with TRH to control the thyroid axis (TRH has been found to be less potent than CRH in some species).
Corticotropin - releasing hormone has been shown to interact with corticotropin - releasing hormone receptor 1.
|
country ruled by military dictatorship in northern africa | History of North Africa - wikipedia
North Africa is a relatively thin strip of land between the Sahara desert and the Mediterranean, stretching from Moroccan Atlantic coast to Egypt and Sudan. The region comprises seven countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia, and Western Sahara. The history of the region is a mix of influences from many different cultures. The development of sea travel firmly brought the region into the Mediterranean world, especially during the classical period. In the 1st millennium AD, the Sahara became an equally important area for trade as the camel caravans brought goods and people from the south. The region also has a small but crucial land link to the Middle East, and that area has also played a central role in the history of North Africa.
The earliest known hominids in North Africa arrived around 200,000 BC. Through most of the Stone Age the climate in the region was very different from today, the Sahara being far more moist and savanna like. Home to herds of large mammals, this area could support a large hunter - gatherer population and the Aterian culture that developed was one of the most advanced paleolithic societies.
Various populations of pastoralists have left paintings of abundant wildlife, domesticated animals, chariots, and a complex culture that dates back to at least 10,000 BCE in Northern Niger and neighboring parts of Algeria and Libya. Several former northern Nigerian villages and archaeological sites date from the Green Sahara period of 7,500 - 7,000 to 3,500 - 3,000 BCE
In the Mesolithic, the Capsian culture dominated the region with Neolithic farmers becoming predominant by 6000 BC. Over this period, the Sahara region was steadily drying, creating a barrier between North Africa and the rest of the African continent.
The Nile Valley on the Eastern edge of North Africa is one of the richest agricultural areas in the world. The desiccation of the Sahara is believed to have increased the population density in the Nile Valley and large cities developed. Eventually Ancient Egypt unified in one of the world 's first civilizations.
The expanse of the Libyan Desert cut Egypt off from the rest of North Africa. Egyptian boats, while well suited to the Nile, were not usable in the open Mediterranean. Moreover, the Egyptian merchant had far more prosperous destinations on Crete, Cyprus and the Levant.
Greeks from Europe and the Phoenicians from Asia also settled along the coast of Northern Africa. Both societies drew their prosperity from the sea and from ocean - born trade. They found only limited trading opportunities with the native inhabitants, and instead turned to colonization. The Greek trade was based mainly in the Aegean, Adriatic, Black, and Red Seas and they only established major cities in Cyrenaica, directly to the south of Greece. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt and for the next three centuries it was ruled by the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty.
The Phoenicians developed an even larger presence in North Africa with colonies from Tripoli to the Atlantic. One of the most important Phoenician cities was Carthage, which grew into one of the greatest powers in the region. At the height of its power, Carthage controlled the Western Mediterranean and most of North Africa outside of Egypt. However, Rome, Carthage 's major rival to the north, defeated it in a series of wars known as the Punic Wars, resulting in Carthage 's destruction in 146 BC and the annexation of its empire by the Romans. In 30 BC, Roman Emperor Octavian conquered Egypt, officially annexing it to the Empire and, for the first time, unifying the North African coast under a single ruler.
The Carthaginian power had penetrated deep into the Sahara ensuring the quiescence of the nomadic tribes in the region. The Roman Empire was more confined to the coast, yet routinely expropriated Berber land for Roman farmers. They thus faced a constant threat from the south. A network of forts and walls were established on the southern frontier, eventually securing the region well enough for local garrisons to control it without broader Imperial support.
When the Roman Empire began to collapse, North Africa was spared much of the disruption until the Vandal invasion of 429 AD. The Vandals ruled in North Africa until the territories were regained by Justinian of the Eastern Empire in the 6th century. Egypt was never invaded by the Vandals because there was a thousand - mile buffer of desert and because the Eastern Roman Empire was better defended.
The Arab invasion of the Maghrib began in 642 AD when Amr ibn al - As, the governor of Egypt, invaded Cyrenaica, advancing as far as the city of Tripoli by 645 AD. Further expansion into North Africa waited another twenty years, due to the First Islamic civil war. In 670 AD, Uqba ibn Nafi al - Fihiri invaded what is now Tunisia in an attempt to take the region from the Byzantine Empire, but was only partially successful. He founded the town of Kairouan but was replaced by Abul - Muhajir Dinar in 674 AD. Abul - Muhajir successfully advanced into what is now eastern Algeria incorporating the Berber confederation ruled by Kusaila into the Islamic sphere of influence.
In 681 AD Uqba was given command of the Arab forces again and advanced westward again in 682 AD, holding Kusaya as a hostage. He advanced as far as the Atlantic Ocean in the west and penetrated the Draa River Valley and the Sus region in what is now Morocco. However, Kusaila escaped during the campaign and attacked Uqba on his return and killed him near Biskra in what is now Algeria. After Uqba 's death, the Arab armies retreated from Kairouan, which Kusaila took as his capital. He ruled there until he was defeated by an Arab army under Zuhair ibn Kays. Zuhair himself was killed in 688 AD while fighting against the Byzantine Empire who had reoccupied Cyrenaica while he was busy in Tunisia.
In 693 AD, Caliph Abd al - Malik ibn Marwan sent an army of 40,000 men, commanded by Hasan ibn al - Nu'man, into Cyrenaica and Tripolitania in order to remove the Byzantine threat to the Umayyads advance in North Africa. They met no resistance until they reached Tunisia where they captured Carthage and defeated the Bizantines and Berbers around Bizerte.
Soon afterwards, al - Nu'man 's forces came into conflict with the indigenous Berbers of the Jrāwa tribe under the leadership of their queen, Al - Kahina. The Berbers defeated al - Nu'man in two engagements, the first on the river Nini and the second near Gabis, upon which al - Nu'man 's forces retreated to Cyrenaica to wait for reinforcements. Reinforcements arrived in 697 AD and al - Nu'man advanced into what is now Tunisia, again meeting Al - Kahina near Gabis. This time he was successful and Al - Kahina retreated to Tubna where her forces were defeated and she was killed.
al - Nu'man next recaptured Carthage from the Byzantines, who had retaken it when he retreated from Tunisia. He founded the city of Tunis nearby and used it as the base for the Ummayad navy in the Mediterranean Sea. The Byzantines were forced to abandon the Maghreb and retreat to the islands of the Mediterranean Sea. However, in 705 AD he was replaced by Musa bin Nusair, a protégé of then governor of Egypt, Abdul - Aziz ibn Marwan. Nusair attacked what is now Morocco, captured Tangier, and advanced as far as the Sus river and the Tafilalt oasis in a three - year campaign.
In the 11th century, Berbers of the Sahara began a jihad to reform Islam in North Africa and remove any trace of cultural or religious pluralism. This movement created an empire encompassing parts of Spain and North Africa. At its greatest extent, it appears to have included southern and eastern Iberia and roughly all of present - day Morocco. This movement seems to have assisted the southern penetration of Africa, one that was continued by later groups. In addition, the Almoravids are traditionally believed to have attacked and brought about the destruction of the West African Ghana Empire.
However, this interpretation has been questioned. Conrad and Fisher (1982) argued that the notion of any Almoravid military conquest at its core is merely perpetuated folklore, derived from a misinterpretation or naive reliance on Arabic sources while Dierke Lange agrees but argues that this does n't preclude Almoravid political agitation, claiming that Ghana 's demise owed much to the latter.
The Almohads (or Almohadis) were similar to the Almoravids, in that they similarly attacked any alternative beliefs that they saw as corruptions of Islam. They managed to conquer southern Spain, and their North African empire extended further than that of the Almoravids, reaching to Egypt.
The Hafsids were a Masmuda - Berber dynasty ruling Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia) from 1229 to 1574. Their territories were stretched from east of modern Algeria to west of modern Libya during their zenith.
The dynasty was named after Muhammad bin Abu Hafs a Berber from the Masmuda tribe of Morocco. He was appointed governor of Ifriqiya (present day Tunisia) by Muhammad an - Nasir, Caliph of the Almohad empire between 1198 - 1213. The Banu Hafs, were a powerful group amongst the Almohads; their ancestor is Omar Abu Hafs al - Hentati, a member of the council of ten and a close companion of Ibn Tumart. His original name was "Fesga Oumzal '', which later changed to "Abu Hafs Omar ibn Yahya al - Hentati '' (also known as "Omar Inti '') since it was a tradition of Ibn Tumart to rename his close companions once they had adhered to his religious teachings. The Hafsids as governors on behalf of the Almohads faced constant threats from Banu Ghaniya who were descendents of Almoravid princes which the Almohads had defeated and replaced as a ruling dynasty.
Hafsids were Ifriqiya governors of Almohads until 1229, when they declared independence. After the split of the Hafsids from the Almohads under Abu Zakariya (1229 -- 1249), Abu Zakariya organised the administration in Ifriqiya (the Roman province of Africa in modern Maghreb; today 's Tunisia, eastern Algeria and western Libya) and built Tunis up as the economic and cultural centre of the empire. At the same time, many Muslims from Al - Andalus fleeing the Spanish Reconquista of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal were absorbed. He also conquered Tlemcen in 1242 and took Abdalwadids as his vassal. His successor Muhammad I al - Mustansir (1249 -- 1277) took the title of Caliph.
In the 14th century the empire underwent a temporary decline. Although the Hafsids succeeded for a time in subjugating the Kingdom of Tlemcen of the Abdalwadids, between 1347 and 1357 they were twice conquered by the Merinids of Morocco. The Abdalwadids however could not defeat the Bedouin; ultimately, the Hafsids were able to regain their empire. During the same period plague epidemics caused a considerable fall in population, further weakening the empire. Under the Hafsids, commerce with Christian Europe grew significantly, however piracy against Christian shipping grew as well, particularly during the rule of Abd al - Aziz II (1394 -- 1434). The profits were used for a great building programme and to support art and culture. However, piracy also provoked retaliation from Aragon and Venice, which several times attacked Tunisian coastal cities. Under Utman (1435 -- 1488) the Hafsids reached their zenith, as the caravan trade through the Sahara and with Egypt was developed, as well as sea trade with Venice and Aragon. The Bedouins and the cities of the empire became largely independent, leaving the Hafsids in control of only Tunis and Constantine.
In the 16th century the Hafsids became increasingly caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the Ottoman Empire - supported Corsairs. Ottomans conquered Tunis in 1534 and held one year. Due to Ottoman threat, Hafsids were vassal of Spain after 1535. Ottomans again conquered Tunis in 1569 and held it for 4 years. Don Juan of Austria recaptured it in 1573. The latter conquered Tunis in 1574 and the Hafsids accepted becoming a Spanish vassal state to offset the Ottoman threat. Muhammad IV, the last Caliph of the Hafsids was brought to Constantinople and was subsequently executed due to his collaboration with Spain and the desire of the Ottoman Sultan to take the title of Caliph as he now controlled Mecca and Medina. The Hafsid lineage survived the Ottoman massacre by a branch of the family being taken to the Canary Island of Tenerife by the Spanish.
After the Middle Ages, Northern Africa was loosely under the control of the Ottoman Empire, except for the region of Morocco. Ottoman rule was centered on the cities of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli.
During the 18th and 19th century, North Africa was colonized by France, the United Kingdom, Spain and Italy. During the 1950s and 1960s, and into the 1970s, all of the North African states gained independence from their colonial European rulers, except for a few small Spanish colonies on the far northern tip of Morocco, and parts of the Sahara region, which went from Spanish to Moroccan rule.
In modern times the Suez canal in Egypt (constructed in 1869) has caused a great deal of controversy. The Convention of Constantinople in 1888 declared the canal a neutral zone under the protection of the British, after British troops had moved in to protect it in 1882. Under the Anglo - Egyptian Treaty of 1936, the United Kingdom insisted on retaining control over the canal. In 1951 Egypt repudiated the treaty, and by 1954 Great Britain had agreed to pull out.
After the United Kingdom and the United States withdrew their pledge to support the construction of the Aswan Dam, president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the canal, which caused Britain, France and Israel to invade in the week - long Suez War. As a result of damage and sunken ships, the canal was closed until April 1957, after it had been cleaned up with UN assistance. A United Nations force (UNEF) was established to maintain the neutrality of the canal and the Sinai Peninsula.
|
the precambrian-cambrian boundary represents the first appearance of | Cambrian - wikipedia
The Cambrian Period (/ ˈkæmbriən / or / ˈkeɪmbriən /) was the first geological period of the Paleozoic Era, of the Phanerozoic Eon. The Cambrian lasted 55.6 million years from the end of the preceding Ediacaran Period 541 million years ago (mya) to the beginning of the Ordovician Period 485.4 mya. Its subdivisions, and its base, are somewhat in flux. The period was established (as "Cambrian series '') by Adam Sedgwick, who named it after Cambria, the Latinised form of Cymru, the Welsh name for Wales, where Britain 's Cambrian rocks are best exposed. The Cambrian is unique in its unusually high proportion of lagerstätte sedimentary deposits, sites of exceptional preservation where "soft '' parts of organisms are preserved as well as their more resistant shells. As a result, our understanding of the Cambrian biology surpasses that of some later periods.
The Cambrian marked a profound change in life on Earth; prior to the Cambrian, the majority of living organisms on the whole were small, unicellular and simple; the Precambrian Charnia being exceptional. Complex, multicellular organisms gradually became more common in the millions of years immediately preceding the Cambrian, but it was not until this period that mineralized -- hence readily fossilized -- organisms became common. The rapid diversification of lifeforms in the Cambrian, known as the Cambrian explosion, produced the first representatives of all modern animal phyla. Phylogenetic analysis has supported the view that during the Cambrian radiation, metazoa (animals) evolved monophyletically from a single common ancestor: flagellated colonial protists similar to modern choanoflagellates.
Although diverse life forms prospered in the oceans, the land is thought to have been comparatively barren -- with nothing more complex than a microbial soil crust and a few molluscs that emerged to browse on the microbial biofilm known to have been present. Most of the continents were probably dry and rocky due to a lack of vegetation. Shallow seas flanked the margins of several continents created during the breakup of the supercontinent Pannotia. The seas were relatively warm, and polar ice was absent for much of the period.
The United States Federal Geographic Data Committee uses a "barred capital C '' ⟨ Ꞓ ⟩ character similar to the capital letter Ukrainian Ye ⟨ Є ⟩ to represent the Cambrian Period. The proper Unicode character is U + A792 Ꞓ LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH BAR.
Despite the long recognition of its distinction from younger Ordovician Period rocks and older Supereon Precambrian rocks, it was not until 1994 that this time period was internationally ratified. The base of the Cambrian lies atop a complex assemblage of trace fossils known as the Treptichnus pedum assemblage. The use of Treptichnus pedum, a reference ichnofossil to mark the lower boundary of the Cambrian, is difficult as the occurrence of very similar trace fossils belonging to the Treptichnids group are found well below the T. pedum in Namibia, Spain and Newfoundland, and possibly, in the western USA. The stratigraphic range of T. pedum overlaps the range of the Ediacaran fossils in Namibia, and probably in Spain.
The Cambrian Period followed the Ediacaran Period and was followed by the Ordovician Period. The Cambrian is divided into four epochs (series) and ten ages (stages). Currently only two series and five stages are named and have a GSSP.
Because the international stratigraphic subdivision is not yet complete, many local subdivisions are still widely used. In some of these subdivisions the Cambrian is divided into three epochs with locally differing names -- the Early Cambrian (Caerfai or Waucoban, 541 ± 1.0 to 509 ± 1.7 mya), Middle Cambrian (St Davids or Albertan, 509 ± 1.0 to 497 ± 1.7 mya) and Furongian (497 ± 1.0 to 485.4 ± 1.7 mya; also known as Late Cambrian, Merioneth or Croixan). Rocks of these epochs are referred to as belonging to the Lower, Middle, or Upper Cambrian.
Trilobite zones allow biostratigraphic correlation in the Cambrian.
Each of the local epochs is divided into several stages. The Cambrian is divided into several regional faunal stages of which the Russian - Kazakhian system is most used in international parlance:
* In Russian scientific thought the lower boundary of the Cambrian is suggested to be defined at the base of the Tommotian Stage which is characterized by diversification and global distribution of organisms with mineral skeletons and the appearance of the first Archaeocyath bioherms.
The International Commission on Stratigraphy list the Cambrian period as beginning at 541 million years ago and ending at 485.4 million years ago.
The lower boundary of the Cambrian was originally held to represent the first appearance of complex life, represented by trilobites. The recognition of small shelly fossils before the first trilobites, and Ediacara biota substantially earlier, led to calls for a more precisely defined base to the Cambrian period.
After decades of careful consideration, a continuous sedimentary sequence at Fortune Head, Newfoundland was settled upon as a formal base of the Cambrian period, which was to be correlated worldwide by the earliest appearance of Treptichnus pedum. Discovery of this fossil a few metres below the GSSP led to the refinement of this statement, and it is the T. pedum ichnofossil assemblage that is now formally used to correlate the base of the Cambrian.
This formal designation allowed radiometric dates to be obtained from samples across the globe that corresponded to the base of the Cambrian. Early dates of 570 million years ago quickly gained favour, though the methods used to obtain this number are now considered to be unsuitable and inaccurate. A more precise date using modern radiometric dating yield a date of 541 ± 0.3 million years ago. The ash horizon in Oman from which this date was recovered corresponds to a marked fall in the abundance of carbon - 13 that correlates to equivalent excursions elsewhere in the world, and to the disappearance of distinctive Ediacaran fossils (Namacalathus, Cloudina). Nevertheless, there are arguments that the dated horizon in Oman does not correspond to the Ediacaran - Cambrian boundary, but represents a facies change from marine to evaporite - dominated strata -- which would mean that dates from other, more suitable sections, ranging from 544 or 542 Ma, are more suitable.
Plate reconstructions suggest a global supercontinent, Pannotia, was in the process of breaking up early in the period, with Laurentia (North America), Baltica, and Siberia having separated from the main supercontinent of Gondwana to form isolated land masses. Most continental land was clustered in the Southern Hemisphere at this time, but was drifting north. Large, high - velocity rotational movement of Gondwana appears to have occurred in the Early Cambrian.
With a lack of sea ice -- the great glaciers of the Marinoan Snowball Earth were long melted -- the sea level was high, which led to large areas of the continents being flooded in warm, shallow seas ideal for sea life. The sea levels fluctuated somewhat, suggesting there were ' ice ages ', associated with pulses of expansion and contraction of a south polar ice cap.
In Baltoscandia a Lower Cambrian transgression transformed large swathes of the Sub-Cambrian peneplain into a epicontinental sea.
The Earth was generally cold during the early Cambrian, probably due to the ancient continent of Gondwana covering the South Pole and cutting off polar ocean currents. However, average temperatures were 7 degrees Celsius higher than today. There were likely polar ice caps and a series of glaciations, as the planet was still recovering from an earlier Snowball Earth. It became warmer towards the end of the period; the glaciers receded and eventually disappeared, and sea levels rose dramatically. This trend would continue into the Ordovician period.
Although there were a variety of macroscopic marine plants no land plant (embryophyte) fossils are known from the Cambrian. However, biofilms and microbial mats were well developed on Cambrian tidal flats and beaches 500 mya., and microbes forming microbial Earth ecosystems, comparable with modern soil crust of desert regions, contributing to soil formation.
Most animal life during the Cambrian was aquatic.
Trilobites were once assumed to be the dominant life form, but this has proven to be incorrect. Arthropods in general were by far the most dominant animals in the ocean, but trilobites were only a minor part of the total arthropod diversity. What made them so apparently abundant was their heavy armor that was reinforced by calcium carbonate (CaCO), which fossilized far more easily than the fragile more purely chitin exoskeletons of other arthropods, leaving behind numerous preserved remains which give the false impression that they were the most abundant part of the fauna.
The period marked a steep change in the diversity and composition of Earth 's biosphere. The Ediacaran biota suffered a mass extinction at the start of the Cambrian Period, which corresponded to an increase in the abundance and complexity of burrowing behaviour. This behaviour had a profound and irreversible effect on the substrate which transformed the seabed ecosystems. Before the Cambrian, the sea floor was covered by microbial mats. By the end of the Cambrian, burrowing animals had destroyed the mats in many areas through bioturbation, and gradually turned the seabeds into what they are today. As a consequence, many of those organisms that were dependent on the mats became extinct, while the other species adapted to the changed environment that now offered new ecological niches. Around the same time there was a seemingly rapid appearance of representatives of all the mineralized phyla except the Bryozoa, which appeared in the Lower Ordovician. However, many of those phyla were represented only by stem - group forms; and since mineralized phyla generally have a benthic origin, they may not be a good proxy for (more abundant) non-mineralized phyla.
While the early Cambrian showed such diversification that it has been named the Cambrian Explosion, this changed later in the period, when there occurred a sharp drop in biodiversity. About 515 million years ago, the number of species going extinct exceeded the number of new species appearing. Five million years later, the number of genera had dropped from an earlier peak of about 600 to just 450. Also, the speciation rate in many groups was reduced to between a fifth and a third of previous levels. 500 million years ago, oxygen levels fell dramatically in the oceans, leading to hypoxia, while the level of poisonous hydrogen sulfide simultaneously increased, causing another extinction. The later half of Cambrian was surprisingly barren and show evidence of several rapid extinction events; the stromatolites which had been replaced by reef building sponges known as Archaeocyatha, returned once more as the archaeocyathids became extinct. This declining trend did not change until the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event.
Some Cambrian organisms ventured onto land, producing the trace fossils Protichnites and Climactichnites. Fossil evidence suggests that euthycarcinoids, an extinct group of arthropods, produced at least some of the Protichnites. Fossils of the track - maker of Climactichnites have not been found; however, fossil trackways and resting traces suggest a large, slug - like mollusk.
In contrast to later periods, the Cambrian fauna was somewhat restricted; free - floating organisms were rare, with the majority living on or close to the sea floor; and mineralizing animals were rarer than in future periods, in part due to the unfavourable ocean chemistry.
Many modes of preservation are unique to the Cambrian, and some preserve soft body parts, resulting in an abundance of Lagerstätten.
Stromatolites of the Pika Formation (Middle Cambrian) near Helen Lake, Banff National Park, Canada
Trilobites were very common during this time
Anomalocaris was an early marine predator, among the various arthropods of the time.
Pikaia was an early chordate from the Middle Cambrian
Opabinia was a creature with an unusual body plan; it was probably related to arthropods
Protichnites were the trackways of arthropods that walked Cambrian beaches.
|
where are the flame-spread ratings in a building most restrictive | Flame spread - wikipedia
Flame spread or surface burning characteristics rating is a ranking derived by laboratory standard test methodology of a material 's propensity to burn rapidly and spread flames. There are several standardized methods of determining flame spread,
NFPA 255 Standard Method of Test of Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials, utilizes ASTM E84 Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials. This test method measures flame growth on the underside of a horizontal test specimen, using the Steiner tunnel test. The result is derivation of a Flame Spread Index (FSI), which is a non-dimensional number which is placed on a relative scale in which asbestos - cement board has a value of 0, and red oak wood has 100. Evaluation of a FSI by this test method does not provide a good understanding of how fire would propagate in full scale, such as in a room, for some materials. In particular, the results for materials that drip, such as thermoplastics, are not indicative of the fire hazard as installed on walls and ceilings because they tend to melt and drip away from the underside of the horizontal ceiling in the test chamber. Because the test method measures how far down the test chamber the fire progressed, this type of "lack of fire progression '' provides a misleading FSI. In order to address such restrictions, a new test method was derived, NFPA 286 Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Contribution of Wall and Ceiling Interior Finish to Room Fire Growth.
NFPA 286 Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Contribution of Wall and Ceiling Interior Finish to Room Fire Growth, measures flame spread in a room configuration, including fire spread along walls, ceilings, and combinations of both. This method is more indicative of real world fire hazards, and is preferred over NFPA 255, but is more expensive. Also, test results for heat, smoke, and combustion product release from NFPA 286 are suitable for use as input into fire models for performance - based design, whereas results from NFPA 255 are not. Flame spread rating number is not the rate at which the flame actually spreads along the surface and is not an indication of the fire resistance of the material.
UL 723 (ASTM E84) Test for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials
ASTM E84 - 15a Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials
UL 94 Standard for Tests for Flammability of Plastic Materials for Parts in Devices and Appliances
The Life Safety Code (NFPA 101) and Section 803.1 of the International Building Code limit finishes for interior walls and ceilings to materials in three classes (A, B, or C, with A being the lowest flame spread and C being the highest) and gives greater restrictions for certain rooms:
In order to meet classification in any of the three categories, the smoke developed index can not exceed 450.
|
who was the second female prime minister of a caribbean country | Eugenia Charles - wikipedia
Dame Mary Eugenia Charles, DBE (15 May 1919 -- 6 September 2005) was a Dominican politician who was Prime Minister of Dominica from 21 July 1980 until 14 June 1995. She was Dominica 's first, and to date only, female prime minister, as well as the nation 's longest - serving prime minister. She was the second female prime minister in the Caribbean after Lucina da Costa of the Netherlands Antilles, and the first woman elected in her own right as head of government in the Americas. She was the world 's third longest - serving female Prime Minister, behind Indira Gandhi of India and Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, and the world 's longest continuously serving female Prime Minister ever. Charles was also Dominica 's first female lawyer.
Daughter of John B. and Josephine (née Delauney) Charles, Charles was born in the fishing village of Pointe Michel in Saint Luke parish, to a "coloured bourgeoise '' family.
She attended Convent School in Dominica, then the island 's only girls ' secondary school, and became interested in law while working at the colonial magistrate 's court. She worked for many years as assistant to Alastair Forbes. She attended the University of Toronto in Canada, before moving to the United Kingdom to attend the London School of Economics. She was a member of the sorority Sigma Gamma Rho. She passed the bar and returned to Dominica, where she became the island 's first female lawyer, establishing a practice specialising in property law.
Charles never married nor had children. In 1991 she was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire.
Charles began campaigning in politics during the 1960s against restrictions on press freedom. She helped to found the Dominica Freedom Party (DFP), and was its leader from the early 1970s until 1995. She was elected to the House of Assembly in 1970 and became Opposition Leader in 1975. She continued serving after Dominica gained full independence from British rule in 1978.
Charles became Prime Minister when the DFP swept the 1980 elections, the party 's first electoral victory. She took over from Oliver Seraphin, who had himself only taken over the year before after mass protests had forced the country 's first prime minister, Patrick John, to step down from office. She additionally served as Dominica 's Foreign Minister from 1980 to 1990, and also served as chairperson of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS).
In 1981 she faced two attempted coups d'état. That year Frederick Newton, commander of the Military of Dominica, organised an attack on the police headquarters in Roseau, resulting in the death of a police officer. Newton and five other soldiers were found guilty in the attack and sentenced to death in 1983. The five accomplices sentences ' were later commuted to life in prison, but Newton was executed in 1986.
In 1981, a group of Canadian and American mercenaries, mostly affiliated with white supremacist and Ku Klux Klan groups, planned a coup to restore former Prime Minister Patrick John to power. The attempt, which the conspirators codenamed Operation Red Dog, was thwarted by American federal agents in New Orleans, Louisiana, and was soon facetiously dubbed the "Bayou of Pigs '' after the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion.
Charles became more widely known to the outside world for her role in the lead - up to the United States Invasion of Grenada. In the wake of the arrest and execution of Grenadian Prime Minister Maurice Bishop, Charles, then serving as chair of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, appealed to the United States, Jamaica, and Barbados for intervention. She later appeared on television with U.S. president Ronald Reagan, supporting the invasion. Journalist Bob Woodward has detailed that millions of US dollars were paid to the Dominica Government by the US, some of which was regarded by the CIA as a ' payoff ' for Mrs. Charles 's support for the US intervention in Grenada.
Charles and her party were considered conservative by Caribbean standards. However, many of her policies appeared centrist or even leftist by American standards; for instance, she did support some social welfare programmes. Other issues that were important to her were anti-corruption measures and individual freedom. For her uncompromising stance on this and other issues, she became known as the "Iron Lady of the Caribbean '' (after the original "Iron Lady '', Margaret Thatcher).
Her popularity declined during her third term, and she announced her retirement in 1995. The DFP subsequently lost the 1995 elections. After retiring, she undertook speaking engagements in the United States and abroad, and became involved in former U.S. President Jimmy Carter 's Carter Center, which promotes human rights and observes elections. On 30 August 2005, Charles was taken to a hospital in Fort - de-France, Martinique, for hip - replacement surgery and died from a pulmonary embolism on 6 September at 86 years of age.
|
who sings i love you for a thousand years | A Thousand Years (Christina Perri song) - wikipedia
"A Thousand Years '' is a song by American singer - songwriter Christina Perri and David Hodges. It is taken from the album The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 1: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. The song serves as the second single from the album. The song was released as a digital download on October 18, 2011 worldwide. Perri re-recorded the song with vocals from Steve Kazee for The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack titled A Thousand Years, Pt. 2.
An official lyric video of the song was premiered on October 17, 2011 via Perri 's official Facebook and Twitter pages as well as her official website. On October 26, 2011, she released an official video for the song on her YouTube channel. The video begins with Perri holding a candle. It features a few clips from the movie interspersed between scenes with Perri singing in a room with a floor full of candles. The video may include the voices from Kristen Stewart and Robert Pattinson saying they love each other while in a wedding and also they can be heard in the background before the bridge. She ends the video singing into a sunset.
It has over 640 million views and 4 million likes on YouTube.
On the week of October 23, 2011, the song debuted at No. 63 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, and No. 70 on Canadian Hot 100. It has reached number 31 on the Billboard Hot 100, giving Perri her second top 40 hit.
By July 2013, the song has sold over 3 million digital downloads in the US. As of June 2014, the song has sold 3,657,000 copies in the US.
In the United Kingdom, the song reached number 32 on its original release in 2011. The following year, after the release of The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2, it peaked at number 13. In 2013, after it was performed on The X Factor (UK), it reached a new peak of 11.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
|
who sings the song tequila makes her clothes fall off | Tequila Makes Her Clothes Fall Off - Wikipedia
"Tequila Makes Her Clothes Fall Off '' is a song written by Gary Hannan and John Wiggins and recorded by American country music artist Joe Nichols. It was released in August 2005 as the first single from Nichols ' album III. The song became Nichols ' second number one hit on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs chart in late 2005.
One of the song 's co-writers, John Wiggins performed with his sister Audrey in the mid-1990s as the country duo John & Audrey Wiggins.
The song 's narrator discusses how his grandmother carelessly misplaces her clothes when she drinks tequila.
Kevin John Coyne of Country Universe gave the song a negative rating, saying that it was "mind - numbingly inane. '' In his review of the album, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic discussed the song favorably, saying that while it has a "silly name and would seem like a throwaway novelty, it is genuinely funny ''. He also said that Nichols "delivers it with sly humor and a low - key swagger that shows more character, as a vocalist, than he did on his previous albums. ''
The song debuted at number 59 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs chart on the week ending August 6, 2005.
|
who sings i left something turned on at home | I Left Something Turned on at Home - wikipedia
"I Left Something Turned On at Home '' is a song written by Billy Lawson and John Schweers and recorded by American country music singer Trace Adkins. It was released in April 1997 as the fourth and final single from his debut album Dreamin ' Out Loud. The song became his third Top 10 hit the Hot Country Singles & Tracks (now Hot Country Songs) chart by reaching number 2 for two weeks, only behind "Carrying Your Love with Me '' by George Strait. It also became his first number 1 single on the Canadian RPM country chart.
The song is up - tempo accompanied largely by electric guitar. It is based on a double entendre. The male narrator is at a bar, telling his companions that he has to leave because he "left something turned on at home ''. He then explains in the chorus that what he left "turned on '' was not an appliance, but rather his sexually aroused female partner.
Rick Cohoon of Allmusic gave the song a favorable review. He stated that "Lawson and Schweers (the songwriters) gave a whole new meaning to an age - old expression, and that 's what good songwriting is. '' Deborah Evans Price, of Billboard magazine reviewed the song favorably, calling it an "energetic exercise in double - entendres. '' She goes on to say that the song features "tasty guitar and fiddle touches, but the main selling point is Adkins ' tongue - in - cheek vocal performance. ''
"I Left Something Turned On at Home '' debuted at number 73 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of April 26, 1997.
|
how to become the us ambassador to the un | United States Ambassador to the United Nations - Wikipedia
The United States Ambassador to the United Nations is the leader of the U.S. delegation, the U.S. Mission to the United Nations. The position is more formally known as the "Permanent Representative of the United States of America to the United Nations, with the rank and status of Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, and Representative of the United States of America in the Security Council of the United Nations ''; it is also known as the U.S. Permanent Representative, or "Perm Rep '', to the United Nations.
The U.S. Permanent Representative, currently Nikki Haley, is charged with representing the United States on the U.N. Security Council and during almost all plenary meetings of the General Assembly, except in the rare situation in which a more senior officer of the United States (such as the U.S. Secretary of State or the President of the United States) is present. Like all United States ambassadors, he or she must be nominated by the U.S. President and confirmed by the Senate.
Many prominent U.S. politicians and diplomats have held the post, including Adlai Stevenson II, George H.W. Bush, Jeane Kirkpatrick, and Madeleine Albright.
Nikki Haley was nominated for this position by President Donald Trump and was confirmed by the Senate. She assumed office upon presenting her credentials to the UN Secretary - General on January 27, 2017.
Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., a leading moderate Republican who lost his seat in the United States Senate to John F. Kennedy in the 1952 elections, was appointed ambassador to the United Nations in 1953 by Dwight D. Eisenhower in gratitude for the defeated senator 's role in the new president 's defeat of conservative leader Robert A. Taft for the 1952 Republican nomination and subsequent service as his campaign manager in the general election; Eisenhower raised the ambassadorship to cabinet rank in order to give Lodge direct access to him without having to go through the State Department.
The ambassadorship continued to hold this status through the Ford, Carter, and Reagan administrations but was removed from cabinet rank by George H.W. Bush, who had previously held the position himself. It was restored under the Clinton administration. It was not a cabinet - level position under the George W. Bush administration (from 2001 to 2009), but was once again elevated under the Obama administration, and retained by the Trump administration.
Former UN Ambassador John R. Bolton has publicly opposed the granting of cabinet - level status to the office, stating "One, it overstates the role and importance the U.N. should have in U.S. foreign policy, second, you should n't have two secretaries in the same department ''.
The following is a chronological list of those who have held the office:
|
when did the angles saxons and jutes invaded britain | Anglo - Saxon settlement of Britain - wikipedia
The Anglo - Saxon settlement of Britain describes the process which changed the language and culture of most of what became England from Romano - British to Germanic. The Germanic - speakers in Britain, themselves of diverse origins, eventually developed a common cultural identity as Anglo - Saxons. This process occurred from the mid-fifth to early seventh centuries, following the end of Roman power in Britain around the year 410. The settlement was followed by the establishment of Anglo - Saxon kingdoms in the south and east of Britain, later followed by the rest of modern England.
The available evidence includes the scanty contemporary and near - contemporary written record, and archaeological and genetic information. The few literary sources tell of hostility between incomers and natives. They describe violence, destruction, massacre and the flight of the Romano - British population. Moreover, there is little clear evidence for the influence of British Celtic or British Latin on Old English. These points have suggested a very large - scale invasion by various Germanic peoples. In this view, held by the majority of historians until the mid to late twentieth century, much of what is now England was cleared of its prior inhabitants. If this traditional viewpoint were to be correct, the genes of the later English people would have been overwhelmingly inherited from Germanic migrants.
However, another view, probably the most widely held today, is that the migrants were relatively few, centred on a warrior elite. This hypothesis suggests that the incomers, having achieved a position of political and social dominance, initiated a process of acculturation by the natives to their language and material culture. Archaeologists have found that settlement patterns and land - use show no clear break with the Romano - British past, though there are marked changes in material culture. This view predicts that the ancestry of the people of Anglo - Saxon and modern England would be largely derived from the native Romano - British. The uncertain results of genetic studies tend to support this prediction.
Even so, if these incomers established themselves as a social elite, this could have allowed them enhanced reproductive success (the so - called ' Apartheid Theory '). In this case, the prevalent genes of later Anglo - Saxon England could have been largely derived from moderate numbers of Germanic migrants. This theory, originating in a population genetics study, has proven controversial, and has been critically received by a number of scholars.
By 400, the Roman provinces in Britain (all the territory to the south of Hadrian 's Wall) were a peripheral part of the Roman Empire, occasionally lost to rebellion or invasion, but until then always eventually recovered. That cycle of loss and recapture collapsed over the next decade. Eventually around 410, although Roman power remained a force to be reckoned with for a further three generations across much of Gaul, Britain slipped beyond direct imperial control into a phase which has generally been termed "sub-Roman ''.
The history of this period has traditionally been a narrative of decline and fall. However, evidence from Verulamium suggests that urban - type rebuilding, featuring piped water, was continuing late on in the 5th century, if not beyond. At Silchester, there are signs of sub-Roman occupation down to around 500, and at Wroxeter new Roman baths have been identified as Roman - type.
The writing of Patrick and Gildas (see below) demonstrates the survival in Britain of Latin literacy and Roman education, learning and law within elite society and Christianity, throughout the bulk of the 5th and 6th centuries. There are also signs in Gildas ' works that the economy was thriving without Roman taxation, as he complains of luxuria and self - indulgence. This is the 5th century Britain into which the Anglo - Saxons appear.
Surveying the historical sources for signs of the Anglo - Saxon settlement, and the people, assumes that the words Angles, Saxons or Anglo - Saxon have the same meaning in all the sources. Assigning ethnic labels such as "Anglo - Saxon '' is fraught with difficulties and the term itself only began to be used in the 8th century to distinguish "Germanic '' groups in Britain from those on the continent (Old Saxony in present - day Northern Germany).
The Chronica Gallica of 452 records for the year 441: "The British provinces, which to this time had suffered various defeats and misfortunes, are reduced to Saxon rule. '' The Chronicle was written some distance from Britain. There is uncertainty about precise dates for fifth - century events especially before 446. This, however, does not undermine the position of the Gallic Chronicles as a very important contemporary source, which suggests that Bede 's later date for ' the arrival of the Saxons ' was mistaken. In the Chronicle, Britain is grouped with four other Roman territories which came under ' Germanic ' dominion around the same time, the list being intended as an explanation of the end of the Roman empire in the west. The four share a similar history, as they were all given into the "power of the barbarians '' by Roman authority: three were deliberately settled with German federates and though the Vandals took Africa by force their dominion was confirmed by treaty.
Procopius states that Britain was settled by three races: the Angiloi, Frisones, and Britons, each ruled by its own king. Each race was so prolific that it sent large numbers of individuals every year to the Franks, who planted them in unpopulated regions of its territory. Writing in the mid-sixth century, he also states that after the overthrow of Constantine III in 411, "the Romans never succeeded in recovering Britain, but it remained from that time under tyrants. ''
In Gildas ' work of the 6th century (perhaps 510 -- 530), De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, a religious tract on the state of Britain, the Saxons were enemies originally from overseas, who brought well - deserved judgement upon the local kings or ' tyrants '.
The sequence of events in Gildas is interesting:
Gildas used the correct late Roman term for the Saxons, foederati, people who came to Britain under a well - used treaty system. This kind of treaty had been used elsewhere to bring people into the Roman Empire to move along the roads or rivers and work alongside the army. Gildas called them Saxons, which was probably the common British term for the settlers. Interestingly Gildas ' use of the word Patria, when used in relation to the Saxons and Picts, gave the impression that some Saxons could by then be regarded as native to Britannia.
Britain for Gildas was the whole island; ethnicity and language were not his issue, he was concerned with the leaders ' faith and actions. The historical details are, as Snyder had it: "by - products from his recounting of royal - sins ''. There is a strong tradition of Christian writers who were concerned with the moral qualities of leadership and Gildas joined these. He used apocalyptic language: for example the Saxons were "villains '', "enemies '', led by a Devil - father. Yet Gildas had lived through, in his own words, an age of "external peace '', and it is this peace that brought with it the tyrannis -- "unjust rule ''.
Gildas ' remarks reflected his continuing concern regarding the vulnerability of his countrymen and their disregard and in - fighting: for example, "it was always true of this people (as it is now) that it was weak in beating off the weapons of the enemy but strong in putting up with civil war and the burden of sin. '' However, after the War of the Saxon Federates, if there were acts of genocide, mass exodus or mass slavery, Gildas did not seem to know about them. Gildas, in discussing the holy shrines, mentioned that the spiritual life of Britain had suffered, because the partition (divortium), of the country, which was preventing the citizens (cives) from worshipping at the shrines of the martyrs. Control had been ceded to the Saxons, even control of access to such shrines. The church was now ' tributary ', her sons had ' embraced dung ' and the nobility had lost their authority to govern.
Gildas described the corruption of the elite: "Britain has kings but they are tyrants; she has judges but they are wicked ''. This passage provides a glimpse into the world of Gildas, he continued: "they plunder and terrorise the innocent, they defend and protect the guilty and thieving, they have many wives, whores and adulteresses, swear false oaths, tell lies, reward thieves, sit with murderous men, despise the humble, their commanders are ' enemies of God ' ''; the list is long. Interestingly, oath breaking and the absence of just judgements for ordinary people were mentioned a number of times. British leadership, everywhere, was immoral and the cause of the "ruin of Britain ''.
Gildas and other sources were used by Bede in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, written around 731. Bede identifies the migrants as Angles, Saxons and Jutes, reporting (Bk I, Ch 15) that the Saxons came from Old Saxony (Northern Germany) and the Angles from ' Anglia ', which lay between the homelands of the Saxons and Jutes. Anglia is reasonably taken to be the old Schleswig - Holstein Province (straddling the modern Danish - German border), and containing the modern Angeln. Jutland was the homeland of the Jutes, and the coast between the Elbe and Weser rivers (modern German state of Lower Saxony) is the Saxon area of origin.
Crucially, Bede seems to identify three phases of settlement: an exploration phase, when mercenaries came to protect the resident population; a migration phase, which was substantial, as implied by the statement that Anglus was deserted; and an establishment phase, in which Anglo - Saxons started to control areas, implied in Bede 's statement about the origins of the tribes. This analysis of Bede has led to a re-evaluation, in terms of continuity and change, of Bede 's "Northumbrian '' view of history and how this view was projected back into the account of the latter two phases of settlement; and a possible overhaul of the traditional chronological framework.
The concept of Bretwalda originates in Bede 's comment on who held the Imperium of Britain. From this concept, historians have inferred a formal institution of overlordship south of the Humber. Whether such an institution existed is uncertain, but Simon Keynes argues that the idea is not an invented concept. The Bretwalda concept is taken as evidence for a presence of a number of early Anglo - Saxon elite families. Whether the majority were early settlers, descendant from settlers, or especially after the exploration stage, were Roman - British leaders who adopted Anglo - Saxon culture is unclear, but the balance of opinion is that most were migrants. Notable gaps include: no - one from the East or West Midlands is represented in the list of Bretwaldas, and there is some uncertainty about the dates of these leaders.
Bede 's view of Britons is partly responsible for the picture of them as the downtrodden subjects of Anglo - Saxon oppression. This has been used by linguists and archaeologists who have produced genocidal, slavery and bloody invasion settlement theories. Bede 's derogatory depiction of the Britons is influenced by what he had read in Gildas, which had also sought to understand God 's will. For Gildas, the Saxons represented God 's scourge, and he saw the horrors of the Saxon as God 's retribution for the sins of his people. Bede focused on this point and extended Gildas ' vision by portraying the pagan Anglo - Saxons not as God 's scourge against the reprobate Britons, but rather as the agents of Britain 's redemption. Therefore, the ghastly scenario that Gildas feared is calmly explained away by Bede: any rough treatment was necessary, and ordained by God, because the Britons had lost God 's favour, and incurred his wrath. Bede is not using ethnicity in the same manner as a modern reader. Windy McKinney observes, "Bede 's use of (ethnic terminology) was much more mutable: tied to the expression of tradition and religious ideas, to the loyalty of a people to authority, and subject to change as history continued to unfold. Therefore, it is a moot point whether all of those whom Bede encompassed under the term Angli were racially Germanic ''. Indeed, Bede himself may not have been an ethnically ' pure ' Angle.
The Tribal Hideage is a list of 35 tribes that was compiled in Anglo - Saxon England some time between the 7th and 9th centuries. The inclusion of the ' Elmet - dwellers ' suggests to Simon Keynes that the Tribal Hideage was compiled in the early 670s, during the reign of King Wulfhere, since Elmet seems to have reverted thereafter to Northumbrian control.
It includes a number of independent kingdoms and other smaller territories and assigns a number of hides to each one. A hide was an amount of land sufficient to support a household. The list of tribes is headed by Mercia and consists almost exclusively of peoples who lived south of the Humber estuary and territories that surrounded the Mercian kingdom, some of which have never been satisfactorily identified by scholars. The document is problematic, but extremely important for historians as it provides a glimpse into the relationship between people, land and the tribes and groups into which they had organised themselves.
The individual units in the list developed from the settlement areas of tribal groups, some of which are as little as 300 hides. The names are difficult to locate: places like East wixna and Sweord ora. What it reveals is that micro-identity of tribe and family is important from the start. The list is evidence for more complex settlement than the single political entity of the other historical sources.
The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle is an historical record of events in Anglo - Saxon England which was kept from the late 9th to the mid-12th century. The Chronicle is a collection of annals that were still being updated in some cases more than 600 years after the events they describe. They contain various entries that seem to add to the breadth of the historical evidence and provide good evidence for a migration, the Anglo - Saxon elites and various significant historical events.
The earliest events described in the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle were transcribed centuries after they had occurred. Barbara Yorke, Patrick Sims - Williams and David Dumville among others have highlighted how a number of features of the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle for the 5th and early 6th centuries clearly contradict the idea that they contain a reliable year - by - year record. Stuart Laycock has suggested that there may be information from the early period that can be used on the basis that: the obvious glosses and fictions should be rejected (such as the information about Porta and Portsmouth); the kernel behind some entries might contain a truth (such as the sequence of the events associated with Ælle of Sussex); and whilst the dates are uncertain, Laycock believes some of the 6th century events may describe real situations. However presenting evidence for the Anglo - Saxon settlement from a chronicle such as the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle is uncertain and relies heavily on the present view of which entries are acceptable truth. As Dumville points out about the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle: "medieval historiography has assumptions different from our own, particularly in terms of distinctions between fiction and non-fiction ''.
Explaining linguistic change, and particularly the rise of Old English, is crucial in any account of the Anglo - Saxon settlement of Britain. The modern consensus is that the spread of English can be explained by a fairly small number of Germanic - speaking immigrants becoming politically dominant, in a context where Latin had lost its usefulness and prestige due to the collapse of the Roman economy and administration.
All linguistic evidence from Roman Britain suggests that most inhabitants spoke British Celtic and / or British Latin. However, by the eighth century, when extensive evidence for the post-Roman language situation is next available, it is clear that the dominant language in what is now eastern and southern England was Old English, whose West Germanic ancestors were spoken in what is now the Netherlands and northern Germany. Old English then continued spreading westwards and northwards in the ensuing centuries. This development is strikingly different from, for example, post-Roman Gaul, Iberia, or North Africa, where Germanic - speaking invaders gradually switched to local languages. Old English shows little obvious influence from Celtic or spoken Latin: there are for example vanishingly few English words of Brittonic origin. Moreover, except in Cornwall, the vast majority of place - names in England are easily etymologised as Old English (or Old Norse, due to later Viking influence), demonstrating the dominance of English across post-Roman England. Intensive research in recent decades on Celtic toponymy has shown that more names in England and southern Scotland have Brittonic, or occasionally Latin, etymologies than was once thought, but even so, it is clear that Brittonic and Latin place - names in the eastern half of England are extremely rare, and although they are noticeably more common in the western half, they are still a tiny minority ─ 2 % in Cheshire, for example.
Into the later twentieth century, scholars ' usual explanation for the lack of Celtic influence on English, supported by uncritical readings of the accounts of Gildas and Bede, was that Old English became dominant primarily because Germanic - speaking invaders killed, chased away, and / or enslaved the previous inhabitants of the areas that they settled. In recent decades, a few specialists have continued to support this interpretation, and Peter Schrijver has said that ' to a large extent, it is linguistics that is responsible for thinking in terms of drastic scenarios ' about demographic change in late Roman Britain.
But the consensus among experts today, influenced by research in contact linguistics, is that political dominance by a fairly small number of Old English - speakers could have driven large numbers of Britons to adopt Old English while leaving little detectable trace of this language - shift. The collapse of Britain 's Roman economy and administrative structures seems to have left Britons living in a technologically similar society to their Anglo - Saxon neighbours, making it unlikely that Anglo - Saxons would need to borrow words for unfamiliar concepts. If Old English became the most prestigious language in a particular region, speakers of other languages there sought to become bilingual and, over a few generations, stop speaking the less prestigious languages (in this case British Celtic and / or British Latin). This account, which demands only small numbers of politically dominant Germanic - speaking migrants to Britain, has become ' the standard explanation ' for the gradual death of Celtic and spoken Latin in post-Roman Britain.
Likewise, scholars have posited various mechanisms other than massive demographic change by which pre-migration Celtic place - names could have been lost. Scholars have stressed that Welsh and Cornish place - names from the Roman period seem no more likely to survive than English ones: ' clearly name loss was a Romano - British phenomenon, not just one associated with Anglo - Saxon incomers '. Other explanations for the replacement of Roman period place - names include adaptation of Celtic names such that they now seem to come from Old English; a more gradual loss of Celtic names than was once assumed; and new names being coined (in the newly dominant English language) because instability of settlements and land - tenure.
Extensive research is ongoing on whether British Celtic did exert subtle substrate influence on the phonology, morphology, and syntax of Old English (as well as on whether British Latin - speakers influenced the Brittonic languages, perhaps as they fled westwards from Anglo - Saxon domination into highland areas of Britain). These arguments have not yet, however, become consensus views. Thus a recent synthesis concludes that ' the evidence for Celtic influence on Old English is somewhat sparse, which only means that it remains elusive, not that it did not exist '.
Debate continues within a framework assuming that many Brittonic - speakers shifted to English, for example over whether at least some Germanic - speaking peasant - class immigrants must have been involved to bring about the language - shift; what legal or social structures (such as enslavement or apartheid - like customs) might have promoted the high status of English; and precisely how slowly Brittonic (and British Latin) disappeared in different regions.
An idiosyncratic view that has won extensive popular attention is Stephen Oppenheimer 's suggestion that the lack of Celtic influence on English is because the ancestor of English was already widely spoken in Britain by the Belgae before the end of the Roman period. However, Oppenheimer 's ideas have not been found helpful in explaining the known facts: there is no evidence for a well established Germanic language in Britain before the fifth century, and Oppenheimer 's idea contradicts the extensive evidence for the use of Celtic and Latin.
While many studies admit that a substantial survival of native British people from lower social strata is probable, with these people becoming anglicised over time due to the action of "elite dominance '' mechanisms, there is also evidence for the survival of British elites and their anglicisation. An Anglo - Saxon elite could be formed in two ways: from an incoming chieftain and his war band from northern Germania taking over an area of Britain, or through a native British chieftain and his war band adopting Anglo - Saxon culture and language.
The incidence of British Celtic personal names in the royal genealogies of a number of "Anglo - Saxon '' dynasties is very suggestive of the latter process. The Wessex royal line was traditionally founded by a man named Cerdic, an undoubtedly Celtic name identical to Ceretic, the name given to two British kings, and ultimately derived from the Brittonic * Caraticos. This may indicate that Cerdic was a native Briton, and that his dynasty became anglicised over time. A number of Cerdic 's alleged descendants also possessed Celtic names, including the ' Bretwalda ' Ceawlin. The last occurrence of a British name in this dynasty being that of King Caedwalla, who died as late as 689. The British name Caedbaed is found in the pedigree of the kings of Lindsey, which argues for the survival of British elites in this area also. In the Mercian royal pedigree, the name of King Penda and the names of other kings have more obvious Brittonic than German etymologies, though they do not correspond to known Welsh personal names.
Bede, in his major work, charts the careers of four upper - class brothers in the English Church, he refers to them as being Northumbrian, and therefore "English ''. However, the names of Saint Chad of Mercia (a prominent bishop) and his brothers Cedd (also a bishop), Cynibil and Caelin (a variant spelling of Ceawlin) are British rather than Anglo - Saxon.
A good case can be made for southern Britain (especially Wessex, Kent, Essex and parts of Southern East Anglia), at least, having been taken over by dynasties having some Germanic ancestry or connections, but also having origins in, or intermarrying with, native British elites.
Archaeologists seeking to understand evidence for migration and / or acculturation must first get to grips with early Anglo - Saxon archaeology as an "Archaeology of Identity ''. Guarding against considering one aspect of archaeology in isolation, this concept ensures that different topics are considered together, that previously were considered separately, such as: gender, age, ethnicity, religion and status.
The task of interpretation has been hampered by the lack of works of archaeological synthesis for the Anglo - Saxon period in general, and the early period in particular. This is changing, with new works of synthesis and chronology, in particular the work of Catherine Hills and Sam Lucy on the evidence of Spong Hill, which has opened up the possible synthesis with continental material culture and, most interestingly, has moved the chronology for the settlement earlier than AD 450, with a significant number of items now in phases before this historically set date.
Archaeological evidence for the emergence of both a native British identity and the appearance of a Germanic culture in Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries must consider first the period at the end of Roman rule. The collapse of Roman material culture some time in the early 5th century left a gap in the archaeological record that was quite rapidly filled by the intrusive Anglo - Saxon material culture, while the native culture became archaeologically close to invisible -- although recent hoards and metal - detector finds show that coin use and imports did not stop abruptly at AD 410.
The archaeology of the Roman military systems within Britain is well known but is not well understood: for example, whether the "Saxon Shore '' was defensive or to facilitate the passage of goods. Andrew Pearson suggests that the "Saxon Shore Forts '' and other coastal installations played a more significant economic and logistical role than is often appreciated, and that the tradition of Saxon and other continental piracy, based on the name of these forts, is probably a myth.
The archaeology of late Roman (and sub-Roman) Britain has been mainly focused on the elite rather than the peasant and slave: their villas, houses, mosaics, furniture, fittings and silver plate. This group had a strict code on how their wealth was to be displayed, and this provides a wealth of material culture, from which "Britons '' are identified. There was a large gap between richest and poorest; the trappings of the latter have been the focus of less archaeological study. However the archaeology of the peasant from the 4th and 5th centuries is dominated by "ladder '' field systems or enclosures, associated with extended families, and in the South and East of England the extensive use of timber - built buildings and farmsteads shows a lower level of engagement with Roman building styles than the houses of the numerically much smaller elite.
Confirmation of the use of Anglo - Saxons as foederati or federate troops has been seen as coming from burials of Anglo - Saxons wearing military equipment of a type issued to late Roman forces, which have been found both in late Roman contexts, such as the Roman cemeteries of Winchester and Colchester, and in purely ' Anglo - Saxon ' rural cemeteries like Mucking (Essex), though this was at a settlement used by the Romano - British. The distribution of the earliest Anglo - Saxon sites and place names in close proximity to Roman settlements and roads has been interpreted as showing that initial Anglo - Saxon settlements were being controlled by the Romano - British.
Catherine Hills suggests it is not necessary to see all the early settlers as federate troops, and that this interpretation has been used rather too readily by some archaeologists. A variety of relationships could have existed between Romano - British and incoming Anglo - Saxons. The broader archaeological picture suggests that no one model will explain all the Anglo - Saxon settlements in Britain and that there was considerable regional variation. Settlement density varied within southern and eastern England. Norfolk has more large Anglo - Saxon cemeteries than the neighbouring East Anglian county of Suffolk; eastern Yorkshire (the nucleus of the Anglo - Saxon kingdom of Deira) far more than the rest of Northumbria. The settlers were not all of the same type. Some were indeed warriors who were buried equipped with their weapons, but we should not assume that all of these were invited guests who were to guard Romano - British communities. Possibly some, like the later Viking settlers, may have begun as piratical raiders who later seized land and made permanent settlements. Other settlers seem to have been much humbler people who had few if any weapons and suffered from malnutrition. These were characterised by Sonia Chadwick Hawkes as Germanic ' boat people ', refugees from crowded settlements on the North Sea which deteriorating climatic conditions would have made untenable.
Catherine Hills points out that it is too easy to consider Anglo - Saxon archaeology solely as a study of ethnology and to fail to consider that identity is "less related to an overall Anglo - Saxon ethnicity and more to membership of family or tribe, Christian or pagan, elite or peasant ''. "Anglo - Saxons '' or "Britons '' were no more homogeneous than nationalities are today, and they would have exhibited diverse characteristics: male / female, old / young, rich / poor, farmer / warrior -- or even Gildas ' patria (fellow citizens), cives (indigenous people) and hostes (enemies) -- as well as a diversity associated with language. Beyond these, in the early Anglo - Saxon period, identity was local: although people would have known their neighbours, it may have been important to indicate tribal loyalty with details of clothing and especially fasteners. It is also unlikely that people would have thought of themselves as Anglo - Saxon: instead they were part of a tribe or region, descendants of a patron or followers of a leader. It is this identity that archaeological evidence seeks to understand and determine, considering how it might support separate identity groups, or identities that were inter-connected.
Part of a well - furnished pagan period mixed inhumation and cremation cemetery was excavated at Alwalton near Peterborough. Twenty - eight urned and two unurned cremations dating from between the 5th and 6th centuries, and 34 inhumations, dating from between the late 5th and early 7th centuries, were uncovered. Both cremations and inhumations were provided with pyre or grave goods, and some of the burials were richly furnished. The excavation found evidence for a mixture of practices and symbolic clothing; these reflected local differences that appeared to be associated with tribal or family loyalty. This use of clothing in particular was very symbolic, and distinct differences within groups in the cemetery could be found.
The evidence for monument reuse in the early Anglo - Saxon period reveals a number of significant aspects of the practice. Ancient monuments were one of the most important factors determining the placing of the dead in the early Anglo - Saxon landscape. Anglo - Saxon secondary activity on prehistoric and Roman sites was traditionally explained in practical terms. These explanations, in the view of Howard Williams, failed to account for the numbers and types of monuments and graves (from villas to barrows) reused.
Anglo - Saxon barrow burials started in the late 6th century and continued into the early 8th century. Prehistoric barrows, in particular, have been seen as physical expressions of land claims and links to the ancestors, and John Shephard has extended this interpretation to Anglo - Saxon tumuli. Eva Thäte has emphasised the continental origins of monument reuse in post-Roman England, Howard Williams has suggested that the main purpose of this custom was to give sense to a landscape that the immigrants did not find empty.
In the 7th and 8th centuries, monument reuse became so widespread that it strongly suggests the deliberate location of burials of the elite next to visible monuments of the pre-Saxon past, but with ' ordinary ' burial grounds of this phase also frequently being located next to prehistoric barrows. The relative increase of this kind of spatial association from the 5th / 6th centuries to the 7th / 8th centuries is conspicuous. Williams ' analysis of two well - documented samples shows an increase from 32 % to 50 % of Anglo - Saxon burial sites in the Upper Thames region, and from 47 % to 71 % of Anglo - Saxon cemeteries excavated since 1945. Härke suggests that one of the contexts for the increasing reuse of monuments may be "the adoption by the natives of the material culture of the dominant immigrants ''.
The Anglo - Saxons did not settle in an abandoned landscape on which they imposed new types of settlement and farming, as was once believed. By the late 4th century the English rural landscape was largely cleared, generally occupied by dispersed farms and hamlets, each surrounded by its own fields but often sharing other resources in common (called "infield - outfield cultivation ''). Such fields, whether of prehistoric or Roman origin, fall into two very general types, found both separately and together: irregular layouts, in which one field after another had been added to an arable hub over many centuries; and regular rectilinear layouts, often roughly following the local topography, that had resulted from the large - scale division of considerable areas of land. Such stability was reversed within a few decades of the 5th century, as early "Anglo - Saxon '' farmers, affected both by the collapse of Roman Britain and a climatic deterioration which reached its peak probably around 500, concentrated on subsistence, converting to pasture large areas of previously ploughed land. However, there is little evidence of abandoned arable land.
Evidence across southern and central England increasingly shows the persistence of prehistoric and Roman field layouts into and, in some cases throughout, the Anglo - Saxon period, whether or not such fields were continuously ploughed. Landscapes at Yarnton, Oxfordshire, and Mucking, Essex, remained unchanged throughout the 5th century, while at Barton Court, Oxfordshire, the ' grid of ditched paddocks or closes ' of a Roman villa estate formed a general framework for the Anglo - Saxon settlement there. Similar evidence has been found at Sutton Courtenay, Berkshire. The Romano - British fields at Church Down in Chalton and Catherington, both in Hampshire, Bow Brickhill, Buckinghamshire, and Havering, Essex, were all ploughed as late as the 7th century.
Susan Oosthuizen has taken this further and establishes evidence that aspects of the "collective organisation of arable cultivation appear to find an echo in fields of pre-historic and Roman Britain ''. In particular: the open field systems, shared between a number of cultivators, but cropped individually; the link between arable holdings and rights to common pasture land; in structures of governance and the duty to pay some of the surplus to the local overlord, whether in rent or duty. Together these reveal that kinship ties and social relations were continuous across the 5th and 6th centuries, with no evidence of the uniformity or destruction, imposed by lords, the savage action of invaders or system collapse. This has implications on how later developments are considered, such as the developments in the 7th and 8th centuries.
Landscape studies draw upon a variety of topographical, archaeological and written sources. There are major problems in trying to relate Anglo - Saxon charter boundaries to those of Roman estates for which there are no written records, and by the end of the Anglo - Saxon period there had been major changes to the organisation of the landscape which can obscure earlier arrangements. Interpretation is also hindered by uncertainty about late Roman administrative arrangements. Nevertheless, studies carried out throughout the country, in "British '' as well as "Anglo - Saxon '' areas, have found examples of continuity of territorial boundaries where, for instance, Roman villa estate boundaries seem to have been identical with those of medieval estates, as delineated in early charters, though settlement sites within the defined territory might shift. What we see in these examples is probably continuity of the estate or territory as a unit of administration rather than one of exploitation. Although the upper level of Roman administration based on towns seems to have disappeared during the 5th century, a subsidiary system based on subdivisions of the countryside may have continued.
The basis of the internal organisation of both the Anglo - Saxon kingdoms and those of their Celtic neighbours was a large rural territory which contained a number of subsidiary settlements dependent upon a central residence which the Anglo - Saxons called a villa in Latin and a tūn in Old English. These developments suggest that the basic infrastructure of the early Anglo - Saxon local administration (or the settlement of early kings or earls) was inherited from late Roman or Sub-Roman Britain.
There are a number of difficulties in recognising early Anglo - Saxon settlements as migrant settlers. This in part is because most early rural Anglo - Saxon sites have yielded few finds other than pottery and bone. The use of aerial photography does not yield easily identifiable settlements, partly due to the dispersed nature of many of these settlements.
The distribution of known settlements also remains elusive with few settlements found in the West Midlands or North - West. Even in Kent, an area of rich early Anglo - Saxon archaeology, the number of excavated settlements is fewer than expected. However, in contrast the counties of Northamptonshire, Oxfordshire, Suffolk and Cambridgeshire are relative rich in early settlements. These have revealed a tendency for early Anglo - Saxon settlements to be on the light soils associated with river terraces.
Many of the inland settlements are on rivers that had been major navigation routes during the Roman era. These sites, such as Dorchester on Thames on the upper Thames, were readily accessible by the shallow - draught, clinker - built boats used by the Anglo - Saxons. The same is true of the settlements along the rivers Ouse, Trent, Witham, Nene and along the marshy lower Thames. Less well - known due to a dearth of physical evidence but attested by surviving place names, there were Jutish settlements on the Isle of Wight and the nearby southern coast of Hampshire.
A number of Anglo - Saxon settlements are located near or at Roman - era towns, but the question of simultaneous town occupation by the Romano - Britons and a nearby Anglo - Saxon settlement (i.e., suggesting a relationship) is not confirmed. At Roman Caistor - by - Norwich, for example, recent analysis suggests that the cemetery post-dates the town 's virtual abandonment.
The earliest cemeteries that can be classified as Anglo - Saxon are found in widely separate regions and are dated to the early 5th century. The exception is in Kent, where the density of cemeteries and artifacts suggest either an exceptionally heavy Anglo - Saxon settlement, or continued settlement beginning at an early date, or both. By the late 5th century there were additional Anglo - Saxon cemeteries, some of them adjacent to earlier ones, but with a large expansion in other areas, and now including the southern coast of Sussex.
Up to the year 2000, roughly 10,000 early ' Anglo - Saxon ' cremations and inhumations had been found, exhibiting a large degree of diversity in styles and types of mortuary ritual. This is consistent with evidence for many micro cultures and local practice. Cemetery evidence is still dominated by the material culture: finds of clothes, jewellery, weapons, pots and personal items; but physical and molecular evidence from skeletons, bones and teeth are increasingly important.
Considering the early cemeteries of Kent, most relevant finds come from furnished graves with distinctive links to the Continent. However, there are some unique items, these include pots and urns and especially brooches, an important element of female dress that functioned as a fastener, rather like a modern safety pin. The style of brooches (called Quoits), is unique to southern England in the fifth century AD, with the greatest concentration of such items occurring in Kent. Seiichi Suzuki defines the style through an analysis of its design organisation, and, by comparing it with near - contemporary styles in Britain and on the continent, identifying those features which make it unique. He suggests that the quoit brooch style was made and remade as part of the process of construction of new group identities during the political uncertainties of the time, and sets the development of the style in the context of the socio - cultural dynamics of an emergent post-Roman society. The brooch shows that culture was not just transposed from the continent, but from an early phase a new "Anglo - Saxon '' culture was being developed.
Women 's fashions (tracht, native costumes not thought to have been trade goods), have been used to distinguish and identify settlers, supplemented by other finds that can be related to specific regions of the Continent. A large number of Frankish artifacts have been found in Kent, and these are largely interpreted to be a reflection of trade and commerce rather than early migration. Yorke (Wessex in the Early Middle Ages, 1995), for example, only allows that some Frankish settlement is possible. Frankish sea raiding was recorded as early as 260 and became common for the next century, but their raids on Britain ended c. 367 as Frankish interest turned southward and was thereafter focused on the control and occupation of northern Gaul and Germania.
The presence of artifacts that are identifiably North Germanic along the coastal areas between the Humber Estuary and East Anglia indicates that Scandinavians migrated to Britain. However, this does not suggest that they arrived at the same time as the Angles: they may have arrived almost a century later, and their status and influence upon arrival is uncertain. In particular, regarding a significant Swedish influence in association with the Sutton Hoo ship and a Swedish origin for the East Anglian Wuffinga dynasty, both possibilities are now considered uncertain.
The process of mixing and assimilation of immigrant and native populations is virtually impossible to elucidate with material culture, but the skeletal evidence may shed some light on it. The 7th / 8th - century average stature of male individuals in Anglo - Saxon cemeteries dropped by 15 mm (5⁄8 in) compared with the 5th / 6th - century average. This development is most marked in Wessex where the average dropped by 24 mm (1 in). This drop is not easily explained by environmental changes; there is no evidence for a change in diet in the 7th / 8th centuries, nor is there any evidence of a further influx of immigrants at this time. Given the lower average stature of Britons, the most likely explanation would be a gradual Saxonisation or Anglicisation of the material culture of native enclaves, an increasing assimilation of native populations into Anglo - Saxon communities, and increasing intermarriage between immigrants and natives within Anglo - Saxon populations. Skeletal material from the Late Roman and Early Anglo - Saxon period from Hampshire was directly compared. It was concluded that the physical type represented in urban Roman burials, was not annihilated nor did it die - out, but it continued to be well represented in subsequent burials of Anglo - Saxon date.
At Stretton - on - Fosse II (Warwickshire), located on the western fringes of the early Anglo - Saxon settlement area, the proportion of male adults with weapons is 82 %, well above the average in southern England. Cemetery II, the Anglo - Saxon burial site, is immediately adjacent to two Romano - British cemeteries, Stretton - on - Fosse I and III, the latter only 60 metres away from Anglo - Saxon burials. Continuity of the native female population at this site has been inferred from the continuity of textile techniques (unusual in the transition from the Romano - British to the Anglo - Saxon periods), and by the continuity of epigenetic traits from the Roman to the Anglo - Saxon burials. At the same time, the skeletal evidence demonstrates the appearance in the post-Roman period of a new physical type of males who are more slender and taller than the men in the adjacent Romano - British cemeteries. Taken together, the observations suggest the influx of a group of males, probably most or all of them Germanic, who took control of the local community and married native women. It is not easy to confirm such cases of ' warband ' settlement in the absence of detailed skeletal, and other complementary, information, but assuming that such cases are indicated by very high proportions of weapon burials, this type of settlement was much less frequent than the kin group model.
Nick Higham outlines the main questions:
"It is fairly clear that most Anglo - Saxon cemeteries are unrepresentative of the whole population, and particularly the whole age range. This was, therefore, a community which made decisions about the disposal of the dead based upon various factors, but at those we can barely guess. Was the inclusion of some but not all individuals subject to political control, or cultural screening? Was this a mark of ethnicity or did it represent a particular kinship, real or constructed, or the adherents of a particular cult? Was it status specific, with the rural proletariat -- who would have been the vast majority of the population -- perhaps excluded? So are many of these cemeteries associated with specific, high - status households and weighted particularly towards adult members? We do not know, but the commitment of particular parts of the community to an imported and in some senses ' Germanic ', cremation ritual does seem to have been considerable, and is something which requires explanation. ''
Various forms of molecular evidence have been employed to provide evidence for the Anglo - Saxon settlement.
The inheritance of DNA is a complex process that varies between male and female individuals; consequently this allows the study of separate female and male lineages using mitochondrial DNA and Y - chromosome DNA respectively. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA for short) and Y - chromosome DNA differ from the DNA of diploid nuclear chromosomes in that they are not formed from the combination of both parents ' genes. Rather, males inherit the Y - chromosome directly from their fathers, and both sexes inherit mtDNA directly from their mothers. Consequently, they preserve a genetic record from individual to individual that is altered only through mutation.
An examination of Y - chromosome variation, sampled in an east -- west transect across England and Wales, was compared with similar samples taken in Friesland and Norway. Friesland was selected for the study due to it being regarded as a source location for Anglo - Saxon migrants, and because of the similarities between Old English and Frisian. Samples from Norway were also compared, as this is a source of the later Viking migrations. It found that in England 50 % to 100 % of paternal genetic inheritance was derived from incomers originating in the Germanic coastlands of the North Sea.
Research published in 2003 on Y - chromosome marker variation, taken from a larger sample population and from more sites throughout Britain, came to a different conclusion. This study suggested that in most of England, continental (North German and Danish) paternal genetic input varied between 20 % and 40 %, with York forming an outlier at about 60 %. Southern England, including Kent, had markedly lower frequencies of non-indigenous Y - chromosome markers than eastern England, where Danish Viking settlement is attested. However, the study could not distinguish between North German and Danish populations, thus the relative proportions of genetic input derived from the Anglo - Saxon settlements and later Danish Viking colonisation could not be ascertained.
Historical evidence suggests that following the Anglo - Saxon transition, people of indigenous ethnicity were at an economic and legal disadvantage compared to those having Anglo - Saxon ethnicity. This has led to the development of the "apartheid - like social structure '' theory to explain this high contribution to the modern gene pool, where the proportion of settlers would be smaller.
This view has been challenged by JE Pattison, who suggested that the Y - chromosome evidence could still support the idea of a small settlement of people without the apartheid - like structures. In addition, there is no reliable method for dating the influx of genetic material into Britain from the Continent; and the genetic similarities between people on either side of the North Sea may reflect a cumulative process of population movement, possibly beginning well before the historically attested formation of the Anglo - Saxons or the invasions of the Vikings. The ' apartheid theory ' has received a considerable body of critical comment, especially the genetic studies from which it derives its rationale. Problems with the design of Weale 's study and the level of historical naivete evidenced by some population genetics studies have been particularly highlighted.
Stephen Oppenheimer reviewed the Weale and Capelli studies and suggested that correlations of gene frequency mean nothing without a knowledge of the genetic prehistory of the regions in question. His criticism of these studies is that they generated models based on the historical evidence of Gildas and Procopius, and then selected methodologies to test against these populations. Weale 's transect spotlights that Belgium is further west in the genetic map than North Walsham, Asbourne and Friesland. In Oppenheimer 's view, this is evidence that the Belgae and other continental people -- and hence continental genetic markers indistinguishable from those ascribed to Anglo - Saxons -- arrived earlier and were already strong in the 5th century in particular regions or areas. Oppenheimer, basing his research on the Weale and Capelli studies, maintains that none of the invasions since the Romans have had a significant impact on the gene pool of the British Isles, and that the inhabitants from prehistoric times belong to an Iberian genetic grouping. He says that most people in the British Isles are genetically similar to the Basque people of northern Spain and southwestern France, from 90 % in Wales to 66 % in East Anglia. Oppenheimer suggests that the division between the West and the East of England is not due to the Anglo - Saxon invasion but originates with two main routes of genetic flow -- one up the Atlantic coast, the other from neighbouring areas of Continental Europe -- which occurred just after the Last Glacial Maximum. Bryan Sykes, a former geneticist at Oxford University, came to fairly similar conclusions as Oppenheimer, which he set forth in his 2006 book called Blood of the Isles: Exploring the Genetic Roots of our Tribal History, published in the United States and Canada as Saxons, Vikings and Celts: The Genetic Roots of Britain and Ireland. Many feasible scenarios can be constructed to account for evidence. However, Y - chromosome evidence relies on the archaeological and historical evidence for interpretation, and there is a danger of creating a circular argument. Therefore, scenarios that are not justified by other evidence or are created to account for the historical evidence have not been universally accepted.
In 2016, through the investigation of burials using ancient DNA techniques, researchers found evidence of intermarriage in the earliest phase of Anglo - Saxon settlement. The highest status grave of the burials investigated, as evidenced by the associated goods, was that of a female of local, British, origins. By studying rare mutations and employing whole genome sequencing, it was claimed that the continental and insular origins of the ancient remains could be discriminated, and it was calculated that 25 -- 40 % of the ancestry of modern Britons is attributable to continental ' Anglo - Saxon ' origins. The breakdown of the estimates given in this work into the modern populations of Britain is both interesting and surprising. Whilst the population of eastern England is given a 38 % ' Anglo - Saxon ' ancestry, both Wales and Scotland -- regions not having a historically attested Germanic influx of continental origins -- are given the relatively high figure of 30 % of the same ancestry.
Isotope analysis has begun to be employed to help answer the uncertainties regarding Anglo - Saxon migration; this can indicate whether a buried individual had always lived in the area he was buried in. However, the number of studies is small. Strontium data in a 5th -- 7th - century cemetery in West Heslerston implied the presence of two groups: one of "local '' and one of "nonlocal '' origin. Although the study suggested that they could not define the limits of local variation and identify immigrants with confidence, they could give a useful account of the issues. Oxygen and strontium isotope data in an early Anglo - Saxon cemetery at Wally Corner, Berinsfield in the Upper Thames Valley, Oxfordshire, found only 5.3 % of the sample originating from continental Europe, supporting the hypothesis of acculturation. Furthermore, they found that there was no change in this pattern over time, except amongst some females.
Another isotopic method has been employed to investigate whether protein sources in human diets in the early Anglo - Saxon varied with geographic location, or with respect to age or sex. This would provide evidence for social advantage. The results suggest that protein sources varied little according to geographic location and that terrestrial foods dominated at all locations.
Various scholars have used a synthesis of evidence to present models to suggest an answer to the questions that surround the Anglo - Saxon settlement. These questions include: How many migrants were there? When did the "Saxons '' gain political ascendency? What happened to the ' Romano - Brittonic ' peoples in the south - east of Britain? The Anglo - Saxons were a mix of invaders, migrants and acculturated indigenous people. The ratios and relationships between these formative elements at the time of the Anglo - Saxon settlement are the subject of enquiry. The traditional interpretation of the settlement of Britain has been subject to profound reappraisal, with scholars embracing the evidence for both migration and acculturation. Heinrich Härke explains the nature of this agreement:
"It is now widely accepted that the Anglo - Saxons were not just transplanted Germanic invaders and settlers from the Continent, but the outcome of insular interactions and changes. But we are still lacking explicit models that suggest how this ethnogenetic process might have worked in concrete terms ''.
Knowing the number of migrants who came from the continent provides a context from which scholars can build an interpretation framework and understanding of the events of the 5th and 6th centuries. Robert Hedges in discussing this point observes that "archaeological evidence only addresses these issues indirectly '' The traditional methodology used by archaeology to estimate the number of migrants starts with a figure for the population in Britain in the 3rd and 4th centuries. This is usually estimated at between 2 and 4 million. From this figure it is estimated that the population of Southern and Eastern England is 1 million. Within 200 years the settlement density has been established as an Anglo - Saxon village every 2 -- 5 km, in the areas where evidence has been gathered. Given that these settlements are typically of around 50 people, this implies an Anglo - Saxon population in Southern and Eastern England of 250,000. This estimate is hardly certain, but does provide a ratio of 1 to 4, between those with a settler background and those with an insular background.
The number of migrants therefore depends on the variable of population increase, if the population rose by 1 per cent per year (which is slightly less than the present world population) this would suggest a population of 30,000 migrants. However, if the population rose by 2 percent per year (which is similar to India in the last 20 years) this would suggest a population of 5,000 migrants.
This number is confirmed by the archaeological evidence. The excavations at Spong Hill, for example, revealed over 2,000 cremations and inhumations in what is a very large early cemetery. However, when the period of use is taken into account (over 200 years) and its size, it is presumed to be a major cemetery for the entire area and not just one village, it does point to a smaller rather than large number of original immigrants of 20,000.
Heinrich Härke concluded that "most of the biological and cultural evidence points to a minority immigration on the scale of 10 to 20 % of the native population. The immigration itself was not a single ' invasion ', but rather a series of intrusions and immigrations over a considerable period, differing from region to region, and changing over time even within regions. The total immigrant population may have numbered somewhere between 100,000 and 200,000 over about a century, but the geographical variations in numbers, and in social and ethnic composition, should have led to a variety of settlement processes. ''
Generally, the problems associated with seeking estimates for the population before AD 1089 were set out by Mark Thomas, Michael Stumpf and Heinrich Härke. They suggest that "Incidental reports of numbers of immigrants are notoriously unreliable, and absolute numbers of immigrants before the Norman period can only be calculated as a proportion of the estimated overall population. ''
However, there is a discrepancy between, on the one hand, archaeological and some historical ideas about the scale of the Anglo - Saxon immigration, and on the other, estimates of the genetic contribution of the Anglo - Saxon immigrants to the modern English gene pool (see "Molecular evidence '' above). Mark Thomas, Michael Stumpf and Heinrich Härke created a statistical study of the two groups: those who held the "Migrant '' Y chromosome and those that did n't. They examined the effect of differential reproductive success between those groups, coupled with limited intermarriage between the groups, on the spread of the genetic variant to discover whether the levels of migration needed to meet a 50 % contribution to the modern gene pool. What they found is the genetic pool can rise from less than 5 % to more than 50 % in as little as 200 years with the addition of a slight increase in reproduction advantage of 1.8 (meaning a ratio 51.8 to 50) and restricting the amount of female (migrant genes) and male (indigenous genes) inter-breeding to at most 10 %.
A re-evaluation of the traditional picture of decay and dissolution Post-Roman Britain has occurred, with sub-Roman Britain being thought rather more a part of the Late Antique world of western Europe than was customary a half century ago. As part of this re-evaluation some suggest that sub-Roman Britain, in its entirety, retained a significant political, economic and military momentum across the fifth century and even the bulk of the sixth. This in large part stems from attempts to develop visions of British success against the incoming Anglo - Saxons, as suggested by the Chronicles which were written in the ninth and mid-tenth century. However, recent scholarship has contested the extent to which either can be credited with any level of historicity regarding the decades around AD 500.
The representation of long - lasting British triumphs against the Saxons appears in large parts of the Chronicles, but stem ultimately from Gildas 's brief and frustratingly elusive reference to a British victory at Mons Badonicus -- Mount Badon (see historical evidence above). Nick Higham suggests, that the war between Britons and Saxons seems to have ended in some sort of compromise, which conceded a very considerable sphere of influence within Britain to the incomers. According to Higham;
Kenneth Dark 's argument for continuing British military and political power in the east rests on the very uneven distribution of Anglo - Saxon cemeteries and the proposition that large gaps in that distribution necessarily represent strong British polities which excluded Anglo - Saxon settlers by force. Cremation cemeteries in eastern Britain north of the Thames begin during the second quarter of the fifth century, backed up by new archaeological phases before 450 (see Archaeological evidence above). The chronology of this "adventus '' of cremations is supported by the Gallic Chronicle of 452, which states that wide parts of Britain fell under Saxon rule in 441. However, this did not result in many Brittonic words entering Old English. It seems therefore that no large - scale interaction occurred between incoming "Germanic '' communities and numerous indigenous Brittonic speakers of equivalent social rank. If such interaction had been widespread, then we might have expected far greater language borrowing both in terms of structure and vocabulary (see linguistic evidence above).
The most extreme estimation for the size of the Anglo - Saxon settlement suggests that some 80 % of the resident population of Britain were not Anglo - Saxon. Given that, explanation has been sought to account for the change in culture of the Britons to one where by the 8th Century the majority of people in southern Britain saw themselves as heirs to the Anglo - Saxon culture. Whilst the developments were rather complicated, there are two competing theories.
One theory, first set out by Edward Augustus Freeman, suggests that the Anglo Saxons and the Britons were competing cultures, and that through invasion, extermination, slavery, and forced resettlement the Anglo - Saxons defeated the Britons and consequently their culture and language prevailed. This view has influenced much of the linguistic, scholarly and popular perceptions of the process of anglicisation in Britain. It remains the starting point and ' default position ', to which other hypotheses are compared in modern reviews of the evidence. Widespread extermination and displacement of the native peoples of Britain is still considered a viable possibility by certain scholars. Our best contemporary source, Gildas, certainly suggests that just such a change of populations did take place. However, Freeman 's ideas did not go unchallenged, even as they were being propounded. In particular, the essayist Grant Allen believed in a strong Celtic contribution to Englishness.
Another theory has challenged this view and started to examine evidence that the majority of Anglo Saxons were Brittonic in origin. The major evidence comes firstly from the figures, taking a fairly high Anglo - Saxon figure (200,000) and a low Brittonic one (800,000), Britons are likely to have outnumbered Anglo - Saxons by at least four to one. The interpretation of such figures is that while "culturally, the later Anglo - Saxons and English did emerge as remarkably un-British,... their genetic, biological make - up is none the less likely to have been substantially, indeed predominantly, British ''.
Two processes leading to Anglo - Saxonisation have been proposed. One is similar to culture changes observed in Russia, North Africa and parts of the Islamic world; where a politically and socially powerful minority culture becomes, over a rather short period, adopted by a settled majority. A process usually termed ' elite dominance '.
The second process is explained through incentives, such as the Wergild outlined in the law code of Ine of Wessex which produced an incentive to become Anglo - Saxon or at least English speaking. The wergild of an Englishman was set at a value twice that of a Briton of similar wealth. However, some Britons could be very prosperous and own five hides of land, which gave thegn - like status, with a wergild of 600 shillings. Ine set down requirements to prove guilt or innocence, both for his English subjects and for his British subjects, who were termed ' foreigners / wealas ' (' Welshmen '). The binary ethnic distinction that appears in Ine 's Laws seems to be between ' Englisc / English (' us ') and ' Wylisc / Welsh ' (' them '). Since Ine 's people self - identified as Saxons (West Saxons) this very early use of the word ' English ' (unless it is a later introduction into the text) suggests that it was the use of a particular language, already recognised as a single language, and already called ' English ', that was the crucial determinant in ethnic identity. This implies that in the early Anglo - Saxon period it was language use that was the key determination of ethnicity, and not whether you had "Germanic '' ancestors.
Whatever the case, a continuity of ' sub-Roman ' Britons can not be doubted, as evidenced, for example, by the sheer number of burials which already date to the late 5th and early 6th centuries - otherwise impossible to maintain by even the largest ' migration ' estimates. In addition to the ' highland Tyrants ' in the west, the case has been made by persistence of a ' native ', post-Roman, polity of sorts south of the Thames during much of the fifth century - evidenced by the oppositional deposition of Quoit Brooch Style artefacts in inhumation burials south of the Thames versus ' Scandinavian ' artefacts (such as ' square headed brooches ') within predominantly cremation burial settings dominate north of the Thames (i.e. in "Anglian '' areas). However, a take - over by continental migrants can not be denied, as evidenced by an abrupt end of Quoit Broch style artefacts and inundation of exotic artefacts of a "Jutish ' character in the final decade or two of the fifth century. Thus Ken Dark 's notion of a long chronology of a surviving, even dominant "sub-Roman '' Britain finds little support. Moreover, Halsall argues that ' Britons ' are scarcely if at all visible in the archaeological record of lowland England by the 6th century and beyond, not because of any bizarre notions of ethnic cleansing or ' apartheid ', but simply because, by then, everyone was an ' Anglo - Saxon ', whatever their geographic origin.
The reasons for the success of Anglo - Saxon settlements remains uncertain. Helena Hamerow has made an observation that in Anglo - Saxon society "local and extended kin groups remained... the essential unit of production throughout the Anglo - Saxon period ''. "Local and extended kin groups '' is one of a number of possible reasons for success; along with societal advantages, freedom and the relationship to an elite, that allowed the Anglo - Saxons ' culture and language to flourish in the fifth and sixth centuries.
Nick Higham is convinced that the success of the Anglo - Saxon elite in gaining an early compromise shortly after the Battle of Badon is a key to the success of the culture. This produced a political ascendancy across the south and east of Britain, which in turn required some structure to be successful.
The Bretwalda concept is taken as evidence for a presence of a number of early Anglo - Saxon elite families and a clear unitary oversight. Whether the majority of these leaders were early settlers, descendant from settlers, or especially after the exploration stage they were Roman - British leaders who adopted Anglo - Saxon culture is unclear. The balance of opinion is that most were migrants, although it should n't be assumed they were all Germanic (see Elite personal names evidence). There is agreement: that these were small in number and proportion, yet large enough in power and influence to ensure "Anglo - Saxon '' acculturation in the lowlands of Britain. Most historians believe these elites were those named by Bede, the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle and others, although there is discussion regarding their floruit dates. Importantly, whatever their origin or when they flourished, they established their claim to lordship through their links to extended kin ties. As Helen Peake jokingly points out "they all just happened to be related back to Woden ''.
The Tribal Hidage is evidence of the existence of numerous smaller provinces, meaning that southern and eastern Britain may have lost any macro-political cohesion in the fifth and sixth centuries and fragmented into many small autonomous units, though late Roman administrative organisation of the countryside may have helped dictate their boundaries. By the end of the sixth century the leaders of these communities were styling themselves kings, with the majority of the larger kingdoms based on the south or east coasts. They include the provinces of the Jutes of Hampshire and Wight, the South Saxons, Kent, the East Saxons, East Angles, Lindsey and (north of the Humber) Deira and Bernicia. Several of these kingdoms may have their foundation the former Roman civitas and this has been argued as particularly likely for the provinces of Kent, Lindsey, Deira and Bernicia, all of whose names derive from Romano - British tribal or district names.
The southern and east coasts were, of course, the areas settled first and in greatest numbers by the settlers and so presumably were the earliest to pass from Romano - British to Anglo - Saxon control. Once established they had the advantage of easy communication with continental territories in Europe via the North Sea or the Channel. The east and south coast provinces may never have fragmented to the extent of some areas inland and by the end of the sixth century they were already beginning to expand by annexing smaller neighbours. Barbara Yorke suggests that such aggressiveness must have encouraged areas which did not already possess military protection in the form of kings and their armies to acquire their own war - leaders or protection alliances. By the time of the Tribal Hidage there were also two large ' inland ' kingdoms, those of the Mercians and West Saxons, whose spectacular growth we can trace in par in our sources for the seventh century, but it is not clear how far this expansion had proceeded by the end of the sixth century.
What Bede seems to imply in his Bretwalda list of the elite is the ability to extract tribute and overawe and / or protect communities, which may well have been relatively short - lived in any one instance, but ostensibly "Anglo - Saxon '' dynasties variously replaced one another in this role in a discontinuous but influential and potent roll call of warrior elites, with very few interruptions from other "British '' warlords. The success of this elite was felt beyond their geography, to include neighbouring British territories in the centre and west of what later became England, and even the far west of the island. Again, Bede was very clear that English imperium could on occasion encompass British and English kingships alike, and that Britons and Angles marched to war together in the early seventh century, under both British and English kings. It is Bede who provides the most vivid picture of a late sixth - and early seventh - century Anglian warlord in action, in the person of Æthelfrith of Northumbria, King of Bernicia (a kingdom with a non-English name), who rapidly built up a personal ' empire ' by military victories over the Britons of the North, the Scots of Dalriada, the Angles of Deira and the Britons of north - eastern Wales, only ultimately to experience disaster at the hands of Rædwald of East Anglia.
Where arable cultivation continued in early Anglo - Saxon England, there seems to have been considerable continuity with the Roman period in both field layout and arable practices, although we do not know whether there were also changes to patterns of tenure or the regulation of cultivation. The greatest perceptible alterations in land usage between about 400 and 600 are therefore in the proportions of the land of each community that lay under grass or the plough, rather than in changes to the layout or management of arable fields.
The Anglo - Saxons settled in small groups covering a handful of widely dispersed local communities. These farms were for the most part mobile. This mobility, which was typical across much of Northern Europe took two forms: the gradual shifting of the settlement within its boundaries or the complete location of the settlement altogether. These shifting settlements (called Wandersiedlungen or "wandering settlements '') were a common feature since the Bronze Age. Why farms became abandoned and then relocated is much debated. However it is suggested that this might be related to the death of a patron of the family or the desire to move to better farmlands.
These farms are often falsely supposed to be "peasant farms ''. However, a ceorl, who was the lowest ranking freeman in early Anglo - Saxon society, was not a peasant but an arms - owning male with access to law, support of a kindred and the wergild, situated at the apex of an extended household working at least one hide of land. It is the ceorl that we should associate with the standard 8 -- 10m x 4 -- 5m post-hole building of the early Anglo - Saxon period, grouped with others of the same kin group. Each such household head had a number of less - free dependants.
The success of the rural world in the 5th and 6th centuries, according to the landscape archaeology, was due to three factors: the continuity with the past, with no evidence of up - rooting in the landscape; farmer 's freedom and rights over lands, with provision of a rent or duty to an overlord, who provided only slight lordly input; and the common outfield arable land (of an outfield - infield system) that provided the ability to build kinship and group cultural ties.
The origins of the timber building tradition seen in early Anglo - Saxon England has generated a lot of debate which has mirrored a wider debate about the cultural affinities of Anglo - Saxon material culture.
Philip Rahtz asserted that buildings seen in West Stow and Mucking had late Roman origins. Archaeologist Philip Dixon noted the striking similarity between Anglo - Saxon timber halls and Romano - British rural houses. The Anglo - Saxons did not import the ' long - house ', the traditional dwelling of the continental Germanic peoples, to Britain. Instead they upheld a local vernacular British building tradition dating back to the late first century. This has been interpreted as evidence of the endurance of kinship and household structures from the Roman into the Anglo - Saxon period.
However, this has been considered too neat an explanation for all the evidence. Anne and Gary Marshall summarise the situation:
"One of the main problems in Anglo - Saxon archaeology has been to account for the apparent uniqueness of the English timber structures of the period. These structures seem to bear little resemblance either to earlier Romano - British or to continental models. In essence, the problem is that the hybrid Anglo - Saxon style seems to appear full - blown with no examples of development from the two potentially ancestral traditions... The consensus of the published work was that the Anglo - Saxon building style was predominantly home - grown. ''
For Bryan Ward - Perkins the answer is found in the success of the Anglo - Saxon culture and highlights the micro-diversity and larger cohesion that produced a dynamic force in comparison to the Brittonic culture From beads and quoits to clothes and houses, there is something unique happening in the early Anglo - Saxon period. The material culture evidence shows that people adopted and adapted styles based on set roles and styles. John Hines, commenting on the diversity of nearly a thousand glass beads and many different clothes clasps from Lakenheath, states that these reveal a "society where people relied on others to fulfill a role '' and "what they had around them was making a statement '', not one about the individual, but about "identity between small groups not within small groups ''.
Julian Richards commenting on this and other evidence suggests:
"(The Anglo - Saxon settlement of Britain) was more complex than a mass invasion bringing fully formed lifestyles and beliefs. The early Anglo - Saxon, just like today 's migrants, were probably riding different cultural identities. They brought from their homelands the traditions of their ancestors. But they would have been trying to work out not only who they were, but who they wanted to be... and forge an identity for those who followed. ''
Looking beyond simplistic ' homeland ' scenarios, and explaining the observations that ' Anglo - Saxon ' houses and other aspects of material culture do not find exact matches in the ' Germanic homelands ' in Europe, Halsall explains the changes within the context of a larger ' North Sea interaction zone ', including lowland England, Northern Gaul and northern Germany. These areas experienced marked social and cultural changes in the wake of Roman collapse -- experienced not only within the former Roman provinces (Gaul, Britain) but also in Barbaricum itself. All three areas experienced changes in social structure, settlement patterns and ways of expressing identities, as well as tensions which created push and pull factors for migrations in, perhaps, multiple directions.
The study of pagan religious practice in the early Anglo - Saxon period is difficult. Most of the texts that may contain relevant information are not contemporary, but written later by Christian writers who tended to have a hostile attitude to pre-Christian beliefs, and who may have distorted their portrayal of them. Much of the information used to reconstruct Anglo - Saxon paganism comes from later Scandinavian and Icelandic texts and there is a debate about how relevant these are. The study of pagan Anglo - Saxon beliefs has often been approached with reference to Roman or even Greek typologies and categories. Archaeologists therefore use such terms as gods, myths, temples, sanctuaries, priests, magic and cults. Charlotte Behr argues that this provides a worldview of Anglo - Saxon practice culture which is unhelpful.
Peter Brown employed a new method of looking at the belief systems of the fifth to seventh centuries, by arguing for a model of religion which was typified by a pick and choose approach. The period was exceptional because there was no orthodoxy or institutions to control or hinder the people. This freedom of culture is seen also in the Roman - British community and is very evident in the complaints of Gildas.
One Anglo - Saxon cultural practice that is better understood are the burial customs, due in part to archaeological excavations at various sites including Sutton Hoo, Spong Hill, Prittlewell, Snape and Walkington Wold, and the existence of around 1,200 pagan (or non-Christian) cemeteries. There was no set form of burial, with cremation being preferred in the north and inhumation in the south, although both forms were found throughout England, sometimes in the same cemeteries. When cremation did take place, the ashes were usually placed within an urn and then buried, sometimes along with grave goods. According to archaeologist Dave Wilson, "the usual orientation for an inhumation in a pagan Anglo - Saxon cemetery was west -- east, with the head to the west, although there were often deviations from this. '' Indicative of possible religious belief, grave goods were common amongst inhumation burials as well as cremations; free Anglo - Saxon men were buried with at least one weapon in the pagan tradition, often a seax, but sometimes also with a spear, sword or shield, or a combination of these. There are also a number of recorded cases of parts of animals being buried within such graves. Most common amongst these was body parts belonging to either goats or sheep, although parts of oxen were also relatively common, and there are also isolated cases of goose, crab apples, duck eggs and hazelnuts being buried in graves. It is widely thought therefore that such items constituted a food source for the deceased. In some cases, animal skulls, particularly oxen but also pig, were buried in human graves, a practice that was also found earlier in Roman Britain.
There is also evidence for the continuation of Christianity in south and east Britain. The Christian shrine at St Albans and its martyr cult survived throughout the period (see Gildas above). There are references in Anglo - Saxon poetry, including Beowulf, that show some interaction between pagan and Christian practices and values. While there is little scholarly focus on this subject, there is enough evidence from Gildas and elsewhere that it is safe to assume some continuing - perhaps more free - form of Christianity survived. Richard Whinder states "(The Church 's pre-Augustine) characteristics place it in continuity with the rest of the Christian Church in Europe at that time and, indeed, in continuity with the Catholic faith... today. ''
The complexity of belief, indicated by various pieces of evidence, is disturbing to those looking for easy categories. The extent to which belief was discursive and free during the settlement period suggests a lack of proscription, indeed, this might be a characteristic of Anglo - Saxon cultural success.
Little is known about the everyday spoken language of people living in the migration period. Old English is a contact language and it is hard to reconstruct the pidgin used in this period from the written language found in the West Saxon literature of some 400 years later. Two general theories are proposed regarding why people changed their language to Old English (or an early form of such): either a person or household changed so as to serve an elite, or a person or household changed through choice as it provided some advantage economically or legally.
According to Nick Higham, the adoption of the language -- as well as the material culture and traditions -- of an Anglo - Saxon elite, "by large numbers of the local people seeking to improve their status within the social structure, and undertaking for this purpose rigorous acculturation '', is the key to understanding the Anglo - Saxon from Romano - British transition. The progressive nature of this language acquisition, and the ' retrospective reworking ' of kinship ties to the dominant group led, ultimately, to the "myths which tied the entire society to immigration as an explanation of their origins in Britain ''.
The final few lines of the poem The Battle of Brunanburh, a tenth century Anglo - Saxon poem that celebrates a victory of Æthelstan, the first king of all the English, give a poetic voice to the English conception of their origins.
... Engle and Seaxe upp becomon, ofer brad brimu Britene sohton, wlance wig - smithas, Wealas ofercomon, eorlas ar - hwaete eard begeaton.
... Angles and Saxons came up over the broad sea. Britain they sought, Proud war - smiths who overcame the Welsh, glorious warriors they took hold of the land.
This ' heroic tradition ' of conquering incomers is consistent with the conviction of Bede, and later Anglo - Saxon historians, that the ancestral origin of the English was not the result of any assimilation with the native British, but was derived solely from the Germanic migrants of the post-Roman period. It also explains the enduring appeal of poems and heroic stories such as Beowulf, Wulf and Eadwacer and Judith, well into the Christian period. The success of the language is the most obvious result of the settlement period. This language was not just the language of acculturation, but through the stories, poetry and oral traditions became the agency of change.
Nick Higham has provided this summary of the processes:
"As Bede later implied, language was a key indicator of ethnicity in early England. In circumstances where freedom at law, acceptance with the kindred, access to patronage, and the use of possession of weapons were all exclusive to those who could claim Germanic descent, then speaking Old English without Latin or Brittonic inflection had considerable value. ''
|
what is the name of wendy's dog in peter pan | Characters of Peter Pan - wikipedia
The works of J.M. Barrie about Peter Pan feature many memorable characters. The numerous adaptations and sequels to those stories feature many of the same characters, and introduce new ones. Most of these strive for continuity with Barrie 's work, developing a fairly consistent cast of characters living in Neverland and the real - world settings of Barrie 's stories.
This article covers the characters appearing in the canonical works of Barrie, the official books and plays, the major motion pictures and television series based on them, and the major prequels / sequels (authorised and not):
A number of characters appear throughout J.M. Barrie 's works, including the play Peter Pan, the novel Peter and Wendy, and the novel Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens.
Peter Pan is a free spirited and adventurous young boy who would not grow up. He can fly, and lives on the island called Neverland. He is described as "a lovely boy, clad in skeleton leaves and the juices that ooze out of trees ''. It is also stated that he still has all his baby teeth.
The Lost Boys are a gang of young boys who fell out of their prams and were not claimed by their parents, so Peter brought them to the Neverland. It is implied there has been a succession of lost boys over time, but the boys in Barrie 's work are Tootles, Nibs, Curly, Slightly, and The Twins. Additional or different Lost Boys appear in sequels, prequels and adaptations.
Captain Hook is a pirate and captain of the Jolly Roger. He is Peter Pan 's archenemy and is determined to get revenge on Peter for cutting off his right hand in a battle and feeding it to a crocodile.
Gwendolyn Jane Mary Darling Carlisle is a human girl whom Peter Pan brings to Never Land, and a descendant of Wendy Darling. She lives with her parents and grandmother in the same house that Wendy had lived in so long ago.
Her relationships with Peter, George Darling, Tinker Bell, and the mermaids are all consistent with her being Wendy 's mother, a conclusion hinted at but not confirmed until the fourth book, Peter and the Sword of Mercy. She is called "Molly '' rather than "Mary '', but "Molly '' is a traditional nickname for "Mary ''.
|
where is the international date line located on the world map | International date line - Wikipedia
The International Date Line (IDL) is an imaginary line of navigation on the surface of the Earth that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole and demarcates the change of one calendar day to the next. It passes through the middle of the Pacific Ocean, roughly following the 180 ° line of longitude but deviating to pass around some territories and island groups.
The IDL is roughly based on the meridian of 180 ° longitude, roughly down the middle of the Pacific Ocean, and halfway around the world from the Greenwich meridian. In many places, the IDL follows the 180 ° meridian exactly. In other places, however, the IDL deviates east or west away from that meridian. These various deviations generally accommodate the political and / or economic affiliations of the affected areas.
Proceeding from north to south, the first deviation of the IDL from 180 ° is to pass to the east of Wrangel Island and the Chukchi Peninsula, the easternmost part of Russian Siberia. (Wrangel Island lies directly on the meridian at 71 ° 32 ′ N 180 ° 0 ′ E, also noted as 71 ° 32 ′ N 180 ° 0 ′ W.) It then passes through the Bering Strait between the Diomede Islands at a distance of 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) from each island at 168 ° 58 ′ 37 '' W. It then bends considerably west of 180 °, passing west of St. Lawrence Island and St. Matthew Island.
The IDL crosses between the U.S. Aleutian Islands (Attu Island being the westernmost) and the Commander Islands, which belong to Russia. It then bends southeast again to return to 180 °. Thus, all of Russia is to the west of the IDL, and all of the United States is to the east except for the insular areas of Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and Wake Island.
The IDL remains on the 180 ° meridian until passing the equator. Two US - owned uninhabited atolls, Howland Island and Baker Island, just north of the equator in the central Pacific Ocean (and ships at sea between 172.5 ° W and 180 °), have the latest time on Earth (UTC − 12 hours).
The IDL circumscribes Kiribati by swinging far to the east, almost reaching the 150 ° W meridian. Kiribati 's easternmost islands, the southern Line Islands south of Hawaii, have the most advanced time on Earth, UTC + 14 hours. South of Kiribati, the IDL returns westwards but remains east of 180 °, passing between Samoa and American Samoa.
In much of this area, the IDL follows the 165 ° W meridian. Accordingly, Samoa, Tokelau, Wallis and Futuna, Fiji, Tonga, Tuvalu and New Zealand 's Kermadec Islands and Chatham Islands are all west of the IDL and have the same date. American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Niue, and French Polynesia are east of the IDL and one day behind.
The IDL then bends southwest to return to 180 °. It follows that meridian until reaching Antarctica, which has multiple time zones. Conventionally, the IDL is not drawn into Antarctica on most maps. (See § Cartographic practice and convention below.)
A person who goes around the world from east to west (the same direction as Magellan 's voyage) would gain or set their clock back one hour for every 15 ° of longitude crossed, and would gain 24 hours for one circuit of the globe from east to west if they did not compensate by setting their clock forward one day when they crossed the IDL. In contrast, a west - to - east circumnavigation of the globe loses an hour for every 15 ° of longitude crossed but gains back a day when crossing the IDL. The IDL must therefore be observed in conjunction with the Earth 's time zones: on crossing it in either direction, the calendar date is adjusted by one day.
For the two hours between 10: 00 and 11: 59 UTC each day, three different calendar dates are observed at the same time in different places on Earth. For example, at 10: 15 UTC Thursday, it is 23: 15 Wednesday in American Samoa (UTC − 11), Thursday in most of the world, and 00: 15 Friday in Kiritimati (UTC + 14).
During the first hour (UTC 10: 00 -- 10: 59), all three calendar dates include inhabited places. During the second hour (UTC 11: 00 -- 11: 59) one of the calendar dates is limited to an uninhabited maritime time zone twelve hours behind UTC (UTC − 12).
According to the clock, the first areas to experience a new day and a New Year are islands that use UTC + 14. These include portions of the Republic of Kiribati, including Millennium Island in the Line Islands, as well as Samoa during the southern summer. The first major cities to experience a new day are Auckland and Wellington, New Zealand (UTC + 12; UTC + 13 with daylight saving time).
A 1995 realignment of the IDL made Caroline Island one of the first points of land on Earth to reach January 1, 2000 on the calendar (UTC + 14). As a result, this atoll was renamed Millennium Island.
The areas that are the first to see the daylight of a new day vary by the season. Around the June solstice, the first area would be anyplace within the Kamchatka Time Zone (UTC + 12) that is far enough north to experience midnight sun on the given date. At the equinoxes, the first place to see daylight would be the uninhabited Millennium Island in Kiribati, which is the easternmost land located west of the IDL.
Near the December solstice, the first places would be Antarctic research stations using New Zealand Time (UTC + 13) during summer that experience midnight sun. These include Amundsen - Scott South Pole Station, McMurdo Station, Scott Base and Mario Zucchelli Station.
There are two ways time zones and thereby the location of the International Date Line are determined, one on land and adjacent territorial waters, and the other on open seas.
All nations unilaterally determine their standard time zones, applicable only on land and adjacent territorial waters. This date line can be called de facto since it is not based on international law, but on national laws. These national zones do not extend into international waters.
The nautical date line, not the same as the IDL, is a de jure construction determined by international agreement. It is the result of the 1917 Anglo - French Conference on Time - keeping at Sea, which recommended that all ships, both military and civilian, adopt hourly standard time zones on the high seas. The United States adopted its recommendation for U.S. military and merchant marine ships in 1920. This date line is implied but not explicitly drawn on time zone maps. It follows the 180 ° meridian except where it is interrupted by territorial waters adjacent to land, forming gaps -- it is a pole - to - pole dashed line. The 15 ° gore that is offset from UTC by 12 hours is bisected by the nautical date line into two 7.5 ° gores that differ from UTC by ± 12 hours.
Ships are supposed to adopt the standard time of a country if they are within its territorial waters within 12 nautical miles (14 mi; 22 km) of land, then revert to international time zones (15 ° wide pole - to - pole gores) as soon as they leave. In reality, ships use these time zones only for radio communication and similar purposes. For internal purposes, such as work and meal hours, ships use a time zone of their own choosing.
The IDL on the map on this page and all other maps is based on the de facto line and is an artificial construct of cartographers, as the precise course of the line in international waters is arbitrary. The IDL does not extend into Antarctica on the world time zone maps by the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) or the United Kingdom 's Her Majesty 's Nautical Almanac Office (HMNAO). The IDL on modern CIA maps now reflects the most recent shifts in the IDL (see § Historical alterations below). The current HMNAO map does not draw the IDL in conformity with recent shifts in the IDL; it draws a line virtually identical to that adopted by the UK 's Hydrographic Office about 1900. Instead, HMNAO labels island groups with their time zones, which do reflect the most recent IDL shifts. This approach is consistent with the principle of national and nautical time zones: the islands of eastern Kiribati are actually "islands '' of Asian date (west side of IDL) in a sea of American date (east side of IDL).
No international organization, nor any treaty between nations, has fixed the IDL drawn by cartographers: the 1884 International Meridian Conference explicitly refused to propose or agree to any time zones, stating that they were outside its purview. The conference resolved that the Universal Day, midnight - to - midnight Greenwich Mean Time (now known as Coordinated Universal Time, or UTC), which it did agree to, "shall not interfere with the use of local or standard time where desirable ''. From this comes the utility and importance of UTC or "Z (Zulu) '' time: it permits a single universal reference for time that is valid for all points on the globe at the same moment.
As part of New Spain, the Philippines long had its most important communication with Acapulco in Mexico and was accordingly on the east side of the IDL despite being at the far western edge of the Pacific Ocean. From 1521 to 1844, the Philippines was one day behind its Asian neighbors (1521 was the first European visit, when Ferdinand Magellan claimed the area for Spain. Colonization began in 1565). After Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821, Philippine trade interests turned to Imperial China, the Dutch East Indies and adjacent areas, so the Philippines decided to shift back to the west side of the IDL by removing Tuesday, 31 December 1844 from its calendar. The change was also applied to Mariana Islands, Guam and Caroline Islands since they also belonged to Spain. Because of this change, New Year 's Eve happened on Monday, 30 December 1844. Effective Wednesday, 1 January 1845, the Philippines, Guam, Mariana Islands and Caroline Islands switched back to Asian date. Western publications were generally unaware of this change until the early 1890s, so erroneously gave the International Date Line a large western bulge for the next half century.
The Russian Empire settled northwest North America from Siberia, from the west with its own Julian calendar (it did not adopt the Gregorian calendar until 1918). The United States purchased Russian America while based in the contiguous United States, from the east with its own Gregorian calendar (adopted in 1752 while several British colonies). The transfer ceremony occurred on the day that the commissioners appointed by the governments of Russia and the United States for that purpose arrived via the USS Ossipee at New Archangel (Sitka), the capital of Russian America. The United States recorded this date as Friday, 18 October 1867 (Gregorian), now known as Alaska Day, whereas the Russian governor, who had remained in New Archangel, would have recorded it as Saturday, 7 October 1867 (Julian). Senator Charles Sumner stated during his three - hour ratification speech (an encyclopedic discussion of Russian America) on Tuesday, 9 April 1867, that this day of the week and calendar discord should be changed. Because the transfer of ownership officially occurred at 3: 30 p.m. Sitka mean solar time (time zones were not yet in use), that was the date and time that Alaska changed from an Asian and Julian date to an American and Gregorian date. If the transfer had occurred at the preceding midnight then Friday, 6 October 1867 (Julian) would have been followed by Friday, 18 October 1867 (Gregorian), a duplicate day with a 12 - day difference appropriate both for changing from an Asian date to an American date (equivalent to moving the IDL from the east to the west of Alaska) and for changing from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar during the 19th century.
The Samoan Islands, now divided into Samoa and American Samoa, were on the west side of the IDL until 1892. In that year, King Malietoa Laupepa was persuaded by American traders to adopt the American date (three hours behind California) to replace the former Asian date (four hours ahead of Japan). The change was made by repeating 4 July 1892, American Independence Day.
In 2011, Samoa shifted back to the west side of the IDL by removing Friday, 30 December 2011 from its calendar. This changed the timezone from UTC − 11 to UTC + 13. Samoa made the change because Australia and New Zealand have become its biggest trading partners, and also have large communities of expatriates. Being 21 hours behind made business difficult because having weekends on backward days meant only four days of the week were shared workdays.
The IDL now passes between Samoa and American Samoa, which remains on the east (American) side of the line.
Tokelau is a territory of New Zealand north of Samoa whose principal transportation and communications links with the rest of the world pass through Samoa. For that reason, Tokelau crossed the IDL along with Samoa in 2011.
Kwajalein atoll, like the rest of the Marshall Islands, passed from Spanish to German to Japanese control during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. During that period it was west of the IDL. Although Kwajalein formally became part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands with the rest of the Marshalls after World War II, the United States established a military installation there. Because of that, Kwajalein used the Hawaiian date, so was effectively east of the International Date Line (unlike the rest of the Marshalls). Kwajalein returned to the west side of the IDL by removing Saturday, 21 August 1993 from its calendar to match the dates used by the rest of the Marshall Islands, at the request of its government. Along with the shift, Kwajalein 's work week was changed to Tuesday through Saturday to match the Hawaiian work week of Monday through Friday on the other side of the IDL.
As a British colony, the now - Republic of Kiribati was centred in the Gilbert Islands, just west of the IDL of the time. Upon independence in 1979, it acquired the Phoenix and Line Islands, east of the IDL, from the United States. As a result, the country straddled the IDL. Government and commercial concerns on opposite sides of the line could only conduct routine business by radio or telephone on the four days of the week which were weekdays on both sides. To eliminate this anomaly, Kiribati introduced a change of date for its eastern half on Sunday, 1 January 1995. After the change, the IDL in effect moved eastwards to go around the entire country. Strictly legal, the 1917 nautical IDL convention is still valid. When the land time zone says it 's Monday, these islands would form enclaves of Monday in an ocean which has Sunday. Maps are usually not drawn this way.
As a consequence of the 1995 change, Kiribati 's easternmost territory, the Line Islands, including the inhabited island of Kiritimati (Christmas Island), started the year 2000 before any other country, a feature the Kiribati government capitalized upon as a potential tourist draw.
Generally, the Christian calendar and Christian churches recognize the authority of the IDL. Christmas for example, is celebrated on 25 December (according to either the Gregorian or the Julian calendar, depending upon which of the two is used by the particular church) as that date falls in countries located on either side of the Date Line. Thus, whether it is Western Christmas or Orthodox Christmas, Christians in Samoa, immediately west of the Date Line, will celebrate the holiday a day before Christians in American Samoa, which is immediately east of the Date Line.
A problem with the general rule above arises in certain Christian churches that solemnly observe a Sabbath day as a particular day of the week, when those churches are located in countries near the Date Line. Notwithstanding the difference in dates, the same sunrise happened over American Samoa as happens over Samoa a few minutes later, and the same sunset happens over Samoa as happened over American Samoa a few minutes earlier. In other words, the secular days are legally different but they are physically the same; and that causes questions to arise under religious law.
Because the Date Line was an arbitrary imposition, the question can arise as to which Saturday on either side of the Date Line (or, more fundamentally, on either side of 180 degrees longitude) is the "real '' Saturday. This issue (which also arises in Judaism) is a particular problem for Seventh Day Adventists, Seventh Day Baptists, and similar churches located in countries near the Date Line.
In Tonga, Seventh Day Adventists (who usually observe Saturday, the seventh - day Sabbath) observe Sunday due to their understanding of the International Date Line, as Tonga lies east of the 180 ° meridian. Sunday as observed in Tonga (as with Kiribati, Samoa, and parts of Fiji and Tuvalu) is considered by the Seventh - day Adventist Church to be the same day as Saturday observed in most other places.
Most Seventh Day Adventists in Samoa planned to observe Sabbath on Sunday after Samoa 's crossing the date line in December 2011, but SDA groups in Samatau village and other places (approx. 300 members) decided to accept the IDL adjustment and observe the Sabbath on Saturday. Debate continues within the Seventh - day Adventist community in the Pacific as to which day is really the seventh - day Sabbath.
The Samoan Independent Seventh - day Adventist Church, which is not affiliated to the worldwide Seventh - day Adventist Church, has decided to continue worshiping on Saturday, after a six - day week at the end of 2011.
Similarly, the Islamic calendar and Muslim communities recognize the convention of the IDL. In particular, the day for holding the Jumu'ah prayer appears to be local Friday everywhere in the world.
The IDL is not a factor in the start and end of Islamic lunar months. These depend solely on sighting the new crescent moon. As an example, the fasts of the month of Ramadan begin the morning after the crescent is sighted. That this day may vary in different parts of the world is well known in Islam. (See Ramadan § Beginning.)
The concept of an international date line in Jewish law is first mentioned by 12th - century decisors. But it was not until the introduction of improved transportation and communications systems in the 20th century that the question of an international date line truly became a question of practical Jewish law.
As a practical matter, the conventional International Date Line -- or another line in the Pacific Ocean close to it -- serves as a de facto date line for purposes of Jewish law, at least in existing Jewish communities. For example, residents of the Jewish communities of Japan, New Zealand, Hawaii, and French Polynesia all observe Shabbat on local Saturday. However, there is not unanimity as to how Jewish law reaches that conclusion. For this reason, some authorities rule that certain aspects of Sabbath observance are required on Sunday (in Japan and New Zealand) or Friday (in Hawaii and French Polynesia) in addition to Saturday. Additionally, there are differences of opinion as to which day or days individual Jews traveling in the Pacific region away from established Jewish communities should observe Shabbat.
For individuals crossing the date line, the change of calendar date influences some aspects of practice under Jewish law. Yet other aspects depend on an individual 's experience of sunsets and sunrises to count days, notwithstanding the calendar date.
The date line is a central factor in Umberto Eco 's book The Island of the Day Before (1994), in which the protagonist finds himself on a becalmed ship, with an island close at hand on the other side of the IDL. Unable to swim, the protagonist indulges in increasingly confused speculation regarding the physical, metaphysical and religious import of the date line.
The concept behind the IDL (though not the IDL itself, which did not yet exist) appears as a plot device in Jules Verne 's book Around the World in Eighty Days (1873). The main protagonist, Phileas Fogg, travels eastward around the world. He had bet with his friends that he could do it in 80 days. To win the wager, Fogg must return by 8: 45 pm on Saturday, 21 December 1872. However, the journey suffers a series of delays and when Fogg reaches London, it 's 8: 50 pm on Friday, 20 December, although he believes it 's Saturday, 21 December and that he has lost the wager by a margin of only five minutes. The next day, however, it is revealed that the day is Saturday, not Sunday, and Fogg arrives at his club just in time to win the bet. Verne explains:
In journeying eastward he (Fogg) had gone towards the sun, and the days therefore diminished for him as many times four minutes as he crossed degrees in this direction. There are three hundred and sixty degrees on the circumference of the earth; and these three hundred and sixty degrees, multiplied by four minutes, gives precisely twenty - four hours -- that is, the day unconsciously gained. In other words, while Phileas Fogg, going eastward, saw the sun pass the meridian eighty times, his friends in London only saw it pass the meridian seventy - nine times.
Fogg had thought it was one day more than it actually was, because he had forgotten this simple fact. During his journey, he had added a full day to his clock, at the rhythm of an hour per fifteen degrees, or four minutes per degree, as Verne writes. At the time, the concept of a de jure International Date Line did not exist. If it did, he would have been made aware that it would be a day less than it used to be once he reached this line. Thus, the day he would add to his clock throughout his journey would be thoroughly removed upon crossing this imaginary line. But a de facto date line did exist since the UK, India and the US had the same calendar with different local times, and he should have noticed when he arrived to the US that the local date was not the same as in his diary (his servant Jean Passepartout kept his clock in London time, despite the tips of his surroundings).
Ceremonies aboard ships to mark a sailor 's or passenger 's first crossing of the Equator, as well as crossing the International Date Line, have been long - held traditions in navies and in other maritime services around the world.
The need for a temporal discontinuity on the globe can be described mathematically as following from the Borsuk - Ulam Theorem in dimension 1: It is a topological fact that there does not exist any continuous, one - to - one function mapping from a circle onto an interval.
Coordinates: 0 ° N 180 ° W / 0 ° N 180 ° W / 0; - 180
|
who is the chief of air force of india | Chief of the Air Staff (India) - wikipedia
Chief of the Air Staff is the professional head and the commander of the Indian Air Force. The position is abbreviated as CAS in the Indian Air Force cables and communication, and is usually held by a four - star air officer of the rank Air Chief Marshal. The current CAS is Air Chief Marshal Birender Singh Dhanoa who took office on 31 December 2016, following the retirement of Air Chief Marshal Arup Raha.
The position was held by an Air Commodore (1919 -- 1923), by an Air Vice-Marshal (1923 -- 1929) and by an Air Marshal (1929 -- 1965). In 1966, the position was upgraded to that of an Air Chief Marshal. The highest rank in the India 's IAF is Marshal of the Air Force, which is conferred by the President of India only in exceptional circumstances. It has only been given once in January 2002 to Marshal of the Indian Air Force Arjan Singh. This is a five - star rank and is equivalent to a Field Marshal in the Army and Admiral of the Fleet in the Navy.
(On 15 August 1947, the unified RIAF was separated into the Royal Indian Air Force and the Royal Pakistan Air Force)
The following tables chronicle the appointees to the office of the Chief of the Air Staff or its preceding positions since the independence of India.
(* * Seconded from the Royal Air Force)
Only once has this rank ever been given:
|
where do the members of the tragically hip live | The Tragically Hip - Wikipedia
The Tragically Hip, often referred to simply as The Hip, are a Canadian rock band from Kingston, Ontario, currently consisting of guitarist Paul Langlois, guitarist Rob Baker (known as Bobby Baker until 1994), bassist Gord Sinclair, and drummer Johnny Fay. They have released 14 studio albums, two live albums, one EP, and 54 singles. Nine of their albums have reached No. 1 on the Canadian charts. They have received numerous Canadian music awards, including 16 Juno Awards.
Following lead singer Gord Downie 's diagnosis with terminal brain cancer in 2015, the band undertook a tour of Canada in support of their thirteenth album Man Machine Poem. The tour 's final concert, which would ultimately be the band 's last show with Downie, was held at the Rogers K - Rock Centre in Kingston on August 20, 2016 and broadcast globally by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation as a cross-platform television, radio and internet streaming special. Downie died on October 17, 2017; before his death, however, he indicated in interviews that the band had unreleased material that may still be issued as one or more new albums in the future.
The Tragically Hip formed in 1984 in Kingston, Ontario. Gord Sinclair and Rob Baker were students at Kingston Collegiate and had performed together at the KCVI Variety Show as the Rodents. Baker and Sinclair joined with Downie and Fay in 1984 and began playing gigs around Kingston with some memorable stints at Clark Hall Pub and Alfie 's, student bars on Queen 's University campus. Guitarist Paul Langlois joined in 1986; saxophonist Davis Manning left that same year. They took their name from a skit in the Michael Nesmith movie Elephant Parts.
By the mid-1980s they performed in small music venues across Ontario until being seen by then - MCA President Bruce Dickinson at the Horseshoe Tavern in Toronto. They were then signed to a long - term record deal with MCA, and recorded the self - titled EP The Tragically Hip. The album produced two singles, "Small Town Bring - Down '' and "Highway Girl ''.
They followed up with 1989 's Up to Here. This album produced four singles, "Blow at High Dough '', "New Orleans Is Sinking '', "Boots or Hearts '', and "38 Years Old ''. All four of these songs found extensive rotation on modern rock radio play lists in Canada. Road Apples followed in 1991, producing three singles ("Little Bones '', "Twist My Arm '', and "Three Pistols '') and reaching No. 1 on Canadian record charts. During the Road Apples tour, Downie became recognized for ranting and telling fictional stories during songs such as "Highway Girl '' and "New Orleans is Sinking ''.
The sound on these first two full - length albums is sometimes characterized as "blues - tinged, '' although there are definite acoustic punctuations throughout both discs. While the band failed to achieve significant international success with these first two albums, their sales and dominance of modern rock radio in Canada gave them license to subsequently explore their sound.
The Hip released another album, Fully Completely in 1992, which produced the singles "Locked in the Trunk of a Car '', "Courage '', and "At the Hundredth Meridian '' and three others. The sound on this album displayed less of a blues influence than previous albums. The Hip created and headlined the first Another Roadside Attraction tour at this time, both to act as a vehicle for their touring, and to promote other Canadian acts (as well as non-Canadians Ziggy Marley and Pere Ubu).
Many songs from Day For Night were first performed prior to their release during the 1993 Another Roadside Attraction Tour. "Nautical Disaster '' was played frequently in the middle of "New Orleans is Sinking '', an early version of "Thugs '' was tested, and Downie sang lyrics from many other Day For Night songs, such as "Grace, Too '', "Scared '', and "Emergency '', during this tour.
Day for Night was then released in 1994, producing six singles, including "Nautical Disaster '' and "Grace, Too ''. Trouble at the Henhouse followed in 1996, producing five singles, including "Ahead by a Century '' and "Butts Wigglin '', which would also appear on the soundtrack to the Kids in the Hall movie Brain Candy. Live Between Us, was recorded on the subsequent tour at Cobo Arena in Detroit, Michigan.
The band developed a unique sound and ethos, leaving behind its earlier blues influence. Downie 's vocal style changed while the band experimented with song structures and chord progressions. Songs explored the themes of Canadian geography and history, water and land, all motifs that became heavily associated with the Hip. While Fully Completely began an exploration of deeper themes, many critics consider Day for Night to be the Hip 's artistry most fully realized. The sound here is typically called "enigmatic '' and "dark '', while critic MacKenzie Wilson praises "the poignancy of Downie 's minimalism. ''
On the follow - up tour for this album, the band made its only appearance on Saturday Night Live, thanks in large part to the finagling of fellow Canadian and Kingston - area resident Dan Aykroyd. The band 's performance on the show was one of their highest profile media appearances in the United States.
In July 1996, the Hip headlined Edenfest. The three - day concert took place at Mosport Park, in Bowmanville, Ontario, Canada, just a few months after the LP Trouble At the Henhouse was released. The concert sold over 70,000 tickets total and was attended by an estimated 20,000 additional people who gained access to the concert site after the outside security broke down.
In 1998, the band released their seventh full - length album, Phantom Power, which produced five singles. It won the 1999 Juno Awards for Best Rock Album and Best Album Design. A single from the album, "Bobcaygeon '', won the Juno Award for Single of the Year in 2000. The album has been certified platinum three times over in Canada.
In February 1999, the Hip played the very first concert at the brand new Air Canada Centre in Toronto, Ontario. In July 1999, the band was part of the lineup for the Woodstock ' 99 festival in Rome, New York
2000 saw the release of Music @ Work. It won the 2001 Juno Award for Best Rock Album. The album featured back - up vocals from Julie Doiron on a number of tracks, and reached No. 1 on the Canadian Billboard Charts.
In 2002, In Violet Light, recorded by Hugh Padgham and Terry Manning at Compass Point Studios in the Bahamas was released, along with three singles from the album. It became certified platinum in Canada. Later that year, the Hip made a cameo appearance in the Paul Gross film Men with Brooms, playing a curling team from their hometown of Kingston. Two of their songs, "Poets '' and "Throwing Off Glass '', were also featured on the film 's soundtrack.
On October 10, 2002, the Tragically Hip performed two songs, "It 's a Good Life If You Do n't Weaken '' and "Poets '', as part of a command performance for Queen Elizabeth II. In 2003, the band recorded a cover of "Black Day in July '', a song about the 1967 12th Street Riot in Detroit, on Beautiful: A Tribute to Gordon Lightfoot.
In Between Evolution was released in 2004 in the No. 1 position in Canada. It has since sold over 100,000 copies.
At the 92nd Grey Cup held November 21, 2004, the band provided the halftime entertainment in front of a packed house at Frank Clair Stadium in Ottawa.
In 2004, in episode 15 ("Rock On ''), season 2 of Canadian comedy TV series Corner Gas, the Tragically Hip gave a cameo appearance as an unnamed local band rehearsing in Brent 's garage. They play a rough version of the song It Ca n't Be Nashville Every Night from their In Between Evolution album until interrupted and asked to leave by Brent, Wanda, and Hank. As they disappointedly go, Wanda demands that Gord Sinclair and Rob Baker leave behind their amplifiers.
In October 2005, several radio stations temporarily stopped playing "New Orleans Is Sinking '', out of sensitivity to the victims of Hurricane Katrina, which had devastated the city in early September of that year. However it received considerable pirate radio and relief site play and gained some notoriety and praise in New Orleans due to its attitudinal proximity to the city 's culture.
On November 1, 2005, the Hip released a double CD, double DVD box set, Hipeponymous, including all of their singles and music videos to date, a backstage documentary called "Macroscopic '', an animated Hip - scored short film entitled "The Right Whale '', two brand new songs ("No Threat '' and "The New Maybe ''), a full - length concert from November 2004 That Night in Toronto, and a 2 - CD greatest hits collection Yer Favourites (selected on - line by 150,000 fans). On November 8, 2005, Yer Favourites and That Night In Toronto were released individually.
In 2006, another studio album, entitled World Container, was released, being notably produced by Bob Rock. It produced four singles, and reached the No. 1 spot on the Canadian rock music charts. The band toured concert dates in major Canadian cities, and then as an opening act for the Who on several US dates. A tour of Eastern Canada, Europe, and select cities in the United States occurred late in the year.
On February 23, 2008, the Hip returned to their hometown of Kingston, Ontario, where they were the first live act to perform at the new K - Rock Centre.
In 2009, the band again worked with producer Bob Rock, and We Are the Same was released in North America on April 7, 2009. It produced three singles. To promote We Are the Same, the band invited The Hour 's George Stroumboulopoulos for a live interview at The Bathouse Recording Studio in Bath, Ontario (where most of the album was recorded), and they played seven new songs as well as unique versions of five other songs. The interview and performance were broadcast live in more than eighty theatres across Canada.
On January 22, 2010, the band performed "Fiddler 's Green '' at the "Canada for Haiti '' telethon to aid earthquake victims in that country. This was broadcast nationally on all three of Canada 's main networks (CBC, Global, and CTV).
On May 12, 2012, a 90 - second clip of the song "At Transformation '', the first single from the band 's new album, premiered during Hockey Night in Canada. The full song premiered on Toronto radio station CFNY - FM (102.1 The Edge) on May 16. The song was released to radio stations on May 17 and was officially released on iTunes on May 18. Band member Johnny Fay revealed that the title for the album is Now for Plan A. The second single, "Streets Ahead, '' was released on August 24. The album (their 12th studio album), produced by Gavin Brown, was released on October 2, 2012. The band played several live "Nashville '' style shows that week at the Supermarket bar in Kensington market to promote the release of this record. On the evening of October 2, they played a full set to a packed bar with a live webcast through tdsmultimedia to livestream, and an audio simulcast on Sirius XM.
The Tragically Hip re-entered their studio in July 2014 to begin work on a new album. The following October, Fully Completely was re-released as a remastered deluxe edition, including two bonus tracks, a vinyl edition and a recording of a live show. To celebrate and promote the re-release, the band toured Canada and the United States from January to October 2015.
On May 24, 2016, the band announced that Downie had been diagnosed with terminal brain cancer. The band also announced that, despite his condition, they would tour that summer.
The Hip 's thirteenth album, Man Machine Poem, was released on June 17, 2016.
The final concert of the Man Machine Poem tour was held at the Rogers K - Rock Centre in the band 's hometown of Kingston on August 20, 2016. The concert was attended by Canadian prime minister Justin Trudeau. The concert was aired by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation as a live cross-platform broadcast on CBC Television, CBC Radio One, CBC Radio 2, CBC Music, and YouTube. The concert featured 30 songs and three encore sets, with the band finishing with a performance of "Ahead by a Century ''. The CBC 's broadcast and live streaming of the concert, uninterrupted by advertisements, was watched by 11.7 million people (roughly one - third of the Canadian population).
On October 13, 2016, Downie gave an interview, his first since his cancer diagnosis, to CBC 's Peter Mansbridge, in which he reported experiencing memory loss. Downie also told Mansbridge that he was working with the Tragically Hip on new studio material, and that the band have up to four albums worth of unreleased material in the vaults.
Downie released his fifth solo album, Secret Path on October 18, 2016. The album is a concept album about Chanie Wenjack, a First Nations boy who escaped from a Canadian Indian residential school in 1966 and died while attempting to make the 600 km walk back to his home.
On December 22, 2016, Downie was selected as The Canadian Press ' Canadian Newsmaker of the Year and was the first entertainer ever selected for the title.
On June 15, 2017, all five members of The Tragically Hip were announced as recipients of the Order of Canada by Governor General of Canada David Johnston. Downie received his honour on June 19; the other four members of the band were invested on November 17.
The band and the tour are the subjects of Jennifer Baichwal and Nicholas de Pencier 's documentary film Long Time Running, which premiered at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival. It was slated to have its television premiere in November 2017 on CTV, but following Downie 's death the network moved the broadcast up to October 20.
Gord Downie died on October 17, 2017. His death was widely mourned throughout Canada. Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, who is a fan of the Tragically Hip, released a tribute statement on his official website the morning after Downie 's death. Later in the day, he held a press conference at Parliament Hill at which he eulogized Downie as "Our buddy Gord, who loved this country with everything he had -- and not just loved it in a nebulous, ' Oh, I love Canada ' way. He loved every hidden corner, every story, every aspect of this country that he celebrated his whole life. ''
Following Downie 's death, many of the band 's albums climbed the Billboard Canadian Albums chart, which is compiled by Neilsen Music. In the week ending 19 October 2017 (the day following the announcement of Downie 's death), Yer Favourites rose to # 2 in the chart, with another 10 albums moving to the Top 200. Streaming also increased 700 percent, and many of The Tragically Hip 's top hits remained on the Spotify Canadian Viral 50 as of 23 October 2017.
The Tragically Hip 's music is extremely popular in their native Canada, and Downie 's songwriting has been praised for frequently touching upon uniquely Canadian subjects not otherwise covered by mainstream rock groups.
Despite their high popularity in Canada, the group was never able to crossover into the American rock music scene, apart from a small, devoted fanbase centered in border cities like Buffalo, New York. The band notched four entries on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks singles chart in the US; their highest charting song on the chart being "Courage (for Hugh MacLennan) '', which reached # 16 in 1993.
The band were named as an influence by several Canadian musicians and bands across multiple genres, including Dallas Green, k - os, and Kevin Drew.
Current members
Former members
SOCAN Awards
Canada 's Walk of Fame:
Canadian Music Hall of Fame:
Royal Conservatory of Music:
Governor General 's Performing Arts Awards:
Juno Awards
Order of Canada
Homages:
|
what is considered the turning point of the civil war | Turning point of the American Civil war - wikipedia
There is widespread disagreement among historians about the turning point of the American Civil War. A turning point in this context is an event that occurred during the conflict after which most modern scholars would agree that the eventual outcome was inevitable. While the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863 is the event most widely cited as the military climax of the American Civil War (often in combination with the Siege of Vicksburg, which concluded a day later), there were several other decisive battles and events throughout the war which have been proposed as turning points. These events are presented here in chronological order. Only the positive arguments for each are given.
At the time of an event, the fog of war often makes it impossible to recognize all of the implications of any specific outcome. Only hindsight can fully reveal the endpoint and all of the developments that led up to it. For this reason, contemporary observers may lack confidence in predicting a turning point. Many of the turning points of the Civil War cited here would not have been recognized as such at the time.
The First Battle of Bull Run, on July 21, 1861, was the first major land battle of the war. Until this time, the North was generally confident about its prospects for quickly crushing the rebellion with an easy, direct strike against the Confederate capital at Richmond, Virginia. The embarrassing rout of Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell 's army during the battle made clear the fallacy of this viewpoint. Many Northerners were shocked and realized that the war was going to be much lengthier and bloodier than they had anticipated. It steeled their determination. Lincoln immediately signed legislation that increased the Union Army by 500,000 men and allowed for their terms of service to last the duration of the war. Congress quickly passed the Confiscation Act of 1861, which provided for freeing slaves whose masters participated in the rebellion and was the first attempt to define the war legislatively as a matter of ending slavery. If Confederates had hoped before this that they could sap Northern determination and quietly slip away from the Union with a minor military investment, their victory at Bull Run, ironically, destroyed those hopes.
By mid-1861, eleven states had seceded, but four more slave - owning states remained in the Union -- Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware. Kentucky was considered the most at risk; the state legislature had declared neutrality in the dispute, which was seen as a moderately pro-Confederate stance. The loss of Kentucky might have been catastrophic because of its control of the strategic Tennessee and Ohio Rivers and its position from which the vital state of Ohio could be invaded. Lincoln wrote, "I think to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game. ''
On September 3, 1861, Confederate General Leonidas Polk extended his defensive line north from Tennessee when Gideon Pillow occupied Columbus, Kentucky (in response to Ulysses S. Grant 's occupation of Belmont, Missouri, directly across the Mississippi River). Polk followed this by moving through the Cumberland Gap and occupying parts of southeastern Kentucky. This violation of state neutrality enraged many of its citizens; the state legislature, overriding the veto of the governor, requested assistance from the federal government. Kentucky was never again a safe area of operation for Confederate forces. Ironically, Polk 's actions were not directed by the Confederate government. Thus, almost by accident, the Confederacy was placed at an enormous strategic disadvantage. Indeed, the early Union successes in the Western Theater (the locale of all their successful large - scale non-naval initiatives until 1864) can be directly tied to Polk 's blunder.
The capture of Forts Henry and Donelson, and the Confederate surrender at the latter, were the first significant Union victories during the war and the start of a mostly successful campaign in the Western Theater. Ulysses S. Grant completed both actions by February 16, 1862, and by doing so, opened the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers as Union supply lines and avenues of invasion to Tennessee, Mississippi, and eventually Georgia. The loss of control of these rivers was a significant strategic defeat for the Confederacy. This was the start of offensive actions by Grant that, with the sole exception of the Battle of Shiloh, would continue for the rest of the war.
Albert Sidney Johnston was considered one of the best generals serving in the Western Theater. By 1862, he commanded all Confederate forces between the Cumberland Gap and Arkansas. Before the battles of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, Johnston had advocated improving the forts ' structures as well as deploying additional troops and arms to more adequately defend them. The Confederate government failed to meet these recommendations. Ulysses S. Grant captured the forts in February 1862 and launched a full - scale invasion of Tennessee. The fall of these forts was inaccurately blamed on Johnston. He was not ready to give up yet.
In March 1862, Johnston organized the Army of Mississippi with P.G.T. Beauregard. He launched his attack at the Battle of Shiloh in April 1862. Johnston 's plan was to drive the Union army from its landing point on the Tennessee River into the surrounding swamps. He assigned Beauregard to coordinate the attack. Beauregard disagreed with his strategy and instead planned to drive the enemy back toward the river. He in turn directed reconnaissance at this plan, resulting in the ultimate failure to pinpoint Grant 's army. On the first day of battle, Johnston personally led the attack on the enemy. He was a victim of friendly fire, receiving a hit in the knee which severed his popliteal artery. Johnston died within an hour. His death resulted in critical reassignments of his command to less talented generals who failed to repair the virtually doomed Western Theater.
Early in the war, Confederate strategists believed the primary threat to New Orleans would come from the north, and made their defensive preparations accordingly. As forces under Grant made gains in the Western Theater, much of the military equipment and manpower in the city 's vicinity was sent up the Mississippi River in an attempt to stem the victorious Union tide. When Flag Officer David Farragut was able to force the Union Navy 's West Gulf Blockading Squadron past the Confederacy 's only two forts below the city in the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, New Orleans had no means to oppose capture. Thus the port, by far the largest Confederate city, fell undamaged into Union hands, tightening its grip on the Mississippi River and fulfilling a key element of the Anaconda Plan for the South 's defeat. Although the occupation under Maj. Gen. Benjamin Butler was detested, he was astute enough to build a base of political support among the poorer classes and create an extensive intelligence and counterespionage capability, nullifying the threat of insurrection. The Confederacy 's loss of its greatest port had significant diplomatic consequences. Confederate agents abroad were generally received more coolly, if at all, after news of the city 's capture reached London and Paris.
The Battle of Antietam, fought September 17, 1862, was the bloodiest single day of conflict in American military history. But it also had two strategic consequences. Although considered a tactical draw between the Army of the Potomac and the much smaller Army of Northern Virginia, it marked the end of Robert E. Lee 's invasion of the North. One of his goals was to entice the slave - holding state of Maryland to join the Confederacy, or at least recruit soldiers there. He failed in that objective; he also failed in marshaling Northern fears and opinions to pressure a settlement to the war.
But more strategically, George B. McClellan 's victory was just convincing enough that President Lincoln used it as justification for announcing his Emancipation Proclamation. He had been counseled by his cabinet to keep this action confidential until a Union battlefield victory could be announced, lest it appear to be an act of desperation. Along with its immense effect on American history and race relations, the Emancipation Proclamation effectively prevented the British Empire from recognizing the Confederacy as a legitimate government. The British public had strong anti-slavery beliefs and would not have tolerated joining the pro-slavery side of a fight where slavery was now a prominent issue. This removed one of the Confederacy 's only hopes of surviving a lengthy war against the North 's suffocating naval blockade. Support from France was still a possibility, but it never came to pass. Antietam and two other coincident failed actions -- Braxton Bragg 's invasion of Kentucky (sometimes called the "high - water mark of the Confederacy in the Western Theater '') and Earl Van Dorn 's advance against Corinth, Mississippi -- represented the Confederacy 's only attempts at coordinated strategic offensives in multiple theaters of war.
After winning the Battle of Chancellorsville, the Army of Northern Virginia lost Lt. Gen. Stonewall Jackson to pneumonia following a friendly fire accident. His death was a blow to the morale of the Confederate army, as he was one of its most popular and successful commanders. Two months later, Robert E. Lee had no general with Jackson 's audacity available at the Battle of Gettysburg. Many historians argue that Jackson might have succeeded in seizing key battlefield positions (such as Culp 's Hill and Cemetery Hill at the end of day one) that his replacements were unable or unwilling to take. Lee himself shared this belief and is said to have told his subordinate generals on different occasions that they should have acted like Jackson would have.
On July 4, 1863, the most important Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River at Vicksburg, Mississippi surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant. The previous day, Maj. Gen. George Meade had decisively defeated Robert E. Lee at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. These nearly simultaneous battles are the events most often cited as the ultimate turning points of the entire war.
The loss of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two, denying it any further movement along or across the Mississippi River and preventing supplies from Texas and Arkansas that might sustain the war effort from passing east. As President Lincoln had stated, "See what a lot of land these fellows hold, of which Vicksburg is the key! The war can never be brought to a close until that key is in our pocket... We can take all the northern ports of the Confederacy and they can defy us from Vicksburg. '' Furthermore, the 30,000 soldiers who surrendered with the city were a significant loss to the military manpower of the Southern cause.
Gettysburg was the first major defeat suffered by Lee. The three - day battle witnessed the Union Army of the Potomac decisively repel his second invasion of the North and inflicted serious casualties on his Army of Northern Virginia. In fact, the National Park Service marks the point at which Pickett 's Charge collapsed, a copse of trees on Cemetery Ridge, as the high - water mark of the Confederacy -- the northernmost point reached by any major Confederate military incursion. From this point onward, Lee attempted no more strategic offensives. Although two more years of fighting and a new, more aggressive general - in - chief (Grant) was required to fully subdue the rebellion, the eventual end at Appomattox Court House in 1865 seems inevitable in hindsight. While Gettysburg was seen by military and civilian observers at the time as a great battle, those in the North had little idea that two more bloody years would be required to finish the war. Lincoln was distraught at Meade 's failure to intercept Lee 's retreat, believing that to have done so would have ended the conflict.
Southern morale was seriously affected by the twin setbacks of Gettysburg and Vicksburg, as they perceived that "the coil was tightening around us ''. Some economic historians have pointed to the fact that after the defeats at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, the market for Confederate war bonds dropped precipitously. "... European investors gave the Confederacy approximately a 42 percent chance of victory prior to the battle of Gettysburg / Vicksburg. News of the severity of the two rebel defeats led to a sell - off in Confederate bonds. By the end of 1863, the probability of a Southern victory fell to about 15 percent. ''
Military historian J.F.C. Fuller contended that Grant 's defeat of Braxton Bragg 's army at Chattanooga, Tennessee was the turning point of the war because it reduced the Confederacy to the Atlantic coast and opened the way for William T. Sherman 's Atlanta Campaign and March to the Sea.
Following the victory at Chattanooga, Grant was appointed general - in - chief of all Union armies on March 12, 1864. Leaving Sherman in command of forces in the Western Theater, he moved his headquarters east to Virginia. Previous Union commanders in the critical Eastern Theater had not mounted effective campaigns, or successful pursuits of Confederate forces after gaining rare victories. Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the Confederacy from multiple directions: against Lee and the Confederate capital, Richmond; in the Shenandoah Valley; against Johnston and Atlanta; against railroad supply lines in western Virginia; and against the port of Mobile. In May, Grant launched the Overland Campaign towards Richmond, an attritional campaign that took full advantage of the North 's edge in population and resources. Although he suffered a tactical reverse in his first encounter with Lee in the Battle of the Wilderness, Grant pressed forward, putting the Confederates under an unremitting pressure that was maintained until the fall of their capital and the surrender of Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia.
Some contend that Sherman 's successful siege of Atlanta was the turning point, since the heavily fortified city was the most critical remaining stronghold in the South. The capture of Atlanta, following a tedious and frustrating campaign, lifted the spirits of Unionists and came just in time to build the popular support necessary to re-elect Lincoln, in addition to its military result of crippling transportation in the heart of the Confederacy and nearly destroying the city.
The reelection of Abraham Lincoln in 1864 is beyond the final point at which a positive conclusion for the Confederacy could have been contemplated. His opponent, former general George B. McClellan, ran on a Democratic Party platform that favored a negotiated settlement with the Confederacy. Although McClellan disavowed this platform, the South would have likely seen his election as a strategic victory. Thus, Lincoln 's success may have further emboldened belief, on both sides, in the notion that the war would eventually end with the Union 's original ambition achieved.
|
when does a confederacy of dunces take place | A Confederacy of Dunces - wikipedia
A Confederacy of Dunces is a picaresque novel by American novelist John Kennedy Toole which reached publication in 1980, eleven years after Toole 's suicide. Published through the efforts of writer Walker Percy (who also contributed a foreword) and Toole 's mother, the book became first a cult classic, then a mainstream success; it earned Toole a posthumous Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1981, and is now considered a canonical work of modern literature of the Southern United States.
The book 's title refers to an epigram from Jonathan Swift 's essay, Thoughts on Various Subjects, Moral and Diverting: "When a true genius appears in the world, you may know him by this sign, that the dunces are all in confederacy against him. '' Its central character, Ignatius J. Reilly, is an educated but slothful 30 - year - old man living with his mother in the Uptown neighborhood of early - 1960s New Orleans who, in his quest for employment, has various adventures with colorful French Quarter characters. Toole wrote the novel in 1963 during his last few months in Puerto Rico.
Ignatius Jacques Reilly is something of a modern Don Quixote -- eccentric, idealistic, and creative, sometimes to the point of delusion. In his foreword to the book, Walker Percy describes Ignatius as a "slob extraordinary, a mad Oliver Hardy, a fat Don Quixote, a perverse Thomas Aquinas rolled into one ''. He disdains modernity, particularly pop culture. The disdain becomes his obsession: he goes to movies in order to mock their perversity and express his outrage with the contemporary world 's lack of "theology and geometry ''. He prefers the scholastic philosophy of the Middle Ages, and the Early Medieval philosopher Boethius in particular. However, he also enjoys many modern comforts and conveniences and is given to claiming that the rednecks of rural Louisiana hate all modern technology which they associate with progress. The workings of his pyloric valve play an important role in his life, reacting strongly to incidents in a fashion that he likens to Cassandra in terms of prophetic significance.
Ignatius is of the mindset that he does not belong in the world and that his numerous failings are the work of some higher power. He continually refers to the goddess Fortuna as having spun him downwards on her wheel of fortune. Ignatius loves to eat, and his masturbatory fantasies lead in strange directions. His mockery of obscene images is portrayed as a defensive posture to hide their titillating effect on him. Although considering himself to have an expansive and learned worldview, Ignatius has an aversion to ever leaving the town of his birth, and frequently bores friends and strangers with the story of his sole, abortive journey out of New Orleans, a trip to Baton Rouge on a Greyhound Scenicruiser bus, which Ignatius recounts as a traumatic ordeal of extreme horror.
Myrna Minkoff, referred to by Ignatius as "that minx '', is a Jewish beatnik from New York City, whom Ignatius met while she was in college in New Orleans. Though their political, social, religious, and personal orientations could hardly be more different, Myrna and Ignatius fascinate one another. The novel repeatedly refers to Myrna and Ignatius having engaged in tag - team attacks on the teachings of their college professors. For most of the novel, she is seen only in the regular correspondence which the two sustain since her return to New York, a correspondence heavily weighted with sexual analysis on the part of Myrna and contempt for her apparent sacrilegious activity by Ignatius. Officially, they both deplore everything the other stands for. Though neither of them will admit it, their correspondence indicates that, separated though they are by half a continent, many of their actions are meant to impress one another.
Mrs. Irene Reilly is the mother of Ignatius. She has been widowed for 21 years. At first, she allows Ignatius his space and drives him where he needs to go, but throughout the course of the novel she learns to stand up for herself. She also has a drinking problem, most frequently indulging in muscatel, although Ignatius exaggerates that she is a raving, abusive drunk.
She falls for Claude Robichaux, a fairly well - off man with a railroad pension and rental properties. At the end of the novel, she decides she will marry Claude. But first, she agrees with Santa Battaglia (who has not only recently become Mrs. Reilly 's new best friend, but also harbors an intense dislike for Ignatius) that Ignatius is insane and arranges to have him sent to a mental hospital.
Toole provides comical descriptions of two of the films Ignatius watches without naming them; they can be recognized as Billy Rose 's Jumbo and That Touch of Mink, both Doris Day features released in 1962. In another passage, Ignatius declines to see another film, a "widely praised Swedish drama about a man who was losing his soul ''. This is most likely Ingmar Bergman 's Winter Light, also released in 1962. In another passage, Irene Reilly recalls the night Ignatius was conceived: after she and her husband viewed Red Dust, released in October 1932.
The book is famous for its rich depiction of New Orleans and the city 's dialects, including Yat. Many locals and writers think that it is the best and most accurate depiction of the city in a work of fiction.
The city described in the novel differs in some ways from the actual New Orleans. The first chapter mentions the sun setting over the Mississippi River at the foot of Canal Street. As this direction is to the south - east, this is clearly impossible in reality. Possibly this is a joke by Toole related to the fact that the area across the river is known as the "West Bank '', despite the fact that because of the twists of the river it is actually to the south or east from parts of central New Orleans. Such details are not likely to be noticed by people who are not familiar with New Orleans.
A bronze statue of Ignatius J. Reilly can be found under the clock on the down - river side of the 800 block of Canal Street, New Orleans, the former site of the D.H. Holmes Department Store, now the Hyatt French Quarter Hotel. The statue mimics the opening scene: Ignatius waits for his mother under the D.H. Holmes clock, clutching a Werlein 's shopping bag, dressed in a hunting cap, flannel shirt, baggy pants and scarf, ' studying the crowd of people for signs of bad taste. ' The statue is modeled on New Orleans actor John "Spud '' McConnell, who portrayed Ignatius in a stage version of the novel.
Various local businesses are mentioned in addition to D.H. Holmes, including Werlein 's Music Store and local cinemas such as the Prytania Theater. Some readers from elsewhere assume Ignatius 's favorite soft drink, Dr. Nut, to be fictitious, but it was an actual local soft drink brand of the era. The "Paradise Hot Dogs '' vending carts are an easily recognized satire of those actually branded "Lucky Dogs ''.
The structure of A Confederacy of Dunces reflects the structure of Ignatius 's favorite book, Boethius ' Consolation of Philosophy. Like Boethius ' book, A Confederacy of Dunces is divided into chapters that are further divided into a varying number of subchapters. Key parts of some chapters are outside of the main narrative. In Consolation, sections of narrative prose alternate with metrical verse. In Confederacy, such narrative interludes vary more widely in form and include light verse, journal entries by Ignatius, and also letters between himself and Myrna. A copy of the Consolation of Philosophy within the narrative itself also becomes an explicit plot device in several ways.
As outlined in the introduction to a later revised edition, the book would never have been published if Toole 's mother had not found a smeared carbon copy of the manuscript left in the house following Toole 's 1969 suicide, at 31. She was persistent and tried several different publishers, to no avail.
Thelma repeatedly called Walker Percy, an author and college instructor at Loyola University New Orleans, to demand for him to read it. He initially resisted; however, as he recounts in the book 's foreword:
... the lady was persistent, and it somehow came to pass that she stood in my office handing me the hefty manuscript. There was no getting out of it; only one hope remained -- that I could read a few pages and that they would be bad enough for me, in good conscience, to read no farther. Usually I can do just that. Indeed the first paragraph often suffices. My only fear was that this one might not be bad enough, or might be just good enough, so that I would have to keep reading.
In this case I read on. And on. First with the sinking feeling that it was not bad enough to quit, then with a prickle of interest, then a growing excitement, and finally an incredulity: surely it was not possible that it was so good.
The book was published by LSU Press in 1980. It won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1981. In 2005, Blackstone Audio released an unabridged audiobook of the novel, read by Barrett Whitener.
While Tulane University in New Orleans retains a collection of Toole 's papers, and some early drafts have been found, the location of the original manuscript is unknown.
In March 1984, LSU staged a musical comedy production of the book, with actor Scott Harlan in the role of Ignatius.
Kerry Shale read the book for BBC Radio 4 's Book at Bedtime in 1982, and later adapted the book into a one - man show which he performed at the Adelaide Festival in 1990, at the Gate Theatre in London, and for BBC Radio.
There have been repeated attempts to turn the book into a film. In 1982, Harold Ramis was to write and direct an adaptation, starring John Belushi and Richard Pryor, but Belushi 's death prevented this. Later, John Candy and Chris Farley were touted for the lead, but both of them, like Belushi, also died at an early age, leading many to ascribe a curse to the role.
Director John Waters was interested in directing an adaptation starring Divine, who also died at an early age, as Ignatius.
British performer and writer Stephen Fry was at one point commissioned to adapt Toole 's book for the screen. He was sent to New Orleans by Paramount Studios in 1997 to get background for a screenplay adaptation.
John Goodman, a longtime resident of New Orleans, was slated to play Ignatius at one point.
A version adapted by Steven Soderbergh and Scott Kramer, and slated to be directed by David Gordon Green, was scheduled for release in 2005. The film was to star Will Ferrell as Ignatius and Lily Tomlin as Ignatius 's mother. A staged reading of the script took place at the 8th Nantucket Film Festival, with Ferrell as Ignatius, Anne Meara as his mother, Paul Rudd as Officer Mancuso, Kristen Johnston as Lana Lee, Mos Def as Burma Jones, Rosie Perez as Darlene, Olympia Dukakis as Santa Battaglia and Miss Trixie, Natasha Lyonne as Myrna, Alan Cumming as Dorian Greene, John Shea as Gonzales, Jesse Eisenberg as George, John Conlon as Claude Robichaux, Jace Alexander as Bartender Ben, Celia Weston as Miss Annie, Miss Inez & Mrs. Levy, and Dan Hedaya as Mr. Levy.
Various reasons are cited as to why the Soderbergh version has yet to be filmed. They include disorganization and lack of interest at Paramount Pictures, the head of the Louisiana State Film Commission being murdered, and the devastating effects of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans. When asked why the film was never made, Will Ferrell has said it is a "mystery ''.
In 2012, there was a version in negotiation with director James Bobin and potentially starring Zach Galifianakis.
In a 2013 interview, Steven Soderbergh remarked "I think it 's cursed. I 'm not prone to superstition, but that project has got bad mojo on it. ''
In November 2015, Huntington Theatre Company debuted the world - premiere of a stage version of A Confederacy of Dunces written by Jeffrey Hatcher in their Avenue of the Arts / BU Theatre location in Boston, with Nick Offerman starring as Ignatius J. Reilly. It set a record as the company 's highest - grossing production.
|
who is the director of the black panther | Black Panther (film) - wikipedia
Black Panther is an upcoming American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. Produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, it is intended to be the eighteenth film installment of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The film is directed by Ryan Coogler from a screenplay by him and Joe Robert Cole, and stars Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther alongside Michael B. Jordan, Lupita Nyong'o, Danai Gurira, Martin Freeman, Daniel Kaluuya, Angela Bassett, Forest Whitaker, and Andy Serkis. In Black Panther, T'Challa returns home as king of Wakanda but finds his sovereignty challenged by a long - time adversary in a conflict that has global consequences.
Wesley Snipes first mentioned his intention to work on a Black Panther film in 1992, with that project going through multiple iterations over the next decade but never coming to fruition. A Black Panther film was announced as one of the ten films based on Marvel comics that would be developed by Marvel Studios and distributed by Paramount Pictures in September 2005, with Mark Bailey hired to write a script in January 2011. Black Panther was officially announced in October 2014, with Boseman appearing first in Captain America: Civil War. By the end of 2015, Cole and Coogler had both joined Black Panther, and additional cast members came on board beginning in May 2016. Principal photography for the film took place from January to April 2017, at EUE / Screen Gems Studios and Pinewood Atlanta Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, and Busan, South Korea.
Black Panther is set to be released in the United States on February 16, 2018, in IMAX and 3D.
After the events of Captain America: Civil War, King T'Challa returns home to Wakanda. He soon finds his sovereignty challenged by factions within his own country. When two enemies conspire to bring down the kingdom, T'Challa must team up, as the Black Panther, with C.I.A. agent Everett K. Ross and members of the Dora Milaje -- Wakanda 's special forces -- to prevent a world war.
Additionally, Florence Kasumba and John Kani reprise their roles as Ayo and T'Chaka respectively from Captain America: Civil War. Winston Duke portrays M'Baku, a powerful, ruthless warrior who is the leader of Wakanda 's mountain tribe, the Jabari, who are in protest to T'Challa being the new king. Duke describe the Jabari as people who "strongly believe that to move forward, you have to have a strong adherence and respect for the past. So they have a deep moral conscience '' and that M'Baku "deeply cares about his people... (and) his country as a whole. '' M'Baku is also the head of the religious minority in Wakanda, who worship the gorilla. Character elements from Christopher Priest 's 1998 - 2003 Black Panther series were adapted for the film. Letitia Wright portrays T'Challa's sister Shuri, the princess of Wakanda who designs new technology for the country. Wright described her as "an innovative spirit and an innovative mind '' who "wants to take Wakanda to a new place... (and) has a great fashion sense ''. Wright also felt Shuri was "vibrant '' and "refreshing '', and was a good role model for young black girls. Sterling K. Brown plays N'Jobu, a figure from T'Challa's past, Isaach de Bankolé plays the elder of one of the largest tribes in Wakanda, Nabiyah Be portrays the criminal Tilda Johnson, and Sydelle Noel portrays Xoliswa, a member of the Dora Milaje. Atandwa Kani has been cast in an undisclosed role.
In June 1992, Wesley Snipes announced his intention to make a film about Black Panther, and he had begun work on one by that August. The next July, Snipes planned to begin The Black Panther after starring in Demolition Man, and the next month he expressed interest in making sequels to the film as well. In January 1994, Snipes entered talks with Columbia Pictures to portray Black Panther, and Stan Lee joined the film by March; it had entered early development by May. When the film had not progressed in January 1996, Lee explained that he had not been pleased with the scripts for the project.
In July 1997, Black Panther was listed as part of Marvel Comics ' film slate, and in March 1998, Marvel hired Joe Quesada and Jimmy Palmiotti to work on it. That August, corporate problems at Marvel had put the project on hold, while the next August, Snipes was set to produce, and possibly star, in the film. In May 2000, Artisan Entertainment announced a deal with Marvel to co-produce, finance, and distribute a film based on Black Panther. In March 2002, Snipes said he planned to do Blade 3 or Black Panther in 2003, and reiterated his interest five months later. In July 2004, Blade 3 director David S. Goyer said this was unlikely, as Snipes was "already so entrenched as Blade that another Marvel hero might be overkill. ''
In September 2005, Marvel chairman and CEO Avi Arad announced Black Panther as one of the ten Marvel films that would be developed by Marvel Studios and distributed by Paramount Pictures. In June 2006, Snipes said he hoped to have a director for the project soon. In February 2007, Kevin Feige, president of production for Marvel Studios, reiterated that Black Panther was on Marvel 's development slate. By July, John Singleton had been approached to direct the film. In March 2009, Marvel hired writers to help come up with creative ways to launch its lesser - known properties, including Black Panther, with Nate Moore, the head of the writers program, helping to oversee the development of the Black Panther film specifically. In January 2011, Marvel Studios hired documentary filmmaker Mark Bailey to write a script for Black Panther to be produced by Feige. In October 2013, Feige said "I do n't know when it will be exactly, but we certainly have plans to bring (Black Panther) to life some day '', noting that the Marvel Cinematic Universe had already introduced the metal Vibranium, which comes from Black Panther 's home nation Wakanda.
In October 2014, Feige announced that Black Panther would be released on November 3, 2017, with Chadwick Boseman cast in the title role. Boseman 's hiring "was n't really an audition process. It was more of a discussion about what they wanted to do and how I saw it and what I wanted to do. '' The actor was set to first portray the character in Captain America: Civil War, before starring in his own film. Feige said that Marvel was considering minority filmmakers for the director and writer, saying "we 're doing what we always do, which is looking for the best filmmakers, the best writers, the best directors possible. So I 'm not going to say for sure that we 're going to hire from any one demographic, but we 're meeting a lot of people. '' He added that the studio had met with Reginald Hudlin, former writer of the Black Panther comics in the mid-2000s. In January 2015, Boseman said that the film was going through a "brainstorming phase '', explaining, "I think right now, it 's just going through the possibilities of what he can do... trying to figure out what it looks like and what it should feel like in certain moments. But just going through (the material), because there 's always a difference from one story to the next of who he is -- trying to find a way to merge those things together. '' The next month, Marvel pushed back the release date to July 6, 2018, while in April 2015, Feige stated that he would be meeting with directors after the release of Avengers: Age of Ultron at the end of the month, and that "casting is already underway in many ways. Some of which (is known), some of which (is not). ''
By May 2015, Marvel had discussions with Ava DuVernay to direct this film or Captain Marvel. In June, Feige confirmed that he had met with DuVernay alongside a number of other directors and stated he expected a decision to be made by mid - to late 2015. By early July 2015, DuVernay had passed on directing the film, explaining that "Marvel has a certain way of doing things and I think they 're fantastic and a lot of people love what they do. I loved that they reached out to me... (but) we had different ideas about what the story would be... we just did n't see eye to eye. Better for me to realize that now than cite creative differences later. '' Later in the month, DuVernay expanded,
"For me, it was a process of trying to figure out, are these people I want to go to bed with? Because it 's really a marriage, and for this it would be three years. It 'd be three years of not doing other things that are important to me. So it was a question of, is this important enough for me to do? At one point, the answer was yes because I thought there was value in putting that kind of imagery into the culture in a worldwide, huge way, in a certain way: excitement, action, fun, all those things, and yet still be focused on a black man as a hero -- that would be pretty revolutionary. These Marvel films go everywhere from Shanghai to Uganda, and nothing that I probably will make will reach that many people, so I found value in that. That 's how the conversations continued, because that 's what I was interested in. But... it 's important to me that (my work) be true to who I was in this moment. And if there 's too much compromise, it really was n't going to be an Ava DuVernay film. ''
By October 2015, F. Gary Gray and Ryan Coogler had been considered to direct the film, though negotiations with Coogler had cooled, and Gray had chosen to direct Fast & Furious 8 instead. Joe Robert Cole, a member of the Marvel writers program, was in talks to write the screenplay, and Marvel changed the release date once again, moving it to February 16, 2018. By December, discussions with Coogler were reignited after the successful opening of his film Creed. Feige described Black Panther as "a big geopolitical action adventure that focuses on the family and royal struggle of T'Challa in Wakanda, and what it means to be a king '', while calling the film "a very important '' link to Avengers: Infinity War and its sequel. He added that the film would be the first Marvel Studios production to feature a "primarily African - American cast ''.
In January 2016, Coogler was confirmed as director, and explained that he grew up reading comics, so Black Panther "is just as personal to me as the last couple of films I was able to make. I feel really fortunate to be able to work on something I 'm this passionate about again. '' In agreeing to direct the film after being "wooed '' by Feige for months, Coogler insisted that he bring collaborators from his previous films to work on Black Panther to differentiate the film from others in the MCU that are often "shot, composed, and edited by the same in - house people ''. Coogler wanted to "put his own personal stamp '' on the film. People he brought back to work with him on the film include Fruitvale Station cinematographer Rachel Morrison, as well as production designer Hannah Beachler and composer Ludwig Göransson, who both worked with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed.
Cole, speaking in February, called the film a "historic opportunity to be a part of something important and special, particularly at a time when African - Americans are affirming their identities while dealing with vilification and dehumanization. The image of a black hero on this scale is just really exciting. '' He added that it was important to approach the themes of the film "from a perspective that is rooted in the cultures of the (African) continent, '' also stating "we 're thinking about where we are locating Wakanda within the continent, and what the people and history of that region are like... (W) e are going to be engaged with consultants who are experts on the continent and on African history and politics. '' Elaborating on this, Cole noted that there are many African countries, each "with different histories, mythologies, and cultures (so) what we tried to do was hone in on some of the history, some of the cultural influences and then extrapolate out in our technology, extrapolate out in how we see Wakanda and the different parts of the country and the culture of the country as well. So we wanted to root it in reality first and then build out from there, so we 'd feel pretty authentic and grounded. '' Coogler added that they wanted Wakanda to "feel like a country, as opposed to just one city or town '' by capturing the essence of actual African countries where there are "several tribes, who speak their own languages, have their own culture, and have distinct food and way of dress. They live amongst each other, and together they make the identity of those countries. '' Costume designer Ruth E. Carter referenced the Maasai, Himba, Dogon, Basotho, and Tuareg people in her designs for Wakanda. Beachler noted her designs were "about honoring (the) comic, then filling in the holes that were n't there. '' Her research concentrated on Sub-Saharan Africa, pulling inspiration from Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Ethiopia. Much of the architecture Beachler designed was inspired by "a lot of the different tribes, traditions, then figuring out a way to really make them technologically advanced, as if it would be very natural. Because we 're also looking at Wakanda as never having been colonized. '' While researching in South Africa, the visuals of mountains looking like rondavels at Blyde River Canyon were incorporated to the tops of Wakanda 's skyscrapers. Coogler compared the rarity of Vibranium existing only in Wakanda to the real - life mineral coltan that can almost only be found in Congo.
In April 2016, Feige said that Coogler was working on the script with Cole, and that filming would begin at the "very beginning of next year ''. Feige noted that Civil War laid "the groundwork '' for T'Challa's morality, and established the "geopolitical landscape '' that he would have to deal with on returning to Wakanda for Black Panther. Civil War also introduced the Wakandan language, based on the Xhosa language which Boseman was taught by John Kani, who first appeared as T'Challa's father T'Chaka in that film. Lupita Nyong'o entered negotiations to star as T'Challa's love interest the next month, and Michael B. Jordan joined in an undisclosed role, after previously working with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed. Coogler discussed working in with the MCU while still creating "a Ryan Coogler movie '', saying,
What Marvel 's doing... is making content that exists in a particular universe, where the characters tie in and crossover, and I think that 's a great creative challenge to me -- to make this movie as personal as possible. It 's going to be my most personal movie to date, which is crazy to say, but it 's completely the case. I 'm obsessed with this character and this story right now, and I think it 's going to be very unique and still fit into the overall narrative that they 're establishing. I grew up as a comic book fan, and the same things used to happen in the comic books. You 'd have Wolverine 's books, and they 'd be so much darker and more brutal than the X-Men books, but they 'd still fit in when you open the pages of the X-Men book. It 's new to movies, but it 's not new to storytelling.
Later in May, Moore, now serving as a producer on the film, stated that filming would occur in Atlanta, Georgia, with Marvel "definitely investigating shooting in Africa '' as well. At San Diego Comic - Con International 2016, Nyong'o was confirmed for the film, in the role of Nakia, while Jordan 's role was revealed to be Erik Killmonger. Also announced was Danai Gurira as Okoye, while Coogler confirmed that filming would begin in January 2017. Coogler also noted that he and Cole were inspired by Ta - Nehisi Coates ' run on Black Panther, who was writing the comic at the time, saying "what he 's doing with Panther is just incredible. You can really see his background as a poet in some of the dialogue. And what Brian Stelfreeze is doing with the visuals in that book. And some of the questions that it 's asking. '' Coogler also indicated that they pulled from "almost every run '' of Black Panther in the comics, including Jack Kirby, Christopher Priest (which Coogler felt the most was pulled from), Jonathan Hickman, Hudlin, and Coates. On the variety of characters included, Coogler said, "We kind of picked and pulled the characters we worked best for the story we were trying to tell and I think when people see the film it will be pretty natural, because you ca n't run a country without a good team around you. It 's impossible. It 's kind of like natural that these characters would pop up. ''
In September 2016, Winston Duke was cast as M'Baku, a role that Yahya Abdul - Mateen II also tested for. Moore noted that M'Baku would not be referred to by his comics alter ego of "Man - Ape '', since there were "a lot of racial implications that do n't sit well '' in having a black character dress up as an ape. This aspect of the character was instead reworked to have the tribe M'Baku is the leader of worship the gorilla gods, with M'Baku still wearing elements of fur on his arms and legs and a chest - plate that hints at the gorilla. Moore continued, "Man - Ape is a problematic character for a lot of reasons, but the idea behind Man - Ape we thought was really fascinating.... It 's a line I think we 're walking, and hopefully walking successfully. '' The following month, Forest Whitaker was cast as Zuri and Daniel Kaluuya as W'Kabi, with Florence Kasumba revealed to be reprising her role as Ayo from Captain America: Civil War. Letitia Wright was also cast in an unspecified role. Angela Bassett was cast as T'Challa's mother, Ramonda, in November, and by January 2017, Sterling K. Brown was cast as N'Jobu. At that time, Marvel received permission from the Oakland - based public transit agency AC Transit to use their logo in the film, for a bus that T'Challa rides in a 1990 flashback to commute to Saint Mary 's College High School in Berkeley, California. The setting was chosen due to Coogler 's Oakland roots.
Principal photography had begun by January 21, 2017, at EUE / Screen Gems Studios and Pinewood Atlanta Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, under the working title Motherland. Filming also took place in the Sweet Auburn neighborhood in Atlanta and Atlanta City Hall, the latter serving as a United Nations building. Additional filming also took place in South Korea, with the city of Busan serving as the setting of a car chase scene, involving 150 cars and over 700 people. Filming in Busan began on March 17, 2017, with shooting occurring at the Jagalchi Fish Market, and filming taking place by Gwangalli Beach on March 21. Additional filming locations included Marine City and at the Gwangandaegyo Bridge. The production crew also hired hundreds of local, current, and former film students from local universities as staff or assistant staff during the South Korea filming. Filming in the country wrapped up on March 27, while a Korean actor was expected to be cast for the film.
Shortly after filming started, Kani 's son Atandwa stated that he would appear in the film alongside his father, the latter reprising the role of T'Chaka, while on set photographs revealed that Martin Freeman would reprise his role as Everett K. Ross. Marvel announced the start of production on January 26, along with confirming the casting of Freeman, Wright, and John Kani, and revealing that Andy Serkis would reprise his role as Ulysses Klaue from Avengers: Age of Ultron. At CinemaCon 2017, Wright was revealed to be portraying Shuri in the film. Filming concluded on April 19, 2017.
At the end of June 2017, Sydelle Noel revealed she had been cast in the film as Xoliswa, a member of the Dora Milaje. In July 2017, Moore noted that Black Panther would be a cross between The Godfather and the James Bond films, saying the film was a "big, operatic family drama centered around a world of international espionage. So hopefully we 're getting the best of both worlds. '' Feige also called the film 's story "rich in culturally relevant ideas. These are conversations we were having two years ago because that is inherently the story within the comics. Now it 's going to seem like the most highly fluid thing we could have done. '' Boseman also indicated there were parallels to "pull from '' in the film in relation to Donald Trump becoming President of the United States after Barack Obama.
Ludwig Göransson was hired to compose the film 's score by April 2017. Göransson traveled to Senegal and South Africa to record local musicians to form the "base '' of his soundtrack.
Black Panther is scheduled to be released in the United Kingdom on February 9, 2018, and in the United States on February 16, 2018, in IMAX and 3D. The film will have a "cross-nation release '' in Africa, a first for a Disney film. It was originally scheduled to be released on November 3, 2017, before moving in February 2015 to July 6, 2018 to accommodate Spider - Man: Homecoming. In October 2015, it moved again to accommodate Ant - Man and the Wasp.
Marvel debuted early footage and concept art from the film in April 2017, at a press event for several of their Phase Three films. Kyle Buchanan at Vulture.com praised the cinematography, costume and production design, and focus on dark skinned actors and characters, saying "Black Panther does n't look like any of the other Marvel movies... If this is what the future of superhero movies looks like, deal me in. '' Feige believed the screened footage was the first time Marvel had shown raw dailies, a decision made because the company wanted to show off the film 's cast (which Feige called "the highest - class cast we 've had on a first movie '') and diversity, even though editing for it had not yet begun.
A teaser poster was released ahead of the first teaser trailer, which premiered during Game 4 of the 2017 NBA Finals. Fans felt the poster was poorly photoshopped, with tweets mentioning "poster '' and "Black Panther '' being 27 percent positive, 27 percent negative, and the rest neutral, according to CNBC 's marketing technology firm Amobee. It was also noted that the poster looked similar to a real - life picture of Black Panther Party co-founder Huey P. Newton holding two gun spears. The trailer received a much more positive reception, with Peter Sciretta of / Film saying it was "nothing like I was expecting this movie to look like and that 's refreshing. '' Ben Pearson, also for / Film, felt the trailer reminded him of a quote from Michael K. Williams ' Omar Little in the television series The Wire: "You come at the king, you best not miss. '' io9 's Charles Pulliam - Moore called the teaser "every bit as intense as you were hoping it would be '' and "epic as hell ''. He also felt the Dora Milaje, who are present many shots of the teaser, stole the trailer. Andrew Husband for Uproxx felt the single teaser "easily outshines Spider - Man: Homecoming 's big - from - the - beginning marketing campaign. '' Forbes 's Scott Mendelson enjoyed how the teaser showed the film "playing in the 007 sandbox '' being a "spy actioner (which) is a good way to give it a hard foothold beyond merely being the MCU 's first black - led superhero movies. '' Mendelson also felt that "Black Panther has the chance to be a seminal event in the same way we 're now seeing with Wonder Woman. '' Graeme McMillian of The Hollywood Reporter also agreed with Mendelson 's comparison of Black Panther to Wonder Woman, noting the "impeccably timed '' teaser showcased "the similar spirit of expansion of superhero diversity and audiences, the surprising visual parallels in terms of palette, (and) the unexpected narrative threads that connect the two. ''
In 24 hours, the trailer was viewed 89 million times, including 19 millions views from those watching Game 4. The teaser "dominated the conversation on social media for much of the night '' over Game 4, being the top - trending item on Twitter. Amobee calculated 109,000 tweets with the hashtag # BlackPanther from 9 p.m. EST until midnight the night the teaser was released, of which 86 % were positive. Additionally, the hashtag # BlackPantherSoLit was used in approximately an additional 15,400 tweets. Amobee 's principal brand analyst Jonathan Cohen noted, "The real - time reaction to the Black Panther trailer was overwhelmingly positive on social media; reaffirming what the success of Wonder Woman has already proven -- that fans of Marvel and DC movies are hungry for representation. '' Based on the engagement, Cohen concluded that "it appears fans have gone from cautiously optimistic about the Black Panther movie to feeling February 2018 ca n't come soon enough. '' The Hollywood Reporter noted that the teaser generated 349,000 Twitter mentions in 24 hours, also more than Game 4. The amount of mentions were second to the amount the Star Wars: The Last Jedi teaser received. comScore and its PreAct service noted 446,000 new social media conversations for the film after the trailer released, the most for the week. For the week ending on June 18, comScore and its PreAct service again noted social media conversations for the film, with over 33,000 new ones, the second-most for the week behind Spider - Man: Homecoming. The service also noted Black Panther produced a total of 566,000 conversations to date.
Costumes from the film were on display at D23 Expo 2017 and the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con. Also in July, Marvel Studios unveiled a partnership with Lexus, with the 2018 Lexus LC scheduled to be featured in the film. A graphic novel, Black Panther: Soul of the Machine, will also be released from writers Fabian Nicieza, Geoffrey Thorne and Chuck Brown, with cover illustrations by Scott "Rahzzah '' Wilson and Szymon Kudranski, in which Black Panther defeats a villain with the help of the Lexus LC 500. Nicieza stated "Lexus wanted (the comic) to be much more a story about craftsmanship and the constant search for perfecting the creative process than about car chases. '' The story is "an exploration of man 's search for the perfect amalgam of biology and technology '' with the villain, Machinesmith, seeking "Wakanda 's vibranium to jump - start a techno - organic evolution. '' Coogler, Boseman and other members of the cast presented exclusive footage of the film at the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con, which received a standing ovation from the audience. The footage segued into a trailer - like montage, which featured Kendrick Lamar 's song "DNA ''. Coogler called the lyrics "amazing '' and "actually oddly literal for our trailer 's purposes -- and I think a lot of the cultural things we 're dealing with in Wakanda are in the zeitgeist in the African American community. ''
In September 2017, Coogler, Gurira and Moore participated in a panel at the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation 's Annual Legislative Conference, where exclusive footage from the film was also shown. The footage was received positively by the mainly black audience. Richard Loverd, director of Science & Entertainment Exchange at the National Academy of Sciences who also spoke at the panel, felt the film would "spark interest in science and tech as well as travel to Africa in a whole generation of black Americans '', similarly to how The Hunger Games films and Brave sparked girls ' interest in archery.
|
where did knights work in the middle ages | Tournament (medieval) - wikipedia
A tournament, or tourney (from Old French torneiement, tornei) was a chivalrous competition or mock fight in Europe in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (12th to 16th centuries). It is one of various types of hastiludes.
Old French tornement was in use in the 12th century, from a verb tornoier, ultimately Latin tornare "to turn ''. The same word also gave rise to tornei (modern English tourney, modern French tournoi). The French terms were adopted in English (via Anglo - Norman) by 1300.
The Old French verb in origin meant "to joust, tilt '', but it came to refer to the knightly tournament more generally, while joster "approach, meet '' became the technical term for jousting specifically (also adopted in English before 1300).
By the end of the 12th century, tornement and Latinized torneamentum had become the generic term for all kinds of knightly hastiludes or martial displays. Roger of Hoveden writing in the late 12th century defined torneamentum as "military exercises carried out, not in the knight 's spirit of hostility (nullo interveniente odio), but solely for practice and the display of prowess (pro solo exercitio, atque ostentatione virium). ''
The application of the term tournament to competition in games of skill or sports in general dates to the mid 18th century.
Medieval equestrian warfare, and equestrian practice, did hark back to Roman antiquity, just as the notion of chivalry harked back to the rank of equites in Roman times. There may be an element of continuity connecting the medieval tournament to the hippika gymnasia of the Roman cavalry, but due to the sparsity of written records during the 5th to 8th centuries this is difficult to establish. It is known that such cavalry games were central to military training in the Carolingian Empire, with records of Louis and Charles ' military games at Worms in 843. At this event, recorded by Nithard, the initial chasing and fleeing was followed by a general mêlée of all combatants.
Documentation of equestrian practice during the 9th to 10th centuries is still sparse, but it is clear that the tournament, properly so called, is a development of the High Middle Ages. This is recognized by medieval sources; a chronicler of Tours in the late 12th century attributes the "invention '' of the knightly tournament to an Angevin baron, Geoffroi de Preulli, who supposedly died in 1066. In 16th - century German historiography, the setting down of the first tournament laws is attributed to Henry the Fowler (r. 919 -- 936); this tradition is cited by Georg Rüxner in his Thurnierbuch of c. 1530 as well as by Paulus Hector Mair in his De Arte Athletica (c. 1544 / 5).
The earliest known use of the word ' tournament ' comes from the peace legislation by Count Baldwin III of Hainaut for the town of Valenciennes, dated to 1114. It refers to the keepers of the peace in the town leaving it ' for the purpose of frequenting javelin sports, tournaments and such like. '
A pattern of regular tournament meetings across northern France is evident in sources for the life of Charles, Count of Flanders (1119 -- 27). The sources of the 1160s and 1170s portray the event in the developed form it maintained into the fourteenth century.
Tournaments centred on the melee, a general fight where the knights were divided into two sides and came together in a charge (MFr ' estor '). Jousting, a single combat of two knights riding at each other, was a component of the tournament, but was never its main feature.
The standard form of a tournament is evident in sources as early as the 1160s and 1170s, notably the Life of William Marshal and the romances of Chrétien de Troyes. Tournaments might be held at all times of the year except the penitential season of Lent (the forty days preceding the Triduum of Easter). The general custom was to hold them on Mondays and Tuesdays, though any day but Friday and Sunday might be used. The site of the tournament was customarily announced a fortnight before it was to be held. The most famous tournament fields were in northeastern France (such as that between Ressons - sur - Matz and Gournay - sur - Aronde near Compiègne, in use between the 1160s and 1240s) which attracted hundreds of foreign knights from all over Europe for the ' lonc sejor ' (the tournament season).
Knights arrived individually or in companies to stay at one or other of the two settlements designated as their lodgings. The tournament began on a field outside the principal settlement, where stands were erected for spectators. On the day of the tournament one side was formed of those ' within ' the principal settlement, and another of those ' outside '.
Parties hosted by the principal magnates present were held in both settlements, and preliminary jousts (called the ' vespers ' or premières commençailles) offered knights an individual showcase for their talents. On the day of the event, the tournament was opened by a review (regars) in which both sides paraded and called out their war cries. Then followed a further opportunity for individual jousting carried out between the rencs, the two line of knights. The opportunity for jousting at this point was customarily offered to the new, young knights present.
At some time in mid morning the knights would line up for the charge (estor). At a signal, a bugle or herald 's cry, the lines would ride at each other and meet with levelled lances. Those remaining on horseback would turn quickly (the action which gave the tournament its name) and single out knights to attack. There is evidence that squires were present at the lists (the staked and embanked line in front of the stands) to offer their masters up to three replacement lances. The mêlée would tend then to degenerate into running battles between parties of knights seeking to take ransoms, and would spread over several square miles between the two settlements which defined the tournament area. Most tournaments continued till both sides were exhausted, or till the light faded. A few ended earlier, if one side broke in the charge, panicked and ran for its home base looking to get behind its lists and the shelter of the armed infantry which protected them. Following the tournament the patron of the day would offer lavish banquets and entertainments. Prizes were offered to the best knight on either side, and awarded during the meals.
Melee (/ ˈmeɪleɪ / or / ˈmeleɪ /, French: mêlée (mɛle); in English frequently spelled as mêlée or melée) is a modern term for a type of mock combat in medieval tournaments. The "melee '' was the "mass tournament '' where two teams of horsemen clashed in formation. The aim was to smash into the enemy in massed formation, with the aim of throwing them back or breaking their ranks. Following a successful maneuver of this kind, the rank would attempt to turn around without breaking formation (widerkere or tornei); this action was so central that it would become eponymous of the entire tradition of the tourney or tournament by the mid 12th century.
The Middle High German term for this type of contest was buhurt (adopted in French as bouhourt); some sources may also make a distinction between melee or mass tournament and buhurt, as the latter could refer to a wider class of equestrian games not necessarily confined to the formal tournament reserved to nobility. Some sources distinguish between the buhurt as more playful and the turnei as, while still nominally "mock combat '', much closer to military reality, often leading to fatalities.
The Old French meslee "brawl, confused fight; mixture, blend '' (12th century) is the feminine past participle of the verb mesler "to mix '' (ultimately from Vulgar Latin misculāta "mixed '', from Latin miscēre "to mix ''; compare mélange; meddle, medley). The modern French form mêlée was borrowed into English in the 17th century and is not the historical term used for tournament mock battles. The term buhurt may be related to hurter "to push, collide with '' (cognate with English to hurt) or alternatively from a Frankish bihurdan "to fence; encompass with a fence or paling '').
Tournaments often contained a mêlée consisting of knights fighting one another on foot or mounted, either divided into two sides or fighting as a free - for - all. The object was to capture opposing knights so that they could be ransomed, and this could be a very profitable business for such skilled knights as William Marshal.
The melee or buhurt was the main form of the tournament in its early phase during the 12th and 13th centuries. The joust, while in existence since at least the 12th century as part of tournaments, did not play the central role it would acquire later (by the late 15th century).
There is no doubting the massive popularity of the tournament as early as the sources permit us to glimpse it. The first English mention of tourneying is in a charter of Osbert of Arden, a Warwickshire knight of English descent, which reveals that he travelled to Northampton and London but also crossed the Channel to join in events in France. The charter dates to the late 1120s. The great tournaments of northern France attracted many hundreds of knights from Germany, England, Scotland, Occitania and Iberia. There is evidence that 3000 knights attended the tournament at Lagny - sur - Marne in November 1179 promoted by Louis VII of France in honour of his son 's coronation. The state tournaments at Senlis and Compiègne held by Philip III of France in 1279 can be calculated to have been even larger events.
Aristocratic enthusiasm for the tournament meant that it had travelled outside its northern French heartland before the 1120s. The first evidence for it in England and the Rhineland is found in the 1120s. References in the Marshal biography indicate that in the 1160s tournaments were being held in central France and Great Britain. The contemporary works of Bertran de Born talk of a tourneying world which also embraced northern Iberia, Scotland and the Empire. The chronicle of Lauterberg indicates that by 1175 the enthusiasm had reached the borders of Poland.
Despite this huge interest and wide distribution, royal and ecclesiastical authority was deployed to prohibit the event. In 1130 Pope Innocent II at a church council at Clermont denounced the tournament and forbade Christian burial for those killed in them. The usual ecclesiastical justification for prohibiting them was that it distracted the aristocracy from more acceptable warfare in defence of Christianity. However, the reason for the ban imposed on them in England by Henry II had to have lain in its persistent threat to public order. Knights going to tournaments were accused of theft and violence against the unarmed. Henry II was keen to re-establish public order in England after the disruption of the reign of King Stephen (1135 -- 1154). He did not prohibit tournaments in his continental domains, and indeed three of his sons were avid pursuers of the sport.
Tournaments were allowed in England once again after 1192, when Richard I identified six sites where they would be permitted and gave a scale of fees by which patrons could pay for a license. But both King John and his son, Henry III, introduced fitful and capricious prohibitions which much annoyed the aristocracy and eroded the popularity of the events. In France Louis IX prohibited tourneying within his domains in 1260, and his successors for the most part maintained the ban.
As has been said jousting formed part of the tournament event from as early a time as it can be observed. It was an evening prelude to the big day, and was also a preliminary to the grand charge on the day itself. In the 12th century jousting was occasionally banned in tournaments. The reasons given are that it distracted knights from the main event, and allowed a form of cheating. Count Philip of Flanders made a practice in the 1160s of turning up armed with his retinue to the preliminary jousts, and then declining to join the mêlée until the knights were exhausted and ransoms could be swept up.
But jousting had its own devoted constituency by the early 13th century, and in the 1220s it began to have its own exclusive events outside the tournament. The biographer of William Marshal observed c. 1224 that in his day noblemen were more interested in jousting than tourneying. In 1223 we have the first mention of an exclusively jousting event, the ' Round Table ' held in Cyprus by John d'Ibelin, lord of Beirut. Round Tables were a 13th - century enthusiasm and can be reconstructed to have been an elimination jousting event. They were held for knights and squires alike. Other forms of jousting also arose during the century, and by the 14th century the joust was poised to take over the vacancy in aristocratic amusement caused by the decline of the tournament.
It is a vexed issue as to what extent specialized arms and armour were used in mêlée tournaments. A further question that might be raised is to what extent the military equipment of knights and their horses in the 12th and 13th centuries was devised to meet the perils and demands of tournaments, rather than warfare. It is however clear from the sources that the weapons used in tournaments were initially the same as those used in war. It is not by any means certain that swords were blunted for most of the history of the tournament. This must have changed by the mid 13th century, at least in jousting encounters. There is a passing reference to a special spear for use in jousting in the Prose Lancelot (c. 1220). In the 1252 jousting at Walden, the lances used had ' sokets ', curved ring - like punches instead of points. The Statute of Arms of Edward I of England of 1292 says that blunted knives and swords should be used in tournaments, which rather hints that their use had not been general until then.
The tournament had a resurgence of popularity in England in the reign of the martial and crusading king, Edward I (1272 -- 1307) and under his grandson, Edward III (1327 -- 77), yet nonetheless the tournament died out in the latter 's reign. Edward III encouraged the move towards pageantry and a predominance of jousting in his sponsored events. In the last true tournament held in England in 1342 at Dunstable, the mêlée was postponed so long by jousting that the sun was sinking by the time the lines charged. The tournament survived little longer in France or Burgundy. The last known to be held was at Bruges in 1379. That same year the citizens of Ghent rioted when the count of Flanders announced a tournament to be held at their city. The cause of their discontent was the associated expense for them.
By using costumes, drama and symbolism, tournaments became a form of art, which raised the expenses for these events considerably. They had political purposes, to impress the populace and guests with their opulance, as well as the courage of the participants. Loyalty to a lord or lady was expressed through clothes and increasingly elaborate enactments. Tournaments also served cultural purposes. As the ideals of Courtly Love became more influential, women played a more important role in the events. They were often held in honour of a lady and they participated in the playacting and symbolism.
Edward III of England regularly held tournaments, during which people often dressed up, sometimes as the Knights of the Round Table. In 1331 the participants of one tournament were all wearing green cloaks decorated with golden arrows. In the same year one was held at Cheapside, in which the king and other participants dressed as Tartars and led the ladies, who were in the colours of Saint George, in a procession at the start of the event. His grandson, Richard II, would first distribute his livery badges with the White Hart at a tournament at Smithfield.
Mythology and storytelling were popular aspects of tournaments. An example of this is the tournament in 1468 that was organized by Charles the Bold to celebrate his marriage with Margaret of York. The tournament was supposedly at the bidding of the ' Lady of the Hidden Ile '. A golden tree had been erected with all the coats of arms of the participating knights. They were dressed like famous figures from legend and history, while their squires were dressed as harlequins. A notable example of an eleborate costume was Anthony of Luxembourg 's. Chained in a black castle, he entered the lists. He could only be freed with a golden key and approval of the attending ladies.
In Florence the military aspect of the tournaments were secondary to the display of wealth. For a tournament honouring his marriage to Clarice Orsini, Lorenzo de Medici had his standard designed by Leonardo Da Vinci and Andrea del Verrocchio. He also wore a large amount of jewelry, including the famous Medici diamond ' Il Libro '.
Royalty also held tournaments to stress the importance of certain events and the nobility 's loyalty. Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York presided over a series of tournaments when their son Henry was created Duke of York. These tournaments were noted for their display of wealth. On the first day, the participants showed their loyalty by wearing the King 's colours on their bodies and the Queen 's colours on their helmets. They further honoured the royal family by wearing the colours of the King 's mother, Margaret Beaufort, on the next day.
In 1511, at the court of Henry VIII of England, a tournament was held in honour of Catherine of Aragon. Charles Brandon came out of a tower which was moved onto the battlefield, dressed like a pilgrim. He only took off his pilgrim 's clothes after the queen had given him permission to participate.
The decline of the true tournament (as opposed to the joust) was not a straightforward process, although the word continued to be used for jousts until the 16th century forced by the prominent place that tourneying occupied in popular Arthurian romance literature.
|
the success of hoplites in a phalanx depended on | Phalanx - wikipedia
The phalanx (Ancient Greek: φάλαγξ; plural phalanxes or phalanges, φάλαγγες, phalanges) was a rectangular mass military formation, usually composed entirely of heavy infantry armed with spears, pikes, sarissas, or similar pole weapons. The term is particularly (and originally) used to describe the use of this formation in Ancient Greek warfare, although the ancient Greek writers used it to also describe any massed infantry formation, regardless of its equipment. Arrian uses the term in his Array against the Alans when he refers to his legions. In Greek texts, the phalanx may be deployed for battle, on the march, or even camped, thus describing the mass of infantry or cavalry that would deploy in line during battle. They marched forward as one entity.
The term itself, as used today, does not refer to a distinctive military unit or division (e.g., the Roman legion or the contemporary Western - type battalion), but to the type of formation of an army 's troops. Therefore, this term does not indicate a standard combat strength or composition but includes the total number of infantry, which is deployed in a single formation known as a "phalanx ''.
Many spear - armed troops historically fought in what might be termed phalanx - like formations. This article focuses on the use of the military phalanx formation in Ancient Greece, the Hellenistic world, and other ancient states heavily influenced by Greek civilization.
The earliest known depiction of a phalanx - like formation occurs in a Sumerian stele from the 25th century BC. Here the troops seem to have been equipped with spears, helmets, and large shields covering the whole body. Ancient Egyptian infantry were known to have employed similar formations. The first usage of the term phalanx comes from Homer 's "(φαλαγξ) '', used to describe hoplites fighting in an organized battle line. Homer used the term to differentiate the formation - based combat from the individual duels so often found in his poems.
Historians have not arrived at a consensus about the relationship between the Greek formation and these predecessors of the hoplites. The principles of shield wall and spear hedge were almost universally known among the armies of major civilizations throughout history, and so the similarities may be related to convergent evolution instead of diffusion.
Traditionally, historians date the origin of the hoplite phalanx of ancient Greece to the 8th century BC in Sparta, but this is under revision. It is perhaps more likely that the formation was devised in the 7th century BC after the introduction of the aspis by the city of Argos, which would have made the formation possible. This is further evidenced by the Chigi vase, dated to 650 BC, identifying hoplites armed with aspis, spear and panoply.
Another possible theory as to the birth of Greek phalanx warfare stems from the idea that some of the basic aspects of the phalanx were present in earlier times yet were not fully developed due to the lack of appropriate technology. Two of the basic strategies seen in earlier warfare include the principle of cohesion and the use of large groups of soldiers. This would suggest that the Greek phalanx was rather the culmination and perfection of a slowly developed idea that originated many years earlier. As weaponry and armour advanced through the years in different city - states, the phalanx became complex and effective.
The hoplite phalanx of the Archaic and Classical periods in Greece (ca. 800 -- 350 BC) was the formation in which the hoplites would line up in ranks in close order. The hoplites would lock their shields together, and the first few ranks of soldiers would project their spears out over the first rank of shields. The phalanx therefore presented a shield wall and a mass of spear points to the enemy, making frontal assaults against it very difficult. It also allowed a higher proportion of the soldiers to be actively engaged in combat at a given time (rather than just those in the front rank).
Battles between two phalanxes usually took place in open, flat plains where it was easier to advance and stay in formation. Rough terrain or hilly regions would have made it difficult to maintain a steady line and would have defeated the purpose of a phalanx. As a result, battles between Greek city - states would not take place in just any location, nor would they be limited to sometimes obvious strategic points. Rather, many times, the two opposing sides would find the most suitable piece of land where the conflict could be settled. Typically, the battle ended with one of the two fighting forces fleeing to safety.
The phalanx usually advanced at a walking pace, although it is possible that they picked up speed during the last several yards. One of the main reasons for this slow approach was to maintain formation. The formation would be rendered useless if the phalanx was lost as the unit approached the enemy and could even become detrimental to the advancing unit, resulting in a weaker formation that was easier for an enemy force to break through. If the hoplites of the phalanx were to pick up speed toward the latter part of the advance, it would have been for the purpose of gaining momentum against the enemy in the initial collision. Herodotus states of the Greeks at the Battle of Marathon, that "They were the first Greeks we know of to charge their enemy at a run ''. Many historians believe that this innovation was precipitated by their desire to minimize their losses from Persian archery. The opposing sides would collide, possibly severing many of the spears of the row in front and killing the front part of the enemy army due to the bone - breaking collision. The battle would then rely on the valour of the men in the front line, whilst those in the rear maintained forward pressure on the front ranks with their shields. When in combat, the whole formation would consistently press forward trying to break the enemy formation; thus when two phalanx formations engaged, the struggle essentially became a pushing match.
This "physical pushing match '' theory is the most widely accepted interpretation of the ancient sources. Historians such as Victor Davis Hanson point out that it is difficult to account for exceptionally deep phalanx formations unless they were necessary to facilitate the physical pushing depicted by this theory, as those behind the first two ranks could not take part in the actual spear thrusting.
No Greek art ever depicts anything like a phalanx pushing match, so this hypothesis is a product of educated speculation rather than explicit testimony from contemporary sources and is far from being academically resolved. The Greek term for "push '' was used in the same metaphorical manner as the English word is (for example it was also used to describe the process of rhetorical arguments) and so does not necessarily describe a literal physical push, although it is possible that it did.
For instance, if Othismos were to accurately describe a physical pushing match, it would be logical to state that the deeper phalanx would always win an engagement since the physical strength of individuals would not compensate for even one additional rank on the enemy side. However, there are numerous examples of shallow phalanxes holding off an opponent. For instance, at Delium in 424 BC, the Athenian left flank, a formation eight men deep, held off a formation of Thebans 25 deep without immediate collapse. It is difficult with the physical pushing model to imagine eight men withstanding the pushing force of 25 opponents for a matter of seconds, let alone half the battle.
Such arguments have led to a wave of counter-criticism to physical shoving theorists. Adrian Goldsworthy, in his article "The Othismos, Myths and Heresies: The nature of Hoplite Battle '', argues that the physical pushing match model does not fit with the average casualty figures of hoplite warfare nor the practical realities of moving large formations of men in battle. This debate has yet to be resolved amongst scholars.
Practical difficulties with this theory also include the fact that, in a shoving match, an eight - foot spear is too long to fight effectively or even parry attacks. Spears enable a formation of men to keep their enemies at a distance, parry attacks aimed at them and their comrades, and give the necessary reach to strike multiple men in the opposite formation. A pushing match would put enemies so close together that a quick stabbing with a knife would kill the front row almost instantly. The crush of men would also prevent the formation from withdrawing or retreating, which would result in much higher casualties than is recorded. The speed at which this would occur would also end the battle very quickly, instead of prolonging it for hours.
Each individual hoplite carried his shield on his left arm, protecting not only himself but also the soldier to the left. This meant that the men at the extreme right of the phalanx were only half - protected. In battle, opposing phalanxes would try to exploit this weakness by attempting to overlap the enemy 's right flank. It also meant that, in battle, a phalanx would tend to drift to the right (as hoplites sought to remain behind the shield of their neighbour). The most experienced hoplites were often placed on the right side of the phalanx to avoid these problems. Some groups, such as the Spartans at Nemea, tried to use this phenomenon to their advantage. In this case, the phalanx would sacrifice its left side, which typically consisted of allied troops, in an effort to overtake the enemy from the flank. It is unlikely that this strategy worked very often, as it is not mentioned frequently in ancient Greek literature.
There was a leader in each row of a phalanx, and a rear rank officer, the ouragos (meaning tail - leader), who kept order in the rear. The hoplites had to trust their neighbours to protect them and in turn be willing to protect their neighbours; a phalanx was thus only as strong as its weakest elements. The effectiveness of the phalanx therefore depended on how well the hoplites could maintain this formation in combat and how well they could stand their ground, especially when engaged against another phalanx. For this reason, the formation was deliberately organized to group friends and family close together, thus providing a psychological incentive to support one 's fellows, and a disincentive, through shame, to panic or attempt to flee. The more disciplined and courageous the army, the more likely it was to win -- often engagements between the various city - states of Greece would be resolved by one side fleeing before the battle. The Greek word dynamis, the "will to fight '', expresses the drive that kept hoplites in formation.
Now of those, who dare, abiding one beside another, to advance to the close fray, and the foremost champions, fewer die, and they save the people in the rear; but in men that fear, all excellence is lost. No one could ever in words go through those several ills, which befall a man, if he has been actuated by cowardice. For ' tis grievous to wound in the rear the back of a flying man in hostile war. Shameful too is a corpse lying low in the dust, wounded behind in the back by the point of a spear.
Each hoplite provided his own equipment. The primary hoplite weapon was a spear around 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) in length called a dory. Although accounts of its length vary, it is usually now believed to have been seven to nine feet long (~ 2.1 -- 2.7 m). It was held one - handed, with the other hand holding the hoplite 's shield (aspis). The spearhead was usually a curved leaf shape, while the rear of the spear had a spike called a sauroter (' lizard - killer ') which was used to stand the spear in the ground (hence the name). It was also used as a secondary weapon if the main shaft snapped or to kill enemies lying on the ground as the formation passed over them. This was a common problem, especially for soldiers who were involved in the initial clash with the enemy. Despite the snapping of the spear, hoplites could easily switch to the sauroter without great consequence. The rear ranks used the secondary end to finish off fallen opponents as the phalanx advanced over them.
Throughout the hoplite era, the standard hoplite armour went through many cyclical changes. An Archaic hoplite typically wore a bronze breastplate, a bronze helmet with cheekplates, as well as greaves and other armour. Later, in the classical period, the breastplate became less common, replaced instead with a corselet that some claim was made of linothorax (layers of linen glued together), or perhaps of leather, sometimes covered in whole or in part with overlapping metal scales. Eventually, even greaves became less commonly used, although degrees of heavier armour remained, as attested by Xenophon as late as 401 BC.
These changes reflected the balancing of mobility with protection, especially as cavalry became more prominent in the Peloponnesian War and the need to combat light troops, which were increasingly used to negate the hoplites role as the primary force in battle. Yet bronze armour remained in some form until the end of the hoplite era. Some archaeologists have pointed out that bronze armour does not actually provide as much protection from direct blows as more extensive corselet padding, and have suggested its continued use was a matter of status for those who could afford it. In the classical Greek dialect, there is no word for swordsmen; yet hoplites also carried a short sword called the xiphos. The short sword was a secondary weapon, used if the dory was broken or lost. Samples of the xiphos recovered at excavation sites typically were found to be around 60 cm in length. These swords were double - sided and could therefore be used in both the swinging and thrusting motion. These short swords were usually used to slice the enemy 's throat during close combat.
Hoplites carried a circular shield called a hoplon (often referred to as an aspis) made from wood and covered in bronze, measuring roughly 1 metre (3.3 ft) in diameter. It spanned from chin to knee and was very heavy (8 -- 15 kg). This medium - sized shield (and indeed, large for the time considering the average male height) was made possible partly by its dish - like shape, which allowed it to be supported with the rim on the shoulder. This was quite an important feature of the shield, especially for the hoplites that remained in the latter ranks. While these soldiers continued to help press forward, they did not have the added burden of holding up their shield. But the circular shield was not without its disadvantages. Despite its mobility, protective curve, and double straps the circular shape created gaps in the shield wall at both its top and bottom. (Top gaps were somewhat reduced by the one or two spears jutting out of the gap. In order to minimize the bottom gaps, thick leather ' curtains ' were used but only by an (unknown) percentage of the hoplites, possibly mostly in the first row only since there were disadvantages as well: considerable added weight on an already heavy shield and a certain additional cost). These gaps left parts of the hoplite exposed to potentially lethal spear thrusts and were a persistent vulnerability for hoplites controlling the front lines.
The phalanx of the Ancient Macedonian kingdom and the later Hellenistic successor states was a development of the hoplite phalanx. The ' phalangites ' were armed with a much longer spear, the sarissa, and less heavily armoured. The sarissa was the pike used by the ancient Macedonian army. Its actual length is unknown, but apparently it was twice as long as the dory. This makes it at least 14 feet (4.3 m), but 18 feet (5.5 m) appears more likely. (The cavalry xyston was 12.5 feet (3.8 m) by comparison.) The great length of the pike was balanced by a counterweight at the rear end, which also functioned as a butt - spike, allowing the sarissa to be planted into the ground. Because of its great length, weight and different balance, a sarissa was wielded two - handed. This meant that the aspis was no longer a practical defence. Instead, the phalangites strapped a smaller pelte shield (usually reserved for peltasts, light skirmishers) to their left forearm. Recent theories, including examination of ancient frescoes depicting full sets of weapons and armor, claim that the shields used were actually larger than the pelte but smaller than the aspis, hanging by leather strap (s) from the left shoulder or from both shoulders. The shield would retain handling straps in the inner curve, to be handled like a (smaller) aspis if the fight progressed to sword - wielding. Although in both shield size assumptions this reduced the shield wall, the extreme length of the spear kept the enemy at a greater distance, as the pikes of the first three to five ranks could all be brought to bear in front of the front row. This pike had to be held underhand, as the shield would have obscured the soldier 's vision had it been held overhead. It would also be very hard to remove a sarissa from anything it stuck in (the earth, shields, and soldiers of the opposition) if it were thrust downwards, due to its length. The Macedonian phalanx was much less able to form a shield wall, but the lengthened spears would have compensated for this. Such a phalanx formation also reduced the likelihood that battles would degenerate into a pushing match.
The basic combat element of the Greek armies was either the stichos (meaning "file ''; usually 8 - 16 men strong) or the enomotia (meaning "sworn '' and made up by 2 - 4 stichœ; totaling up to 32 men), both led by a dimœrites who was assisted by a decadarchos and two decasterœ (sing. decasteros). Four to a maximum of 32 enomotiæ (depending on the era in question or the city) were forming a lochos led by a lochagos, who in this way was in command of initially 100 hoplites to a maximum of ca. 500 in the late Hellenistic armies. Here, it has to be noted that the military manuals of Asclepiodotus and Aelian use the term lochos to denote a file in the phalanx. A taxis (mora for the Spartans) was the greatest standard hoplitic formation of 500 to 1500 men, led by a strategos (general). The entire army, a total of several taxeis or moræ was led by a generals ' council. The commander - in - chief was usually called a polemarchos or a strategos autocrator.
Hoplite phalanxes usually deployed in ranks of 8 men or more deep; The Macedonian phalanxes were usually 16 men deep, sometimes reported to have been arrayed 32 men deep. There are some notable extremes; at the battles of Leuctra and Mantinea, the Theban general Epameinondas arranged the left wing of the phalanx into a "hammerhead '' of 50 ranks of elite hoplites deep (see below) and when depth was less important, phalanxes just 4 deep are recorded, as at the battle of Marathon.
The phalanx depth could vary depending on the needs of the moment and plans of the general. While the phalanx was in march, an eis bathos formation (loose, meaning literally "in depth '') was adopted in order to move more freely and maintain order. This was also the initial battle formation as, in addition, it permitted friendly units to pass through whether assaulting or retreating. In this status, the phalanx had twice the normal depth and each hoplite had to occupy about 1.8 -- 2 metres (5 ft 11 in -- 6 ft 7 in) in width. When enemy infantry was approaching, a rapid switch to the pycne (spelled also pucne) formation (dense or tight formation) was necessary. In that case, each man 's space was halved (0.9 -- 1 metre or 2 feet 11 inches -- 3 feet 3 inches in width) and the formation depth returned to normal. An even denser formation, the synaspismos or sunaspismos (ultra tight or locked shields formation), was used when the phalanx was expected to experience extra pressure, intense missile volleys or frontal cavalry charges. In synaspismos, the rank depth was half that of a normal phalanx and the width each man occupied was as small as 0.45 metres (1.5 ft).
Several stages in hoplite combat can be defined:
Ephodos: The hoplites stop singing their pæanes (battle hymns) and move towards the enemy, gradually picking up pace and momentum. In the instants before impact, war cries (alalagmœ, sing. alalagmos) would be made. Notable war cries were the Athenian (elelelelef! elelelelef!) and the Macedonian (alalalalai! alalalalai!) alalagmœ.
Krousis: The opposing phalanxes meet each other almost simultaneously along their front.
Doratismos: Repeated, rapid spear thrusts in order to disrupt the enemy formation. The use of long spears would keep enemies apart as well as allow men in a row to assist their comrades next to them. The prodding could also open up a man to allow a comrade to spear him. Too hard prodding could get a spear stuck in a shield, which would necessitate someone in the back to lend his to the now - disarmed man.
Othismos: Literally "pushing '' after most spears have been broken, the hoplites begin to push with their spears and spear shafts against their opponents ' shields. This could be the longest phase.
Pararrhexis: "Breaching '' the opposing phalanx, the enemy formation shatters and the battle ends. Cavalry would be used at this point to mop up the scattered enemy.
The early history of the phalanx is largely one of combat between hoplite armies from competing Greek city - states. The usual result was rather identical, inflexible formations pushing against each other until one broke. The potential of the phalanx to achieve something more was demonstrated at Battle of Marathon (490 BC). Facing the much larger army of Darius I, the Athenians thinned out their phalanx and consequently lengthened their front, to avoid being outflanked. However, even a reduced - depth phalanx proved unstoppable to the lightly armed Persian infantry. After routing the Persian wings, the hoplites on the Athenian wings wheeled inwards, destroying the elite troop at the Persian centre, resulting in a crushing victory for Athens. Throughout the Greco - Persian Wars the hoplite phalanx was to prove superior to the Persian infantry (e.g. the battles of Thermopylae and Plataea).
Perhaps the most prominent example of the phalanx 's evolution was the oblique advance, made famous in the Battle of Leuctra. There, the Theban general Epaminondas thinned out the right flank and centre of his phalanx, and deepened his left flank to an unheard - of 50 men deep. In doing so, Epaminondas reversed the convention by which the right flank of the phalanx was strongest. This allowed the Thebans to assault in strength the elite Spartan troops on the right flank of the opposing phalanx. Meanwhile, the centre and right flank of the Theban line were echeloned back, from the opposing phalanx, keeping the weakened parts of the formation from being engaged. Once the Spartan right had been routed by the Theban left, the remainder of the Spartan line also broke. Thus, by localising the attacking power of the hoplites, Epaminondas was able to defeat an enemy previously thought invincible.
Philip II of Macedon spent several years in Thebes as a hostage, and paid attention to Epaminondas ' innovations. On return to his homeland, he raised a revolutionary new infantry force, which was to change the face of the Greek world. Phillip 's phalangites were the first force of professional soldiers seen in Ancient Greece apart from Sparta. They were armed with longer spears (the sarissa) and were drilled more thoroughly in more evolved, complicated tactics and manoeuvres. More importantly, though, Phillip 's phalanx was part of a multi-faceted, combined force that included a variety of skirmishers and cavalry, most notably the famous Companion cavalry. The Macedonian phalanx now was used to pin the centre of the enemy line, while cavalry and more mobile infantry struck at the foe 's flanks. Its supremacy over the more static armies fielded by the Greek city - states was shown at the Battle of Chaeronea, where Philip II 's army crushed the allied Theban and Athenian phalanxes.
The hoplite phalanx was weakest when facing an enemy fielding lighter and more flexible troops without its own such supporting troops. An example of this would be the Battle of Lechaeum, where an Athenian contingent led by Iphicrates routed an entire Spartan mora (a unit of anywhere from 500 to 900 hoplites). The Athenian force had a considerable proportion of light missile troops armed with javelins and bows that wore down the Spartans with repeated attacks, causing disarray in the Spartan ranks and an eventual rout when they spotted Athenian heavy infantry reinforcements trying to flank them by boat.
The Macedonian phalanx had weaknesses similar to its hoplitic predecessor. Theoretically indestructible from the front, its flanks and rear were very vulnerable, and once engaged it may not easily disengage or redeploy to face a threat from those directions. Thus, a phalanx facing non-phalangite formations required some sort of protection on its flanks -- lighter or at least more mobile infantry, cavalry, etc. This was shown at the Battle of Magnesia, where, once the Seleucid supporting cavalry elements were driven off, the phalanx was static and unable to go on the offensive against its Roman opponents (although they continued to resist stoutly and attempted a fighting withdrawal under a hail of Roman missiles, until the elephants posted on their flanks panicked and disrupted their formation).
The Macedonian phalanx could also lose its cohesion without proper coordination or while moving through broken terrain; doing so could create gaps between individual blocks / syntagmata, or could prevent a solid front within those sub-units as well, causing other sections of the line to bunch up. In this event, as in the battles of Cynoscephalae and Pydna, the phalanx became vulnerable to attacks by more flexible units -- such as Roman legionary centuries, which were able to avoid the sarissae and engage in hand - to - hand combat with the phalangites.
Another important area that must be considered concerns the psychological tendencies of the hoplites. Because the strength of a phalanx depended on the ability of the hoplites to maintain their frontline, it was crucial that a phalanx be able to quickly and efficiently replace fallen soldiers in the front ranks. If a phalanx failed to do this in a structured manner, the opposing phalanx would have an opportunity to breach the line which, many times, would lead to a quick defeat. This then implies that the hoplites ranks closer to the front must be mentally prepared to replace their fallen comrade and adapt to his new position without disrupting the structure of the frontline.
Finally, most of the phalanx - centric armies tended to lack supporting echelons behind the main line of battle. This meant that breaking through the line of battle or compromising one of its flanks often ensured victory.
After reaching its zenith in the conquests of Alexander the Great, the phalanx as a military formation began a slow decline, mirrored by the decline in the Macedonian successor states themselves. The combined arms tactics used by Alexander and his father were gradually replaced by a return to the simpler frontal charge tactics of the hoplite phalanx. In the numerous wars of the Successor states the expense of the supporting arms and cavalry, and widespread use of mercenaries, caused the Diadochi to rely on phalanx vs. phalanx tactics.
The decline of the diadochi and the phalanx was inextricably linked with the rise of Rome and the Roman legion, from the 3rd century BC. Before the battle of the Caudine Forks, where the clumsiness of the Roman phalanx was displayed by the Samnites, the Romans had originally employed the phalanx themselves, but gradually evolved more flexible tactics resulting in the three - line Roman legion of the middle period of the Roman Republic. The phalanx continued to be employed by the Romans as a tactic for their third military line or triarii of veteran reserve troops armed with the hastae or spear. Rome would eventually conquer most of the Macedonian successor states, and the various Greek city - states and leagues. These territories were incorporated into the Roman Republic, and as these Hellenic states had ceased to exist, so did the armies which had used the traditional phalanx formation. Subsequently, troops raised from these regions by the Romans would have been equipped and fought in line on the Roman model.
However, the phalanx did not disappear as a military tactic altogether. There is some question as to whether the phalanx was actually obsolete by the end of its history. In some of the major battles between the Roman Army and Hellenistic phalanxes, Pydna (168 BC), Cynoscephalae (197 BC) and Magnesia (190 BC), the phalanx performed relatively well against the Roman army, initially driving back the Roman infantry. However, at Cynoscephalae and Magnesia, failure to defend the flanks of the Phalanx led to defeat; whilst at Pydna, the loss of cohesion of the Phalanx when pursuing retreating Roman soldiers allowed the Romans to penetrate the formation, where the latter 's close combat skills proved decisive. The ancient Greek historian Polybius goes into some detail about the effectiveness of the Roman legion against the Phalanx. He deduces that the Romans refused to fight the phalanx where the phalanx was most effective and offered battle only when they felt that they could exploit the clumsiness and immobility of the phalanx.
Spear - armed troops continued to be important elements in many armies until the advent of reliable firearms, but did not necessarily fight in the manner of a phalanx. A meaningful comparison can be made between the Classical phalanx and late medieval pike formations.
Particular parallels can be seen in the Middle Ages and Renaissance city - states of the Low Countries (modern Holland and Belgium), the cantons of Switzerland and the city - states of Northern Italy. Armies of the Low Countries were first armed with spears, then pikes, and were defeating French and Burgundian forces by the 14th century. The Swiss first used the halberd in the 14th century but -- outreached by Austrian cavalry armed with lances -- the Swiss gradually adopted pikes in the later 15th century. Swiss pike phalanxes of the Burgundian Wars were dynamic and aggressive resulting in the destruction of the ' modern ' Burgundian army and the death of Charles the Bold. It is tempting to suggest that Swiss military authorities had read Classical sources and were consciously copying Hellenistic practices. Some Italian states raised their own pike units as well as employing Swiss mercenary pikemen in the 15th and 16th century. The Swiss were also copied by German Landsknechts leading to bitterness and rivalry between competing mercenary units.
Military historians have also suggested that the Scots, particularly under William Wallace and Robert the Bruce, consciously imitated the Hellenistic phalanx to produce the Scots ' hedgehog ' or schiltron. However, this ignores possible Early Middle Ages use of long spears by Picts and others in Scotland. It is possible that long spear tactics (also found in North Wales) were an established part of more irregular warfare in parts of Britain prior to 1066. The Scots certainly used imported French pikes and dynamic tactics at the Battle of Flodden. However, this battle found the Scots pitted against effective light artillery and advancing over bad ground, which disorganised the Scottish phalanxes and left them easy prey to English longbow shooting and attacks by shorter but more effective English polearms called bills. Some have interpreted contemporary sources as describing the bills cutting off the heads of Scots pikes.
Pike and shot became a military standard in the 16th and 17th century. With the development of the bayonet the last major use of pike was the early 18th century with the weapon rapidly disappearing in Western European armies by the time of the Battle of Blenheim. A few pikes or half pikes and a few halberds were retained among regimental colour guards but even these were fast disappearing by the time of Napoleon.
The pike was briefly reconsidered as a weapon by European armies in the late 18th and early 19th century as protection for riflemen, whose slower rate of fire made them vulnerable. A collapsible pike was invented but never issued. It was also reconsidered by the Confederate Army at the time of the American Civil War and some were even manufactured but these were probably never issued. Pikes were again manufactured for a short time during World War Two, and became known as "Croft 's Pikes ''.
|
one hell of a night tour chris brown | One Hell of a Nite Tour - wikipedia
The One Hell of a Nite Tour is to support Chris Brown 's 7th studio album.
It was originally supposed to be a summer tour but then the album was so successful he added an Australian and European leg. However, Australia barred him entry to the country so the Australian leg was cancelled. He had no problems with the European leg.
|
rotor blades start to rotate at what velocity | Helicopter rotor - wikipedia
A helicopter main rotor or rotor system is the combination of several rotary wings (rotor blades) and a control system that generates the aerodynamic lift force that supports the weight of the helicopter, and the thrust that counteracts aerodynamic drag in forward flight. Each main rotor is mounted on a vertical mast over the top of the helicopter, as opposed to a helicopter tail rotor, which connects through a combination of drive shaft (s) and gearboxes along the tail boom. The blade pitch is typically controlled by a swashplate connected to the helicopter flight controls. Helicopters are one example of rotary - wing aircraft (rotorcraft). The name is derived from the Greek words helix, helik -, meaning spiral; and pteron meaning wing.
The use of a rotor for vertical flight has existed since 400 BC in the form of the bamboo - copter, an ancient Chinese toy. The bamboo - copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor. The spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released. The philosopher Ge Hong 's book the Baopuzi (Master Who Embraces Simplicity), written around 317, describes the apocryphal use of a possible rotor in aircraft: "Some have made flying cars (feiche 飛車) with wood from the inner part of the jujube tree, using ox - leather (straps) fastened to returning blades so as to set the machine in motion. '' Leonardo da Vinci designed a machine known as an "aerial screw '' with a rotor based on a water screw. The Russian polymath Mikhail Lomonosov developed a rotor based on the Chinese toy. The French naturalist Christian de Launoy constructed his rotor out of turkey feathers. Sir George Cayley, inspired by the Chinese toy in his childhood, created multiple vertical flight machines with rotors made of tin sheets. Alphonse Pénaud would later develop the coaxial rotor model helicopter toys in 1870, powered by rubber bands. One of these toys, given as a gift by their father, would inspire the Wright brothers to pursue the dream of flight.
Before development of powered helicopters in the mid 20th century, autogyro pioneer Juan de la Cierva researched and developed many of the fundamentals of the rotor. De la Cierva is credited with successful development of multi-bladed, fully articulated rotor systems. This system, in its various modified forms, is the basis of most multi-bladed helicopter rotor systems.
The first successful attempt at a single - lift rotor helicopter design used a four - blade main rotor, as designed by Soviet aeronautical engineers Boris N. Yuriev and Alexei M. Cheremukhin, both working at the Tsentralniy Aerogidrodinamicheskiy Institut (TsAGI, the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute) near Moscow in the early 1930s. Their TsAGI 1 - EA helicopter was able to fly in low altitude testing in 1931 - 32, with Cheremukhin flying it as high as 605 meters (1,985 ft) by mid-August 1932.
In the 1930s, Arthur Young improved the stability of two - bladed rotor systems with the introduction of a stabilizer bar. This system was used in several Bell and Hiller helicopter models. The Hiller system variant using airfoiled paddles at the flybar 's ends has been used in many of the earliest designs of remote control model helicopters, from their 1970s origins onwards to the very early 21st century.
In the late 1940s, the making of helicopter rotor blades was a job that inspired John T. Parsons to be a pioneer of numerical control (NC). NC and CNC turned out to be an important new technology that later affected all machining industries.
The helicopter rotor is powered by the engine, through the transmission, to the rotating mast. The mast is a cylindrical metal shaft that extends upward from -- and is driven by -- the transmission. At the top of the mast is the attachment point for the rotor blades called the hub. The rotor blades are then attached to the hub, and the hub can have 10 - 20 times the drag of the blade. Main rotor systems are classified according to how the main rotor blades are attached and move relative to the main rotor hub. There are three basic classifications: hingeless, teetering, and fully articulated, although some modern rotor systems use a combination of these classifications. A rotor is a finely tuned rotating mass, and different subtle adjustments reduce vibrations at different airspeeds. The rotors are designed to operate at a fixed RPM (within a narrow range of a few percent), but a few experimental aircraft used variable speed rotors.
Unlike the small diameter fans used in turbofan jet engines, the main rotor on a helicopter has a large diameter that lets it accelerate a large volume of air. This permits a lower downwash velocity for a given amount of thrust. As it is more efficient at low speeds to accelerate a large amount of air by a small degree than a small amount of air by a large degree, a low disc loading (thrust per disc area) greatly increases the aircraft 's energy efficiency, and this reduces the fuel use and permits reasonable range. The hover efficiency ("figure of merit '') of a typical helicopter is around 60 %. The inner third length of a rotor blade contributes very little to lift due to its low airspeed.
The simple rotor of a Robinson R22 showing (from the top):
Controls vary the pitch of the main rotor blades cyclically throughout rotation. The pilot uses this to control the direction of the rotor thrust vector, which defines the part of the rotor disc where the maximum thrust develops. Collective pitch varies the magnitude of rotor thrust by increasing or decreasing thrust over the whole rotor disc at the same time. These blade pitch variations are controlled by tilting, raising, or lowering the swash plate with the flight controls. The vast majority of helicopters maintain a constant rotor speed (RPM) during flight, leaving the angle of attack of the blades as the sole means of adjusting thrust from the rotor.
The swash plate is two concentric disks or plates. One plate rotates with the mast, connected by idle links, while the other does not rotate. The rotating plate is also connected to the individual blades through pitch links and pitch horns. The non-rotating plate is connected to links that are manipulated by pilot controls -- specifically, the collective and cyclic controls. The swash plate can shift vertically and tilt. Through shifting and tilting, the non-rotating plate controls the rotating plate, which in turn controls the individual blade pitch.
Juan de la Cierva developed the fully articulating rotor for the autogyro. The basis of his design permitted successful helicopter development. In a fully articulated rotor system, each rotor blade is attached to the rotor hub through a series of hinges that let the blade move independently of the others. These rotor systems usually have three or more blades. The blades are allowed to flap, feather, and lead or lag independently of each other. The horizontal hinge, called the flapping hinge, allows the blade to move up and down. This movement is called flapping and is designed to compensate for dissymmetry of lift. The flapping hinge may be located at varying distances from the rotor hub, and there may be more than one hinge. The vertical hinge, called the lead - lag hinge or drag hinge, allows the blade to move back and forth. This movement is called lead - lag, dragging, or hunting. Dampers are usually used to prevent excess back and forth movement around the drag hinge. The purpose of the drag hinge and dampers is to compensate for acceleration and deceleration caused by the Coriolis effect. Later models have switched from using traditional bearings to elastomeric bearings. Elastomeric bearings are naturally fail - safe and their wear is gradual and visible. The metal - to - metal contact of older bearings and the need for lubrication is eliminated in this design. The third hinge in the fully articulated system is called the feathering hinge about the feathering axis. This hinge is responsible for the change in pitch of rotor blades excited via pilot input to the Collective or Cyclic. A variation of the fully articulated system is the "soft - in - plane '' rotor system. This type of rotor can be found on several aircraft produced by Bell Helicopter, such as the OH - 58D Kiowa Warrior. This system is similar to the fully articulated type in that each blade has the ability to lead / lag and hunt independent of the other blades. The difference between a fully articulated system and soft - in - plane system is that the soft - in - plane system utilizes a composite yoke. This yoke is attached to the mast and runs through the blade grips between the blades and the shear bearing inside the grip. This yoke does transfer some movement of one blade to another, usually opposing blades. While this is not fully articulated, the flight characteristics are very similar and maintenance time and cost are reduced.
The term "rigid rotor '' usually refers to a hingeless rotor system with blades flexibly attached to the hub. Irv Culver of Lockheed developed one of the first rigid rotors, which was tested and developed on a series of helicopters in the 1960s and 1970s. In a rigid rotor system, each blade flaps and drags about flexible sections of the root. A rigid rotor system is mechanically simpler than a fully articulated rotor system. Loads from flapping and lead / lag forces are accommodated through rotor blades flexing, rather than through hinges. By flexing, the blades themselves compensate for the forces that previously required rugged hinges. The result is a rotor system that has less lag in control response because of the large hub moment typically generated. The rigid rotor system thus eliminates the danger of mast bumping inherent in teetering rotors.
The semirigid rotor can also be referred to as a teetering or seesaw rotor. This system is normally composed of two blades that meet just under a common flapping or teetering hinge at the rotor shaft. This allows the blades to flap together in opposite motions like a seesaw. This underslinging of the blades below the teetering hinge, combined with an adequate dihedral or coning angle on the blades, minimizes variations in the radius of each blade 's center of mass from the axis of rotation as the rotor turns, which in turn reduces the stress on the blades from lead and lag forces caused by the Coriolis effect. Secondary flapping hinges may also be provided to provide sufficient flexibility to minimize bouncing. Feathering is accomplished by the feathering hinge at the blade root, which allows changes to the pitch angle of the blade.
A number of engineers, among them Arthur M. Young in the U.S. and radio - control aeromodeler Dieter Schlüter in Germany, found that flight stability for helicopters could be achieved with a stabilizer bar, or flybar. The flybar has a weight or paddle (or both for added stability on smaller helicopters) at each end to maintain a constant plane of rotation. Through mechanical linkages, the stable rotation of the bar mixes with the swashplate movement to damp internal (steering) as well as external (wind) forces on the rotor. This makes it easier for the pilot to maintain control of the aircraft. Stanley Hiller arrived at a similar method to improve stability by adding short stubby airfoils, or paddles, at each end. However, Hiller 's "Rotormatic '' system also delivered cyclic control inputs to the main rotor as a sort of control rotor, and the paddles provided the added stability by damping the effects of external forces on the rotor.
The Lockheed rotor system used a control gyro, similar in principle to that of the Bell stabilizer bar, but designed for both hands - off stability and rapid control response of the hingeless rotor system.
In fly - by - wire helicopters or RC models, a microcontroller with gyroscope sensors and a Venturi sensor can replace the stabilizer. This flybar-less design has the advantage of easy reconfiguration and fewer mechanical parts.
Modern rotor systems may use the combined principles of the rotor systems mentioned above. Some rotor hubs incorporate a flexible hub, which allows for blade bending (flexing) without the need for bearings or hinges. These systems, called "flexures '', are usually constructed from composite material. Elastomeric bearings may also be used in place of conventional roller bearings. Elastomeric bearings are constructed from a rubber type material and provide limited movement that is perfectly suited for helicopter applications. Flexures and elastomeric bearings require no lubrication and, therefore, require less maintenance. They also absorb vibration, which means less fatigue and longer service life for the helicopter components.
Most helicopters have a single main rotor but require a separate rotor to overcome torque. This is accomplished through a variable - pitch antitorque rotor or tail rotor. This is the design that Igor Sikorsky settled on for his VS - 300 helicopter, and it has become the recognized convention for helicopter design, although designs do vary. When viewed from above, the vast majority of helicopter rotors turn counter-clockwise; the rotors of French and Russian helicopters turn clockwise.
With a single main rotor helicopter, the creation of torque as the engine turns the rotor creates a torque effect that causes the body of the helicopter to turn in the opposite direction of the rotor. To eliminate this effect, some sort of antitorque control must be used with a sufficient margin of power available to allow the helicopter to maintain its heading and provide yaw control. The three most common controls used today are the tail rotor, Eurocopter 's Fenestron (also called a fantail), and MD Helicopters ' NOTAR.
The tail rotor is a smaller rotor mounted so that it rotates vertically or near - vertically at the end of the tail of a traditional single - rotor helicopter. The tail rotor 's position and distance from the center of gravity allow it to develop thrust in a direction opposite of the main rotor 's rotation to counter the torque effect created by the main rotor. Tail rotors are simpler than main rotors since they require only collective changes in pitch to vary thrust. The pitch of the tail rotor blades is adjustable by the pilot via the anti-torque pedals, which also provide directional control by allowing the pilot to rotate the helicopter around its vertical axis, thereby changing the direction the craft is pointed.
Fenestron and FANTAIL are trademarks for a ducted fan mounted at the end of the tail boom of the helicopter and used in place of a tail rotor. Ducted fans have between eight and eighteen blades arranged with irregular spacing so that the noise is distributed over different frequencies. The housing is integral with the aircraft skin and allows a high rotational speed; therefore, a ducted fan can have a smaller size than a conventional tail rotor.
The Fenestron was used for the first time at the end of the 1960s on the second experimental model of Sud Aviation 's SA 340 and produced on the later model Aérospatiale SA 341 Gazelle. Besides Eurocopter and its predecessors, a ducted fan tail rotor was also used on the canceled military helicopter project, the United States Army 's RAH - 66 Comanche, as the FANTAIL.
NOTAR, an acronym for NO TAil Rotor, is a helicopter anti-torque system that eliminates the use of the tail rotor on a helicopter. Although the concept took some time to refine, the NOTAR system is simple in theory and provides antitorque the same way a wing develops lift by using the Coandă effect. A variable pitch fan is enclosed in the aft fuselage section immediately forward of the tail boom and is driven by the main rotor transmission. To provide the sideways force to counteract the clockwise torque produced by a counterclockwise - spinning main rotor (as seen from above the main rotor), the variable - pitch fan forces low pressure air through two slots on the right side of the tailboom, causing the downwash from the main rotor to hug the tailboom, producing lift and thus a measure of antitorque proportional to the amount of airflow from the rotorwash. This is augmented by a direct jet thruster which also provides directional yaw control, with the presence of a fixed - surface empennage near the end of the tail, incorporating vertical stabilizers.
Development of the NOTAR system dates back to 1975 when engineers at Hughes Helicopters began concept development work. In December 1981, Hughes flew an OH - 6A fitted with NOTAR for the first time. A more heavily modified prototype demonstrator first flew in March 1986 and successfully completed an advanced flight - test program, validating the system for future application in helicopter design. There are currently three production helicopters that incorporate the NOTAR design, all produced by MD Helicopters. This antitorque design also improves safety by eliminating the possibility of personnel walking into the tail rotor.
A predecessor (of sorts) to this system existed in the form of Great Britain 's Cierva W. 9 helicopter, a late 1940s aircraft using the cooling fan from its piston engine to push air through a nozzle built into the tailboom to counteract rotor - torque.
The main rotor may be driven by tip jets. Such a system may be powered by high pressure air provided by a compressor. The air may or may not be mixed with fuel and burnt in ram - jets, pulse - jets, or rockets. Though this method is simple and eliminates torque reaction, prototypes that have been built are less fuel efficient than conventional helicopters. Except for tip jets driven by unburnt compressed air, very high noise levels is the single most important reason why tip jet powered rotors have not gained wide acceptance. However, research into noise suppression is ongoing and may help make this system viable.
There are several examples of tip jet powered rotorcraft. The Percival P. 74 was under - powered and could not fly. The Hiller YH - 32 Hornet had good lifting capability but performed poorly otherwise. Other aircraft used auxiliary thrust for translational flight so that the tip jets could be shut down while the rotor autorotated. The experimental Fairey Jet Gyrodyne, 48 - seat Fairey Rotodyne passenger prototypes and McDonnell XV - 1 compound gyroplanes flew well using this method. Perhaps the most unusual design of this type was the Rotary Rocket Roton ATV, which was originally envisioned to take off using a rocket - tipped rotor. The French Sud - Ouest Djinn used unburnt compressed air to drive the rotor, which minimized noise and helped it become the only tip jet driven rotor helicopter to enter production. The Hughes XH - 17 had a tip jet - driven rotor, which remains the largest rotor ever fitted to a helicopter.
Counterrotating rotors are rotorcraft configurations with a pair or more of large horizontal rotors that turn in opposite directions to counteract the torque effect on the aircraft without relying on an antitorque tail rotor. This lets the aircraft apply the power that would have driven a tail rotor to the main rotors, increasing lifting capacity. Primarily, three common configurations use the counterrotating effect on rotorcraft. Tandem rotors are two rotors -- one mounted behind the other. Coaxial rotors are two rotors mounted one above the other on the same axis. Intermeshing rotors are two rotors mounted close to each other at a sufficient angle to let the rotors intermesh over the top of the aircraft. Another configuration -- found on tiltrotors and some early helicopters -- is called transverse rotors, where a pair of rotors are mounted at each end of a wing - type structure or outrigger.
Tandem rotors are two horizontal main rotor assemblies mounted one behind the other. Tandem rotors achieve pitch attitude changes to accelerate and decelerate the helicopter through a process called cyclic pitch. To pitch forward and accelerate, both rotors increase the pitch at the rear and reduce the pitch at the front (cyclic) keeping torque the same on both rotors, flying sideways is achieved by increasing the pitch on one side and reducing pitch on the other. Yaw control develops through opposing cyclic pitch in each rotor. To pivot right, the front rotor tilts right and the rear rotor tilts left. To pivot left, the front rotor tilts left and the rear rotor tilts right. All rotor power contributes to lift, and it is simpler to handle changes in the center of gravity fore - aft. However, it requires the expense of two large rotors rather than the more common one large main rotor and a much smaller tail rotor. The Boeing CH - 47 Chinook is the most common tandem rotor helicopter.
Coaxial rotors are a pair of rotors mounted one above the other on the same shaft and turning in opposite directions. The advantage of the coaxial rotor is that, in forward flight, the lift provided by the advancing halves of each rotor compensates for the retreating half of the other, eliminating one of the key effects of dissymmetry of lift: retreating blade stall. However, other design considerations plague coaxial rotors. There is an increased mechanical complexity of the rotor system because it requires linkages and swashplates for two rotor systems. Also, because the rotors must rotate in opposite directions, the mast is more complex, and control linkages for pitch changes to the upper rotor system must pass through the lower rotor system.
Intermeshing rotors on a helicopter are a set of two rotors turning in opposite directions with each rotor mast mounted on the helicopter with a slight angle to the other so that the blades intermesh without colliding. This configuration is sometimes referred to as a synchropter. Intermeshing rotors have high stability and powerful lifting capability. The arrangement was pioneered in Nazi Germany in 1939 with Anton Flettner 's successful Flettner Fl 265 design, and later placed in limited production as the successful Flettner Fl 282 Kolibri, used by the German Kriegsmarine in small numbers (24 airframes produced) as an experimental light anti-submarine warfare helicopter. During the Cold War, an American company, Kaman Aircraft, produced the HH - 43 Huskie for USAF firefighting and rescue missions. The latest Kaman model, the Kaman K - MAX, is a dedicated sky crane design.
Transverse rotors are mounted on the end of wings or outriggers perpendicular to the body of the aircraft. Similar to tandem rotors and intermeshing rotors, the transverse rotor also uses differential collective pitch. But like the intermeshing rotors, the transverse rotors use the concept for changes in the roll attitude of the rotorcraft. This configuration is found on two of the first viable helicopters, the Focke - Wulf Fw 61 and the Focke - Achgelis Fa 223, as well as the world 's largest helicopter ever built, the Mil Mi - 12. It is also the configuration found on tiltrotors such as the Bell - Boeing V - 22 Osprey and the AgustaWestland AW609.
A quadcopter has four rotors in an "X '' configuration designated as front - left, front - right, rear - left, and rear - right. Rotors to the left and right are in a transverse configuration while those in the front and to the rear are in a tandem configuration.
The main attraction of quadcopters is their mechanical simplicity, since a quadcopter using electric motors and fixed - pitch rotors has only four moving parts.
The blades of a helicopter are long, narrow airfoils with a high aspect ratio, a shape that minimizes drag from tip vortices (see the wings of a glider for comparison). They generally contain a degree of washout that reduces the lift generated at the tips, where the airflow is fastest and vortex generation would be a significant problem. Rotor blades are made out of various materials, including aluminium, composite structure, and steel or titanium, with abrasion shields along the leading edge.
Rotorcraft blades are traditionally passive; however, some helicopters include active components on their blades. The Kaman K - MAX uses trailing edge flaps for blade pitch control and the Hiller YH - 32 Hornet was powered by ramjets mounted on the blade ends. As of 2010, research into active blade control through trailing edge flaps is underway. Tips of some helicopter blades can be specially designed to reduce turbulence and noise and to provide more efficient flying. An example of such tips are the tips of the BERP rotors created during the British Experimental Rotor Programme.
The two families of airfoils are
Symmetrical blades are very stable, which helps keep blade twisting and flight control loads to a minimum. This stability is achieved by keeping the center of pressure virtually unchanged as the angle of attack changes. Center of pressure is the imaginary point on the chord line where the resultant of all aerodynamic forces are considered to be concentrated. Today, designers use thinner airfoils and obtain the required rigidity by using composite materials.
In addition, some airfoils are asymmetrical in design, meaning the upper and lower surface do not have the same camber. Normally these airfoils would not be as stable, but this can be corrected by bending the trailing edge to produce the same characteristics as symmetrical airfoils. This is called "reflexing. '' Using this type of rotor blade allows the rotor system to operate at higher forward speeds. One of the reasons an asymmetrical rotor blade is not as stable is that the center of pressure changes with changes in angle of attack. When the center of pressure lifting force is behind the pivot point on a rotor blade, it tends to cause the rotor disc to pitch up. As the angle of attack increases, the center of pressure moves forward. If it moves ahead of the pivot point, the pitch of the rotor disc decreases. Since the angle of attack of the rotor blades is constantly changing during each cycle of rotation, the blades tend to flap, feather, lead, and lag to a greater degree.
Helicopters with teetering rotors -- for example the two - blade system on the Bell, Robinson and others -- must not be subjected to a low - g condition because such rotor systems do not control the fuselage attitude. This can result in the fuselage assuming an attitude controlled by momentum and tail rotor thrust that causes the tail boom to intersect the main rotor tip - path plane or result in the blade roots contacting the main rotor drive shaft, causing the blades to separate from the hub (mast bumping).
When operating in sandy environments, sand hitting the moving rotor blades erodes their surface. This can damage the rotors and presents serious and costly maintenance problems.
Abrasion strips on helicopter rotor blades are made of metal, often titanium or nickel, which are very hard, but less hard than sand. When a helicopter flies low to the ground in desert environments, sand striking the rotor blade can cause erosion. At night, sand hitting the metal abrasion strip causes a visible corona or halo around the rotor blades. The effect is caused by the pyrophoric oxidation of eroded particles, and by triboluminescence where by impact with the sand particles produces photoluminesce.
The combat photographer and journalist Michael Yon observed the effect while accompanying U.S. soldiers in Afghanistan. When he discovered the effect had no name he coined the name "Kopp - Etchells Effect '' after two soldiers who had died in the war, one American and one British.
|
who is the chief justice of meghalaya high court | Meghalaya High Court - Wikipedia
The Meghalaya High Court is the High Court of the state of Meghalaya. It was established in March 2013, after making suitable amendments in the Constitution of India and North - Eastern Areas (Re-organisation) Act of 1971. Earlier, a bench of the Gauhati High Court had jurisdiction over the state of Meghalaya. The seat of the High Court is at Shillong, the capital of Meghalaya. The strength of judges as for this High Court is 3 permanent judges including the Honourable Chief Justice.
The current Chief Justice is the Hon'ble Mr. Justice Mohammad Yaqoob Mir who took oath as Chief Justice on 21 May 2018.
Before the establishment of Meghalaya High Court the Guwahati High Court use to look after all judicial matters and review them. The first Chief Justice was the Hon'ble Mrs. Justice T. Meena Kumari, who retired on 3 August 2013. On the 14 January 2016 -- with the retirement of the outgoing Chief Justice -- the Hon'ble Mr. Chief Justice Uma Nath Singh, (one of the Permanent Judges of the High Court of Meghalaya, the Hon'ble Mr Justice T. Nandakumar Singh), took oath as Acting Chief Justice with immediate effect. Justice T. Nandakumar Singh was elevated as an Additional Judge of the Gauhati High Court on 25.11. 2004 and became Permanent Judge w.e.f. 27.2. 2006 of Gauhati High Court. He took oath as a Permanent Judge of the High Court of Meghalaya on 23.3. 2013. There is also the Hon'ble Mr Justice Sudip Ranjan Sen, who was elevated as Additional Judge of the Gauhati High Court on 6.2. 2012 and he took oath as the Additional Judge of Meghalaya High Court on 23.3. 2013. He became a Permanent Judge of the same High Court w.e f. 7.1. 2014.
The present Registrar General of the High Court of Meghalaya is Mrs. B. Giri Massar, a senior judicial officer of the state.
|
detroit lions player that died on the field | Chuck Hughes - wikipedia
Charles Frederick "Chuck '' Hughes (March 2, 1943 -- October 24, 1971) was an American football player, a wide receiver in the National Football League from 1967 to 1971. He is, to date, the only NFL player to die on the field during a game.
Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Hughes moved with his family to Texas when he was young, along with his fourteen siblings. Hughes attended high school in Abilene at Abilene High School.
Hughes played college football at Texas Western College, now the University of Texas at El Paso, where he is still listed in the all - time football records; his accomplishments include:
He was inducted into the UTEP Athletics Hall of Fame in 2006.
Hughes was selected in the fourth round by the Philadelphia Eagles in the 1967 NFL / AFL draft and played three seasons with the Eagles before he was traded to the Detroit Lions prior to the start of the 1970 season. Although listed as a wide receiver he saw most action on special teams, being a backup at wide receiver. In his five - year career he caught only 15 passes.
During week six of the 1971 season on October 24, the Lions hosted the Chicago Bears at Tiger Stadium. Late in the game, with Detroit trailing 28 -- 23, the Lions were driving into Chicago territory and Hughes, who entered the game as an injury replacement, caught a pass from quarterback Greg Landry for thirty - two yards and a first down at the Bears ' 37 - yard line.
Three plays later, Landry threw a pass that tight end Charlie Sanders dropped near the end zone. Hughes, a decoy on the play, began running back to the huddle with 1: 02 showing on the clock. Suddenly, he dropped to the turf clutching his chest around the 20 - yard line. Hughes collapsed near Bears linebacker Dick Butkus, who saw him begin to convulse violently on the field. Butkus motioned to the sideline frantically to get Hughes assistance.
Both teams ' doctors and trainers, along with a physician who happened to be attending the game, ran to Hughes to try and save him. An ambulance was called for and arrived to take Hughes to Henry Ford Hospital, where he was pronounced dead at 5: 34 pm that afternoon. He was 28 years old. The game was played to its conclusion in front of a now - stunned silent crowd in Tiger Stadium, with the Bears ' lead holding. The Lions awaited word of Hughes ' condition after the game and the players were informed once word had broken that he was dead.
A postmortem examination revealed that Hughes was suffering from undiagnosed and advanced arteriosclerosis (one of his coronary arteries was 75 % blocked) and that he had a family history of heart disease. The direct cause of death was a coronary thrombosis, which caused a massive myocardial infarction that cut off the blood flow to his heart. Hughes was buried in San Antonio, Texas, and all 40 of his Lions teammates attended his funeral, including head coach Joe Schmidt. He is survived by his widow, Sharon Leah, and his son, who was 1 year and 11 months old at the time, Brandon Shane. A $10,000 trust fund was set up for his son Brandon by an insurance company. His widow filed a $21.5 million malpractice lawsuit against Henry Ford Hospital in 1972 for not diagnosing his condition when he was hospitalized after complaining of chest pains. The lawsuit was settled on October 3, 1974 for an undisclosed amount of money.
|
where can i travel to with a mexican passport | Visa requirements for Mexican citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for Mexican citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Mexico. As of May 2018, Mexican citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 158 countries and territories, ranking the Mexican passport 21st in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley Passport Index.
Visa requirements for Mexican citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries and restricted zones:
Holders of an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) travelling on business do not require a visa to the following countries:
The card must be used in conjunction with a passport and has the following advantages:
In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela and Vietnam.
Turkey requires passports to be valid for at least 150 days upon entry.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months beyond the period of intended stay include European Union countries (except the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom), Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland (and always excepting EU / EEA / Swiss nationals), Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Nauru, Moldova, New Zealand and 3 months validity on arrival in Albania, Honduras, Macedonia, Panama, Qatar and Senegal.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month beyond the period of intended stay include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Lebanon, Macao and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay. Some countries have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other 's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled).
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being available.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia, require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has recently visited one.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead that reads: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''. As of late 2017 the list contains 699 persons.
Upon request, the authorities of the largely unrecognized Republic of Artsakh may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
Some countries (for example, Canada and the United States and Fiji) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest those travellers that refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to quickly change planes rather than go landside.
Fingerprinting countries include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China when entering through Shenzhen airport, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Japan, Malaysia upon entry and departure, Paraguay, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan.
Additionally, the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors that need to apply for a visa.
Several countries including Argentina, Cambodia, Japan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, South Korea demand all passengers to be fingerprinted on arrival.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
|
where is ufc 217 going to be held | UFC 217 - wikipedia
UFC 217: Bisping vs. St - Pierre was a mixed martial arts event produced by the Ultimate Fighting Championship held on November 4, 2017, at Madison Square Garden in New York City, New York.
The event was the second that the promotion has hosted at Madison Square Garden.
A UFC Middleweight Championship bout between champion and The Ultimate Fighter 3 light heavyweight winner Michael Bisping and former two - time UFC Welterweight Champion Georges St - Pierre headlined this event. The bout was originally announced in March, but without a date attached. As time wore on the contest appeared to fall apart, with UFC President Dana White claiming Bisping would fight interim middleweight champion Robert Whittaker next and St - Pierre would get current welterweight champion Tyron Woodley. When Woodley put on a successful title defense against Demian Maia at UFC 214 in July that did n't meet White 's standards, he reverted to the initial plan, which St - Pierre and Bisping said they wanted all along.
A UFC Bantamweight Championship bout between champion Cody Garbrandt and former champion T.J. Dillashaw, was previously scheduled to serve as headliner for UFC 213. However, Garbrandt withdrew from the fight due to a back injury. The fight was later rescheduled for this event.
A UFC Women 's Strawweight Championship bout between champion Joanna Jędrzejczyk and former title challenger Rose Namajunas took place as the third title fight of the event.
Gadzhimurad Antigulov was expected to face Ion Cuțelaba at the event. However, Antigulov pulled out of the fight on September 26 citing an injury. He was replaced by promotional newcomer Michał Oleksiejczuk. In turn after the weigh - ins, Cuțelaba was pulled from the event by USADA due to a potential Anti-Doping Policy violation stemming from its investigation into voluntary disclosures by Cuțelaba during an out - of - competition sample collections on October 18 and October 19. He was provisionally suspended and the bout cancelled.
A heavyweight bout between Walt Harris and Mark Godbeer was initially slated for UFC 216. However, the fight was scrapped on the day of the event as Harris, was tabbed replacement opponent for Fabrício Werdum after his scheduled opponent Derrick Lewis pulled out of their fight with a back injury. The Harris / Godbeer pairing was rescheduled and took place at this event.
Patrick Cummins was expected to face The Ultimate Fighter: Team Edgar vs. Team Penn light heavyweight winner Corey Anderson at this event. However on October 17, Cummins pulled out due to a resistant staph infection. He was replaced by former interim UFC Light Heavyweight Championship challenger Ovince Saint Preux.
The following fighters were awarded bonuses:
Like UFC 33, UFC 205 and UFC 214, the card featured three title fights. However, this was the first time in UFC history that all three champions lost their belts on the same card.
|
how many steps to the first level of the eiffel tower | Eiffel tower - wikipedia
The Eiffel Tower (/ ˈaɪfəl / EYE - fəl; French: tour Eiffel (tuʁ ‿ ɛfɛl) (listen)) is a wrought iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower.
Constructed from 1887 -- 89 as the entrance to the 1889 World 's Fair, it was initially criticized by some of France 's leading artists and intellectuals for its design, but it has become a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognisable structures in the world. The Eiffel Tower is the most - visited paid monument in the world; 6.91 million people ascended it in 2015.
The tower is 324 metres (1,063 ft) tall, about the same height as an 81 - storey building, and the tallest structure in Paris. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres (410 ft) on each side. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to become the tallest man - made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years until the Chrysler Building in New York City was finished in 1930. Due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres (17 ft). Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second tallest structure in France after the Millau Viaduct.
The tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top level 's upper platform is 276 m (906 ft) above the ground -- the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union. Tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift (elevator) to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the climb from the first level to the second. Although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually accessible only by lift.
The design of the Eiffel Tower was the product of Maurice Koechlin and Émile Nouguier, two senior engineers working for the Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel, after discussion about a suitable centrepiece for the proposed 1889 Exposition Universelle, a world 's fair to celebrate the centennial of the French Revolution. Eiffel openly acknowledged that inspiration for a tower came from the Latting Observatory built in New York City in 1853. In May 1884, working at home, Koechlin made a sketch of their idea, described by him as "a great pylon, consisting of four lattice girders standing apart at the base and coming together at the top, joined together by metal trusses at regular intervals ''. Eiffel initially showed little enthusiasm, but he did approve further study, and the two engineers then asked Stephen Sauvestre, the head of company 's architectural department, to contribute to the design. Sauvestre added decorative arches to the base of the tower, a glass pavilion to the first level, and other embellishments.
The new version gained Eiffel 's support: he bought the rights to the patent on the design which Koechlin, Nougier, and Sauvestre had taken out, and the design was exhibited at the Exhibition of Decorative Arts in the autumn of 1884 under the company name. On 30 March 1885, Eiffel presented his plans to the Société des Ingénieurs Civils; after discussing the technical problems and emphasising the practical uses of the tower, he finished his talk by saying the tower would symbolise,
Not only the art of the modern engineer, but also the century of Industry and Science in which we are living, and for which the way was prepared by the great scientific movement of the eighteenth century and by the Revolution of 1789, to which this monument will be built as an expression of France 's gratitude.
Little progress was made until 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as president of France and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as minister for trade. A budget for the exposition was passed and, on 1 May, Lockroy announced an alteration to the terms of the open competition being held for a centrepiece to the exposition, which effectively made the selection of Eiffel 's design a foregone conclusion, as entries had to include a study for a 300 m (980 ft) four - sided metal tower on the Champ de Mars. (A 300 - meter tower was then considered a herculean engineering effort). On 12 May, a commission was set up to examine Eiffel 's scheme and its rivals, which, a month later, decided that all the proposals except Eiffel 's were either impractical or lacking in details.
After some debate about the exact location of the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887. This was signed by Eiffel acting in his own capacity rather than as the representative of his company, and granted him 1.5 million francs toward the construction costs: less than a quarter of the estimated 6.5 million francs. Eiffel was to receive all income from the commercial exploitation of the tower during the exhibition and for the next 20 years. He later established a separate company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital himself.
The proposed tower had been a subject of controversy, drawing criticism from those who did not believe it was feasible and those who objected on artistic grounds. These objections were an expression of a long - standing debate in France about the relationship between architecture and engineering. It came to a head as work began at the Champ de Mars: a "Committee of Three Hundred '' (one member for each metre of the tower 's height) was formed, led by the prominent architect Charles Garnier and including some of the most important figures of the arts, such as Adolphe Bouguereau, Guy de Maupassant, Charles Gounod and Jules Massenet. A petition called "Artists against the Eiffel Tower '' was sent to the Minister of Works and Commissioner for the Exposition, Charles Alphand, and it was published by Le Temps on 14 February 1887:
We, writers, painters, sculptors, architects and passionate devotees of the hitherto untouched beauty of Paris, protest with all our strength, with all our indignation in the name of slighted French taste, against the erection... of this useless and monstrous Eiffel Tower... To bring our arguments home, imagine for a moment a giddy, ridiculous tower dominating Paris like a gigantic black smokestack, crushing under its barbaric bulk Notre Dame, the Tour Saint - Jacques, the Louvre, the Dome of les Invalides, the Arc de Triomphe, all of our humiliated monuments will disappear in this ghastly dream. And for twenty years... we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the hateful column of bolted sheet metal.
Gustave Eiffel responded to these criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian pyramids: "My tower will be the tallest edifice ever erected by man. Will it not also be grandiose in its way? And why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris? '' These criticisms were also dealt with by Édouard Lockroy in a letter of support written to Alphand, ironically saying, "Judging by the stately swell of the rhythms, the beauty of the metaphors, the elegance of its delicate and precise style, one can tell this protest is the result of collaboration of the most famous writers and poets of our time '', and he explained that the protest was irrelevant since the project had been decided upon months before, and construction on the tower was already under way.
Indeed, Garnier was a member of the Tower Commission that had examined the various proposals, and had raised no objection. Eiffel was similarly unworried, pointing out to a journalist that it was premature to judge the effect of the tower solely on the basis of the drawings, that the Champ de Mars was distant enough from the monuments mentioned in the protest for there to be little risk of the tower overwhelming them, and putting the aesthetic argument for the tower: "Do not the laws of natural forces always conform to the secret laws of harmony? ''
Some of the protesters changed their minds when the tower was built; others remained unconvinced. Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the tower 's restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible.
By 1918, it had become a symbol of Paris and of France after Guillaume Apollinaire wrote a nationalist poem in the shape of the tower (a calligram) to express his feelings about the war against Germany. Today, it is widely considered to be a remarkable piece of structural art, and is often featured in films and literature.
Work on the foundations started on 28 January 1887. Those for the east and south legs were straightforward, with each leg resting on four 2 m (6.6 ft) concrete slabs, one for each of the principal girders of each leg. The west and north legs, being closer to the river Seine, were more complicated: each slab needed two piles installed by using compressed - air caissons 15 m (49 ft) long and 6 m (20 ft) in diameter driven to a depth of 22 m (72 ft) to support the concrete slabs, which were 6 m (20 ft) thick. Each of these slabs supported a block of limestone with an inclined top to bear a supporting shoe for the ironwork.
Each shoe was anchored to the stonework by a pair of bolts 10 cm (4 in) in diameter and 7.5 m (25 ft) long. The foundations were completed on 30 June, and the erection of the ironwork began. The visible work on - site was complemented by the enormous amount of exacting preparatory work that took place behind the scenes: the drawing office produced 1,700 general drawings and 3,629 detailed drawings of the 18,038 different parts needed. The task of drawing the components was complicated by the complex angles involved in the design and the degree of precision required: the position of rivet holes was specified to within 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) and angles worked out to one second of arc. The finished components, some already riveted together into sub-assemblies, arrived on horse - drawn carts from a factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois - Perret and were first bolted together, with the bolts being replaced with rivets as construction progressed. No drilling or shaping was done on site: if any part did not fit, it was sent back to the factory for alteration. In all, 18,038 pieces were joined together using 2.5 million rivets.
At first the legs were constructed as cantilevers, but about halfway to the first level, construction was paused in order to create a substantial timber scaffold. This renewed concerns about the structural integrity of the tower, and sensational headlines such as "Eiffel Suicide! '' and "Gustave Eiffel Has Gone Mad: He Has Been Confined in an Asylum '' appeared in the tabloid press. At this stage, a small "creeper '' crane designed to move up the tower was installed in each leg. They made use of the guides for the lifts which were to be fitted in the four legs. The critical stage of joining the legs at the first level was completed by the end of March 1888. Although the metalwork had been prepared with the utmost attention to detail, provision had been made to carry out small adjustments in order to precisely align the legs; hydraulic jacks were fitted to the shoes at the base of each leg, capable of exerting a force of 800 tonnes, and the legs were intentionally constructed at a slightly steeper angle than necessary, being supported by sandboxes on the scaffold. Although construction involved 300 on - site employees, only one person died thanks to Eiffel 's stringent safety precautions and the use of movable gangways, guardrails and screens.
The start of the erection of the metalwork.
7 December 1887: Construction of the legs with scaffolding.
20 March 1888: Completion of the first level.
15 May 1888: Start of construction on the second stage.
21 August 1888: Completion of the second level.
26 December 1888: Construction of the upper stage.
15 March 1889: Construction of the cupola.
Equipping the tower with adequate and safe passenger lifts was a major concern of the government commission overseeing the Exposition. Although some visitors could be expected to climb to the first level, or even the second, lifts clearly had to be the main means of ascent.
Constructing lifts to reach the first level was relatively straightforward: the legs were wide enough at the bottom and so nearly straight that they could contain a straight track, and a contract was given to the French company Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape for two lifts to be fitted in the east and west legs. Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape used a pair of endless chains with rigid, articulated links to which the car was attached. Lead weights on some links of the upper or return sections of the chains counterbalanced most of the car 's weight. The car was pushed up from below, not pulled up from above: to prevent the chain buckling, it was enclosed in a conduit. At the bottom of the run, the chains passed around 3.9 m (12 ft 10 in) diameter sprockets. Smaller sprockets at the top guided the chains.
Installing lifts to the second level was more of a challenge because a straight track was impossible. No French company wanted to undertake the work. The European branch of Otis Brothers & Company submitted a proposal but this was rejected: the fair 's charter ruled out the use of any foreign material in the construction of the tower. The deadline for bids was extended but still no French companies put themselves forward, and eventually the contract was given to Otis in July 1887. Otis were confident they would eventually be given the contract and had already started creating designs.
The car was divided into two superimposed compartments, each holding 25 passengers, with the lift operator occupying an exterior platform on the first level. Motive power was provided by an inclined hydraulic ram 12.67 m (41 ft 7 in) long and 96.5 cm (38.0 in) in diameter in the tower leg with a stroke of 10.83 m (35 ft 6 in): this moved a carriage carrying six sheaves. Five fixed sheaves were mounted higher up the leg, producing an arrangement similar to a block and tackle but acting in reverse, multiplying the stroke of the piston rather than the force generated. The hydraulic pressure in the driving cylinder was produced by a large open reservoir on the second level. After being exhausted from the cylinder, the water was pumped back up to the reservoir by two pumps in the machinery room at the base of the south leg. This reservoir also provided power to the lifts to the first level.
The original lifts for the journey between the second and third levels were supplied by Léon Edoux. A pair of 81 m (266 ft) hydraulic rams were mounted on the second level, reaching nearly halfway up to the third level. One lift car was mounted on top of these rams: cables ran from the top of this car up to sheaves on the third level and back down to a second car. Each car only travelled half the distance between the second and third levels and passengers were required to change lifts halfway by means of a short gangway. The 10 - ton cars each held 65 passengers.
The main structural work was completed at the end of March 1889 and, on 31 March, Eiffel celebrated by leading a group of government officials, accompanied by representatives of the press, to the top of the tower. Because the lifts were not yet in operation, the ascent was made by foot, and took over an hour, with Eiffel stopping frequently to explain various features. Most of the party chose to stop at the lower levels, but a few, including the structural engineer, Émile Nouguier, the head of construction, Jean Compagnon, the President of the City Council, and reporters from Le Figaro and Le Monde Illustré, completed the ascent. At 2: 35 pm, Eiffel hoisted a large Tricolour to the accompaniment of a 25 - gun salute fired at the first level.
There was still work to be done, particularly on the lifts and facilities, and the tower was not opened to the public until nine days after the opening of the exposition on 6 May; even then, the lifts had not been completed. The tower was an instant success with the public, and nearly 30,000 visitors made the 1,710 - step climb to the top before the lifts entered service on 26 May. Tickets cost 2 francs for the first level, 3 for the second, and 5 for the top, with half - price admission on Sundays, and by the end of the exhibition there had been 1,896,987 visitors.
After dark, the tower was lit by hundreds of gas lamps, and a beacon sent out three beams of red, white and blue light. Two searchlights mounted on a circular rail were used to illuminate various buildings of the exposition. The daily opening and closing of the exposition were announced by a cannon at the top.
On the second level, the French newspaper Le Figaro had an office and a printing press, where a special souvenir edition, Le Figaro de la Tour, was made. There was also a pâtisserie.
At the top, there was a post office where visitors could send letters and postcards as a memento of their visit. Graffitists were also catered for: sheets of paper were mounted on the walls each day for visitors to record their impressions of the tower. Gustave Eiffel described some of the responses as vraiment curieuse ("truly curious '').
Famous visitors to the tower included the Prince of Wales, Sarah Bernhardt, "Buffalo Bill '' Cody (his Wild West show was an attraction at the exposition) and Thomas Edison. Eiffel invited Edison to his private apartment at the top of the tower, where Edison presented him with one of his phonographs, a new invention and one of the many highlights of the exposition. Edison signed the guestbook with this message:
To M Eiffel the Engineer the brave builder of so gigantic and original specimen of modern Engineering from one who has the greatest respect and admiration for all Engineers including the Great Engineer the Bon Dieu, Thomas Edison.
Eiffel had a permit for the tower to stand for 20 years. It was to be dismantled in 1909, when its ownership would revert to the City of Paris. The City had planned to tear it down (part of the original contest rules for designing a tower was that it should be easy to dismantle) but as the tower proved to be valuable for communication purposes, it was allowed to remain after the expiry of the permit.
Eiffel made use of his apartment at the top of the tower to carry out meteorological observations, and also used the tower to perform experiments on the action of air resistance on falling bodies.
For the 1900 Exposition Universelle, the lifts in the east and west legs were replaced by lifts running as far as the second level constructed by the French firm Fives - Lille. These had a compensating mechanism to keep the floor level as the angle of ascent changed at the first level, and were driven by a similar hydraulic mechanism to the Otis lifts, although this was situated at the base of the tower. Hydraulic pressure was provided by pressurised accumulators located near this mechanism. At the same time the lift in the north pillar was removed and replaced by a staircase to the first level. The layout of both first and second levels was modified, with the space available for visitors on the second level. The original lift in the south pillar was removed 13 years later.
On 19 October 1901, Alberto Santos - Dumont, flying his No. 6 airship, won a 100,000 - franc prize offered by Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe for the first person to make a flight from St. Cloud to the Eiffel Tower and back in less than half an hour.
Many innovations took place at the Eiffel Tower in the early 20th century. In 1910, Father Theodor Wulf measured radiant energy at the top and bottom of the tower. He found more at the top than expected, incidentally discovering what are known today as cosmic rays. Just two years later, on 4 February 1912, Austrian tailor Franz Reichelt died after jumping from the first level of the tower (a height of 57 metres) to demonstrate his parachute design. In 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, a radio transmitter located in the tower jammed German radio communications, seriously hindering their advance on Paris and contributing to the Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne. From 1925 to 1934, illuminated signs for Citroën adorned three of the tower 's sides, making it the tallest advertising space in the world at the time. In April 1935, the tower was used to make experimental low - resolution television transmissions, using a shortwave transmitter of 200 watts power. On 17 November, an improved 180 - line transmitter was installed.
On two separate but related occasions in 1925, the con artist Victor Lustig "sold '' the tower for scrap metal. A year later, in February 1926, pilot Leon Collet was killed trying to fly under the tower. His aircraft became entangled in an aerial belonging to a wireless station. A bust of Gustave Eiffel by Antoine Bourdelle was unveiled at the base of the north leg on 2 May 1929. In 1930, the tower lost the title of the world 's tallest structure when the Chrysler Building in New York City was completed. In 1938, the decorative arcade around the first level was removed.
Upon the German occupation of Paris in 1940, the lift cables were cut by the French. The tower was closed to the public during the occupation and the lifts were not repaired until 1946. In 1940, German soldiers had to climb the tower to hoist a swastika - centered Reichskriegsflagge, but the flag was so large it blew away just a few hours later, and was replaced by a smaller one. When visiting Paris, Hitler chose to stay on the ground. When the Allies were nearing Paris in August 1944, Hitler ordered General Dietrich von Choltitz, the military governor of Paris, to demolish the tower along with the rest of the city. Von Choltitz disobeyed the order. On 25 June, before the Germans had been driven out of Paris, the German flag was replaced with a Tricolour by two men from the French Naval Museum, who narrowly beat three men led by Lucien Sarniguet, who had lowered the Tricolour on 13 June 1940 when Paris fell to the Germans.
A fire started in the television transmitter on 3 January 1956, damaging the top of the tower. Repairs took a year, and in 1957, the present radio aerial was added to the top. In 1964, the Eiffel Tower was officially declared to be a historical monument by the Minister of Cultural Affairs, André Malraux. A year later, an additional lift system was installed in the north pillar.
According to interviews, in 1967, Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau negotiated a secret agreement with Charles de Gaulle for the tower to be dismantled and temporarily relocated to Montreal to serve as a landmark and tourist attraction during Expo 67. The plan was allegedly vetoed by the company operating the tower out of fear that the French government could refuse permission for the tower to be restored in its original location.
In 1982, the original lifts between the second and third levels were replaced after 97 years in service. These had been closed to the public between November and March because the water in the hydraulic drive tended to freeze. The new cars operate in pairs, with one counterbalancing the other, and perform the journey in one stage, reducing the journey time from eight minutes to less than two minutes. At the same time, two new emergency staircases were installed, replacing the original spiral staircases. In 1983, the south pillar was fitted with an electrically driven Otis lift to serve the Jules Verne restaurant. The Fives - Lille lifts in the east and west legs, fitted in 1899, were extensively refurbished in 1986. The cars were replaced, and a computer system was installed to completely automate the lifts. The motive power was moved from the water hydraulic system to a new electrically driven oil - filled hydraulic system, and the original water hydraulics were retained solely as a counterbalance system. A service lift was added to the south pillar for moving small loads and maintenance personnel three years later.
Robert Moriarty flew a Beechcraft Bonanza under the tower on 31 March 1984. In 1987, A.J. Hackett made one of his first bungee jumps from the top of the Eiffel Tower, using a special cord he had helped develop. Hackett was arrested by the police. On 27 October 1991, Thierry Devaux, along with mountain guide Hervé Calvayrac, performed a series of acrobatic figures while bungee jumping from the second floor of the tower. Facing the Champ de Mars, Devaux used an electric winch between figures to go back up to the second floor. When firemen arrived, he stopped after the sixth jump.
For its "Countdown to the Year 2000 '' celebration on 31 December 1999, flashing lights and high - powered searchlights were installed on the tower. Fireworks were set off all over it. An exhibition above a cafeteria on the first floor commemorates this event. The searchlights on top of the tower made it a beacon in Paris 's night sky, and 20,000 flashing bulbs gave the tower a sparkly appearance for five minutes every hour on the hour.
The lights sparkled blue for several nights to herald the new millennium On 31 December 2000. The sparkly lighting continued for 18 months until July 2001. The sparkling lights were turned on again on 21 June 2003, and the display was planned to last for 10 years before they needed replacing.
The tower received its 200,000,000 th guest on 28 November 2002. The tower has operated at its maximum capacity of about 7 million visitors since 2003. In 2004, the Eiffel Tower began hosting a seasonal ice rink on the first level. A glass floor was installed on the first level during the 2014 refurbishment.
The puddled iron (wrought iron) of the Eiffel Tower weighs 7,300 tons, and the addition of lifts, shops and antennae have brought the total weight to approximately 10,100 tons. As a demonstration of the economy of design, if the 7,300 tons of metal in the structure were melted down, it would fill the square base, 125 metres (410 ft) on each side, to a depth of only 6.25 cm (2.46 in) assuming the density of the metal to be 7.8 tons per cubic metre. Additionally, a cubic box surrounding the tower (324 mx 125 mx 125 m) would contain 6,200 tons of air, weighing almost as much as the iron itself. Depending on the ambient temperature, the top of the tower may shift away from the sun by up to 18 cm (7 in) due to thermal expansion of the metal on the side facing the sun.
When it was built, many were shocked by the tower 's daring form. Eiffel was accused of trying to create something artistic with no regard to the principles of engineering. However, Eiffel and his team -- experienced bridge builders -- understood the importance of wind forces, and knew that if they were going to build the tallest structure in the world, they had to be sure it could withstand them. In an interview with the newspaper Le Temps published on 14 February 1887, Eiffel said:
Is it not true that the very conditions which give strength also conform to the hidden rules of harmony?... Now to what phenomenon did I have to give primary concern in designing the Tower? It was wind resistance. Well then! I hold that the curvature of the monument 's four outer edges, which is as mathematical calculation dictated it should be... will give a great impression of strength and beauty, for it will reveal to the eyes of the observer the boldness of the design as a whole.
He used graphical methods to determine the strength of the tower and empirical evidence to account for the effects of wind, rather than a mathematical formula. Close examination of the tower reveals a basically exponential shape. All parts of the tower were over-designed to ensure maximum resistance to wind forces. The top half was even assumed to have no gaps in the latticework. In the years since it was completed, engineers have put forward various mathematical hypotheses in an attempt to explain the success of the design. The most recent, devised in 2004 after letters sent by Eiffel to the French Society of Civil Engineers in 1885 were translated into English, is described as a non-linear integral equation based on counteracting the wind pressure on any point of the tower with the tension between the construction elements at that point.
The Eiffel Tower sways by up to 9 centimetres (3.5 in) in the wind.
When originally built, the first level contained three restaurants -- one French, one Russian and one Flemish -- and an "Anglo - American Bar ''. After the exposition closed, the Flemish restaurant was converted to a 250 - seat theatre. A promenade 2.6 - metre (8 ft 6 in) wide ran around the outside of the first level. At the top, there were laboratories for various experiments, and a small apartment reserved for Gustave Eiffel to entertain guests, which is now open to the public, complete with period decorations and lifelike mannequins of Eiffel and some of his notable guests.
In May 2016, an apartment was created on the first level to accommodate four competition winners during the UEFA Euro 2016 football tournament in Paris in June. The apartment has a kitchen, two bedrooms, a lounge, and views of Paris landmarks including the Seine, the Sacre Coeur, and the Arc de Triomphe.
The arrangement of the lifts has been changed several times during the tower 's history. Given the elasticity of the cables and the time taken to align the cars with the landings, each lift, in normal service, takes an average of 8 minutes and 50 seconds to do the round trip, spending an average of 1 minute and 15 seconds at each level. The average journey time between levels is 1 minute. The original hydraulic mechanism is on public display in a small museum at the base of the east and west legs. Because the mechanism requires frequent lubrication and maintenance, public access is often restricted. The rope mechanism of the north tower can be seen as visitors exit the lift.
Gustave Eiffel engraved on the tower the names of 72 French scientists, engineers and mathematicians in recognition of their contributions to the building of the tower. Eiffel chose this "invocation of science '' because of his concern over the artists ' protest. At the beginning of the 20th century, the engravings were painted over, but they were restored in 1986 -- 87 by the Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel, a company operating the tower.
The tower is painted in three shades: lighter at the top, getting progressively darker towards the bottom to complement the Parisian sky. It was originally reddish brown; this changed in 1968 to a bronze colour known as "Eiffel Tower Brown ''.
The only non-structural elements are the four decorative grill - work arches, added in Sauvestre 's sketches, which served to make the tower look more substantial and to make a more impressive entrance to the exposition.
A pop - culture movie cliché is that the view from a Parisian window always includes the tower. In reality, since zoning restrictions limit the height of most buildings in Paris to seven storeys, only a small number of tall buildings have a clear view of the tower.
Maintenance of the tower includes applying 60 tons of paint every seven years to prevent it from rusting. The tower has been completely repainted at least 19 times since it was built. Lead paint was still being used as recently as 2001 when the practice was stopped out of concern for the environment.
The nearest Paris Métro station is Bir - Hakeim and the nearest RER station is Champ de Mars - Tour Eiffel. The tower itself is located at the intersection of the quai Branly and the Pont d'Iéna.
More than 250 million people have visited the tower since it was completed in 1889. In 2015, there were 6.91 million visitors. The tower is one the most - visited paid monument in the world. An average of 25,000 people ascend the tower every day which can result in long queues.
The tower has two restaurants: Le 58 Tour Eiffel on the first level, and Le Jules Verne, a gourmet restaurant with its own lift on the second level. This restaurant has one star in the Michelin Red Guide. It is run by the multi-Michelin star chef Alain Ducasse and owes its name to the famous science - fiction writer Jules Verne. Additionally, there is a champagne bar at the top of the Eiffel Tower.
As one of the most iconic landmarks in the world, the Eiffel Tower has been the inspiration for the creation of many replicas and similar towers. An early example is Blackpool Tower in England. The mayor of Blackpool, Sir John Bickerstaffe, was so impressed on seeing the Eiffel Tower at the 1889 exposition that he commissioned a similar tower to be built in his town. It opened in 1894 and is 158.1 metres (518 ft) tall. Tokyo Tower in Japan, built as a communications tower in 1958, was also inspired by the Eiffel Tower.
There are various scale models of the tower in the United States, including a half - scale version at the Paris Las Vegas, Nevada, one in Paris, Texas built in 1993, and two 1: 3 scale models at Kings Island, Ohio, and Kings Dominion, Virginia, amusement parks opened in 1972 and 1975 respectively. Two 1: 3 scale models can be found in China, one in Durango, Mexico that was donated by the local French community, and several across Europe.
In 2011, the TV show Pricing the Priceless on the National Geographic Channel speculated that a full - size replica of the tower would cost approximately US $480 million to build.
The tower has been used for making radio transmissions since the beginning of the 20th century. Until the 1950s, sets of aerial wires ran from the cupola to anchors on the Avenue de Suffren and Champ de Mars. These were connected to longwave transmitters in small bunkers. In 1909, a permanent underground radio centre was built near the south pillar, which still exists today. On 20 November 1913, the Paris Observatory, using the Eiffel Tower as an aerial, exchanged wireless signals with the United States Naval Observatory, which used an aerial in Arlington, Virginia. The object of the transmissions was to measure the difference in longitude between Paris and Washington, D.C. Today, radio and digital television signals are transmitted from the Eiffel Tower.
A television antenna was first installed on the tower in 1957, increasing its height by 18.7 m (61.4 ft). Work carried out in 2000 added a further 5.3 m (17.4 ft), giving the current height of 324 m (1,063 ft). Analogue television signals from the Eiffel Tower ceased on 8 March 2011.
The tower and its image have long been in the public domain. In June 1990 a French court ruled that a special lighting display on the tower in 1989 to mark the tower 's 100th anniversary was an "original visual creation '' protected by copyright. The Court of Cassation, France 's judicial court of last resort, upheld the ruling in March 1992. The Société d'Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SETE) now considers any illumination of the tower to be a separate work of art that falls under copyright. As a result, the SNTE alleges that it is illegal to publish contemporary photographs of the lit tower at night without permission in France and some other countries for commercial use.
The imposition of copyright has been controversial. The Director of Documentation for what was then called the Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SNTE), Stéphane Dieu, commented in 2005: "It is really just a way to manage commercial use of the image, so that it is n't used in ways (of which) we do n't approve ''. SNTE made over € 1 million from copyright fees in 2002. However, it could also be used to restrict the publication of tourist photographs of the tower at night, as well as hindering non-profit and semi-commercial publication of images of the illuminated tower.
French doctrine and jurisprudence allows pictures incorporating a copyrighted work as long as their presence is incidental or accessory to the subject being represented, a reasoning akin to the de minimis rule. Therefore, SETE may be unable to claim copyright on photographs of Paris which happen to include the lit tower.
The Eiffel Tower was the world 's tallest structure when completed in 1889, a distinction it retained until 1929 when the Chrysler Building in New York City was topped out. The tower has lost its standing both as the world 's tallest structure and the world 's tallest lattice tower but retains its status as the tallest freestanding (non-guyed) structure in France.
|
who plays tiana's mom in the princess and the frog | The Princess and the Frog - wikipedia
The Princess and the Frog is a 2009 American animated musical film produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. The 49th Disney animated feature film, the film is loosely based on the novel The Frog Princess by E.D. Baker, which is in turn based on the Brothers Grimm fairy tale "The Frog Prince ''. Written and directed by Ron Clements and John Musker, the film features an ensemble voice cast that stars Anika Noni Rose, Bruno Campos, Keith David, Michael - Leon Wooley, Jennifer Cody, and Jim Cummings, with Peter Bartlett, Jenifer Lewis, Oprah Winfrey, Terrence Howard, and John Goodman. Set in 1920s New Orleans, the film tells the story of a hardworking waitress named Tiana who dreams of owning her own restaurant. After kissing a prince who has been turned into a frog by an evil voodoo sorcerer, Tiana becomes a frog herself and must find a way to turn back into a human before it is too late.
The Princess and the Frog began production under the working title The Frog Princess. It marked Disney 's return to traditional animation, as it was the studio 's first traditionally animated film since Home on the Range (2004). Co-directors Ron Clements and John Musker, directors of Disney 's highly successful films The Little Mermaid (1989) and Aladdin (1992), returned to Disney to direct The Princess and the Frog. The studio returned to a Broadway musical - style format frequently used during the Disney Renaissance, and features music written by composer Randy Newman, well known for his musical involvement in Pixar films such as A Bug 's Life (1998), Monsters, Inc. (2001), Cars (2006), and the Toy Story trilogy (1995, 1999, and 2010). The film also marked the return of Disney animated musical films based on well - known stories since the Disney Renaissance.
The Princess and the Frog opened in limited release in New York and Los Angeles on November 25, 2009, and in wide release on December 11, 2009. The film was successful at the box office, ranking first place on its opening weekend in North America, and grossing $267 million worldwide. It received three Academy Award nominations at the 82nd Academy Awards: one for Best Animated Feature and two for its achievement in music (Original Song). It lost to Up and Crazy Heart, respectively.
In 1912 New Orleans, a girl named Tiana and her friend Charlotte La Bouff listen to Tiana 's mother read the story of The Frog Prince. Charlotte finds the story to be romantic, while Tiana proclaims she will never kiss a frog. Fourteen years later, Tiana has grown into an aspiring young chef who works as a waitress for two local diners, so she can save enough money to start her own restaurant, a dream she shared with her deceased father.
Prince Naveen of Maldonia arrives in New Orleans to better his financial situation. After being cut off by his parents, Naveen intends to marry a rich southern belle, and Charlotte is the perfect candidate. Eli "Big Daddy '' La Bouff, a rich sugar baron and Charlotte 's father, is hosting a masquerade ball in Naveen 's honor. Charlotte hires Tiana to make beignets for the ball, giving her enough money to buy an old sugar mill to convert into her restaurant. Meanwhile, Naveen and his valet, Lawrence, meet the voodoo witch doctor Doctor Facilier. Inviting them into his emporium, Facilier convinces them that he can make their dreams come true, but neither man gets what they are expecting; Naveen is transformed into a frog, while Lawrence is given a voodoo talisman that makes him resemble Naveen, which Facilier intends to use to have Lawrence marry Charlotte.
At the ball, Tiana discovers she may lose the mill to a higher bidder. Tiana then meets Naveen, who, believing her to be a princess because of her costume, asks her to kiss him and break Facilier 's spell. In exchange for the money needed, Tiana accepts, but since she 's not an actual princess, when she kisses Naveen, she is turned into a frog herself. A chase ensues, and Tiana and Naveen escape to a bayou. In the bayou, Tiana and Naveen meet Louis, a trumpet - playing alligator, and Ray, a Cajun firefly. Louis and Ray offer to lead Tiana and Naveen to the hoodoo priestess Mama Odie, whom they believe can undo the curse. During the journey, Tiana and Naveen develop feelings for each other. Meanwhile, Facilier makes a deal with the voodoo spirits, offering them the souls of the people of New Orleans; in exchange, the spirits grant Facilier the services of a host of shadow demons, whom he orders to find and capture Naveen.
When the four find Mama Odie after escaping from hunters, she tells them that Naveen must kiss a true princess in order to break the spell. They return to New Orleans to find Charlotte, who is the princess of the Mardi Gras Parade, but only until midnight. Naveen tells Ray he loves Tiana and is willing to give up his dreams for her, but before he can tell Tiana, he is captured by the demons and brought to Facilier. After Ray tells Tiana that Naveen loves her, Tiana goes to parade to find a human "Naveen '' marrying Charlotte; but Ray rescues the real Naveen and steals the charm that disguises Lawrence. Ray finds Tiana, gives her the charm and attempts to hold off the demons so she can escape, but Facilier manages to wound him. Facilier then offers to make Tiana 's restaurant dream come true in exchange for the talisman. Realizing she would rather be with Naveen, and recognizing Facilier 's true intentions, Tiana destroys the talisman. The angered voodoo spirits claim Facilier himself as payment for his debts to them and drag him into the spirit world.
As Lawrence is taken away by the police, Tiana and Naveen reveal their love to each other and explain the situation to Charlotte, who agrees to kiss Naveen. The clock strikes midnight before she can do so, but the couple decide they are content to live together as frogs. Tiana and Naveen are wed by Mama Odie; and because of Tiana 's new status as princess, they are restored to human form after their kiss. Later, the couple returns to New Orleans to legally get married and celebrate, and together they open their new restaurant.
Disney had once announced that 2004 's Home on the Range would be their last traditionally animated film. After the company 's acquisition of Pixar in 2006, Ed Catmull and John Lasseter, the new president and chief creative officer of Disney Animation Studios, reversed this decision and reinstated hand - drawn animation at the studio. Many animators who had either been laid off or had left the studio when the traditional animation units were dissolved in 2003 were located and re-hired for the project. Lasseter also brought back directors Ron Clements and John Musker, whose earlier works include The Great Mouse Detective (1986), The Little Mermaid (1989), Aladdin (1992), Hercules (1997), and Treasure Planet (2002). The duo had left the company in 2005, but Lasseter requested their return to Disney to direct and write the film and had let them choose the style of animation (traditional or CGI) they wanted to use.
The story for the film began development by merging two projects in development at Disney and Pixar at the time, both based around "The Frog Prince '' fairy tale. One of the projects was based on E.D. Baker 's The Frog Princess, in which the story 's heroine (Princess Emma) kisses a prince turned frog (Prince Eadric), only to become a frog herself. The Princess and the Frog returns to the musical film format used in many of the previously successful Disney animated films, with a style Musker and Clements declared, like with Aladdin and The Little Mermaid, had inspiration from Golden Age Disney features such as Cinderella.
Musker and Clements thought that given all fairy tales were set in Europe, they could do an American fairy tale. They stated that they chose New Orleans as a tribute to the history of the city, for its "magical '' qualities, and because it was Lasseter 's favorite city. The directors spent ten days in Louisiana before starting to write the film.
The Princess and the Frog was originally announced as The Frog Princess in July 2006, and early concepts and songs were presented to the public at The Walt Disney Company 's annual shareholders ' meeting in March 2007. These announcements drew criticism from African - American media outlets, due to elements of the Frog Princess story, characters, and settings considered distasteful. African - American critics disapproved of the original name for the heroine, "Maddy '', due to its similarity to the derogatory term "mammy ''. Also protested were Maddy 's original career as a chambermaid, the choice to have the black heroine 's love interest be a non-black prince, which upset opponents of on - screen interracial romance, and the use of a black male voodoo witchdoctor as the film 's villain. The Frog Princess title was also thought by critics to be a slur on French people. Also questioned was the film 's setting of New Orleans, which had been heavily damaged by Hurricane Katrina in 2005, resulting in the expulsion of a large number of mostly black residents. Critics claimed the choice of New Orleans as the setting for a Disney film with a black heroine was an affront to the Katrina victims ' plight.
In response to these early criticisms, the film 's title was changed in May 2007 from The Frog Princess to The Princess and the Frog. The name "Maddy '' was changed to "Tiana '', and the character 's occupation was altered from chambermaid to waitress. Talk show host Oprah Winfrey was hired as a technical consultant for the film, leading to her taking a voice - acting role in the film as Tiana 's mother, Eudora.
The head of story, Don Hall, described the plot as a fairy tale "twisted enough that it seems new and fresh '', with a kingdom that is a modern city, a handsome prince that is a "knuckleheaded playboy '' and a variation on the fairy godmother with Mama Odie. Co-writer Rob Edwards also said The Princess and the Frog was "a princess movie for people who do n't like princess movies ''. As the writers thought Tiana 's character motivation of simply dreaming of having her own restaurant was not appealing enough, they expanded so it was her father 's as well, with the extra philosophy of "food bringing people together from all walks of life ''. Musker and Clements stated that while Tiana already starts as a sympathetic character, the events of the plot make her "understand things in a deeper level '' and change people around her. Both protagonists would learn from each other -- Naveen to take responsibilities, Tiana to enjoy life -- as well as figuring from Ray 's passion for Evangeline that the perfect balance is brought by having someone you love to share the experience. Tiana became the first African - American Disney Princess.
On December 1, 2006, a detailed casting call was announced for the film at the Manhattan Theatre Source forum. The casting call states the film as being an American fairy tale musical set in New Orleans during the 1920s Jazz Age and provides a detailed list of the film 's major characters.
In February 2007, it was reported that Dreamgirls actresses Jennifer Hudson and Anika Noni Rose were top contenders for the voice of Tiana, and that Alicia Keys directly contacted Walt Disney Studios chairman Dick Cook about voicing the role. It was later reported that Tyra Banks was considered for the role as well. By April 2007, it was confirmed that Rose would be voicing Tiana. Three months later, it was reported that Keith David would be doing the voice of Doctor Facilier, the villain of the film.
Clements and Musker had agreed early on that the style they were aiming for was primarily that of Lady and the Tramp (1955), a film which they and John Lasseter feel represents "the pinnacle of Disney 's style ''. "After that, everything started becoming more stylized, like Sleeping Beauty, 101 Dalmatians -- which are fantastic films as well, but there 's a particular style (to Lady and the Tramp) that 's so classically Disney. '' Lady and the Tramp also heavily informed the style of the New Orleans scenes, while Disney 's Bambi (1942) served as the template for the bayou scenes. Bambi was described as a stylistic reference for the painted backgrounds, as according to art director Ian Gooding "Bambi painted what it feels like to be in the forest instead of the forest '' so The Princess and the Frog would in turn try capturing the essence of roaming through New Orleans.
The former trend in Disney 's hand - drawn features where the characters and cinematography were influenced by a CGI - look has been abandoned. Andreas Deja, a veteran Disney animator who supervised the character of Mama Odie, says "I always thought that maybe we should distinguish ourselves to go back to what 2D is good at, which is focusing on what the line can do rather than volume, which is a CG kind of thing. So we are doing less extravagant Treasure Planet kind of treatments. You have to create a world but (we 're doing it more simply). What we 're trying to do with Princess and the Frog is hook up with things that the old guys did earlier. It 's not going to be graphic... ''. Deja also mentions that Lasseter was aiming for the Disney sculptural and dimensional look of the 1950s: "All those things that were non-graphic, which means go easy on the straight lines and have one volume flow into the other -- an organic feel to the drawing. '' Lasseter also felt that traditional animation created more character believability. For example, with Louis the alligator, created by Eric Goldberg, Lasseter said: "It 's the believability of this large character being able to move around quite like that. '' Choreographer Betsy Baytos was brought by the directors to lead a team of eccentric dancers that gave reference to make each character a different style of movement. The character design tried to create beautiful drawings through subtle shapes, particularly for most characters being human. For the frog versions of Tiana and Naveen, while the animators started with realistic designs, they eventually went for cutesy characters "removing all that is unappealing in frogs '', similar to Pinocchio 's Jiminy Cricket.
Toon Boom Animation 's Toon Boom Harmony software was used as the main software package for the production of the film, as the Computer Animation Production System (CAPS) system that Disney developed with Pixar in the 1980s for use on their previous traditionally animated films had become outdated. The Harmony software was augmented with a number of plug - ins to provide CAPS - like effects such as shading on cheeks and smoke effects. The reinstated traditional unit 's first production, a 2007 Goofy cartoon short entitled How to Hook Up Your Home Theater, was partly animated without paper by using Harmony and Wacom Cintiq pressure - sensitive tablets. The character animators found some difficulty with this approach, and decided to use traditional paper and pencil drawings, which were then scanned into the computer systems, for The Princess and the Frog.
The one exception to the new Toon Boom Harmony pipeline was the "Almost There '' dream sequence, which utilized an Art Deco graphic style based on the art of Harlem Renaissance painter Aaron Douglas. Supervised by Eric Goldberg and designed by Sue Nichols, the "Almost There '' sequence 's character animation was done on paper without going through the clean - up animation department, and scanned directly into Photoshop. The artwork was then enhanced to affect the appearance of painted strokes and fills, and combined with backgrounds, using Adobe After Effects.
The visual effects and backgrounds for the film were created digitally using Cintiq tablet displays. Marlon West, one of Disney 's veteran animation visual effects supervisors, says about the production; "Those guys had this bright idea to bring back hand - drawn animation, but everything had to be started again from the ground up. One of the first things we did was focus on producing shorts, to help us re-introduce the 2D pipeline. I worked as vfx supervisor on the Goofy short, How to Hook Up Your Home Theater. It was a real plus for the effects department, so we went paperless for The Princess and the Frog. '' The backgrounds were painted digitally using Adobe Photoshop, and many of the architectural elements were based upon 3D models built in Autodesk Maya. Much of the clean - up animation, digital ink - and - paint, and compositing were outsourced to third - party companies in Orlando, Florida (Premise Entertainment), Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Yowza Digital Animation), and Brooklin, São Paulo, Brazil (HGN Produções).
During Disney 's 2007 shareholder meeting, Randy Newman and the Dirty Dozen Brass Band performed the film 's opening number, "Down in New Orleans '', with famous New Orleans singer Dr. John singing, while slides of pre-production art from the film played on a screen. Other songs in the film include "Almost There '' (a solo for Tiana), "Dig a Little Deeper '' (a song for Mama Odie), "When We 're Human '' (a song for Louis, Tiana and Naveen (as frogs)), "Friends on the Other Side '' (a solo for Doctor Facilier), and "Gonna Take You There '' and "Ma Belle Evangeline '' (two solos for Ray). Newman composed, arranged, and conducted the music for the film, a mixture of jazz, zydeco, blues, and gospel styles performed by the voice cast members for the respective characters while R&B singer - songwriter Ne - Yo wrote and performed the end title song "Never Knew I Needed '', an R&B love song referring to the romance between the film 's two main characters, Tiana and Naveen. Supported by a music video by Melina, "Never Knew I Needed '' was issued to radio outlets as a commercial single from the Princess and the Frog soundtrack.
The film 's soundtrack album, The Princess and the Frog: Original Songs and Score, contains the ten original songs from the film and seven instrumental pieces. The soundtrack was released on November 23, 2009, the day before the limited release of the film in New York and Los Angeles.
The film premiered in theaters with a limited run in New York and Los Angeles beginning on November 25, 2009, followed by wide release on December 11, 2009. The film was originally set for release on Christmas Day 2009, but its release date was changed due to a competing family film, Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel, scheduled for release the same day. The Princess and the Frog enjoyed a limited re-release in AMC Theatres, lasting from October 6 -- 12, 2017 as part of the Dream Big, Princess campaign.
The Princess and the Frog was supported by a wide array of merchandise leading up to and following the film 's release. Although Disney 's main marketing push was not set to begin until November 2009, positive word - of - mouth promotion created demand for merchandise well in advance of the film. Princess Tiana costumes were selling out prior to Halloween 2009, and a gift set of Tiana - themed hair - care products from Carol 's Daughter sold out in seven hours on the company 's website. Other planned merchandise includes a cookbook for children and even a wedding gown. Princess Tiana was also featured a few months before the release in the Disney on Ice: Let 's Celebrate! show. The film itself was promoted through advertisements, including one from GEICO where Naveen, as a frog, converses with the company 's gecko mascot.
A live parade and show called Tiana 's Showboat Jubilee! premiered on October 25, 2009, at the Magic Kingdom theme park at Walt Disney World Resort in Florida, and on November 5 at Disneyland in California. In Disneyland, actors in New Orleans Square paraded to the Rivers of America and boarded the park 's steamboat. From there, the cast, starring Princess Tiana, Prince Naveen, Louis the alligator, and Doctor Facilier, would sing songs from the movie, following a short storyline taking place after the events of the film. The Disneyland version 's actors actually partook in singing, while the Walt Disney World rendition incorporated lip - syncing.
Tiana 's Showboat Jubilee! ran at both parks until January 3, 2010. At Disneyland Park, the show was replaced by a land - based event called Princess Tiana 's Mardi Gras Celebration, which features Princess Tiana along with five of the original presentation 's "Mardi Gras dancers '' and the park 's "Jambalaya Jazz Band '' as they perform songs from the movie. "Tiana 's Mardi Gras Celebration '' officially ended on October 3, 2010. However, it returned to Disneyland from 2011 -- 2013 as part of the "Limited Time Magic '' family - fun weekends.
Tiana also appears in Disneyland Paris ' New Generation Festival. Some of the characters appear frequently during World of Color, the nightly fountain and projection show presented at Disney California Adventure. Disney announced on June 4, 2009, that they would release a video game inspired by the film and it was released on November 2009 exclusively for Wii and Nintendo DS platforms. It has been officially described an "adventure through the exciting world of New Orleans in a family - oriented video game '', featuring events from the film and challenges for Princess Tiana.
The Princess and the Frog was released in North America on DVD and Blu - ray Disc on March 16, 2010.
The film is available on DVD, Blu - ray Disc, and Blu - ray Disc combo pack editions; the combo pack includes DVD and digital copies of the film, along with the Blu - ray Disc version. The film was released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc in Australia on June 2, 2010, and on June 21, 2010, in the United Kingdom. As of December 2010 the DVD has sold 4,475,227 copies and has made $71.3 million in DVD sales, making it the ninth - best - selling DVD of 2010.
The financial and critical success of The Princess and the Frog persuaded Disney to green - light at least one new hand - drawn animated film to be released every two years. However, the blog / Film noted in July 2014 with the release of hand - drawn concept art for the 2013 computer animated film Frozen, that any future hand - drawn animated films have been "killed '' for the time being due to The Princess and the Frog failing "to ignite the box office ''. Two months later, however, many Disney artists announced they were working on a new independent hand - drawn animated film, Hullabaloo, as part of an attempt to bring back hand - drawn animation. Despite such speculation, Walt Disney Animation Studios has continued to use both hand - drawn animation and computer animation in subsequent films.
On its limited day release, the film grossed $263,890 at two theaters and grossed $786,190 its opening weekend. On its opening day in wide release, the film grossed $7 million at 3,434 theaters. It went on to gross $24.2 million over the opening weekend averaging $7,050 per theater, ranking at # 1 for the weekend, and making it the highest - grossing start to date for an animated movie in December, a record previously held by Beavis and Butt - Head Do America. The film went on to gross $104.4 million (in the United States and Canada) and $267 million (worldwide), making it a box office success, and became the fifth - highest - grossing animated film of 2009. While the film did out - gross Disney 's more recent hand - drawn films such as The Emperor 's New Groove, Atlantis: The Lost Empire, Treasure Planet, Brother Bear, and Home on the Range, it was less auspicious than the animated films from Walt Disney Animation Studios ' 1990s heyday. Disney animator Tom Sito compared the film 's box office performance to that of The Great Mouse Detective (1986), which was a step up from the theatrical run of the 1985 box office bomb The Black Cauldron.
Looking back on the experience four years later, Catmull acknowledged that Disney had made a "serious mistake '' in the process of marketing and releasing the film. Walt Disney Studios ' marketing department had warned Disney Animation that the word "princess '' in the title "would lead moviegoers to think that the film was for girls only, '' but the animation studio 's management insisted on keeping the "princess '' title because they truly believed that the film 's excellent quality and beautiful hand - drawn animation would bring in all quadrants anyway. In Catmull 's words, this belief "was our own version of a stupid pill. '' The marketing department turned out to be correct in their prediction that many moviegoers would and did avoid the film because they thought it was "for little girls only. '' This error was further compounded by the fact that the film opened a week before Avatar.
Looking back seven years later, Lasseter told Variety: "I was determined to bring back (hand - drawn animation) because I felt it was such a heritage of the Disney studio, and I love the art form... I was stunned that Princess did n't do better. We dug into it and did a lot of research and focus groups. It was viewed as old - fashioned by the audience. ''
The film received largely positive reviews from critics, praising the animation, characters, music and themes. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 85 % of 191 critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 7.4 / 10. The site 's general consensus is that "The warmth of traditional Disney animation makes this occasionally lightweight fairy - tale update a lively and captivating confection for the holidays. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 0 -- 100 from film critics, has a rating score of 73 based on 29 reviews.
Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave the film an "A '' grade and applauded the film 's creative team for "uphold (ing) the great tradition of classic Disney animation ''. Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter praised Walt Disney Animation for "rediscovering its traditional hand - drawn animation '' and for "a thing called story ''. David Germain of the Associated Press wrote that "The Princess and the Frog is not the second coming of Beauty and the Beast or The Lion King. It 's just plain pleasant, an old - fashioned little charmer that 's not straining to be the next glib animated compendium of pop - culture flotsam. '' Justin Chang of Variety was less receptive, stating "this long - anticipated throwback to a venerable house style never comes within kissing distance of the studio 's former glory ''. Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News gave the film 3 / 5 stars while saying "The Princess and the Frog breaks the color barrier for Disney princesses, but is a throwback to traditional animation and her story is a retread ''. Village Voice 's Scott Foundas found that "the movie as a whole never approache (d) the wit, cleverness, and storytelling brio of the studio 's early - 1990s animation renaissance (Beauty and the Beast, The Lion King) or pretty much anything by Pixar ''. Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a positive review claiming that "the dialogue is fresh - prince clever, the themes are ageless, the rhythms are riotous and the return to a primal animation style is beautifully executed. '' Chicago Sun - Times film critic Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars and admired Disney 's step back to traditional animation, writing, "No 3 - D! No glasses! No extra ticket charge! No frantic frenzies of meaningless action! And... good gravy! A story! Characters! A plot! This is what classic animation once was like! '', but stated that the film "inspires memories of Disney 's Golden Age it does n't quite live up to, as I 've said, but it 's spritely and high - spirited, and will allow kids to enjoy it without visually assaulting them. ''
S. Jhoanna Robledo of Common Sense Media gave the film three out of five stars, writing, "First African - American Disney princess is a good role model ''. Saint Bryan of the NBC - TV Seattle praised the film and called it "The Best Disney Movie Since The Lion King ''.
Upon its release, the film created controversy among some Christians over its use of Louisiana Voodoo as a plot device. Christianity Today 's review of the film cited its sexual undertones and use of voodoo, arguing that the scenes with Dr. Facilier and his "friends on the other side '' contain many horror elements and that young children might be frightened by the film. The film 's treatment of Louisiana voodoo as a type of magic instead of a religion also drew criticism from non-Christian factions.
The film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature and twice for the Academy Award for Best Original Song, but lost to Up and Crazy Heart, respectively. It was also nominated for eight Annie Awards and, at the 37th Annie Awards Ceremony on February 6, 2010, won three.
|
when did the skeleton become an olympic sport | Skeleton at the Winter Olympics - wikipedia
Skeleton is a winter sport featured in the Winter Olympics where the competitor rides head - first and prone (lying face down) on a flat sled. It is normally run on an ice track that allows the sled to gain speed by gravity. It was first contested at the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz and again in 1948 Winter Olympics, after which it was discontinued as an Olympic sport. Skeleton was reintroduced at the 2002 Winter Olympics, with both men 's and women 's events, and has been held in each Winter Olympic competition since. Skeleton is so - named as the first metal sleds introduced in 1892 were said to resemble a human skeleton.
The sport is similar to, but not to be confused with, luge, another form of sled racing where the competitor rides on the back and feet - first. Often using the same courses, the racing physics are not identical.
Great Britain is the only nation to have won a medal every time skeleton has featured at the Olympic Games, and has won at least one medal in each of the five contests of Women 's skeleton since its introduction with five different athletes.
Updated after 2018 Winter Olympics.
Numbers indicate the number of skeleton racers each nation sent to that Olympics.
Media related to Skeleton at the Olympics at Wikimedia Commons
|
when does season 2 of the travelers come out on netflix | Travelers (TV series) - wikipedia
Travelers is a science fiction television series created by Brad Wright, starring Eric McCormack. The series is a co-production between Netflix and Showcase. The first season comprises 12 episodes and premiered on Showcase on October 17, 2016; the entire series premiered globally (outside of Canada) on Netflix, on December 23, 2016. On February 8, 2017, Netflix and Showcase renewed the show for a second season. Season 2 production began in March 2017, ahead of the Canadian premiere on Showcase scheduled to air on October 16, 2017, which will be followed by a Netflix release.
Thousands of special operatives, sent back in time from the future, are tasked with preventing the collapse of society. These operatives, known as "travelers '', take over the body of a 21st - century individual via a transfer of consciousness; to minimize impact on the timeline, it is performed moments before the person 's recorded time of death. The transfer requires the exact location of the target; smart phones and GPS have made this possible only from the early 21st century onward. Prepared using social media and public records concerning their targets, small teams of travelers must maintain their hosts ' pre-existing lives as cover while carrying out missions, dictated by their director in the future, aimed at saving the world from a series of catastrophic events. The Director communicates with travelers via pre-pubescent children used as messengers; unlike adults, any child can safely be taken over for a few minutes and then released from control. The show focuses on one team of five travelers, starting from their transfers of consciousness. As the series progresses, travelers affect the present and future in unanticipated ways.
The non-Canadian Netflix release was on December 23, 2016, before the final two episodes of Season 1 aired on Showcase.
Hanh Nguyen, writing for IndieWire, gives the first three episodes a grade of "B + '', finding the series ' appeal "in how the core group of five travelers adjust to life in our present, '' noting the "human nature in the travelers ''. Neil Genzlinger, writing for The New York Times, described the show as "tasty '', and "enjoyable science fiction if you can ignore the contradictions '', with "some attention - grabbing flourishes and fine acting ''. Lawrence Devoe, of TheaterByte.com, calls the series "tautly paced and suspenseful '' with "well - developed characters '', declaring that "Brad Wright has a real knack for creating futuristic series ''.
|
jessie j ariana grande & nicki minaj bang bang | Bang Bang (Jessie J, Ariana Grande and Nicki Minaj song) - wikipedia
"Bang Bang '' is a song recorded by British singer Jessie J, American singer Ariana Grande, and American rapper and singer Nicki Minaj. It was written by Max Martin, Savan Kotecha, Rickard Göransson and Minaj, and produced by Martin, Göransson and Ilya, with Kuk Harrell serving as a vocal producer. The song was first sent to hot adult contemporary radio on July 28, 2014 through Republic Records and released as a digital download the next day by Lava and Republic Records as the lead single from Jessie J 's third studio album Sweet Talker (2014). It is also included on the deluxe version of Ariana Grande 's second studio album My Everything (2014), serving as the third single from that album.
"Bang Bang '' debuted at number six and later reached number three on the US Billboard Hot 100. It debuted at number one in the United Kingdom becoming Grande 's second top ten single and second number one debut that year. The song also reached the top ten in fourteen countries including Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand and the Netherlands. The single was nominated for Best Pop Duo / Group Performance at the 57th Grammy Award (2015), and won Favorite Song of the Year at the 2015 Kids ' Choice Awards. In November 2017, "Bang Bang '' was certified six - times platinum by the RIAA, and has sold 3.4 million copies in the US since its release.
The song was written by Savan Kotecha, Ariana Grande herself, Max Martin, and Carolina Liar guitarist Rickard Göransson, while the latter two co-produced it with Ilya Salmanzadeh. Minaj added her rap later. Martin had already previously collaborated with Jessie J ("Domino ''), Grande ("Problem '', "Break Free ''), and Minaj ("Va Va Voom '', "Masquerade '').
Ariana wrote and recorded her version of the song first. Following her recording, Martin informed her that Jessie wanted to record a verse too. Minaj later heard the song and decided to "jump right on it ''. Jessie later said that "It was like a real females, coming together, empowering, supportive (vibe), and then Nicki jumping on it was like the icing on the cake. ''
On various dates in July 2014, each of the artists uploaded a snippet of the song on their Instagram profiles: Jessie J on July 9, Minaj on July 23, and Grande on July 4.
"Bang Bang '' is an up - tempo, "soulful '' song, that features a "clap - heavy '' production, built over "big bouncy beats and horn blasts. '' It 's in the key of C minor, with the vocals making use of the C blues scale. The tempo is 150 BPM (Allegro). The melody of the chorus has been compared to that of "Wake Me Up Before You Go - Go '' by Wham!.
Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone called the song a "perfect Max Martin throwdown '' that "fuses Nelly 's ' Country Grammar ' with Wham! 's ' Wake Me Up Before You Go - Go, ' which is some truly twisted pop archaeology. '' Carolyn Menyes from Music Times called the song "(a) Huge successful hit of Summer 2014 '' and thought that "(the) song is going straight to the top of the charts ''. Zach Frydenlund from Complex praised Jessie J 's and Ariana 's heavenly vocals in the song but concentrated more on Nicki 's "catchy killer verse '' stating that "it 's Nicki who really steals the show with her verse ''. Jason Lipshutz from Billboard responded positively to the song, saying that the song itself "(is) composed of piercing vocals courtesy of two contemporary crooners, as well as rapid - fire spitting from the hottest female MC on the planet, "Bang Bang '' rests tidily upon the Ariana Grande assertion, "See anybody could be good to you / You need a bad girl to blow your mind. ''
Vulture 's Lindsey Weber thought the song was "no Lady Marmalade '' but praised it saying "it 's catchy enough to make a huge splash in the music history ''. Chris Martins from Spin stated that the song is "powerful '', and credits Minaj for the song 's noteworthy energy. "What makes the track so big? Well, um, ask Nicki Minaj. '' He goes on to further praise Minaj 's performance on the song, affirming that "The "Anaconda '' - taming MC rips a few mics on the loud and proud pop - soul song ". Lewis Corner from Digital Spy gave the song four and a half stars out of five and said that is "one of the year 's most electrifying pop anthems ''.
The song debuted on the US Billboard Hot Digital Songs chart at number one with 230,000 digital downloads sold in its first week. This marked the third - largest sales debut for a song in 2014, behind Ariana Grande 's "Problem '' and Taylor Swift 's "Shake It Off '', both of which were co-written by Max Martin. The song debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 6, making it the third highest new entry of 2014 on that chart, also behind Grande 's "Problem '' and Swift 's "Shake It Off ''. The song is Jessie J 's second, Grande 's fourth, and Minaj 's tenth top 10 single in the United States, peaking at number 3. It became Grande 's second consecutive top ten hit of 2014, after Problem peaked at number two. It was kept off the top spot by Meghan Trainor 's "All About That Bass '' and Taylor Swift 's "Shake It Off ''. Internationally, the song has since peaked within the top ten in Australia, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Israel, Netherlands, New Zealand, and South Korea. In the UK, "Bang Bang '' debuted at number 1 on the UK Singles Chart with 92,000 downloads, becoming Jessie J 's third, Grande 's second, and Minaj 's first number one single in the UK.
On Billboard 's Mainstream Top 40 (Pop Songs) chart, the song reached number two, becoming Minaj 's highest charting single on that chart since her appearance on Canadian artist Justin Bieber 's 2012 single "Beauty and a Beat '' peaked at number two, Jessie J 's highest since her 2012 single "Domino '' also peaked there, and Grande 's second - highest peak after "Problem '' hit number two.
The song 's accompanying video was shot over two days in Los Angeles, California and was directed by Hannah Lux Davis. The video was officially previewed and teased in a Beats by Dr. Dre commercial that aired on August 20, 2014. Following the ad 's airing, it was announced that the music video would arrive shortly after the trio 's performance at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards. On August 24, 2014 the official video was uploaded on MTV 's website and was available for international viewing. On August 25, 2014, the video was released via Jessie J 's Vevo account, and was Vevo - certified on November 5, having surpassed 100 million views. As of January 2018, it has accumulated more than 1.1 billion views.
Jessie J, Ariana Grande, and Nicki Minaj performed the song together at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards on August 24, 2014 in Inglewood, California alongside Grande 's song Break Free and Minaj 's single Anaconda, and at the 2014 American Music Awards on November 23, 2014 in Los Angeles, California.
Jessie J performed the song by herself on The Ellen Degeneres Show on October 17, 2014, on The X Factor UK on 19 October, at The Concert for Valor in Washington, D.C. on November 11, 2014, and the Nickelodeon HALO Awards on November 30, 2014. She also performed "Bang Bang '' with Demi Lovato on her tour in San Jose, California and with fellow coaches Delta Goodrem, Ricky Martin and The Madden Brothers on The Voice Australia in 2015.
Grande performed the song by herself at the 2014 Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show in London, UK on December 9, 2014 and during her international tour, The Honeymoon Tour. She also performed the song with Minaj at the NBA All - Star Game halftime show on February 15, 2015, as well as at the iHeartRadio Music Festival. Since the start of the Dangerous Woman Tour, Grande has also performed the song herself throughout her international tour that started in early February.
Freeform teen drama show Pretty Little Liars featured this song in season 5, episode 20, aired February 17, 2015. This song is remixed so that it highlights more of Jessie J 's part.
The 2015 musical comedy Pitch Perfect 2 also featured this song as its soundtrack, as heard in the opening sequence (during the news reports about the Bellas ' misconducts). This song also made it to the movie 's special edition soundtrack album.
The song has been featured in the short - lived CBS TV drama series Stalker, an episode of British sitcom Drifters and in the video game Just Dance 2015.
The song became a recurring joke on the podcast Comedy Bang! Bang! when House of Lies actor Ben Schwartz began singing the song with altered lyrics to be about the show itself.
The song was performed in the seventh episode of the South Korean music reality program Produce 101; the performance became a trending topic on social media with Jessie J sharing its video on her Facebook page. Jessie J 's response later made the program 's executive producer Han Dong - chul proud in an interview on March 10, 2016, saying: "It 's such an honor that the original singer of the song has mentioned our show. And I 'm also proud that our contestants performed it so well. ''
On May, 2016 Jessie J opened 3rd Indonesian Choice Awards with this song.
The song is also used for the commercial of Nestea in the Philippines in early 2018.
Credits adapted from My Eveyrthing deluxe edition liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on - demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads.
|
suddenly my groin felt the chill of death | Once More to the lake - wikipedia
"Once More to the Lake '' is an essay first published in Harper 's magazine in 1941 by author E.B. White. It chronicles his pilgrimage back to a lakefront resort, Belgrade Lakes, Maine, he visited as a child.
In "Once More to the Lake, '' White revisits his ideal boyhood vacation spot. He finds great joy in his visit, which causes him to struggle to remember that he is now a man.
The essay shows White engaging in an internal struggle between acting and viewing the lake as he did when he was a boy and acting and viewing it as an adult, or as his father would have. Although White sees the lake as having remained nearly identical to the lake of his boyhood, technology mars his experience and the new, noisier boats disturb the serene atmosphere at the lake. This could suggest that technology is impure or damaging, except that the same paragraph contains a lengthy reminiscence in which White rhapsodizes about his boyhood affection for an old one - cylinder engine. The memory balances the theme of technology, suggesting that certain kinds of technology, if a person can "get close to it spiritually, '' are able to become almost a natural part of one 's self.
The author compares the time he went fishing with his dad and how he 's fishing now with his son, with the quote:
"I looked at the boy, who was silently watching his fly, and it was my hands that held his rod, my eyes watching. I felt dizzy and did n't know which rod I was at the end of. ''
He suddenly realizes how death is so close because he is now the father and not the son. White references this in the final lines:
"I watched him, his hard little body, skinny and bare, saw him wince slightly as he pulled up around his vitals the small, soggy, icy garment.
As he buckled the swollen belt suddenly my groin felt the chill of death. ''
White realizes that although human lives are by themselves transient and insignificant, experiences are immortal. In spite of the increasing amounts of technology, his son still has the same experiences that he had when he was a boy - sneaking out in the morning, being amused by the dragonflies. Basically, White releases his ego by realizing that he himself is inconsequential.
|
when do avery and juliette get back together season 3 | Nashville (season 3) - Wikipedia
The third season of the American television musical drama series Nashville, created by Callie Khouri, began on September 24, 2014, on ABC. The show features an ensemble cast with Connie Britton and Hayden Panettiere in the leading roles as two country music superstars, Rayna Jaymes and Juliette Barnes.
The episodes are named after country songs from a variety of artists, like Webb Pierce ("That 's Me Without You ''), Willie Nelson (a number of songs, like "The Storm Has Just Begun '') and Loretta Lynn ("You 're Lookin ' at Country '').
On May 9, 2014, Nashville was renewed for a third season by ABC. The series was renewed after prolonged negotiations for a full 22 - episode season. This season will receive a combined $8 million incentive package from the state of Tennessee, Metro Nashville and other local groups, lower than the Season 2 incentives -- which totaled $13.25 million. On March 11, 2014, before the show was renewed, it was announced that Oliver Hudson and Will Chase are being promoted to regulars for season three, contingent on the ABC series getting a renewal. The series creator and executive producer later said that "a lot of our characters may not be in every episode this year ''.
On July 30, 2014, it was announced that Tony Award winner Laura Benanti was cast in the recurring role of country star Sadie Stone who is Rayna 's friend. On August 1, 2014, it was announced that the first episode of the season will be aired live, and will consist of musical performances broadcast directly from the Bluebird Café. This will be the first time in TV history that a scripted drama has attempted this musical feat. On August 11, 2014, it was announced that actress - singer Brette Taylor joined the cast in a major recurring role as Pam, Luke 's sultry, extroverted new backup singer, and Alexa PenaVega also was cast for a multi-episode arc as Kiley, Gunnar 's first love and who is now a single mother. On August 14, 2014, it was announced that the Emmy Award Winning dancer Derek Hough, would also join the cast for a multi-episode arc as Noah West. On the same day, it was announced that Judith Hoag (Tandy Hampton) will be leaving the show after the second episode, but may return later. (She makes a guest appearance in "First To Have A Second Chance. '') On September 12, 2014, it was announced that Mykelti Williamson was cast in a four - episode arc as musician who, after personal tragedy, lives as a nomad on the streets of Nashville. On October 27, 2014, it was announced that Moniqua Plante also was cast for a multiple - episode arc as Natasha, a woman, who "expected to provide some jaw - dropping twists for Teddy ''. Country singer Sara Evans joined the cast as a fictionalized version of herself. She had guest starring role in the episode dated October 29, 2014 and set to possible recurring return later with major story arc. On January 23, 2015, it was announced that Kyle Dean Massey joined the cast in a recurring role as openly gay country music singer - songwriter Kevin Bicks. Christina Aguilera later was cast as a pop superstar Jade St. John for a multi-episode arc.
Filming for season three ended on April 17, 2015.
|
what did baba say to enter the treasure cave | Ali Baba - wikipedia
Ali Baba (Arabic: علي بابا ʿAlī Bābā) is a character from the folk tale Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves (علي بابا والأربعون لصا). This story is included in many versions of the One Thousand and One Nights, to which it was added by Antoine Galland in the 18th century. It is one of the most familiar of the "Arabian Nights '' tales, and has been widely retold and performed in many media, especially for children, where the more violent aspects of the story are often suppressed.
In the story, Ali Baba is a poor woodcutter who discovers the secret of a thieves ' den, entered with the phrase "Open Sesame ''. The thieves learn this and try to kill Ali Baba, but Ali Baba 's faithful slave - girl foils their plots. Ali Baba gives his son to her in marriage and keeps the secret of the treasure.
The tale was added to the story collection One Thousand and One Nights by one of its European translators, Antoine Galland, who called his volumes Les Mille et Une Nuits (1704 -- 1717). Galland was an 18th - century French Orientalist who may have heard it in oral form from a Middle Eastern story - teller from Aleppo, in modern - day Syria. In any case, the earliest known text of the story is Galland 's French version. Richard F. Burton included it in the supplemental volumes (rather than the main collection of stories) of his translation (published as The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night) and thought its origins were Greek Cypriot.
The American Orientalist Duncan Black MacDonald discovered an Arabic - language manuscript of the story at the Bodleian Library; however, this was later found to be a counterfeit.
Ali Baba and his elder brother Cassim are the sons of a merchant. After their father 's death, the greedy Cassim marries a wealthy woman and becomes well - to - do, building on their father 's business. Ali Baba marries a poor woman and settles into the trade of a woodcutter.
One day, Ali Baba is at work collecting and cutting firewood in the forest, and he happens to overhear a group of 40 thieves visiting their treasure store. The treasure is in a cave, the mouth of which is sealed by magic. It opens on the words "open sesame '' and seals itself on the words "close sesame ''. When the thieves are gone, Ali Baba enters the cave himself and discreetly takes a single bag of gold coins home.
Ali Baba and his wife borrow his sister - in - law 's scales to weigh their new wealth. Unbeknownst to them, Cassim 's wife puts a blob of wax in the scales to find out what Ali Baba is using them for, as she is curious to know what kind of grain her impoverished brother - in - law needs to measure. To her shock, she finds a gold coin sticking to the scales and tells her husband. Under pressure from his brother, Ali Baba is forced to reveal the secret of the cave. Cassim goes to the cave, taking a donkey with him to take as much treasure as possible. He enters the cave with the magic words. But in his greed and excitement over the treasure, he forgets the words to get out again. The thieves find him there and kill him. When his brother does not come back, Ali Baba goes to the cave to look for him, and finds the body quartered and with each piece displayed just inside the cave 's entrance, as a warning to anyone else who might try to enter.
Ali Baba brings the body home where he entrusts Morgiana, a clever slave - girl from Cassim 's household, with the task of making others believe that Cassim has died a natural death. First, Morgiana purchases medicines from an apothecary, telling him that Cassim is gravely ill. Then, she finds an old tailor known as Baba Mustafa whom she pays, blindfolds, and leads to Cassim 's house. There, overnight, the tailor stitches the pieces of Cassim 's body back together so that no one will be suspicious. Ali Baba and his family are able to give Cassim a proper burial without anyone 's asking awkward questions.
The thieves, finding the body gone, realize that yet another person must know their secret, and they set out to track him down. One of the thieves goes down to the town and comes across Baba Mustafa, who mentions that he has just sewn a dead man 's body back together. Realizing the dead man must have been the thieves ' victim, the thief asks Baba Mustafa to lead the way to the house where the deed was performed. The tailor is blindfolded again, and in this state he is able to retrace his steps and find the house. The thief marks the door with a symbol so the other thieves can come back that night and kill everyone in the house. However, the thief has been seen by Morgiana who, loyal to her master, foils the thief 's plan by marking all the houses in the neighborhood similarly. When the 40 thieves return that night, they can not identify the correct house, and their leader kills the unsuccessful thief in a furious rage. The next day, another thief revisits Baba Mustafa and tries again. Only this time, a chunk is chipped out of the stone step at Ali Baba 's front door. Again, Morgiana foils the plan by making similar chips in all the other doorsteps, and the second thief is killed for his failure as well. At last, the leader of the thieves goes and looks himself. This time, he memorizes every detail he can of the exterior of Ali Baba 's house.
The leader of the thieves pretends to be an oil merchant in need of Ali Baba 's hospitality, bringing with him mules loaded with 38 oil jars, one filled with oil, the other 37 hiding the other remaining thieves. Once Ali Baba is asleep, the thieves plan to kill him. Again, Morgiana discovers and foils the plan, killing the 37 thieves in their oil jars by pouring boiling oil on them. When their leader comes to rouse his men, he discovers they are all dead and escapes. The next morning, Morgiana tells Ali Baba about the thieves in the jars. They bury them, and Ali Baba shows his gratitude by giving Morgiana her freedom.
To exact revenge after some time, the leader of the thieves establishes himself as a merchant, befriends Ali Baba 's son (who is now in charge of the late Cassim 's business), and is invited to dinner at Ali Baba 's house. However, the thief is recognized by Morgiana, who performs a sword dance with a dagger for the diners and plunges it into the thief 's heart, when he is off his guard. Ali Baba is at first angry with Morgiana, but when he finds out the thief wanted to kill him, he is extremely grateful and rewards Morgiana by marrying her to his son. Ali Baba is then left as the only one knowing the secret of the treasure in the cave and how to access it.
The story has been classified in the Aarne -- Thompson classification system as AT 676.
The name "Ali Baba '' was often used as derogatory slang by American and Iraqi soldiers and their allies in the Iraq War, to describe individuals suspected of a variety of offenses related to theft and looting. Additionally, British soldiers routinely used the term to refer to Iraqi civilians. In the subsequent occupation, it is used as a general term for the insurgents, similar to Charlie for the Viet Cong in the Vietnam War.
The Iraqis adopted the term "Ali Baba '' to describe foreign troops suspected of looting.
A depiction of the Forty Thieves.
The Forty Thieves attack Cassim.
A member of the Forty Thieves tries to discover the location of the house of Ali Baba.
A member of the Forty Thieves marks the door of Ali Baba
Morgiana pays Baba Mustafa the Cobbler.
Morgiana pours boiling hot oil into the jars containing the infamous Forty Thieves.
Ali Baba presents treasures from the magical cave of Sesame to Morgiana.
|
what is the national palace in el salvador | National Palace (El Salvador) - Wikipedia
The current National Palace of El Salvador, located in San Salvador, the capital city of the country of El Salvador, replaced the old National Palace built in 1866 -- 1870, which was destroyed by fire on December 19, 1889. The construction, done between 1905 and 1911, was the work of engineer José Emilio Alcaine, under the direction of the foreman Pascasio González Erazo. To finish the project, legislation was passed that collected one colon for every quintal of coffee exported. The materials used were imported from several European countries including Germany, Italy and Belgium. The Palace 's facilities were occupied by government offices until 1974.
The building contains four main rooms and 101 secondary rooms; each of the four main rooms has a distinctive color. The Red Room (Salon Rojo) is used for receptions held by the Salvadoran Foreign Ministry, and the ceremonial presentation of ambassadors ' credentials. It has been used for ceremonial purposes since the administration of General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez. The Yellow Room (Salon Amarillo) is used as an office for the President of the Republic, while the Pink Room (Salon Rosado) housed the Supreme Court and later the Ministry of Defense. The Blue Room (Salon Azul) was the meeting place of the Legislature of El Salvador from 1906, and its classical architecture with Ionian, Corinthian and Roman elements is notable. The room is now called the Salvadoran Parliament in commemoration of its former purpose, and was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1974.
https://web.archive.org/web/20120407125235/http://www.laprensagrafica.com/opinion/editorial/62179-el-antiguo-palacio-nacional.html
http://www.elsalvador.com/mwedh/nota/nota_completa.asp?idCat=6482&idArt=3290128
Coordinates: 13 ° 41 ′ 51 '' N 89 ° 11 ′ 31 '' W / 13.69750 ° N 89.19194 ° W / 13.69750; - 89.19194
|
when does season 5 of bates motel come out | Bates Motel (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth and final season of Bates Motel premiered on February 20, 2017, and concluded on April 24, 2017. The season consisted of 10 episodes and aired on Mondays at 10 p.m. ET / PT on A&E. The series itself is described as a "contemporary prequel '' to the 1960 film Psycho, following the life of Norman Bates and his mother Norma prior to the events portrayed in the Hitchcock film. However, the final season of the series loosely adapts the plot of Psycho. The series takes place in the fictional town of White Pine Bay, Oregon.
In June 2016, showrunner Kerry Ehrin confirmed the return of Kenny Johnson as Caleb Calhoun for the final season, in an interview with Deadline.com. The following month, it was announced that Rihanna had been cast in the iconic role of Marion Crane. In September 2016, Isabelle McNally joined the cast of the series, portraying the role of Madeleine Loomis, a young woman who resembles Norma. That same month, Brooke Smith joined the cast as Sheriff Jane Greene. In January 2017, Austin Nichols was cast in the role of Sam Loomis, a prominent role in both the source material and the film adaptation. That same month, Ryan Hurst 's return as Chick Hogan was reported. In March 2017, it was revealed that series executive producer Carlton Cuse would appear as a police officer trailing Marion Crane. That same month, Natalia Cordova - Buckley joined the cast as Julia Ramos, an attorney.
The series was filmed on location in Aldergrove, British Columbia. At the beginning of the first season, a replica of the original Bates Motel set from the film Psycho was built on 272nd Street. Freddie Highmore was tapped to write an episode for the season, as well as direct an episode, marking his directorial debut. Max Thieriot and Nestor Carbonell were also tapped to direct an episode each for season 5.
Production on the season began on September 16, 2016. The series filmed its final scenes at the specially - built Bates Motel set in Aldergrove on January 25, 2017, and production began tearing the house down the following day. Carbonell filmed his final scenes as Sheriff Alex Romero on January 27, 2017. Filming officially wrapped for the series on January 31, 2017. In February 2017, the Bates Motel exterior set in Aldergrove was subsequently demolished.
The season has received positive reviews from television critics. It received 81 out of 100 from Metacritic, based on 8 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 8 out of 8 critical responses were positive, averaging a 100 % rating.
Overall, the fifth season of Bates Motel averaged 1.29 million viewers, with a 0.5 rating in the 18 -- 49 demographic.
|
where did the term full tilt come from | Tilt (poker) - wikipedia
Tilt is a poker term for a state of mental or emotional confusion or frustration in which a player adopts a less than optimal strategy, usually resulting in the player becoming over-aggressive. This term is closely associated with "steam '' and some consider the terms equivalent, although steam typically carries more anger and intensity.
Placing an opponent on tilt or dealing with being on tilt oneself is an important aspect of poker. It is a relatively frequent occurrence due to frustration, animosity against other players, or simply bad luck. Experienced players recommend learning to recognize that one is experiencing tilt and avoid allowing it to influence one 's play.
One possible origin of the word "tilt '' is as a reference to tilting a pinball machine. The frustration from seeing the ball follow a path towards the gap between the flippers can lead to the player physically tilting the machine in an attempt to guide the ball towards the flippers. However, in doing so, some games will flash the word "TILT '' and freeze the flippers, causing the ball to be lost for certain; as in poker, this suggests that over-aggression due to frustration leads to severely detrimental playing techniques.
While "tilting '' originally applied to poker, it has recently become a common term when talking about other games, especially eSports titles.
The most common way to "tilt '' is losing, often a recent victim of a bad beat, or being defeated in a particularly public and humiliating fashion.
For example:
These can upset the mental equilibrium essential for optimal poker judgment. Another common way to tilt is from bad behavior of the others at the poker table. Excessive rudeness (or lewdness), being heavily intoxicated at the table, and poor table etiquette are ways that players can wear on nerves.
Though not as commonly acknowledged or discussed, it is also quite possible to go on "winner 's tilt '' as a result of a positive trigger: such as winning a hand unexpectedly, being awarded a large pot, or making the money in a tournament. Strong positive emotions can be just as dizzying and detrimental to one 's play as negative ones. "Winner 's tilt '' can be just as dangerous as the more traditional form.
For the beginning player, the elimination or minimization of tilt is considered an essential improvement that can be made in play (for instance in the strategic advice of Mike Caro). Many advanced players (after logging thousands of table - hours) claim to have outgrown "tilt '' and frustration, although other poker professionals admit it is still a "leak '' in their game.
One commonly suggested way to fight tilt is to disregard the outcomes of pots, particularly those that are statistically uncommon. So - called "bad beats, '' when one puts a lot of chips in the pot with the best hand and still loses, deserve little thought; they are the product of variance, not bad strategy. This mindset calls for the player to understand poker is a game of decisions and correct play in making the right bets over a long period of time.
Another method for avoiding tilt is to try lowering one 's variance, even if that means winning fewer chips overall. Therefore, one may play passively and fold marginal hands, even though that may mean folding the winning hand. This may also imply that one plays tightly -- and looks for advantageous situations.
Once tilt begins, players are well - advised to leave the table and return when emotions have subsided. When away from the table, players are advised to take time to refresh themselves, eat and drink (non-alcoholic) if necessary, and take a break outside in the fresh air.
If none of these work in lessening tilt, players are advised to leave the game and not return to playing until they have shaken off the results that led to the tilt.
The intent of the advice is to prevent the upset person from letting negative emotions lead to bigger losses that can seriously hurt one 's bankroll.
Tilt has to be taken seriously and one must realize immediately when being on tilt. Taking a break from poker is the best option: tilt has already ended many poker careers. Some players can win 6 times a week but on the 7th day they lose more than what they won in the previous 6 days. The progression in poker for these kind of players will be hindered because their anger controls them and they are not able to play their best poker all the time. One way to avoid this is to pay close attention to your playing statistics because you might start playing more aggressively and more hands than you did before.
The act of putting an opponent on tilt may not pay off in the short run, but if some time is put into practicing it, a player can quickly become an expert at "tilting '' other players (with or without using bad manners). In theory, the long - run payoff of this tactic is a monetarily positive expectation.
Common methods of putting a table on tilt include:
These antics can upset the other players at the table with the intention of getting them to play poorly.
|
who sings the song i can't live if living is without you | Without You (Badfinger song) - wikipedia
"Without You '' is a song written by Pete Ham and Tom Evans of British rock group Badfinger, and first released on their 1970 album No Dice. The song has been recorded by over 180 artists, and versions released as singles by Harry Nilsson (1971) and Mariah Carey (1994) became international best - sellers. Paul McCartney once described the ballad as "the killer song of all time ''.
In 1972, writers Ham and Evans received the British Academy 's Ivor Novello Award for Best Song Musically and Lyrically.
First recorded by the rock group Badfinger, the song was composed by two of its members. Two streams, referring to real events in the songwriters ' lives flowed together to create the song. Pete Ham had written a song originally titled "If It 's Love '' but it had lacked a strong chorus. At the time of writing the band shared residence with the Mojos at 7 Park Avenue in Golders Green. One evening, in the midst of the parties, songwriting, touring, in Golders Green, Ham and his girlfriend Beverly Tucker were about to go out for the evening. But just as they were leaving Tom Evans said he had an idea for a song -- Ham said, ' Not tonight, I 've promised Bev. ' But she thought he would be wondering if he had done the right thing later, if he went out, -- she told him -- ' Go into the studio, I 'm fine about it... ' He said, "Your mouth is smiling, but your eyes are sad. '' The song Ham wrote that night was called ' If its Love ' and has the verse "Well I ca n't forget tomorrow, when I think of all my sorrow, I had you there but then I let you go, and now it 's only fair that I should let you know... if it 's love... '' But Pete was n't happy with the chorus. ''
Events in Evans ' love life would lead to the completion of the track. While Evans was touring in Cologne he had met the woman who would become his future wife, Marianne. She moved to London. It was a sparky relationship. "One evening he went to her friend Karen and told Karen, ' She 's left me. I need her back. I ca n't live without her. ' He flew to Bonn to find her -- he wrote a song called ' I Ca n't Live '. Its chorus; "I ca n't live, if living is without you, I ca n't live, I ca n't give any more. '' And so the merging of the two songs, Ham and Evans created the hit. Ham 's verse, ' warm, sweet, sentimental ' and Evans ' chorus, -- ' intense, dramatic, heartbreaking. ' '' Both Ham and Evans said they did not consider the song to have much potential at the time Badfinger recorded it, and the track was slotted to close Side A of their 1970 No Dice album. Badfinger 's recording of the song, which is more brusque than its successors ' versions, was not released as a single in Europe or North America. "Without You '' was released backed by "We 're For The Dark '' in The Philippines on Apple Records, Catalogue number APPLE - 025, "Without You '' was also finally released as a 3 '' CD single in Japan in March 1993 along with the track "No Matter What ''.
Two writers of the song, Ham and Evans, later committed suicide due to legal and financial issues. In Evans ' case, it was a dispute over songwriting royalties for "Without You '' that precipitated his action. Songwriting royalties had become the subject of constant legal wrangling for Evans, and In 1983, following an acrimonious argument with his bandmate Joey Molland over the royalties for the song, Evans hanged himself.
Harry Nilsson, at the time best known for his hit "Everybody 's Talkin ' '' and for composing such hits as Three Dog Night 's "One '', heard Badfinger 's recording of "Without You '' at a party, and mistook it for a Beatles song. After realising it was not, he decided to cover the song for his album Nilsson Schmilsson in 1971. The song was released as a single in October 1971, and it stayed at number 1 on the U.S. pop chart for four weeks, from 13 February to 11 March 1972. The song also spent five weeks atop the U.S. adult contemporary chart. Billboard ranked it as the No. 4 song for 1972.
In the UK, the song spent five weeks at number 1 on the British pop chart, beginning on 11 March, and sold almost 800,000 copies. It went to Number One in several other countries, including Australia (for 5 weeks), Ireland (2 weeks) and New Zealand (2 weeks).
The single was produced by Richard Perry, who later explained, "It was a different record for its time. It was a big ballad with a heavy backbeat, and although many artists have cut songs like it since, no one was doing it then. '' Gary Wright who worked with Badfinger on George Harrison 's projects, played the piano. Also featured are Klaus Voormann (bass), Jim Keltner (drums) and Tom Plovanic (acoustic guitar). The string and horn arrangements are by Paul Buckmaster. In 1973, Nilsson won the "Best Male Pop Vocal '' Grammy award for the song. While Nilsson rarely gave live concerts, he did perform the song with Ringo Starr and his All - Starr Band at Caesar 's Palace in Las Vegas in September 1992.
Worldwide Single
EP (Portugal)
According to the 1971 LP credits:
Mariah Carey 's version, based on Harry Nilsson 's version rather than the Badfinger original, was released as the third single of Music Box in the first quarter of 1994, and in the United States it was released on 24 January 1994, just over a week after Nilsson had died following a heart attack on 15 January 1994. In the U.S. it was promoted as a double A-side with "Never Forget You ''. Carey said that she decided to cover the song when she heard it in a restaurant (additionally, when performing the song in Tokyo, she said she listened to it when she was a little girl). Her version has been considered very popular on talent shows. "Without You '' was later included on some non-U.S. pressings of her compilation album # 1 's (1998), and her 2001 compilation, Greatest Hits. "Without You '' was also included on her 2009 compilation The Ballads.
David Browne of Entertainment Weekly called it a "by - the - numbers remake of Nilsson 's melodramatic 1972 hit. '' Stephen Holden of Rolling Stone called this song "likeliest contender '' for ballads like "I Will Always Love You '' and he praised "Carey dips into her lower register and is accompanied by backup singers (including herself) magnified to sound like a mighty gospel chorus. ''
"Without You '' reached number 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 for six weeks, remaining in the top 40 for 21 weeks and on the chart for 23. It reached number 2 on both the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay and Radio & Records pop charts (ending Carey 's streak of consecutive number ones on the latter chart; all ten of her previous singles had gone to the top), and number 3 on the Hot 100 Singles Sales. It was certified gold by the RIAA and sold 600,000 copies domestically. It was ranked 16 on the Hot 100 1994 year - end charts.
"Without You '' remains Carey 's biggest hit across Europe. It became her first UK number 1 single, and was her only number one there until "Against All Odds '' in 2000, which was also a cover. It debuted at number 1 on the chart and stayed at number 1 for four weeks. It was also her first chart - topper in Italy, but was most successful in Switzerland (with ten non-consecutive weeks at number 1) and the Netherlands (twelve weeks). It also topped the singles chart in Germany for four weeks and Austria for eight weeks, where Carey 's success had previously been limited. It also topped the Swedish Singles Chart for eight weeks, was number 1 in Ireland for five weeks and in New Zealand for one week. It was able to make the top three in Canada, France, Norway and Australia. It was certified platinum in Australia by ARIA and in Germany and Austria by IFPI. It was also certified gold in New Zealand by RIANZ and in France by SNEP. The song is one of only two Carey singles certified Gold in the UK with sales of 470,000 copies.
Worldwide CD single
European maxi - CD single # 1
European maxi - CD single # 2
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Shirley Bassey covered the song twice, once for the album And I Love You So in 1972, and again in Spanish as "Sin Ti '' for the 1989 album La Mujer. This Spanish version of the ballad has also been recorded by Paloma San Basilio. A different Spanish translation, "Desde el dia que te fuiste '' ("From the Day You Went Away ''), was a # 1 hit for Pandora on Billboard 's Hot Latin Tracks in 1992.
The Italian version, entitled Per chi (For Whom), whose text has been written by Daniele Pace, was one of 1972 's local biggest hits, sung by Johnny Dorelli, Nicola Di Bari and the Sicilian band I Gens.
The Cambodian version sang by Poev Vannary also has her own cover of without you entitled ភ្លេច បង មិន បាន (Ca n't forget you).
Billy Paul covered this song on his 1976 album "Let'Em In ''.
Heart also covered this song on their 1977 album Magazine.
Air Supply covered "Without You '' in 1991, reaching # 48 on the U.S. Adult Contemporary chart.
The song is often covered by TV talent show contestants. In 2001, Kelly Clarkson performed the song on "Top 3 '' week of season 1 of American Idol. Valentina Hasan, a season two contestant of Music Idol, sang her own version in Engrish. Soon dubbed "Ken Lee '' after her mispronunciation of "Ca n't Live, '' the video of Hasan 's performance became a YouTube hit, parodied and remixed by many fans as featured in Sign of the Times on ABC 's Nightline in March 2009.
Nilsson 's version of "Without You '' was used as the opening tune to the 1979 feature film Porridge. In the film Casino, the Nilsson version is playing during one of Ginger 's manic episodes. In the film The Rules of Attraction, a college girl commits suicide in a bathtub while this song plays on the soundtrack. In Bridget Jones ' Diary, the title character performs a tuneless rendition of this song. In Whiskey Tango Foxtrot, this song plays during a raid in which American Marines rescue a kidnapped journalist.
In June 2010 the Harry Nilsson version of the song was used in television advertising for the UK brand Soda Stream.
Nilsson 's version was also included in the Apple Productions Movie, "The Son of Dracula ''.
It was also used in the final scenes of the Inside No. 9 episode A Quiet Night In.
In series two of Peep Show this song was featured in the episode titled Wedding.
In the 2015 movie Vacation, the Harry Nilsson version plays during the Grand Canyon rafting scene.
Nilsson 's version was heard in a 2016 commercial for Heinz ketchup that debuted on CBS ' coverage of Super Bowl 50 on 7 February 2016.
In the television series 30 Rock episode "Cutbacks '' Jonathan sings chorus to Jack after being let go.
In June 2017, Nilsson 's version was used in the ending scene of the penultimate episode in the final season of Pretty Little Liars.
On 15 May 1995, at ASCAP 's twelfth annual Pop Music Awards in Beverly Hills, California, "Without You '' was recognised as one of the 50 most - played songs of 1994 (due largely to Mariah Carey 's recording). Discrepancies in ASCAP 's books, resulting from a lawsuit against the Ham and Evans estates by their former manager, incorrectly attributed the song as being composed not only by Ham and Evans, but also by Badfinger 's other bandmembers, Mike Gibbins and Joey Molland, and their former manager, Bill Collins. This designation and a lack of correction by ASCAP prompted the Ham Estate to boycott the ceremony. The song was also nominated for "Song Of The Year '' in London at the Ivor Novello Awards.
Works cited
|
bhoomi movie song download will you marry me | Will You Marry Me? (film) - Wikipedia
Will You Marry Me? is a Hindi romantic comedy starring Shreyas Talpade, Rajeev Khandelwal, Mugdha Godse and Muzamil Ibrahim in lead roles. The film is about a beach wedding. It was shot in several locations including Fujairah and Dubai, in the United Arab Emirates, Mumbai, India and Bangkok, Thailand. The film is a copy of the Hollywood movie Tomcats.
The film is about three bachelors Aarav (Shreyas Talpade), Nikhil (Muzamil Ibrahim) and Rajveer (Rajeev Khandelwal) who along with eleven other college mates sign a contract which has two clauses. The first clause says that all of them have to purchase certain number of Reliance shares, and the second rule explains all the shares will go to the man who will remain unmarried till the end. Slowly and steadily people start to break away from the rule and only Nikhil, Rajveer and Aarav remain single. Nikhil is in love with his childhood friend Anjali (Tripta Prashar) and wants to settle down with her but the other two have no such plans, but they find the proceedings interesting after discovering Anjali 's best friend Sneha (Mugdha Godse) at the wedding. Suddenly all their plans to remain unmarried till the end vanish and the two start trying to win Sneha 's heart. Meanwhile, one of Rajveer 's friends gives him Rs 5 crore to keep but Rajveer being smart enough invests the money in the stock market, only to find that the company he invested in has crashed and a powerful business magnate (Paresh Rawal) is after him. Rajveer plans to convince Aarav to get married to Sneha so that he can get all the Reliance shares and pay his due. His plans fail when Aarav manages to listen in on a secret conversation.
The crew shot in the United Arab Emirates from 26 May -- 14 June 2010, according to Mugdha Godse 's Twitter. The crew then shot in Mumbai. Filming was completed in Bangkok, Thailand from 24 July -- 2 August 2010. "Sixty per cent of the film 's story is set in the UAE '', says director Aditya Datt.
The album features 6 tracks composed by Toshi - Sharib, Gaurav Dagaonkar and Sachin Gupta.
The movie released to mostly negative reviews. RediffMovies gave 2 out of 5 star rating with the comment "' Will You Marry Me? ' fails to impress ''. Times Of India gave 1.5 out of 5. The movie was declared disaster in first week of its release with total net gross of first week only Rs. 41 lac.
|
putting chan at the end of a name | Japanese honorifics - wikipedia
The Japanese language makes use of honorific suffixes when referring to others in a conversation. These suffixes are attached to the end of names, and are often gender - neutral. Honorific suffixes also indicate the level of the speaker and referred individual 's relationship and are often used alongside other components of Japanese honorific speech, called keigo (敬語).
Although honorifics are not part of the basic grammar of the Japanese language, they are a fundamental part of the sociolinguistics of Japanese, and proper use is essential to proficient and appropriate speech. Referring to oneself using an honorific, or dropping an honorific when it is required, is a serious faux pas, in either case coming across as clumsy or arrogant.
They can be applied to either the first or last name depending on which is given. In situations where both the first and last names are spoken, the suffix is attached to whichever comes last in the word order.
An honorific is generally used when referring to the person one is talking to (one 's interlocutor), or when referring to an unrelated third party in speech. It is dropped, however, by some superiors, when referring to one 's in - group, or in formal writing, and is never used to refer to oneself, except for dramatic effect, or some exceptional cases.
Dropping the honorific suffix when referring to one 's interlocutor, which is known as to yobisute (呼び捨て), implies a high degree of intimacy and is generally reserved for one 's spouse, younger family members, social inferiors (as in a teacher addressing students in traditional arts), and very close friends. Within sports teams or among classmates, where the interlocutors approximately have the same age or seniority, it can be acceptable to use family names without honorifics. Some people of the younger generation, roughly born since 1970, prefer to be referred to without an honorific. However, dropping honorifics is a sign of informality even with casual acquaintances.
When referring to a third person, honorifics are used except when referring to one 's family members while talking to a non-family member, or when referring to a member of one 's company while talking to a customer or someone from another company -- this is the uchi -- soto (in - group / out group) distinction. Honorifics are not used to refer to oneself, except when trying to be arrogant (ore - sama), to be cute (- chan), or sometimes when talking to young children to teach them how to address the speaker.
Use of honorifics is correlated with other forms of honorific speech in Japanese, such as use of the polite form (- masu, desu) versus the plain form -- using the plain form with a polite honorific (- san, - sama) can be jarring, for instance.
While these honorifics are solely used on proper nouns, these suffixes can turn common nouns into proper nouns when attached to the end of them. This can be seen on words such as 猫 ちゃん ("neko - chan '') which turns the common noun neko (cat) into a proper noun which would refer solely to that particular cat, while adding the honorific - chan can also mean cute or small.
When translating honorific suffixes into English, separate pronouns or adjectives must be used in order to convey characteristics to the person they are referencing as well. While some honorifics such as "- san '' are very frequently used due to their gender neutrality and very simple definition of polite unfamiliarity, other honorifics such as "- chan '' or "- kun '' are more specific as to the context in which they must be used as well as the implications they give off when attached to a person 's name. These implications can only be translated into English using either adjectives or adjective word phrases.
San (さん) (sometimes pronounced han (は ん) in Kansai dialect) is the most commonplace honorific and is a title of respect typically used between equals of any age. Although the closest analog in English are the honorifics "Mr. '', "Miss '', "Ms. '', or "Mrs. '', - san is almost universally added to a person 's name; "- san '' can be used in formal and informal contexts and for both genders. Because it is the most common honorific, it is also the most often used to convert common nouns into proper ones, as seen below.
San may be used in combination with workplace nouns, so a bookseller might be addressed or referred to as honya - san ("bookstore '' + san) and a butcher as nikuya - san ("butcher 's shop '' + san).
San is sometimes used with company names. For example, the offices or shop of a company called Kojima Denki might be referred to as "Kojima Denki - san '' by another nearby company. This may be seen on small maps often used in phone books and business cards in Japan, where the names of surrounding companies are written using san.
San can be attached to the names of animals or even inanimate objects. For example, a pet rabbit might be called usagi - san, and fish used for cooking can be referred to as sakana - san, but both would be considered childish (akin to "Mr. Fish '' or "Mr. Fishy '' to equivalate in English) and would be avoided in formal speech. Married people often refer to their spouse with san.
Due to - san being gender neutral and commonly used, it can be used to refer to people who are not close or whom one does not know. However, it may not be appropriate when using it on someone who is close or when it is clear that other honorifics should be used.
Online, Japanese gamers often append a numeral 3 to another player 's name to denote san (e.g., Taro3 conveys Taro - san), since the number three is also pronounced san.
Sama (様 (さま)) is a more respectful version for people of a higher rank than oneself or divine, toward one 's guests or customers (such as a sports venue announcer addressing members of the audience), and sometimes toward people one greatly admires. It is seemingly said to be the origin word for "- san '' but there is no major evidence otherwise. Deities such as the native Shinto kami and the Christian God, are referred to as kami - sama, meaning "Revered spirit - sama ''. When used to refer to oneself, sama expresses extreme arrogance (or self - effacing irony), as in praising one 's self to be of a higher rank, as with ore - sama (俺 様, "my esteemed self '').
Sama customarily follows the addressee 's name on postal packages and letters and in business email.
Sama also appears in such set phrases as omachidō sama ("thank you for waiting ''), gochisō sama ("thank you for the meal ''), or otsukare sama ("thank you for a good job '').
With the exception of the Emperor of Japan, sama can be used to informally address the Empress and other members of the Imperial Family. The Emperor is, however, always addressed as Heika (Your Majesty). (See "Royal and official titles '' below).
Kun (君 (くん)) is generally used by people of senior status addressing or referring to those of junior status, by anyone addressing or it can be used when referring to men in general, male children or male teenagers, or among male friends. It can be used by males or females when addressing a male to whom they are emotionally attached, or who they have known for a long time. Although it may seem rude in workplaces, the suffix is also used by juniors when referring to seniors in both academic situations and workplaces, more typically when the two people are associated.
Although kun is generally used for boys, it is not a hard rule. For example, kun can be used to name a close personal friend or family member of any gender. In business settings, young female employees are addressed as kun by older males of senior status. It can be used by male teachers addressing their female students.
Kun can mean different things depending on the gender. Kun for females is a more respectful honorific than chan, which implies childlike cuteness. Kun is not only used to address females formally; it can also be used for a very close friend or family member. Calling a female kun is not insulting, and can also mean that the person is respected, although that is not the normal implication. Rarely, sisters with the same name, such as "Miku '', may be differentiated by calling one "Miku - chan '' and the other "Miku - san '' or "- sama '', and on some occasions "- kun ''. Chan and kun occasionally mean similar things. General use of kun for females implies respectful endearment, and that the person being referred to is sweet and kind.
In the National Diet (Legislature), the Speaker of the House uses kun when addressing Diet members and ministers. An exception was when Takako Doi was the Speaker of the lower house, where she used the title san.
Chan (ちゃん) is a diminutive suffix; it expresses that the speaker finds a person endearing. It is seemingly said to have come from a "cute '' pronouncing of - san (in Japanese, replacing s sounds with ch sounds is seen as cute), although there is no evidence otherwise as this suffix has been used since the early days of ancient Japan. In general, chan is used for babies, young children, close friends, grandparents and sometimes female adolescents. It may also be used towards cute animals, lovers, close friends, or a youthful woman. Using chan with a superior 's name is considered to be condescending and rude.
Although traditionally, honorifics are not applied to oneself, some people adopt the childlike affectation of referring to themselves in the third person using chan (childlike because it suggests that one has not learned to distinguish between names used for oneself and names used by others). For example, a young woman named Kanako might call herself Kanako - chan rather than using a first person pronoun. "Chan '' is only used between people who have known each other for a long time or who are of the same gender. Otherwise, using this for someone, especially adults, only known for a short period of time, can be seen as offensive.
Tan (たん) is an even more cute or affectionate variant of "chan ''. It evokes a small child 's mispronunciation of that form of address, or baby talk -- similar to how, for example, a speaker of English might use "widdle '' instead of "little '' when speaking to a baby. Moe anthropomorphisms are often labeled as "- tan '', e.g., the commercial mascot Habanero - tan, the manga figure Afghanis - tan or the OS - tans representing operating systems.
Bō (坊 (ぼう)) is another diminutive that expresses endearment. Like "chan '', it is used for babies or young children, but is exclusively used for boys instead of girls.
Senpai (先輩 (せん ぱい)) is used to address or refer to one 's elder colleagues in a school, dojo, or sports club. So at school, the students in higher grades than oneself are senpai. Teachers are not senpai, but rather they are "Sensei. '' Neither are students of the same or lower grade: they are referred to as kōhai. In a business environment, those with more experience are senpai.
Sensei (先生 (せんせい)) (literally meaning "former - born '') is used to refer to or address teachers, doctors, politicians, lawyers, and other authority figures. It is used to show respect to someone who has achieved a certain level of mastery in an art form or some other skill, such as accomplished novelists, musicians, artists and martial artists. In Japanese martial arts, sensei typically refers to someone who is the head of a dojo. As with senpai, sensei can be used not only as a suffix, but also as a stand - alone title. The term is not generally used when addressing a person with very high academic expertise; the one used instead is hakase (博士 (はかせ)) (lit. "Doctor '' or "PhD '').
Sensei can be used fawningly, and it can also be employed sarcastically to ridicule such fawning. The Japanese media invoke it (rendered in katakana, akin to scare quotes or italics in English) to highlight the megalomania of those who allow themselves to be sycophantically addressed with the term.
Shi (氏 (し)) is used in formal writing, and sometimes in very formal speech, for referring to a person who is unfamiliar to the speaker, typically a person known through publications whom the speaker has never actually met. For example, the shi title is common in the speech of newsreaders. It is preferred in legal documents, academic journals, and certain other formal written styles. Once a person 's name has been used with shi, the person can be referred to with shi alone, without the name, as long as there is only one person being referred to.
It is common to use a job title after someone 's name, instead of using a general honorific. For example, an athlete (選手, senshu) named Ichiro might be referred to as "Ichiro - senshu '' rather than "Ichiro - san '', and a master carpenter (棟梁, tōryō) named Suzuki might be referred to as "Suzuki - tōryō '' rather than "Suzuki - san ''.
In a business setting, it is common to refer to people using their rank, especially for positions of authority, such as department chief (部長, buchō) or company president (社長, shachō). Within one 's own company or when speaking of another company, title + san is used, so a president is shachō - san. When speaking of one 's own company to a customer or another company, the title is used by itself or attached to a name, so a department chief named Suzuki is referred to as Buchō or Suzuki - buchō.
However, when referring to oneself, the title is used indirectly, as using it directly is perceived as arrogant. Thus, a department chief named Suzuki will introduce themselves as 部長 の 鈴木 Buchō - no - Suzuki, rather than × 鈴木 部長 * Suzuki - buchō.
Convicted and suspected criminals were once referred to without any title, but now an effort is made to distinguish between suspects (容疑 者, yōgisha), defendants (被告, hikoku), and convicts (受刑 者, jukeisha), so as not to presume guilt before anything has been proven. These titles can be used by themselves or attached to names.
However, although "suspect '' and "defendant '' began as neutral descriptions, they have become derogatory over time. When actor and musician Gorō Inagaki was arrested for a traffic accident in 2001, some media referred him with the newly made title menbā (メンバー), originating from the English word member, to avoid use of yōgisha (容疑 者, suspect). But in addition to being criticized as an unnatural term, this title also became derogatory almost instantly -- an example of euphemism treadmill.
There are several different words for "our company '' and "your company ''. "Our company '' can be expressed with the humble heisha (弊社, "clumsy / poor company '') or the neutral jisha (自社, "our own company ''), and "your company '' can be expressed with the honorific kisha (貴社, "noble company '', used in writing) or onsha (御社, "honorable company '', used in speech). Additionally, the neutral tōsha (当社, "this company '') can refer to either the speaker 's or the listener 's company. All of these titles are used by themselves, not attached to names.
When mentioning a company 's name, it is considered important to include its status depending on whether it is incorporated (株式 会社, kabushikigaisha) or limited (有限 会社, yūgen gaisha). These are often abbreviated as 株 and 有 respectively.
Tono (殿 (と の)), pronounced dono (どの) when attached to a name, roughly means "lord '' or "master ''. It does not equate noble status; rather it is a term akin to "milord '' or French "monseigneur '', and lies below sama in level of respect. This title is not commonly used in daily conversation, but it is still used in some types of written business correspondence, as well as on certificates and awards, and in written correspondence in tea ceremonies. It is also used to indicate that the person referred to has the same (high) rank as the referrer, yet commands respect from the speaker.
No kimi (の 君) is another suffix coming from Japanese history. It was used to denominate Lords and Ladies in the Court, especially during the Heian period. The most famous example is the Prince Hikaru Genji, protagonist of The Tale of Genji who was called "Hikaru no Kimi "(光 の 君). Nowadays, this suffix can be used as a metaphor for someone who behaves like a prince or princess from ancient times, but its use is very rare. Its main usage remains in historical dramas.
This suffix also appears when addressing lovers in letters from a man to a woman, as in, "Murasaki no kimi '' or "My beloved Ms. Murasaki ''.
Ue (上) literally means "above '', and denotes a high level of respect. While its use is no longer common, it is still seen in constructions like chichi - ue (父上), haha - ue (母上) and ane - ue (姉 上), reverent terms for "father '', "mother '' and "sister '' respectively. Receipts that do not require specification of the payer 's name are often filled in with ue - sama.
Martial artists often address their teachers as sensei. Junior and senior students are organized via a senpai / kōhai system. Also in some systems of karate, O - Sensei is the title of the (deceased) head of the style. This is how the founder of Aikido, Morihei Ueshiba is often referred to by practitioners of that art. The ' O ' prefix itself, translating roughly as "great (er) '' or "major, '' is also an honorific.
Various titles are also employed to refer to senior instructors. Which titles are used depends on the particular licensing organization.
Shōgō (称号, "title '', "name '', "degree '') are martial arts titles developed by the Dai Nippon Butoku Kai, the Kokusai Budoin and the International Martial Arts Federation Europe. Many organizations in Japan award such titles upon a sincere study and dedication of Japanese martial arts. The below mentioned titles are awarded after observing a person 's martial arts skills, his / her ability of teaching and understanding of martial arts and the most importantly as a role model and the perfection of one 's character.
Levels of black belts sometimes used as martial arts titles
In informal speech, some Japanese people may use contrived suffixes in place of normal honorifics. This is essentially a form of wordplay, with suffixes being chosen for their sound, or for friendly or scornful connotations. Although the range of such suffixes that might be coined is limitless, some have gained such widespread usage that the boundary between established honorifics and wordplay has become a little blurred. Examples of such suffixes include variations on chan (see below), bee (scornful), and rin (friendly). Note that unlike a proper honorific, use of such suffixes is governed largely by how they sound in conjunction with a particular name, and on the effect the speaker is trying to achieve.
Some honorifics have baby talk versions -- mispronunciations stereotypically associated with small children and cuteness, and more frequently used in popular entertainment than in everyday speech. The baby talk version of sama is chama (ちゃ ま).
There are even baby talk versions of baby talk versions. Chan can be changed to tan (たん), and less often, chama (ちゃ ま) to tama (たま).
Words for family members have two different forms in Japanese. When referring to one 's own family members while speaking to a non-family - member, neutral, descriptive nouns are used, such as haha (母) for "mother '' and ani (兄) for "older brother ''. When addressing one 's own family members or addressing or referring to someone else 's family members, honorific forms are used. Using the suffix - san, as is most common, "mother '' becomes okāsan (お母さん) and "older brother '' becomes oniisan (お 兄さん). The honorifics - chan and - sama may also be used instead of - san, to express a higher level of closeness or reverence, respectively.
The general rule is that a younger family member (e.g., a young brother) addresses an older family member (e.g., a big brother) using an honorific form, while the older family member calls the younger one only by name.
The honorific forms are:
The initial o - (お) in these nouns is itself an honorific prefix. In more casual situations the speaker may omit this prefix but will keep the suffix.
|
it is evident from these events that in the early years of the revolutionary war | United States Declaration of Independence - Wikipedia
The United States Declaration of Independence is the statement adopted by the Second Continental Congress meeting at the Pennsylvania State House (Independence Hall) in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American colonies, then at war with the Kingdom of Great Britain, regarded themselves as thirteen independent sovereign states, no longer under British rule. These states would found a new nation -- the United States of America. John Adams was a leader in pushing for independence, which was passed on July 2 with no opposing vote cast. A committee of five had already drafted the formal declaration, to be ready when Congress voted on independence.
John Adams persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress would edit to produce the final version. The Declaration was ultimately a formal explanation of why Congress had voted on July 2 to declare independence from Great Britain, more than a year after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. The next day, Adams wrote to his wife Abigail: "The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America. '' But Independence Day is actually celebrated on July 4, the date that the Declaration of Independence was approved.
After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms. It was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for this printing has been lost, and may have been a copy in Thomas Jefferson 's hand. Jefferson 's original draft, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, and Jefferson 's notes of changes made by Congress, are preserved at the Library of Congress. The best - known version of the Declaration is a signed copy that is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D.C., and which is popularly regarded as the official document. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19 and signed primarily on August 2.
The sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. The Declaration justified the independence of the United States by listing colonial grievances against King George III, and by asserting certain natural and legal rights, including a right of revolution. Having served its original purpose in announcing independence, references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his rhetoric (as in the Gettysburg Address of 1863) and his policies. Since then, it has become a well - known statement on human rights, particularly its second sentence:
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
This has been called "one of the best - known sentences in the English language '', containing "the most potent and consequential words in American history ''. The passage came to represent a moral standard to which the United States should strive. This view was notably promoted by Abraham Lincoln, who considered the Declaration to be the foundation of his political philosophy and argued that it is a statement of principles through which the United States Constitution should be interpreted.
The U.S. Declaration of Independence inspired many other similar documents in other countries, the first being the 1789 Declaration of Flanders issued during the Brabant Revolution in the Austrian Netherlands (modern - day Belgium). It also served as the primary model for numerous declarations of independence across Europe and Latin America, as well as Africa (Liberia) and Oceania (New Zealand) during the first half of the 19th century.
Believe me, dear Sir: there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose; and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America.
By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, the Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain had been at war for more than a year. Relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of 1767. Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire.
Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire. The colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a larger divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliament 's authority in the colonies. The orthodox British view, dating from the Glorious Revolution of 1688, was that Parliament was the supreme authority throughout the empire, and so, by definition, anything that Parliament did was constitutional. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, not even Parliament. After the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all. Anticipating the arrangement of the British Commonwealth, by 1774 American writers such as Samuel Adams, James Wilson, and Thomas Jefferson were arguing that Parliament was the legislature of Great Britain only, and that the colonies, which had their own legislatures, were connected to the rest of the empire only through their allegiance to the Crown.
The issue of Parliament 's authority in the colonies became a crisis after Parliament passed the Coercive Acts (known as the Intolerable Acts in the colonies) in 1774 to punish the Province of Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Many colonists saw the Coercive Acts as a violation of the British Constitution and thus a threat to the liberties of all of British America. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia to coordinate a response. Congress organized a boycott of British goods and petitioned the king for repeal of the acts. These measures were unsuccessful because King George and the ministry of Prime Minister Lord North were determined not to retreat on the question of parliamentary supremacy. As the king wrote to North in November 1774, "blows must decide whether they are to be subject to this country or independent ''.
Most colonists still hoped for reconciliation with Great Britain, even after fighting began in the American Revolutionary War at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. The Second Continental Congress convened at the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia in May 1775, and some delegates hoped for eventual independence, but no one yet advocated declaring it. Many colonists no longer believed that Parliament had any sovereignty over them, yet they still professed loyalty to King George, who they hoped would intercede on their behalf. They were disappointed in late 1775, when the king rejected Congress 's second petition, issued a Proclamation of Rebellion, and announced before Parliament on October 26 that he was considering "friendly offers of foreign assistance '' to suppress the rebellion. A pro-American minority in Parliament warned that the government was driving the colonists toward independence.
Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense was published in January 1776, just as it became clear in the colonies that the king was not inclined to act as a conciliator. Paine had only recently arrived in the colonies from England, and he argued in favor of colonial independence, advocating republicanism as an alternative to monarchy and hereditary rule. Common Sense introduced no new ideas and probably had little direct effect on Congress 's thinking about independence; its importance was in stimulating public debate on a topic that few had previously dared to openly discuss. Public support for separation from Great Britain steadily increased after the publication of Paine 's enormously popular pamphlet.
Some colonists still held out hope for reconciliation, but developments in early 1776 further strengthened public support for independence. In February 1776, colonists learned of Parliament 's passage of the Prohibitory Act, which established a blockade of American ports and declared American ships to be enemy vessels. John Adams, a strong supporter of independence, believed that Parliament had effectively declared American independence before Congress had been able to. Adams labeled the Prohibitory Act the "Act of Independency '', calling it "a compleat Dismemberment of the British Empire ''. Support for declaring independence grew even more when it was confirmed that King George had hired German mercenaries to use against his American subjects.
Despite this growing popular support for independence, Congress lacked the clear authority to declare it. Delegates had been elected to Congress by thirteen different governments, which included extralegal conventions, ad hoc committees, and elected assemblies, and they were bound by the instructions given to them. Regardless of their personal opinions, delegates could not vote to declare independence unless their instructions permitted such an action. Several colonies, in fact, expressly prohibited their delegates from taking any steps towards separation from Great Britain, while other delegations had instructions that were ambiguous on the issue. As public sentiment grew for separation from Great Britain, advocates of independence sought to have the Congressional instructions revised. For Congress to declare independence, a majority of delegations would need authorization to vote for independence, and at least one colonial government would need to specifically instruct (or grant permission for) its delegation to propose a declaration of independence in Congress. Between April and July 1776, a "complex political war '' was waged to bring this about.
In the campaign to revise Congressional instructions, many Americans formally expressed their support for separation from Great Britain in what were effectively state and local declarations of independence. Historian Pauline Maier identifies more than ninety such declarations that were issued throughout the Thirteen Colonies from April to July 1776. These "declarations '' took a variety of forms. Some were formal written instructions for Congressional delegations, such as the Halifax Resolves of April 12, with which North Carolina became the first colony to explicitly authorize its delegates to vote for independence. Others were legislative acts that officially ended British rule in individual colonies, such as the Rhode Island legislature declaring its independence from Great Britain on May 4, the first colony to do so. Many "declarations '' were resolutions adopted at town or county meetings that offered support for independence. A few came in the form of jury instructions, such as the statement issued on April 23, 1776 by Chief Justice William Henry Drayton of South Carolina: "the law of the land authorizes me to declare... that George the Third, King of Great Britain... has no authority over us, and we owe no obedience to him. '' Most of these declarations are now obscure, having been overshadowed by the declaration approved by Congress on July 2, and signed July 4.
Some colonies held back from endorsing independence. Resistance was centered in the middle colonies of New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Advocates of independence saw Pennsylvania as the key; if that colony could be converted to the pro-independence cause, it was believed that the others would follow. On May 1, however, opponents of independence retained control of the Pennsylvania Assembly in a special election that had focused on the question of independence. In response, Congress passed a resolution on May 10 which had been promoted by John Adams and Richard Henry Lee, calling on colonies without a "government sufficient to the exigencies of their affairs '' to adopt new governments. The resolution passed unanimously, and was even supported by Pennsylvania 's John Dickinson, the leader of the anti-independence faction in Congress, who believed that it did not apply to his colony.
As was the custom, Congress appointed a committee to draft a preamble to explain the purpose of the resolution. John Adams wrote the preamble, which stated that because King George had rejected reconciliation and was hiring foreign mercenaries to use against the colonies, "it is necessary that the exercise of every kind of authority under the said crown should be totally suppressed ''. Adams 's preamble was meant to encourage the overthrow of the governments of Pennsylvania and Maryland, which were still under proprietary governance. Congress passed the preamble on May 15 after several days of debate, but four of the middle colonies voted against it, and the Maryland delegation walked out in protest. Adams regarded his May 15 preamble effectively as an American declaration of independence, although a formal declaration would still have to be made.
On the same day that Congress passed Adams 's radical preamble, the Virginia Convention set the stage for a formal Congressional declaration of independence. On May 15, the Convention instructed Virginia 's congressional delegation "to propose to that respectable body to declare the United Colonies free and independent States, absolved from all allegiance to, or dependence upon, the Crown or Parliament of Great Britain ''. In accordance with those instructions, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presented a three - part resolution to Congress on June 7. The motion was seconded by John Adams, calling on Congress to declare independence, form foreign alliances, and prepare a plan of colonial confederation. The part of the resolution relating to declaring independence read:
Resolved, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.
Lee 's resolution met with resistance in the ensuing debate. Opponents of the resolution conceded that reconciliation was unlikely with Great Britain, while arguing that declaring independence was premature, and that securing foreign aid should take priority. Advocates of the resolution countered that foreign governments would not intervene in an internal British struggle, and so a formal declaration of independence was needed before foreign aid was possible. All Congress needed to do, they insisted, was to "declare a fact which already exists ''. Delegates from Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, and New York were still not yet authorized to vote for independence, however, and some of them threatened to leave Congress if the resolution were adopted. Congress, therefore, voted on June 10 to postpone further discussion of Lee 's resolution for three weeks. Until then, Congress decided that a committee should prepare a document announcing and explaining independence in the event that Lee 's resolution was approved when it was brought up again in July.
Support for a Congressional declaration of independence was consolidated in the final weeks of June 1776. On June 14, the Connecticut Assembly instructed its delegates to propose independence and, the following day, the legislatures of New Hampshire and Delaware authorized their delegates to declare independence. In Pennsylvania, political struggles ended with the dissolution of the colonial assembly, and a new Conference of Committees under Thomas McKean authorized Pennsylvania 's delegates to declare independence on June 18. The Provincial Congress of New Jersey had been governing the province since January 1776; they resolved on June 15 that Royal Governor William Franklin was "an enemy to the liberties of this country '' and had him arrested. On June 21, they chose new delegates to Congress and empowered them to join in a declaration of independence.
Only Maryland and New York had yet to authorize independence towards the end of June. Previously, Maryland 's delegates had walked out when the Continental Congress adopted Adams 's radical May 15 preamble, and had sent to the Annapolis Convention for instructions. On May 20, the Annapolis Convention rejected Adams 's preamble, instructing its delegates to remain against independence. But Samuel Chase went to Maryland and, thanks to local resolutions in favor of independence, was able to get the Annapolis Convention to change its mind on June 28. Only the New York delegates were unable to get revised instructions. When Congress had been considering the resolution of independence on June 8, the New York Provincial Congress told the delegates to wait. But on June 30, the Provincial Congress evacuated New York as British forces approached, and would not convene again until July 10. This meant that New York 's delegates would not be authorized to declare independence until after Congress had made its decision.
Political maneuvering was setting the stage for an official declaration of independence even while a document was being written to explain the decision. On June 11, 1776, Congress appointed a "Committee of Five '' to draft a declaration, consisting of John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, Robert R. Livingston of New York, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut. The committee left no minutes, so there is some uncertainty about how the drafting process proceeded; contradictory accounts were written many years later by Jefferson and Adams, too many years to be regarded as entirely reliable -- although their accounts are frequently cited. What is certain is that the committee discussed the general outline which the document should follow and decided that Jefferson would write the first draft. The committee in general, and Jefferson in particular, thought that Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson and promised to consult with him personally. Considering Congress 's busy schedule, Jefferson probably had limited time for writing over the next seventeen days, and likely wrote the draft quickly. He then consulted the others and made some changes, and then produced another copy incorporating these alterations. The committee presented this copy to the Congress on June 28, 1776. The title of the document was "A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled. ''
Congress ordered that the draft "lie on the table ''. For two days, Congress methodically edited Jefferson 's primary document, shortening it by a fourth, removing unnecessary wording, and improving sentence structure. They removed Jefferson 's assertion that Britain had forced slavery on the colonies in order to moderate the document and appease persons in Britain who supported the Revolution. Jefferson wrote that Congress had "mangled '' his draft version, but the Declaration that was finally produced was "the majestic document that inspired both contemporaries and posterity, '' in the words of his biographer John Ferling.
Congress tabled the draft of the declaration on Monday, July 1 and resolved itself into a committee of the whole, with Benjamin Harrison of Virginia presiding, and they resumed debate on Lee 's resolution of independence. John Dickinson made one last effort to delay the decision, arguing that Congress should not declare independence without first securing a foreign alliance and finalizing the Articles of Confederation. John Adams gave a speech in reply to Dickinson, restating the case for an immediate declaration.
A vote was taken after a long day of speeches, each colony casting a single vote, as always. The delegation for each colony numbered from two to seven members, and each delegation voted amongst themselves to determine the colony 's vote. Pennsylvania and South Carolina voted against declaring independence. The New York delegation abstained, lacking permission to vote for independence. Delaware cast no vote because the delegation was split between Thomas McKean (who voted yes) and George Read (who voted no). The remaining nine delegations voted in favor of independence, which meant that the resolution had been approved by the committee of the whole. The next step was for the resolution to be voted upon by Congress itself. Edward Rutledge of South Carolina was opposed to Lee 's resolution but desirous of unanimity, and he moved that the vote be postponed until the following day.
On July 2, South Carolina reversed its position and voted for independence. In the Pennsylvania delegation, Dickinson and Robert Morris abstained, allowing the delegation to vote three - to - two in favor of independence. The tie in the Delaware delegation was broken by the timely arrival of Caesar Rodney, who voted for independence. The New York delegation abstained once again since they were still not authorized to vote for independence, although they were allowed to do so a week later by the New York Provincial Congress. The resolution of independence had been adopted with twelve affirmative votes and one abstention. With this, the colonies had officially severed political ties with Great Britain.
John Adams predicted in a famous letter, written to his wife on the following day, that July 2 would become a great American holiday. He thought that the vote for independence would be commemorated; he did not foresee that Americans -- including himself -- would instead celebrate Independence Day on the date when the announcement of that act was finalized.
"I am apt to believe that (Independence Day) will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival. It ought to be commemorated, as the Day of Deliverance by solemn Acts of Devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more. ''
After voting in favor of the resolution of independence, Congress turned its attention to the committee 's draft of the declaration. Over several days of debate, they made a few changes in wording and deleted nearly a fourth of the text and, on July 4, 1776, the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved and sent to the printer for publication.
There is a distinct change in wording from this original broadside printing of the Declaration and the final official engrossed copy. The word "unanimous '' was inserted as a result of a Congressional resolution passed on July 19, 1776:
Resolved, That the Declaration passed on the 4th, be fairly engrossed on parchment, with the title and stile of "The unanimous declaration of the thirteen United States of America, '' and that the same, when engrossed, be signed by every member of Congress.
Historian George Billias says:
The declaration is not divided into formal sections; but it is often discussed as consisting of five parts: introduction, preamble, indictment of King George III, denunciation of the British people, and conclusion.
Asserts as a matter of Natural Law the ability of a people to assume political independence; acknowledges that the grounds for such independence must be reasonable, and therefore explicable, and ought to be explained.
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature 's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
Outlines a general philosophy of government that justifies revolution when government harms natural rights.
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.
A bill of particulars documenting the king 's "repeated injuries and usurpations '' of the Americans ' rights and liberties.
Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness of his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.
He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
For protecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury:
For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:
For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies
For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.
In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
This section essentially finishes the case for independence. The conditions that justified revolution have been shown.
Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.
The signers assert that there exist conditions under which people must change their government, that the British have produced such conditions and, by necessity, the colonies must throw off political ties with the British Crown and become independent states. The conclusion contains, at its core, the Lee Resolution that had been passed on July 2.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
The first and most famous signature on the engrossed copy was that of John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress. Two future presidents (Thomas Jefferson and John Adams) and a father and great - grandfather of two other presidents (Benjamin Harrison) were among the signatories. Edward Rutledge (age 26) was the youngest signer, and Benjamin Franklin (age 70) was the oldest signer. The fifty - six signers of the Declaration represented the new states as follows (from north to south):
Historians have often sought to identify the sources that most influenced the words and political philosophy of the Declaration of Independence. By Jefferson 's own admission, the Declaration contained no original ideas, but was instead a statement of sentiments widely shared by supporters of the American Revolution. As he explained in 1825:
Neither aiming at originality of principle or sentiment, nor yet copied from any particular and previous writing, it was intended to be an expression of the American mind, and to give to that expression the proper tone and spirit called for by the occasion.
Jefferson 's most immediate sources were two documents written in June 1776: his own draft of the preamble of the Constitution of Virginia, and George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights. Ideas and phrases from both of these documents appear in the Declaration of Independence. They were, in turn, directly influenced by the 1689 English Declaration of Rights, which formally ended the reign of King James II. During the American Revolution, Jefferson and other Americans looked to the English Declaration of Rights as a model of how to end the reign of an unjust king. The Scottish Declaration of Arbroath (1320) and the Dutch Act of Abjuration (1581) have also been offered as models for Jefferson 's Declaration, but these models are now accepted by few scholars.
Jefferson wrote that a number of authors exerted a general influence on the words of the Declaration. English political theorist John Locke is usually cited as one of the primary influences, a man whom Jefferson called one of "the three greatest men that have ever lived ''. In 1922, historian Carl L. Becker wrote, "Most Americans had absorbed Locke 's works as a kind of political gospel; and the Declaration, in its form, in its phraseology, follows closely certain sentences in Locke 's second treatise on government. '' The extent of Locke 's influence on the American Revolution has been questioned by some subsequent scholars, however. Historian Ray Forrest Harvey argued in 1937 for the dominant influence of Swiss jurist Jean Jacques Burlamaqui, declaring that Jefferson and Locke were at "two opposite poles '' in their political philosophy, as evidenced by Jefferson 's use in the Declaration of Independence of the phrase "pursuit of happiness '' instead of "property ''. Other scholars emphasized the influence of republicanism rather than Locke 's classical liberalism. Historian Garry Wills argued that Jefferson was influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment, particularly Francis Hutcheson, rather than Locke, an interpretation that has been strongly criticized.
Legal historian John Phillip Reid has written that the emphasis on the political philosophy of the Declaration has been misplaced. The Declaration is not a philosophical tract about natural rights, argues Reid, but is instead a legal document -- an indictment against King George for violating the constitutional rights of the colonists. Historian David Armitage has argued that the Declaration was strongly influenced by de Vattel 's The Law of Nations, the dominant international law treatise of the period, and a book that Benjamin Franklin said was "continually in the hands of the members of our Congress ''. Armitage writes, "Vattel made independence fundamental to his definition of statehood ''; therefore, the primary purpose of the Declaration was "to express the international legal sovereignty of the United States ''. If the United States were to have any hope of being recognized by the European powers, the American revolutionaries first had to make it clear that they were no longer dependent on Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence does not have the force of law domestically, but nevertheless it may help to provide historical and legal clarity about the Constitution and other laws.
The Declaration became official when Congress voted for it on July 4; signatures of the delegates were not needed to make it official. The handwritten copy of the Declaration of Independence that was signed by Congress is dated July 4, 1776. The signatures of fifty - six delegates are affixed; however, the exact date when each person signed it has long been the subject of debate. Jefferson, Franklin, and Adams all wrote that the Declaration had been signed by Congress on July 4. But in 1796, signer Thomas McKean disputed that the Declaration had been signed on July 4, pointing out that some signers were not then present, including several who were not even elected to Congress until after that date.
The Declaration was transposed on paper, adopted by the Continental Congress, and signed by John Hancock, President of the Congress, on July 4, 1776, according to the 1911 record of events by the U.S. State Department under Secretary Philander C. Knox. On August 2, 1776, a parchment paper copy of the Declaration was signed by 56 persons. Many of these signers were not present when the original Declaration was adopted on July 4. Signer Matthew Thornton from New Hampshire was seated in the Continental Congress in November; he asked for and received the privilege of adding his signature at that time, and signed on November 4, 1776.
Historians have generally accepted McKean 's version of events, arguing that the famous signed version of the Declaration was created after July 19, and was not signed by Congress until August 2, 1776. In 1986, legal historian Wilfred Ritz argued that historians had misunderstood the primary documents and given too much credence to McKean, who had not been present in Congress on July 4. According to Ritz, about thirty - four delegates signed the Declaration on July 4, and the others signed on or after August 2. Historians who reject a July 4 signing maintain that most delegates signed on August 2, and that those eventual signers who were not present added their names later.
Two future U.S. presidents were among the signatories: Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. The most famous signature on the engrossed copy is that of John Hancock, who presumably signed first as President of Congress. Hancock 's large, flamboyant signature became iconic, and the term John Hancock emerged in the United States as an informal synonym for "signature ''. A commonly circulated but apocryphal account claims that, after Hancock signed, the delegate from Massachusetts commented, "The British ministry can read that name without spectacles. '' Another apocryphal report indicates that Hancock proudly declared, "There! I guess King George will be able to read that! ''
Various legends emerged years later about the signing of the Declaration, when the document had become an important national symbol. In one famous story, John Hancock supposedly said that Congress, having signed the Declaration, must now "all hang together '', and Benjamin Franklin replied: "Yes, we must indeed all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately. '' The quotation did not appear in print until more than fifty years after Franklin 's death.
The Syng inkstand used at the signing was also used at the signing of the United States Constitution in 1787.
After Congress approved the final wording of the Declaration on July 4, a handwritten copy was sent a few blocks away to the printing shop of John Dunlap. Through the night, Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides for distribution. Before long, the Declaration was read to audiences and reprinted in newspapers throughout the thirteen states. The first official public reading of the document was by John Nixon in the yard of Independence Hall on July 8; public readings also took place on that day in Trenton, New Jersey and Easton, Pennsylvania. A German translation of the Declaration was published in Philadelphia by July 9.
President of Congress John Hancock sent a broadside to General George Washington, instructing him to have it proclaimed "at the Head of the Army in the way you shall think it most proper ''. Washington had the Declaration read to his troops in New York City on July 9, with thousands of British troops on ships in the harbor. Washington and Congress hoped that the Declaration would inspire the soldiers, and encourage others to join the army. After hearing the Declaration, crowds in many cities tore down and destroyed signs or statues representing royal authority. An equestrian statue of King George in New York City was pulled down and the lead used to make musket balls.
British officials in North America sent copies of the Declaration to Great Britain. It was published in British newspapers beginning in mid-August, it had reached Florence and Warsaw by mid-September, and a German translation appeared in Switzerland by October. The first copy of the Declaration sent to France got lost, and the second copy arrived only in November 1776. It reached Portuguese America by Brazilian medical student "Vendek '' José Joaquim Maia e Barbalho, who had met with Thomas Jefferson in Nîmes.
The Spanish - American authorities banned the circulation of the Declaration, but it was widely transmitted and translated: by Venezuelan Manuel García de Sena, by Colombian Miguel de Pombo, by Ecuadorian Vicente Rocafuerte, and by New Englanders Richard Cleveland and William Shaler, who distributed the Declaration and the United States Constitution among creoles in Chile and Indians in Mexico in 1821. The North Ministry did not give an official answer to the Declaration, but instead secretly commissioned pamphleteer John Lind to publish a response entitled Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress. British Tories denounced the signers of the Declaration for not applying the same principles of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness '' to African Americans. Thomas Hutchinson, the former royal governor of Massachusetts, also published a rebuttal. These pamphlets challenged various aspects of the Declaration. Hutchinson argued that the American Revolution was the work of a few conspirators who wanted independence from the outset, and who had finally achieved it by inducing otherwise loyal colonists to rebel. Lind 's pamphlet had an anonymous attack on the concept of natural rights written by Jeremy Bentham, an argument that he repeated during the French Revolution. Both pamphlets asked how the American slaveholders in Congress could proclaim that "all men are created equal '' without freeing their own slaves.
William Whipple, a signer of the Declaration of Independence who had fought in the war, freed his slave Prince Whipple because of revolutionary ideals. In the postwar decades, other slaveholders also freed their slaves; from 1790 to 1810, the percentage of free blacks in the Upper South increased to 8.3 percent from less than one percent of the black population. All Northern states abolished slavery by 1804.
The official copy of the Declaration of Independence was the one printed on July 4, 1776 under Jefferson 's supervision. It was sent to the states and to the Army and was widely reprinted in newspapers. The slightly different "engrossed copy '' (shown at the top of this article) was made later for members to sign. The engrossed version is the one widely distributed in the 21st century. Note that the opening lines differ between the two versions.
The copy of the Declaration that was signed by Congress is known as the engrossed or parchment copy. It was probably engrossed (that is, carefully handwritten) by clerk Timothy Matlack. A facsimile made in 1823 has become the basis of most modern reproductions rather than the original because of poor conservation of the engrossed copy through the 19th century. In 1921, custody of the engrossed copy of the Declaration was transferred from the State Department to the Library of Congress, along with the United States Constitution. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the documents were moved for safekeeping to the United States Bullion Depository at Fort Knox in Kentucky, where they were kept until 1944. In 1952, the engrossed Declaration was transferred to the National Archives and is now on permanent display at the National Archives in the "Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom ''.
The document signed by Congress and enshrined in the National Archives is usually regarded as the Declaration of Independence, but historian Julian P. Boyd argued that the Declaration, like Magna Carta, is not a single document. Boyd considered the printed broadsides ordered by Congress to be official texts, as well. The Declaration was first published as a broadside that was printed the night of July 4 by John Dunlap of Philadelphia. Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides, of which 26 are known to survive. The 26th copy was discovered in The National Archives in England in 2009.
In 1777, Congress commissioned Mary Katherine Goddard to print a new broadside that listed the signers of the Declaration, unlike the Dunlap broadside. Nine copies of the Goddard broadside are known to still exist. A variety of broadsides printed by the states are also extant.
Several early handwritten copies and drafts of the Declaration have also been preserved. Jefferson kept a four - page draft that late in life he called the "original Rough draught ''. It is not known how many drafts Jefferson wrote prior to this one, and how much of the text was contributed by other committee members. In 1947, Boyd discovered a fragment of an earlier draft in Jefferson 's handwriting. Jefferson and Adams sent copies of the rough draft to friends, with slight variations.
During the writing process, Jefferson showed the rough draft to Adams and Franklin, and perhaps to other members of the drafting committee, who made a few more changes. Franklin, for example, may have been responsible for changing Jefferson 's original phrase "We hold these truths to be sacred and undeniable '' to "We hold these truths to be self - evident ''. Jefferson incorporated these changes into a copy that was submitted to Congress in the name of the committee. The copy that was submitted to Congress on June 28 has been lost, and was perhaps destroyed in the printing process, or destroyed during the debates in accordance with Congress 's secrecy rule.
On April 21, 2017 it was announced that a second engrossed copy had been discovered in an archive in Sussex, England. Named by its finders the "Sussex Declaration '', it differs from the National Archives copy (which the finders refer to as the "Matlack Declaration '') in that the signatures on it are not grouped by States. How it came to be in England is not yet known, but the finders believe that the randomness of the signatures points to an origin with signatory James Wilson, who had argued strongly that the Declaration was made not by the States but by the whole people.
The Declaration was neglected in the years immediately following the American Revolution, having served its original purpose in announcing the independence of the United States. Early celebrations of Independence Day largely ignored the Declaration, as did early histories of the Revolution. The act of declaring independence was considered important, whereas the text announcing that act attracted little attention. The Declaration was rarely mentioned during the debates about the United States Constitution, and its language was not incorporated into that document. George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights was more influential, and its language was echoed in state constitutions and state bills of rights more often than Jefferson 's words. "In none of these documents '', wrote Pauline Maier, "is there any evidence whatsoever that the Declaration of Independence lived in men 's minds as a classic statement of American political principles. ''
Many leaders of the French Revolution admired the Declaration of Independence but were also interested in the new American state constitutions. The inspiration and content of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) emerged largely from the ideals of the American Revolution. Its key drafts were prepared by Lafayette, working closely in Paris with his friend Thomas Jefferson. It also borrowed language from George Mason 's Virginia Declaration of Rights. The declaration also influenced the Russian Empire. The document had a particular impact on the Decembrist revolt and other Russian thinkers.
According to historian David Armitage, the Declaration of Independence did prove to be internationally influential, but not as a statement of human rights. Armitage argued that the Declaration was the first in a new genre of declarations of independence that announced the creation of new states.
Other French leaders were directly influenced by the text of the Declaration of Independence itself. The Manifesto of the Province of Flanders (1790) was the first foreign derivation of the Declaration; others include the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence (1811), the Liberian Declaration of Independence (1847), the declarations of secession by the Confederate States of America (1860 -- 61), and the Vietnamese Proclamation of Independence (1945). These declarations echoed the United States Declaration of Independence in announcing the independence of a new state, without necessarily endorsing the political philosophy of the original.
Other countries have used the Declaration as inspiration or have directly copied sections from it. These include the Haitian declaration of January 1, 1804 during the Haitian Revolution, the United Provinces of New Granada in 1811, the Argentine Declaration of Independence in 1816, the Chilean Declaration of Independence in 1818, Costa Rica in 1821, El Salvador in 1821, Guatemala in 1821, Honduras in (1821), Mexico in 1821, Nicaragua in 1821, Peru in 1821, Bolivian War of Independence in 1825, Uruguay in 1825, Ecuador in 1830, Colombia in 1831, Paraguay in 1842, Dominican Republic in 1844, Texas Declaration of Independence in March 1836, California Republic in November 1836, Hungarian Declaration of Independence in 1849, Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand in 1835, and the Czechoslovak declaration of independence from 1918 drafted in Washington D.C. with Gutzon Borglum among the drafters. The Rhodesian declaration of independence, ratified in November 1965, is based on the American one as well; however, it omits the phrases "all men are created equal '' and "the consent of the governed ''. The South Carolina declaration of secession from December 1860 also mentions the U.S. Declaration of Independence, though it, like the Rhodesian one, omits references to "all men are created equal '' and "consent of the governed ''.
Interest in the Declaration was revived in the 1790s with the emergence of the United States 's first political parties. Throughout the 1780s, few Americans knew or cared who wrote the Declaration. But in the next decade, Jeffersonian Republicans sought political advantage over their rival Federalists by promoting both the importance of the Declaration and Jefferson as its author. Federalists responded by casting doubt on Jefferson 's authorship or originality, and by emphasizing that independence was declared by the whole Congress, with Jefferson as just one member of the drafting committee. Federalists insisted that Congress 's act of declaring independence, in which Federalist John Adams had played a major role, was more important than the document announcing it. But this view faded away, like the Federalist Party itself, and, before long, the act of declaring independence became synonymous with the document.
A less partisan appreciation for the Declaration emerged in the years following the War of 1812, thanks to a growing American nationalism and a renewed interest in the history of the Revolution. In 1817, Congress commissioned John Trumbull 's famous painting of the signers, which was exhibited to large crowds before being installed in the Capitol. The earliest commemorative printings of the Declaration also appeared at this time, offering many Americans their first view of the signed document. Collective biographies of the signers were first published in the 1820s, giving birth to what Garry Wills called the "cult of the signers ''. In the years that followed, many stories about the writing and signing of the document were published for the first time.
When interest in the Declaration was revived, the sections that were most important in 1776 were no longer relevant: the announcement of the independence of the United States and the grievances against King George. But the second paragraph was applicable long after the war had ended, with its talk of self - evident truths and unalienable rights. The Constitution and the Bill of Rights lacked sweeping statements about rights and equality, and advocates of groups with grievances turned to the Declaration for support. Starting in the 1820s, variations of the Declaration were issued to proclaim the rights of workers, farmers, women, and others. In 1848, for example, the Seneca Falls Convention of women 's rights advocates declared that "all men and women are created equal ''.
A key step marking the evolution of the Declaration in the nation 's consciousness is the now well - known painting Declaration of Independence by Connecticut political painter John Trumbull. It was commissioned by the United States Congress in 1817. 12 - by - 18 - foot (3.7 by 5.5 m) in size, it has hung in the United States Capitol Rotunda since 1826. It has been often reproduced, and is the visual image most associated by Americans with the Declaration.
The painting is sometimes incorrectly described as the signing of the Declaration of Independence. In fact, the painting actually shows the five - man drafting committee presenting their draft of the Declaration to the Second Continental Congress, an event that took place on June 28, 1776, and not the signing of the document, which took place later.
The painting, the figures painted from life when possible, does not contain all the signers. Some had died and images could not be located. One figure had participated in the drafting but did not sign the final document; another refused to sign. In fact the membership of the Second Continental Congress changed as time passed, and the figures in the painting were never in the same room at the same time.
It is, however, an accurate depiction of the room in the building known today as Independence Hall, the centerpiece of the Independence National Historical Park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Trumbull visited the room, which was where the Second Continental Congress met, when researching for his painting. At the time it was the Pennsylvania State House.
The apparent contradiction between the claim that "all men are created equal '' and the existence of American slavery attracted comment when the Declaration was first published. As mentioned above, Jefferson had included a paragraph in his initial draft that strongly indicted Great Britain 's role in the slave trade, but this was deleted from the final version. Jefferson himself was a prominent Virginia slave holder, having owned hundreds of slaves. Referring to this seeming contradiction, English abolitionist Thomas Day wrote in a 1776 letter, "If there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves. ''
In the 19th century, the Declaration took on a special significance for the abolitionist movement. Historian Bertram Wyatt - Brown wrote that "abolitionists tended to interpret the Declaration of Independence as a theological as well as a political document ''. Abolitionist leaders Benjamin Lundy and William Lloyd Garrison adopted the "twin rocks '' of "the Bible and the Declaration of Independence '' as the basis for their philosophies. "As long as there remains a single copy of the Declaration of Independence, or of the Bible, in our land, '' wrote Garrison, "we will not despair. '' For radical abolitionists such as Garrison, the most important part of the Declaration was its assertion of the right of revolution. Garrison called for the destruction of the government under the Constitution, and the creation of a new state dedicated to the principles of the Declaration.
The controversial question of whether to add additional slave states to the United States coincided with the growing stature of the Declaration. The first major public debate about slavery and the Declaration took place during the Missouri controversy of 1819 to 1821. Antislavery Congressmen argued that the language of the Declaration indicated that the Founding Fathers of the United States had been opposed to slavery in principle, and so new slave states should not be added to the country. Proslavery Congressmen led by Senator Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina argued that the Declaration was not a part of the Constitution and therefore had no relevance to the question.
With the antislavery movement gaining momentum, defenders of slavery such as John Randolph and John C. Calhoun found it necessary to argue that the Declaration 's assertion that "all men are created equal '' was false, or at least that it did not apply to black people. During the debate over the Kansas -- Nebraska Act in 1853, for example, Senator John Pettit of Indiana argued that the statement "all men are created equal '' was not a "self - evident truth '' but a "self - evident lie ''. Opponents of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, including Salmon P. Chase and Benjamin Wade, defended the Declaration and what they saw as its antislavery principles.
The Declaration 's relationship to slavery was taken up in 1854 by Abraham Lincoln, a little - known former Congressman who idolized the Founding Fathers. Lincoln thought that the Declaration of Independence expressed the highest principles of the American Revolution, and that the Founding Fathers had tolerated slavery with the expectation that it would ultimately wither away. For the United States to legitimize the expansion of slavery in the Kansas - Nebraska Act, thought Lincoln, was to repudiate the principles of the Revolution. In his October 1854 Peoria speech, Lincoln said:
Nearly eighty years ago we began by declaring that all men are created equal; but now from that beginning we have run down to the other declaration, that for some men to enslave others is a "sacred right of self - government ''.... Our republican robe is soiled and trailed in the dust.... Let us repurify it. Let us re-adopt the Declaration of Independence, and with it, the practices, and policy, which harmonize with it.... If we do this, we shall not only have saved the Union: but we shall have saved it, as to make, and keep it, forever worthy of the saving.
The meaning of the Declaration was a recurring topic in the famed debates between Lincoln and Stephen Douglas in 1858. Douglas argued that the phrase "all men are created equal '' in the Declaration referred to white men only. The purpose of the Declaration, he said, had simply been to justify the independence of the United States, and not to proclaim the equality of any "inferior or degraded race ''. Lincoln, however, thought that the language of the Declaration was deliberately universal, setting a high moral standard to which the American republic should aspire. "I had thought the Declaration contemplated the progressive improvement in the condition of all men everywhere, '' he said. During the seventh and last joint debate with Steven Douglas at Alton, Illinois on October 15, 1858, Lincoln said about the declaration:
I think the authors of that notable instrument intended to include all men, but they did not mean to declare all men equal in all respects. They did not mean to say all men were equal in color, size, intellect, moral development, or social capacity. They defined with tolerable distinctness in what they did consider all men created equal -- equal in "certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. '' This they said, and this they meant. They did not mean to assert the obvious untruth that all were then actually enjoying that equality, or yet that they were about to confer it immediately upon them. In fact, they had no power to confer such a boon. They meant simply to declare the right, so that the enforcement of it might follow as fast as circumstances should permit. They meant to set up a standard maxim for free society which should be familiar to all, constantly looked to, constantly labored for, and even, though never perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby constantly spreading and deepening its influence, and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people, of all colors, everywhere.
According to Pauline Maier, Douglas 's interpretation was more historically accurate, but Lincoln 's view ultimately prevailed. "In Lincoln 's hands, '' wrote Maier, "the Declaration of Independence became first and foremost a living document '' with "a set of goals to be realized over time ''.
Like Daniel Webster, James Wilson, and Joseph Story before him, Lincoln argued that the Declaration of Independence was a founding document of the United States, and that this had important implications for interpreting the Constitution, which had been ratified more than a decade after the Declaration. The Constitution did not use the word "equality '', yet Lincoln believed that the concept that "all men are created equal '' remained a part of the nation 's founding principles. He famously expressed this belief in the opening sentence of his 1863 Gettysburg Address: "Four score and seven years ago (i.e. in 1776) our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. ''
Lincoln 's view of the Declaration became influential, seeing it as a moral guide to interpreting the Constitution. "For most people now, '' wrote Garry Wills in 1992, "the Declaration means what Lincoln told us it means, as a way of correcting the Constitution itself without overthrowing it. '' Admirers of Lincoln such as Harry V. Jaffa praised this development. Critics of Lincoln, notably Willmoore Kendall and Mel Bradford, argued that Lincoln dangerously expanded the scope of the national government and violated states ' rights by reading the Declaration into the Constitution.
In July 1848, the first woman 's rights convention, the Seneca Falls Convention, was held in Seneca Falls, New York. The convention was organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Mary Ann McClintock, and Jane Hunt. In their "Declaration of Sentiments '', patterned on the Declaration of Independence, the convention members demanded social and political equality for women. Their motto was that "All men and women are created equal '' and the convention demanded suffrage for women. The suffrage movement was supported by William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass.
The adoption of the Declaration of Independence was dramatized in the 1969 Tony Award -- winning musical 1776, and the 1972 movie of the same name, as well as in the 2008 television miniseries John Adams.
The Declaration was chosen to become the first digitized text (1971).
Since 1976 (the United States Bicentennial), Trumbull 's Declaration of Independence has been used on the back of the United States two - dollar bill.
In 1984, the Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration was dedicated in Constitution Gardens on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., where the signatures of all the original signers are carved in stone with their names, places of residence, and occupations.
The new One World Trade Center building in New York City (2014) is 1776 feet high, to symbolize the year that the Declaration of Independence was signed.
|
when did we drop the first atomic bomb | Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki - wikipedia
Hiroshima:
Nagasaki:
Southeast Asia
Southwest Pacific
North America
Japan
Manchuria
During the final stage of World War II, the United States dropped nuclear weapons on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively. The United States had dropped the bombs with the consent of the United Kingdom as outlined in the Quebec Agreement. The two bombings killed at least 129,000 people (most of whom were civilians) and remain the only use of nuclear weapons in the history of warfare.
In the final year of the war, the Allies prepared for what was anticipated to be a very costly invasion of the Japanese mainland. This undertaking was preceded by a U.S. conventional and firebombing campaign that destroyed 67 Japanese cities. The war in Europe had concluded when Germany signed its instrument of surrender on May 8, 1945, which was eight days after Adolf Hitler committed suicide. The Japanese were facing the same fate but refused to accept the Allies ' demands for unconditional surrender, and the war in the Pacific Theatre continued. The Allies called for the unconditional surrender of the Imperial Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26, 1945 -- the alternative being "prompt and utter destruction ''. The Japanese ignored the ultimatum and the war continued.
By August 1945, the Allies ' Manhattan Project had produced two types of atomic bomb, and the 509th Composite Group of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) was equipped with the specialized Silverplate version of the Boeing B - 29 Superfortress that could deliver them from Tinian in the Mariana Islands. Orders for atomic bombs to be used on four Japanese cities were issued on July 25. On August 6, the U.S. dropped a uranium gun - type (Little Boy) bomb on Hiroshima, and American President Harry S. Truman called for Japan 's surrender, warning it to "expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth. '' Three days later, on August 9, a plutonium implosion - type (Fat Man) bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. Within the first two to four months following the bombings, the acute effects of the atomic bombings had killed 90,000 -- 146,000 people in Hiroshima and 39,000 -- 80,000 in Nagasaki; roughly half of the deaths in each city occurred on the first day. During the following months, large numbers died from the effect of burns, radiation sickness, and other injuries, compounded by illness and malnutrition. In both cities, most of the dead were civilians, although Hiroshima had a sizable military garrison.
Japan announced its surrender to the Allies on August 15, six days after the bombing of Nagasaki and the Soviet Union 's declaration of war. On September 2, the Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender, effectively ending World War II. The justification for the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki is still debated to this day.
In 1945, the Pacific War between the Empire of Japan and the Allies entered its fourth year. The Japanese fought fiercely, ensuring that the Allied victory would come at an enormous cost. The 1.25 million battle casualties that were incurred by the United States in World War II included both military personnel killed in action and wounded in action. Nearly one million of the casualties occurred during the last year of the war, from June 1944 to June 1945. In December 1944, American battle casualties hit an all - time monthly high of 88,000 as a result of the German Ardennes Offensive. In the Pacific, the Allies returned to the Philippines, recaptured Burma, and invaded Borneo. Offensives were undertaken to reduce the Japanese forces remaining in Bougainville, New Guinea and the Philippines. In April 1945, American forces landed on Okinawa, where heavy fighting continued until June. Along the way, the ratio of Japanese to American casualties dropped from 5: 1 in the Philippines to 2: 1 on Okinawa.
Although some Japanese soldiers were taken prisoner, most fought until they were killed or committed suicide. Nearly 99 % of the 21,000 defenders of Iwo Jima were killed. Of the 117,000 Japanese troops defending Okinawa in April -- June 1945, 94 % were killed. American military leaders used these figures to estimate high casualties among American soldiers in the planned invasion of Japan.
As the Allies advanced towards Japan, conditions became steadily worse for the Japanese people. Japan 's merchant fleet declined from 5,250,000 gross tons in 1941 to 1,560,000 tons in March 1945, and 557,000 tons in August 1945. Lack of raw materials forced the Japanese war economy into a steep decline after the middle of 1944. The civilian economy, which had slowly deteriorated throughout the war, reached disastrous levels by the middle of 1945. The loss of shipping also affected the fishing fleet, and the 1945 catch was only 22 % of that in 1941. The 1945 rice harvest was the worst since 1909, and hunger and malnutrition became widespread. U.S. industrial production was overwhelmingly superior to Japan 's. By 1943, the U.S. produced almost 100,000 aircraft a year, compared to Japan 's production of 70,000 for the entire war. By the middle of 1944, the U.S. had almost a hundred aircraft carriers in the Pacific, far more than Japan 's twenty - five for the entire war. In February 1945, Prince Fumimaro Konoe advised the Emperor Hirohito that defeat was inevitable, and urged him to abdicate.
Even before the surrender of Nazi Germany on May 8, 1945, plans were underway for the largest operation of the Pacific War, Operation Downfall, the invasion of Japan. The operation had two parts: Operation Olympic and Operation Coronet. Set to begin in October 1945, Olympic involved a series of landings by the U.S. Sixth Army intended to capture the southern third of the southernmost main Japanese island, Kyūshū. Operation Olympic was to be followed in March 1946 by Operation Coronet, the capture of the Kantō Plain, near Tokyo on the main Japanese island of Honshū by the U.S. First, Eighth and Tenth Armies, as well as a Commonwealth Corps made up of Australian, British and Canadian divisions. The target date was chosen to allow for Olympic to complete its objectives, for troops to be redeployed from Europe, and the Japanese winter to pass.
Japan 's geography made this invasion plan obvious to the Japanese; they were able to predict the Allied invasion plans accurately and thus adjust their defensive plan, Operation Ketsugō, accordingly. The Japanese planned an all - out defense of Kyūshū, with little left in reserve for any subsequent defense operations. Four veteran divisions were withdrawn from the Kwantung Army in Manchuria in March 1945 to strengthen the forces in Japan, and 45 new divisions were activated between February and May 1945. Most were immobile formations for coastal defense, but 16 were high quality mobile divisions. In all, there were 2.3 million Japanese Army troops prepared to defend the home islands, backed by a civilian militia of 28 million men and women. Casualty predictions varied widely, but were extremely high. The Vice Chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff, Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi, predicted up to 20 million Japanese deaths.
A study from June 15, 1945, by the Joint War Plans Committee, who provided planning information to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, estimated that Olympic would result in between 130,000 and 220,000 U.S. casualties, of which U.S. dead would be in the range from 25,000 to 46,000. Delivered on June 15, 1945, after insight gained from the Battle of Okinawa, the study noted Japan 's inadequate defenses due to the very effective sea blockade and the American firebombing campaign. The Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General of the Army George Marshall, and the Army Commander in Chief in the Pacific, General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, signed documents agreeing with the Joint War Plans Committee estimate.
The Americans were alarmed by the Japanese buildup, which was accurately tracked through Ultra intelligence. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson was sufficiently concerned about high American estimates of probable casualties to commission his own study by Quincy Wright and William Shockley. Wright and Shockley spoke with Colonels James McCormack and Dean Rusk, and examined casualty forecasts by Michael E. DeBakey and Gilbert Beebe. Wright and Shockley estimated the invading Allies would suffer between 1.7 and 4 million casualties in such a scenario, of whom between 400,000 and 800,000 would be dead, while Japanese fatalities would have been around 5 to 10 million.
Marshall began contemplating the use of a weapon that was "readily available and which assuredly can decrease the cost in American lives '': poison gas. Quantities of phosgene, mustard gas, tear gas and cyanogen chloride were moved to Luzon from stockpiles in Australia and New Guinea in preparation for Operation Olympic, and MacArthur ensured that Chemical Warfare Service units were trained in their use. Consideration was also given to using biological weapons against Japan.
While the United States had developed plans for an air campaign against Japan prior to the Pacific War, the capture of Allied bases in the western Pacific in the first weeks of the conflict meant that this offensive did not begin until mid-1944 when the long - ranged Boeing B - 29 Superfortress became ready for use in combat. Operation Matterhorn involved India - based B - 29s staging through bases around Chengdu in China to make a series of raids on strategic targets in Japan. This effort failed to achieve the strategic objectives that its planners had intended, largely because of logistical problems, the bomber 's mechanical difficulties, the vulnerability of Chinese staging bases, and the extreme range required to reach key Japanese cities.
United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) Brigadier General Haywood S. Hansell determined that Guam, Tinian, and Saipan in the Mariana Islands would better serve as B - 29 bases, but they were in Japanese hands. Strategies were shifted to accommodate the air war, and the islands were captured between June and August 1944. Air bases were developed, and B - 29 operations commenced from the Marianas in October 1944. These bases were easily resupplied by cargo ships. The XXI Bomber Command began missions against Japan on November 18, 1944.
The early attempts to bomb Japan from the Marianas proved just as ineffective as the China - based B - 29s had been. Hansell continued the practice of conducting so - called high - altitude precision bombing, aimed at key industries and transportation networks, even after these tactics had not produced acceptable results. These efforts proved unsuccessful due to logistical difficulties with the remote location, technical problems with the new and advanced aircraft, unfavorable weather conditions, and enemy action.
Hansell 's successor, Major General Curtis LeMay, assumed command in January 1945 and initially continued to use the same precision bombing tactics, with equally unsatisfactory results. The attacks initially targeted key industrial facilities but much of the Japanese manufacturing process was carried out in small workshops and private homes. Under pressure from USAAF headquarters in Washington, LeMay changed tactics and decided that low - level incendiary raids against Japanese cities were the only way to destroy their production capabilities, shifting from precision bombing to area bombardment with incendiaries.
Like most strategic bombing during World War II, the aim of the USAAF offensive against Japan was to destroy the enemy 's war industries, kill or disable civilian employees of these industries, and undermine civilian morale. Civilians who took part in the war effort through such activities as building fortifications and manufacturing munitions and other war materials in factories and workshops were considered combatants in a legal sense and therefore liable to be attacked.
Over the next six months, the XXI Bomber Command under LeMay firebombed 67 Japanese cities. The firebombing of Tokyo, codenamed Operation Meetinghouse, on March 9 -- 10 killed an estimated 100,000 people and destroyed 16 square miles (41 km) of the city and 267,000 buildings in a single night. It was the deadliest bombing raid of the war, at a cost of 20 B - 29s shot down by flak and fighters. By May, 75 % of bombs dropped were incendiaries designed to burn down Japan 's "paper cities ''. By mid-June, Japan 's six largest cities had been devastated. The end of the fighting on Okinawa that month provided airfields even closer to the Japanese mainland, allowing the bombing campaign to be further escalated. Aircraft flying from Allied aircraft carriers and the Ryukyu Islands also regularly struck targets in Japan during 1945 in preparation for Operation Downfall. Firebombing switched to smaller cities, with populations ranging from 60,000 to 350,000. According to Yuki Tanaka, the U.S. fire - bombed over a hundred Japanese towns and cities. These raids were also devastating.
The Japanese military was unable to stop the Allied attacks and the country 's civil defense preparations proved inadequate. Japanese fighters and antiaircraft guns had difficulty engaging bombers flying at high altitude. From April 1945, the Japanese interceptors also had to face American fighter escorts based on Iwo Jima and Okinawa. That month, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service and Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service stopped attempting to intercept the air raids in order to preserve fighter aircraft to counter the expected invasion. By mid-1945 the Japanese only occasionally scrambled aircraft to intercept individual B - 29s conducting reconnaissance sorties over the country, in order to conserve supplies of fuel. By July 1945, the Japanese had stockpiled 1,156,000 US barrels (137,800,000 l; 36,400,000 US gal; 30,300,000 imp gal) of avgas for the invasion of Japan. While the Japanese military decided to resume attacks on Allied bombers from late June, by this time there were too few operational fighters available for this change of tactics to hinder the Allied air raids.
The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938, and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch, made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility. Fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop atomic weapons first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries, were expressed in the Einstein - Szilard letter. This prompted preliminary research in the United States in late 1939. Progress was slow until the arrival of the British MAUD Committee report in late 1941, which indicated that only 5 -- 10 kilograms of isotopically enriched uranium - 235 was needed for a bomb instead of tons of un-enriched uranium and a neutron moderator (e.g. heavy water).
Working in collaboration with the United Kingdom and Canada, with their respective projects Tube Alloys and Chalk River Laboratories, the Manhattan Project, under the direction of Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, designed and built the first atomic bombs. Groves appointed J. Robert Oppenheimer to organize and head the project 's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, where bomb design work was carried out. Two types of bombs were eventually developed. Little Boy was a gun - type fission weapon that used uranium - 235, a rare isotope of uranium separated at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The other, known as a Fat Man device (both types named by Robert Serber), was a more powerful and efficient, but more complicated, implosion - type nuclear weapon that used plutonium created in nuclear reactors at Hanford, Washington. A test implosion weapon, the gadget, was detonated at Trinity Site, on July 16, 1945, near Alamogordo, New Mexico.
There was a Japanese nuclear weapon program, but it lacked the human, mineral and financial resources of the Manhattan Project, and never made much progress towards developing an atomic bomb.
The 509th Composite Group was constituted on December 9, 1944, and activated on December 17, 1944, at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets. Tibbets was assigned to organize and command a combat group to develop the means of delivering an atomic weapon against targets in Germany and Japan. Because the flying squadrons of the group consisted of both bomber and transport aircraft, the group was designated as a "composite '' rather than a "bombardment '' unit.
Working with the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, Tibbets selected Wendover for his training base over Great Bend, Kansas, and Mountain Home, Idaho, because of its remoteness. Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert or conventional explosive pumpkin bombs and Tibbets declared his group combat - ready.
The 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1,542 enlisted men, almost all of whom eventually deployed to Tinian. In addition to its authorized strength, the 509th had attached to it on Tinian 51 civilian and military personnel from Project Alberta, known as the 1st Technical Detachment. The 509th Composite Group 's 393d Bombardment Squadron was equipped with 15 Silverplate B - 29s. These aircraft were specially adapted to carry nuclear weapons, and were equipped with fuel - injected engines, Curtiss Electric reversible - pitch propellers, pneumatic actuators for rapid opening and closing of bomb bay doors and other improvements.
The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group moved by rail on April 26, 1945, to its port of embarkation at Seattle, Washington. On May 6 the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas, while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner. The Cape Victory made brief port calls at Honolulu and Eniwetok but the passengers were not permitted to leave the dock area. An advance party of the air echelon, consisting of 29 officers and 61 enlisted men flew by C - 54 to North Field on Tinian, between May 15 and May 22.
There were also two representatives from Washington, D.C., Brigadier General Thomas Farrell, the deputy commander of the Manhattan Project, and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee, who were on hand to decide higher policy matters on the spot. Along with Captain William S. Parsons, the commander of Project Alberta, they became known as the "Tinian Joint Chiefs ''.
In April 1945, Marshall asked Groves to nominate specific targets for bombing for final approval by himself and Stimson. Groves formed a Target Committee, chaired by himself, that included Farrell, Major John A. Derry, Colonel William P. Fisher, Joyce C. Stearns and David M. Dennison from the USAAF; and scientists John von Neumann, Robert R. Wilson and William Penney from the Manhattan Project. The Target Committee met in Washington on April 27; at Los Alamos on May 10, where it was able to talk to the scientists and technicians there; and finally in Washington on May 28, where it was briefed by Tibbets and Commander Frederick Ashworth from Project Alberta, and the Manhattan Project 's scientific advisor, Richard C. Tolman.
The Target Committee nominated five targets: Kokura, the site of one of Japan 's largest munitions plants; Hiroshima, an embarkation port and industrial center that was the site of a major military headquarters; Yokohama, an urban center for aircraft manufacture, machine tools, docks, electrical equipment and oil refineries; Niigata, a port with industrial facilities including steel and aluminum plants and an oil refinery; and Kyoto, a major industrial center. The target selection was subject to the following criteria:
These cities were largely untouched during the nightly bombing raids and the Army Air Forces agreed to leave them off the target list so accurate assessment of the weapon could be made. Hiroshima was described as "an important army depot and port of embarkation in the middle of an urban industrial area. It is a good radar target and it is such a size that a large part of the city could be extensively damaged. There are adjacent hills which are likely to produce a focusing effect which would considerably increase the blast damage. Due to rivers it is not a good incendiary target. ''
The Target Committee stated that "It was agreed that psychological factors in the target selection were of great importance. Two aspects of this are (1) obtaining the greatest psychological effect against Japan and (2) making the initial use sufficiently spectacular for the importance of the weapon to be internationally recognized when publicity on it is released. Kyoto had the advantage of being an important center for military industry, as well an intellectual center and hence a population better able to appreciate the significance of the weapon. The Emperor 's palace in Tokyo has a greater fame than any other target but is of least strategic value. ''
Edwin O. Reischauer, a Japan expert for the U.S. Army Intelligence Service, was incorrectly said to have prevented the bombing of Kyoto. In his autobiography, Reischauer specifically refuted this claim:
... the only person deserving credit for saving Kyoto from destruction is Henry L. Stimson, the Secretary of War at the time, who had known and admired Kyoto ever since his honeymoon there several decades earlier.
On May 30, Stimson asked Groves to remove Kyoto from the target list due to its historical, religious and cultural significance, but Groves pointed to its military and industrial significance. Stimson then approached President Harry S. Truman about the matter. Truman agreed with Stimson, and Kyoto was temporarily removed from the target list. Groves attempted to restore Kyoto to the target list in July, but Stimson remained adamant. On July 25, Nagasaki was put on the target list in place of Kyoto.
In early May 1945, the Interim Committee was created by Stimson at the urging of leaders of the Manhattan Project and with the approval of Truman to advise on matters pertaining to nuclear energy. During the meetings on May 31 and June 1, scientist Ernest Lawrence had suggested giving the Japanese a non-combat demonstration. Arthur Compton later recalled that:
It was evident that everyone would suspect trickery. If a bomb were exploded in Japan with previous notice, the Japanese air power was still adequate to give serious interference. An atomic bomb was an intricate device, still in the developmental stage. Its operation would be far from routine. If during the final adjustments of the bomb the Japanese defenders should attack, a faulty move might easily result in some kind of failure. Such an end to an advertised demonstration of power would be much worse than if the attempt had not been made. It was now evident that when the time came for the bombs to be used we should have only one of them available, followed afterwards by others at all - too - long intervals. We could not afford the chance that one of them might be a dud. If the test were made on some neutral territory, it was hard to believe that Japan 's determined and fanatical military men would be impressed. If such an open test were made first and failed to bring surrender, the chance would be gone to give the shock of surprise that proved so effective. On the contrary, it would make the Japanese ready to interfere with an atomic attack if they could. Though the possibility of a demonstration that would not destroy human lives was attractive, no one could suggest a way in which it could be made so convincing that it would be likely to stop the war.
The possibility of a demonstration was raised again in the Franck Report issued by physicist James Franck on June 11 and the Scientific Advisory Panel rejected his report on June 16, saying that "we can propose no technical demonstration likely to bring an end to the war; we see no acceptable alternative to direct military use. '' Franck then took the report to Washington, D.C., where the Interim Committee met on June 21 to re-examine its earlier conclusions; but it reaffirmed that there was no alternative to the use of the bomb on a military target.
Like Compton, many U.S. officials and scientists argued that a demonstration would sacrifice the shock value of the atomic attack, and the Japanese could deny the atomic bomb was lethal, making the mission less likely to produce surrender. Allied prisoners of war might be moved to the demonstration site and be killed by the bomb. They also worried that the bomb might be a dud since the Trinity test was of a stationary device, not an air - dropped bomb. In addition, only two bombs would be available at the start of August, although more were in production, and they cost billions of dollars, so using one for a demonstration would be expensive.
For several months, the U.S. had warned civilians of potential air raids by dropping more than 63 million leaflets across Japan. Many Japanese cities suffered terrible damage from aerial bombings; some were as much as 97 % destroyed. LeMay thought that leaflets would increase the psychological impact of bombing, and reduce the international stigma of area - bombing cities. Even with the warnings, Japanese opposition to the war remained ineffective. In general, the Japanese regarded the leaflet messages as truthful, with many Japanese choosing to leave major cities. The leaflets caused such concern amongst the Empire of Japan that they ordered the arrest of anyone caught in possession of a leaflet. Leaflet texts were prepared by recent Japanese prisoners of war because they were thought to be the best choice "to appeal to their compatriots ''.
In preparation for dropping an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, the Oppenheimer - led Scientific Panel of the Interim Committee decided against a demonstration bomb and against a special leaflet warning. Those decisions were implemented because of the uncertainty of a successful detonation and also because of the wish to maximize shock in the leadership. No warning was given to Hiroshima that a new and much more destructive bomb was going to be dropped. Various sources gave conflicting information about when the last leaflets were dropped on Hiroshima prior to the atomic bomb. Robert Jay Lifton wrote that it was July 27, and Theodore H. McNelly wrote that it was July 3. The USAAF history noted that eleven cities were targeted with leaflets on July 27, but Hiroshima was not one of them, and there were no leaflet sorties on July 30. Leaflet sorties were undertaken on August 1 and August 4. Hiroshima may have been leafleted in late July or early August, as survivor accounts talk about a delivery of leaflets a few days before the atomic bomb was dropped. Three versions were printed of a leaflet listing 11 or 12 cities targeted for firebombing; a total of 33 cities listed. With the text of this leaflet reading in Japanese "... we can not promise that only these cities will be among those attacked... '' Hiroshima is not listed.
Under the 1943 Quebec Agreement with the United Kingdom, nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent. Stimson therefore had to obtain British permission. A meeting of the Combined Policy Committee was held at the Pentagon on July 4, 1945. Stimson and Vannevar Bush represented the United States; Britain was represented by the head of the British Joint Staff Mission, Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson; and Canada by Clarence D. Howe. In addition, Harvey Bundy, Sir James Chadwick, Groves, Lord Halifax, George L. Harrison, and Roger Makins were all present at the meeting by invitation.
Wilson announced that the British government concurred with the use of nuclear weapons against Japan, which would be officially recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee. As the release of information to third parties was also controlled by the Quebec Agreement, discussion then turned to what scientific details would be revealed in the press announcement of the bombing. The meeting also considered what Truman could reveal to Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, at the upcoming Potsdam Conference.
Orders for the attack were issued to General Carl Spaatz on July 25 under the signature of General Thomas T. Handy, the acting Chief of Staff, since Marshall was at the Potsdam Conference with Truman. That day, Truman noted in his diary that:
This weapon is to be used against Japan between now and August 10th. I have told the Sec. of War, Mr. Stimson, to use it so that military objectives and soldiers and sailors are the target and not women and children. Even if the Japs are savages, ruthless, merciless and fanatic, we as the leader of the world for the common welfare can not drop that terrible bomb on the old capital (Kyoto) or the new (Tokyo). He and I are in accord. The target will be a purely military one.
The July 16 success of the Trinity Test in the New Mexico desert exceeded expectations. On July 26, Allied leaders issued the Potsdam Declaration, which outlined the terms of surrender for Japan. The declaration was presented as an ultimatum and stated that without a surrender, the Allies would attack Japan, resulting in "the inevitable and complete destruction of the Japanese armed forces and just as inevitably the utter devastation of the Japanese homeland ''. The atomic bomb was not mentioned in the communiqué.
On July 28, Japanese papers reported that the declaration had been rejected by the Japanese government. That afternoon, Prime Minister Suzuki Kantarō declared at a press conference that the Potsdam Declaration was no more than a rehash (yakinaoshi) of the Cairo Declaration and that the government intended to ignore it (mokusatsu, "kill by silence ''). The statement was taken by both Japanese and foreign papers as a clear rejection of the declaration. Emperor Hirohito, who was waiting for a Soviet reply to non-committal Japanese peace feelers, made no move to change the government position. Japan 's willingness to surrender remained conditional on the preservation of the imperial institution; that Japan not be occupied; that the Japanese armed forces be disbanded voluntarily; and that war criminals be prosecuted by Japanese courts.
At Potsdam, Truman agreed to a request from Winston Churchill that Britain be represented when the atomic bomb was dropped. William Penney and Group Captain Leonard Cheshire were sent to Tinian, but found that LeMay would not let them accompany the mission. All they could do was send a strongly worded signal back to Wilson.
The Little Boy bomb, except for the uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945. The uranium - 235 projectile was completed on June 15, and the target insert on July 24. The target and bomb pre-assemblies (partly assembled bombs without the fissile components) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard, California, on July 16 aboard the cruiser USS Indianapolis, and arrived on Tinian on July 26. The target inserts followed by air on July 30.
The first plutonium core, along with its polonium - beryllium urchin initiator, was transported in the custody of Project Alberta courier Raemer Schreiber in a magnesium field carrying case designed for the purpose by Philip Morrison. Magnesium was chosen because it does not act as a tamper. The core departed from Kirtland Army Air Field on a C - 54 transport aircraft of the 509th Composite Group 's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on July 26, and arrived at North Field July 28. Three Fat Man high - explosive pre-assemblies, designated F31, F32, and F33, were picked up at Kirtland on July 28 by three B - 29s, two from the 393d Bombardment Squadron plus one from the 216th Army Air Force Base Unit, and transported to North Field, arriving on August 2.
At the time of its bombing, Hiroshima was a city of both industrial and military significance. A number of military units were located nearby, the most important of which was the headquarters of Field Marshal Shunroku Hata 's Second General Army, which commanded the defense of all of southern Japan, and was located in Hiroshima Castle. Hata 's command consisted of some 400,000 men, most of whom were on Kyushu where an Allied invasion was correctly anticipated. Also present in Hiroshima were the headquarters of the 59th Army, the 5th Division and the 224th Division, a recently formed mobile unit. The city was defended by five batteries of 7 - cm and 8 - cm (2.8 and 3.1 inch) anti-aircraft guns of the 3rd Anti-Aircraft Division, including units from the 121st and 122nd Anti-Aircraft Regiments and the 22nd and 45th Separate Anti-Aircraft Battalions. In total, an estimated 40,000 Japanese military personnel were stationed in the city.
Hiroshima was a minor supply and logistics base for the Japanese military, but it also had large stockpiles of military supplies. The city was also a communications center, a key port for shipping and an assembly area for troops. It was a beehive of war industry, manufacturing parts for planes and boats, for bombs, rifles, and handguns; children were shown how to construct and hurl gasoline bombs and the wheelchair - bound and bedridden were assembling booby traps to be planted in the beaches of Kyushu. A new slogan appeared on the walls of Hiroshima: "FORGET SELF! ALL OUT FOR YOUR COUNTRY! '' It was also the second largest city in Japan after Kyoto that was still undamaged by air raids, due to the fact that it lacked the aircraft manufacturing industry that was the XXI Bomber Command 's priority target. On July 3, the Joint Chiefs of Staff placed it off limits to bombers, along with Kokura, Niigata and Kyoto.
The center of the city contained several reinforced concrete buildings and lighter structures. Outside the center, the area was congested by a dense collection of small timber - made workshops set among Japanese houses. A few larger industrial plants lay near the outskirts of the city. The houses were constructed of timber with tile roofs, and many of the industrial buildings were also built around timber frames. The city as a whole was highly susceptible to fire damage.
The population of Hiroshima had reached a peak of over 381,000 earlier in the war but prior to the atomic bombing, the population had steadily decreased because of a systematic evacuation ordered by the Japanese government. At the time of the attack, the population was approximately 340,000 -- 350,000. Residents wondered why Hiroshima had been spared destruction by firebombing. Some speculated that the city was to be saved for U.S. occupation headquarters, others thought perhaps their relatives in Hawaii and California had petitioned the U.S. government to avoid bombing Hiroshima. More realistic city officials had ordered buildings torn down to create long, straight firebreaks, beginning in 1944. Firebreaks continued to be expanded and extended up to the morning of August 6, 1945.
Hiroshima was the primary target of the first nuclear bombing mission on August 6, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternative targets. Having been fully briefed under the terms of Operations Order No. 35, the 393d Bombardment Squadron B - 29 Enola Gay, piloted by Tibbets, took off from North Field, Tinian, about six hours ' flight time from Japan. The Enola Gay (named after Tibbets ' mother) was accompanied by two other B - 29s. The Great Artiste, commanded by Major Charles Sweeney, carried instrumentation, and a then - nameless aircraft later called Necessary Evil, commanded by Captain George Marquardt, served as the photography aircraft.
After leaving Tinian the aircraft made their way separately to Iwo Jima to rendezvous with Sweeney and Marquardt at 05: 55 at 9,200 feet (2,800 m), and set course for Japan. The aircraft arrived over the target in clear visibility at 31,060 feet (9,470 m). Parsons, who was in command of the mission, armed the bomb during the flight to minimize the risks during takeoff. He had witnessed four B - 29s crash and burn at takeoff, and feared that a nuclear explosion would occur if a B - 29 crashed with an armed Little Boy on board. His assistant, Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson, removed the safety devices 30 minutes before reaching the target area.
During the night of August 5 -- 6, Japanese early warning radar detected the approach of numerous American aircraft headed for the southern part of Japan. Radar detected 65 bombers headed for Saga, 102 bound for Maebashi, 261 en route to Nishinomiya, 111 headed for Ube and 66 bound for Imabari. An alert was given and radio broadcasting stopped in many cities, among them Hiroshima. The all - clear was sounded in Hiroshima at 00: 05. About an hour before the bombing, the air raid alert was sounded again, as Straight Flush flew over the city. It broadcast a short message which was picked up by Enola Gay. It read: "Cloud cover less than 3 / 10th at all altitudes. Advice: bomb primary. '' The all - clear was sounded over Hiroshima again at 07: 09.
At 08: 09, Tibbets started his bomb run and handed control over to his bombardier, Major Thomas Ferebee. The release at 08: 15 (Hiroshima time) went as planned, and the Little Boy containing about 64 kg (141 lb) of uranium - 235 took 44.4 seconds to fall from the aircraft flying at about 31,000 feet (9,400 m) to a detonation height of about 1,900 feet (580 m) above the city. Enola Gay traveled 11.5 mi (18.5 km) before it felt the shock waves from the blast.
Due to crosswind, the bomb missed the aiming point, the Aioi Bridge, by approximately 800 ft (240 m) and detonated directly over Shima Surgical Clinic at 34 ° 23 ′ 41 '' N 132 ° 27 ′ 17 '' E / 34.39468 ° N 132.45462 ° E / 34.39468; 132.45462. It released the equivalent energy of 16 kilotons of TNT (67 TJ), ± 2 kt. The weapon was considered very inefficient, with only 1.7 % of its material fissioning. The radius of total destruction was about 1 mile (1.6 km), with resulting fires across 4.4 square miles (11 km).
People on the ground reported seeing a pika (ピカ) -- a brilliant flash of light -- followed by a don (ドン) -- a loud booming sound. Some 70,000 -- 80,000 people, or around 30 % of the population of Hiroshima, were killed by the blast and resultant firestorm, and another 70,000 injured. Perhaps as many as 20,000 Japanese military personnel were killed.
Enola Gay stayed over the target area for two minutes and was ten miles away when the bomb detonated. Only Tibbets, Parsons, and Ferebee knew of the nature of the weapon; the others on the bomber were only told to expect a blinding flash and given black goggles. "It was hard to believe what we saw '', Tibbets told reporters, while Parsons said "the whole thing was tremendous and awe - inspiring... the men aboard with me gasped ' My God ' ''. He and Tibbets compared the shockwave to "a close burst of ack - ack fire ''.
Some of the reinforced concrete buildings in Hiroshima had been very strongly constructed because of the earthquake danger in Japan, and their framework did not collapse even though they were fairly close to the blast center. Since the bomb detonated in the air, the blast was directed more downward than sideways, which was largely responsible for the survival of the Prefectural Industrial Promotional Hall, now commonly known as the Genbaku (A-bomb) dome. This building was designed and built by the Czech architect Jan Letzel, and was only 150 m (490 ft) from ground zero. The ruin was named Hiroshima Peace Memorial and was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996 over the objections of the United States and China, which expressed reservations on the grounds that other Asian nations were the ones who suffered the greatest loss of life and property, and a focus on Japan lacked historical perspective.
The US surveys estimated that 4.7 square miles (12 km) of the city were destroyed. Japanese officials determined that 69 % of Hiroshima 's buildings were destroyed and another 6 -- 7 % damaged. The bombing started fires that spread rapidly through timber and paper homes. As in other Japanese cities, the firebreaks proved ineffective.
Eizō Nomura was the closest known survivor, who was in the basement of a reinforced concrete building (it remained as the Rest House after the war) only 170 metres (560 ft) from ground zero (the hypocenter) at the time of the attack. He lived into his 80s. Akiko Takakura was among the closest survivors to the hypocenter of the blast. She had been in the solidly built Bank of Hiroshima only 300 meters (980 ft) from ground - zero at the time of the attack.
Over 90 % of the doctors and 93 % of the nurses in Hiroshima were killed or injured -- most had been in the downtown area which received the greatest damage. The hospitals were destroyed or heavily damaged. Only one doctor, Terufumi Sasaki, remained on duty at the Red Cross Hospital. Nonetheless, by early afternoon, the police and volunteers had established evacuation centres at hospitals, schools and tram stations, and a morgue was established in the Asano library.
Most elements of the Japanese Second General Army headquarters were at physical training on the grounds of Hiroshima Castle, barely 900 yards (820 m) from the hypocenter. The attack killed 3,243 troops on the parade ground. The communications room of Chugoku Military District Headquarters that was responsible for issuing and lifting air raid warnings was in a semi-basement in the castle. Yoshie Oka, a Hijiyama Girls High School student who had been conscripted / mobilized to serve as a communications officer had just sent a message that the alarm had been issued for Hiroshima and neighboring Yamaguchi, when the bomb exploded. She used a special phone to inform Fukuyama Headquarters (some 100 km away) that "Hiroshima has been attacked by a new type of bomb. The city is in a state of near - total destruction. ''
Since Mayor Senkichi Awaya had been killed while eating breakfast with his son and granddaughter at the mayoral residence, Field Marshal Hata, who was only slightly wounded, took over the administration of the city, and coordinated relief efforts. Many of his staff had been killed or fatally wounded, including a Korean prince of the Joseon Dynasty, Yi Wu, who was serving as a lieutenant colonel in the Japanese Army. Hata 's senior surviving staff officer was the wounded Colonel Kumao Imoto, who acted as his chief of staff. Soldiers from the undamaged Hiroshima Ujina Harbor used suicide boats, intended to repel the American invasion, to collect the wounded and take them down the rivers to the military hospital at Ujina. Trucks and trains brought in relief supplies and evacuated survivors from the city.
Twelve American airmen were imprisoned at the Chugoku Military Police Headquarters located about 1,300 feet (400 m) from the hypocenter of the blast. Most died instantly, although two were reported to have been executed by their captors, and two prisoners badly injured by the bombing were left next to the Aioi Bridge by the Kempei Tai, where they were stoned to death. Eight U.S. prisoners of war killed as part of the medical experiments program at Kyushu University were falsely reported by Japanese authorities as having been killed in the atomic blast as part of an attempted cover up.
The Tokyo control operator of the Japan Broadcasting Corporation noticed that the Hiroshima station had gone off the air. He tried to re-establish his program by using another telephone line, but it too had failed. About 20 minutes later the Tokyo railroad telegraph center realized that the main line telegraph had stopped working just north of Hiroshima. From some small railway stops within 16 km (10 mi) of the city came unofficial and confused reports of a terrible explosion in Hiroshima. All these reports were transmitted to the headquarters of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff.
Military bases repeatedly tried to call the Army Control Station in Hiroshima. The complete silence from that city puzzled the General Staff; they knew that no large enemy raid had occurred and that no sizable store of explosives was in Hiroshima at that time. A young officer was instructed to fly immediately to Hiroshima, to land, survey the damage, and return to Tokyo with reliable information for the staff. It was felt that nothing serious had taken place and that the explosion was just a rumor.
The staff officer went to the airport and took off for the southwest. After flying for about three hours, while still nearly 160 km (100 mi) from Hiroshima, he and his pilot saw a great cloud of smoke from the bomb. After circling the city in order to survey the damage they landed south of the city, where the staff officer, after reporting to Tokyo, began to organize relief measures. Tokyo 's first indication that the city had been destroyed by a new type of bomb came from President Truman 's announcement of the strike, sixteen hours later.
After the Hiroshima bombing, Truman issued a statement announcing the use of the new weapon. He stated, "We may be grateful to Providence '' that the German atomic bomb project had failed, and that the United States and its allies had "spent two billion dollars on the greatest scientific gamble in history -- and won ''. Truman then warned Japan: "If they do not now accept our terms, they may expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth. Behind this air attack will follow sea and land forces in such numbers and power as they have not yet seen and with the fighting skill of which they are already well aware. '' This was a widely broadcast speech picked up by Japanese news agencies.
By August 8, the 50,000 - watt standard wave station on Saipan the OWI radio station, broadcast a similar message to Japan every 15 minutes about Hiroshima, stating that more Japanese cities would face a similar fate in the absence of immediate acceptance of the terms of the Potsdam Declaration and emphatically urged civilians to evacuate major cities. Radio Japan, which continued to extoll victory for Japan by never surrendering, had informed the Japanese of the destruction of Hiroshima by a single bomb.
Prime Minister Suzuki felt compelled to meet the Japanese press, to whom he reiterated his government 's commitment to ignore the Allies ' demands and fight on. The Japanese government did not react. Emperor Hirohito, the government, and the war council considered four conditions for surrender: the preservation of the kokutai (Imperial institution and national polity), assumption by the Imperial Headquarters of responsibility for disarmament and demobilization, no occupation of the Japanese Home Islands, Korea, or Formosa, and delegation of the punishment of war criminals to the Japanese government.
Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov informed Tokyo of the Soviet Union 's unilateral abrogation of the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact on August 5. At two minutes past midnight on August 9, Tokyo time, Soviet infantry, armor, and air forces had launched the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation. Four hours later, word reached Tokyo of the Soviet Union 's official declaration of war. The senior leadership of the Japanese Army began preparations to impose martial law on the nation, with the support of Minister of War Korechika Anami, in order to stop anyone attempting to make peace.
On August 7, a day after Hiroshima was destroyed, Dr. Yoshio Nishina and other atomic physicists arrived at the city, and carefully examined the damage. They then went back to Tokyo and told the cabinet that Hiroshima was indeed destroyed by an atomic bomb. Admiral Soemu Toyoda, the Chief of the Naval General Staff, estimated that no more than one or two additional bombs could be readied, so they decided to endure the remaining attacks, acknowledging "there would be more destruction but the war would go on ''. American Magic codebreakers intercepted the cabinet 's messages.
Purnell, Parsons, Tibbets, Spaatz, and LeMay met on Guam that same day to discuss what should be done next. Since there was no indication of Japan surrendering, they decided to proceed with dropping another bomb. Parsons said that Project Alberta would have it ready by August 11, but Tibbets pointed to weather reports indicating poor flying conditions on that day due to a storm, and asked if the bomb could be readied by August 9. Parsons agreed to try to do so.
The city of Nagasaki had been one of the largest seaports in southern Japan, and was of great wartime importance because of its wide - ranging industrial activity, including the production of ordnance, ships, military equipment, and other war materials. The four largest companies in the city were Mitsubishi Shipyards, Electrical Shipyards, Arms Plant, and Steel and Arms Works, which employed about 90 % of the city 's labor force, and accounted for 90 % of the city 's industry. Although an important industrial city, Nagasaki had been spared from firebombing because its geography made it difficult to locate at night with AN / APQ - 13 radar.
Unlike the other target cities, Nagasaki had not been placed off limits to bombers by the Joint Chiefs of Staff 's July 3 directive, and was bombed on a small scale five times. During one of these raids on August 1, a number of conventional high - explosive bombs were dropped on the city. A few hit the shipyards and dock areas in the southwest portion of the city, and several hit the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works. By early August, the city was defended by the 134th Anti-Aircraft Regiment of the 4th Anti-Aircraft Division with four batteries of 7 cm (2.8 in) anti-aircraft guns and two searchlight batteries.
In contrast to Hiroshima, almost all of the buildings were of old - fashioned Japanese construction, consisting of timber or timber - framed buildings with timber walls (with or without plaster) and tile roofs. Many of the smaller industries and business establishments were also situated in buildings of timber or other materials not designed to withstand explosions. Nagasaki had been permitted to grow for many years without conforming to any definite city zoning plan; residences were erected adjacent to factory buildings and to each other almost as closely as possible throughout the entire industrial valley. On the day of the bombing, an estimated 263,000 people were in Nagasaki, including 240,000 Japanese residents, 10,000 Korean residents, 2,500 conscripted Korean workers, 9,000 Japanese soldiers, 600 conscripted Chinese workers, and 400 Allied prisoners of war in a camp to the north of Nagasaki.
Responsibility for the timing of the second bombing was delegated to Tibbets. Scheduled for August 11 against Kokura, the raid was moved earlier by two days to avoid a five - day period of bad weather forecast to begin on August 10. Three bomb pre-assemblies had been transported to Tinian, labeled F - 31, F - 32, and F - 33 on their exteriors. On August 8, a dress rehearsal was conducted off Tinian by Sweeney using Bockscar as the drop airplane. Assembly F - 33 was expended testing the components and F - 31 was designated for the August 9 mission.
At 03: 49 on the morning of August 9, 1945, Bockscar, flown by Sweeney 's crew, carried Fat Man, with Kokura as the primary target and Nagasaki the secondary target. The mission plan for the second attack was nearly identical to that of the Hiroshima mission, with two B - 29s flying an hour ahead as weather scouts and two additional B - 29s in Sweeney 's flight for instrumentation and photographic support of the mission. Sweeney took off with his weapon already armed but with the electrical safety plugs still engaged.
During pre-flight inspection of Bockscar, the flight engineer notified Sweeney that an inoperative fuel transfer pump made it impossible to use 640 US gallons (2,400 l; 530 imp gal) of fuel carried in a reserve tank. This fuel would still have to be carried all the way to Japan and back, consuming still more fuel. Replacing the pump would take hours; moving the Fat Man to another aircraft might take just as long and was dangerous as well, as the bomb was live. Tibbets and Sweeney therefore elected to have Bockscar continue the mission.
This time Penney and Cheshire were allowed to accompany the mission, flying as observers on the third plane, Big Stink, flown by the group 's operations officer, Major James I. Hopkins, Jr. Observers aboard the weather planes reported both targets clear. When Sweeney 's aircraft arrived at the assembly point for his flight off the coast of Japan, Big Stink failed to make the rendezvous. According to Cheshire, Hopkins was at varying heights including 9,000 feet (2,700 m) higher than he should have been, and was not flying tight circles over Yakushima as previously agreed with Sweeney and Captain Frederick C. Bock, who was piloting the support B - 29 The Great Artiste. Instead, Hopkins was flying 40 - mile (64 km) dogleg patterns. Though ordered not to circle longer than fifteen minutes, Sweeney continued to wait for Big Stink, at the urging of Ashworth, the plane 's weaponeer, who was in command of the mission.
After exceeding the original departure time limit by a half - hour, Bockscar, accompanied by The Great Artiste, proceeded to Kokura, thirty minutes away. The delay at the rendezvous had resulted in clouds and drifting smoke over Kokura from fires started by a major firebombing raid by 224 B - 29s on nearby Yahata the previous day. Additionally, the Yawata Steel Works intentionally burned coal tar, to produce black smoke. The clouds and smoke resulted in 70 % of the area over Kokura being covered, obscuring the aiming point. Three bomb runs were made over the next 50 minutes, burning fuel and exposing the aircraft repeatedly to the heavy defenses of Yawata, but the bombardier was unable to drop visually. By the time of the third bomb run, Japanese antiaircraft fire was getting close, and Second Lieutenant Jacob Beser, who was monitoring Japanese communications, reported activity on the Japanese fighter direction radio bands.
After three runs over the city, and with fuel running low because of the failed fuel pump, they headed for their secondary target, Nagasaki. Fuel consumption calculations made en route indicated that Bockscar had insufficient fuel to reach Iwo Jima and would be forced to divert to Okinawa, which had become entirely Allied - occupied territory only six weeks earlier. After initially deciding that if Nagasaki were obscured on their arrival the crew would carry the bomb to Okinawa and dispose of it in the ocean if necessary, Ashworth ruled that a radar approach would be used if the target was obscured.
At about 07: 50 Japanese time, an air raid alert was sounded in Nagasaki, but the "all clear '' signal was given at 08: 30. When only two B - 29 Superfortresses were sighted at 10: 53, the Japanese apparently assumed that the planes were only on reconnaissance and no further alarm was given.
A few minutes later at 11: 00, The Great Artiste dropped instruments attached to three parachutes. These instruments also contained an unsigned letter to Professor Ryokichi Sagane, a physicist at the University of Tokyo who studied with three of the scientists responsible for the atomic bomb at the University of California, Berkeley, urging him to tell the public about the danger involved with these weapons of mass destruction. The messages were found by military authorities but not turned over to Sagane until a month later. In 1949, one of the authors of the letter, Luis Alvarez, met with Sagane and signed the document.
At 11: 01, a last - minute break in the clouds over Nagasaki allowed Bockscar 's bombardier, Captain Kermit Beahan, to visually sight the target as ordered. The Fat Man weapon, containing a core of about 6.4 kg (14 lb) of plutonium, was dropped over the city 's industrial valley at 32 ° 46 ′ 25 '' N 129 ° 51 ′ 48 '' E / 32.77372 ° N 129.86325 ° E / 32.77372; 129.86325. It exploded 47 seconds later at 1,650 ± 33 ft (503 ± 10 m), above a tennis court halfway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Nagasaki Arsenal in the north. This was nearly 3 km (1.9 mi) northwest of the planned hypocenter; the blast was confined to the Urakami Valley and a major portion of the city was protected by the intervening hills. The resulting explosion released the equivalent energy of 21 ± 2 kt (87.9 ± 8.4 TJ). The explosion generated temperatures inside the fireball estimated at 3,900 ° C (7,050 ° F) and winds that were estimated at over 1,000 km / h (620 mph).
Big Stink spotted the explosion from a hundred miles away, and flew over to observe. Because of the delays in the mission and the inoperative fuel transfer pump, Bockscar did not have sufficient fuel to reach the emergency landing field at Iwo Jima, so Sweeney and Bock flew to Okinawa. Arriving there, Sweeney circled for 20 minutes trying to contact the control tower for landing clearance, finally concluding that his radio was faulty. Critically low on fuel, Bockscar barely made it to the runway on Okinawa 's Yontan Airfield. With enough fuel for only one landing attempt, Sweeney and Albury brought Bockscar in at 150 miles per hour (240 km / h) instead of the normal 120 miles per hour (190 km / h), firing distress flares to alert the field of the uncleared landing. The number two engine died from fuel starvation as Bockscar began its final approach. Touching the runway hard, the heavy B - 29 slewed left and towards a row of parked B - 24 bombers before the pilots managed to regain control. The B - 29 's reversible propellers were insufficient to slow the aircraft adequately, and with both pilots standing on the brakes, Bockscar made a swerving 90 - degree turn at the end of the runway to avoid running off it. A second engine died from fuel exhaustion by the time the plane came to a stop. The flight engineer later measured fuel in the tanks and concluded that less than five minutes total remained.
Following the mission, there was confusion over the identification of the plane. The first eyewitness account by war correspondent William L. Laurence of The New York Times, who accompanied the mission aboard the aircraft piloted by Bock, reported that Sweeney was leading the mission in The Great Artiste. He also noted its "Victor '' number as 77, which was that of Bockscar. Laurence had interviewed Sweeney and his crew, and was aware that they referred to their airplane as The Great Artiste. Except for Enola Gay, none of the 393d 's B - 29s had yet had names painted on the noses, a fact which Laurence himself noted in his account. Unaware of the switch in aircraft, Laurence assumed Victor 77 was The Great Artiste, which was in fact, Victor 89.
Although the bomb was more powerful than the one used on Hiroshima, the effect was confined by hillsides to the narrow Urakami Valley. Of 7,500 Japanese employees who worked inside the Mitsubishi Munitions plant, including "mobilized '' / conscripted students and regular workers, 6,200 were killed. Some 17,000 -- 22,000 others who worked in other war plants and factories in the city died as well. Casualty estimates for immediate deaths vary widely, ranging from 22,000 to 75,000 At least 35,000 -- 40,000 people were killed and 60,000 others injured. In the days and months following the explosion, more people died from bomb effects. Because of the presence of undocumented foreign workers, and a number of military personnel in transit, there are great discrepancies in the estimates of total deaths by the end of 1945; a range of 39,000 to 80,000 can be found in various studies.
Unlike Hiroshima 's military death toll, only 150 Japanese soldiers were killed instantly, including thirty - six from the 134th AAA Regiment of the 4th AAA Division. At least eight known POWs died from the bombing and as many as 13 may have died, including a British prisoner of war, Royal Air Force Corporal Ronald Shaw, and seven Dutch POWs. One American POW, Joe Kieyoomia, was in Nagasaki at the time of the bombing but survived, reportedly having been shielded from the effects of the bomb by the concrete walls of his cell. There were 24 Australian POWs in Nagasaki, all of whom survived.
The radius of total destruction was about 1 mi (1.6 km), followed by fires across the northern portion of the city to 2 mi (3.2 km) south of the bomb. About 58 % of the Mitsubishi Arms Plant was damaged, and about 78 % of the Mitsubishi Steel Works. The Mitsubishi Electric Works suffered only 10 % structural damage as it was on the border of the main destruction zone. The Nagasaki Arsenal was destroyed in the blast.
Although many fires likewise burnt following the bombing, in contrast to Hiroshima where sufficient fuel density was available, no firestorm developed in Nagasaki as the damaged areas did not furnish enough fuel to generate the phenomenon. Instead, the ambient wind at the time pushed the fire spread along the valley.
Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on August 19, with three more in September and a further three in October. On August 10, he sent a memorandum to Marshall in which he wrote that "the next bomb... should be ready for delivery on the first suitable weather after 17 or 18 August. '' On the same day, Marshall endorsed the memo with the comment, "It is not to be released over Japan without express authority from the President. '' Truman had secretly requested this on August 10. This modified the previous order that the target cities were to be attacked with atomic bombs "as made ready ''.
There was already discussion in the War Department about conserving the bombs then in production for Operation Downfall. "The problem now (August 13) is whether or not, assuming the Japanese do not capitulate, to continue dropping them every time one is made and shipped out there or whether to hold them... and then pour them all on in a reasonably short time. Not all in one day, but over a short period. And that also takes into consideration the target that we are after. In other words, should we not concentrate on targets that will be of the greatest assistance to an invasion rather than industry, morale, psychology, and the like? Nearer the tactical use rather than other use. ''
Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied, and scheduled to leave Kirtland Field for Tinian on August 11 and 14, and Tibbets was ordered by LeMay to return to Albuquerque, New Mexico, to collect them. At Los Alamos, technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast another plutonium core. Although cast, it still needed to be pressed and coated, which would take until August 16. Therefore, it could have been ready for use on August 19. Unable to reach Marshall, Groves ordered on his own authority on August 13 that the core should not be shipped.
Until August 9, Japan 's war council still insisted on its four conditions for surrender. On that day Hirohito ordered Kōichi Kido to "quickly control the situation... because the Soviet Union has declared war against us. '' He then held an Imperial conference during which he authorized minister Shigenori Tōgō to notify the Allies that Japan would accept their terms on one condition, that the declaration "does not comprise any demand which prejudices the prerogatives of His Majesty as a Sovereign ruler. ''
On August 12, the Emperor informed the imperial family of his decision to surrender. One of his uncles, Prince Asaka, then asked whether the war would be continued if the kokutai could not be preserved. Hirohito simply replied, "Of course. '' As the Allied terms seemed to leave intact the principle of the preservation of the Throne, Hirohito recorded on August 14 his capitulation announcement which was broadcast to the Japanese nation the next day despite a short rebellion by militarists opposed to the surrender.
In his declaration, Hirohito referred to the atomic bombings:
Moreover, the enemy now possesses a new and terrible weapon with the power to destroy many innocent lives and do incalculable damage. Should we continue to fight, not only would it result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization.
Such being the case, how are we to save the millions of our subjects, or to atone ourselves before the hallowed spirits of our imperial ancestors? This is the reason why we have ordered the acceptance of the provisions of the joint declaration of the powers.
In his "Rescript to the Soldiers and Sailors '' delivered on August 17, he stressed the impact of the Soviet invasion on his decision to surrender. Hirohito met with General MacArthur on September 27, saying to him that "(t) he peace party did not prevail until the bombing of Hiroshima created a situation which could be dramatized ''. Furthermore, the "Rescript to the Soldiers and Sailors '' speech he told MacArthur about was just personal, not political, and never stated that the Soviet intervention in Manchuria was the main reason for surrender. In fact, a day after the bombing of Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, Hirohito ordered his advisers, primarily Chief Cabinet Secretary Hisatsune Sakomizu, Kawada Mizuho, and Masahiro Yasuoka, to write up a surrender speech. In Hirohito 's speech, days before announcing it on radio on August 15, he gave three major reasons for surrender: Tokyo 's defenses would not be complete before the American invasion of Japan, Ise Shrine would be lost to the Americans, and atomic weapons deployed by the Americans would lead to the death of the entire Japanese race. Despite the Soviet intervention, Hirohito did not mention the Soviets as the main factor for surrender.
During the war, the British embassy in Washington reported that Americans regarded the Japanese as "a nameless mass of vermin ''; caricatures depicting Japanese as less than human, e.g. monkeys, were common. A 1944 opinion poll that asked what should be done with Japan found that 13 % of the U.S. public were in favor of "killing off '' all Japanese people.
After the Hiroshima bomb detonated successfully, Oppenheimer addressed an assembly at Los Alamos "clasping his hands together like a prize - winning boxer ''. The bombing amazed Otto Hahn and other German atomic scientists the British held at Farm Hall in Operation Epsilon. Hahn stated that he had not believed an atomic weapon "would be possible for another twenty years ''; Werner Heisenberg did not believe the news at first. Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker said "I think it 's dreadful of the Americans to have done it. I think it is madness on their part '', but Heisenberg replied, "One could equally well say ' That 's the quickest way of ending the war ' ''. Hahn was grateful that the German project had not succeeded in developing "such an inhumane weapon ''; Karl Wirtz observed that even if it had, "we would have obliterated London but would still not have conquered the world, and then they would have dropped them on us ''.
Hahn told the others, "Once I wanted to suggest that all uranium should be sunk to the bottom of the ocean ''. The Vatican agreed; L'Osservatore Romano expressed regret that the bomb 's inventors did not destroy the weapon for the benefit of humanity. Rev. Cuthbert Thicknesse, the Dean of St Albans, prohibited using St Albans Abbey for a thanksgiving service for the war 's end, calling the use of atomic weapons "an act of wholesale, indiscriminate massacre ''. Nonetheless, news of the atomic bombing was greeted enthusiastically in the U.S.; a poll in Fortune magazine in late 1945 showed a significant minority of Americans (22.7 %) wishing that more atomic bombs could have been dropped on Japan. The initial positive response was supported by the imagery presented to the public (mainly the powerful images of the mushroom cloud) and the censorship of photographs that showed corpses and maimed survivors. Such "censorship '' was however the status - quo at the time, with no major news outlets depicting corpses or maimed survivors as a result from other events, US or otherwise.
On August 10, 1945, the day after the Nagasaki bombing, Yōsuke Yamahata, correspondent Higashi and artist Yamada arrived in the city with orders to record the destruction for maximum propaganda purposes, Yamahata took scores of photographs and on August 21 they appeared in Mainichi Shimbun, a popular Japanese newspaper. Wilfred Burchett was the first western journalist to visit Hiroshima after the atom bomb was dropped, arriving alone by train from Tokyo on September 2, the day of the formal surrender aboard the USS Missouri. His Morse code dispatch was printed by the Daily Express newspaper in London on September 5, 1945, entitled "The Atomic Plague '', the first public report to mention the effects of radiation and nuclear fallout. Burchett 's reporting was unpopular with the U.S. military. The U.S. censors suppressed a supporting story submitted by George Weller of the Chicago Daily News, and accused Burchett of being under the sway of Japanese propaganda. Laurence dismissed the reports on radiation sickness as Japanese efforts to undermine American morale, ignoring his own account of Hiroshima 's radiation sickness published one week earlier.
A member of the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, Lieutenant Daniel McGovern, used a film crew to document the results in early 1946. The film crew 's work resulted in a three - hour documentary entitled The Effects of the Atomic Bombs Against Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The documentary included images from hospitals showing the human effects of the bomb; it showed burned out buildings and cars, and rows of skulls and bones on the ground. It was classified "secret '' for the next 22 years. During this time in America, it was a common practice for editors to keep graphic images of death out of films, magazines, and newspapers. The total of 90,000 ft (27,000 m) of film shot by McGovern 's cameramen had not been fully aired as of 2009. According to Greg Mitchell, with the 2004 documentary film Original Child Bomb, a small part of that footage managed to reach part of the American public "in the unflinching and powerful form its creators intended ''.
Motion picture company Nippon Eigasha started sending cameramen to Nagasaki and Hiroshima in September 1945. On October 24, 1945, a U.S. military policeman stopped a Nippon Eigasha cameraman from continuing to film in Nagasaki. All Nippon Eigasha 's reels were then confiscated by the American authorities. These reels were in turn requested by the Japanese government, declassified, and saved from oblivion. Some black - and - white motion pictures were released and shown for the first time to Japanese and American audiences in the years from 1968 to 1970. The public release of film footage of the city post-attack, and some research about the human effects of the attack, was restricted during the occupation of Japan, and much of this information was censored until the signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty in 1951, restoring control to the Japanese.
Only the most politically charged and detailed weapons effects information was censored during this period. The Hiroshima - based magazine, Chugoku Bunka for example, in its first issue published March 10, 1946, devotes itself to detailing the damage from the bombing. Similarly, there was no censorship of the factually written witness accounts, the book Hiroshima written by Pulitzer Prize winner John Hersey, which was originally published in article form in the popular magazine The New Yorker, on August 31, 1946, is reported to have reached Tokyo in English by January 1947, and the translated version was released in Japan in 1949. The book narrates the stories of the lives of six bomb survivors from immediately prior to, and months after, the dropping of the Little Boy bomb. Beginning in 1974 a compilation of drawings and artwork made by the survivors of the bombings began to be compiled, with completion in 1977 and under both book and exhibition format, it was titled The Unforgettable Fire.
In the spring of 1948, the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) was established in accordance with a presidential directive from Truman to the National Academy of Sciences -- National Research Council to conduct investigations of the late effects of radiation among the survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. One of the early studies conducted by the ABCC was on the outcome of pregnancies occurring in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and in a control city, Kure, located 18 mi (29 km) south of Hiroshima, in order to discern the conditions and outcomes related to radiation exposure. Dr. James V. Neel led the study which found that the number of birth defects was not significantly higher among the children of survivors who were pregnant at the time of the bombings. Neel also studied the longevity of the children who survived the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, reporting that between 90 and 95 percent were still living 50 years later.
The National Academy of Sciences questioned Neel 's procedure which did not filter the Kure population for possible radiation exposure. Overall, while a statistically insignificant increase in birth defects occurred directly after the bombings of Nagasaki and Hiroshima, Neel and others noted that in approximately 50 humans who were of an early gestational age at the time of the bombing and who were all within about 1 km from the hypocenter, an increase in microencephaly and anencephaly was observed upon birth, with the incidence of these two particular malformations being nearly 3 times what was to be expected when compared to the control group in Kure.
In 1985, Johns Hopkins University human geneticist James F. Crow examined Neel 's research and confirmed that the number of birth defects was not significantly higher in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Many members of the ABCC and its successor Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF) were still looking for possible birth defects or other causes among the survivors decades later, but found no evidence that they were more common among the survivors. Despite the insignificance of birth defects found in Neel 's study and the detailed medical literature, up to 1987, historians such as Ronald E. Powaski frequently wrote that Hiroshima experienced "an increase in stillbirths, birth defects, and infant mortality '' following the atomic bomb.
As cancers do not immediately emerge after exposure to radiation instead radiation - induced cancer has a minimum latency period of some 5 + years. An epidemiology study by the RERF estimates that from 1950 to 2000, 46 % of leukemia deaths and 11 % of solid cancers of unspecificed lethality, could be due to radiation from the bombs, with the statistical excess being 200 leukemia deaths and 1,700 solid cancers of undeclared lethality. Both of these statistics being derived from the observation of approximately half of the total survivors, strictly those who took part in the study.
The survivors of the bombings are called hibakusha (被爆 者, Japanese pronunciation: (çibakɯ̥ɕa)), a Japanese word that literally translates to "explosion - affected people ''. The Japanese government has recognized about 650,000 people as hibakusha. As of March 31, 2017, 164,621 are still alive, mostly in Japan. The government of Japan recognizes about 1 % of these as having illnesses caused by radiation. The memorials in Hiroshima and Nagasaki contain lists of the names of the hibakusha who are known to have died since the bombings. Updated annually on the anniversaries of the bombings, as of August 2017 the memorials record the names of almost 485,000 hibakusha; 308,725 in Hiroshima and 175,743 in Nagasaki.
Hibakusha and their children were (and still are) victims of severe discrimination in Japan due to public ignorance about the consequences of radiation sickness, with much of the public believing it to be hereditary or even contagious. This is despite the fact that no statistically demonstrable increase of birth defects or congenital malformations was found among the later conceived children born to survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. A study of the long - term psychological effects of the bombings on the survivors found that even 17 -- 20 years after the bombings had occurred survivors showed a higher prevalence of anxiety and somatization symptoms.
On March 24, 2009, the Japanese government officially recognized Tsutomu Yamaguchi as a double hibakusha. He was confirmed to be 3 km (1.9 mi) from ground zero in Hiroshima on a business trip when Little Boy was detonated. He was seriously burnt on his left side and spent the night in Hiroshima. He arrived at his home city of Nagasaki on August 8, the day before Fat Man was dropped, and he was exposed to residual radiation while searching for his relatives. He was the first officially recognized survivor of both bombings. He died on January 4, 2010, at the age of 93, after a battle with stomach cancer.
The 2006 documentary Twice Survived: The Doubly Atomic Bombed of Hiroshima and Nagasaki documented 165 nijū hibakusha (lit. double explosion - affected people), and was screened at the United Nations.
During the war, Japan brought as many as 670,000 Korean conscripts to Japan to work as forced labor. About 5,000 -- 8,000 Koreans were killed in Hiroshima and another 1,500 -- 2,000 died in Nagasaki. For many years, Korean survivors had a difficult time fighting for the same recognition as Hibakusha as afforded to all Japanese survivors, a situation which resulted in the denial of the free health benefits to them. Most issues were eventually addressed in 2008 through lawsuits.
The role of the bombings in Japan 's surrender and the U.S. 's ethical justification for them has been the subject of scholarly and popular debate for decades. J. Samuel Walker wrote in an April 2005 overview of recent historiography on the issue, "the controversy over the use of the bomb seems certain to continue. '' He wrote that "The fundamental issue that has divided scholars over a period of nearly four decades is whether the use of the bomb was necessary to achieve victory in the war in the Pacific on terms satisfactory to the United States. ''
Supporters of the bombings generally assert that they caused the Japanese surrender, preventing casualties on both sides during Operation Downfall. One figure of speech, "One hundred million (subjects of the Japanese Empire) will die for the Emperor and Nation '', served as a unifying slogan, although that phrase was intended as a figure of speech along the lines of the "ten thousand years '' phrase. In Truman 's 1955 Memoirs, "he states that the atomic bomb probably saved half a million U.S. lives -- anticipated casualties in an Allied invasion of Japan planned for November. Stimson subsequently talked of saving one million U.S. casualties, and Churchill of saving one million American and half that number of British lives. '' Scholars have pointed out various alternatives that could have ended the war without an invasion, but these alternatives could have resulted in the deaths of many more Japanese. Supporters also point to an order given by the Japanese War Ministry on August 1, 1944, ordering the execution of Allied prisoners of war when the POW camp was in the combat zone.
Those who oppose the bombings cite a number of reasons for their view, among them: a belief that atomic bombing is fundamentally immoral, that the bombings counted as war crimes, that they were militarily unnecessary, that they constituted state terrorism, and that they involved racism against and the dehumanization of the Japanese people. The bombings were part of an already fierce conventional bombing campaign. This, together with the naval blockade, could also have eventually led to a Japanese surrender. At the time the United States dropped its atomic bomb on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, the Soviet Union launched a surprise attack with 1.6 million troops against the Kwantung Army in Manchuria. "The Soviet entry into the war '', argued Japanese historian Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, "played a much greater role than the atomic bombs in inducing Japan to surrender because it dashed any hope that Japan could terminate the war through Moscow 's mediation ''.
Another popular view among critics of the bombings, originating with Gar Alperovitz in 1965 and becoming the default position in Japanese school history textbooks, is the idea of atomic diplomacy: that the United States used nuclear weapons in order to intimidate the Soviet Union in the early stages of the Cold War.
|
what songs did lemmy write for other artists | Category: songs written by Lemmy - wikipedia Help
The following 25 pages are in this category, out of 25 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).
|
where did the golf term fore come from | Fore (golf) - Wikipedia
"Fore! '', originally an Australian interjection, is used to warn anyone standing or moving in the flight of a golf ball. The mention of the term in an 1881 Australian Golf Museum indicates that the term was in use at least as early as that period.
It is believed to come from the military "beware before '', which an artilleryman about to fire would yell alerting nearby infantrymen to drop to the ground to avoid the shells overhead. (Before may mean "in front of (the gun being fired) ''; fore may mean "(look) ahead ''.)
Other possible origins include the term being derived from the term "fore - caddy '', a caddy waiting down range from the golfer to find where the ball lands. These caddies were often warned about oncoming golf balls by a shout of the term "fore - caddy '' which was eventually shortened to just "fore! ''. The Colonel Bogey March is based on the descending minor third which the original Colonel Bogey whistled instead of yelling Fore around 1914.
|
when did christianity come to nigeria how did it change life | Christianity in Nigeria - wikipedia
Christians in Nigeria comprise between 50 % and 67.4 % of the population. Christians are dominant in the southern and central region in Nigeria. According to the Pew Research Center, Nigeria has the largest Christian population of any country in Africa, with more than 85 million persons in Nigeria belonging to the church with various denominations. The numbers of Christians in Nigeria has grown from 21.4 % in 1953 to 49.3 % in 2010.
Since the introduction of Sharia penal law in some of the Northern states, violence towards non-Muslims has increased in the North. In spite of this, a 2015 study estimates some 600,000 believers in Christ are from a Muslim background living in the country.
Christian Association of Nigeria Fellowship of Churches of Christ in Nigeria
Cherubim and Seraphim Society Eternal Sacred Order of Cherubim and Seraphim Church of God Mission International Church of the Lord (Aladura)
The African Church Church of Nigeria
Church of the Brethren in Nigeria Churches of Christ in Nigeria Mambila Baptist Convention of Nigeria Nigerian Baptist Convention
Roman Catholic Church
African Methodist Episcopal Church in Nigeria Deeper Christian Life Ministry Redeemed Christian Church of God United Methodist Church of Nigeria
Lutheran Church of Christ in Nigeria Lutheran Church of Nigeria
The Apostolic Church Nigeria Christ Apostolic Church General Council of the Assemblies of God Nigeria Gospel Faith Mission International Church of the Foursquare Gospel The Lord 's Chosen Charismatic Revival Movement New Apostolic Church in Nigeria Winners ' Chapel
Christian Reformed Church of Nigeria Church of Christ in Nigeria Church of Christ in the Sudan Among the Tiv Evangelical Reformed Church of Christ N.K.S.T Presbyterian Church of Nigeria Reformed Church of Christ in Nigeria
Evangelical Church of West Africa QIC - United Evangelical Church Seventh - day Adventist Church in Nigeria Word of Faith Ministries
The Catholic Church has a large and growing following in Nigeria. In 2005, there were an estimated 19 million baptised Catholics in Nigeria. The Archdioceses of the Roman Catholic Church are: Abuja, Benin City, Calabar, Ibadan, Jos, Kaduna, Lagos, Onitsha, Owerri and Sokoto. Cardinal Francis Arinze is a Roman Catholic Cardinal from Nigeria.
The ecclesiastical provinces of the Church of Nigeria are Lagos, Ibadan, Ondo, Edo, The Niger, Niger Delta, Owerri, Abuja, Kaduna and Jos. Its primate is Nicholas Dikeriehi Orogodo Okoh. The Church of Nigeria claims about 18 million members though only about 2 million may be active.
The Nigerian Baptist Convention has about 6 million baptized members.
The Presbyterian Church of Nigeria has almost 4,000 000 members in thousands of congregations mainly in Nigeria, but has regional Presbytery in Togo as well as in Benin. It was founded in the mid-1800s, by ministers of the Church of Scotland. It is a member of the World Communion of Reformed Churches.
The Evangelical Reformed Church of Christ was formed in Nasarawa State in 8 July 1916. The church has approximately 1, 5 million members.
The Seventh - day Adventist Church as of 2016 has close to 250,000 members throughout Nigeria divided into three different conferences.
Within Nigeria, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints also has a growing presence. As of January 1, 2012, the church claims more than 100,000 members in the country and has established 315 congregations.
In 1970, 87,000 Jehovah 's Witnesses were present in Nigeria, which grew to more than 360,000 by 2014.
The New Apostolic Church reports for 2016 300.000 members in 1.100 congregations.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - Day Saints (LDS) announced creation of new Owerri mission in Nigeria in 2016.
The National Church of Nigeria (previously known as the Nigerian Ecumenical Centre and officially known as the National Christian Centre) is a non-denominational church building of the Christian Association of Nigeria, the umbrella body of all of Nigeria 's Christian churches. The church is located in Abuja.
Since the introduction of Sharia penal law in some of the Northern states, violence towards non-Muslims has increased. Relations with Muslims have been strained, killings of Christians have been rampant since at least 1999, and there have been other harsh acts committed towards them The 2010 Jos riots saw clashes between Muslim herders against Christian farmers near the volatile city of Jos, resulting in hundreds of casualties on both sides. Officials estimated that 500 people were massacred in night - time raids by rampaging Muslim gangs.
In March 2010 the clashes resulted in the death of at least 200 people, most of them Christians. In similar clashes in 2008, more than 300 were killed. Also, on Christmas Day in 2011, the Islamist sect Boko Haram bombed a catholic church near the nation 's capital Abuja killing over 30 people. The BBC reported that on Christmas Eve 2012 six Christians were killed and their church burned down. No group had claimed responsibility for the attack but the broadcaster drew comparisons with similar attacks carried out by Boko Haram at the same time in 2011.
|
why was the capture of constantinople important in ottoman history | Fall of Constantinople - wikipedia
Decisive Ottoman victory Fall of the Byzantine Empire
Ottomans
Land forces: 50,000 -- 80,000
Naval forces:
Byzantines Land forces:
Naval forces:
The Fall of Constantinople (Greek: Ἃλωσις τῆς Κωνσταντινουπόλεως, Halōsis tēs Kōnstantinoupoleōs; Turkish: İstanbul'un Fethi Conquest of Istanbul) was the capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire by an invading army of the Ottoman Empire on 29 May 1453. The Ottomans were commanded by the then 21 - year - old Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror, who defeated an army commanded by Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos. The conquest of Constantinople followed a 53 - day siege that had begun on 6 April 1453.
The capture of Constantinople (and two other Byzantine splinter territories soon thereafter) marked the end of the Byzantine Empire, a continuation of the Roman Empire dating to 27 BC, an imperial state lasting for nearly 1,500 years. The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople also dealt a massive blow to Christendom, as the Muslim Ottoman armies thereafter were left unchecked to advance into Europe without an adversary to their rear. After the conquest, Sultan Mehmed II transferred the capital of the Ottoman Empire from Edirne to Constantinople.
It was also a watershed moment in military history. Since ancient times, cities had used ramparts and city walls to protect themselves from invaders, and Constantinople 's substantial fortifications had been a model followed by cities throughout the Mediterranean region and Europe. The Ottomans ultimately prevailed due to the use of gunpowder (which powered formidable cannons).
The conquest of the city of Constantinople and the end of the Byzantine Empire was a key event in the Late Middle Ages which also marks, for some historians, the end of the Middle Ages.
Constantinople had been an imperial capital since its consecration in 330 under Roman Emperor, Constantine the Great. In the following eleven centuries, the city had been besieged many times but was captured only once: during the Fourth Crusade in 1204. The crusaders established an unstable Latin state in and around Constantinople while the remaining empire splintered into a number of Byzantine successor states, notably Nicaea, Epirus and Trebizond. They fought as allies against the Latin establishments, but also fought among themselves for the Byzantine throne.
The Nicaeans eventually reconquered Constantinople from the Latins in 1261. Thereafter there was little peace for the much - weakened empire as it fended off successive attacks by the Latins, the Serbians, the Bulgarians, and, most importantly, the Ottoman Turks. The Black Plague between 1346 and 1349 killed almost half of the inhabitants of Constantinople. The city was severely depopulated due to the general economic and territorial decline of the empire, and by 1453 consisted of a series of walled villages separated by vast fields encircled by the fifth - century Theodosian walls.
By 1450 the empire was exhausted and had shrunk to a few square miles outside the city of Constantinople itself, the Princes ' Islands in the Sea of Marmara, and the Peloponnese with its cultural center at Mystras. The Empire of Trebizond, an independent successor state that formed in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade, also survived on the coast of the Black Sea.
When Sultan Mehmed II succeeded his father in 1451, it was widely believed that the young ruler, then 19 years old, would prove incapable -- and that he would pose no great threat to Christian possessions in the Balkans and the Aegean. This optimism was reinforced by friendly assurances made by Mehmed to envoys sent to his new court. But Mehmed 's actions spoke far louder than his mild words. Beginning early in 1452, he built a second Ottoman fortress (Rumeli hisarı) on the Bosphorus, on the European side several miles north of Constantinople, set directly across the strait from the similar fortress, Anadolu Hisarı, which his great - grandfather Bayezid I had previously built on the Asian side. This pair of fortresses gave the Turks complete control of sea traffic on the Bosphorus; specifically, it prevented help from the north, the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea coast, from reaching Constantinople. (The new fortress was also known as Boğazkesen, which held the dual meanings ' strait - blocker ' or ' throat - cutter ', emphasizing its strategic position.) In October 1452, Mehmed ordered Turakhan Beg to lead a large force into the Peloponnese and remain there to keep Thomas and Demetrios (despotes in Southern Greece) from assisting their brother Constantine XI Palaiologos during the impending siege of Constantinople.
Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI swiftly understood Mehmed 's true intentions and turned to Western Europe for help; but now the price of centuries of war and enmity between the eastern and western churches had to be paid. Since the mutual excommunications of 1054, the Pope in Rome was committed to establishing authority over the eastern church. Nominal union had been negotiated in 1274, at the Second Council of Lyon, and indeed, some Palaiologoi emperors (Latin, Palaeologan) had since been received into the Latin church. Emperor John VIII Palaiologos had also recently negotiated union with Pope Eugene IV, with the Council of Florence of 1439 proclaiming a Bull of Union. These events, however, stimulated a propaganda initiative by anti-unionist Orthodox partisans in Constantinople; the population, as well as the laity and leadership of the Byzantine Church, became bitterly divided. Latent ethnic hatred between Greeks and Italians, stemming from the events of the Massacre of the Latins in 1182 by the Greeks and the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by the Latins, played a significant role. Finally, the attempted Union failed, greatly annoying Pope Nicholas V and the hierarchy of the Roman church.
In the summer of 1452, when Rumelı Hisari was completed and the threat had become imminent, Constantine wrote to the Pope, promising to implement the Union, which was declared valid by a half - hearted imperial court on 12 December 1452. Although he was eager for an advantage, Pope Nicholas V did not have the influence the Byzantines thought he had over the Western kings and princes, some of whom were wary of increasing Papal control, and these had not the wherewithal to contribute to the effort, especially in light of the weakened state of France and England from the Hundred Years ' War, Spain being in the final part of the Reconquista, the internecine fighting in the German Principalities, and Hungary and Poland 's defeat at the Battle of Varna of 1444. Although some troops did arrive from the mercantile city states in the north of Italy, the Western contribution was not adequate to counterbalance Ottoman strength. Some Western individuals, however, came to help defend the city on their own account. Cardinal Isidore, funded by the pope, arrived in 1452 with 200 archers One of these was an accomplished soldier from Genoa, Giovanni Giustiniani, who arrived with 400 men from Genoa and 300 men from Genoese Chios, in January 1453. As a specialist in defending walled cities, he was immediately given the overall command of the defense of the land walls by the emperor. Around the same time, the captains of the Venetian ships that happened to be present in the Golden Horn offered their services to the Emperor, barring contrary orders from Venice, and Pope Nicholas undertook to send three ships laden with provisions, which set sail near the end of March.
In Venice, meanwhile, deliberations were taking place concerning the kind of assistance the Republic would lend to Constantinople. The Senate decided upon sending a fleet in February 1453, but there were delays, and when it finally set out late in April, it was already too late for it to be able to take part in the battle. Further undermining Byzantine morale, seven Italian ships with around 700 men slipped out of the capital at the moment when Giustiniani arrived, men who had sworn to defend the capital. At the same time, Constantine 's attempts to appease the Sultan with gifts ended with the execution of the Emperor 's ambassadors -- even Byzantine diplomacy could not save the city.
Fearing a possible naval attack along the shores of the Golden Horn, Emperor Constantine XI ordered that a defensive chain be placed at the mouth of the harbour. This chain, which floated on logs, was strong enough to prevent any Turkish ship from entering the harbour. This device was one of two that gave the Byzantines some hope of extending the siege until the possible arrival of foreign help. This strategy was enforced because in 1204 the armies of the Fourth Crusade successfully circumvented Constantinople 's land defenses by breaching the Golden Horn Wall. Another strategy employed by the Byzantines was the repair and fortification of the Land Wall (Theodosian Walls). Emperor Constantine deemed it necessary to ensure that the Blachernae district 's wall were the most fortified because that section of the wall protruded northwards. The land fortifications comprised a 60 ft (18 m) wide moat fronting inner and outer crenellated walls studded with towers every 45 -- 55 metres.
The army defending Constantinople was relatively small, totaling about 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreigners. At the onset of the siege, probably fewer than 50,000 people were living within the walls, including the refugees from the surrounding area. Turkish commander Dorgano, who was in Constantinople in the pay of the Emperor, was also guarding one of the quarters of the city on the seaward side with the Turks in his pay. These Turks kept loyal to the Emperor and perished in the ensuing battle. The defending army 's Genoese corps were well trained and equipped, while the rest of the army consisted of small numbers of well - trained soldiers, armed civilians, sailors and volunteer forces from foreign communities, and finally monks. The garrison used a few small - calibre artillery bullets, which nonetheless proved ineffective. The rest of the city repaired walls, stood guard on observation posts, collected and distributed food provisions, and collected gold and silver objects from churches to melt down into coins to pay the foreign soldiers.
The Ottomans had a much larger force. Recent studies and Ottoman archival data state that there were about 50,000 -- 80,000 Ottoman soldiers including between 5,000 and 10,000 Janissaries, an elite infantry corps, and thousands of Christian troops, notably 1,500 Serbian cavalry that the Serbian lord Đurađ Branković was forced to supply as part of his obligation to the Ottoman sultan -- just a few months before, he had supplied the money for the reconstruction of the walls of Constantinople. Contemporaneous Western witnesses of the siege, who tend to exaggerate the military power of the Sultan, provide disparate and higher numbers ranging from 160,000 to 200,000 and to 300,000 (Niccolò Barbaro: 160,000; the Florentine merchant Jacopo Tedaldi and the Great Logothete George Sphrantzes: 200,000; the Cardinal Isidore of Kiev and the Archbishop of Mytilene Leonardo di Chio: 300,000). At this time cannons were being made.
Mehmed built a fleet to besiege the city from the sea (partially manned by Greek sailors from Gallipoli). Contemporary estimates of the strength of the Ottoman fleet span between about 100 ships (Tedaldi), 145 (Barbaro), 160 (Ubertino Pusculo), 200 -- 250 (Isidore of Kiev,, Leonardo di Chio) to 430 (Sphrantzes). A more realistic modern estimate predicts a fleet strength of 126 ships comprising 6 large galleys, 10 ordinary galleys, 15 smaller galleys, 75 large rowing boats, and 20 horse - transports.
Before the siege of Constantinople, it was known that the Ottomans had the ability to cast medium - sized cannons, but the range of some pieces they were able to field far surpassed the defenders ' expectations. Instrumental to this Ottoman advancement in arms production was a somewhat mysterious figure by the name of Orban (Urban), a Hungarian (though some suggest he was German). One cannon designed by Orban was named "Basilica '' and was 27 feet (8.2 m) long, and able to hurl a 600 lb (272 kg) stone ball over a mile (1.6 km).
The master founder initially tried to sell his services to the Byzantines, who were unable to secure the funds needed to hire him. Orban then left Constantinople and approached Mehmed II, claiming that his weapon could blast ' the walls of Babylon itself '. Given abundant funds and materials, the Hungarian engineer built the gun within three months at Edirne, from which it was dragged by sixty oxen to Constantinople. In the meantime, Orban also produced other cannons for the Turkish siege forces.
Orban 's cannon had several drawbacks: it took three hours to reload; cannonballs were in very short supply; and the cannon is said to have collapsed under its own recoil after six weeks (this is disputed, however, given that it was only reported in the letter of Archbishop Leonardo di Chio and in the later and often unreliable Russian chronicle of Nestor Iskander). Having previously established a large foundry about 150 miles (240 km) away, Mehmed now had to undergo the painstaking process of transporting his massive artillery pieces. Orban 's giant cannon was said to have been accompanied by a crew of 60 oxen and over 400 men.
In preparation for the final assault, Mehmed had an artillery train of seventy large pieces dragged from his headquarters at Edirne, in addition to the bombards cast on the spot.
Mehmed planned to attack the Theodosian Walls, the intricate series of walls and ditches protecting Constantinople from an attack from the West, the only part of the city not surrounded by water. His army encamped outside the city on the Monday after Easter, 2 April 1453.
The bulk of the Ottoman army were encamped south of the Golden Horn. The regular European troops, stretched out along the entire length of the walls, were commanded by Karadja Pasha. The regular troops from Anatolia under Ishak Pasha were stationed south of the Lycus down to the Sea of Marmara. Mehmed himself erected his red - and - gold tent near the Mesoteichion, where the guns and the elite regiments, the Janissaries, were positioned. The Bashi - bazouks were spread out behind the front lines. Other troops under Zagan Pasha were employed north of the Golden Horn. Communication was maintained by a road that had been constructed over the marshy head of the Horn.
The city had about 20 km of walls (land walls: 5.5 km; sea walls along the Golden Horn: 7 km; sea walls along the Sea of Marmara: 7.5 km), one of the strongest sets of fortified walls in existence. The walls had recently been repaired (under John VIII) and were in fairly good shape, giving the defenders sufficient reason to believe that they could hold out until help from the West arrived. In addition, the defenders were relatively well - equipped with a fleet of 26 ships: 5 from Genoa, 5 from Venice, 3 from Venetian Crete, 1 from Ancona, 1 from Aragon, 1 from France, and about 10 Byzantine.
On 5 April, the Sultan himself arrived with his last troops, and the defenders took up their positions. As their numbers were insufficient to occupy the walls in their entirety, it had been decided that only the outer walls would be manned. Constantine and his Greek troops guarded the Mesoteichion, the middle section of the land walls, where they were crossed by the river Lycus. This section was considered the weakest spot in the walls and an attack was feared here most. Giustiniani was stationed to the north of the emperor, at the Charisian Gate (Myriandrion); later during the siege, he was shifted to the Mesoteichion to join Constantine, leaving the Myriandrion to the charge of the Bocchiardi brothers. Minotto and his Venetians were stationed in the Blachernae palace, together with Teodoro Caristo, the Langasco brothers, and Archbishop Leonardo of Chios.
To the left of the emperor, further south, were the commanders Cataneo, with Genoese troops, and Theophilus Palaeologus, who guarded the Pegae Gate with Greek soldiers. The section of the land walls from the Pegae Gate to the Golden Gate (itself guarded by a certain Genoese called Manuel) was defended by the Venetian Filippo Contarini, while Demetrius Cantacuzenus had taken position on the southernmost part of the Theodosian wall.
The sea walls were manned more sparsely, with Jacobo Contarini at Stoudion, a makeshift defense force of Greek monks to his left hand, and prince Orhan at the Harbour of Eleutherius. Pere Julià was stationed at the Great Palace with Genoese and Catalan troops; Cardinal Isidore of Kiev guarded the tip of the peninsula near the boom. The sea walls at the southern shore of the Golden Horn were defended by Venetian and Genoese sailors under Gabriele Trevisano.
Two tactical reserves were kept behind in the city, one in the Petra district just behind the land walls and one near the Church of the Holy Apostles, under the command of Loukas Notaras and Nicephorus Palaeologus, respectively. The Venetian Alviso Diedo commanded the ships in the harbor.
Although the Byzantines also had cannons, they were much smaller than those of the Ottomans and the recoil tended to damage their own walls.
According to David Nicolle, despite many odds, the idea that Constantinople was inevitably doomed is wrong, and the overall situation was not as one - sided as a simple glance at a map might suggest.It has also been claimed that Constantinople was "the best - defended city in Europe '' at that time.
At the beginning of the siege, Mehmed sent out some of his best troops to reduce the remaining Byzantine strongholds outside the city of Constantinople. The fortress of Therapia on the Bosphorus and a smaller castle at the village of Studius near the Sea of Marmara were taken within a few days. The Princes ' Islands in the Sea of Marmara were taken by Admiral Baltoghlu 's fleet. Mehmed 's massive cannon fired on the walls for weeks, but due to its imprecision and extremely slow rate of reloading the Byzantines were able to repair most of the damage after each shot, limiting the cannon 's effect.
Meanwhile, despite some probing attacks, the Ottoman fleet under Suleiman Baltoghlu could not enter the Golden Horn due to the chain the Byzantines had previously stretched across the entrance. Although one of the fleet 's main tasks was to prevent any ships from outside from entering the Golden Horn, on 20 April a small flotilla of four Christian ships managed to slip in after some heavy fighting, an event which strengthened the morale of the defenders and caused embarrassment to the Sultan. Baltoghlu 's life was spared after his subordinates testified to his bravery during the conflict.
Mehmed ordered the construction of a road of greased logs across Galata on the north side of the Golden Horn, and dragged his ships over the hill, directly into the Golden Horn on 22 April, bypassing the chain barrier. This seriously threatened the flow of supplies from Genoese ships from the -- nominally neutral -- colony of Pera, and demoralized the Byzantine defenders. On the night of 28 April, an attempt was made to destroy the Ottoman ships already in the Golden Horn using fire ships, but the Ottomans had been warned in advance and forced the Christians to retreat with heavy losses. Forty Italians escaped their sinking ships and swam to the northern shore. On orders of Mehmed, they were impaled on stakes, in sight of the city 's defenders on the sea walls across the Golden Horn. In retaliation, the defenders brought their Ottoman prisoners, 260 in all, to the walls, where they were executed, one by one, before the eyes of the Ottomans. With the failure of their attack on the Ottoman vessels, the defenders were forced to disperse part of their forces to defend the sea walls along the Golden Horn.
The Ottoman army had made several frontal assaults on the land wall, but were always repelled with heavy losses. Venetian surgeon Niccolò Barbaro, describing in his diary one of such frequent land attacks especially by the Janissaries, wrote:
After these inconclusive frontal offensives, the Ottomans sought to break through the walls by constructing underground tunnels in an effort to mine them from mid-May to 25 May. Many of the sappers were miners of Serbian origin sent from Novo Brdo by the Serbian despot. They were placed under the command of Zagan Pasha. However, an engineer named Johannes Grant, a German who came together with the Genoese contingent, had counter-mines dug, allowing Byzantine troops to enter the mines and kill the workers. The Byzantines intercepted the first Serbian tunnel on the night of 16 May. Subsequent tunnels were interrupted on 21, 23, and 25 May, and destroyed with Greek fire and vigorous combat. On 23 May, the Byzantines captured and tortured two Turkish officers, who revealed the location of all the Turkish tunnels, which were then destroyed.
On 21 May, Mehmed sent an ambassador to Constantinople and offered to lift the siege if they gave him the city. He promised he would allow the Emperor and any other inhabitants to leave with their possessions. Moreover, he would recognize the Emperor as governor of the Peloponnese. Lastly, he guaranteed the safety of the population that might choose to remain in the city. Constantine XI only agreed to pay higher tributes to the sultan and recognized the status of all the conquered castles and lands in the hands of the Turks as Ottoman possession.
Around this time, Mehmed had a final council with his senior officers. Here he encountered some resistance; one of his Viziers, the veteran Halil Pasha, who had always disapproved of Mehmed 's plans to conquer the city, now admonished him to abandon the siege in the face of recent adversity. Zagan Pasha argued against Halil Pasha, and insisted on an immediate attack. Mehmed planned to overpower the walls by sheer force, expecting that the weakened Byzantine defense by the prolonged siege would now be worn out before he ran out of troops and started preparations for a final all - out offensive.
Preparations for the final assault were started in the evening of 26 May and continued to the next day. For 36 hours after the war council decision to attack, the Ottomans extensively mobilized their manpower in order to prepare for the general offensive. Prayer and resting would be then granted to the soldiers on the 28th, and then the final assault would be launched. On the Byzantine side, a small Venetian fleet of 12 ships, after having searched the Aegean, reached the Capital on May 27 and reported to the Emperor that no large Venetian relief fleet was on its way. On May 28, as the Ottoman army prepared for the final assault, large - scale religious processions were held in the city. In the evening a last solemn ceremony was held in the Hagia Sophia, in which the Emperor and representatives of both the Latin and Greek church partook, together with nobility from both sides.
Shortly after midnight on May 29 the all - out offensive began. The Christian troops of the Ottoman Empire attacked first, followed by the successive waves of the irregular azaps, who were poorly trained and equipped, and Anatolians who focused on a section of the Blachernae walls in the northwest part of the city, which had been damaged by the cannon. This section of the walls had been built earlier, in the eleventh century, and was much weaker. The Anatolians managed to breach this section of walls and entered the city but were just as quickly pushed back by the defenders. Finally, as the battle was continuing, the last wave, consisting of elite Janissaries, attacked the city walls. The Genoese general in charge of the land troops, Giovanni Giustiniani, was grievously wounded during the attack, and his evacuation from the ramparts caused a panic in the ranks of the defenders.
With Giustiniani 's Genoese troops retreating into the city and towards the harbor, Constantine and his men, now left to their own devices, kept fighting and managed to successfully hold off the Janissaries for a while, but eventually they could not stop them from entering the city. The defenders were also being overwhelmed at several points in Constantine 's section. When Turkish flags were seen flying above a small postern gate, the Kerkoporta, which was left open, panic ensued, and the defense collapsed, as Janissary soldiers, led by Ulubatlı Hasan pressed forward. Many Greek soldiers ran back home to protect their families, the Venetians ran over to their ships, and a few of the Genoese got over to Galata. The rest committed suicide by jumping off the city walls or surrendered. The Greek houses nearest to the walls were the first to suffer from the Ottomans. It is said that Constantine, throwing aside his purple regalia, led the final charge against the incoming Ottomans, perishing in the ensuing battle in the streets just like his soldiers. On the other hand, Nicolò Barbaro, a Venetian eyewitness to the siege, wrote in his diary that it was said that Constantine hanged himself at the moment when the Turks broke in at the San Romano gate, although his ultimate fate remains unknown.
After the initial assault, the Ottoman Army fanned out along the main thoroughfare of the city, the Mese, past the great forums, and past the Church of the Holy Apostles, which Mehmed II wanted to provide a seat for his newly appointed patriarch which would help him better control his Christian subjects. Mehmed II had sent an advance guard to protect key buildings such as the Church of the Holy Apostles.
A small few lucky civilians managed to escape. When the Venetians retreated over to their ships, the Ottomans had already taken the walls of the Golden Horn. Luckily for the occupants of the city, the Ottomans were not interested in killing them, but rather in the loot they could get from raiding the city 's houses, so they decided to attack the city instead. The Venetian captain ordered his men to break open the gate of the Golden Horn. Having done so, the Venetians left in ships filled with soldiers and refugees. Shortly after the Venetians left, a few Genoese ships and even the Emperor 's ships followed them out of the Golden Horn. This fleet narrowly escaped prior to the Ottoman navy assuming control over the Golden Horn, which was accomplished by midday. The Army converged upon the Augusteum, the vast square that fronted the great church of Hagia Sophia whose bronze gates were barred by a huge throng of civilians inside the building, hoping for divine protection. After the doors were breached, the troops separated the congregation according to what price they might bring in the slave markets.
Ottoman casualties are unknown but they are believed by most historians to be very heavy due to several unsuccessful Ottoman attacks made during the siege and final assault. Barbaro described blood flowing in the city "like rainwater in the gutters after a sudden storm '', and bodies of the Turks and Christians floating in the sea "like melons along a canal ''.
Mehmed II had promised to his soldiers three days to plunder the city, to which they were entitled. Soldiers fought over the possession of some of the spoils of war. According to the Venetian surgeon Nicolò Barbaro "all through the day the Turks made a great slaughter of Christians through the city ''. According to Philip Mansel, widespread persecution of the city 's civilian inhabitants took place, resulting in thousands of murders and rapes and 30,000 civilians being enslaved or forcibly deported.
The looting was extremely thorough in certain parts of the city. Weeks later on 2 June, the Sultan would find the city largely deserted and half in ruins; churches had been desecrated and stripped, houses were no longer habitable and stores and shops were emptied. He is famously reported to have been moved to tears by this, speaking "What a city we have given over to plunder and destruction. ''
On the third day of the conquest, Mehmed II ordered all looting to stop and issued a proclamation that all Christians who had avoided capture or who had been ransomed could return to their homes without further molestation, although many had no homes to return to, and many more had been taken captive and not ransomed. Byzantine historian George Sphrantzes, an eyewitness to the fall of Constantinople, described the Sultan 's actions:
The Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque, but the Greek Orthodox Church was allowed to remain intact and Gennadius Scholarius was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople. This was once thought to be the origin of the Ottoman millet system, however, it is now considered a myth and no such system existed in the fifteenth century.
After the sack, many feared other European Christian kingdoms would suffer the same fate as Constantinople. Two possible responses emerged amongst the humanists and churchmen of that era: Crusade or dialogue. Pope Pius II strongly advocated for another Crusade, while Nicholas of Cusa supported engaging in a dialogue with the Ottomans.
The Morean (Peloponnesian) fortress of Mystras, where Constantine 's brothers Thomas and Demetrius ruled, constantly in conflict with each other and knowing that Mehmed would eventually invade them as well, held out until 1460. Long before the fall of Constantinople, Demetrius had fought for the throne with Thomas, Constantine, and their other brothers John and Theodore. Thomas escaped to Rome when the Ottomans invaded Morea while Demetrius expected to rule a puppet state, but instead was imprisoned and remained there for the rest of his life. In Rome, Thomas and his family received some monetary support from the Pope and other Western rulers as Byzantine emperor in exile, until 1503. In 1461 the independent Byzantine state in Trebizond fell to Mehmed.
Constantine XI had died without producing an heir, and had Constantinople not fallen he likely would have been succeeded by the sons of his deceased elder brother, who were taken into the palace service of Mehmed after the fall of Constantinople. The oldest boy, renamed to Murad, became a personal favorite of Mehmed and served as Beylerbey (Governor - General) of Rumeli (the Balkans). The younger son, renamed Mesih Pasha, became Admiral of the Ottoman fleet and Sancak Beg (Governor) of the Province of Gallipoli. He eventually served twice as Grand Vizier under Mehmed 's son, Bayezid II.
With the capture of Constantinople, Mehmed II had acquired the "natural '' capital of its kingdom, albeit one in decline due to years of war. The loss of the city was a crippling blow to Christendom, and it exposed the Christian west to a vigorous and aggressive foe in the east. The Christian re-conquest of Constantinople remained a goal in Western Europe for many years after its fall to the House of Osman. Rumors of Constantine XI 's survival and subsequent rescue by an angel led many to hope that the city would one day return to Christian hands. Pope Nicholas V called for an immediate counter-attack in the form of a crusade. When no European monarch was willing to lead the crusade, the Pope himself decided to go, but his early death stopped this plan. As Western Europe entered the 16th century, the age of Crusading began to come to an end.
For some time Greek scholars had gone to Italian city - states, a cultural exchange begun in 1396 by Coluccio Salutati, chancellor of Florence, who had invited Manuel Chrysoloras, a Byzantine scholar to lecture at the University of Florence. After the conquest many Greeks, such as John Argyropoulos and Constantine Lascaris, fled the city and found refuge in the Latin West, bringing with them knowledge and documents from the Greco - Roman tradition to Italy and other regions that further propelled the Renaissance. Those Greeks who stayed behind in Constantinople mostly lived in the Phanar and Galata districts of the city. The Phanariotes, as they were called, provided many capable advisers to the Ottoman rulers.
Byzantium is a term used by modern historians to refer to the later Roman Empire. In its own time, the Empire ruled from Constantinople (or "New Rome '' as some people call it, although this was a laudatory expression that was never an official title) was considered simply as "the Roman Empire. '' The fall of Constantinople led competing factions to lay claim to being the inheritors of the Imperial mantle. Russian claims to Byzantine heritage clashed with those of the Ottoman Empire 's own claim. In Mehmed 's view, he was the successor to the Roman Emperor, declaring himself Kayser - i Rum, literally "Caesar of Rome '', that is, of the Roman Empire, though he was remembered as "the Conqueror ''. He founded a political system that survived until 1922 with the establishment of the Republic of Turkey.
Stefan Dušan, Tsar of Serbia, and Ivan Alexander, Tsar of Bulgaria both made similar claims, regarding themselves as legitimate heirs to the Roman Empire. Other potential claimants, such as the Republic of Venice and the Holy Roman Empire have disintegrated into history.
In 17th century Russia, the Fall of Constantinople had a role in the fierce theological and political controversy between adherents and opponents of the reforms in the Russian Orthodox Church, carried out by Patriarch Nikon and intended to bring the Russian Church closer to the norms and practices of other Orthodox churches. Avvakum and other of the "Old Believers '' saw these reforms as a corruption of the Russian Church, which they considered to be the "true '' Church of God. As the other Churches were more closely related to Constantinople in their liturgies, Avvakum argued that Constantinople fell to the Turks because of these heretical beliefs and practices.
The fall of Constantinople has a profound impact on the ancient Pentarchy of the Orthodox Church. As a result, the four ancient sees of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria and Constantinople are almost completely void of followers and believers due to the Islamization and Dhimma system that Christians lived under since the earliest days of Islam. As a result of this process, the center of authority in the Orthodox Church changed and became centered in Eastern Europe (e.g., Greece, Russia) rather than previously, in the former Byzantine Middle East.
There are many legends in Greece surrounding the Fall of Constantinople. It was said that the partial lunar eclipse that occurred on 22 May 1453 represented a fulfillment of a prophecy of the city 's demise. Four days later, the whole city was blotted out by a thick fog, a condition unknown in that part of the world in May. When the fog lifted that evening, a strange light was seen playing about the dome of the Hagia Sophia, which some interpreted as the Holy Spirit departing from the city. "This evidently indicated the departure of the Divine Presence, and its leaving the City in total abandonment and desertion, for the Divinity conceals itself in cloud and appears and again disappears. '' For others, there was still a distant hope that the lights were the campfires of the troops of John Hunyadi who had come to relieve the city.
Another legend holds that two priests saying divine liturgy over the crowd disappeared into the cathedral 's walls as the first Turkish soldiers entered. According to the legend, the priests will appear again on the day that Constantinople returns to Christian hands. Another legend refers to the Marble King (Constantine XI), holding that an angel rescued the emperor when the Ottomans entered the city, turning him into marble and placing him in a cave under the earth near the Golden Gate, where he waits to be brought to life again (a variant of the sleeping hero legend).
Guillaume Dufay composed several songs lamenting the fall of the Eastern church, and the duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, avowed to take up arms against the Turks. However, as the growing Ottoman power from this date on coincided with the Protestant Reformation and subsequent Counter-Reformation, the recapture of Constantinople became an ever - distant dream. Even France, once a fervent participant of the Crusades, became an ally of the Ottomans.
Nonetheless, depictions of Christian coalitions taking the city and of the late Emperor 's resurrection by Leo the Wise persisted.
The migration waves of Byzantine scholars and émigrés in the period following the sacking of Constantinople and the fall of Constantinople in 1453 is considered by many scholars key to the revival of Greek and Roman studies that led to the development of the Renaissance humanism and science. These émigrés were grammarians, humanists, poets, writers, printers, lecturers, musicians, astronomers, architects, academics, artists, scribes, philosophers, scientists, politicians and theologians. They brought to Western Europe the far greater preserved and accumulated knowledge of their own (Greek) civilization.
Between 1919 and 1922, Greek politician Eleftherios Venizelos attempted to implement the Megali Idea (recapture of Constantinople from the Ottoman Empire) in the Greco - Turkish War (1919 -- 1922) since the Ottoman Empire was severely weakened by its defeat in World War I and by the occupation of Constantinople by the British and French. However, in the course of the war Venizelos lost the election of 1920 and went into exile and Greece was defeated in the war by Turkey.
Ottomans used the Arabic transliteration of the city 's name "Kostantiniyye, '' (القسطنطينية), as can be seen in numerous Ottoman documents. Islambol (اسلامبول, Full of Islam) or Islambul (find Islam) or Islam (b) ol (old Turkic: be Islam), both in Turkish Language, were folk - etymological adaptations of Istanbul created after the Ottoman conquest of 1453 to express the city 's new role as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. It is first attested shortly after the conquest, and its invention was ascribed by some contemporary writers to Sultan Mehmed II himself.
The name of Istanbul is thought to be derived from the Greek phrase īs tīmbolī (n) (Greek: εἰς τὴν πόλιν, translit. eis tēn pólin, "to the City ''), and it is claimed that it had already spread among the Turkish populace of the Ottoman Empire before the conquest. However, Istanbul only became the official name of the city in 1930 by the revised Turkish Postal Law as part of Atatürk 's reforms.
Melville Jones, John, The Siege of Constantinople 1453: Seven Contemporary Accounts, Amsterdam 1972
Philippides, Marios and Walter K. Hanak, The Siege and the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, Ashgate, Farnham and Burlington 2011.
Coordinates: 41 ° 01 ′ 00 '' N 28 ° 58 ′ 37 '' E / 41.0167 ° N 28.9769 ° E / 41.0167; 28.9769
|
what does the winner get from american idol | American Idol - Wikipedia
American Idol is an American singing competition television series created by Simon Fuller, produced by FremantleMedia North America and 19 Entertainment, and distributed by FremantleMedia North America. It initially aired on Fox from June 11, 2002, to April 7, 2016, for 15 seasons. On March 11, 2018, the 16th season made its debut on ABC.
It started as an addition to the Idols format that was based on Pop Idol from British television, and became one of the most successful shows in the history of American television. The concept of the series involves discovering recording stars from unsigned singing talents, with the winner determined by American viewers using phones, Internet, and SMS text voting. The winners of the first sixteen seasons, as chosen by viewers, are Kelly Clarkson, Ruben Studdard, Fantasia Barrino, Carrie Underwood, Taylor Hicks, Jordin Sparks, David Cook, Kris Allen, Lee DeWyze, Scotty McCreery, Phillip Phillips, Candice Glover, Caleb Johnson, Nick Fradiani, Trent Harmon, and Maddie Poppe.
American Idol employs a panel of vocal judges who critique the contestants ' performances. The original judges, for seasons one through eight, were record producer and music manager Randy Jackson, singer and choreographer Paula Abdul, and music executive and manager Simon Cowell. The judging panel for seasons 13, 14, and 15 on Fox consisted of singers Keith Urban, Jennifer Lopez, and Harry Connick, Jr. Season 16 brought three entirely new judges: singers Lionel Richie, Katy Perry, and Luke Bryan. The first season was hosted by radio personality Ryan Seacrest and comedian Brian Dunkleman, but Seacrest remained as the sole master of ceremonies for the rest of the series. The success of American Idol has been described as "unparalleled in broadcasting history ''. A rival TV executive said the series was "the most impactful show in the history of television ''. It became a recognized springboard for launching the career of many artists as bona fide stars. According to Billboard magazine, in its first ten years, "Idol has spawned 345 Billboard chart - toppers and a platoon of pop idols, including Kelly Clarkson, Carrie Underwood, Katharine McPhee, Chris Daughtry, Fantasia, Ruben Studdard, Jennifer Hudson, Clay Aiken, Adam Lambert, and Jordin Sparks while remaining a TV ratings juggernaut. ''
For an unprecedented eight consecutive years, from the 2003 -- 04 television season through the 2010 -- 11 season, either its performance show or result show was ranked number one in U.S. television ratings.
American Idol was based on the British show Pop Idol created by Simon Fuller, which was in turn inspired by the New Zealand television singing competition Popstars. Television producer Nigel Lythgoe saw a version in Australia and helped bring it over to Britain. Fuller was inspired by the idea from Popstars of employing a panel of judges to select singers in audition. He then added other elements, including telephone voting by the viewing public (which at the time was already in use in shows, such as the Eurovision Song Contest), the drama of backstories, and real - life soap opera unfolding in real time. Pop Idol debuted in Britain in 2001 with Lythgoe as showrunner -- the executive producer and production leader -- and Simon Cowell as one of the judges, and was successful with the viewing public.
In 2001, Fuller, Cowell, and TV producer Simon Jones attempted to sell the Pop Idol format to the United States, but the idea was initially met with poor responses from all the television networks including Fox. However, Rupert Murdoch, head of Fox 's parent company, was later persuaded to buy the series by his daughter, Elisabeth, who had seen the British show. Although Fox 's executives wanted to change the format, Murdoch insisted that it should remain the same as the British one. One change was nevertheless made due to the presence of multiple time zones in the United States that made it impractical for the country to vote in the same time period, an additional half - hour results show was therefore added the day following the performance show. The show was renamed American Idol: The Search for a Superstar and debuted in the summer of 2002. Cowell was initially offered the job of showrunner, but turned down the offer; Lythgoe then took over that position. Much to the surprise of Cowell and Fox, it became one of the biggest shows of the summer. With its successful launch in the summer, the show was then moved to January and expanded. The show grew into a phenomenon largely due to its personal engagement with the contestants by prompting the viewers to vote, and the presence of the acid - tongued Cowell as a judge. By 2004, it had become the most - watched show on U.S. television, a position it then held for seven consecutive seasons.
However, after a few years of sharp declining ratings starting in 2012, with rating falls of over 20 % each season, the network announced that the fifteenth season would be its last, ending its run in April 2016. In May 2017, ABC acquired the rights to the series and announced that the program would return for the 2017 -- 18 television season.
The show had originally planned on having four judges following the Pop Idol format; however, only three judges had been found by the time of the audition round in the first season, namely Randy Jackson, Paula Abdul and Simon Cowell. A fourth judge, radio DJ Stryker, was originally chosen but he dropped out citing "image concerns ''. In the second season, New York radio personality Angie Martinez had been hired as a fourth judge but withdrew only after a few days of auditions due to not being comfortable with giving out criticism. The show decided to continue with the three judges format until season eight. All three original judges stayed on the judging panel for eight seasons.
In season eight, Latin Grammy Award - nominated singer - songwriter and record producer Kara DioGuardi was added as a fourth judge. She stayed for two seasons and left the show before season ten. Paula Abdul left the show before season nine after failing to agree to terms with the show producers. Emmy Award - winning talk show host Ellen DeGeneres replaced Paula Abdul for that season, but left after just one season. On January 11, 2010, Simon Cowell announced that he was leaving the show to pursue introducing the American version of his show The X Factor to the USA for 2011.
Jennifer Lopez and Steven Tyler joined the judging panel in season ten, but both left after two seasons. They were replaced by three new judges, Mariah Carey, Nicki Minaj and Keith Urban, who joined Randy Jackson in season 12. However both Carey and Minaj left after one season, and Randy Jackson also announced that he would depart the show after twelve seasons as a judge but would return as a mentor. Urban was the only judge from season 12 to return in season 13. He was joined by previous judge Jennifer Lopez and former mentor Harry Connick, Jr. Lopez, Urban and Connick, Jr. all returned as judges for the show 's fourteenth and fifteenth seasons.
On May 16, 2017, it was announced that Katy Perry was the first to be chosen as a judge for the revival series. On September 24, 2017, country singer Luke Bryan was announced as the second judge to take the panel. On September 29, 2017, it was announced that Lionel Richie would be taking the third and final seat on the judges panel.
Guest judges may occasionally be introduced. In season two, guest judges such as Lionel Richie and Robin Gibb were used, and in season three Donna Summer, Quentin Tarantino and some of the mentors also joined as judges to critique the performances in the final rounds. Guest judges were used in the audition rounds for seasons four, six, nine, and fourteen such as Gene Simmons and LL Cool J in season four, Jewel and Olivia Newton - John in season six, Shania Twain in season eight, Neil Patrick Harris, Avril Lavigne and Katy Perry in season nine, and season eight runner - up, Adam Lambert, in season fourteen.
The first season was co-hosted by Ryan Seacrest and Brian Dunkleman following the format of Pop Idol of using two presenters. Dunkleman quit thereafter, making Seacrest the sole emcee of the show starting with season two. Dunkleman did, however, return in the initial series finale on Fox. Seacrest also returned for Season 16.
In a series of steps, the show selected the eventual winner out of many tens of thousands of contestants.
The eligible age - range for contestants was fifteen to twenty - eight years old. The initial age limit was sixteen to twenty - four in the first three seasons, but the upper limit was raised to twenty - eight in season four, and the lower limit was reduced to fifteen in season ten. The contestants had to be legal U.S. residents, could not have advanced to particular stages of the competition in previous seasons, and must not have held a current recording or talent representation contract by the semi-final stage (in previous years by the audition stage).
Contestants went through at least three sets of cuts. The first was a brief audition with a few other contestants in front of selectors which may include one of the show 's producers. Although auditions can exceed 10,000 in each city, only a few hundred of these made it past the preliminary round of auditions. Successful contestants then sang in front of producers, where more may be cut. Only then can they proceed to audition in front of the judges, which is the only audition stage shown on television. Those selected by the judges are sent to Hollywood. Between 10 -- 60 people in each city may make it to Hollywood.
Once in Hollywood, the contestants performed individually or in groups in a series of rounds. Until season ten, there were usually three rounds of eliminations in Hollywood. In the first round the contestants emerged in groups but performed individually. For the next round, the contestants put themselves in small groups and performed a song together. In the final round, the contestants performed solo with a song of their choice a cappella or accompanied by a band -- depending on the season. In seasons two and three, contestants were also asked to write original lyrics or melody in an additional round after the first round. In season seven, the group round was eliminated and contestants may, after a first solo performance and on judges approval, skip a second solo round and move directly to the final Hollywood round. In season twelve, the executive producers split up the females and males and chose the members to form the groups in the group round.
In seasons ten and eleven, a further round was added in Las Vegas, where the contestants performed in groups based on a theme, followed by one final solo round to determine the semi-finalists. At the end of this stage of the competition, 24 to 36 contestants were selected to move on to the semi-final stage. In season twelve the Las Vegas round became a Sudden Death round, where the judges had to choose five guys and five girls each night (four nights) to make the top twenty. In season thirteen, the Las Vegas round was eliminated and a new round called "Hollywood or Home '' was added, where if the judges were uncertain about some contestants, those contestants were required to perform soon after landing in Los Angeles, and those who failed to impress were sent back home before they reached Hollywood. In season fourteen, a Showcase round was added, where the contestants performed at a LA nightclub or auditorium for the judges and a live audience, and these performances determine who makes into the Top 24.
From the semi-finals onward, the fate of the contestants was decided by public vote. During the contestant 's performance as well as the recap at the end, a toll - free telephone number for each contestant was displayed on the screen. For a two - hour period after the episode ends (up to four hours for the finale) in each US time zone, viewers may call or send a text message to their preferred contestant 's telephone number, and each call or text message was registered as a vote for that contestant. Viewers were allowed to vote as many times as they can within the two - hour voting window. However, the show reserves the right to discard votes by power dialers. One or more of the least popular contestants may be eliminated in successive weeks until a winner emerges. Over 110 million votes were cast in the first season, and by season ten the seasonal total had increased to nearly 750 million. Voting via text messaging was made available in the second season when AT&T Wireless joined as a sponsor of the show, and 7.5 million text messages were sent to American Idol that season. The number of text messages rapidly increased, reaching 178 million texts by season eight. Online voting was offered for the first time in season ten. The votes are counted and verified by Telescope Inc.
In the first three seasons, the semi-finalists were split into different groups to perform individually in their respective night. In season one, there were three groups of ten, with the top three contestants from each group making the finals. In seasons two and three, there were four groups of eight, and the top two of each selected. These seasons also featured a wildcard round, where contestants who failed to qualify were given another chance. In season one, only one wildcard contestant was chosen by the judges, giving a total of ten finalists. In seasons two and three, each of the three judges championed one contestant with the public advancing a fourth into the finals, making 12 finalists in all.
From seasons four to seven and nine, the twenty - four semi-finalists were divided by gender in order to ensure an equal gender division in the top twelve. The men and women sang separately on consecutive nights, and the bottom two in each groups were eliminated each week until only six of each remained to form the top twelve.
The wildcard round returned in season eight, wherein there were three groups of twelve, with three contestants moving forward -- the highest male, the highest female, and the next highest - placed singer -- for each night, and four wildcards were chosen by the judges to produce a final 13. Starting season ten, the girls and boys perform on separate nights. In seasons ten and eleven, five of each gender were chosen, and three wildcards were chosen by the judges to form a final 13. In season twelve, the top twenty semifinalists were split into gender groups, with five of each gender advancing to form the final 10. In season thirteen, there were thirty semifinalists, but only twenty semifinalists (ten for each gender) were chosen by the judges to perform on the live shows, with five in each gender based on the vote and three wildcards chosen by the judges composing the final 13. In season fourteen, the top 24 performed at The Fillmore Detroit, starting with the 12 males on one night and then the 12 females on the next night. The following week, the same order went for the top 16, with four males eliminated, followed by four females based on the vote. Then, on the first night of finals, a similar sequence from the thirteenth season was used to determine the final 12, with five of each gender based on the vote and two wildcards chosen by the judges. In season fifteen, the top 24 performed at Cathedral of Saint Vibiana in Los Angeles and were split into two groups of twelve and performed twice, one being a solo performance and one being a duet with a former Idol contestant. In each group, the judges chose 7 contestants to advance to the top 14 where the judges chose 4 to advance to the top 10 and remaining 6 contestants were chosen based on the vote. In season sixteen, the show repeated the process of season 15, however instead of Idol alumnus as duet partners, superstar celebrity singers were used as the duet partners.
The finals were broadcast in prime time from CBS Television City in Los Angeles, in front of a live studio audience. The finals lasted eight weeks in season one. From seasons two to nine and fourteen, the finals lasted eleven weeks. Seasons ten and eleven lasted for twelve weeks, while season twelve lasted for ten weeks. In season thirteen, the finals lasted thirteen weeks. The finals lasted seven weeks in season fifteen. Each finalist performs songs based on a weekly theme which may be a musical genre such as Motown, disco, or big band, songs by artists such as Michael Jackson, Elvis Presley or The Beatles, or more general themes such as Billboard number - one hits or songs from the contestant 's year of birth. Contestants usually worked with a celebrity mentor related to the theme. In season ten, Jimmy Iovine was brought in as a mentor for the season. Initially the contestants sang one song each week, but this was increased to two songs from top four or five onwards, then three songs for the top two or three.
The most popular contestants were usually not revealed in the results show. Instead, typically the three contestants (two in later rounds) who received the lowest number of votes was called to the center of the stage. One of these three was usually sent to safety; however the two remaining were not necessarily the bottom two. The contestant with the fewest votes was then revealed and eliminated from the competition. A montage of the eliminated contestant 's time on the show was played and they gave their final performance (from season 14 onward, the montage and the final performance were dropped). However, in season six, during the series ' first ever Idol Gives Back episode, no contestant was eliminated, but on the following week, two were sent home. Moreover, starting in season eight, the judges may overturn viewers ' decision with a "Judges ' Save '' if they unanimously agreed to. "The save '' could only be used once, and only up through the top five. In the eighth, ninth, tenth, and fourteenth seasons, a double elimination then took place in the week following the activation of the save, but in the eleventh and thirteenth seasons, a regular single elimination took place. The save was not activated in the twelfth season and consequently, a non-elimination took place in the week after its expiration with the votes then carrying over into the following week.
The "Fan Save '' was introduced in the fourteenth season. During the finals, viewers were given a five - minute window to vote for the contestants in danger of elimination by using their Twitter account to decide which contestant will move on to the next show, starting with the Top 8.
The finale was the two - hour last episode of the season, culminating in revealing the winner. For seasons one, three through six, fourteen, and fifteen it was broadcast from the Dolby Theatre, which has an audience capacity of approximately 3,400. The finale for season two took place at the Gibson Amphitheatre, which has an audience capacity of over 6,000. In seasons seven through thirteen, the venue was at the Nokia Theater, which holds an audience of over 7,000. In season 16, the venue did not change from the Finals.
The winner received a record deal with a major label, which may be for up to six albums, and secures a management contract with American Idol - affiliated 19 Management (which has the right of first refusal to sign all contestants), as well as various lucrative contracts. All winners prior to season nine reportedly earned at least $1 million in their first year as winner. All the runners - up of the first ten seasons, as well as some of other finalists, had also received record deals with major labels. However, starting in season 11, the runner - up may only be guaranteed a single - only deal. BMG / Sony (seasons 1 -- 9), UMG (season 10 -- 15), and Hollywood Records (season 16 -) had the right of first refusal to sign contestants for three months after the season 's finale. Starting in the fourteenth season, the winner was signed with Big Machine Records. Prominent music mogul Clive Davis also produced some of the selected contestants ' albums, such as Kelly Clarkson, Clay Aiken, Fantasia Barrino and Diana DeGarmo. All top 10 (11 in seasons 10 and 12) finalists earn the privilege of going on a tour, where the participants may each earn a six - figure sum.
Each season premieres with the audition round, taking place in different cities. The audition episodes typically feature a mix of potential finalists, interesting characters and woefully inadequate contestants. Each successful contestant receives a golden ticket to proceed on to the next round in Hollywood. Based on their performances during the Hollywood round (Las Vegas round from seasons 10 - 12), 24 to 36 contestants are selected by the judges to participate in the semifinals. From the semifinals onward the contestants perform their songs live, with the judges making their critiques after each performance. The contestants are voted for by the viewing public, and the outcome of the public votes is then revealed during a results segment. The results segment feature group performances by the contestants as well as guest performers. The Top - three results also features homecoming events for the Top 3 finalists. The season reaches its climax in a two - hour results finale show, where the winner of the season is revealed.
With the exception of seasons one and two, the contestants in the semifinals onward perform in front of a studio audience. They perform with a full band in the finals. The current musical director is Kris Pooley, who has been with the show since season 16. In previous seasons, the American Idol band was led by Rickey Minor (seasons 4 -- 9, 13 -- 15) and Ray Chew (seasons 10 -- 12). Assistance has also been given by vocal coaches and song arrangers, such as Michael Orland and Debra Byrd to contestants behind the scene. Starting with season seven, contestants may perform with a musical instrument from the Hollywood rounds onward. In later seasons, the contestants were allowed to perform with a musical instrument in the auditions. During the first nine seasons, performances were usually aired live on Tuesday nights, followed by the results shows on Wednesdays, but moved to Wednesdays and Thursdays from seasons 10 - 13. From season 14 onward, there were no separate results shows. On season 14, the show aired on Wednesday nights, and on season 15, Thursday nights. From season 16 onward, it aired on Sundays and Mondays.
The first season of American Idol debuted as a summer replacement show in June 2002 on the Fox network. It was co-hosted by Ryan Seacrest and Brian Dunkleman.
In the audition rounds, 121 contestants were selected from around 10,000 who attended the auditions. These were cut to 30 for the semifinal, with ten going on to the finals. One semifinalist, Delano Cagnolatti, was disqualified for lying to evade the show 's age limit. One of the early favorites, Tamyra Gray, was eliminated at the top four, the first of several such shock eliminations that were to be repeated in later seasons. Christina Christian was hospitalized before the top six result show due to chest pains and palpitations, and she was eliminated while she was in the hospital. Jim Verraros was the first openly gay contestant on the show; his sexual orientation was revealed in his online journal, however it was removed during the competition after a request from the show producers over concerns that it might be unfairly influencing votes.
The final showdown was between Justin Guarini, one of the early favorites, and Kelly Clarkson. Clarkson was not initially thought of as a contender, but impressed the judges with some good performances in the final rounds, such as her performance of Aretha Franklin 's "Natural Woman '', and Betty Hutton 's "Stuff Like That There '', and eventually won the crown on September 4, 2002.
In what was to become a tradition, Clarkson performed the coronation song during the finale, and released the song immediately after the season ended. The single, "A Moment Like This '', went on to break a 38 - year - old record held by The Beatles for the biggest leap to number one on the Billboard Hot 100. Guarini did not release any song immediately after the show and remains the only runner - up not to do so. Both Clarkson and Guarini made a musical film, From Justin to Kelly, which was released in 2003 but was widely panned. Clarkson has since become the most successful Idol contestant internationally, with worldwide album sales of more than 23 million.
Starting September 30, 2006, this season was repackaged as "American Idol Rewind '' and syndicated directly to stations in the U.S.
Following the success of season one, the second season was moved up to air in January 2003. The number of episodes increased, as did the show 's budget and the charge for commercial spots. Dunkleman left the show, leaving Seacrest as the lone host. Kristin Adams was a correspondent for this season.
Corey Clark was disqualified during the finals for having an undisclosed police record; however, he later alleged that he and Paula Abdul had an affair while on the show and that this contributed to his expulsion. Clark also claimed that Abdul gave him preferential treatment on the show due to their affair. The allegations were dismissed by Fox after an independent investigation. Two semi-finalists were also disqualified that year -- Jaered Andrews for an arrest on an assault charge, and Frenchie Davis for having previously modelled for an adult website.
Ruben Studdard emerged as the winner, beating Clay Aiken by a small margin. Out of a total of 24 million votes, Studdard finished just 134,000 votes ahead of Aiken. This slim margin of victory was controversial due to the large number of calls that failed to get through. In an interview prior to season five, executive producer Nigel Lythgoe indicated that Aiken had led the fan voting from the wildcard week onward until the finale.
Both finalists found success after the show, but Aiken out - performed Studdard 's coronation song "Flying Without Wings '' with his single release from the show "This Is the Night '', as well as in their subsequent album releases. The fourth - place finisher Josh Gracin also enjoyed some success as a country singer.
Season three premiered on January 19, 2004. One of the most talked - about contestants during the audition process was William Hung whose off - key rendition of Ricky Martin 's "She Bangs '' received widespread attention. His exposure on Idol landed him a record deal and surprisingly he became the third best - selling singer from that season.
Much media attention on the season had been focused on the three black singers, Fantasia Barrino, LaToya London, and Jennifer Hudson, dubbed the Three Divas. All three unexpectedly landed on the bottom three on the top seven result show, with Hudson controversially eliminated. Elton John, who was one of the mentors that season, called the results of the votes "incredibly racist ''. The prolonged stays of John Stevens and Jasmine Trias in the finals, despite negative comments from the judges, had aroused resentment, so much so that John Stevens reportedly received a death threat, which he dismissed as a joke ' blown out of proportion '.
The performance of "Summertime '' by Barrino, later known simply as "Fantasia '', at Top 8 was widely praised, and Simon Cowell considered it as his favorite Idol moment in the nine seasons he was on the show. Fantasia and Diana DeGarmo were the last two finalists, and Fantasia was crowned as the winner. Fantasia released as her coronation single "I Believe '', a song co-written by season one finalist Tamyra Gray, and DeGarmo released "Dreams ''.
Season four premiered on January 18, 2005; this was the first season of the series to be aired in high definition, although the finale of season three was also aired in high definition. The number of those attending the auditions by now had increased to over 100,000 from the 10,000 of the first season. The age limit was raised to 28 in this season, and among those who benefited from this new rule were Constantine Maroulis and Bo Bice, the two rockers of the show.
The top 12 finalists originally included Mario Vazquez, but he dropped out citing ' personal reasons ' and was replaced by Nikko Smith. Later, an employee of Freemantle Media, which produces the show, sued the company for wrongful termination, claiming that he was dismissed after complaining about lewd behavior by Vazquez toward him during the show.
During the top 11 week, due to a mix - up with the contestants ' telephone number, voting was repeated on what was normally the result night, with the result reveal postponed until the following night.
In May 2005, Carrie Underwood was announced the winner, with Bice the runner - up. Both Underwood and Bice released the coronation song "Inside Your Heaven '', with Underwood 's version of the song making her the first country artist ever to debut at number - one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. As of 2015, Underwood has become the most successful Idol contestant in the U.S., selling 16 million albums in the country, while selling a total of 65 million records worldwide.
Season five began on January 17, 2006. It remains the highest - rated season in the show 's run so far. Two of the more prominent contestants during the Hollywood round were the Brittenum twins who were later disqualified for identity theft.
Chris Daughtry 's performance of Fuel 's "Hemorrhage (In My Hands) '' on the show was widely praised and led to an invitation to join the band as Fuel 's new lead singer, an invitation he declined. His performance of Live 's version of "I Walk the Line '' was well received by the judges but later criticized in some quarters for not crediting the arrangement to Live. He was eliminated at the top four in a shocking result.
On May 30, 2006, Taylor Hicks was named American Idol, with Katharine McPhee the runner - up. "Do I Make You Proud '' was released as Hicks ' first single and McPhee 's was "My Destiny ''.
Despite being eliminated earlier in the season, Chris Daughtry (as lead of the band Daughtry) became the most successful recording artist from this season. Other contestants, such as Hicks, McPhee, Bucky Covington, Mandisa, Kellie Pickler, and Elliott Yamin have had varying levels of success.
Season six began on Tuesday, January 16, 2007. The premiere drew a massive audience of 37.3 million viewers, peaking in the last half hour with more than 41 million viewers.
Teenager Sanjaya Malakar was the season 's most talked - about contestant for his unusual hairdo, and for managing to survive elimination for many weeks due in part to the weblog Vote for the Worst and satellite radio personality Howard Stern, who both encouraged fans to vote for him. However, on April 18, Sanjaya was voted off.
This season saw the first Idol Gives Back telethon - inspired event, which raised more than $76 million in corporate and viewer donations. No contestant was eliminated that week, but two (Phil Stacey and Chris Richardson) were eliminated the next.
In the May 23 season finale, Jordin Sparks was declared the winner with the runner - up being Blake Lewis. Sparks has had some success as a recording artist post-Idol.
This season also saw the launch of the American Idol Songwriter contest which allows fans to vote for the "coronation song ''. Thousands of recordings of original songs were submitted by songwriters, and 20 entries selected for the public vote. The winning song, "This Is My Now '', was performed by both finalists during the finale and released by Sparks on May 24, 2007.
Season seven premiered on January 15, 2008, for a two - day, four - hour premiere. The media focused on the professional status of the season seven contestants, the so - called ' ringers ', many of whom, including Kristy Lee Cook, Brooke White, Michael Johns, and in particular Carly Smithson, had prior recording contracts. Contestant David Hernandez also attracted some attention due to his past employment as a stripper.
For the finals, American Idol debuted a new state - of - the - art set and stage on March 11, 2008, along with a new on - air look. David Cook 's performance of "Billie Jean '' on top - ten night was lauded by the judges, but provoked controversy when they apparently mistook the Chris Cornell arrangement to be David Cook 's own even though the performance was introduced as Cornell 's version. Cornell himself said he was ' flattered ' and praised David Cook 's performance. David Cook was taken to the hospital after the top - nine performance show due to heart palpitations and high blood pressure.
David Archuleta 's performance of John Lennon 's "Imagine '' was considered by many as one of the best of the season. Jennifer Lopez, who was brought in as a judge in season ten, called it a beautiful song - moment that she will never forget. Jason Castro 's semi-final performance of "Hallelujah '' also received considerable attention, and it propelled Jeff Buckley 's version of the song to the top of the Billboard digital song chart. This was the first season in which contestants ' recordings were released onto iTunes after their performances, and although sales information was not released so as not to prejudice the contest, leaked information indicated that contestants ' songs frequently reached the top of iTunes sales charts.
Idol Gives Back returned on April 9, 2008, and raised $64 million for charity.
The finalists were Cook and Archuleta. David Cook was announced the winner on May 21, 2008, the first rocker to win the show. Both Cook and Archuleta had some success as recording artists with both selling over a million albums in the U.S.
The American Idol Songwriter contest was also held this season. From ten of the most popular submissions, each of the final two contestants chose a song to perform, although neither of their selections was used as the "coronation song ''. The winning song, "The Time of My Life '', was recorded by David Cook and released on May 22, 2008.
Season eight premiered on January 13, 2009. Mike Darnell, the president of alternative programming for Fox, stated that the season would focus more on the contestants ' personal life.
In the first major change to the judging panel, a fourth judge, Kara DioGuardi, was introduced. This was also the first season without executive producer Nigel Lythgoe who left to focus on the international versions of his show So You Think You Can Dance. The Hollywood round was moved to the Kodak Theatre for 2009 and was also extended to two weeks. Idol Gives Back was canceled for this season due to the global recession at the time.
There were 13 finalists this season, but two were eliminated in the first result show of the finals. A new feature introduced was the "Judges ' Save '', and Matt Giraud was saved from elimination at the top seven by the judges when he received the fewest votes. The next week, Lil Rounds and Anoop Desai were eliminated.
The two finalists were Kris Allen and Adam Lambert, both of whom had previously landed in the bottom three at the top five. Allen won the contest in the most controversial voting result since season two. It was claimed, and then later retracted, that 38 million of the 100 million votes cast on the night came from Allen 's home state of Arkansas alone, and that AT&T employees unfairly influenced the votes by giving lessons on power - texting at viewing parties in Arkansas.
Both Allen and Lambert released the coronation song, "No Boundaries '' which was co-written by DioGuardi. This is the first season in which the winner failed to achieve gold album status.
Season nine premiered on January 12, 2010. The upheaval at the judging panel continued. Ellen DeGeneres joined as a judge to replace Paula Abdul at the start of Hollywood Week.
One of the most prominent auditioners this season was General Larry Platt whose performance of "Pants on the Ground '' became a viral hit song.
Crystal Bowersox, who has Type - I diabetes, fell ill due to diabetic ketoacidosis on the morning of the girls performance night for the top 20 week and was hospitalized. The schedule was rearranged so the boys performed first and she could perform the following night instead; she later revealed that Ken Warwick, the show producer, wanted to disqualify her but she begged to be allowed to stay on the show.
Michael Lynche was the lowest vote getter at top nine and was given the Judges ' Save. The next week Katie Stevens and Andrew Garcia were eliminated. That week, Adam Lambert was invited back to be a mentor, the first Idol alum to do so. Idol Gives Back returned this season on April 21, 2010, and raised $45 million.
A special tribute to Simon Cowell was presented in the finale for his final season with the show. Many figures from the show 's past, including Paula Abdul, made an appearance.
The final two contestants were Lee DeWyze and Bowersox. DeWyze was declared the winner during the May 26 finale. No new song was used as coronation song this year; instead, the two finalists each released a cover song -- DeWyze chose U2 's "Beautiful Day '', and Bowersox chose Patty Griffin 's "Up to the Mountain ''. This is the first season where neither finalist achieved significant album sales.
Season ten of the series premiered on January 19, 2011. Many changes were introduced this season, from the format to the personnel of the show. Jennifer Lopez and Steven Tyler joined Randy Jackson as judges following the departures of Simon Cowell (who left to launch the U.S. version of The X Factor), Kara DioGuardi (whose contract was not renewed) and Ellen DeGeneres, while Nigel Lythgoe returned as executive producer. Jimmy Iovine, chairman of the Interscope Geffen A&M label group, the new partner of American Idol, acted as the in - house mentor in place of weekly guest mentors, although in later episodes special guest mentors such as Beyoncé, will.i.am and Lady Gaga were brought in.
Season ten is the first to include online auditions where contestants could submit a 40 - second video audition via Myspace. Karen Rodriguez was one such auditioner and reached the final rounds.
One of the more prominent contestants this year was Chris Medina, whose story of caring for his brain - damaged fiancée received widespread coverage. Medina was cut in the Top 40 round. Casey Abrams, who suffers from ulcerative colitis, was hospitalized twice and missed the Top 13 result show. The judges used their one save on Abrams on the Top 11, and as a result this was the first season that 11 finalists went on tour instead of 10. In the following week, Naima Adedapo and Thia Megia were both eliminated the following week.
Pia Toscano, one of the presumed favorites to advance far in the season, was unexpectedly eliminated on April 7, 2011, finishing in ninth place. Her elimination drew criticisms from some former Idol contestants, as well as actor Tom Hanks.
The two finalists in 2011 were Lauren Alaina and Scotty McCreery, both teenage country singers. McCreery won the competition on May 25, being the youngest male winner and the fourth male in a row to win American Idol. McCreery released his first single, "I Love You This Big '', as his coronation song, and Alaina released "Like My Mother Does ''. McCreery 's debut album, Clear as Day, became the first debut album by an Idol winner to reach No. 1 on the US Billboard 200 since Ruben Studdard 's Soulful in 2003, and he became the youngest male artist to reach No. 1 on the Billboard 200.
Season 11 premiered on January 18, 2012. On February 23, it was announced that one more finalist would join the Top 24 making it the Top 25, and that was Jermaine Jones. However, on March 14, Jones was disqualified in 12th place for concealing arrests and outstanding warrants. Jones denied the accusation that he concealed his arrests.
Finalist Phillip Phillips suffered from kidney pain and was taken to the hospital before the Top 13 results show, and later received medical procedure to alleviate a blockage caused by kidney stones. He was reported to have eight surgeries during his Idol run, and had considered quitting the show due to the pain. He underwent surgery to remove the stones and reconstruct his kidney soon after the season had finished.
Jessica Sanchez received the fewest number of votes during the Top 7 week, and the judges decided to use their "save '' option on her, making her the first female recipient of the save. The following week, unlike previous seasons, Colton Dixon was the only contestant sent home. Sanchez later made the final two, the first season where a recipient of the save reached the finale.
Phillips became the winner, beating Sanchez. Prior to the announcement of the winner, season five finalist Ace Young proposed marriage to season three runner - up Diana DeGarmo on stage -- which she accepted.
Phillips released "Home '' as his coronation song, while Sanchez released "Change Nothing ''. Phillips ' "Home '' has since become the best selling of all coronation songs.
Season 12 premiered on January 16, 2013. Judges Jennifer Lopez and Steven Tyler left the show after two seasons. This season 's judging panel consisted of Randy Jackson, along with Mariah Carey, Keith Urban and Nicki Minaj. This was the first season since season nine to have four judges on the panel. The pre-season buzz and the early episodes of the show were dominated by the feud between the judges Minaj and Carey after a video of their dispute was leaked to TMZ.
The top 10 contestants started with five males and five females, however, the males were eliminated consecutively in the first five weeks, with Lazaro Arbos the last male to be eliminated. For the first time in the show 's history, the top 5 contestants were all female. It was also the first time that the judges ' "save '' was not used, the top four contestants were therefore given an extra week to perform again with their votes carried over with no elimination in the first week.
23 - year - old Candice Glover won the season with Kree Harrison taking the runner - up spot. Glover is the first female to win American Idol since Jordin Sparks. Glover released "I Am Beautiful '' as a single while Harrison released "All Cried Out '' immediately after the show. Glover sold poorly with her debut album, and this is also the first season that the runner - up was not signed by a music label.
Towards the end of the season, Randy Jackson, the last remaining of the original judges, announced that he would no longer serve as a judge to pursue other business ventures. Both judges Mariah Carey and Nicki Minaj also decided to leave after one season to focus on their music careers.
The thirteenth season premiered on January 15, 2014. Randy Jackson and Keith Urban returned, though Jackson moved from the judging panel to the role of in - mentor. Mariah Carey and Nicki Minaj left the panel after one season. Former judge Jennifer Lopez and former mentor Harry Connick, Jr. joined Urban on the panel. Also, Nigel Lythgoe and Ken Warwick were replaced as executive producers by Per Blankens, Jesse Ignjatovic and Evan Pragger. Bill DeRonde replaced Warwick as a director of the audition episodes, while Louis J. Horvitz replaced Gregg Gelfand as a director of the show.
This was the first season where the contestants were permitted to perform in the final rounds songs they wrote themselves. In the Top 8, Sam Woolf received the fewest votes, but he was saved from elimination by the judges. The 500th episode of the series was the Top 3 performance night.
Caleb Johnson was named the winner of the season, with Jena Irene as the runner - up. Johnson released "As Long as You Love Me '' as his coronation single while Irene released "We Are One ''.
The fourteenth season premiered on January 7, 2015. Jennifer Lopez, Keith Urban and Harry Connick, Jr. returned for their respective fourth, third and second seasons as judges. Eighth season runner - up Adam Lambert filled in for Urban during the New York City auditions. Randy Jackson did not return as the in - house mentor for this season.
Changes this season include only airing one episode a week during the final ten. Coca - Cola ended their longtime sponsorship of the show and Ford Motor Company maintained a reduced role. The winner of the season also received a recording contract with Big Machine Records.
Nick Fradiani won the season, defeating Clark Beckham. By winning, Fradiani became the first winner from the Northeast region. Fradiani released "Beautiful Life '' as his coronation single while Beckham released "Champion ''. Jax, the third place finalist, also released a single called "Forcefield ''.
Fox announced on May 11, 2015 that the fifteenth season would be the final season of American Idol; as such, the season was expected to have an additional focus on the program 's alumni. Ryan Seacrest returned as host, with Harry Connick Jr., Keith Urban, and Jennifer Lopez all returning as judges. The season was shortened by four weeks compared to previous years. During the finale episode, President Barack Obama praised the millions of young people that voted for contestants and pitched that they vote in the upcoming election. The farewell season concluded on April 7, 2016. Seacrest signed off by saying: "And one more time -- this is so tough -- we say to you from Hollywood, goodnight America '', and then he added, "for now. ''
Trent Harmon won the season against runner - up La'Porsha Renae. Harmon released "Falling '' co-written by Keith Urban as his coronation song. Renae 's "Battles '', third - place finisher Dalton Rapattoni 's "Strike A Match '' and fourth - place finisher MacKenzie Bourg 's "Roses '' were also released as singles.
In early 2017, Variety reported that Fremantle Media was in talks to revive the show for NBC or for its original network, Fox. A dispute between Fremantle and Core Media Group derailed these plans. Then, in May 2017, it was announced that ABC was making a bid to revive the program. Later, ABC announced that it had acquired the rights to the series, and that American Idol would return for the 2017 -- 18 television season.
On May 16, 2017, Katy Perry was the first judge to be announced by ABC. On July 20, 2017, it was announced on Live with Kelly and Ryan, that Ryan Seacrest would be returning as the host for the revival season. On September 24, 2017, Luke Bryan was the second judge to be announced for the revival season. On September 29, 2017, Lionel Richie was the third and final judge to be announced. On November 6, 2017, it was announced that the revival season would premiere on March 11, 2018. On May 21, 2018 the season concluded, crowning Maddie Poppe winner and Caleb Lee Hutchinson runner - up.
On May 4, 2018, it was announced that ABC would renew the revival series for another season. Perry, Bryan and Richie will return as judges, while Seacrest will return as host.
Seasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of American Idol. It holds the distinction of having the longest winning streak in the Nielsen annual television ratings; it became the highest - rated of all television programs in the United States overall for an unprecedented seven consecutive years, or eight consecutive (and total) years when either its performance or result show was ranked number one overall.
American Idol premiered in June 2002 and became the surprise summer hit show of 2002. The first show drew 9.9 million viewers, giving Fox the best viewing figure for the 8.30 pm spot in over a year. The audience steadily grew, and by finale night, the audience had averaged 23 million, with more than 40 million watching some part of that show. That episode was placed third amongst all age groups, but more importantly it led in the in 18 -- 49 demographic, the age group most valued by advertisers.
The growth continued into the next season, starting with a season premiere of 26.5 million. The season attracted an average of 21.7 million viewers, and was placed second overall amongst the 18 -- 49 age group. The finale night when Ruben Studdard won over Clay Aiken was also the highest - rated ever American Idol episode at 38.1 million for the final hour. By season three, the show had become the top show in the 18 -- 49 demographic a position it has held for all subsequent years up to and including season ten, and its competition stages ranked first in the nationwide overall ratings. By season four, American Idol had become the most watched series amongst all viewers on American TV for the first time, with an average viewership of 26.8 million. The show reached its peak in season five with numbers averaging 30.6 million per episode, and season five remains the highest - rated season of the series.
Season six premiered with the series ' highest - rated debut episode and a few of its succeeding episodes rank among the most watched episodes of American Idol. During this time, many television executives begun to regard the show as a programming force unlike any seen before, as its consistent dominance of up to two hours two or three nights a week exceeded the 30 - or 60 - minute reach of previous hits such as NBC 's The Cosby Show. The show was dubbed "the Death Star '', and competing networks often rearranged their schedules in order to minimize losses. However, season six also showed a steady decline in viewership over the course of the season. The season finale saw a drop in ratings of 16 % from the previous year. Season six was the first season wherein the average results show rated higher than the competition stages (unlike in the previous seasons), and became the second - highest - rated of the series after the preceding season.
The loss of viewers continued into season seven. The premiere was down 11 % among total viewers, and the results show in which Kristy Lee Cook was eliminated delivered its lowest - rated Wednesday show among the 18 -- 34 demo since the first season in 2002. However, the ratings rebounded for the season seven finale with the excitement over the battle of the Davids, and improved over season six as the series ' third most watched finale. The strong finish of season seven also helped Fox become the most watched TV network in the country for the first time since its inception, a first ever in American television history for a non-Big Three major broadcast network. Overall ratings for the season were down 10 % from season six, which is in line with the fall in viewership across all networks due in part to the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike.
The declining trend however continued into season eight, as total viewers numbers fell by 5 -- 10 % for early episodes compared to season seven, and by 9 % for the finale. In season nine, Idol 's six - year extended streak of perfection in the ratings was broken, when NBC 's coverage of the 2010 Winter Olympics on February 17 beat Idol in the same time slot with 30.1 million viewers over Idol 's 18.4 million. Nevertheless, American Idol overall finished its ninth season as the most watched TV series for the sixth year running, breaking the previous record of five consecutive seasons achieved by CBS ' All in the Family and NBC 's The Cosby Show.
In season ten, the total viewer numbers for the first week of shows fell 12 -- 13 %, and by up to 23 % in the 18 -- 49 demo compared to season nine. Later episodes, however, retained viewers better, and the season ended on a high with a significant increase in viewership for the finale -- up 12 % for the adults 18 -- 49 demo and a 21 % increase in total viewers from the season nine finale. While the overall viewer number has increased this season, its viewer demographics have continued to age year on year -- the median age this season was 47.2 compared to a median age of 32.1 in its first season. The demographics also became "whiter '' over time and less diverse. Nevertheless, in the 2010 -- 11 television season, Fox maintained its lead on over other networks with its seventh consecutive season of victory overall in the 18 -- 49 demographic ratings in the United States.
Season eleven, however, suffered a steep drop in ratings, a drop attributed by some to the arrival of new shows such as The Voice and The X-Factor. The ratings for the first two episodes of season eleven fell 16 -- 21 % in overall viewer numbers and 24 -- 27 % in the 18 / 49 demo, while the season finale fell 27 % in total viewer number and 30 % in the 18 -- 49 demo. The average viewership for the season fell below 20 million viewers the first time since 2003, a drop of 23 % in total viewers and 30 % in the 18 / 49 demo. For the first time in eight years, American Idol lost the leading position in both the total viewers number and the 18 / 49 demo, coming in second to NBC Sunday Night Football, although the strengths of Idol in its second year in the Wednesday - Thursday primetime slots helped Fox achieve the longest period of 18 -- 49 demographic victory in the Nielsen ratings, standing at 8 straight years from 2004 to 2012.
The loss of viewers continued into season 12, which saw the show hitting a number of series low in the 18 -- 49 demo. The finale had 7.2 million fewer viewers than the previous season, and saw a drop of 44 % in the 18 -- 49 demo. The season viewers averaged at 13.3 million, a drop of 24 % from the previous season. The thirteenth season suffered a huge decline in the 18 -- 49 demographic, a drop of 28 % from the twelfth season, and American Idol lost its Top 10 position in the Nielsen ratings by the end of the 2013 -- 14 television season for the first time since its entry to the rankings in 2003 as a result, and never regained its Top 10 position by the series ' end in 2016.
The continuing decline influenced further changes for season 14, including the loss of Coca - Cola as the show 's major sponsor, and a decision to only broadcast one, two - hour show per week during the top 12 rounds (with results from the previous week integrated into the performance show, rather than having a separate results show). On May 11, 2015, prior to the fourteenth - season finale, Fox announced that the fifteenth season of American Idol would be its last.
Despite these changes, the show 's ratings would decline more sharply. The fourteenth - season finale was the lowest - rated finale ever, with an average of only 8.03 million viewers watching the finale. The show 's ratings, however, rebounded in its final season, and ended its run in 2016 as Fox 's first ever program to conclude its run without dropping from the Nielsen Top 30 most watched television shows in each of its seasons.
Early reviews were mixed in their assessment. Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly considered that "As TV, American Idol is crazily entertaining; as music, it 's dust - mote inconsequential ''. Others, however, thought that "the most striking aspect of the series was the genuine talent it revealed ''. It was also described as a "sadistic musical bake - off '', and "a romp in humiliation ''. Other aspects of the show have attracted criticisms. The product placement in the show in particular was noted, and some critics were harsh about what they perceived as its blatant commercial calculations -- Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union - Tribune charged that American Idol is "a conniving multimedia monster '' that has "absorbed the sin of our debauched culture and spit them out in a lump of reconstituted evil ''. The decision to send the season one winner to sing the national anthem at the Lincoln Memorial on the first anniversary of the September 11 attacks in 2002 was also poorly received by many. Lisa de Moraes of The Washington Post noted sarcastically that "The terrorists have won '' and, with a sideswipe at the show 's commercialism and voting process, that the decision as to who "gets to turn this important site into just another cog in the ' Great American Idol Marketing Mandala ' is in the hands of the millions of girls who have made American Idol a hit. Them and a handful of phone - redialer geeks who have been clocking up to 10,000 calls each week for their contestant of choice (but who, according to Fox, are in absolutely no way skewing the outcome). ''
Some of the later writers about the show were more positive, Michael Slezak, again of Entertainment Weekly, thought that "for all its bloated, synthetic, product - shilling, money - making trappings, Idol provides a once - a-year chance for the average American to combat the evils of today 's music business. '' Singer Sheryl Crow, who was later to act as a mentor on the show, however took the view that the show "undermines art in every way and promotes commercialism ''. Pop music critic Ann Powers nevertheless suggested that Idol has "reshaped the American songbook '', "led us toward a new way of viewing ourselves in relationship to mainstream popular culture '', and connects "the classic Hollywood dream to the multicentered popular culture of the future. '' Others focused on the personalities in the show; Ramin Setoodeh of Newsweek accused judge Simon Cowell 's cruel critiques in the show of helping to establish in the wider world a culture of meanness, that "Simon Cowell has dragged the rest of us in the mud with him. '' Some such as singer John Mayer disparaged the contestants, suggesting that those who appeared on Idol are not real artists with self - respect.
Some in the entertainment industry were critical of the star - making aspect of the show. Usher, a mentor on the show, bemoaning the loss of the "true art form of music '', thought that shows like American Idol made it seem "so easy that everyone can do it, and that it can happen overnight '', and that "television is a lie ''. Musician Michael Feinstein, while acknowledging that the show had uncovered promising performers, said that American Idol "is n't really about music. It 's about all the bad aspects of the music business -- the arrogance of commerce, this sense of ' I know what will make this person a star; artists themselves do n't know. ' '' That American Idol is seen to be a fast track to success for its contestants has been a cause of resentment for some in the industry. LeAnn Rimes, commenting on Carrie Underwood winning Best Female Artist in Country Music Awards over Faith Hill in 2006, said that "Carrie has not paid her dues long enough to fully deserve that award ''. It is a common theme that has been echoed by many others. Elton John, who had appeared as a mentor in the show but turned down an offer to be a judge on American Idol, commenting on talent shows in general, said that "there have been some good acts but the only way to sustain a career is to pay your dues in small clubs ''. American Idol revolutionized American pop culture and the pop idol process and has provided an opportunity for many to bypass the small club scene and allow a much larger audience to participate in and select the next potential chart topping performer.
The success of the show 's alumni, however, has led to a more positive assessment of the show, and the show was described as having "proven it has a valid way to pick talent and a proven way to sell records ''. While the industry is divided on the show success, its impact is felt particularly strongly in the country music format. According to a CMT exec, reflecting on the success of Idol alumni in the country genre, "if you want to try and get famous fast by going to a cattle call audition on TV, Idol reasonably remains the first choice for anyone '', and that country music and Idol "go together well ''.
American Idol was nominated for the Emmy 's Outstanding Reality Competition Program for nine years but never won. Director Bruce Gower won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing For A Variety, Music Or Comedy Series in 2009, and the show won a Creative Arts Emmys each in 2007 and 2008, three in 2009, and two in 2011, as well as a Governor 's Award in 2007 for its Idol Gives Back edition. It won the People 's Choice Award, which honors the popular culture of the previous year as voted by the public, for favorite competition / reality show in 2005, 2006, 2007, 2010, 2011 and 2012. It won the first Critics ' Choice Television Award in 2011 for Best Reality Competition.
In 2013, TV Guide ranked the series No. 48 on its list of the 60 Best Series of All Time.
Throughout the series, eleven of the sixteen Idol winners, including its first five, had come from the Southern United States. A large number of other finalists during the series ' run have also hailed from the American South, including Clay Aiken, Kellie Pickler, and Chris Daughtry, who are all from North Carolina. In 2012, an analysis of the 131 contestants who have appeared in the finals of all seasons of the show up to that point found that 48 % have some connection to the Southern United States.
The show itself was popular in the Southern United States, with households in the Southeastern United States 10 % more likely to watch American Idol during the eighth season in 2009, and those in the East Central region, such as Kentucky, were 16 percent more likely to tune into the series. Data from Nielsen SoundScan, a music - sales tracking service, showed that of the 47 million CDs sold by Idol contestants through January 2010, 85 percent were by contestants with ties to the American South.
Theories given for the success of Southerners on Idol have been: more versatility with musical genres, as the Southern U.S. is home to several music genre scenes; not having as many opportunities to break into the pop music business; text - voting due to the South having the highest percentage of cell - phone only households; and the strong heritage of music and singing, which is notable in the Bible Belt, where it is in church that many people get their start in public singing. Others also suggest that the Southern character of these contestants appeal to the South, as well as local pride. According to season five winner Taylor Hicks, who is from the state of Alabama, "People in the South have a lot of pride... So, they 're adamant about supporting the contestants who do well from their state or region. ''
For five consecutive seasons, starting in season seven, the title was given to a white male who plays the guitar -- a trend that Idol pundits call the "White guy with guitar '' or "WGWG '' factor. Just hours before the season eleven finale, where Phillip Phillips was named the winner, Richard Rushfield, author of the book American Idol: The Untold Story, said, "You have this alliance between young girls and grandmas and they see it, not necessarily as a contest to create a pop star competing on the contemporary radio, but as... who 's the nicest guy in a popularity contest '', he says, "And that has led to this dynasty of four, and possibly now five, consecutive, affable, very nice, good - looking white boys. ''
The show had been criticized in earlier seasons over the onerous contract contestants had to sign that gave excessive control to 19 Entertainment over their future career, and handed a large part of their future earnings to the management.
Individual contestants have generated controversy in this competition for their past actions, or for being ' ringers ' planted by the producers. A number of contestants had been disqualified for various reasons, such as for having an existing contract or undisclosed criminal records, although the show had been accused of double standard for disqualifying some but not others.
Voting results have been a consistent source of controversy. The mechanism of voting had also aroused considerable criticisms, most notably in season two when Ruben Studdard beat Clay Aiken in a close vote, and in season eight, when the massive increase in text votes fueled the texting controversy. Concerns about power voting have been expressed from the very first season. Since 2004, votes also have been affected to a limited degree by online communities such as DialIdol, and Vote for the Worst.
The enormous success of the show and the revenue it generated was transformative for the Fox Broadcasting Company. American Idol and fellow competing shows Survivor and Who Wants to Be a Millionaire were altogether credited for expanding reality television programming in the United States in the 1990s and 2000s, and Idol became the most watched non-scripted primetime television series for almost a decade, from 2003 to 2012, breaking records on U.S. television (dominated by drama shows and sitcoms in the preceding decades).
The show pushed Fox to become the number one U.S. TV network amongst adults 18 -- 49, the key demographic coveted by advertisers, for an unprecedented eight consecutive years by 2012. Its success also helped lift the ratings of other shows that were scheduled around it such as House and Bones, and Idol, for years, had become Fox 's strongest platform primetime television program for promoting eventual hit shows of the 2010s (of the same network) such as Glee and New Girl. The show, its creator Simon Fuller claimed, "saved Fox ''.
The show 's massive success in the mid-2000s to early 2010s spawned a number of imitating singing - competition shows, such as Rock Star, Nashville Star, The Voice, Rising Star, The Sing - Off, and The X Factor. The number of imitative singing shows on American television had reached 17 by its final year in 2016. Its format also served as a blueprint for non-singing TV shows such as Dancing with the Stars and So You Think You Can Dance, most of which contribute to the current highly competitive reality TV landscape on American television.
As one of the most successful shows on U.S. television history, American Idol had a strong impact not just on television, but also in the wider world of entertainment. It helped create a number of highly successful recording artists, such as Kelly Clarkson, Daughtry and Carrie Underwood, as well as others of varying notability. The alumni of the show had received between them 54 Grammy nominations and 13 Grammy awards by the end of the show in 2016, with Carrie Underwood winning seven.
Various American Idol alumni had success on various record charts around the world; in the U.S. they had achieved 345 number ones on the Billboard charts in its first 10 years, and 458 by its last year of broadcast in 2016, with 100 achieved by Kelly Clarkson alone. According to Fred Bronson, author of books on the Billboard charts, no other entity has ever created as many hit - making artists and best - selling albums and singles. In 2007, American Idol alums accounted for 2.1 % of all music sales. Its alumni have a massive impact on radio; in 2007, American Idol had become "a dominant force in radio '' according to the president of the research company Mediabase which monitors radio stations Rich Meyer. By 2010, four winners each had more than a million radio spins, with Kelly Clarkson leading the field with over four million spins.
At the end of the show 's run, Idol 's contestants have sold more than 60 million albums in the US, resulting in more than 80 Platinum records and 95 Gold records. Its participants have generated more than 450 Billboard No. 1 hits and sold more than 260 million digital downloads.
The impact of American Idol was also strongly felt in musical theatre, where many of Idol alumni have forged successful careers. The striking effect of former American Idol contestants on Broadway has been noted and commented on. The casting of a popular Idol contestant can lead to significantly increased ticket sales. Other alumni have gone on to work in television and films, the most notable being Jennifer Hudson who, on the recommendation of the Idol vocal coach Debra Byrd, won a role in Dreamgirls and subsequently received an Academy Award for her performance.
The dominance of American Idol in the ratings had made it the most profitable show in U.S. TV for many years. The show was estimated to generate $900 million for the year 2004 through sales of TV ads, albums, merchandise and concert tickets. By season seven, the show was estimated to earn around $900 million from its ad revenue alone, not including ancillary sponsorship deals and other income. One estimate puts the total TV revenue for the first eight seasons of American at $6.4 billion. Sponsors that bought fully integrated packages can expect a variety of promotions of their products on the show, such as product placement, adverts and product promotion integrated into the show, and various promotional opportunities. Other off - air promotional partners pay for the rights to feature "Idol '' branding on their packaging, products and marketing programs. American Idol also partnered with Disney in its theme park attraction The American Idol Experience.
American Idol became the most expensive series on broadcast networks for advertisers starting season four, and by the next season, it had broken the record in advertising rate for a regularly scheduled prime - time network series, selling over $700,000 for a 30 - seconds slot, and reaching up to $1.3 million for the finale. Its ad prices reached a peak in season seven at $737,000. Estimated revenue more than doubled from $404 million in season three to $870 million in season six. While that declined from season eight onwards, it still earned significantly more than its nearest competitor, with advertising revenue topping $800 million annually the next few seasons. However, the sharp drop in ratings in season eleven also resulted in a sharp drop in advertising rate for season twelve, and the show lost its leading position as the costliest show for advertisers. By 2014, ad revenue from had fallen to $427 million where a 30 - second spot went for less than $300,000. For the relaunched Idol on ABC, it has been reported that a 30 - second spot may cost between $120,000 -- $160,000.
Ford Motor Company and Coca - Cola were two of the first sponsors of American Idol in its first season. The sponsorship deal cost around $10 million in season one, rising to $35 million by season 7, and between $50 to $60 million in season 10. The third major sponsor AT&T Wireless joined in the second season but ended after season 12, and Coca - Cola officially ended its sponsorship after season 13 amidst the declining ratings of Idol in the mid-2010s. iTunes sponsored the show since season seven.
American Idol prominent display of its sponsors ' logo and products had been noted since the early seasons. By season six, Idol showed 4,349 product placements according to Nielsen Media Research. The branded entertainment integration proved beneficial to its advertisers -- promotion of AT&T text - messaging as a means to vote successfully introduced the technology into the wider culture, and Coca - Cola has seen its equity increased during the show.
Coca - Cola 's archrival PepsiCo declined to sponsor American Idol at the show 's start. What the Los Angeles Times later called "missing one of the biggest marketing opportunities in a generation '' contributed to Pepsi losing market share, by 2010 falling to third place from second in the United States. PepsiCo sponsored the American version of Cowell 's The X Factor in hopes of not repeating its Idol mistake until its cancellation.
For the revived series on ABC, Macy 's and Johnson & Johnson 's Zyrtec signed on as the major sponsors of the show.
The top ten (eleven in the tenth season, five in the fourteenth season, and seven in the sixteenth season) toured at the end of every season except for the fifteenth season. In the season twelve tour a semi-finalist who won a sing - off was also added to the tour. Kellogg 's Pop - Tarts was the sponsor for the first seven seasons, and Guitar Hero was added for the season seven tour. M&M 's Pretzel Chocolate Candies was a sponsor of the season nine tour. The season five tour was the most successful tour with gross of over $35 million. However no concert tour was organized in the fifteenth season, the only season not to have an associated tour. The 2018 tour will feature the final seven finalists, Cade Foehner, Caleb Lee Hutchinson, Catie Turner, Gabby Barrett, Jurnee, Maddie Poppe and Michael J. Woodard, along with In Real Life as an opener on select dates.
Idol Gives Back was a special charity event started in season six featuring performances by celebrities and various fund - raising initiatives. This event was also held in seasons seven and nine and has raised nearly $185 million in total.
American Idol has traditionally released studio recordings of contestants ' performances as well as the winner 's coronation single for sale. For the first five seasons, the recordings were released as a compilation album at the end of the season. All five of these albums reached the top ten in Billboard 200 which made then American Idol the most successful soundtrack franchise of any motion picture or television program. Starting late in season five, individual performances were released during the season as digital downloads, initially from the American Idol official website only. In season seven the live performances and studio recordings were made available during the season from iTunes when it joined as a sponsor. In Season ten the weekly studio recordings were also released as compilation digital album straight after performance night.
19 Recordings, a recording label owned by 19 Entertainment, currently hold the rights to phonographic material recorded by all the contestants. 19 originally partnered with Bertelsmann Music Group (BMG) to promote and distribute the recordings through its labels RCA Records, Arista Records, J Records, Jive Records. In 2005 -- 2007, BMG partnered with Sony Music Entertainment to form a joint venture known as Sony BMG Music Entertainment. From 2008 to 2010, Sony Music handled the distribution following their acquisition of BMG. Sony Music was partnered with American Idol and distribute its music, and In 2010, Sony was replaced by as the music label for American Idol by UMG 's Interscope - Geffen - A&M Records.
American Idol video games
On February 14, 2009, The Walt Disney Company debuted "The American Idol Experience '' at its Disney 's Hollywood Studios theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort in Florida. In this live production, co-produced by 19 Entertainment, park guests chose from a list of songs and auditioned privately for Disney cast members. Those selected then performed on a stage in a 1000 - seat theater replicating the Idol set. Three judges, whose mannerisms and style mimicked those of the real Idol judges, critiqued the performances. Audience members then voted for their favorite performer. There were several preliminary - round shows during the day that culminated in a "finals '' show in the evening where one of the winners of the previous rounds that day was selected as the overall winner. The winner of the finals show received a "Dream Ticket '' that granted them front - of - the - line privileges at any future American Idol audition. The attraction closed on August 30, 2014.
American Idol is broadcast to over 100 nations outside of the United States. In most nations these are not live broadcasts and may be tape delayed by several days or weeks. In Canada, the first thirteen seasons of American Idol were aired live by CTV and / or CTV Two, in simulcast with Fox. CTV dropped Idol after its thirteenth season and in August 2014, Yes TV announced that it had picked up Canadian rights to American Idol beginning in its 2015 season. In 2017, it was announced the show would return to CTV Two for its sixteenth season.
In Latin America, the show is broadcast and subtitled by Sony Entertainment Television. In southeast Asia, it is broadcast by STAR World every Thursday and Friday nine or ten hours after. In Philippines, it is aired every Thursday and Friday nine or ten hours after its United States telecast; from 2004 to 2007 on ABC 5; 2008 -- 11 on QTV, then GMA News TV; and since 2012 on ETC. On Philippine television history. In Australia, it aired a few hours after the U.S. telecast. It was aired on Network Ten from 2002 to 2008 and then again in 2013. Between 2008 and 2012 it aired on Fox8 and from season 13 to 14 (2014 -- 15) it aired on digital channel, Eleven, a sister channel to Network Ten. Its final season (2016) aired on Fox8 hours after the original U.S. broadcast. The show enjoyed a lot of popularity in Australia throughout the 2000s before declining in the ratings. In the United Kingdom, episodes were aired one day after the U.S. broadcast on digital channel ITV2. In season 12, the episodes aired on 5 *. It was also aired in Ireland on TV3 two days after the telecast. In Brazil and Israel, the show airs two days after its original broadcast. In the instances where the airing is delayed, the shows may sometimes be combined into one episode to summarize the results. In Italy, the twelfth season was broadcast by La3.
|
troy studios scores pilot from game of thrones creator | Game of Thrones - Wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. It is an adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire, George R.R. Martin 's series of fantasy novels, the first of which is A Game of Thrones. It is filmed in Belfast and elsewhere in the United Kingdom, Canada, Croatia, Iceland, Malta, Morocco, Spain, and the United States. The series premiered on HBO in the United States on April 17, 2011, and its seventh season ended on August 27, 2017. The series will conclude with its eighth season premiering either in 2018 or 2019.
Set on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos, Game of Thrones has several plot lines and a large ensemble cast but centers on three primary story arcs. The first story arc centers on the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms and follows a web of alliances and conflicts among the dynastic noble families either vying to claim the throne or fighting for independence from the throne. The second story arc focuses on the last descendant of the realm 's deposed ruling dynasty, exiled and plotting a return to the throne. The third story arc centers on the longstanding brotherhood charged with defending the realm against the ancient threats of the fierce peoples and legendary creatures that lie far north, and an impending winter that threatens the realm.
Game of Thrones has attracted record viewership on HBO and has a broad, active, international fan base. It has been acclaimed by critics, particularly for its acting, complex characters, story, scope, and production values, although its frequent use of nudity and violence (including sexual violence) has been criticized. The series has received 38 Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series in 2015 and 2016, more than any other primetime scripted television series. Its other awards and nominations include three Hugo Awards for Best Dramatic Presentation (2012 -- 2014), a 2011 Peabody Award, and four nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series -- Drama (2012 and 2015 -- 2017). Of the ensemble cast, Peter Dinklage has won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (2011 and 2015) and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film (2012) for his performance as Tyrion Lannister. Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, Kit Harington, Maisie Williams, Diana Rigg, and Max von Sydow have also received Primetime Emmy Award nominations for their performances in the series.
Game of Thrones is roughly based on the storylines of A Song of Ice and Fire, set in the fictional Seven Kingdoms of Westeros and the continent of Essos. The series chronicles the violent dynastic struggles among the realm 's noble families for the Iron Throne, while other families fight for independence from it. It opens with additional threats in the icy North and Essos in the east.
Showrunner David Benioff jokingly suggested "The Sopranos in Middle - earth '' as Game of Thrones ' tagline, referring to its intrigue - filled plot and dark tone in a fantasy setting of magic and dragons. In a 2012 study of deaths per episode, it ranked second out of 40 recent U.S. TV drama series (with an average of 14).
The series is generally praised for what is perceived as a sort of medieval realism. George R.R. Martin set out to make the story feel more like historical fiction than contemporary fantasy, with less emphasis on magic and sorcery and more on battles, political intrigue, and the characters, believing that magic should be used moderately in the epic fantasy genre. Martin has stated that "the true horrors of human history derive not from orcs and Dark Lords, but from ourselves. ''
A common theme in the fantasy genre is the battle between good and evil, which Martin says does not mirror the real world. Just like people 's capacity for good and for evil in real life, Martin explores the questions of redemption and character change. The show allows the audience to view different characters from their perspective, unlike in many other fantasies, and thus the supposed villains can provide their side of the story. Benioff said, "George brought a measure of harsh realism to high fantasy. He introduced gray tones into a black - and - white universe. ''
In early seasons, under the influence of the A Song of Ice and Fire books, main characters were regularly killed off, and this was credited with developing tension among viewers. Later seasons, however, critics pointed out that certain characters had developed "plot armor '', attributing this to the show 's deviating from the books and becoming more of a traditional television series. The series also reflects the substantial death rates in war.
Although the first season closely follows the events of the first novel, later seasons have made significant changes. According to David Benioff, the show is "about adapting the series as a whole and following the map George laid out for us and hitting the major milestones, but not necessarily each of the stops along the way ''.
Tom Holland of The Guardian believes that the novels and their adaptations base aspects of their settings, characters, and plot on events in European history. Most of Westeros is reminiscent of high medieval Europe, from lands and cultures, to the palace intrigue, feudal system, castles, and knightly tournaments. A principal inspiration for the novels is the English Wars of the Roses (1455 -- 85) between the houses of Lancaster and York, reflected in Martin 's houses of Lannister and Stark. The scheming Cersei Lannister evokes Isabella, the "she - wolf of France '' (1295 -- 1358); Isabella and her family (particularly as portrayed in Maurice Druon 's historical - novel series, The Accursed Kings) were also a main inspiration for Martin.
Holland further proposes that other historical antecedents of series elements include Hadrian 's Wall (which becomes Martin 's Wall), the legend of Atlantis (ancient Valyria), Byzantine Greek fire ("wildfire ''), Icelandic sagas of the Viking Age (the Ironborn), the Mongol hordes (the Dothraki), the Hundred Years ' War (1337 -- 1453) and the Italian Renaissance (c. 1400 -- 1500). The series ' popularity has been attributed, in part, to Martin 's skill at fusing these elements into a seamless, credible version of alternate history. Martin acknowledges, "I take (history) and I file off the serial numbers and I turn it up to 11. ''
Game of Thrones has an ensemble cast estimated to be the largest on television; during its third season, 257 cast names were recorded. In 2014, several actor contracts were renegotiated to include a seventh - season option, with raises which reportedly made them among the highest - paid performers on cable TV. In 2016, it was reported that several actor contracts were again renegotiated, with five of the main cast members having increased their salary to £ 2 million per episode for the last two seasons, which would make them the highest paid actors on television. The main cast is listed below.
Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is the head of House Stark, whose members are involved in plot lines throughout most of the series. He and his wife, Catelyn Tully (Michelle Fairley), have five children: Robb (Richard Madden), the eldest, followed by Sansa (Sophie Turner), Arya (Maisie Williams), Bran (Isaac Hempstead - Wright) and Rickon (Art Parkinson), the youngest. Ned 's illegitimate son Jon Snow (Kit Harington) and his friend, Samwell Tarly (John Bradley), serve in the Night 's Watch under Lord Commander Jeor Mormont (James Cosmo). The Wildlings living north of the Wall include young Gilly (Hannah Murray), and warriors Tormund Giantsbane (Kristofer Hivju) and Ygritte (Rose Leslie).
Others associated with House Stark include Ned 's ward Theon Greyjoy (Alfie Allen), his vassal Roose Bolton (Michael McElhatton), and Bolton 's bastard son, Ramsay Snow (Iwan Rheon). Robb falls in love with the healer Talisa Maegyr (Oona Chaplin), and Arya befriends blacksmith 's apprentice Gendry (Joe Dempsie) and assassin Jaqen H'ghar (Tom Wlaschiha). The tall warrior Brienne of Tarth (Gwendoline Christie) serves Catelyn and, later, Sansa.
In King 's Landing, the capital, Ned 's friend King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) shares a loveless marriage with Cersei Lannister (Lena Headey) -- who has taken her twin brother, the Kingslayer Ser Jaime Lannister (Nikolaj Coster - Waldau), as her lover. She loathes her younger brother, the dwarf Tyrion Lannister (Peter Dinklage), who is attended by his mistress Shae (Sibel Kekilli) and the mercenary, or ' sellsword ', Bronn (Jerome Flynn). Cersei 's father is Lord Tywin Lannister (Charles Dance). Cersei also has two young sons: Joffrey (Jack Gleeson) and Tommen (Dean - Charles Chapman). Joffrey is guarded by the scar - faced warrior, Sandor "the Hound '' Clegane (Rory McCann).
The king 's Small Council of advisors includes crafty Master of Coin Lord Petyr "Littlefinger '' Baelish (Aidan Gillen) and eunuch spymaster Lord Varys (Conleth Hill). Robert 's brother, Stannis Baratheon (Stephen Dillane), is advised by foreign priestess Melisandre (Carice van Houten) and former smuggler Ser Davos Seaworth (Liam Cunningham). The wealthy Tyrell family is primarily represented at court by Margaery Tyrell (Natalie Dormer). The High Sparrow (Jonathan Pryce) is the capital 's principal religious leader. In the southern principality of Dorne, Ellaria Sand (Indira Varma) seeks vengeance against the Lannisters.
Across the Narrow Sea, siblings Viserys (Harry Lloyd) and Daenerys Targaryen (Emilia Clarke) -- the exiled children of the last king of the original ruling dynasty, who was overthrown by Robert Baratheon -- are running for their lives and trying to win back the throne. Daenerys has been married to Khal Drogo (Jason Momoa), the leader of the nomadic Dothraki. Her retinue includes exiled knight Ser Jorah Mormont (Iain Glen), her aide Missandei (Nathalie Emmanuel) and the sellsword Daario Naharis (Michiel Huisman).
In January 2006, David Benioff had a phone conversation with George R.R. Martin 's literary agent about the books he represented, and became interested in A Song of Ice and Fire as he had been a fan of fantasy fiction when young but had not read the books before. The literary agent then sent the first four books of A Song of Ice and Fire to Benioff. Benioff read a few hundred pages of the first novel, A Game of Thrones, shared his enthusiasm with D.B. Weiss and suggested that they adapt Martin 's novels into a television series; Weiss finished the first novel in "maybe 36 hours ''. They pitched the series to HBO after a five - hour meeting with Martin (a veteran screenwriter) in a restaurant on Santa Monica Boulevard. According to Benioff, they won Martin over with their answer to his question, "Who is Jon Snow 's mother? ''
Before being approached by Benioff and Weiss, Martin had had other meetings with other scriptwriters, most of them wanting to turn it into a feature film. Martin however deemed it "unfilmable '' and impossible to be done as a feature film, stating that the size of one of his novels is as long as The Lord of the Rings, which had been adapted as three feature films. Similarly, Benioff also said that it would be impossible to turn the novels into a feature film as the scale of the novels is too big for a feature film and dozens of characters would have to be discarded. Benioff added, "a fantasy movie of this scope, financed by a major studio, would almost certainly need a PG - 13 rating. That means no sex, no blood, no profanity. Fuck that. '' Martin himself was pleased with the suggestion that they adapt it as an HBO series, saying that he "never imagined it anywhere else ''. "I knew it could n't be done as a network television series. It 's too adult. The level of sex and violence would never have gone through. ''
The series began development in January 2007. HBO acquired the TV rights to the novels, with Benioff and Weiss as its executive producers, and Martin as a co-executive producer. The intention was for each novel to yield a season 's worth of episodes. Initially, Martin would write one episode per season while Benioff and Weiss would write the rest of the episodes. Jane Espenson and Bryan Cogman were later added to write one episode apiece the first season.
The first and second drafts of the pilot script by Benioff and Weiss were submitted in August 2007 and June 2008, respectively. Although HBO liked both drafts, a pilot was not ordered until November 2008; the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike may have delayed the process. The pilot episode, "Winter Is Coming '', was first shot in 2009; after a poor reception in a private viewing, HBO demanded an extensive re-shoot (about 90 percent of the episode, with cast and directorial changes).
The pilot reportedly cost HBO $5 -- 10 million to produce, while the first season 's budget was estimated at $50 -- 60 million. In the second season, the show received a 15 - percent budget increase for the climactic battle in "Blackwater '' (which had an $8 million budget). Between 2012 and 2015, the average budget per episode increased from $6 million to "at least '' $8 million. The sixth - season budget was over $10 million per episode, for a season total of over $100 million and a series record.
Nina Gold and Robert Sterne are the series ' primary casting directors. Through a process of auditions and readings, the main cast was assembled. The only exceptions were Peter Dinklage and Sean Bean, whom the writers wanted from the start; they were announced as joining the pilot in 2009. Other actors signed for the pilot were Kit Harington as Jon Snow, Jack Gleeson as Joffrey Baratheon, Harry Lloyd as Viserys Targaryen and Mark Addy as Robert Baratheon. Addy was, according to showrunners Benioff and Weiss, the easiest actor to cast for the show, being that his audition was on point. Catelyn Stark was scheduled to be played by Jennifer Ehle, but the role was recast with Michelle Fairley. Daenerys Targaryen was also recast, with Emilia Clarke replacing Tamzin Merchant. The rest of the first season 's cast was filled in the second half of 2009.
Although many of the first - season cast were set to return, the producers had a large number of new characters to cast for the second season. Due to this, Benioff and Weiss postponed the introduction of several key characters and merged several characters into one or assigned plot functions to different characters.
Game of Thrones used seven writers in six seasons. Series creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the showrunners, write most of the episodes each season.
A Song of Ice and Fire author George R.R. Martin wrote one episode in each of the first four seasons. Martin did not write an episode for the later seasons, since he wanted to focus on completing the sixth novel (The Winds of Winter). Jane Espenson co-wrote one first - season episode as a freelance writer.
Bryan Cogman, initially a script coordinator for the series, was promoted to producer for the fifth season. Cogman, who wrote at least one episode for the first five seasons, is the only other writer in the writers ' room with Benioff and Weiss. Before his promotion, Vanessa Taylor (a writer during the second and third seasons) worked closely with Benioff and Weiss. Dave Hill joined the writing staff for the fifth season after working as an assistant to Benioff and Weiss. Although Martin is not in the writers ' room, he reads the script outlines and makes comments.
Benioff and Weiss sometimes assign characters to particular writers; for example, Cogman was assigned to Arya Stark for the fourth season. The writers spend several weeks writing a character outline, including what material from the novels to use and the overarching themes. After these individual outlines are complete, they spend another two to three weeks discussing each main character 's individual arc and arranging them episode by episode. A detailed outline is created, with each of the writers working on a portion to create a script for each episode. Cogman, who wrote two episodes for the fifth season, took a month and a half to complete both scripts. They are then read by Benioff and Weiss, who make notes, and parts of the script are rewritten. All ten episodes are written before filming begins, since they are filmed out of order with two units in different countries.
Benioff and Weiss write each of their episodes together, with one of them writing the first half of the script and the other the second half. After that they begin with passing the drafts back and forth to make notes and rewrite parts of it.
Benioff and Weiss originally intended to adapt the entire, still - incomplete A Song of Ice and Fire series of novels for television. After Game of Thrones began outpacing the published novels in the sixth season, the series was based on a plot outline of the future novels provided by Martin and original content. In April 2016, the showrunners ' plan was to shoot 13 more episodes after the sixth season: seven episodes in the seventh season and six episodes in the eighth. Later that month, the series was renewed for a seventh season with a seven - episode order. As of 2017, seven seasons have been ordered and filmed, adapting the novels at a rate of about 48 seconds per page for the first three seasons.
The first two seasons adapted one novel each. For the later seasons, its creators see Game of Thrones as an adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire as a whole rather than the individual novels; this enables them to move events across novels, according to screen - adaptation requirements.
Principal photography for the first season was scheduled to begin on July 26, 2010, and the primary location was the Paint Hall Studios in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Exterior scenes in Northern Ireland were filmed at Sandy Brae in the Mourne Mountains (standing in for Vaes Dothrak), Castle Ward (Winterfell), Saintfield Estates (the Winterfell godswood), Tollymore Forest (outdoor scenes), Cairncastle (the execution site), the Magheramorne quarry (Castle Black) and Shane 's Castle (the tourney grounds). Doune Castle in Stirling, Scotland, was also used in the original pilot episode for scenes at Winterfell. The producers initially considered filming the whole series in Scotland, but decided on Northern Ireland because of the availability of studio space.
The first season 's southern scenes were filmed in Malta, a change in location from the pilot episode 's Moroccan sets. The city of Mdina was used for King 's Landing. Filming was also done at Fort Manoel (representing the Sept of Baelor), at the Azure Window on the island of Gozo (the Dothraki wedding site) and at San Anton Palace, Fort Ricasoli, Fort St. Angelo and St. Dominic monastery (all used for scenes in the Red Keep).
Filming of the second season 's southern scenes shifted from Malta to Croatia, where the city of Dubrovnik and nearby locations allowed exterior shots of a walled, coastal medieval city. The Walls of Dubrovnik and Fort Lovrijenac were used for scenes in King 's Landing and the Red Keep. The island of Lokrum, the St. Dominic monastery in the coastal town of Trogir, the Rector 's Palace in Dubrovnik, and the Dubac quarry (a few kilometers east) were used for scenes set in Qarth. Scenes set north of the Wall, in the Frostfangs and at the Fist of the First Men, were filmed in November 2011 in Iceland: on the Vatnajökull glacier near Smyrlabjörg, the Svínafellsjökull glacier near Skaftafell and the Mýrdalsjökull glacier near Vik on Höfðabrekkuheiði.
Third - season production returned to Dubrovnik, with the Walls of Dubrovnik, Fort Lovrijenac and nearby locations again used for scenes in King 's Landing and the Red Keep. Trsteno Arboretum, a new location, is the garden of the Tyrells in King 's Landing. The third season also returned to Morocco (including the city of Essaouira) to film Daenerys ' scenes in Essos. Dimmuborgir and the Grjótagjá cave in Iceland were used as well. One scene, with a live bear, was filmed in Los Angeles. The production used three units (Dragon, Wolf and Raven) filming in parallel, six directing teams, 257 cast members and 703 crew members.
The fourth season returned to Dubrovnik and included new locations, including Diocletian 's Palace in Split, Klis Fortress north of Split, Perun quarry east of Split, the Mosor mountain range, and Baška Voda further south. Thingvellir National Park in Iceland was used for the fight between Brienne and the Hound. Filming took 136 days and ended on November 21, 2013. The fifth season added Seville, Spain, used for scenes of Dorne, as well as Córdoba.
The sixth season, which began filming in July 2015, returned to Spain and filmed in Navarra, Guadalajara, Seville, Almeria Girona and Peniscola. Filming also returned to Dubrovnik, Croatia.
Filming of the seven episodes of season 7 began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, with other filming in Iceland, Northern Ireland and many locations in Spain. Spain filming locations included Seville, Cáceres, Almodovar del Rio, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. The series also filmed in Dubrovnik, which is used for location of King 's Landing. Filming continued until the end of February 2017 as necessary to ensure winter weather in some of the European locations.
Each ten - episode season of Game of Thrones has four to six directors, who usually direct back - to - back episodes. Alan Taylor has directed seven episodes, the most episodes of the series. Alex Graves, David Nutter, Mark Mylod and Jeremy Podeswa have directed six each. Daniel Minahan directed five episodes, and Michelle MacLaren, Alik Sakharov, and Miguel Sapochnik directed four each. Brian Kirk directed three episodes during the first season, and Tim Van Patten directed the series ' first two episodes. Neil Marshall directed two episodes, both with large battle scenes: "Blackwater '' and "The Watchers on the Wall ''. Other directors have been Jack Bender, David Petrarca, Daniel Sackheim, Michael Slovis and Matt Shakman. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss have directed two episodes together but only credited one each episode, which was determined after a coin toss.
Alik Sakharov was the pilot 's cinematographer. The series has had a number of cinematographers, and has received seven Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single - Camera Series nominations.
Oral Norrey Ottey, Frances Parker, Martin Nicholson, Crispin Green, Tim Porter and Katie Weiland have edited the series for a varying number of episodes. Weiland received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series in 2015.
Michele Clapton was costume designer for Game of Thrones ' first five seasons before she was replaced by April Ferry. Clapton will return to the show as costume designer for the seventh season.
The costumes used in the show drew inspiration from a number of sources, such as Japanese and Persian armour. Dothraki dress resembles that of the Bedouin (one was made out of fish skins to resemble dragon scales), and the Wildlings wear animal skins like the Inuit. Wildling bone armor is made from molds of actual bones, and is assembled with string and latex resembling catgut. Although the extras who play Wildlings and the Night 's Watch often wear hats (normal in a cold climate), members of the principal cast usually do not so viewers can distinguish the main characters. Björk 's Alexander McQueen high - neckline dresses inspired Margaery Tyrell 's funnel - neck outfit, and prostitutes ' dresses are designed for easy removal. All clothing used is aged for two weeks so it appears realistic on high - definition television.
About two dozen wigs are used for the actresses. Made of human hair and up to 2 feet (61 cm) in length, they cost up to $7,000 each and are washed and styled like real hair. Applying the wigs is time - consuming; Emilia Clarke, for example, requires about two hours to style her brunette hair with a platinum - blonde wig and braids. Other actors, such as Jack Gleeson and Sophie Turner, receive frequent hair coloring. For characters such as Daenerys (Clarke) and her Dothraki, their hair, wigs and costumes are processed to appear as if they have not been washed for weeks.
For the first three seasons, Paul Engelen was Game of Thrones ' main makeup designer and prosthetic makeup artist with Melissa Lackersteen, Conor O'Sullivan and Rob Trenton. At the beginning of the fourth season Engelen 's team was replaced by Jane Walker and her crew, composed of Ann McEwan and Barrie and Sarah Gower.
For the series ' large number of visual effects, HBO hired British - based BlueBolt and Irish - based Screen Scene for season one. Most of the environment builds were done as 2.5 D projections, giving viewers perspective while keeping the programming from being overwhelming. In 2011 the season - one finale, "Fire and Blood '', was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects.
Because the effects became more complex in subsequent seasons (including CGI creatures, fire, and water), German - based Pixomondo became the lead visual - effects producer; nine of its twelve facilities contributed to the project for season two, with Stuttgart the lead. Scenes were also produced by British - based Peanut FX, Canadian - based Spin VFX, and U.S. - based Gradient Effects. "Valar Morghulis '' and "Valar Dohaeris '' earned Pixomondo Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Special Visual Effects in 2012 and 2013, respectively.
For season four, HBO added German - based Mackevision to the project. The season - four finale, "The Children '', won the 2014 Emmy Award for Visual Effects. Additional producers for season four included Canadian - based Rodeo FX, German - based Scanline VFX and U.S. - based BAKED FX. The muscle and wing movements of the adolescent dragons in seasons four and five were based largely on those of a chicken. Pixomondo retained a team of 22 to 30 people which focused on visualizing Daenerys Targaryen 's dragons, with the average production time per season of 20 to 22 weeks. For the fifth season, HBO added Canadian - based Image Engine and U.S. - based Crazy Horse Effects to its list of main visual - effects producers.
Unusual for a television series, the sound team receives a rough cut of a full season and approaches it as a ten - hour feature film. Although seasons one and two had different sound teams, one team has been in charge of sound since then. For the show 's blood - and - gore sounds, the team often uses a chamois. For dragon screams, mating tortoises and dolphin, seal, lion and bird sounds have been used.
The series ' title sequence was created by production studio Elastic for HBO. Creative director Angus Wall and his collaborators received the 2011 Primetime Emmy Award for Main Title Design for the sequence, which depicts a three - dimensional map of the series ' fictional world. The map is projected on the inside of a sphere which is centrally lit by a small sun in an armillary sphere. As the camera moves across the map, focusing on the locations of the episode 's events, clockwork mechanisms intertwine and allow buildings and other structures to emerge from the map. Accompanied by the title music, the names of the principal cast and creative staff appear. The sequence concludes after about 90 seconds with the title card and brief opening credits indicating the episode 's writer (s) and director. Its composition changes as the story progresses, with new locations replacing those featuring less prominently or not at all.
The music for the series was composed by Ramin Djawadi. The first season 's soundtrack, written in about ten weeks before the show 's premiere, was published by Varèse Sarabande in June 2011. Soundtrack albums for subsequent seasons have been released, with tracks by the National, the Hold Steady and Sigur Rós. Djawadi has composed themes for each of the major houses and also for some of the main characters. The themes may evolve over time, as Daenerys Targaryen 's theme started small and then became more powerful after each season. Her theme started first with a single instrument, a cello, and Djawadi later incorporated more instruments for it.
The Westerosi characters of Game of Thrones speak British - accented English, often (but not consistently) with the accent of the English region corresponding to the character 's Westerosi region; Eddard Stark (Warden of the North) speaks in actor Sean Bean 's native northern accent, and the southern lord Tywin Lannister speaks with a southern accent, while characters from Dorne speak English with a Spanish accent. Characters foreign to Westeros often have a non-British accent.
Although English is the common language of Westeros, the producers charged linguist David J. Peterson with constructing Dothraki and Valyrian languages based on the few words in the novels; Dothraki and Valyrian dialogue is often subtitled in English. It has been reported that during the series these fictional languages have been heard by more people than the Welsh, Irish, and Scots Gaelic languages combined.
Game of Thrones is funded by Northern Ireland Screen, a UK government agency financed by Invest NI and the European Regional Development Fund. As of April 2013, Northern Ireland Screen gave the show £ 9.25 million ($14.37 million); according to government estimates, this has benefited the Northern Ireland economy by £ 65 million ($100.95 million).
Tourism Ireland has a Game of Thrones - themed marketing campaign similar to New Zealand 's Tolkien - related advertising. Invest NI and the Northern Ireland Tourist Board also expect the series to generate tourism revenue. According to Arlene Foster, the series has given Northern Ireland the most non-political publicity in its history. The production of Game of Thrones and other TV series also boosted Northern Ireland 's creative industries, contributing to an estimated 12.4 - percent growth in arts, entertainment and recreation jobs between 2008 and 2013 (compared with 4.3 percent in the rest of the UK during the same period).
Tourism organizations elsewhere reported increases in bookings after their locations appeared in Game of Thrones. In 2012, bookings through LateRooms.com increased by 28 percent in Dubrovnik and 13 percent in Iceland. The following year, bookings doubled in Ouarzazate, Morocco (the location of Daenerys ' season - three scenes). Game of Thrones has been attributed as a significant factor in the boom of tourism in Iceland that had a strong impact on its economy. Tourist numbers increased by 30 % in 2015, followed by another 40 % in 2016, with a final figure of 2.4 million visitors expected for 2016, which is around seven times the population of the country.
Game of Thrones is broadcast by HBO in the United States and by its local subsidiaries or other pay television services in other countries, at the same time as in the U.S. or weeks (or months) later. The series ' broadcast in China on CCTV, begun in 2014, was heavily edited to remove scenes of sex and violence in accordance with a Chinese practice of censoring Western TV series to prevent what the People 's Daily calls "negative effects and hidden security dangers ''. This resulted in viewer complaints about the incoherence of what remained. Broadcasters carrying Game of Thrones include Showcase in Australia; HBO Canada, Super Écran and Showcase in Canada; HBO Latin America in Latin America; SoHo and Prime in New Zealand, and Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom and Ireland.
The ten episodes of the first season of Game of Thrones were released as a DVD and Blu - ray box set on March 6, 2012. The box set includes extra background and behind - the - scenes material but no deleted scenes, since nearly all the footage shot for the first season was used in the show. The box set sold over 350,000 copies in the first week after release, the largest first - week DVD sales ever for an HBO series, and the series set an HBO - series record for digital - download sales. A collector 's - edition box set was released in November 2012, combining the DVD and Blu - ray versions of the first season with the first episode of season two. A paperweight in the shape of a dragon egg is included in the set.
DVD - Blu - ray box sets and digital downloads of the second season became available on February 19, 2013. First - day sales broke HBO records, with 241,000 box sets sold and 355,000 episodes downloaded. The third season was made available for purchase as a digital download on the Australian iTunes Store, parallel to the U.S. premiere, and was released on DVD and Blu - ray in region 1 on February 18, 2014. The fourth season was released on DVD and Blu - ray on February 17, 2015, and the fifth season on March 15, 2016. The sixth season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on November 15, 2016. Beginning in 2016, HBO began issuing Steelbook Blu - ray sets which include both Dolby TrueHD 7.1 and Dolby Atmos audio options.
Game of Thrones has been widely pirated, primarily outside the U.S. According to the file - sharing news website TorrentFreak, Game of Thrones has been the most - pirated TV series each year since 2012. Illegal downloads increased to about seven million in the first quarter of 2015, up 45 percent from 2014. An unnamed episode was downloaded about 4,280,000 times through public BitTorrent trackers in 2012, roughly equal to its number of broadcast viewers. Piracy rates were particularly high in Australia, and U.S. Ambassador to Australia Jeff Bleich issued a statement condemning Australian piracy of the series in 2013.
Delays in availability apart from HBO and its affiliates before 2015 and the cost of subscriptions to these services have been cited as causes of the series ' illegal distribution. According to TorrentFreak, a subscription to a service for Game of Thrones would cost up to $25 per month in the United States, up to £ 26 per episode in the UK and up to $52 per episode in Australia.
For "combating piracy '', HBO said in 2013 that it intended to make its content more widely available within a week of the U.S. premiere (including HBO Go). In 2015, the fifth season was simulcast to 170 countries and to HBO Now users. On April 11, the day before the season premiere, screener copies of the first four episodes of the fifth season leaked to a number of file - sharing websites. Within a day of the leak, the files were downloaded over 800,000 times; in one week the illegal downloads reached 32 million, with the season - five premiere alone ("The Wars to Come '') pirated 13 million times. The season - five finale ("Mother 's Mercy '') was the most simultaneously shared file in the history of the BitTorrent filesharing protocol, with over 250,000 simultaneous sharers and over 1.5 million downloads in eight hours. For the sixth season, HBO did not send screeners to the press, so as to prevent the spread of unlicensed copies and possible spoilers.
Observers, including series director David Petrarca and Time Warner CEO Jeff Bewkes, said that illegal downloads did not hurt the series ' prospects; it benefited from "buzz '' and social commentary, and the high piracy rate did not significantly translate to lost subscriptions. According to Polygon, HBO 's relaxed attitude towards piracy and the sharing of login credentials amounted to a premium - television "free - to - play '' model. At a 2015 Oxford Union debate, series co-creator David Benioff said that he was just glad that people watched the show; illegally downloaded copies of the show sometimes interested viewers enough to buy a copy of the show, especially in countries where the show was not televised. Co-creator D.B. Weiss had mixed feelings, saying that the show was expensive to produce and "if it does n't make the money back, then it ceases to exist ''. However, he was pleased that so many people "enjoy the show so much they ca n't wait to get their hands on it. '' In 2015, Guinness World Records called Game of Thrones the most - pirated television program.
Beginning on January 23, 2015, the last two episodes of season four were shown in 205 IMAX theaters across the United States; Game of Thrones is the first TV series shown in this format. The show earned $686,000 at the box office on its opening day and $1.5 million during its opening weekend; the week - long release grossed $1,896,092.
Game of Thrones was highly anticipated by fans before its premiere, and has become a critical and commercial success. According to The Guardian, by 2014 it was "the biggest drama '' and "the most talked about show '' on television.
Although Game of Thrones was dismissed by some critics before it began, its success has been credited with an increase in the popularity of fantasy themes. On the eve of the second season 's premiere, a CNN.com blog post by Joel Williams read, "After this weekend, you may be hard pressed to find someone who is n't a fan of some form of epic fantasy '' and cited Ian Bogost as saying that the series continues a trend of successful screen adaptations beginning with Peter Jackson 's 2001 The Lord of the Rings film trilogy and the Harry Potter films establishing fantasy as a mass - market genre; they are "gateway drugs to fantasy fan culture ''. Its success in the face of its genre was attributed by writers to a longing for escapism in popular culture, frequent female nudity and a skill in balancing lighthearted and serious topics (dragons and politics, for example) which provided it with a prestige enjoyed by conventional, top - tier drama series.
The series ' popularity increased sales of the A Song of Ice and Fire novels (republished in tie - in editions), which remained at the top of bestseller lists for months. According to The Daily Beast, Game of Thrones was a favorite of sitcom writers and the series has been referred to in other TV series. With other fantasy series, it has been cited for an increase in the purchase (and abandonment) of huskies and other wolf - like dogs.
Game of Thrones has added to the popular vocabulary. The first season 's scene in which Petyr Baelish explains his motives (or background) while prostitutes had sex in the background gave rise to the word "sexposition '' for providing exposition with sex and nudity. "Dothraki '', the series ' nomadic horsemen, was ranked fourth in a September 2012 Global Language Monitor list of words from television most used on the Internet. In 2012, the media used "Game of Thrones '' as a figure of speech or comparison for situations of intense conflict and deceit, such as the 2012 United States Supreme Court decision regarding healthcare reform legislation, the Syrian Civil War and the ousting of Bo Xilai from the Chinese government.
"Khaleesi '' has increased in popularity as a name for baby girls in the United States. In the novels and the TV series, the word is a title meaning the wife of a Khal (warlord) in the Dothraki language held by Daenerys Targaryen, and not actually a name.
Game of Thrones has received critical acclaim, although the series ' frequent use of nudity and violence has been criticized. Its seasons have appeared on annual "best of '' lists published by The Washington Post (2011), TIME (2011 and 2012) and The Hollywood Reporter (2012).
The performances of the cast have also been praised. Peter Dinklage 's "charming, morally ambiguous, and self - aware '' Tyrion, who earned him Emmy and Golden Globe awards, was noted. "In many ways, Game of Thrones belongs to Dinklage '', wrote Mary McNamara of the L.A. Times before Tyrion became the series ' central figure in season two. Several critics highlighted performances by actresses and children. Fourteen - year - old Maisie Williams, noted in the first season for her debut as Arya Stark, was singled out for her season - two work with veteran actor Charles Dance (Tywin Lannister).
First - season reviewers said the series had high production values, a fully realized world and compelling characters. According to Variety, "There may be no show more profitable to its network than ' Game of Thrones ' is to HBO. Fully produced by the pay cabler and already a global phenomenon after only one season, the fantasy skein was a gamble that has paid off handsomely ''.
The second season was also well received by critics. Entertainment Weekly praised its "vivid, vital, and just plain fun '' storytelling and, according to the Hollywood Reporter, the show made a "strong case for being one of TV 's best series ''; its seriousness made it the only drama comparable to Mad Men or Breaking Bad. The New York Times gave the series a mixed review, criticizing its number of characters, their lack of complexity and a meandering plot.
The third season was very well received by critics, with Metacritic giving it a score of 91 out of 100 (indicating "universal acclaim ''). The fourth season was also praised; Metacritic gave it a score of 94 out of 100 based on 29 reviews, again indicating "universal acclaim ''. The fifth season was also well received by critics and has a score of 91 out of 100 (based on 29 reviews) on Metacritic. The sixth season has been praised by critics. It has a score of 73 out of 100 (based on nine reviews) on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. The seventh season has a score of 77 out of 100 (based on twelve reviews) on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
The series has a rating of 97 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.4 out of 10 based on 44 reviews. All episodes had positive reviews of 91 percent or higher on Rotten Tomatoes, and a 97 - percent rating (based on 50 reviews) for the season as a whole. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 95 percent and an average score of 8.6 out of 10 (based on 52 reviews). The season has a rating of 96 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.4 out of 10 based on 29 reviews. After the first episode aired, the seventh season held a rating of 97 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.2 out of 10 based on 29 reviews.
Despite its otherwise enthusiastic reception by critics, Game of Thrones has been criticized for the amount of female nudity, violence, and sexual violence (especially against women) it depicts, and for the manner in which it depicts these themes. The Atlantic called the series ' "tendency to ramp up the sex, violence, and -- especially -- sexual violence '' of the source material "the defining weakness '' of the adaptation. George R.R. Martin responded that he feels obliged to be truthful about history and human nature, and that rape and sexual violence are common in war; and that omitting them from the narrative would have rung false and undermined one of his novels ' themes, its historical realism. HBO said that they "fully support the vision and artistry of Dan and David 's exceptional work and we feel this work speaks for itself. ''
The amount of sex and nudity in the series, especially in scenes that are incidental to the plot, was the focus of much of the criticism aimed at the series in its first and second seasons. Stephen Dillane, who portrays Stannis Baratheon, likened the series ' frequent explicit scenes to "German porn from the 1970s ''. Charlie Anders wrote in io9 that while the first season was replete with light - hearted "sexposition '', the second season appeared to focus on distasteful, exploitative, and dehumanizing sex with little informational content. According to The Washington Post 's Anna Holmes, the nude scenes appeared to be aimed mainly at titillating heterosexual men, right down to the Brazilian waxes sported by the women in the series ' faux - medieval setting, which made these scenes alienating to other viewers. The Huffington Post 's Maureen Ryan likewise noted that Game of Thrones mostly presented women naked, rather than men, and that the excess of "random boobage '' undercut any aspirations the series might have to address the oppression of women in a feudal society. Saturday Night Live parodied this aspect of the adaptation in a sketch that portrayed the series as retaining a thirteen - year - old boy as a consultant whose main concern was showing as many breasts as possible.
In the third season, which saw Theon Greyjoy lengthily tortured and eventually emasculated, the series was also criticized for its use of torture. New York magazine called the scene "torture porn. '' Madeleine Davies of Jezebel agreed, saying, "it 's not uncommon that Game of Thrones gets accused of being torture porn -- senseless, objectifying violence combined with senseless, objectifying sexual imagery. '' According to Davies, although the series ' violence tended to serve a narrative purpose, Theon 's torture in "The Bear and the Maiden Fair '' was excessive.
A scene in the fourth season 's episode "Breaker of Chains '', in which Jaime Lannister rapes his sister and lover Cersei, triggered a broad public discussion about the series ' depiction of sexual violence against women. According to Dave Itzkoff of The New York Times, the scene caused outrage, in part because of comments by director Alex Graves that the scene became "consensual by the end ''. Itzkoff also wrote that critics fear that "rape has become so pervasive in the drama that it is almost background noise: a routine and unshocking occurrence ''. Sonia Saraiya of The A.V. Club wrote that the series ' choice to portray this sexual act, and a similar one between Daenerys Targaryen and Khal Drogo in the first season -- both described as consensual in the source novels -- as a rape appeared to be an act of "exploitation for shock value ''.
In the fifth season 's episode "Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken '', Sansa Stark is raped by Ramsay Bolton. Most reviewers, including those from Vanity Fair, Salon, The Atlantic, and The Daily Beast, found the scene gratuitous and artistically unnecessary. For example, Joanna Robinson, writing for Vanity Fair, said that the scene "undercuts all the agency that 's been growing in Sansa since the end of last season. '' In contrast, Sara Stewart of The New York Post wondered why viewers were not similarly upset about the many background and minor characters who 'd undergone similar or worse treatment. In response to the scene, pop culture website The Mary Sue announced that it would cease coverage of the series because of the repeated use of rape as a plot device, and U.S. Senator Claire McCaskill said that she would no longer watch it.
As the sixth and seventh seasons saw Daenerys, Sansa and Cersei assume ruling positions, Alyssa Rosenberg of the Washington Post noted that the series could be seen as a "long - arc revenge fantasy about what happens when women who have been brutalized and raped gain power '' -- namely, that their past leaves them too broken to do anything but commit brutal acts in their own turn, and that their personal liberation does not effect the social change needed to protect others from suffering.
A Song of Ice and Fire and Game of Thrones have a broad, active international fan base. In 2012 Vulture.com ranked the series ' fans as the most devoted in popular culture, more so than Lady Gaga 's, Justin Bieber 's, Harry Potter 's or Star Wars '. Fans include political leaders such as former U.S. president Barack Obama, former British prime minister David Cameron, former Australian prime minister Julia Gillard and Dutch foreign minister Frans Timmermans, who framed European politics in quotes from Martin 's novels in a 2013 speech.
BBC News said in 2013 that "the passion and the extreme devotion of fans '' had created a phenomenon unlike anything related to other popular TV series, manifesting itself in fan fiction, Game of Thrones - themed burlesque routines and parents naming their children after series characters; writers quoted attributed this success to the rich detail, moral ambiguity, sexual explicitness and epic scale of the series and novels. The previous year, "Arya '' was the fastest - rising girl 's name in the U.S. after it jumped in popularity from 711th to 413th place.
In 2013 about 58 percent of series viewers were male and 42 percent female, and the average male viewer was 41 years old. According to SBS Broadcasting Group marketing director Helen Kellie, Game of Thrones has a high fan - engagement rate; 5.5 percent of the series ' 2.9 million Facebook fans talked online about the series in 2012, compared to 1.8 percent of the more than ten million fans of True Blood (HBO 's other fantasy series). Vulture.com cited Westeros.org and WinterIsComing.net (news and discussion forums), ToweroftheHand.com (which organizes communal readings of the novels) and Podcastoficeandfire.com as fan sites dedicated to the TV and novel series; and podcasts cover Game of Thrones.
Game of Thrones has won dozens of awards since it debuted as a series, including 38 Primetime Emmy Awards, 5 Screen Actors Guild Award, and a Peabody Award. It holds the Emmy - award record for a scripted television series, ahead of Frasier (which received 37). In 2013 the Writers Guild of America listed Game of Thrones as the 40th "best written '' series in television history. In 2015 The Hollywood Reporter placed it at number four on their "best TV shows ever '' list, while in 2016 the show was placed seventh on Empire 's "The 50 best TV shows ever ''. The same year Rolling Stone named it the twelfth "greatest TV Show of all time ''.
The 2011 first season received 13 nominations (including Outstanding Drama Series), and won for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (given to Peter Dinklage for his portrayal of Tyrion Lannister) and Outstanding Main Title Design. Other nominations included Outstanding Directing ("Winter Is Coming '') and Outstanding Writing ("Baelor ''). Dinklage was also named Best Supporting Actor at the Golden Globe, Satellite and Scream Awards.
In 2012, the second season received six Creative Arts Emmy Awards from 11 nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series and Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage).
The 2013 third season received 16 Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Emilia Clarke), Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series (Diana Rigg) and Outstanding Writing ("The Rains of Castamere ''), winning two Creative Arts Emmys.
In 2014 the fourth season received four Creative Arts Emmys from 19 nominations, which included Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Lena Headey), Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series (Rigg), Outstanding Directing ("The Watchers on the Wall '') and Outstanding Writing ("The Children '').
The 2015 fifth season won the most Primetime Emmy Awards for a series in a year (12 awards from 24 nominations), including Outstanding Drama Series; other wins included Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Directing ("Mother 's Mercy '') and Outstanding Writing ("Mother 's Mercy ''), and eight were Creative Arts Emmy Awards.
In 2016, the sixth season received the most nominations for the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards (23). It won for Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Directing ("Battle of the Bastards ''), Outstanding Writing ("Battle of the Bastards ''), and nine Creative Arts Emmys. Nominations included Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage and Kit Harington), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Clarke, Headey and Maisie Williams), Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series (Max von Sydow) and Outstanding Directing ("The Door '').
The first season averaged 2.5 million viewers for its first Sunday - night screenings and a gross audience (including repeats and on - demand viewings) of 9.3 million viewers per episode. For its second season, the series had an average gross audience of 11.6 million viewers. The third season was seen by 14.2 million viewers, making Game of Thrones the second-most - viewed HBO series (after The Sopranos). For the fourth season, HBO said that its average gross audience of 18.4 million viewers (later adjusted to 18.6 million) had passed The Sopranos for the record. By the sixth season the average per - episode gross viewing figure had increased to over 25 million, with nearly 40 percent of viewers watching on HBO digital platforms. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Game of Thrones was "much more popular in cities than in the countryside, probably the only show involving zombies that is ''. In season seven, the viewers numbers averaged at over 30 millions per episode across all platforms.
The series set records on pay - television channels in the United Kingdom (with a 2016 average audience of more than five million on all platforms) and Australia (with a cumulative average audience of 1.2 million).
The following graph indicates first - airing viewer numbers in the US:
The series has inspired four video games based on the TV series and novels. The strategy game Game of Thrones Ascent ties into the HBO series, making characters and settings available to players as they appear on television.
HBO has licensed a variety of merchandise based on Game of Thrones, including games, replica weapons and armor, jewelry, bobblehead dolls by Funko, beer by Ommegang and apparel. High - end merchandise includes a $10,500 Ulysse Nardin wristwatch and a $30,000 resin replica of the Iron Throne. In 2013 and 2014, a traveling exhibition of costumes, props, armor and weapons from the series visited major cities in Europe and the Americas.
Thronecast: The Official Guide to Game of Thrones, a series of podcasts presented by Geoff Lloyd and produced by Koink, has been released on the Sky Atlantic website and the UK iTunes store during the series ' run; a new podcast, with analysis and cast interviews, is released after each episode. In 2014 and 2015 HBO commissioned Catch the Throne, two rap albums about the series.
A companion book, Inside HBO 's Game of Thrones (ISBN 978 - 1 - 4521 - 1010 - 3) by series writer Bryan Cogman, was published on September 27, 2012. The 192 - page book, illustrated with concept art and behind - the - scenes photographs, covers the creation of the series ' first two seasons and its principal characters and families.
After the Thrones is a live aftershow in which hosts Andy Greenwald and Chris Ryan discuss episodes of the series. It airs on HBO Now the Monday after each sixth - season episode. The Game of Thrones Live Concert Experience, a 28 - city orchestral tour which will perform the series ' soundtrack with composer Ramin Djawadi, is scheduled to begin February 15, 2017 in Kansas City, Missouri.
After years of speculation about possible successor shows, in May 2017 HBO commissioned five screenwriters -- Max Borenstein, Jane Goldman, Brian Helgeland, Carly Wray and a fifth writer yet to be announced -- to develop individual Game of Thrones successor series. All of the writers are to be working individually with George R.R. Martin. Martin said that all the concepts under discussion are prequels, and some may be set outside Westeros. He also ruled out Robert 's Rebellion (the overthrow of Daenerys 's father by Robert Baratheon) as a possible idea. D.B. Weiss and David Benioff said that they would not be involved with any of the projects, and want to enjoy the successor series as fans. Martin is co-writing two of the four announced scripts. In September 2017, it was announced that Game of Thrones writer Bryan Cogman would be developing a fifth prequel series.
Each season 's individual Blu - ray and DVD set contains several short animated sequences narrated by the show 's cast as their characters as they detail various different events in the history of Westeros. For the seventh season release, it will include the animated prequel series Game of Thrones: Conquest & Rebellion, which is illustrated in a different animation style than previous videos. The series focuses on Aegon Targaryen 's conquest of the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros.
|
meaning of the stars stripes and colors on the american flag | Flag of the United States - wikipedia
The flag of the United States of America, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States. It consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton (referred to specifically as the "union '') bearing fifty small, white, five - pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows, where rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternate with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 states of the United States of America, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, and became the first states in the U.S. Nicknames for the flag include The Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, and The Star - Spangled Banner.
The current design of the U.S. flag is its 27th; the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48 - star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49 - star version became official on July 4, 1959. The 50 - star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21, 1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the longest - used version of the U.S. flag and has been in use for over 57 years.
The Continental Colors (aka the "Grand Union Flag '')
Flag of the British East India Company, 1707 -- 1801
At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the Continental Congress would not legally adopt flags with "stars, white in a blue field '' for another year. The flag contemporaneously known as "the Continental Colors '' has historically been referred to as the first national flag.
The Continental Navy raised the Colors as the ensign of the fledgling nation in the American War for Independence -- likely with the expedient of transforming their previous British red ensigns by adding white stripes -- and would use this flag until 1777, when it would form the basis for the subsequent de jure designs.
The name "Grand Union '' was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the U.S. flag.
The flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design. Both flags could have been easily constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign, one of the three maritime flags used throughout the British Empire at the time. However, an East India Company flag could have from nine to 13 stripes, and was not allowed to be flown outside the Indian Ocean.
In any case, both the stripes (barry) and the stars (mullets) have precedents in classical heraldry. Mullets were comparatively rare in early modern heraldry, but an example of mullets representing territorial divisions predating the U.S. flag are those in the coat of arms of Valais of 1618, where seven mullets stood for seven districts.
On June 14, 1777, the Second Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution which stated: "Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation. '' Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment.
The first official U.S. flag flown during battle was on August 3, 1777, at Fort Schuyler (Fort Stanwix) during the Siege of Fort Stanwix. Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes; scarlet material to form the red was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers ' wives, while material for the blue union was secured from Capt. Abraham Swartwout 's blue cloth coat. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag.
The 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a national flag did not yet exist, or was only nascent. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee. On May 10, 1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern "it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States. '' However, the term, "Standard, '' referred to a national standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the national standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag.
The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement, number of points, nor orientation for the stars and the arrangement or whether the flag had to have seven red stripes and six white ones or vice versa. The appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows and some replaced a state 's star with its initial. One arrangement features 13 five - pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle (as opposed to up), the so - called Betsy Ross flag. This flag, however, is more likely a flag used for celebrations of anniversaries of the nation 's birthday. Experts have dated the earliest known example of this flag to be 1792 in a painting by John Trumbull.
Despite the 1777 resolution, the early years of American independence featured many different flags. Most were individually crafted rather than mass - produced. While there are many examples of 13 - star arrangements, some of those flags included blue stripes as well as red and white. Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, in a letter dated October 3, 1778, to Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, described the American flag as consisting of "13 stripes, alternately red, white, and blue, a small square in the upper angle, next the flag staff, is a blue field, with 13 white stars, denoting a new Constellation. '' John Paul Jones used a variety of 13 - star flags on his U.S. Navy ships including the well - documented 1779 flags of the Serapis and the Alliance. The Serapis flag had three rows of eight - pointed stars with stripes that were red, white, and blue. The flag for the Alliance, however, had five rows of eight - pointed stars with 13 red and white stripes, and the white stripes were on the outer edges. Both flags were documented by the Dutch government in October 1779, making them two of the earliest known flags of 13 stars.
Francis Hopkinson of New Jersey, a naval flag designer, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed the 1777 flag while he was the Chairman of the Continental Navy Board 's Middle Department, sometime between his appointment to that position in November 1776 and the time that the flag resolution was adopted in June 1777. The Navy Board was under the Continental Marine Committee. Not only did Hopkinson claim that he designed the U.S. flag, but he also claimed that he designed a flag for the U.S. Navy. Hopkinson was the only person to have made such a claim during his own lifetime, when he sent a letter and several bills to Congress for his work. These claims are documented in the Journals of the Continental Congress and George Hasting 's biography of Hopkinson. Hopkinson initially wrote a letter to Congress, via the Continental Board of Admiralty, on May 25, 1780. In this letter, he asked for a "Quarter Cask of the Public Wine '' as payment for designing the U.S. flag, the seal for the Admiralty Board, the seal for the Treasury Board, Continental currency, the Great Seal of the United States, and other devices. However, in three subsequent bills to Congress, Hopkinson asked to be paid in cash, but he did not list his U.S. flag design. Instead, he asked to be paid for designing the "great Naval Flag of the United States '' in the first bill; the "Naval Flag of the United States '' in the second bill; and "the Naval Flag of the States '' in the third, along with the other items. The flag references were generic terms for the naval ensign that Hopkinson had designed, that is, a flag of seven red stripes and six white ones. The predominance of red stripes made the naval flag more visible against the sky on a ship at sea. By contrast, Hopkinson 's flag for the United States had seven white stripes, and six red ones -- in reality, six red stripes laid on a white background. Hopkinson 's sketches have not been found, but we can make these conclusions because Hopkinson incorporated different stripe arrangements in the Admiralty (naval) Seal that he designed in the Spring of 1780 and the Great Seal of the United States that he proposed at the same time. His Admiralty Seal had seven red stripes; whereas, his second U.S. Seal proposal had seven white ones. Hopkinson 's flag for the Navy is the one that the Nation preferred as the national flag. Remnants of Hopkinson 's U.S. flag of seven white stripes can be found in the Great Seal of the United States and the President 's seal. When Hopkinson was chairman of the Navy Board, his position was like that of today 's Secretary of the Navy. The payment was not made, however, because it was determined he had already received a salary as a member of Congress. This contradicts the legend of the Betsy Ross flag, which suggests that she sewed the first Stars and Stripes flag by request of the government in the Spring of 1776. Furthermore, a letter from the War Board to George Washington on May 10, 1779, documents that there was still no design established for a national flag for the Army 's use in battle.
The origin of the stars and stripes design has been muddled by a story disseminated by the descendants of Betsy Ross. The apocryphal story credits Betsy Ross for sewing the first flag from a pencil sketch handed to her by George Washington. No evidence for this exists either in the diaries of George Washington nor in the records of the Continental Congress. Indeed, nearly a century passed before Ross ' grandson, William Canby, first publicly suggested the story in 1870. By her family 's own admission, Ross ran an upholstery business, and she had never made a flag as of the supposed visit in June 1776. Furthermore, her grandson admitted that his own search through the Journals of Congress and other official records failed to find corroboration of his grandmother 's story.
The family of Rebecca Young claimed that she sewed the first flag. Young 's daughter was Mary Pickersgill, who made the Star Spangled Banner Flag. According to rumor, the Washington family coat of arms, shown in a 15th - century window of Selby Abbey, was the origin of the stars and stripes.
In 1795, the number of stars and stripes was increased from 13 to 15 (to reflect the entry of Vermont and Kentucky as states of the Union). For a time the flag was not changed when subsequent states were admitted, probably because it was thought that this would cause too much clutter. It was the 15 - star, 15 - stripe flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', later known as "The Star Spangled Banner '', which is now the American national anthem. The flag is currently on display in the exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem '' at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History in a two - story display chamber that protects the flag while it is on view.
On April 4, 1818, a plan was passed by Congress at the suggestion of U.S. Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid in which the flag was changed to have 20 stars, with a new star to be added when each new state was admitted, but the number of stripes would be reduced to 13 so as to honor the original colonies. The act specified that new flag designs should become official on the first July 4 (Independence Day) following admission of one or more new states. The most recent change, from 49 stars to 50, occurred in 1960 when the present design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959. Before that, the admission of Alaska in January 1959 prompted the debut of a short - lived 49 - star flag.
Prior to the adoption of the 48 - star flag in 1912, there was no official arrangement of the stars in the canton, although the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy used standardized designs. Throughout the 19th century there was an abundance of different star patterns, rectangular and circular.
On July 4, 2007, the 50 - star flag became the version of the flag in longest use, surpassing the 48 - star flag that was used from 1912 to 1959.
The U.S. flag was brought to the city of Canton (Guǎngzhōu) in China in 1784 by the merchant ship Empress of China, which carried a cargo of ginseng. There it gained the designation "Flower Flag '' (Chinese: 花旗; pinyin: huāqí; Cantonese Yale: fākeì). According to a pseudonymous account first published in the Boston Courier and later retold by author and U.S. naval officer George H. Preble:
When the thirteen stripes and stars first appeared at Canton, much curiosity was excited among the people. News was circulated that a strange ship had arrived from the further end of the world, bearing a flag "as beautiful as a flower ''. Every body went to see the kwa kee chuen (花旗 船; Fākeìsyùhn), or "flower flagship ''. This name at once established itself in the language, and America is now called the kwa kee kwoh (花旗 國; Fākeìgwok), the "flower flag country '' -- and an American, kwa kee kwoh yin (花旗 國人; Fākeìgwokyàhn) -- "flower flag countryman '' -- a more complimentary designation than that of "red headed barbarian '' -- the name first bestowed upon the Dutch.
In the above quote, the Chinese words are written phonetically based on spoken Cantonese. The names given were common usage in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Other Asian nations have equivalent terms for America, for example Vietnamese: Hoa Kỳ ("Flower Flag ''). Chinese now refer to the United States as simplified Chinese: 美国; traditional Chinese: 美國; pinyin: Měiguó. Měi is short for Měilìjiān (simplified Chinese: 美利坚; traditional Chinese: 美利堅, phono - semantic matching of "American '') and "guó '' means "country '', so this name is unrelated to the flag. However, the "flower flag '' terminology persists in some places today: for example, American Ginseng is called simplified Chinese: 花旗 参; traditional Chinese: 花旗 參; literally: "flower flag ginseng '' in Chinese, and Citibank, which opened a branch in China in 1902, is known as 花旗 银行; "Flower Flag Bank ''.
The U.S. flag took its first trip around the world in 1787 -- 90 on board the Columbia. William Driver, who coined the phrase "Old Glory '', took the U.S. flag around the world in 1831 -- 32. The flag attracted the notice of Japanese when an oversized version was carried to Yokohama by the steamer Great Republic as part of a round - the - world journey in 1871.
In the following table depicting the 28 various designs of the United States flag, the star patterns for the flags are merely the usual patterns, often associated with the United States Navy. Canton designs, prior to the proclamation of the 48 - star flag, had no official arrangement of the stars. Furthermore, the exact colors of the flag were not standardized until 1934.
In the November 2012 U.S. election, Puerto Rico voted to become a U.S. state. However, the legitimacy of the result of this election was disputed. On June 11, 2017, another referendum was held, this time with the result that 97 % of voters in Puerto Rico voted for statehood, but it had a turnout of only 23 %. Similarly in November 2016, a statehood referendum was held in the District of Columbia where 86 % of voters approved the proposal. If a new U.S. state were to be admitted, it would require a new design on the flag to accommodate the additional star.
The modern meaning of the flag was forged in December 1860, when Major Robert Anderson moved the U.S. garrison from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. Author Adam Goodheart argues this was the opening move of the American Civil War, and the flag was used throughout northern states to symbolize U.S. nationalism and rejection of secessionism.
Before that day, the flag had served mostly as a military ensign or a convenient marking of American territory, flown from forts, embassies, and ships, and displayed on special occasions like American Independence day. But in the weeks after Major Anderson 's surprising stand, it became something different. Suddenly the Stars and Stripes flew -- as it does today, and especially as it did after the September 11 attacks in 2001 -- from houses, from storefronts, from churches; above the village greens and college quads. For the first time American flags were mass - produced rather than individually stitched and even so, manufacturers could not keep up with demand. As the long winter of 1861 turned into spring, that old flag meant something new. The abstraction of the Union cause was transfigured into a physical thing: strips of cloth that millions of people would fight for, and many thousands die for. -- Adam Goodheart.
The flag of the United States is one of the nation 's most widely recognized symbols. Within the United States, flags are frequently displayed not only on public buildings but on private residences. The flag is a common motif on decals for car windows, and clothing ornaments such as badges and lapel pins. Throughout the world the flag has been used in public discourse to refer to the United States.
The flag has become a powerful symbol of Americanism, and is flown on many occasions, with giant outdoor flags used by retail outlets to draw customers. Desecration of the flag is considered a public outrage, but remains protected as free speech. Scholars have noted the irony that "(t) he flag is so revered because it represents the land of the free, and that freedom includes the ability to use or abuse that flag in protest ''. In worldwide comparison, Testi noted in 2010 that the United States was not unique in adoring its banner, for the flags of Scandinavian countries are also "beloved, domesticated, commercialized and sacralized objects ''.
The man credited with designing the current 50 star American flag was Robert G. Heft. He was 17 years old at the time and created the flag design in 1958 as a high school class project while living with his grandparents in Ohio. He received a B − on the project. According to Heft, his history teacher honored their agreement to change his grade to an A after his design was selected.
The basic design of the current flag is specified by 4 U.S.C. § 1; 4 U.S.C. § 2 outlines the addition of new stars to represent new states. The specification gives the following values:
These specifications are contained in an executive order which, strictly speaking, governs only flags made for or by the U.S. federal government. In practice, most U.S. national flags available for sale to the public have a different width - to - height ratio; common sizes are 2 × 3 ft. or 4 × 6 ft. (flag ratio 1.5), 2.5 × 4 ft. or 5 × 8 ft. (1.6), or 3 × 5 ft. or 6 × 10 ft. (1.667). Even flags flown over the U.S. Capitol for sale to the public through Representatives or Senators are provided in these sizes. Flags that are made to the prescribed 1.9 ratio are often referred to as "G - spec '' (for "government specification '') flags.
The exact red, white, and blue colors to be used in the flag are specified with reference to the CAUS Standard Color Reference of America, 10th edition. Specifically, the colors are "White '', "Old Glory Red '', and "Old Glory Blue ''. The CIE coordinates for the colors of the 9th edition of the Standard Color Card were formally specified in JOSA in 1946. These colors form the standard for cloth, and there is no perfect way to convert them to RGB for display on screen or CMYK for printing. The "relative '' coordinates in the following table were found by scaling the luminous reflectance relative to the flag 's "white ''.
As with the design, the official colors are only officially required for flags produced for the U.S. federal government, and other colors are often used for mass - market flags, printed reproductions, and other products intended to evoke flag colors. The practice of using more saturated colors than the official cloth is not new. As Taylor, Knoche, and Granville wrote in 1950: "The color of the official wool bunting (of the blue field) is a very dark blue, but printed reproductions of the flag, as well as merchandise supposed to match the flag, present the color as a deep blue much brighter than the official wool. ''
Sometimes, Pantone Matching System (PMS) approximations to the flag colors are used. One set was given on the website of the U.S. embassy in London as early as 1998; the website of the U.S. embassy in Stockholm claimed in 2001 that those had been suggested by Pantone, and that the U.S. Government Printing Office preferred a different set. A third red was suggested by a California Military Department document in 2002. In 2001, the Texas legislature specified that the colors of the Texas flag should be "(1) the same colors used in the United States flag; and (2) defined as numbers 193 (red) and 281 (dark blue) of the Pantone Matching System. ''
When Alaska and Hawaii were being considered for statehood in the 1950s, more than 1,500 designs were submitted to President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Although some of them were 49 - star versions, the vast majority were 50 - star proposals. At least three of these designs were identical to the present design of the 50 - star flag. At the time, credit was given by the executive department to the United States Army Institute of Heraldry for the design.
Of these proposals, one created by 17 - year - old Robert G. Heft in 1958 as a school project received the most publicity. His mother was a seamstress, but refused to do any of the work for him. He originally received a B -- for the project. After discussing the grade with his teacher, it was agreed (somewhat jokingly) that if the flag was accepted by Congress, the grade would be reconsidered. Heft 's flag design was chosen and adopted by presidential proclamation after Alaska and before Hawaii was admitted into the Union in 1959. According to Heft, his teacher did keep to their agreement and changed his grade to an A for the project. The 49 - and 50 - star flags were each flown for the first time at Fort McHenry on Independence Day, in 1959 and 1960 respectively.
Traditionally, the flag may be decorated with golden fringe surrounding the perimeter of the flag as long as it does not deface the flag proper. Ceremonial displays of the flag, such as those in parades or on indoor posts, often use fringe to enhance the appearance of the flag.
The first recorded use of fringe on a flag dates from 1835, and the Army used it officially in 1895. No specific law governs the legality of fringe, but a 1925 opinion of the attorney general addresses the use of fringe (and the number of stars) "... is at the discretion of the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy... '' as quoted from footnote in previous volumes of Title 4 of the United States Code law books and is a source for claims that such a flag is a military ensign not civilian. However, according to the Army Institute of Heraldry, which has official custody of the flag designs and makes any change ordered, there are no implications of symbolism in the use of fringe. Several federal courts have upheld this conclusion, most recently and forcefully in Colorado v. Drew, a Colorado Court of Appeals judgment that was released in May 2010. Traditionally, the Army and Air Force use a fringed National Color for parade, color guard and indoor display, while the Sea Services (Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard) use a fringeless National Color for all occasions.
The flag is customarily flown year - round at most public buildings, and it is not unusual to find private houses flying full - size (3 by 5 feet (0.91 by 1.52 m)) flags. Some private use is year - round, but becomes widespread on civic holidays like Memorial Day, Veterans Day, Presidents ' Day, Flag Day, and on Independence Day. On Memorial Day it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war veterans. Also on Memorial Day it is common to fly the flag at half staff, until noon, in remembrance of those who lost their lives fighting in U.S. wars.
The United States Flag Code outlines certain guidelines for the use, display, and disposal of the flag. For example, the flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the ensign responding to a salute from a ship of a foreign nation. This tradition may come from the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, where countries were asked to dip their flag to King Edward VII: the American flag bearer did not. Team captain Martin Sheridan is famously quoted as saying "this flag dips to no earthly king '', though the true provenance of this quotation is unclear.
The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and, if flown at night, must be illuminated. If the edges become tattered through wear, the flag should be repaired or replaced. When a flag is so tattered that it can no longer serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. The American Legion and other organizations regularly conduct flag retirement ceremonies, often on Flag Day, June 14. (The Boy Scouts of America recommends that modern nylon or polyester flags be recycled instead of burned, due to hazardous gases being produced when such materials are burned.)
The Flag Code prohibits using the flag "for any advertising purpose '' and also states that the flag "should not be embroidered, printed, or otherwise impressed on such articles as cushions, handkerchiefs, napkins, boxes, or anything intended to be discarded after temporary use ''. Both of these codes are generally ignored, almost always without comment.
Section 8, entitled Respect For Flag states in part: "The flag should never be used as wearing apparel, bedding, or drapery '', and "No part of the flag should ever be used as a costume or athletic uniform ''. Section 3 of the Flag Code defines "the flag '' as anything "by which the average person seeing the same without deliberation may believe the same to represent the flag of the United States of America ''.
An additional part of Section 8 Respect For Flag, that is frequently violated at sporting events is part (c) "The flag should never be carried flat or horizontally, but always aloft and free. ''
Although the Flag Code is U.S. federal law, there is no penalty for a private citizen or group failing to comply with the Flag Code and it is not widely enforced -- indeed, punitive enforcement would conflict with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech. Passage of the proposed Flag Desecration Amendment would overrule legal precedent that has been established.
When the flag is affixed to the right side of a vehicle of any kind (e.g.: cars, boats, planes, any physical object that moves), it should be oriented so that the canton is towards the front of the vehicle, as if the flag were streaming backwards from its hoist as the vehicle moves forward. Therefore, U.S. flag decals on the right sides of vehicles may appear to be reversed, with the union to the observer 's right instead of left as more commonly seen.
The flag has been displayed on every U.S. spacecraft designed for manned flight, including Mercury, Gemini, Apollo Command / Service Module, Apollo Lunar Module, and the Space Shuttle. The flag also appeared on the S - IC first stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle used for Apollo. But since Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo were launched and landed vertically and were not capable of horizontal atmospheric flight as the Space Shuttle did on its landing approach, the "streaming '' convention was not followed and these flags were oriented with the stripes running horizontally, perpendicular to the direction of flight.
On some U.S. military uniforms, flag patches are worn on the right shoulder, following the vehicle convention with the union toward the front. This rule dates back to the Army 's early history, when both mounted cavalry and infantry units would designate a standard bearer, who carried the Colors into battle. As he charged, his forward motion caused the flag to stream back. Since the Stars and Stripes are mounted with the canton closest to the pole, that section stayed to the right, while the stripes flew to the left. Several US military uniforms, such as flight suits worn by members of the United States Air Force and Navy, have the flag patch on the left shoulder.
Other organizations that wear flag patches on their uniforms can have the flag facing in either direction. The congressional charter of the Boy Scouts of America stipulates that Boy Scout uniforms should not imitate U.S. military uniforms; consequently, the flags are displayed on the right shoulder with the stripes facing front, the reverse of the military style. Law enforcement officers often wear a small flag patch, either on a shoulder, or above a shirt pocket.
Every U.S. astronaut since the crew of Gemini 4 has worn the flag on the left shoulder of his or her space suit, with the exception of the crew of Apollo 1, whose flags were worn on the right shoulder. In this case, the canton was on the left.
The flag did not appear on U.S. postal stamp issues until the Battle of White Plains Issue was released in 1926, depicting the flag with a circle of 13 stars. The 48 - star flag first appeared on the General Casimir Pulaski issue of 1931, though in a small monochrome depiction. The first U.S. postage stamp to feature the flag as the sole subject was issued July 4, 1957, Scott catalog number 1094. Since that time the flag has frequently appeared on U.S. stamps.
In 1907 Eben Appleton, New York stockbroker and grandson of Lieutenant Colonel George Armistead (the commander of Fort McHenry during the 1814 bombardment) loaned the Star Spangled Banner Flag to the Smithsonian Institution, and in 1912 he converted the loan to a gift. Appleton donated the flag with the wish that it would always be on view to the public. In 1994, the National Museum of American History determined that the Star Spangled Banner Flag required further conservation treatment to remain on public display. In 1998 teams of museum conservators, curators, and other specialists helped move the flag from its home in the Museum 's Flag Hall into a new conservation laboratory. Following the reopening of the National Museum of American History on November 21, 2008, the flag is now on display in a special exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem, '' where it rests at a 10 degree angle in dim light for conservation purposes.
By presidential proclamation, acts of Congress, and custom, U.S. flags are displayed continuously at certain locations.
The flag should especially be displayed at full staff on the following days:
The flag is displayed at half - staff (half - mast in naval usage) as a sign of respect or mourning. Nationwide, this action is proclaimed by the president; statewide or territory - wide, the proclamation is made by the governor. In addition, there is no prohibition against municipal governments, private businesses or citizens flying the flag at half - staff as a local sign of respect and mourning. However, many flag enthusiasts feel this type of practice has somewhat diminished the meaning of the original intent of lowering the flag to honor those who held high positions in federal or state offices. President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued the first proclamation on March 1, 1954, standardizing the dates and time periods for flying the flag at half - staff from all federal buildings, grounds, and naval vessels; other congressional resolutions and presidential proclamations ensued. However, they are only guidelines to all other entities: typically followed at state and local government facilities, and encouraged of private businesses and citizens.
To properly fly the flag at half - staff, one should first briefly hoist it top of the staff, then lower it to the half - staff position, halfway between the top and bottom of the staff. Similarly, when the flag is to be lowered from half - staff, it should be first briefly hoisted to the top of the staff.
Federal statutes provide that the flag should be flown at half - staff on the following dates:
National Korean War Veterans Armistice Day, on July 27, was formerly a day of half - staff observance until the law expired in 2003. In 2009, it became a day of full - staff observance.
Though not part of the official Flag Code, according to military custom, flags should be folded into a triangular shape when not in use. To properly fold the flag:
There is also no specific meaning for each fold of the flag. However, there are scripts read by non-government organizations and also by the Air Force that are used during the flag folding ceremony. These scripts range from historical timelines of the flag to religious themes.
Traditionally, the flag of the United States plays a role in military funerals, and occasionally in funerals of other civil servants (such as law enforcement officers, fire fighters, and U.S. presidents). A burial flag is draped over the deceased 's casket as a pall during services. Just prior to the casket being lowered into the ground, the flag is ceremonially folded and presented to the deceased 's next of kin as a token of respect.
Flag of Bikini Atoll
Flag of Liberia
Flag of Malaysia
Flag of El Salvador 1875 -- 1912
Flag of Brittany
|
who did curtis granderson play for last year | Curtis Granderson - Wikipedia
Curtis Granderson Jr. (born March 16, 1981) is an American professional baseball outfielder for the Toronto Blue Jays of Major League Baseball (MLB). He previously played for the Detroit Tigers (2004 -- 2009), New York Yankees (2010 -- 2013), New York Mets (2014 -- 2017), and Los Angeles Dodgers (2017).
Granderson played college baseball at the University of Illinois at Chicago, and was selected by the Tigers in the 2002 MLB draft. He made his MLB debut with the Tigers in 2004, and signed a contract extension with Detroit in 2008. After the 2009 season, he was traded to the Yankees. After his contract expired following the 2013 season, he signed a four - year contract with the Mets. In the final season of the contract, the Mets traded him to the Dodgers. Granderson signed with the Blue Jays for the 2018 season.
Granderson is a three - time MLB All - Star (2009, 2011 -- 2012). He won the Silver Slugger Award in 2011. Off the field, Granderson is recognized for his commitment to the community through outreach and charity work. Many of his charitable endeavors support inner - city children. He has also served as an ambassador for MLB abroad. Granderson won the Marvin Miller Man of the Year Award twice and the Roberto Clemente Award in 2016 in recognition of his contributions in the community.
Granderson grew up in Blue Island, Illinois, and Lynwood, Illinois, south suburbs of Chicago. His father, Curtis, Sr., was a dean and physical education teacher at Nathan Hale Elementary School in Illinois. His mother, Mary, taught chemistry at Curie Metropolitan High School in Chicago. Granderson 's half - sister, Monica, is an English professor at Jackson State University.
As a child, Granderson grew up a fan of the Atlanta Braves, choosing not to root for the hometown Chicago Cubs because he often rushed home from school to watch Saved by the Bell and was disappointed when a Cubs game was on instead. Granderson attended Thornton Fractional South High School (T.F. South) in Lansing, where he played baseball and basketball. During his high school baseball career, Granderson batted. 369 with 11 home runs and 88 runs batted in (RBI), and was named an All - State selection his senior year. Granderson wore # 14 at T.F. South, choosing the number because his father wore it while playing softball. T.F. South honored Granderson by retiring his jersey in a December 2011 ceremony.
Granderson was recruited by a number of college baseball programs, and he chose the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), in part because they allowed him to play basketball in addition to baseball. However, Granderson quit basketball two weeks into his freshman year in order to concentrate on baseball.
As a freshman at UIC in 2000, Granderson led the UIC Flames baseball team with seven home runs and 45 walks. He followed that by hitting. 304 as a sophomore, leading the team in runs, home runs, and walks. After his sophomore year, Granderson played in a summer collegiate league for the Mankato Mashers, now known as the MoonDogs, of the Northwoods League, where he batted. 328 in 44 games, with eight doubles, two triples, one home run, 17 RBI, 28 runs scored, and 15 stolen bases.
During his junior season at UIC, Granderson batted. 483, second in the nation to Rickie Weeks. Granderson was named Second - Team All - American by Baseball America and USA Today 's Baseball Weekly and a Third - Team Louisville Slugger NCAA Division I All - American. He graduated from UIC with a double major in business administration and business marketing. On February 6, 2013 Granderson had his number 28 retired by UIC.
The Detroit Tigers selected Granderson in the third round of the 2002 Major League Baseball draft. The Tigers assigned Granderson to the Oneonta Tigers, their Minor League Baseball affiliate in the Class A-Short Season New York - Penn League. With Oneonta, Granderson batted. 344 in 52 games. Determined to complete his college education, though the fall semester began before the minor league season ended, Granderson made arrangements to begin his senior year at UIC via internet courses.
The Tigers assigned Granderson to the Lakeland Tigers of the Class - A Advanced Florida State League in 2003 and the Erie SeaWolves of the Class AA Eastern League in 2004. With the SeaWolves, Granderson hit. 303 with 21 home runs and 93 RBIs. Baseball America named Granderson the Tigers ' minor league player of the year and top prospect after the 2004 season.
Prior to the 2005 season, Baseball America rated Granderson as the 57th best prospect in baseball. Granderson competed for the role as the Tigers ' starting center fielder in 2005 spring training, but the organization decided he needed more seasoning, and assigned him to the Toledo Mud Hens of the Class AAA International League. With Toledo, he hit. 290 with 15 home runs, 65 RBIs and 22 stolen bases.
The Tigers promoted Granderson to the majors for the first time in September 2004. He made his major league debut on September 13 against the Minnesota Twins. He received his second promotion to the majors in July 2005, and he appeared in six games. After his third promotion to the majors, in August, he remained in the majors permanently. Granderson had his first career inside - the - park home run on September 15, a five - hit game September 18 and a walk - off home run on September 26 against the Chicago White Sox.
Granderson became the Tigers starting center fielder for the 2006 season after beating out Nook Logan for the position during spring training. From the start of his major league career in 2004, Granderson began a 151 - game errorless streak, the longest by a position player to start his career since Dave Roberts went errorless in 205 games. Granderson hit two home runs during the 2006 American League Division Series and one in the 2006 American League Championship Series, but struggled in the 2006 World Series, batting. 095, as the Cardinals defeated the Tigers.
Through June, Granderson ranked first among American League (AL) outfielders in triples (14), third in doubles (22), tied for fourth in runs (58) and tied for 10th in homers (11) with a. 289 batting average in the 2007 season. Although Granderson was not listed on the 2007 All - Star Game ballot, due to the Tigers ' decision to put Gary Sheffield as an outfielder on the ballot, he still received 376,033 write - in votes, the most write - in votes for any player. Granderson was named the AL Player of the Week on July 16, the first time he had won the award, as he hit. 500 (8 for 16) with two doubles, a triple, and a home run during that week. Granderson slugged. 938, drove in two runs, scored seven runs, and had fifteen total bases during Detroit 's four - game series against the Seattle Mariners.
On August 7, Granderson became the second player in franchise history to have at least 30 doubles, 15 triples, 15 home runs, and ten stolen bases in a single season when he hit a double in a game against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays. The other Tiger to accomplish this feat was Charlie Gehringer in 1930. He became the sixth member of baseball 's 20 -- 20 -- 20 club on September 7, joining the Kansas City Royals ' George Brett (1979), Willie Mays of the New York Giants (1957), Cleveland 's Jeff Heath (1941), St. Louis ' Jim Bottomley (1928), and Frank Schulte of the Chicago Cubs (1911). Granderson stole his 20th base of the season on September 9, joining Mays and Schulte as the only players in major league history to reach 20 doubles, 20 triples, 20 home runs, and 20 stolen bases in a season, a feat accomplished by the Philadelphia Phillies ' Jimmy Rollins 21 days later.
Granderson hit. 302 with 23 home runs for the season, and was 26 for 27 in stolen base attempts. He also improved his plate discipline, as he finished seventh in the AL in strikeouts with 141. He was one of only six batters in the AL to have at least 20 home runs and 20 stolen bases, along with teammate Gary Sheffield, Ian Kinsler, Alex Rodriguez, Grady Sizemore and B.J. Upton.
During the 2007 season, Granderson accumulated 23 triples, which led all of baseball. The American League and Detroit Tigers record is 26 triples, a feat achieved by the all - time triples king, Sam Crawford, in 1914. Granderson is the first player since 1949 to manage at least 23 in a single season. Only ten of his triples were at home despite the fact Comerica Park has seen more triples since it opened in 2000 than any other ballpark in baseball. Granderson joined the 20 - 20 - 30 - 20 club, having more than 20 triples, 20 home runs, 30 doubles, and 20 stolen bases. The last player to accomplish the feat was Wildfire Schulte in 1911. Granderson 's 23 triples were as much or more than six entire teams managed in 2007; the Chicago White Sox, Cincinnati Reds, Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, Oakland Athletics, Seattle Mariners and St. Louis Cardinals all had no more than 23 team triples.
Prior to the start of the 2008 season, the Tigers signed Granderson to a five - year, US $30.25 million contract with a club option for 2013. Granderson continued hitting well during the 2008 regular season, finishing with a. 280 batting average, 13 triples and 22 home runs. He continued to improve his plate discipline, striking out only 111 times (versus 141 in 2007 and 174 in 2006) and drawing a career - high 71 walks. During August, he hit six triples, including two in consecutive innings during a game against the Texas Rangers.
With the Tigers failing to make the playoffs in 2007 and 2008, TBS employed Granderson as a commentator alongside Cal Ripken, Jr., Dennis Eckersley and Frank Thomas for its coverage of the 2007 and 2008 postseasons.
Granderson was chosen to appear in the 2009 MLB All - Star Game. It was his first All Star appearance. In the game, he hit a triple in the top of the 8th inning and scored the winning run.
After the 2009 season, the Tigers began shopping Granderson to other franchises in an effort to reduce their payroll. The Yankees acquired Granderson in a three - team trade on December 9. In the deal, the Yankees received Granderson while sending Phil Coke and centerfielder Austin Jackson to Detroit. Also, the Arizona Diamondbacks received Yankees pitcher Ian Kennedy and Tigers pitcher Edwin Jackson in return for young pitchers Max Scherzer and Daniel Schlereth, who joined the Tigers.
Granderson hit a home run in his first Yankee at bat on April 4, 2010, becoming the twelfth player to do so. Although he missed some games due to a strained groin, Granderson finished the season with 136 games played, a. 247 batting average, and 24 home runs. Granderson, who struggled against left - handed pitching throughout his career, also put up subpar numbers against right - handed pitchers, causing Granderson to revamp his swing with the help of hitting coach Kevin Long in August 2010.
Granderson 's work with Long was credited as a reason for his strong 2011 campaign. Granderson received over 6.6 million votes for the 2011 MLB All - Star Game. In August 2011, Granderson and Mark Teixeira became the first Yankees teammates to hit 30 home runs in 115 games since Roger Maris and Mickey Mantle in 1961. On August 10, Granderson hit two home runs against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim to tally a career - high 31 home runs. Granderson, Robinson Canó, and Russell Martin all hit grand slams in a game against the Oakland Athletics on August 25, the first time a team had three grand slams in one game. Granderson was named American League Player of the Month for August 2011, in which he batted. 286, with a. 423 on - base percentage, slugged. 657, hit ten home runs, recorded 29 RBI, and scored 29 runs. He became the first player to record 40 home runs, 10 triples and 25 stolen bases in one season. Granderson finished fourth in balloting for the American League Most Valuable Player Award.
On May 6, 2012, Curtis achieved his 1,000 th hit against the Kansas City Royals. On August 26, 2012, Granderson hit his 200th career home run against the Cleveland Indians. He finished the 2012 season with a. 232 batting average, 43 home runs, 106 RBI, and set a new Yankees season record by striking out 195 times.
On October 19, the Yankees exercised Granderson 's club option for 2013. Originally worth $13 million, it became a $15 million option after he placed 4th in the MVP voting in 2011. In his spring training debut against the Toronto Blue Jays on February 24, 2013, Granderson was hit by a pitch from J.A. Happ that fractured his right forearm. He was placed on the 15 - day disabled list to begin the 2013 season. He returned to the Yankees on May 14. On May 18, 2013, Granderson made his first start at right field. May 24, 2013, Granderson broke the knuckle of his left pinkie finger after getting hit by Tampa Bay 's Cesar Ramos 's pitch in the 5th inning. He was again placed on the 15 - day disabled list. On May 29, 2013, Granderson underwent surgery in which a pin was inserted to the knuckle to stabilize the fracture. On August 2, 2013, Granderson was activated from the disabled list. Granderson was limited to only 61 games in 2013 batting. 229 with 7 home runs and 15 RBI. He became a free agent for the first time of his career after the season.
Granderson agreed to terms with the New York Mets on a four - year contract worth $60 million on December 6, 2013. Granderson 's salaries were set at $13 million in 2014, $16 million in 2015 and 2016, and $15 million in 2017. The Mets played Granderson as their right fielder. He started 148 games with 130 in right field.
In 2015, he became the team 's primary leadoff hitter. He went on to lead the team in games played, runs scored, hits, stolen bases, walks, on - base percentage and total bases en route to a National League East division title. In the third game of the National League Division Series, Granderson picked up five RBI -- this tied a Mets single game postseason record previously set by Carlos Delgado in the 2006 National League Championship Series, Edgardo Alfonzo in the 1999 NLCS and Rusty Staub in the 1973 World Series. After beating the Los Angeles Dodgers in five games in the NLDS, the Mets went on to sweep the Chicago Cubs in four games in the NLCS and advance to their first World Series since 2000.
Granderson and Daniel Murphy were the two most productive hitters in the Mets lineup during their 2015 postseason run to the World Series. While Murphy cooled off in the World Series against the Kansas City Royals, Granderson continued to be a consistent threat for the Mets out of the leadoff spot and also had three home runs and five RBIs in that World Series. In Game 1, after the Royals tied the game in the ninth inning with a home run off Mets closer Jeurys Familia, Granderson made an excellent leaping catch with nobody out in the bottom of the 11th inning, off the bat of the Royals fastest runner Jarrod Dyson, preventing what would have at least been a lead off triple and likely saving the game at the time, though the Royals would go on to win the game anyway in the bottom of the 14th inning on a sacrifice fly by Eric Hosmer. Throughout the series, playing right field, Granderson played the most consistent and solid defense of any Mets fielder.
On May 27, 2016, Granderson hit a walk off home run against the Los Angeles Dodgers. He was the first batter up in the bottom of the 9th inning. As of June 16, 2016, Granderson had hit 17 lead - off homers since joining the Mets in 2014, a franchise record. On September 17, Granderson hit two solo home runs against the Minnesota Twins at Citi Field. The first tied the ballgame in the bottom of the 11th inning and the second won the game in the bottom of the 12th inning. He became only the eighth player in Major League history to hit multiple home runs in extra innings of the same game. In the National League Wild Card Game against the San Francisco Giants on October 5, Granderson made an incredible catch to save several runs from scoring late in the close game.
On June 14, 2017, Granderson hit his 300th career home run in a Mets win over the Chicago Cubs.
On August 18, 2017, the Mets traded Granderson to the Los Angeles Dodgers for a player to be named later, identified as Jacob Rhame. He hit his first home run for the Dodgers on August 20 against Justin Verlander of the Tigers. After hitting a grand slam home run in his last at - bat for the Mets on August 17, he hit one for the Dodgers on August 21 and became the first player in MLB history to hit grand slams for two different teams within the same week. The following day, he stole his 150th career base, becoming the 36th player in MLB history with over 300 home runs and 150 or more steals. He batted. 161 /. 288 /. 366 for the Dodgers, in 112 at bats. He was 1 - for - 15 with eight strikeouts in the first two rounds of the playoffs, and the Dodgers left him off the World Series roster.
On January 23, 2018, Granderson signed a one - year, $5 million contract with the Toronto Blue Jays. On April 18, 2018, facing the Kansas City Royals, Granderson hit his ninth career grand slam. On April 24, Granderson hit his first walk - off homer since 2016 in a 10th inning victory against the Boston Red Sox. On June 10, against the Baltimore Orioles, Granderson hit for a career high six RBIs with a home run, two doubles, a single and a walk. On June 25, while playing the Houston Astros, Granderson hit his eighth and ninth home runs of the season off of Justin Verlander, a former Detroit Tiger teammate, to help the Jays to a win.
Granderson is an avid fan of WWE, and attended WrestleMania 23 in Detroit. He considers The Ultimate Warrior, The Undertaker, Junkyard Dog, "Macho Man '' Randy Savage, and Hulk Hogan to be his favorite wrestlers. He is also an avid fan of college basketball and of the Kansas Jayhawks.
Off the field, Granderson has served as an ambassador for Major League Baseball International. He has traveled to England, Italy, the Netherlands, France, South Africa, China, New Zealand, South Korea and Japan to promote baseball. In appreciation for his efforts, Commissioner Bud Selig penned a thank - you letter to Granderson which read in part, "There are so many fine young men playing Major League baseball today, but I can think of no one who is better suited to represent our national pastime than you. '' He has also served as something of an unofficial baseball ambassador to the African - American community, often participating in and initiating dialogue about the lack of black players at all levels of the sport. When he endorsed Nike, Inc., Louisville Slugger and Rawlings, he asked them to donate money to his foundation or equipment to inner - city baseball programs rather than pay him.
His foundation, Grand Kids Foundation, has raised money to benefit the educations of inner - city children around the country. Granderson wrote a children 's book, All You Can Be: Dream It, Draw It, Become It!, which was published in August 2009. The book is illustrated by students of the New York City public school system. In February 2010, Granderson represented MLB at a White House function announcing Let 's Move!, a childhood anti-obesity effort sponsored by First Lady of the United States Michelle Obama. Granderson donated $5 million to help UIC build a new baseball stadium in 2013.
Granderson has been involved in the Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) since 2006. He has taken part in negotiations of the labor contract. Granderson was chosen as the 2009 Marvin Miller Man of the Year by the MLBPA for his off - field work.
In 2011, Granderson was also voted one of the friendliest players in the Major Leagues, according to a poll conducted by Sports Illustrated of 290 players. Granderson wears his socks high to honor players from the Negro leagues.
|
in the context of pathfinding define the start distance of a given state | Pathfinding - wikipedia
Pathfinding or pathing is the plotting, by a computer application, of the shortest route between two points. It is a more practical variant on solving mazes. This field of research is based heavily on Dijkstra 's algorithm for finding a shortest path on a weighted graph.
Pathfinding is closely related to the shortest path problem, within graph theory, which examines how to identify the path that best meets some criteria (shortest, cheapest, fastest, etc) between two points in a large network.
At its core, a pathfinding method searches a graph by starting at one vertex and exploring adjacent nodes until the destination node is reached, generally with the intent of finding the cheapest route. Although graph searching methods such as a breadth - first search would find a route if given enough time, other methods, which "explore '' the graph, would tend to reach the destination sooner. An analogy would be a person walking across a room; rather than examining every possible route in advance, the person would generally walk in the direction of the destination and only deviate from the path to avoid an obstruction, and make deviations as minor as possible.
Two primary problems of pathfinding are (1) to find a path between two nodes in a graph; and (2) the shortest path problem -- to find the optimal shortest path. Basic algorithms such as breadth - first and depth - first search address the first problem by exhausting all possibilities; starting from the given node, they iterate over all potential paths until they reach the destination node. These algorithms run in O (V + E) (\ displaystyle O (V + E)), or linear time, where V is the number of vertices, and E is the number of edges between vertices.
The more complicated problem is finding the optimal path. The exhaustive approach in this case is known as the Bellman -- Ford algorithm, which yields a time complexity of O (V E) (\ displaystyle O (V E)), or quadratic time. However, it is not necessary to examine all possible paths to find the optimal one. Algorithms such as A * and Dijkstra 's algorithm strategically eliminate paths, either through heuristics or through dynamic programming. By eliminating impossible paths, these algorithms can achieve time complexities as low as O (E log (V)) (\ displaystyle O (E \ log (V))).
The above algorithms are among the best general algorithms which operate on a graph without preprocessing. However, in practical travel - routing systems, even better time complexities can be attained by algorithms which can pre-process the graph to attain better performance. One such algorithm is contraction hierarchies.
A common example of a graph - based pathfinding algorithm is Dijkstra 's algorithm. This algorithm begins with a start node and an "open set '' of candidate nodes. At each step, the node in the open set with the lowest distance from the start is examined. The node is marked "closed '', and all nodes adjacent to it are added to the open set if they have not already been examined. This process repeats until a path to the destination has been found. Since the lowest distance nodes are examined first, the first time the destination is found, the path to it will be the shortest path.
Dijkstra 's algorithm fails if there is a negative edge weight. In the hypothetical situation where Nodes A, B, and C form a connected undirected graph with edges AB = 3, AC = 4, and BC = − 2, the optimal path from A to C costs 1, and the optimal path from A to B costs 2. Dijkstra 's Algorithm starting from A will first examine B, as that is the closest. It will assign a cost of 3 to it, and mark it closed, meaning that its cost will never be reevaluated. Therefore, Dijkstra 's can not evaluate negative edge weights. However, since for many practical purposes there will never be a negative edgeweight, Dijkstra 's algorithm is largely suitable for the purpose of pathfinding.
A * is a variant of Dijkstra 's algorithm commonly used in games. A * assigns a weight to each open node equal to the weight of the edge to that node plus the approximate distance between that node and the finish. This approximate distance is found by the heuristic, and represents a minimum possible distance between that node and the end. This allows it to eliminate longer paths once an initial path is found. If there is a path of length x between the start and finish, and the minimum distance between a node and the finish is greater than x, that node need not be examined.
A * uses this heuristic to improve on the behavior relative to Dijkstra 's algorithm. When the heuristic evaluates to zero, A * is equivalent to Dijkstra 's algorithm. As the heuristic estimate increases and gets closer to the true distance, A * continues to find optimal paths, but runs faster (by virtue of examining fewer nodes). When the value of the heuristic is exactly the true distance, A * examines the fewest nodes. (However, it is generally impractical to write a heuristic function that always computes the true distance.) As the value of the heuristic increases, A * examines fewer nodes but no longer guarantees an optimal path. In many applications (such as video games) this is acceptable and even desirable, in order to keep the algorithm running quickly.
This is a fairly simple and easy - to - understand pathfinding algorithm for tile - based maps. To start off, you have a map, a start coordinate and a destination coordinate. The map will look like this, X being walls, S being the start, 0 being the finish and _ being open spaces, the numbers along the top and right edges are the column and row numbers:
First, create a list of coordinates, which we will use as a queue. The queue will be initialized with one coordinate, the end coordinate. Each coordinate will also have a counter variable attached (the purpose of this will soon become evident). Thus, the queue starts off as ((3, 8, 0)).
Then, go through every element in the queue, including elements added to the end over the course of the algorithm, and to each element, do the following:
Thus, after turn 1, the list of elements is this: ((3, 8, 0), (2, 8, 1), (4, 8, 1))
Now, map the counters onto the map, getting this:
Now, start at S (7) and go to the nearby cell with the lowest number (unchecked cells can not be moved to). The path traced is (1, 3, 7) - > (1, 4, 6) - > (1, 5, 5) - > (1, 6, 4) - > (1, 7, 3) - > (1, 8, 2) - > (2, 8, 1) - > (3, 8, 0). In the event that two numbers are equally low (for example, if S was at (2, 5)), pick a random direction -- the lengths are the same. The algorithm is now complete.
Multi-agent pathfinding is to find the paths for multiple agents from their current locations to their target locations without colliding with each other, while at the same time optimizing a cost function, such as the sum of the path lengths of all agents. It is a generalization of pathfinding. Many multi-agent pathfinding algorithms are generalized from A *, or based on reduction to other well studied problems such as integer linear programming. However, such algorithms are typically incomplete; in other words, not proven to produce a solution within polynomial time. A different category of algorithms sacrifice optimality for performance by either making use of known navigation patterns (such as traffic flow) or the topology of the problem space.
|
the famous frescoes of the carmera degli sposi were painted for the duke of mantua by | Camera degli Sposi - wikipedia
The Camera degli Sposi ("bridal chamber ''), sometimes known as the Camera picta ("painted chamber ''), is a room frescoed with illusionistic paintings by Andrea Mantegna in the Ducal Palace, Mantua, Italy. It was painted between 1465 and 1474 and commissioned by Ludovico III Gonzaga, and is notable for the use of trompe l'oeil details and its di sotto in sù ceiling.
The chronological sequence of the paintings has been recently discovered: the painter started from the vault by dry painting in the background small bits particularly those of the oculus and the wreath surrounding it. Then he moved on to the ' Court scene ' where he used a mysterious oily tempera dry laid out on the surface. The east and south walls followed, with the traditional fresco technique representing heavy curtains. Finally the ' Meeting scene ' on the west wall was painted, always ' a fresco ' but in very small bits which confirms an almost ten - year period of work on that part of the chamber.
The "Court Scene '' on the north wall shows Ludovico Gonzaga, dressed informally, with his wife Barbara of Brandenburg. They are seated with their relatives, while a group of courtiers fill the rest of the wall. The figures are interacting in an illusionistically expanded space.
On the west wall is the "Meeting scene ''. This fresco shows Ludovico in official robes in an ideal meeting with his son, Cardinal Francesco Gonzaga, the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III and Christian I of Denmark.
The commission is far from being explained by scholars. The traditional interpretation sees the frescos as linked to the election as Cardinal of Ludovico 's son Francesco Gonzaga, which took place on January 1, 1462: the Court scene should then represent the Marquis receiving the news, and the Meeting Scene should see father and son reunited in the happy event.
The mature and strongly - built figure of Francesco though, does n't seem to match with his age in 1461, which was only 17 (an early portrait held today in Naples confirms this). For this reason, these frescos could refer to a later visit of Cardinal Francesco to Mantua, perhaps on August 1472 when he was given the title of St. Andrew.
Mantegna 's playful ceiling presents an oculus that illusionistically opens into a blue sky, with foreshortened putti playfully frolicking around a balustrade. This was one of the earliest di sotto in sù ceiling paintings.
Coordinates: 45 ° 09 ′ 40 '' N 10 ° 48 ′ 00 '' E / 45.16111 ° N 10.80000 ° E / 45.16111; 10.80000
|
who does the voices in phineas and ferb | List of Phineas and Ferb characters - wikipedia
The following is a character list of main and secondary characters on the Disney Channel series Phineas and Ferb.
Phineas Flynn (voiced by Vincent Martella) Like other characters, he has red hair, his age is not mentioned. Phineas, along with his stepbrother Ferb Fletcher, star in the A-Plot of every episode. The series concerns Phineas 's attempts to avoid boredom by finding something new to do every day of the summer vacation. He does this with his less - talkative stepbrother Ferb, and often with many other neighborhood children. He is known to be very selfless and energetic. Phineas has many catch phrases like "Oh, there you are, Perry '' or "Hey, Ferb! I know what we 're going to do today! '' and "Hey, where 's Perry? ''.
Phineas comes from a blended family. The creators chose this arrangement because they considered it underused in children 's programming as well as from Marsh 's experiences in one. As a character, Phineas has received a positive critical response, with one reviewer describing him and his brother as a "comical pairing. '' Phineas appears in Phineas and Ferb merchandise, including plush toys, t - shirts, and a video game.
Ferb Fletcher (voiced by Thomas Sangster) is a boy of few words, Phineas 's green - haired, intelligent but laconic stepbrother from the United Kingdom and created by Phineas and Ferb co-founders Dan Povenmire and Jeff "Swampy '' Marsh. He first appeared in the show 's pilot episode, "Rollercoaster. ''
Ferb and his stepbrother Phineas Flynn spend their days during their summer vacation having fun. They are featured in every episode 's A-Plot constructing large scale inventions or taking part in other outlandish activities. Ferb, an engineering genius, allows Phineas to do most of the talking for the pair and is described as "more of a man of action, '' by Phineas, which makes him more of a plot device than a developed character. Ferb is more likely to sing than speak, but most often has a one - liner in the episodes. Ferb is named after a friend of the show 's creators who was an expert on tools and, at times, stayed rather silent.
Candace Flynn (voiced by Ashley Tisdale) is Phineas 's fifteen - year - old older sister and Ferb 's stepsister. She first appeared in the pilot episode. Candace does not approve of the inventions her brothers create then she hates their creations, and in most episodes she attempts to "bust her brothers '' by showing their mom. Her best friend is Stacy Hirano; Candace also has an obvious crush on Jeremy Johnson, but for a long time she was oblivious to the fact he liked her back. As a character, she has received a positive critical acclaim, having appeared in other media such as video games.
Perry the Platypus (vocal effects by Dee Bradley Baker), a.k.a. Agent P, is Phineas and Ferb 's pet platypus and first appeared along with a large portion of the main cast in the pilot episode "Rollercoaster. '' Perry is featured as the star of the B - Plot for all but one episode of the series alongside his arch - nemesis Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz, at last he pretend to destroy their creations. He is a primarily silent character, with the only noises being the occasional rattling of his bill.
In Phineas and Ferb the Movie: Across the 2nd Dimension, an alternate reality (yet more evil and ruthless) version of Perry (known as Platyborg) appears. Platyborg would later return in the episode sequel, Tales from the Resistance: Back to the 2nd Dimension.
Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz (voiced by Dan Povenmire) is a mad scientist appearing in all but one episode 's B - Plots thus far. He is the father to teenage Vanessa Doofenshmirtz and is the head of his own company, Doofenshmirtz Evil Inc. Depending on the episode, Dr. Doofenshmirtz 's main goal is to either destroy or rule the Tri-State Area which was suggested to him as a starting point before trying to take over the world. Routinely bumbling, incompetent, and forgetful, almost all of Doofenshmirtz 's plans -- always involving various gadgets and inventions -- have been thwarted by Perry the Platypus. However, a few of his schemes were quite successful in nature, such as in the 2014 special Phineas and Ferb Save Summer when Doofenshmirtz succeeded in moving the Earth away from its original orbit to an early autumn, much to Perry 's distraught. After most defeats, he shouts his catchphrase, "Curse you, Perry the Platypus! '' His first invention as a child was simply called "Inator '' which led to his modern contraptions usually ending with the suffix of the same name.
Throughout the series, Doofenshmirtz 's flashbacks (which are often shown after Perry has been captured) explore his mentally abusive and lonely childhood growing up in the fictional village Gimmelshtump, Druelselstein. Before becoming an evil scientist, Doofenshmirtz was a bratwurst vendor until being put out of business by the hot dog industry. Doofenshmirtz usually monologues and displays acts of cartoon - style physical violence towards his nemesis Perry, a skilled anthropomorphic platypus secret agent. His last name is frequently abbreviated to "Doof ''. Doofenshmirtz appears in several merchandise pieces, particularly the book series, and the video game.
In the 2011 TV film, Phineas and Ferb the Movie: Across the 2nd Dimension, an alternate reality (yet more intelligent and successful) version of Dr. Doofenshmirtz appears, with the regular Doctor Doofenshmirtz serving as a supporting character. 2nd Doofenshmirtz later returns in the episode sequel, Tales from the Resistance: Back to the 2nd Dimension.
Baljeet Tjinder (voiced by Maulik Pancholy) is Phineas ' and Ferb 's friend and neighbor. He wears blue overalls, despite being in grade school. A shy, intellectual, and polite boy who moved to Danville from India, he often helps the boys with their ideas and displays his knowledge of algebra and trivia. He also has a compulsive need to get good grades.
Carl the Intern (Tyler Alexander Mann) is Major Monogram 's young unpaid intern of the O.W.C.A. (Organization Without a Cool Acronym) in charge of video taping Monogram when he is being interviewed and talking to Agent P. He is a bit careless, wears glasses, and sometimes forgets to focus the camera correctly.
The Fireside Girls are a group of ten girl scout - like girls led by Isabella in troop 46231. Isabella and the other Fireside Girls usually help Phineas and Ferb in their projects which, in turn, are at times created to help the Fireside Girls with a humanitarian cause.
Other members of the troop:
Lawrence Fletcher (voiced by Richard O'Brien) is the father of Ferb and stepfather of Phineas and Candace. Lawrence sells antiques, is from the United Kingdom and is portrayed like a sitcom dad as being scatterbrained and unaware of what is going on. He often agrees to follow Phineas 's instructions and even forces Candace to cooperate as if he considers Phineas and Ferb 's skills normal. Unlike the boys ' mother, he has seen some of the boys ' inventions; he has not reacted negatively, and apparently believes that their mother approves. His precise surname is a matter of some dispute; in at least one episode, Isabella addresses him as "Mr. Flynn ''. Jeff "Swampy '' Marsh has said that Lawrence Fletcher is very similar to his stepfather, Bill.
Linda Flynn - Fletcher (voiced by Caroline Rhea) is the mother of Phineas and Candace and stepmother of Ferb. Unaware of the large - scale projects that Phineas and Ferb create on a daily basis, Candace often drags her away from other interests in an attempt to get the boys in trouble. Each creation is somehow destroyed or eliminated moments before "Mom '' arrives leaving Candace dumbfounded and Linda once more reluctant to believe Candace the next time. She was also a one - hit wonder known as "Lindana '' with her song, "I 'm Lindana and I Wanna Have Fun ''. That fact possibly makes her, as a singer, a parody of Cyndi Lauper, because of Lauper 's hit Girls Just Want to Have Fun, and because both of them were famous singers in the 1980s (Linda fictionally). Her single is used as elevator music throughout the series. Her surname is not consistent throughout the series; in at least one episode, Candace refers to her as "Linda Flynn ''. She is based on Dan Povenmire 's sister, also named Linda. She also used to date Dr. Doofenshmirtz during their mid-teens and that she was the one who inspired him to take over the Tri-State Area as a starting point for worldwide domination when he sarcastically stated that he would rule the world.
Isabella Garcia - Shapiro (voiced by Alyson Stoner) is a Jewish Mexican girl. She is one of the brothers ' best friends and has an obvious crush on Phineas Flynn of which he is unaware, though he has shown he cares for her from time to time. She is known for the catchphrase, "Whatcha doin '? '' and is the leader of the Fireside Girls troop 46231. The troop often helps Phineas and Ferb in their projects. She is named after series creator Dan Povenmire 's oldest daughter.
Stacy Hirano (voiced by Kelly Hu) is Candace 's best friend. She is of Japanese heritage. Stacy is shown to be annoyed by Candace 's constant attempts to bust Phineas and Ferb, and would prefer to just have fun with the inventions; she also occasionally gets annoyed with Candace 's gushing about her relationship with Jeremy. During the episode "Happy Birthday, Isabella '', she finds out about Perry 's secret Identity but does n't lose her memories afterwards.
Jeremy Johnson (voiced by Mitchel Musso) is Candace Flynn 's crush and later boyfriend. His age is sixteen, a year older than Candace. He works at Mr. Slushy Burger (sometimes named Mr. Slushy Dawg). In "Summer Belongs to You, '' it was confirmed that he and Candace had become boyfriend and girlfriend; toward the end of the episode, they kissed. He also has a band called "The Incidentals. ''
Major Francis Monogram (voiced by Jeff "Swampy '' Marsh) is one of the heads of the O.W.C.A. (Organization Without a Cool Acronym) Department and Perry the Platypus ' boss. He usually appears in a Nehru jacket on a giant screen giving Perry instructions for his next mission to stop Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz 's endless attempts to take over the Tri-State Area. His uniform prominently features the initials "MM. '' He has a monobrow and wears a toupée. Sometimes, he is shown to have a lack of details about what Doofenshmirtz is up to, and orders Perry to go stop it as usual. Just like Doofenshmirtz, he has appeared in every episode of the series to date except, "Isabella and the Temple of Sap. ''
Buford van Stomm (voiced by Bobby Gaylor) is frequently referred to as a bully, but he rarely hurts anyone on - screen. He is portrayed as a nice person with a tough guy attitude more often than as a bully. Phineas believes that Buford only bullies out of boredom thus Phineas often invites him to keep his mind occupied. He is thought not to get along with Baljeet, but in most episodes it is shown that they share a friendly bond. In one episode, Buford and Baljeet sing a song where they describe each other as "Frenemies '' and "my least favorite brother ''.
Vanessa Doofenshmirtz (voiced by Olivia Olson) is Heinz and Charlene Doofenshmirtz 's teenage daughter. She is sarcastic, mild - mannered, cynical, and dresses in a goth style. Vanessa is aware that her father is an evil scientist and knows about her father 's nemesis Perry the Platypus. She is often exasperated by her father whenever he tries to establish a "father - daughter '' bond between them as he does n't really understand her interests or refuses to acknowledge that she is growing up and often assumes that she is also interested in "evil. '' She often tries to convince her mom that her dad is an "evil scientist '' but, much like Candace, ultimately always fails when she does appear trying to catch him in the act, much to her dismay. She does, however, occasionally show appreciation for what he does for her, as he is clearly devoted to her (he once taught her how to drive and traveled halfway around the world after she got lost). Also, despite denying it so many times, Vanessa admits that she may be a little evil, as she once helped her father escape from custody by posing her hairdryer as a pistol to fool Major Monogram and Perry into releasing Doofenshmirtz, as shown in the special Phineas and Ferb: Summer Belongs to You!. Although Ferb has a crush on her, she remains oblivious to his affections as she already had a punk (not visigoth) boyfriend named "Johnny. '', whom she later broke up with in the episode "Minor Monogram ''. She is in a relationship with Monty Monogram, the son of Major Monogram; however "Act Your Age '' depicts her becoming involved with Ferb ten years down the line.
In addition to this, Vanessa makes a cameo appearance in the 2011 TV film, "Phineas and Ferb: Across the 2nd Dimension '', along with an alternative reality version of herself (2nd Vanessa), though their scenes were deleted. 2nd Vanessa returned in the episode sequel, Tales from the Resistance: Back to the 2nd Dimension.
Vivian Garcia - Shapiro (voiced by Eileen Galindo), or simply "Viv, '' is Isabella 's mother and lives across the street from Phineas and Ferb. She is a Jewish Mexican, one of Linda 's best friends, and plays upright bass in a jazz band with Linda Flynn and Jeremy 's mom. She is known for talking very fast and often making useless comments such as, "Oh, Candace, look how tall you 've gotten. '' despite seeing Candace only a week earlier.
Jenny Brown (voiced by Alyson Stoner) is Candace 's second best friend and a hippie. She wears a peace symbol necklace and says that she hopes for world peace.
Pinky (vocals by Dee Bradley Baker) is Isabella 's pet chihuahua. Much like Perry the Platypus, Pinky also lives a double - life as a secret agent for the O.W.C.A. under the codename, "Agent Pinky '' in a division run by a commander named Wanda, a.k.a. Admiral Acronym. Pinky 's nemesis is Professor Poofenplotz. Although he does not like dog food, Pinky will eat just about anything -- especially his favorite; grilled cheese sandwiches, and even inedible objects, having once swallowed Isabella 's Fireside Girl sash. Pinky always shakes as an ongoing joke about the behavior of Chihuahuas. He first appeared in the episode, "Journey to the Center of Candace. ''
Norm (voiced by John Viener) is a giant robot man created by Dr. Doofenshmirtz to destroy Perry the Platypus. Introduced in "Greece Lightning, '' he is a giant robotic mild - mannered businessman who often says, "The enemy of platypus is man. '' Norm has appeared in other episodes. For instance, in the episode, "Traffic Cam Caper, '' Perry borrows Norm as a ride to steal the traffic cam disk, for it has evidence that Perry is a secret agent. He was once a part of the O.W.C.A. but was fired because he was not an animal. Later in the series, he is depicted as Doofenshmirtz 's sidekick and servant who makes frequent mistakes such as cooking eggs with the shells on or serving Doof chocolate cake for breakfast, though always staying cheery. In the episode "A Real Boy '', Norm reveals that he has always wanted to be a human boy and considers Doofenshmirtz his father and Vanessa his sister.
In the 2011 TV film, Phineas and Ferb the Movie: Across the 2nd Dimension, a group of alternate reality (yet more menacing and successful) versions of Norm (known as Norm - Bots) appear, with the regular Norm making a cameo.
Charlene Doofenshmirtz (voiced by Allison Janney) is the former wife of Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz and shares custody of their daughter, Vanessa. Unaware of Dr. Doofenshmirtz 's "evil '' side, and in fact saying she does not believe someone can ever be truly evil, she divorced him due to a lack of common interests and having different life - goals. She is very wealthy and gives her ex-husband a large allowance each month. She is sometimes called by Vanessa who tries to "bust '' her father but to no avail. Charlene and Linda Flynn - Fletcher have been paired up in a cooking class owned by Chef Pierre and in "I Scream, You Scream '' were distracted by both Candace and Vanessa at the same time. Despite being divorced with Doof, she still goes to Doofenshmirtz family reunions claiming that she "kept the name, '' as seen in "Thaddeus and Thor. ''
However, in the episode "Tales From the Resistance: Back to the 2nd Dimension '' (the episode sequel to the 2011 TV film, "Phineas and Ferb: Across the 2nd Dimension ''), it is shown that there is an alternate reality version of Charlene Doofenshmirtz. It turns out that 2nd Charlene is still married to 2nd Doof and actually shares much of his evil personality, and that their divorce was just a ruse to gain financial advantages during 2nd Doof 's reign (such as receiving coupon mail, putting up junk yard sales, and going on separate vacation trips).
Suzy Johnson (voiced by Kari Wahlgren), known as Little Suzy Johnson, is Jeremy 's little sister. She has a high - pitched squeaky voice and appears very sweet and innocent. However, she is actually very spoiled and manipulative and very possessive over Jeremy, once telling Candace, "There is only one girl in Jeremy 's life '' and thus will do anything to keep Candace away from her brother.
Grandpa Clyde Flynn and Grandma Betty Jo Flynn (voiced by Barry Bostwick and Caroline Rhea respectively) are Linda 's parents, Phineas and Candace 's maternal grandparents, Lawrence 's - in - laws, and Ferb 's step - grandparents. Every summer, they invite the family along with many neighborhood kids to a lakehouse which Phineas calls, "Camp P&F ''. Though they are old, they often participate in the kids ' capers. Grandpa Clyde, like Phineas and Ferb, has a great sense of mechanics, as seen in "Crack That Whip! '' Betty Jo is also shown in the same episode to have a fierce rivalry with Edna Hildagard, Jeremy and Suzy 's grandmother.
Grandma Winifred Fletcher and Grandpa Reginald Fletcher (voiced by Malcolm McDowell and Jane Carr) are Lawrence 's parents, Ferb 's paternal grandparents, Phineas and Candace 's step grandparents, and Linda Flynn Fletcher 's in laws who reside in the United Kingdom. Reginald used to be a daredevil known as the Flying Fishmonger the anthem.
Roger Doofenshmirtz (voiced by John O'Hurley) is mayor of Danville and Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz 's younger brother. Heinz often states angrily that Roger is their mother 's favorite son. In "Tree to Get Ready '' Roger states that he is, "the most handsome and charming man in the Tri-State area. ''
Irving Du Bois (voiced by Jack McBrayer) is Phineas ' and Ferb 's self - proclaimed biggest fan. He always carries a scrapbook that he filled with images and souvenirs from Phineas and Ferb 's big ideas as well as a strand of Ferb 's hair. Irving has an older brother Albert, who is self - nicknamed ' The Truth Detector. '
Django Brown (voiced by Alec Holden) is a friend of Phineas and Ferb. Django is the son of the artist Beppo Brown from "Oil on Candace, '' who is famous for his work in making giant creations, from refrigerators to dental floss. He is named after co-creator's Jeff "Swampy '' Marsh son, Django Marsh, who voices minor characters on the show.
Admiral Wanda Acronym (voiced by Jane Leeves) is the one of the heads of the O.W.C.A. (Organization Without a Cool Acronym) Department and Pinky the Chihuahua ' boss. Just like Major Monogram, she usually appears on a giant screen giving Pinky instructions for his next mission to stop Professor Poofenplotz 's endless attempts to take over the world.
Also, just like Monogram (who has an unpaid intern named Carl), Adrimal Acronym has her own unpaid intern named Carla, who bears some resemblances to Carl.
Carla (voiced by Jennifer Hale) is one of the interns working for the O.W.C.A.. She bears some resemblances to Carl (possible could be her brother or cousin), as her boss Admiral Acronym stated that she comes from an ' entire family of unpaid interns '. She usually gives in the intelligence of whatever plans that Poofenplotz is up to.
Professor Esmeralda Poofenplotz (voiced by Amanda Plummer) is an old mad scientist and the nemesis of Agent Pinky, Isabella 's pet Chihuahua. She is known for her silly attempts for worldwide domination. Her known schemes so far involve replacing handbags, stealing royal jelly, and searching for strong hairspray (her favorite is "Stiff Beauty '' hairspray, which originally was only used by clowns). Needless to say, because of her somewhat arrogant personality, Poofenplotz has failed to know about the flaws of her schemes. And because of that, it has allowed Pinky to defeat her in return, leaving an humiliated Poofenplotz to yell out, "Curse you, Pinky the Chihuahua! '', similar to how Heinz Doofenshmirtz says whenever his plans get foiled by Perry the Platypus.
Love Händel is a rock band idolized by many in the Danville Tri-State Area, first seen the episode, "Dude, We 're Gettin ' the Band Back Together! '' Lawrence Fletcher and Linda Flynn shared their first kiss at a Love Händel concert. Shortly afterward, plagued by infighting caused by the pressures of a dwindling fanbase, Love Händel split up. Lead Singer Danny (voiced by Jaret Reddick) became the owner of Danny 's Music Shop. Bass Player Bobbi Fabulous (voiced by Carlos Alazraqui) became the owner of Bobbi 's Fashion Salon and Linda 's hairdresser. Sherman "Swampy '' (voiced by Steve Zahn) ended up working at the Danville Public Library, believing he had lost his sense of rhythm. Eventually all three members are convinced to reunite for a concert in the Flynn / Fletcher 's backyard, in which they sing their hit song, "You Snuck Your Way Right into My Heart. '' Love Handel occasionally reappears in other episodes and in the movie where they sing their songs.
Monty Monogram (voiced by Seth Green) is Major Monogram 's son and has been working in O.W.C.A. since "Minor Monogram ''. Vanessa Doofenshmirtz seems to become interested in him after she broke up with Johnny, and it is possible that he is slightly interested in her too because he winks at her before leaving. They have coffee together in "Sipping with the Enemy '', at which point they apparently begin to date one another. In "Minor Monogram '' he has recently graduated from the "High School Without a Cool Acronym '' (H.S.W.C.A.) and he really wants to fight evil following his dad 's footsteps. Due to the rivalry between his father and Dr. Doofenshmirtz, he and Vanessa try to keep it secret from the two of them, aided by Perry and Carl (though the latter briefly blackmailed Monty in hopes of getting his help in earning Major Monogram 's approval). In the special Phineas and Ferb Save Summer, Monty played a major role as he attempts to help rescue all of the captured agents and defeat the villains of L.O.V.E.M.U.F.F.I.N. in their plan to take over the world by sending it into a new Ice Age.
Dr. Hirano (voiced by Ming - Na Wen) is Stacy and Ginger 's mother. She removed Isabella 's tonsils in, "I Scream, You Scream. '' She is often referred to through conversations between Candace and Stacy where Candace gratifies, "Stacy, you 're a genius! '' and Stacy replies, "Could you call my mom and tell her that? ''
Aloyse Everheart Elizabeth Otto Wolfgang Hypatia Gunther Galen Gary Cooper von Roddenstein (voiced by Joe Orrantia), or Rodney for short, is a bald evil scientist and a member of the villain organization L.O.V.E.M.U.F.F.I.N.. He serves as the main rival to Dr. Doofenshmirtz, believing him to a disappointment because of his constant failures. Throughout most of his appearances, Rodney attempts to best out on Doofenshmirtz to show that he 's a better villain, only to fail so many times (either due to Doofenshmirtz 's antics or Perry 's intervention). Similar to Doofenshmirtz, Rodney usually makes his own inventions and ends them with the suffix ' - inizor '. He also has his own robot apprentice named Chloe, whom Norm fell in love with. He also has a son named Orville, who usually helps him create his - inizors.
Rodney would later go on to appear in the 2014 episode special, "Phineas and Ferb Save Summer '', where he learns that Doofenshmirtz has actually succeeded in moving the Earth away from the Sun to an early autumn with his latest - inator. Taking the opportunity to exploit this, Rodney leads L.O.V.E.M.U.F.F.I.N. into revealing themselves to the world and capturing all of O.W.C.A. 's agents. He even creates an - inizor (which is just ten times the size and strength of Doof 's - inator) that will send the Earth into a new Ice Age if the world refuse to meet all of L.O.V.E.M.U.F.F.I.N. 's demands. However, in the end, Doofenshmirtz (who is completely disgusted by Rodney 's true goal for worldwide domination) manages to defeat Rodney, who then gets arrested by Monty Monogram and taken into O.W.C.A. custody.
Professor Parenthesis (voiced by Paul Reubens) is an evil scientist serving in the 2015 standalone special, O.W.C.A. Files. He has claimed to have known Major Monogram during biology class 30 years ago (even announcing several names of their old classmates). In the special, Parenthesis plots to take over O.W.C.A. by using robotic fleas to take control of all of its animal agents, so that he can unleash them to wreak havoc around the world in order to smear O.W.C.A. 's good name. During the climax, he is revealed to be a tiny talking flea controlling a human android, as he plans to capture Perry (who is among the few agents not be infested with the robotic fleas) while finalizing his control over the agents to become permanent. However, Perry 's team of trainees (including Doofenshmirtz, who has given up evil at that time) set up a trap against Parenthesis, destroy his robotic fleas to free the agents, and confine Parenthesis inside a pill bottle as punishment for his crimes.
There are several characters that reappear as recurring joke such as farmer and wife. The wife always tells her husband "I ca n't believe you (blank) without getting a (blank) '' and then it falls from the sky and sometimes hits her. For example, in the episode, "Leave the Busting to Us '', the wife says, "I ca n't believe you bought a bunny farm but forgot to buy any bunnies! Did you really think the bunnies would fall from the sky? '' A pack of rabbits then falls from the sky and hits her. Then in the end credits scene from said episode, the wife yells at her husband, "I ca n't believe you sold our lucrative bunny farm and bought a van rental place! And you did n't buy a single van! '' She hears a van falling over her and says, "Not one word, '' just before the van crashes and injures her (the screen blacks out the impact).
Another minor character is the Giant Floating Baby Head. In an interview, Dan Povenmire stated that the head had originated from a storyboard panel that writer Mike Diederich had drawn which director Rob Hughes found hilarious enough to create an entire bit around. It first appears in "One Good Scare Ought to Do It! '' and has since appeared in several other episode.
Dr. Doofenshmirtz 's mother (Cloris Leachman) has appeared. She refers to Roger being her favorite child and often ignores Heinz. Albert (voiced by Diedrich Bader), Irving 's Brother has appeared in "Not Phineas and Ferb '', "The Doof Side of the Moon '', and "Nerds of a Feather ''.
|
born with the last name ayew which striker is the top international scorer for ghana | Kwame Ayew - wikipedia
Kwame Ayew (born 28 December 1973) is a Ghanaian retired footballer who played as a striker.
During nearly 20 years he played professionally in six countries, mainly in Portugal where he appeared for four teams in the 90s, amassing Primeira Liga totals of 131 games and 51 goals over the course of six seasons.
Born in Tamale, Ayew started playing professionally in France at only 17, spending a couple of Ligue 1 seasons with FC Metz, then moved to Qatar with Al Ahli SC and played in another country in the following two years, Italy, appearing and scoring sparingly for U.S. Lecce (for instance, he netted four goals in 1993 -- 94 's Serie A as his club ranked last with only 28 goals, a competition - worst).
Ayew moved to Portugal in 1995, and would remain there in the following five years. He started with U.D. Leiria and Vitória de Setúbal, then impressed at Boavista F.C. also in the Primeira Liga, scoring 15 times in 27 games in his second season to earn his team a best - ever at the time runner - up place, behind neighbours FC Porto.
After nearly 50 official goals for Boavista, Ayew moved to country giants Sporting Clube de Portugal. Even though he was never an automatic first - choice (having to battle for a starting berth with Alberto Acosta, Edmílson and Mbo Mpenza), he netted seven goals in 13 starts as the Lions ended an 18 - year drought and conquered the national championship.
In the following years Ayew would play in Turkey (two seasons) and China (five), rarely settling with a club. In January 2007 the 33 - year - old returned to former side Setúbal, contributing solidly as the Sadinos avoided top flight relegation by one point; he retired from the game shortly after.
Ayew was a member of the Ghana national team that won the bronze medal at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, scoring six goals in as many games. In total, he won 25 senior caps.
Football ran in Ayew 's family: his brothers Abedi and Sola also played football, the former spending a big part of his career with Olympique de Marseille. His nephews, André, Jordan and Rahim, also played the sport professionally.
|
you can directly connect to a national backbone provider from your home computer | Internet backbone - wikipedia
The Internet backbone might be defined by the principal data routes between large, strategically interconnected computer networks and core routers on the Internet. These data routes are hosted by commercial, government, academic and other high - capacity network centers, the Internet exchange points and network access points, that exchange Internet traffic between the countries, continents and across the oceans. Internet service providers, often Tier 1 networks, participate in Internet backbone traffic by privately negotiated interconnection agreements, primarily governed by the principle of settlement - free peering.
The first packet - switched computer network was the NPL network, followed closely by the ARPANET. The latter used a backbone of routers called Interface Message Processors. Both the NPL and ARPANET networks were interconnected in 1973, while other packet - switched computer networks began to proliferate in the 1970s, eventually adopting TCP / IP protocols or being replaced by newer networks. The National Science Foundation created NSFNET in 1986 by funding six networking sites using 56 kbit / s interconnecting links and peering to the ARPANET. In 1987, this new network was upgraded to 1.5 Mbit / s T1 links for thirteen sites. These sites included regional networks that in turn connected over 170 other networks. IBM, MCI and Merit upgraded the backbone to 45 Mbit / s bandwidth (T3) in 1991. The combination of the ARPANET and NSFNET became known as the Internet. Within a few years, the dominance of the NSFNet backbone led to the decommissioning of the redundant ARPANET infrastructure in 1990.
In the early days of the Internet, backbone providers exchanged their traffic at government - sponsored network access points (NAPs), until the government privatized the Internet, and transferred the NAPs to commercial providers.
The Internet, and consequently its backbone networks, do not rely on central control or coordinating facilities, nor do they implement any global network policies. The resilience of the Internet results from its principal architectural features, most notably the idea of placing as few network state and control functions as possible in the network elements, and instead relying on the endpoints of communication to handle most of the processing to ensure data integrity, reliability, and authentication. In addition, the high degree of redundancy of today 's network links and sophisticated real - time routing protocols provide alternate paths of communications for load balancing and congestion avoidance.
The Internet backbone is a conglomeration of multiple, redundant networks owned by numerous companies. It is typically a fiber optic trunk line. The trunk line consists of many fiber optic cables bundled together to increase the capacity. The backbone is able to reroute traffic in case of a failure. The data rates of backbone lines have increased over time. In 1998, all of the United States backbone networks had utilized the slowest data rate of 45 Mbit / s. However, the improved technologies allowed for 41 percent of backbones to have data rates of 2,488 Mbit / s or faster by the mid 2000s. Fiber - optic cables are the medium of choice for Internet backbone providers for many reasons. Fiber - optics allow for fast data speeds and large bandwidth; they suffer relatively little attenuation, allowing them to cover long distances with few repeaters; they are also immune to crosstalk and other forms of electromagnetic interference which plague electrical transmission.
Because of the enormous overlap between long - distance telephone networks and backbone networks, the largest long - distance voice carriers such as AT&T Inc., MCI (Acquired in 2006 by Verizon), Sprint, and CenturyLink also own some of the largest Internet backbone networks. These backbone providers sell their services to Internet service providers (ISPs).
Each ISP has its own contingency network and is equipped with an outsourced backup. These networks are intertwined and crisscrossed to create a redundant network. Many companies operate their own backbones which are all interconnected at various Internet exchange points (IXPs) around the world. In order for data to navigate this web, it is necessary to have backbone routers, which are routers powerful enough to handle information on the Internet backbone and are capable of directing data to other routers in order to send it to its final destination. Without them, information would be lost.
The largest providers, known as tier 1 providers, have such comprehensive networks that they never purchase transit agreements from other providers. As of 2014 there were seven tier 1 providers in the telecommunications industry. Current Tier 1 carriers include CenturyLink, Telia Carrier, NTT, Cogent, Level 3, GTT, and Tata Communications.
Backbone providers of roughly equivalent market share regularly create agreements called peering agreements, which allow the use of another 's network to hand off traffic where it is ultimately delivered. Usually they do not charge each other for this, as the companies get revenue from their customers regardless.
Backbone providers of unequal market share usually create agreements called transit agreements, and usually contain some type of monetary agreement.
Antitrust authorities have acted to ensure that no provider grows large enough to dominate the backbone market. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission has decided not to monitor the competitive aspects of the Internet backbone interconnection relationships as long as the market continues to function well.
The government of Egypt shut down the four major ISPs on January 27, 2011 at approximately 5: 20 p.m. EST. Evidently the networks had not been physically interrupted, as the Internet transit traffic through Egypt, such as traffic flowing from Europe to Asia, was unaffected. Instead, the government shut down the border gateway protocol (BGP) sessions announcing local routes. BGP is responsible for routing traffic between ISPs.
Only one of Egypt 's ISPs was allowed to continue operations. The ISP Noor Group provided connectivity only to Egypt 's stock exchange as well as some government ministries. Other ISPs started to offer free dial - up Internet access in other countries.
Europe is a major contributor to the growth of the international backbone as well as a contributor to the growth of Internet bandwidth. In 2003, Europe was credited with 82 percent of the world 's international cross-border bandwidth. The company Level 3 Communications began to launch a line of dedicated Internet access and virtual private network services in 2011, giving large companies direct access to the tier 3 backbone. Connecting companies directly to the backbone will provide enterprises faster Internet service which meets a large market demand.
Certain countries around the Caucasus have very simple backbone networks; for example, in 2011, a woman in Georgia pierced a fiber backbone line with a shovel and left the neighboring country of Armenia without Internet access for 12 hours. The country has since made major developments to the fiber backbone infrastructure, but progress is slow due to lack of government funding.
Japan 's Internet backbone needs to be very efficient due to high demand for the Internet and technology in general. Japan had over 86 million Internet users in 2009, and was projected to climb to nearly 91 million Internet users by 2015. Since Japan has a demand for fiber to the home, Japan is looking into tapping a fiber - optic backbone line of Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT), a domestic backbone carrier, in order to deliver this service at cheaper prices.
|
who's on the cover of rolling stone magazine | List of people on the United States cover of Rolling Stone - wikipedia
The United States cover of Rolling Stone magazine has featured various celebrities. Many are musicians, but politicians, actors, actresses, comedians, sports figures, or fictional characters are also sometimes included. The Beatles, as individuals or as the band, have appeared over 30 times. Madonna has appeared on more covers than any other female, either alone or in a "collage '' cover.
This is a portal to a series of articles, separated by decades, listing the people who have appeared on issue covers of Rolling Stone magazine since it premiered in 1967.
|
the kapil sharma show actress lottery real name | The Kapil Sharma Show - Wikipedia
The Kapil Sharma Show is an Indian Hindi stand - up comedy and talk show which premiered on 23 April 2016 and is broadcast by Sony TV. The series revolves around Kapil Sharma and his neighbors in the Shantivan Non Co-operative Housing Society. The filming of the show takes place at Film City situated in Goregaon East, Mumbai. The series which was originally scheduled for 26 episodes, was later extended indefinitely. On 7 August 2017 it was reported that The Kapil Sharma Show has been renewed for a year by Sony Entertainment Television. On 31 August 2017 the spokesperson of Sony Entertainment Television announced that Kapil Sharma and the channel have mutually agreed to give the show a short break as shooting of several episodes had to be cancelled in the past few days due to Kapil Sharma 's poor health. It was said that the show will be back on air soon but no return date has been set as of yet. Kapil Sharma 's comedy show ' The Kapil Sharma Show ' started losing TRP post his mid-air altercation with co-star Sunil Grover. After that, his health started going down which made him skip the show for a couple of episodes.
The series ' format is largely identical to that of Comedy Nights with Kapil. The Kapil Sharma Show revolves around Kapil Sharma and his team of comedians, including Sumona Chakravarti, Kiku Sharda, Chandan Prabhakar and Rochelle Rao who play residents of the Shantivan Non-cooperative Housing Society. Normally every episode unfolds in two parts with the first part being a comic skit enacted by the actors of the show and the second part being the celebrity interview where popular personalities from various fields indulge in a light - hearted interaction with Kapil Sharma. Navjot Singh Sidhu is the permanent guest of the show who entertains everyone with his poetry.
On 22 December 2015, The Times of India reported that Sharma had decided to end his Comedy Nights with Kapil series and might move it to Star Plus or Sony Entertainment Television (India) with a new title because of his unhappiness with Colors TV. He said, "Yes, it 's true. We told them we would go off the air in December, but since they did n't have a replacement ready, they requested us to continue till January 17 ''. On 4 February 2016, The Times of India reported that the new show would be called Comedy Style. On 2 March, the newspaper confirmed that the new show would air on Sony TV. At a press conference the day before, the show 's title was announced as The Kapil Sharma Show. Asked the reason for the change from Comedy Style, Navjot Singh Sidhu said that the show 's creative team was uncertain about the name and conducted market research. Sharma 's fans wanted a title like Kapil Wala Show, and the team came up with The Kapil Sharma Show.
Sharma and his team promoted the future show with live performances in Delhi, Lucknow, Bhopal and Amritsar, and the first episode was shot before a live audience in Delhi. According to Sharma, "Our aim has always been to bring a smile to everyone and with The Kapil Sharma Show we wish to do just that ''. Sony TV head Danish Khan said, "We are delighted to have Kapil and his talented team of writers and artists to put up this show: The Kapil Sharma Show. '' The producers invested ₹ 50 lakh (US $77,000) in the show 's first promotion, introduced by Sharma and his team on 1 March. Asked what had hurt him the most after the cancellation of Comedy Nights with Kapil by Colors TV, Sharma said: "I am only hurt by the fact that they (Colors TV) removed the show from YouTube. It had become a historical show. They should n't have removed it. ''
On 1 March a contest, "Kapil Se Mil '' ("Meet Kapil '') was started by Sony TV to give viewers an opportunity to meet Sharma. The series premiered on 23 April 2016. Originally scheduled for 26 episodes, it was later extended indefinitely.
The Kapil Sharma Show received a mixed reception from critics and audiences. Namrata Thakker of Rediff.com gave it 2.5 stars out of 5 stars, liking the characters of Sunil Grover and Ali Asgar but saying that "the series has big shoes to fill considering how successful their earlier show Comedy Nights With Kapil was. '' Chaya Unnikrishnan of Daily News and Analysis gave the series two stars out of five but said, "Kapil Sharma 's wit and funny one - liners bring a laugh ''. Although she praised part of the show ("In fact, the 10 minutes or so where (Sharma) has a monologue is the best part of the show ''), Unnikrishnan called it "dull and disappointing ''. In her 1.5 - star review, Letty Mariam Abraham of Mid Day said: "The whole look and feel of the new set is interesting, even if the jokes are old ''. However, "Kapil brings nothing new to the plate and it seems like waste of the prime time slot. ''
According to the reports published by the Broadcast Audience Research Council, the show 's first episode of the show generated 8,943 responses. Although some viewers were happy to see the same contestants back after watching Comedy Nights with Kapil, others were disappointed with the show 's repetitive humour and chaos. The series ' 16th episode, featuring the Sairat team and airing on 12 June 2016, had good ratings show in the non-fiction category.
|
where does the last name hamilton come from | Hamilton (surname and title) - wikipedia
The surname Hamilton most probably originated in the village of Hamilton, Leicestershire, England, but bearers of that name became established in the 13th century in Lanarkshire, Scotland. The town of Hamilton, South Lanarkshire was named after the family some time before 1445. Contemporary Hamiltons are either descended from the original noble family, or descended from people named after the town.
Media related to Hamilton (surname) at Wikimedia Commons
|
whats the purpose of the preamble of the constitution | Preamble to the United States Constitution - wikipedia
The Preamble to the United States Constitution is a brief introductory statement of the Constitution 's fundamental purposes and guiding principles. It states in general terms, and courts have referred to it as reliable evidence of the Founding Fathers ' intentions regarding the Constitution 's meaning and what they hoped the Constitution would achieve.
We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
The Preamble was placed in the Constitution during the last days of the Constitutional Convention by the Committee on Style, which wrote its final draft, with Gouverneur Morris leading the effort. It was not proposed or discussed on the floor of the convention beforehand. The initial wording of the preamble did not refer to the people of the United States, rather, it referred to people of the various states, which was the norm. In earlier documents, including the 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France, the Articles of Confederation, and the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognizing American independence, the word "people '' was not used, and the phrase the United States was followed immediately by a listing of the states, from north to south. The change was made out of necessity, as the Constitution provided that whenever the popularly elected ratifying conventions of nine states gave their approval, it would go into effect for those nine, irrespective of whether any of the remaining states ratified.
The Preamble serves solely as an introduction, and does not assign powers to the federal government, nor does it provide specific limitations on government action. Due to the Preamble 's limited nature, no court has ever used it as a decisive factor in case adjudication, except as regards frivolous litigation.
The courts have shown interest in any clues they can find in the Preamble regarding the Constitution 's meaning. Courts have developed several techniques for interpreting the meaning of statutes and these are also used to interpret the Constitution. As a result, the courts have said that interpretive techniques that focus on the exact text of a document should be used in interpreting the meaning of the Constitution. Balanced against these techniques are those that focus more attention on broader efforts to discern the meaning of the document from more than just the wording; the Preamble is also useful for these efforts to identify the "spirit '' of the Constitution.
Additionally, when interpreting a legal document, courts are usually interested in understanding the document as its authors did and their motivations for creating it; as a result, the courts have cited the Preamble for evidence of the history, intent and meaning of the Constitution as it was understood by the Founders. Although revolutionary in some ways, the Constitution maintained many common law concepts (such as habeas corpus, trial by jury, and sovereign immunity), and courts deem that the Founders ' perceptions of the legal system that the Constitution created (i.e., the interaction between what it changed and what it kept from the British legal system) are uniquely important because of the authority "the People '' invested them with to create it. Along with evidence of the understandings of the men who debated and drafted the Constitution at the Constitutional Convention, the courts are also interested in the way that government officials have put into practice the Constitution 's provisions, particularly early government officials, although the courts reserve to themselves the final authority to determine the Constitution 's meaning. However, this focus on historical understandings of the Constitution is sometimes in tension with the changed circumstances of modern society from the late 18th century society that drafted the Constitution; courts have ruled that the Constitution must be interpreted in light of these changed circumstances. All of these considerations of the political theory behind the Constitution have prompted the Supreme Court to articulate a variety of special rules of construction and principles for interpreting it. For example, the Court 's rendering of the purposes behind the Constitution have led it to express a preference for broad interpretations of individual freedoms.
An example of the way courts utilize the Preamble is Ellis v. City of Grand Rapids. Substantively, the case was about eminent domain. The City of Grand Rapids wanted to use eminent domain to force landowners to sell property in the city identified as "blighted '', and convey the property to owners that would develop it in ostensibly beneficial ways: in this case, to St. Mary 's Hospital, a Catholic organization. This area of substantive constitutional law is governed by the Fifth Amendment, which is understood to require that property acquired via eminent domain must be put to a "public use ''. In deciding whether the proposed project constituted a "public use '', the court pointed to the Preamble 's reference to "promot (ing) the general Welfare '' as evidence that "(t) he health of the people was in the minds of our forefathers ''. "(T) he concerted effort for renewal and expansion of hospital and medical care centers, as a part of our nation 's system of hospitals, is as a public service and use within the highest meaning of such terms. Surely this is in accord with an objective of the United States Constitution: ' * * * promote the general Welfare. ' ''
On the other hand, courts will not interpret the Preamble to give the government powers that are not articulated elsewhere in the Constitution. United States v. Kinnebrew Motor Co. is an example of this. In that case, the defendants were a car manufacturer and dealership indicted for a criminal violation of the National Industrial Recovery Act. The Congress passed the statute in order to cope with the Great Depression, and one of its provisions purported to give to the President authority to fix "the prices at which new cars may be sold ''. The dealership, located in Oklahoma City, had sold an automobile to a customer (also from Oklahoma City) for less than the price for new cars fixed pursuant to the Act. Substantively, the case was about whether the transaction in question constituted "interstate commerce '' that Congress could regulate pursuant to the Commerce Clause. Although the government argued that the scope of the Commerce Clause included this transaction, it also argued that the Preamble 's statement that the Constitution was created to "promote the general Welfare '' should be understood to permit Congress to regulate transactions such as the one in this case, particularly in the face of an obvious national emergency like the Great Depression. The court, however, dismissed this argument as erroneous and insisted that the only relevant issue was whether the transaction that prompted the indictment actually constituted "interstate commerce '' under the Supreme Court 's precedents that interpreted the scope of the Commerce Clause.
The Preamble 's reference to the "United States of America '' has been interpreted over the years to explain the nature of the governmental entity that the Constitution created (i.e., the federal government). In contemporary international law, the world consists of sovereign states (or "sovereign nations '' in modern equivalent). A state is said to be "sovereign, '' if any of its ruling inhabitants are the supreme authority over it; the concept is distinct from mere land - title or "ownership. '' While each state was originally recognized as sovereign unto itself, the Supreme Court held that the "United States of America '' consists of only one sovereign nation with respect to foreign affairs and international relations; the individual states may not conduct foreign relations. Although the Constitution expressly delegates to the federal government only some of the usual powers of sovereign governments (such as the powers to declare war and make treaties), all such powers inherently belong to the federal government as the country 's representative in the international community.
Domestically, the federal government 's sovereignty means that it may perform acts such as entering into contracts or accepting bonds, which are typical of governmental entities but not expressly provided for in the Constitution or laws. Similarly, the federal government, as an attribute of sovereignty, has the power to enforce those powers that are granted to it (e.g., the power to "establish Post Offices and Post Roads '' includes the power to punish those who interfere with the postal system so established). The Court has recognized the federal government 's supreme power over those limited matters entrusted to it. Thus, no state may interfere with the federal government 's operations as though its sovereignty is superior to the federal government 's (discussed more below); for example, states may not interfere with the federal government 's near absolute discretion to sell its own real property, even when that real property is located in one or another state. The federal government exercises its supreme power not as a unitary entity, but instead via the three coordinate branches of the government (legislative, executive, and judicial), each of which has its own prescribed powers and limitations under the Constitution. In addition, the doctrine of separation of powers functions as a limitation on each branch of the federal government 's exercise of sovereign power.
One aspect of the American system of government is that, while the rest of the world now views the United States as one country, domestically American constitutional law recognizes a federation of state governments separate from (and not subdivisions of) the federal government, each of which is sovereign over its own affairs. Sometimes, the Supreme Court has even analogized the States to being foreign countries to each other to explain the American system of State sovereignty. However, each state 's sovereignty is limited by the U.S. Constitution, which is the supreme law of both the United States as a nation and each state; in the event of a conflict, a valid federal law controls. As a result, although the federal government is (as discussed above) recognized as sovereign and has supreme power over those matters within its control, the American constitutional system also recognizes the concept of "State sovereignty, '' where certain matters are susceptible to government regulation, but only at the State and not the federal level. For example, although the federal government prosecutes crimes against the United States (such as treason, or interference with the postal system), the general administration of criminal justice is reserved to the States. Notwithstanding sometimes broad statements by the Supreme Court regarding the "supreme '' and "exclusive '' powers the State and Federal governments exercise, the Supreme Court and State courts have also recognized that much of their power is held and exercised concurrently.
The phrase "People of the United States '' has sometimes been understood to mean "citizens. '' This approach reasons that, if the political community speaking for itself in the Preamble ("We the People '') includes only citizens, by negative implication it specifically excludes non-citizens in some fashion. It has also been construed to mean something like "all under the sovereign jurisdiction and authority of the United States. '' The phrase has been construed as affirming that the national government created by the Constitution derives its sovereignty from the people, (whereas "United Colonies '' had identified external monarchical sovereignty) as well as confirming that the government under the Constitution was intended to govern and protect "the people '' directly, as one society, instead of governing only the states as political units. The Court has also understood this language to mean that the sovereignty of the government under the U.S. Constitution is superior to that of the States. Stated in negative terms, the Preamble has been interpreted as meaning that the Constitution was not the act of sovereign and independent states.
The Constitution claims to be an act of "We the People. '' However, because it represents a general social contract, there are limits on the ability of individual citizens to pursue legal claims allegedly arising out of the Constitution. For example, if a law was enacted which violated the Constitution, not just anybody could challenge the statute 's constitutionality in court; instead, only an individual who was negatively affected by the unconstitutional statute could bring such a challenge. For example, a person claiming certain benefits that are created by a statute can not then challenge, on constitutional grounds, the administrative mechanism that awards them. These same principles apply to corporate entities, and can implicate the doctrine of exhaustion of remedies.
In this same vein, courts will not answer hypothetical questions about the constitutionality of a statute. The judiciary does not have the authority to invalidate unconstitutional laws solely because they are unconstitutional, but may declare a law unconstitutional if its operation would injure a person 's interests. For example, creditors who lose some measure of what they are owed when a bankrupt 's debts are discharged can not claim injury, because Congress ' power to enact bankruptcy laws is also in the Constitution and inherent in it is the ability to declare certain debts valueless. Similarly, while a person may not generally challenge as unconstitutional a law that they are not accused of violating, once charged, a person may challenge the law 's validity, even if the challenge is unrelated to the circumstances of the crime.
The Preamble has been used to confirm that the Constitution was made for, and is binding only in, the United States of America. For example, in Casement v. Squier, a serviceman in China during World War II was convicted of murder in the United States Court for China. After being sent to prison in the State of Washington, he filed a writ of habeas corpus with the local federal court, claiming he had been unconstitutionally put on trial without a jury. The court held that, since his trial was conducted by an American court and was, by American standards, basically fair, he was not entitled to the specific constitutional right of trial by jury while overseas.
Since the Preamble declares the Constitution to have been created by the "People of the United States '', "there may be places within the jurisdiction of the United States that are no part of the Union. '' The following examples help demonstrate the meaning of this distinction:
The phrase "to form a more perfect Union '' has been construed as referring to the shift to the Constitution from the Articles of Confederation. In this transition, the "Union '' was made "more perfect '' by the creation of a federal government with enough power to act directly upon citizens, rather than a government with narrowly limited power that could act on citizens (e.g., by imposing taxes) only indirectly through the states. Although the Preamble speaks of perfecting the "Union, '' and the country is called the "United States of America, '' the Supreme Court has interpreted the institution created as a government over the people, not an agreement between the States. The phrase has also been interpreted to confirm that state nullification of any federal law, dissolution of the Union, or secession from it, are not contemplated by the Constitution.
|
when did be more chill come out musical | Be More Chill (musical) - wikipedia
2015 Red Bank
2017 Toms River
Be More Chill is a musical with music and lyrics by Joe Iconis and a book by Joe Tracz, based on the novel of the same name by Ned Vizzini. The musical ran during 2015 at the Two River Theater in Red Bank, New Jersey.
The musical begins with an ordinary day in the life of Jeremy Heere, a high school junior in suburban New Jersey. He heads off to school, tries to avoid interacting with his peers, and meets up with his best friend Michael Mell at lunch. While pining after his crush Christine Canigula, Jeremy decides to sign up for the school play in an attempt to get closer to her. He laments his status as a social outcast, and begs for someone to teach him how to be cool ("More Than Survive ''). At rehearsal that afternoon, Jeremy strikes up a conversation with Christine, who tells him about her love of the stage ("I Love Play Rehearsal ''). They 're the only ones to show up until the popular kids crash the rehearsal, where the teacher Mr. Reyes reveals that their production of A Midsummer Night 's Dream will be set in a zombie apocalypse due to budget cuts. Christine is invited by popular boy Jake Dillinger to hang out after school, leaving Jeremy disheartened. After rehearsal, while attempting to wash graffiti off of his backpack, Jeremy runs into school bully Rich Goranski. Instead of harassing him, Rich instead tells Jeremy about how he learned to be more self - confident and improve his social standing -- after a pathetic freshman year, Rich took a pill called a "super quantum unit intel processor, '' or "SQUIP. '' The SQUIP is a supercomputer that implants itself in the host 's brain and tells them how to act cool, and Rich tells Jeremy that he should get one ("The SQUIP Song '').
That night, as the two friends play video games, Jeremy confides in Michael about his conversation with Rich. Michael is skeptical of the SQUIP and reassures Jeremy that he will always think Jeremy is cool and that they will always be friends ("Two Player Game ''), but the two of them decide to visit Rich 's dealer in the Menlo Park Mall, just to check if it 's actually legitimate. Jeremy ends up purchasing a SQUIP from the dealer, a scary stockboy; and takes it with Mountain Dew as instructed. Not feeling the effects immediately, Jeremy runs into Christine and Jake and attempts to admit his feelings to Christine, right when the SQUIP activates ("The SQUIP Enters '').
The SQUIP immediately sizes up Jeremy and tells him that it will change everything about him (his looks, personality, social standing), because as it stands now, Jeremy is utterly pathetic ("Be More Chill (Pt. 1) ''). While buying a new shirt at the SQUIP 's command, he runs into two of the popular girls from school, Brooke Lohst and Chloe Valentine, who offer him a ride home from the mall ("Do You Wanna Ride? ''). Ignoring the SQUIP 's insistence that he take them up on the offer, Jeremy declines and leaves to find Michael, only to be told by the SQUIP that Michael has left the mall without him. Seeing what happened when he ignored the SQUIP, Jeremy breaks and vows to become more obedient ("Be More Chill (Pt. 2) ''). Realizing that he is grateful to have someone helping him out, Jeremy heads to school in the morning with renewed confidence ("More Than Survive (Reprise) '').
At rehearsal that afternoon, Christine is snubbed by Jake, and the students begin to rehearse their zombie - apocalypse - set version of A Midsummer Night 's Dream. During a break, Christine and Jeremy talk. Christine tells Jeremy about her feelings for a guy she knows. While Jeremy initially believes she is talking about him, Christine is actually talking about Jake ("A Guy That I 'd Kinda Be Into ''). After rehearsal, Jeremy 's SQUIP informs him that Christine wo n't consider dating him until his social standing improves drastically. The SQUIP encourages Jeremy to meet up with Brooke (who is clearly interested in him) to use as a stepping stone to popularity, while purposefully ignoring Michael, who the SQUIP views as a link to "Jeremy 1.0 '' ("Upgrade '').
Act Two begins a few weeks later at Jake 's Halloween party ("Halloween ''). Jeremy, in a cyborg costume, arrives and meets Brooke, who is dressed as a sexy dog. Jealous of Brooke, Chloe (dressed as a sexy baby) takes Jeremy to an upstairs bedroom and tries to seduce him. While Jeremy is clearly not interested, the SQUIP does not let him resist and makes him kiss her ("Do You Wanna Hang? '') The SQUIP suddenly begins trying to warn Jeremy of something, but it can only speak Japanese, a side effect of Jeremy 's alcohol consumption. Jake discovers Chloe (his ex) and Jeremy and explodes with anger, chasing them off.
Jeremy runs into a bathroom to escape and finds Michael, furious at Jeremy 's abandonment of him. Michael says that he has attempted to research the SQUIP and warns Jeremy about how dangerous it is -- Michael discovered that a previous student took one and while it improved his life for a little while, he landed in a mental hospital after "(going) crazy trying to get it out! '' Jeremy, thinking that Michael is just jealous of his newfound popularity, storms out, calling him a loser. Michael locks himself in the bathroom and mourns the loss of his friendship with Jeremy, culminating in a full - blown panic attack ("Michael in the Bathroom '').
Chloe and Jake have reunited, leaving their dates (Jeremy and Christine) to commiserate about their terrible nights in the living room. Jeremy gains the courage to ask Christine out, but she rejects him. Rich searches for Mountain Dew Red, becoming increasingly desperate. The SQUIP, once again functional now that Jeremy has sobered up, reappears and demands that Jeremy leave the party immediately.
The next morning, school gossip Jenna Rolan texts everyone with the news: Jake 's house burned down in a fire during the party -- a fire set by Rich -- and both of them are in the hospital. The news spreads like wildfire throughout the student body ("The Smartphone Hour (Rich Set a Fire) ''). Jeremy asks his SQUIP if it had known that there would be a fire. The SQUIP evades the question, instead revealing its master plan -- to put SQUIPS in the entire student body ("The Pitiful Children ''), starting with Jeremy 's castmates in the play.
At home, Jeremy is confronted by his father. Mr. Heere wants to know why Jeremy 's personality has changed so drastically. Jeremy reprimands his father for acting like he cares, when Mr. Heere 's entire life has been on pause since he and Jeremy 's mother divorced, to the point where Mr. Heere does not even put on pants anymore. Jeremy storms out, and, shaken by his son 's words, Mr. Heere realizes that something is wrong, and that he must take charge and help his son. He tracks down Michael and convinces him to not give up on his friendship with Jeremy ("The Pants Song '').
Meanwhile at the school, the play is beginning. Backstage, Jeremy tells Christine about the SQUIP. Christine tells Jeremy that she does n't need a pill to figure out life for her and storms off. Mr. Reyes, the play 's director, brings out a prop -- a beaker of Mountain Dew, with SQUIP pills already inside of it. Jeremy suddenly realizes that the entire cast, including Mr. Reyes, have been squipped without realizing it. Jeremy 's SQUIP tells him that "(it 's) going to improve (Jeremy 's) life, even if (it has) to take over the entire student body to do it! '' Jeremy suddenly remember 's Rich 's frantic search for Mountain Dew Red at the party, and realizes what it means -- regular green Mountain Dew activates a SQUIP, and Mountain Dew Red shuts it off. Michael makes an entrance holding a bottle of Mountain Dew Red. A battle ensues as Jeremy and Michael try to make everyone drink the Mountain Dew, and they are eventually successful in destroying the SQUIPS once and for all ("The Play ''),
Jeremy wakes up in the hospital after the play, in the same room as Rich. Rich, in the absence of his SQUIP, has realized that he never really needed it to be happy, and he looks forward to showing the world his true self. Mr. Heere and Michael arrive to visit Jeremy. Jeremy gets advice on how to ask Christine out on a real date and realizes that he will always have voices in his head, but it is up to him to ensure that his own voice -- keeping him true to himself -- must be the loudest ("Voices in My Head '').
An original cast album was recorded on July 21, 2015 and released later that year. It got positive critic reviews.
Due to fan popularity, Be More Chill was revived by the Exit82 Theatre Company in Toms River, New Jersey in fall of 2017, from November 9 to November 12. The Australian premiere opens at the Manly Black Box Theatre in March 2018, with the Victorian Premiere opening in June 2018 by Lightbox Productions.
While the musical shares its premise and many of its characters with the book, the musical introduces several notable changes.
|
league of gods hindi dubbed movie download 480p | Mummy (2016 film) - Wikipedia
Mummy, also known as Mummy - Save Me, is a 2016 Indian Kannada language supernatural horror film starring Priyanka Upendra, written and directed by Lohith H. The Kannada film is produced by K Ravikumar under KRK Productions and distributed by Horizon Studio. The Telugu version titled Chinnari is produced under KRK Productions and Lakshmi Venkateswara Movies. Music was composed by Ajaneesh Loknath and song lyrics were written by Yogaraj Bhat.It was reported to be in the process of Tamil remake with Jyothika.
A Hindi dubbed version titled Mummy was later released by Goldmines Telefilms in 2018.
It is an emotional horror film which revolves around a 7 months pregnant mother (Priyanka Upendra) and her 6 - year - old daughter (Yuvina Parthavi). A family moves from Bangalore to Goa after the death of Priya 's husband. They move to a large villa where the family starts to experience strange things. Kriya is badly affected by her dad 's death. Kriya 's dad brought her a doll as gift for her before dying. Kriya starts to speak with the doll and considers the doll as her friend. Priya is upset and sad due to her husband 's death and due to this she s unable to spend time with Kriya. Kriya starts to become stubborn and gets sad as mother is not spending some quality time with her. Kriya sees the ghost for the first time and gets scared, she starts to cry and shout and she is also seen speaking with ghost. Seeing Kriya speaking alone and due to her behavior Priya gets tensed and consults a doctor. Doctor suggests Priya to spend time with Kriya. Priya and Kriya together spend time, they go out and enjoy. Priya experiences the same as Kriya, she sees the ghost. One day the doctor whom Priya consulted calls her and informs that her daughter Kriya is speaking with someone in really whom no one except Kriya can see, the doctor sends a psychiatrist to Priya 's villa. The same day Priya gets hurt and even Kriya gets hurt. The family members get them to hospital where the Priest comes to meet Priya and tells them the story behind the ghost. The ghost 's name is Kumari who was an orphan, she gets married to a rich guy and stays happy with him. Even after 8 years of marriage Kumari was not blessed with a baby so her in - laws and elders decides to marry her husband to another woman. Kumari gets upset by this, but soon Kumari gets pregnant. When she was 7 months pregnant she and her husband decides to visit a temple, while coming back they meet with an accident and they both die. Kumari always wanted a child and her wish was incomplete so becomes an evil and romes around the road where she met with an accident. Knowing Kumari 's evilness, a lady from Kerala captures Kumari and ties her in the forest. After 48 years a boy gets possessed by Kumari and he starts to behave like her. The boy 's mother calls a pandit captures the ghost in the way even the pandit dies and the spirit goes into a doll which is now with Kriya. Kumari forcefully takes Kriya to the villa from hospital. Priya and others also go into the villa. Everyone gets hit by Kumari. Kumari starts to drag Kriya to take her with her and Priya does n't allow her to do so. Priya begs her to leave her child and even Kriya says that she wants to stay with her mother and does n't like Kumari. Hearing this Kumari leaves Kriya 's hand and her spirit gets into ash. After 6 months it is shown as Kriya leaving for school and saying bye to Priya. While going from house Kriya is playing with Kumari again.
The trailer of Mummy was launched on 30 June 2016 at ETA Mall, Bengaluru, the grand event was graced by Realstar Upendra and actress Tara.
|
where does the disney movie aladdin take place | Aladdin (1992 Disney film) - wikipedia
Aladdin is a 1992 American animated musical romantic fantasy comedy adventure film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation for Walt Disney Pictures. The film is the 31st Disney animated feature film, and was the fourth produced during the Disney film era known as the Disney Renaissance. It was directed by John Musker and Ron Clements, and is based on the Arab - style folktale of the same name from One Thousand and One Nights and the French interpretation by Antoine Galland. The voice cast features Scott Weinger, Robin Williams, Linda Larkin, Jonathan Freeman, Frank Welker, Gilbert Gottfried and Douglas Seale. The film follows Aladdin, a street urchin, who finds a magic lamp containing a genie. In order to hide the lamp from the Grand vizier, he disguises himself as a wealthy prince, and tries to impress the Sultan and his daughter.
Lyricist Howard Ashman first pitched the idea, and the screenplay went through three drafts before then - Disney Studios president Jeffrey Katzenberg agreed to its production. The animators based their designs on the work of caricaturist Al Hirschfeld, and computers were used for both finishing the artwork and creating some animated elements. The musical score was written by Alan Menken and features six songs with lyrics written by both Ashman and Tim Rice, who took over after Ashman 's death.
The film was released on November 25, 1992 and became the most successful film of 1992, earning over $217 million in revenue in the United States, and over $504 million worldwide. The film won many awards, mostly for its soundtrack. Aladdin 's success led to other material inspired by the film, including two direct - to - video sequels, The Return of Jafar and Aladdin and the King of Thieves, an animated television series of the same name, an upcoming live - action remake of the film directed by Guy Ritchie, toys, video games, Disney merchandise, and a Broadway adaptation debuted in 2014.
In the city of Agrabah, Jafar, the Grand vizier of the Sultan, and his parrot Iago, seek the lamp hidden within the Cave of Wonders, but are told that only a "diamond in the rough '' may enter. Jafar identifies a street urchin named Aladdin. Aladdin and his pet monkey, Abu, meet Princess Jasmine, who refuses to marry a suitor and temporarily leaves the palace. Aladdin and Jasmine become friends and fall in love. When the palace guards capture Aladdin, Jafar lies to Jasmine that Aladdin has been executed.
Jafar disguises himself as an old man, and sends Aladdin and Abu to the cave, ordering them to retrieve the lamp. There, Aladdin befriends a magic carpet and obtains the lamp. Abu inadvertently grabs a forbidden jewel and the cave collapses itself. After surviving with his friends, Aladdin rubs the lamp and meets the Genie, who is trapped inside of it. He tells him that he will grant him any three wishes. Aladdin tricks the Genie into freeing themselves from the cave without using a wish, and he uses his first to become "Prince Ali of Ababwa ''.
At Iago 's suggestion, Jafar plots to become Sultan by marrying Jasmine. When Aladdin greets Jafar and the Sultan at the palace, Jasmine becomes upset at them. Refusing his friends advising him to tell Jasmine the truth, Aladdin takes Jasmine on a flight on the magic carpet. When she deduces his identity, he convinces her that he dresses as a peasant to escape the stresses of royal life. After Aladdin sends Jasmine home, he is ambushed by Jafar, but is rescued from drowning by the Genie with his second wish. Jafar tries to hypnotize the Sultan into agreeing to his marriage to Jasmine, but Aladdin appears and prevents Jafar from doing so. After Jafar returns to his room, he orders Iago to retrieve the lamp from Aladdin.
Realizing that he will become Sultan, Aladdin refuses to free the Genie. Iago steals the lamp and Jafar becomes the Genie 's new master. He uses his first two wishes to usurp the Sultan and become the world 's most powerful sorcerer, exposing Aladdin 's identity and exiling him, Abu and the carpet to a frozen wasteland. However, they escape and return to the palace. There, Jafar tricks Jasmine into falling in love with him, but the Genie refuses to grant the wish. Jasmine feigns interest to distract Jafar and Aladdin tries to get the lamp, but Jafar stops Aladdin and traps Jasmine inside the hourglass. Jafar transforms into a giant cobra and tells Aladdin that he is the most powerful being in the world. However, Aladdin replies that the Genie is more powerful than him. Jafar uses his last wish to become a genie and create his own lamp. Aladdin frees Jasmine, and uses Jafar 's lamp to trap the latter and Iago.
With the palace reverted to normal, the Genie sends Jafar 's lamp far away through the desert, and suggests Aladdin to use his third wish to regain his royal title so the law will allow him to stay with Jasmine. Realizing that he has to be himself, Aladdin decides to keep his promise and frees the Genie. Realizing Aladdin and Jasmine 's love, the Sultan changes the law to allow Jasmine to marry whom she chooses. The Genie leaves to explore the world, while Aladdin and Jasmine plan their marriage.
In 1988, lyricist Howard Ashman pitched the idea of an animated musical adaptation of Aladdin. Ashman had written a 40 - page film treatment remaining faithful to the plot and characters of the original story, but envisioned as a campy 1930s - style musical with a Cab Calloway / Fats Waller - like Genie. Along with partner Alan Menken, Ashman conceived several songs and added Aladdin 's friends named Babkak, Omar, and Kasim to the story. However, the studio was dismissive of Ashman 's treatment and removed the project from development in which Ashman and Menken were later recruited to compose songs for Beauty and the Beast. Linda Woolverton, who had also worked on Beauty and the Beast, used their treatment and developed a draft with inspired elements from The Thief of Bagdad such as a villain named Jaf'far, an aged sidekick retired human thief named Abu, and a human handmaiden for the princess. Then, directors John Musker and Ron Clements joined the production, picking Aladdin out of three projects offered, which also included an adaptation of Swan Lake and King of the Jungle -- that eventually became The Lion King. Before Ashman 's death in March 1991, Ashman and Menken had composed "Prince Ali '' and his last song, "Humiliate the Boy ''.
Musker and Clements wrote a draft of the screenplay, and then delivered a story reel to studio chief Jeffrey Katzenberg in April 1991. Katzenberg thought the script "did n't engage '', and on a day known by the staff as "Black Friday, '' demanded that the entire story to be rewritten without rescheduling the film 's November 25, 1992 release date. Among the changes Katzenberg requested from Clements and Musker were to not be dependent on Ashman 's vision, and the removal of Aladdin 's mother, remarking, "Eighty - six the mother. The mom 's a zero. '' Screenwriting duo Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio were brought in to rework the story, and the changes they made included the removal of Aladdin 's mother, the strengthening of the character of Princess Jasmine, and the deletion of several of the Ashman - Menken songs. Aladdin 's personality was rewritten to be "a little rougher, like a young Harrison Ford, '' and the parrot Iago, originally conceived as an uptight British archetype, was reworked into a comic role after the filmmakers saw Gilbert Gottfried in Beverly Hills Cop II. Gottfried was cast to provide Iago 's voice. By October 1991, Katzenberg was satisfied with the new version of Aladdin. As with Woolverton 's screenplay, several characters and plot elements are based on the 1940 version of The Thief of Bagdad, the location of the film was changed from Baghdad, Iraq, to the fictional Arabian city of Agrabah.
One of the first issues that the animators faced during production of Aladdin was the depiction of Aladdin himself. Director and producer John Musker explains:
He was initially going to be as young as 13, but that eventually changed to eighteen. Aladdin was designed by a team led by supervising animator Glen Keane, and was originally made to resemble actor Michael J. Fox. During production, it was decided that the design was too boyish and was n't "appealing enough, '' so the character was redesigned to add elements derived from actor Tom Cruise and Calvin Klein models.
The design for most characters was based on the work of caricaturist Al Hirschfeld, which production designer Richard Vander Wende also considered appropriate to the theme, due to similarities to the swooping lines of Persian miniatures and Arabic calligraphy. Jafar 's design was not based on Hirschfeld 's work because Jafar 's supervising animator, Andreas Deja, wanted the character to be contrasting. Each character was animated alone, with the animators consulting each other to make scenes with interrelating characters. Since Aladdin 's animator Glen Keane was working in the California branch of Walt Disney Feature Animation, and Jasmine 's animator Mark Henn was in the Florida one at Disney - MGM Studios, they had to frequently phone, fax or send designs and discs to each other. Animator Randy Cartwright described working on the Magic Carpet as challenging, since it is only a rectangular shape, who expresses himself through pantomime -- "It 's sort of like acting by origami ''. Cartwright kept folding a piece of cloth while animating to see how to position the Carpet. After the character animation was done, the carpet 's surface design was applied digitally.
For the scenery design, layout supervisor Rasoul Azadani took many pictures of his hometown of Isfahan, Iran for guidance. Other inspirations for design were Disney 's animated films from the 1940s and 50s and the 1940 film The Thief of Bagdad. The coloring was done with the computerized CAPS process, and the color motifs were chosen according to the personality -- the protagonists use light colors such as blue, the antagonists darker ones such as red and black, and Agrabah and its palace use the neutral color yellow. Computer animation was used for some elements of the film, such as the tiger entrance of the Cave of Wonders and the scene where Aladdin tries to escape the collapsing cave.
Musker and Clements created the Genie with Robin Williams in mind; even though Katzenberg suggested actors such as John Candy, Steve Martin, and Eddie Murphy, Williams was approached and eventually accepted the role. Williams came for voice recording sessions during breaks in the shooting of two other films he was starring in at the time, Hook and Toys. Unusually for an animated film, much of Williams ' dialogue was ad - libbed: for some scenes, Williams was given topics and dialogue suggestions, but allowed to improvise his lines. It was estimated that Williams improvised 52 characters. Eric Goldberg, the supervising animator for the Genie, then reviewed Williams ' recorded dialogue and selected the best gags and lines that his crew would create character animation to match.
The producers added many in - jokes and references to Disney 's previous works in the film, such as a "cameo appearance '' from directors Clements and Musker and drawing some characters based on Disney workers. Beast, Sebastian from The Little Mermaid, and Pinocchio make brief appearances, and the wardrobe of the Genie at the end of the film -- Goofy hat, Hawaiian shirt, and sandals -- are a reference to a short film that Robin Williams did for the Disney - MGM Studios tour in the late 1980s.
In gratitude for his success with Touchstone Pictures ' Good Morning, Vietnam, Robin Williams voiced the Genie for SAG scale pay ($75,000) instead of his asking fee of $8 million, on condition that his name or image not be used for marketing, and his (supporting) character not take more than 25 % of space on advertising artwork, since Williams ' film Toys was scheduled for release one month after Aladdin 's debut. For financial reasons, the studio went back on the deal on both counts, especially in poster art by having the Genie in 25 % of the image, but having other major and supporting characters portrayed considerably smaller. The Disney Hyperion book Aladdin: The Making of an Animated Film listed both of Williams ' characters "The Peddler '' and "The Genie '' ahead of main characters, but was forced to refer to him only as "the actor signed to play the Genie ''.
Disney, while not using Williams 's name in commercials as per the contract, used his voice for the Genie in the commercials and used the Genie character to sell toys and fast food tie - ins, without having to pay Williams additional money; Williams unhappily quipped at the time "The only reason Mickey Mouse has three fingers is because he ca n't pick up a check. '' Disney attempted to assuage Williams by sending him a Pablo Picasso painting worth more than $1 million at the time, but this move failed to repair the damaged relationship, as the painting was a self - portrait of the artist as Vincent van Gogh which apparently really "clashed '' with the Williams ' wilder home decor. Williams refused to sign on for The Return of Jafar so it was Dan Castellaneta that voiced the Genie. When Jeffrey Katzenberg was replaced by Joe Roth as Walt Disney Studios chairman, Roth organized a public apology to Williams.
Composer Alan Menken and songwriters Howard Ashman and Tim Rice were praised for creating a soundtrack that is "consistently good, rivaling the best of Disney 's other animated musicals from the ' 90s. '' Menken and Ashman began work on the film together, with Rice taking over as lyricist after Ashman died of AIDS - related complications in early 1991. Although fourteen songs were written for Aladdin, only six are featured in the movie, three by each lyricist. The DVD Special Edition released in 2004 includes four songs in early animations tests, and a music video of one, "Proud of Your Boy '', performed by Clay Aiken, which also appears on the album DisneyMania 3.
The filmmakers thought the moral message of the original tale was inappropriate, and decided to "put a spin on it '' by making the fulfillment of wishes seem like a great solution, but eventually becoming a problem. Another major theme was avoiding an attempt to be what the person is not -- both Aladdin and Jasmine get into trouble pretending to be different people, and the Prince Ali persona fails to impress Jasmine, who only falls for Aladdin when she finds out who he truly is. Being "imprisoned '' is also presented, a fate that occurs to most of the characters -- Aladdin and Jasmine are limited by their lifestyles, Genie is attached to his lamp and Jafar, to the Sultan -- and is represented visually by the prison - like walls and bars of the Agrabah palace, and the scene involving caged birds which Jasmine later frees. Jasmine is also depicted as a different Disney Princess, being rebellious against the royal life and the social structure, and trying to make her own way, unlike the princesses who just wait for rescue.
A large promotion campaign preceded Aladdin 's debut in theaters, with the film 's trailer being attached to most Disney VHS releases, and numerous tie - ins and licensees being released. After a limited release on November 13, 1992, Aladdin debuted in 1,131 theaters on November 25, 1992, grossing $19.2 million in its opening weekend -- number two at the box office, behind Home Alone 2: Lost in New York. It took eight weeks for the film to reach number one at the US box office, breaking the record for the week between Christmas and New Year 's Eve with $32.2 million. The film held the top spot five times during its 22 - week run. Aladdin was the most successful film of 1992 grossing $217 million in the United States and over $504 million worldwide. It was the biggest gross for an animated film until The Lion King two years later, and was the first full - length animated film to gross $200 million in North America. As of January 2014, it is the thirtieth highest grossing animated film and the third highest grossing traditionally animated feature worldwide, behind The Lion King and The Simpsons Movie. It sold an estimated 52,442,300 tickets in the US.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 94 % of critics gave the film a positive review based on a sample of 68 reviews, with an average score of 8.1 / 10.
Most critics ' praise went to Robin Williams ' performance as Genie, with Janet Maslin of The New York Times declaring that children "need n't know precisely what Mr. Williams is evoking to understand how funny he is ''. Warner Bros. Cartoons director Chuck Jones even called the film "the funniest feature ever made. '' Furthermore, English - Irish comedian Spike Milligan considered it to be the greatest film of all time. James Berardinelli gave it 3.5 out of 4 stars, praising the "crisp visuals and wonderful song - and - dance numbers ''. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said the comedy made the film accessible to both children and adults, a vision shared with Desson Howe of The Washington Post, who also said "kids are still going to be entranced by the magic and adventure. '' Brian Lowry of Variety praised the cast of characters, describing the expressive magic carpet as "its most remarkable accomplishment '' and considered that "Aladdin overcomes most story flaws thanks to sheer technical virtuosity ''.
Some aspects of the film were widely criticized. Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine wrote a negative review, describing the film as racist, ridiculous, and a "narcissistic circus act '' from Robin Williams. Roger Ebert, who generally praised the film in his review, considered the music inferior to its predecessors The Little Mermaid and Beauty and the Beast, and claimed Aladdin and Jasmine were "pale and routine. '' He criticized what he saw as the film 's use of ethnic stereotypes, writing: "Most of the Arab characters have exaggerated facial characteristics - hooked noses, glowering brows, thick lips - but Aladdin and the princess look like white American teenagers. ''
Aladdin also received many award nominations, mostly for its music. It won two Academy Awards, Best Music, Original Score and Best Music, Original Song for "A Whole New World '' and receiving nominations for Best Song ("Friend Like Me ''), Best Sound Editing (Mark A. Mangini), and Best Sound (Terry Porter, Mel Metcalfe, David J. Hudson and Doc Kane). At the Golden Globes, Aladdin won Best Original Song ("A Whole New World '') and Best Original Score, as well as a Special Achievement Award for Robin Williams, with a nomination for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy. Other awards included the Annie Award for Best Animated Feature, a MTV Movie Award for Best Comedic Performance to Robin Williams, Saturn Awards for Best Fantasy Film, Performance by a Younger Actor to Scott Weinger and Supporting Actor to Robin Williams, the Best Animated Feature by the Los Angeles Film Critics Association, and four Grammy Awards, Best Soundtrack Album, and Song of the Year, Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media for "A Whole New World ''.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2004: AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs:
The film was first released in VHS on October 1, 1993, as part of the "Walt Disney Classics '' line. In its first week of availability, Aladdin sold over 10.6 million copies, and went on to sell over 25 million in total (a record only broken by the later release of The Lion King). This VHS edition entered moratorium on April 30, 1994. A THX - certified widescreen LaserDisc was issued in Autumn 1994, and a Spanish - dubbed VHS for the American market was released on April 14, 1995.
On October 5, 2004, Aladdin was rereleased onto VHS and for the first time released onto DVD, as part of Disney 's Platinum Edition line. The DVD release featured retouched and cleaned - up animation, prepared for Aladdin 's planned but ultimately cancelled IMAX reissue in 2003, and a second disc with bonus features. Accompanied by a $19 million marketing campaign, the DVD sold about 3 million units in its first month, but it was less than the number of copies, sold in that amount of time, by any other Platinum Edition released before it. The film 's soundtrack was available in its original Dolby 5.1 track or in a new Disney Enhanced Home Theater Mix. The DVD went into moratorium in January 2008, along with its sequels.
According to an insert in the Lady and the Tramp Diamond Edition release case, Aladdin was going to be released on Blu - ray Disc as a Diamond Edition in Spring 2013. Instead, Peter Pan was released on Blu - ray as a Diamond Edition on February 5, 2013 to celebrate its 60th anniversary. A non-Diamond Edition Blu - ray was released in a few select European countries in March 2013. The Belgian edition (released without advertisements, commercials or any kind of fanfare) comes as a 1 - disc version with its extras ported over from the Platinum Edition DVD. The same disc was released in the United Kingdom on April 14, 2013. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the film on a Diamond Edition Blu - ray on October 13, 2015. The film was released on Digital HD on September 29, 2015. Upon its first week of release on home media in the U.S., the film topped the Blu - ray Disc sales chart and debuted at number 2 at the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert chart, which tracks overall disc sales behind the disaster film San Andreas.
One of the verses of the opening song "Arabian Nights '' was altered following protests from the American - Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee (ADC). The lyrics were changed in July 1993 from "Where they cut off your ear if they do n't like your face, '' in the original release to "Where it 's flat and immense and the heat is intense. '' The change first appeared on the 1993 video release. The original lyric was intact on the initial CD soundtrack release, but the re-release uses the edited lyric. The rerecording has the original voice on all other lines and then a noticeably deeper voice says the edited line. The Broadway adaptation also uses the edited line. Entertainment Weekly ranked Aladdin in a list of the most controversial films in history, due to this incident. The ADC also complained about the portrayal of the lead characters Aladdin and Jasmine. They criticized the characters ' Anglicized features and Anglo - American accents, in contrast to the other characters in the film, which are dark - skinned, have foreign accents and grotesque facial features, and appear villainous or greedy.
Protests were also raised to another scene. When Aladdin is attacked by the tiger Rajah on the palace balcony, Aladdin quietly says a line that some people reported hearing as "Good teenagers, take off your clothes, '' which they considered a subliminal reference to promiscuity. However, according to the commentary track on the 2004 DVD, while Musker and Clements did admit Scott Weinger ad - libbed during the scene, they claimed "we did not record that, we would not record that, '' and said the line was "Good tiger, take off and go... '' and the word "tiger '' is overlapped by Rajah 's snarl. After the word tiger, a second voice can be heard which has been suggested was accidentally grafted onto the soundtrack. Because of the controversy, Disney removed the line on the DVD release.
Animation enthusiasts have noticed similarities between Aladdin and Richard Williams ' unfinished film The Thief and the Cobbler (also known as Arabian Knight under Miramax Films and The Princess and the Cobbler under Majestic Films International). These similarities include a similar plot, similar characters, scenes and background designs, and the antagonist Zig - Zag 's resemblance in character design and mannerisms to Genie and Jafar. Though Aladdin was released prior to The Thief and the Cobbler, The Thief and the Cobbler initially began production much earlier in the 1960s, and was mired in difficulties including financial problems, copyright issues, story revisions and late production times caused by separate studios trying to finish the film after Richard Williams was fired from the project for lack of finished work. The late release, coupled with Miramax purchasing and re-editing the film, has sometimes resulted in The Thief and the Cobbler being labeled a rip - off of Aladdin.
|
when does season 5 of the next step come out | List of the Next Step episodes - Wikipedia
The Next Step is a Canadian teen drama series created by Frank van Keeken and produced by Temple Street Productions. Shot in a dramatic mockumentary style, the series focuses on a group of dancers who attend The Next Step Dance Studio. They have won Regionals, Nationals and Internationals.
The series has been renewed for a sixth season of 26 episodes which will premiere in Canada in September 2018, and in the UK on July 16, 2018.
Giselle does not make it into A-Troupe. Giselle is later removed from the E-girls for not being in A-Troupe, as the rules are that all E-girls must be in A-Troupe. Emily promises to get Giselle back in A-troupe, and kick Michelle out. Chloe later becomes part of the E-Girls. Stephanie tells Michelle before their first dance rehearsal is in Studio B but, Giselle, who is on her way to B - Troupe tells her that A-Troupe is always in Studio A. Stephanie tells us in a confessional she did this so Michelle would be late, and get a bad reputation in A-Troupe. It is said by people in A-Troupe and as well in a confession done by James was that James has dated many girls before, including Beth who is now in B - Troupe, and Amanda, who was at Elite which is a rival studio which always wins regionals
|
where was the pledge of allegiance first recited | Pledge of Allegiance (United States) - wikipedia
The Pledge of Allegiance is an oath of allegiance to the United States, addressed to both the flag and the Republic. It was composed by Rear Admiral George Balch in 1887, and revised by Francis Bellamy in 1892. In 1942 it was formally adopted by Congress. Congress gave it the name The Pledge of Allegiance in 1945. In 1954 the words "under God '' were added.
Though many countries have oaths of allegiances for specific purposes, the US remains one of the few to use such an oath in childhood education.
Congressional sessions open with the recital of the Pledge, as do many government meetings at local levels, and meetings held by many private organizations. All states except Hawaii, Iowa, Vermont and Wyoming require a regularly - scheduled recitation of the pledge in the public schools, although the Supreme Court has ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette that students can not be compelled to recite the Pledge, nor can they be punished for not doing so. A number of states state flag pledges of allegiance to be recited after this.
The United States Flag Code says:
The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag -- "I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all. '' -- should be rendered by standing at attention facing the flag with the right hand over the heart. When not in uniform men should remove any non-religious headdress with their right hand and hold it at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart. Persons in uniform should remain silent, face the flag, and render the military salute. Members of the Armed Forces not in uniform and veterans may render the military salute in the manner provided for persons in uniform.
The Pledge of Allegiance, as it exists in its current form, was composed in August 1892 by Francis Bellamy (1855 -- 1931), who was a Baptist minister, a Christian socialist, and the cousin of socialist utopian novelist Edward Bellamy (1850 -- 1898). There did exist a previous version created by Rear Admiral George Balch, a veteran of the Civil War, who later become auditor of the New York Board of Education. Balch 's pledge, which existed contemporaneously with the Bellamy version until the 1923 National Flag Conference, read:
We give our heads and hearts to God and our country; one country, one language, one flag!
Balch was a proponent of teaching children, especially those of immigrants, loyalty to the United States, even going so far as to write a book on the subject and work with both the government and private organizations to distribute flags to every classroom and school. Balch 's pledge, which predates Bellamy 's by 5 years and was embraced by many schools, by the Daughters of the American Revolution until the 1910s, and by the Grand Army of the Republic until the 1923 National Flag Conference, is often overlooked when discussing the history of the Pledge. Bellamy, however, did not approve of the pledge as Balch had written it, referring to the text as "too juvenile and lacking in dignity. '' The Bellamy "Pledge of Allegiance '' was first published in the September 8 issue of the popular children 's magazine The Youth 's Companion as part of the National Public - School Celebration of Columbus Day, a celebration of the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the Americas. The event was conceived and promoted by James B. Upham, a marketer for the magazine, as a campaign to instill the idea of American nationalism in students and to sell flags to public schools. According to author Margarette S. Miller, this campaign was in line both with Upham 's patriotic vision as well as with his commercial interest. According to Miller, Upham "would often say to his wife: ' Mary, if I can instill into the minds of our American youth a love for their country and the principles on which it was founded, and create in them an ambition to carry on with the ideals which the early founders wrote into The Constitution, I shall not have lived in vain. ' ''
Bellamy 's original Pledge read:
I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.
The Pledge was supposed to be quick and to the point. Bellamy designed it to be recited in 15 seconds. As a socialist, he had initially also considered using the words equality and fraternity but decided against it, knowing that the state superintendents of education on his committee were against equality for women and African Americans.
Francis Bellamy and Upham had lined up the National Education Association to support the Youth 's Companion as a sponsor of the Columbus Day observance and the use in that observance of the American flag. By June 29, 1892, Bellamy and Upham had arranged for Congress and President Benjamin Harrison to announce a proclamation making the public school flag ceremony the center of the Columbus Day celebrations. This arrangement was formalized when Harrison issued Presidential Proclamation 335. Subsequently, the Pledge was first used in public schools on October 12, 1892, during Columbus Day observances organized to coincide with the opening of the World 's Columbian Exposition (the Chicago World 's Fair), Illinois.
In his recollection of the creation of the Pledge Francis Bellamy said, "At the beginning of the nineties patriotism and national feeling was (sic) at a low ebb. The patriotic ardor of the Civil War was an old story... The time was ripe for a reawakening of simple Americanism and the leaders in the new movement rightly felt that patriotic education should begin in the public schools. '' James Upham "felt that a flag should be on every schoolhouse, '' so his publication "fostered a plan of selling flags to schools through the children themselves at cost, which was so successful that 25,000 schools acquired flags in the first year (1892 - 93).
As the World 's Columbian Exposition was set to celebrate the 400th anniversary the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas, Upham sought to link the publication 's flag drive to the event, "so that every school in the land... would have a flag raising, under the most impressive conditions. '' Bellamy was placed in charge of this operation and was soon lobbying "not only the superintendents of education in all the States, but (he) also worked with governors, Congressmen, and even the President of the United States. '' The publication 's efforts paid off when Benjamin Harrison declared Wednesday October 12, 1892, to be Columbus Day for which The Youth 's Companion made "an official program for universal use in all the schools. '' Bellamy recalled that the event "had to be more than a list of exercises. The ritual must be prepared with simplicity and dignity. ''
Edna Dean Proctor wrote an ode for the event, and "There was also an oration suitable for declamation. '' Bellamy held that "Of course, the nub of the program was to be the raising of the flag, with a salute to the flag recited by the pupils in unison. '' He found "There was not a satisfactory enough form for this salute. The Balch salute, which ran, "I give my heart and my hand to my country, one country, one language, one flag, '' seemed to him too juvenile and lacking in dignity. '' After working on the idea with Upham, Bellamy concluded, "It was my thought that a vow of loyalty or allegiance to the flag should be the dominant idea. I especially stressed the word ' allegiance '... Beginning with the new word allegiance, I first decided that ' pledge ' was a better school word than ' vow ' or ' swear '; and that the first person singular should be used, and that ' my ' flag was preferable to ' the. ' '' Bellamy considered the words "country, nation, or Republic, '' choosing the last as "it distinguished the form of government chosen by the founding fathers and established by the Revolution. The true reason for allegiance to the flag is the Republic for which it stands. '' Bellamy then reflected on the sayings of Revolutionary and Civil War figures, and concluded "all that pictured struggle reduced itself to three words, one Nation indivisible. ''
Bellamy considered the slogan of the French Revolution, Liberté, égalité, fraternité ("liberty, equality, fraternity ''), but held that "fraternity was too remote of realization, and... (that) equality was a dubious word. '' Concluding "Liberty and justice were surely basic, were undebatable, and were all that any one Nation could handle. If they were exercised for all. they involved the spirit of equality and fraternity. ''
After being reviewed by Upham and other members of The Youth 's Companion, the Pledge was approved and put in the official Columbus Day program. Bellamy noted that, "In later years the words ' to my flag ' were changed to ' to the flag of the United States of America ' because of the large number of foreign children in the schools. '' Bellamy disliked the change, as "it did injure the rhythmic balance of the original composition. ''
In 1906, The Daughters of the American Revolution 's magazine, The American Monthly, listed the "formula of allegiance '' as being the Balch Pledge of Allegiance, which reads:
I pledge allegiance to my flag, and the republic for which it stands. I pledge my head and my heart to God and my country. One country, one language and one flag.
In subsequent publications of the Daughters of the American Revolution, such as in 1915 's "Proceedings of the Twenty - Fourth Continental Congress of the Daughters of the American Revolution '' and 1916 's annual "National Report, '' the Balch Pledge, listed as official in 1906, is now categorized as "Old Pledge '' with Bellamy 's version under the heading "New Pledge. '' However, the "Old Pledge '' continued to be used by other organizations until the National Flag Conference established uniform flag procedures in 1923.
In 1923, the National Flag Conference called for the words "my Flag '' to be changed to "the Flag of the United States, '' so that new immigrants would not confuse loyalties between their birth countries and the US. The words "of America '' were added a year later. Congress officially recognized the Pledge for the first time, in the following form, on June 22, 1942:
I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.
Louis Albert Bowman, an attorney from Illinois, was the first to suggest the addition of "under God '' to the pledge. The National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution gave him an Award of Merit as the originator of this idea. He spent his adult life in the Chicago area and was chaplain of the Illinois Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. At a meeting on February 12, 1948, he led the society in reciting the pledge with the two words "under God '' added. He said that the words came from Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address. Although not all manuscript versions of the Gettysburg Address contain the words "under God '', all the reporters ' transcripts of the speech as delivered do, as perhaps Lincoln may have deviated from his prepared text and inserted the phrase when he said "that the nation shall, under God, have a new birth of freedom. '' Bowman repeated his revised version of the Pledge at other meetings.
In 1951, the Knights of Columbus, the world 's largest Catholic fraternal service organization, also began including the words "under God '' in the Pledge of Allegiance. In New York City, on April 30, 1951, the board of directors of the Knights of Columbus adopted a resolution to amend the text of their Pledge of Allegiance at the opening of each of the meetings of the 800 Fourth Degree Assemblies of the Knights of Columbus by addition of the words "under God '' after the words "one nation. '' Over the next two years, the idea spread throughout Knights of Columbus organizations nationwide. On August 21, 1952, the Supreme Council of the Knights of Columbus at its annual meeting adopted a resolution urging that the change be made universal, and copies of this resolution were sent to the President, the Vice President (as Presiding Officer of the Senate), and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. The National Fraternal Congress meeting in Boston on September 24, 1952, adopted a similar resolution upon the recommendation of its president, Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart. Several State Fraternal Congresses acted likewise almost immediately thereafter. This campaign led to several official attempts to prompt Congress to adopt the Knights of Columbus policy for the entire nation. These attempts were eventually a success.
In 1952, Holger Christian Langmack suggested in a letter to President Truman adding "under God '' in the Pledge of Allegiance. Langmack was a Danish philosopher and educator who came to the US in 1911. He was one of the originators of the National Prayer Breakfast and a religious leader in Washington, D.C. Truman met with Langmack and with several others to discuss the addition. At the suggestion of a correspondent, Representative Louis C. Rabaut (D - Mich.), of Michigan sponsored a resolution to add the words "under God '' to the Pledge in 1953.
Before February 1954, no endeavor to get the pledge officially amended had succeeded. The final successful push came from George MacPherson Docherty. Some American presidents honored Lincoln 's birthday by attending services at the church Lincoln attended, New York Avenue Presbyterian Church by sitting in Lincoln 's pew on the Sunday nearest February 12. On February 7, 1954, with President Eisenhower sitting in Lincoln 's pew, the church 's pastor, George MacPherson Docherty, delivered a sermon based on the Gettysburg Address entitled "A New Birth of Freedom. '' He argued that the nation 's might lay not in arms but rather in its spirit and higher purpose. He noted that the Pledge 's sentiments could be those of any nation: "There was something missing in the pledge, and that which was missing was the characteristic and definitive factor in the American way of life. '' He cited Lincoln 's words "under God '' as defining words that set the US apart from other nations.
President Eisenhower had been baptized a Presbyterian very recently, just a year before. He responded enthusiastically to Docherty in a conversation following the service. Eisenhower acted on his suggestion the next day and on February 8, 1954, Rep. Charles Oakman (R - Mich.), introduced a bill to that effect. Congress passed the necessary legislation and Eisenhower signed the bill into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954. Eisenhower said:
From this day forward, the millions of our school children will daily proclaim in every city and town, every village and rural school house, the dedication of our nation and our people to the Almighty... In this way we are reaffirming the transcendence of religious faith in America 's heritage and future; in this way we shall constantly strengthen those spiritual weapons which forever will be our country 's most powerful resource, in peace or in war.
The phrase "under God '' was incorporated into the Pledge of Allegiance on June 14, 1954, by a Joint Resolution of Congress amending § 4 of the Flag Code enacted in 1942.
On October 6, 1954, the National Executive Committee of the American Legion adopted a resolution, first approved by the Illinois American Legion Convention in August 1954, which formally recognized the Knights of Columbus for having initiated and brought forward the amendment to the Pledge of Allegiance.
Even though the movement behind inserting "under God '' into the pledge might have been initiated by a private religious fraternity and even though references to God appear in previous versions of the pledge, author Kevin Kruse asserts that this movement was an effort by corporate America to instill in the minds of the people that capitalism and free enterprise were heavenly blessed. Kruse acknowledges the insertion of the phrase was influenced by the push - back against atheistic communism during the Cold War, but argues the longer arc of history shows the conflation of Christianity and capitalism as a challenge to the New Deal played the larger role.
Swearing of the Pledge is accompanied by a salute. An early version of the salute, adopted in 1887, known as the Balch Salute, which accompanied the Balch pledge, instructed students to stand with their right hand outstretched toward the flag, the fingers of which are then brought to the forehead, followed by being placed flat over the heart, and finally falling to the side.
In 1892, Francis Bellamy created what was known as the Bellamy salute. It started with the hand outstretched toward the flag, palm down, and ended with the palm up. Because of the similarity between the Bellamy salute and the Nazi salute, which was adopted in Germany later, the US Congress stipulated that the hand - over-the - heart gesture as the salute to be rendered by civilians during the Pledge of Allegiance and the national anthem in the US would be the salute to replace the Bellamy salute. Removal of the Bellamy salute occurred on December 22, 1942, when Congress amended the Flag Code language first passed into law on June 22, 1942. Attached to bills passed in Congress in 2008 and then in 2009 (Section 301 (b) (1) of title 36, United States Code), language was included which authorized all active duty military personnel and all veterans in civilian clothes to render a proper hand salute during the raising and lowering of the flag, when the colors are presented, and during the National Anthem.
A musical setting for "The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag '' was created by Irving Caesar, at the suggestion of Congressman Louis C. Rabaut whose House Resolution 243 to add the phrase "under God '' was signed into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954.
The composer, Irving Caesar, wrote and published over 700 songs in his lifetime. Dedicated to social issues, he donated all rights of the musical setting to the U.S. government, so that anyone can perform the piece without owing royalties.
It was sung for the first time on the floor of the House of Representatives on Flag Day, June 14, 1955 by the official Air Force choral group the "Singing Sergeants ''. A July 29, 1955 House and Senate resolution authorized the U.S. Government Printing Office to print and distribute the song sheet together with a history of the pledge.
Other musical versions of the Pledge have since been copyrighted, including by Beck (2003), Lovrekovich (2002 and 2001), Roton (1991), Fijol (1986), and Girardet (1983).
In 1940, the Supreme Court, in Minersville School District v. Gobitis, ruled that students in public schools, including the respondents in that case -- Jehovah 's Witnesses who considered the flag salute to be idolatry -- could be compelled to swear the Pledge. In 1943, in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, the Supreme Court reversed its decision. Justice Robert H. Jackson, writing for the 6 to 3 majority, went beyond simply ruling in the precise matter presented by the case to say that public school students are not required to say the Pledge on narrow grounds, and asserted that such ideological dogmata are antithetical to the principles of the country, concluding with:
If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein. If there are any circumstances which permit an exception, they do not now occur to us.
In a later case, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals held that students are also not required to stand for the Pledge.
Requiring or promoting of the Pledge on the part of the government has continued to draw criticism and legal challenges on several grounds.
One objection is that a democratic republic built on freedom of dissent should not require its citizens to pledge allegiance to it, and that the First Amendment to the United States Constitution protects the right to refrain from speaking or standing, which itself is also a form of speech in the context of the ritual of pledging allegiance. Another objection is that the people who are most likely to recite the Pledge every day, small children in schools, can not really give their consent or even completely understand the Pledge they are making. Another criticism is that a government requiring or promoting this phrase violates protections against the establishment of religion guaranteed in the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.
In 2004, linguist Geoffrey Nunberg said the original supporters of the addition thought that they were simply quoting Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address, but to Lincoln and his contemporaries, "under God '' meant "God willing '', so they would have found its use in the Pledge of Allegiance grammatically incorrect and semantically odd.
Prominent legal challenges were brought in the 1930s and 1940s by Jehovah 's Witnesses, a denomination whose beliefs preclude swearing loyalty to any power other than God, and who objected to policies in public schools requiring students to swear an oath to the flag. They said requiring the pledge violated their freedom of religion guaranteed by the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. The first case was in 1935, when two children, Lillian and William Gobitas, ages ten and twelve, were expelled from the Minersville, Pennsylvania, public schools that year for failing to salute the flag and recite the Pledge of Allegiance.
In a 2002 case brought by atheist Michael Newdow, whose daughter was being taught the Pledge in school, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled the phrase "under God '' an unconstitutional endorsement of monotheism when the Pledge was promoted in public school. In 2004, the Supreme Court heard Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, an appeal of the ruling, and rejected Newdow 's claim on the grounds that he was not the custodial parent, and therefore lacked standing, thus avoiding ruling on the merits of whether the phrase was constitutional in a school - sponsored recitation. On January 3, 2005, a new suit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of California on behalf of three unnamed families. On September 14, 2005, District Court Judge Lawrence Karlton ruled in their favor. Citing the precedent of the 2002 ruling by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, Judge Karlton issued an Order stating that, upon proper motion, he would enjoin the school district defendants from continuing their practices of leading children in pledging allegiance to "one Nation under God. ''
A 2005 Bill, H.R. 2389, to prohibit the Supreme Court 's and most federal courts from considering any legal challenges to the government 's requiring or promoting of the Pledge of Allegiance, died in the Senate after having passed in the House. This action is viewed in general as court stripping by Congress of the constitutional power of the Judiciary. Even if a similar bill is enacted, its practical effect may not be clear: proponents of the bill have said that it is a valid exercise of Congress 's power to regulate the jurisdiction of the federal courts under Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution, but opponents say Congress does not have the authority to prevent the Supreme Court from hearing claims based on the Bill of Rights, since amendments postdate the original text of the Constitution and may thus implicitly limit the scope of Article III, Section 2. Judges and legal analysts have said that if Congress can remove from the judicial branch the ability to determine if legislation is constitutional, the US separation of powers would be disturbed, or rendered non-functional.
Mark J. Pelavin, former Associate Director of the Religious Action Center of Reform Judaism, said of court stripping in regard to the Pledge of Allegiance that:
Today 's House adoption of the so - called "Pledge Protection Act '' is a shameful effort to strip our federal courts of their ability to uphold the rights of all Americans. By removing the jurisdiction of federal courts, including the Supreme Court, from cases involving the Pledge, this legislation sets a dangerous precedent: threatening religious liberty, compromising the vital system of checks and balances upon which our government was founded, and granting Congress the authority to strip the courts ' jurisdiction on any issue it wishes. Today, the issue was the Pledge of Allegiance, but tomorrow it could be reproductive rights, civil rights, or any other fundamental concern.
In 2006, in the Florida case Frazier v. Alexandre, a federal district court in Florida ruled that a 1942 state law requiring students to stand and recite the Pledge of Allegiance violates the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution. As a result of that decision, a Florida school district was ordered to pay $32,500 to a student who chose not to say the pledge and was ridiculed and called "unpatriotic '' by a teacher.
In 2009, a Montgomery County, Maryland, teacher berated and had school police remove a 13 - year - old girl who refused to say the Pledge of Allegiance in the classroom. The student 's mother, assisted by the American Civil Liberties Union of Maryland, sought and received an apology from the teacher, as state law and the school 's student handbook both prohibit students from being forced to recite the Pledge.
On March 11, 2010, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the words "under God '' in the Pledge of Allegiance in the case of Newdow v. Rio Linda Union School District. In a 2 -- 1 decision, the appellate court ruled that the words were of a "ceremonial and patriotic nature '' and did not constitute an establishment of religion. Judge Stephen Reinhardt dissented, writing that "the state - directed, teacher - led daily recitation in public schools of the amended ' under God ' version of the Pledge of Allegiance... violates the Establishment Clause of the Constitution. ''
On November 12, 2010, in a unanimous decision, the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit in Boston affirmed a ruling by a New Hampshire lower federal court which found that the pledge 's reference to God does not violate non-pledging students ' rights if student participation in the pledge is voluntary. A United States Supreme Court appeal of this decision was denied on June 13, 2011.
In September 2013, a case was brought before the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, arguing that the pledge violates the Equal Rights Amendment of the Constitution of Massachusetts. In May 2014, Massachusetts ' highest court ruled that the pledge does not discriminate against atheists, saying that the words "under God '' represent a patriotic, not a religious, exercise.
In February 2015 New Jersey Superior Court Judge David F. Bauman dismissed a lawsuit, ruling that "... the Pledge of Allegiance does not violate the rights of those who do n't believe in God and does not have to be removed from the patriotic message. '' The case against the Matawan - Aberdeen Regional School District had been brought by a student of the district and the American Humanist Association that argued that the phrase "under God '' in the pledge created a climate of discrimination because it promoted religion, making non-believers "second - class citizens. '' In a twenty - one page decision, Bauman wrote, "Under (the association members ') reasoning, the very constitution under which (the members) seek redress for perceived atheistic marginalization could itself be deemed unconstitutional, an absurd proposition which (association members) do not and can not advance here. '' Bauman said the student could skip the pledge, but upheld a New Jersey law that says pupils must recite the pledge unless they have "conscientious scruples '' that do not allow it. He noted, "As a matter of historical tradition, the words ' under God ' can no more be expunged from the national consciousness than the words ' In God We Trust ' from every coin in the land, than the words ' so help me God ' from every presidential oath since 1789, or than the prayer that has opened every congressional session of legislative business since 1787. ''
|
where does the cadenza usually occur in a concerto | Cadenza - wikipedia
In music, a cadenza (from Italian: cadenza (kaˈdɛntsa), meaning cadence; plural, cadenze (kaˈdɛntse)) is, generically, an improvised or written - out ornamental passage played or sung by a soloist or soloists, usually in a "free '' rhythmic style, and often allowing for virtuosic display. During this time the accompaniment will rest, or sustain a note or chord. Thus an improvised cadenza is indicated in written notation by a fermata in all parts. A cadenza usually will occur over the final or penultimate note in a piece, or over the final or penultimate note in an important subsection of a piece. It can also be found before a final coda or ritornello.
The term cadenza often refers to a portion of a concerto in which the orchestra stops playing, leaving the soloist to play alone in free time (without a strict, regular pulse) and can be written or improvised, depending on what the composer specifies. Sometimes, the cadenza will include small parts for other instruments besides the soloist; an example is in Sergei Rachmaninoff 's Piano Concerto No. 3, where a solo flute, clarinet and horn are used over rippling arpeggios in the piano. The cadenza normally occurs near the end of the first movement, though it can be at any point in a concerto. An example is Tchaikovsky 's First Piano Concerto, where in the first five minutes a cadenza is used. The cadenza is usually the most elaborate and virtuosic part that the solo instrument plays during the whole piece. At the end of the cadenza, the orchestra re-enters, and generally finishes off the movement on their own, or, less often, with the solo instrument.
The cadenza was originally, and remains, a vocal flourish improvised by a performer to elaborate a cadence in an aria. It was later used in instrumental music, and soon became a standard part of the concerto. Originally, it was improvised in this context as well, but during the 19th century, composers began to write cadenzas out in full. Third parties also wrote cadenzas for works in which it was intended by the composer to be improvised, so the soloist could have a well formed solo that they could practice in advance. Some of these have become so widely played and sung that they are effectively part of the standard repertoire, as is the case with Joseph Joachim 's cadenza for Johannes Brahms ' Violin Concerto, Beethoven 's set of cadenzas for Mozart 's Piano Concerto no. 20, and Estelle Liebling 's edition of cadenzas for operas such as Donizetti 's 's La fille du Régiment and Lucia di Lammermoor.
Perhaps the most notable deviations from this tendency towards written (or absent) cadenzas are to be found in jazz, most often at the end of a ballad, though cadenzas in this genre are usually brief. Saxophonist John Coltrane, however, usually improvised an extended cadenza when performing "I Want To Talk About You '', in which he showcased his predilections for scalar improvisation and multiphonics. The recorded examples of "I Want To Talk About You '' (Live at Birdland and Afro - Blue Impressions) are approximately 8 minutes in length, with Coltrane 's unaccompanied cadenza taking up approximately 3 minutes. More sardonically, Jazz critic Martin Williams once described Coltrane 's improvisations on "Africa / Brass '' as "essentially extended cadenzas to pieces that never get played. '' Equally noteworthy is saxophonist Sonny Rollins ' shorter improvised cadenza at the close of "Three Little Words '' (Sonny Rollins on Impulse!).
Cadenzas are also found in instrumental solos with piano or other accompaniment, where they are placed near the beginning or near the end or sometimes in both places (e.g. "The Maid of the Mist, '' cornet solo by Herbert L. Clarke, or a more modern example: the end of "Think of Me '', where Christine Daaé sings a short but involved cadenza, in Andrew Lloyd Webber 's The Phantom of the Opera).
Composers who have written cadenzas for other performers in works not their own include:
|
when do you say that their is motion | Motion (physics) - wikipedia
In physics, motion is a change in position of an object over time. Motion is described in terms of displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, time and speed. Motion of a body is observed by attaching a frame of reference to an observer and measuring the change in position of the body relative to that frame.
If the position of a body is not changing with respect to a given frame of reference, the body is said to be at rest, motionless, immobile, stationary, or to have constant (time - invariant) position. An object 's motion can not change unless it is acted upon by a force, as described. Momentum is a quantity which is used for measuring the motion of an object. An object 's momentum is directly related to the object 's mass and velocity, and the total momentum of all objects in an isolated system (one not affected by external forces) does not change with time, as described by the law of conservation of momentum.
As there is no absolute frame of reference, absolute motion can not be determined. Thus, everything in the universe can be considered to be moving.
Motion applies to objects, bodies, and matter particles, to radiation, radiation fields and radiation particles, and to space, its curvature and space - time. One can also speak of motion of shapes and boundaries. So, the term motion, in general, signifies a continuous change in the configuration of a physical system. For example, one can talk about motion of a wave or about motion of a quantum particle, where the configuration consists of probabilities of occupying specific positions.
In physics, motion is described through two sets of apparently contradictory laws of mechanics. Motions of all large - scale and familiar objects in the universe (such as projectiles, planets, cells, and humans) are described by classical mechanics. Whereas the motion of very small atomic and sub-atomic objects is described by quantum mechanics.
Classical mechanics is used for describing the motion of macroscopic objects, from projectiles to parts of machinery, as well as astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies. It produces very accurate results within these domains, and is one of the oldest and largest in science, engineering, and technology.
Classical mechanics is fundamentally based on Newton 's laws of motion. These laws describe the relationship between the forces acting on a body and the motion of that body. They were first compiled by Sir Isaac Newton in his work Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published on July 5, 1687. Newton "s three laws are:
Newton 's three laws of motion were the first to accurately provide a mathematical model for understanding orbiting bodies in outer space. This explanation unified the motion of celestial bodies and motion of objects on earth.
Classical mechanics was later further enhanced by Albert Einstein 's special relativity and general relativity. Special relativity is concerned with the motion of objects with a high velocity, approaching the speed of light; general relativity is employed to handle gravitational motion at a deeper level.
Uniform Motion:
When an object moves with a constant speed at a particular direction at regular intervals of time it 's known as the uniform motion. For example: a bike moving in a straight line with a constant speed.
EQUATIONS OF UNIFORM MOTION:
If v = final velocity, u = initial velocity, a = acceleration, t = time, s = displacement, then:
v = u + at, v = at
s = ut + 1 / 2at, s = 1 / 2at
v = u + 2as, v = 2as
Quantum mechanics is a set of principles describing physical reality at the atomic level of matter (molecules and atoms) and the subatomic particles (electrons, protons, neutrons, and even smaller elementary particles such as quarks). These descriptions include the simultaneous wave - like and particle - like behavior of both matter and radiation energy as described in the wave -- particle duality.
In classical mechanics, accurate measurements and predictions of the state of objects can be calculated, such as location and velocity. In the quantum mechanics, due to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the complete state of a subatomic particle, such as its location and velocity, can not be simultaneously determined.
In addition to describing the motion of atomic level phenomena, quantum mechanics is useful in understanding some large - scale phenomenon such as superfluidity, superconductivity, and biological systems, including the function of smell receptors and the structures of proteins.
Humans, like all known things in the universe, are in constant motion, however, aside from obvious movements of the various external body parts and locomotion, humans are in motion in a variety of ways which are more difficult to perceive. Many of these "imperceptible motions '' are only perceivable with the help of special tools and careful observation. The larger scales of "imperceptible motions '' are difficult for humans to perceive for two reasons: 1) Newton 's laws of motion (particularly Inertia) which prevent humans from feeling motions of a mass to which they are connected, and 2) the lack of an obvious frame of reference which would allow individuals to easily see that they are moving. The smaller scales of these motions are too small for humans to sense.
The cells of the human body have many structures which move throughout them.
Light propagates at 299,792,458 m / s, often approximated as 299,792 kilometres per second or 186,282 miles per second in a vacuum. The speed of light (or c) is also the speed of all massless particles and associated fields in a vacuum, and it is the upper limit on the speed at which energy, matter, information or causation can travel; the speed of light is the limit of speed for all physical systems.
In addition, the speed of light is an invariant quantity: it has the same value, irrespective of the position or speed of the observer. This property makes the speed of light c a natural measurement unit for speed.
|
who sang someone's knocking on your door | Let ' Em in - wikipedia
"Let ' Em In '' is a song by Wings from their 1976 album Wings at the Speed of Sound. It was written and sung by Paul McCartney and reached the top 3 in the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada. It was a No. 2 hit in the UK; in the U.S. it was a No. 3 pop hit and No. 1 easy listening hit. In Canada, the song was No. 3 for three weeks on the pop chart and No. 1 for three weeks on the MOR chart of RPM magazine. The single was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of over one million copies. It can also be found on McCartney 's 1987 compilation album, All the Best! A demo of the song, featuring Denny Laine on lead vocal, was included as a bonus track on the Archive Collection reissue of Wings at the Speed of Sound.
The song starts with the sound of a vibraphone, chiming the first eight notes from the Westminster Quarters, before the rhythm begins. The lyric name - checks several famous people as well as McCartney 's paternal aunt Gin and his brother Michael, and Linda McCartney 's brother John. Phil and Don Everly (known as the Everly Brothers) are named along with Martin Luther. Uncle Ernie is named; this was the character Ringo Starr sang in the London Symphony Orchestra 's recording of the Who 's Tommy. "Let ' Em In '' is noted for the false fade out, which, however, becomes loud for the last two notes of the song. The song makes use of the piano, drums, brass, including a trombone solo, and wind instruments, featuring flutes, plus backup vocals from Linda and other members of Wings.
The song was released worldwide as a 7 '' single, except in France where it was released as 12 '' single (the first - ever McCartney 12 ") with both sides labelled "Special Disco Mix ''.
It was included on the compilation album Wings Greatest (1978), as well as the Paul McCartney compilation albums All the Best! (1987) and Wingspan: Hits and History (2001).
|
if you cant pay we will take it away | Ca n't pay? We 'll Take It Away! - Wikipedia
Ca n't Pay? We 'll Take It Away! is a factual / reality documentary series on Channel 5. It follows the work of High Court enforcement officers (previously known as sheriff 's officers) as they execute High Court writs across England and Wales, on those who have failed to make repayments on a debt or refuse to vacate a property. The series was first broadcast on 24 February 2014, featuring HCEA 's of High Court Solutions. Five series of the programme have been broadcast to date.
As of 29 March 2018, the first three series have been made available on Netflix in the US and Canada. The first two series are available on Netflix UK.
The series has been broadcast Channel 5 since 24 February 2014. Their brief of the series says; "With exclusive access to some of the most experienced High Court Enforcement Agents and Repossession Teams in the country, this series is an eye - opening insight into cash - strapped Britain from the perspectives of debtors, creditors and debt collectors.
Produced by Brinkworth Films, the series and its various spin - offs reveal what it means to be a creditor who can not get back what they are owed, what it is like to be saddled with debt that you are simply unable to repay and what it takes to be the kind of person who can pay but refuses to do so. Cameras capture the daily hassle of dealing with violent confrontations, tearful debtors, downright liars and genuine cases of hardship. Then there are the debtors, many of whom have some distressing tales to tell of how they got into the situation in the first place. No one wants their possessions confiscated, after all. The result is a unique insight into one of the biggest issues facing those who can not afford to keep paying the bills ".
The first series introduces five initial cast members: Paul Bohill, Steve Pinner, Mike Allonby, Terry Jones, and Steve Wood. The day after the broadcast of the first programme, Allonby died aged 47 at his home in Wales. Both Jones and Wood subsequently only appeared in the first series, with Bohill and Pinner (High Court Solutions) the only two cast members who went on to appear in series two. The first three episodes became the most watched programme on the channel that week, with episodes four and five placing at second and third, respectively.
The second series sees the introduction of five new cast members -- Ben Pinner, Brian O'Shaughnessy, Graham Aldred, Iain Taylor and Stuart McCracken. Paul Bohill and Steve Pinner are the only two returning cast members from the first series. Every episode of the series ranked in the top three most watched programmes on the channel that week.
Cast member Kevin Stokes confirmed on Twitter that the returning cast for the third series was as follows: Paul Bohill, Steve Pinner, Ben Pinner, Stewart McCracken, Iain Taylor and Brian O'Shaughnessy. New cast members in this series would include: himself, Delroy Anglin ("Del ''), Elmor Victor ("Vic '') and Phil Short, who previously appeared in a non-speaking role in series two. Graham Aldred was confirmed as the only cast member from series two to not be returning for the third series. Every episode in series three placed within the top four most - watched programmes on Channel 5 for each respective week. For eight non-consecutive weeks, it was the most watched programme on the channel. Episode 12 had previously been broadcast on 4 August, as part of the "Britain on Benefits '' season.
In February 2018 a couple whose eviction featured in this series of the show were awarded £ 20,000 damages against Channel 5 for breaching the couple 's privacy during the filming of the eviction.
In February 2016, cast member Paul Bohill confirmed on Twitter that the cast for the fourth series was as follows: himself, Steve Pinner, Ben Pinner, Stewart McCracken, Iain Taylor, Brian O'Shaughnessy, Delroy Anglin ("Del '') and Elmor Victor ("Vic ''). The only agent not to return from the third series was Kevin Stokes. Additionally, three further agents appeared in minor roles: Phil Short, Ru Pabari and Alan Hunt, all of whom featured in one episode each. The series was filmed between September and November 2015. Broadcast was later confirmed for 13 April 2016. Additionally, the scheduling for several episodes was changed at the last minute: episode 4 was due to air on 4 May, but for reasons unknown was held over and not broadcast until the end of the series, later subtitled the "Busted '' special. The broadcast of episodes 7 & 8 was also switched for reasons unknown.
Broadcast of fourth series continued after a summer break, and the transmission date was confirmed on 18 August 2016. DCBL subsequently added a page on their website with profiles of each of the agents featured in the series. The cast for the second half of the series remains unchanged, with Bohill, Steve Pinner, Ben Pinner, McCracken, Taylor, O'Shaughnessy, Anglin and Victor all returning. This half - series sees the introduction of one new agent, Dael Anglin, Delroy 's son. On 5 October 2016 two further new agents were introduced into the series, Gareth Short and Craig Vernall Episode 8 also saw a guest appearance from Graham Aldred, last seen in series two. Phil Short also guest starred in Episode 9. O'Shaughnessy has since confirmed on Twitter that this series will be his last. The series began filming in February 2016. This half - series featured sixteen episodes.
A fifth series was confirmed for broadcast shortly after the end of series four. In this series, six new regular agents are introduced: Gary Brown, Garry Ball, Matthew Heighway, Cona Jackson, Michell Starr and Max Carracher. Agent Aron Graves also appears as a recurring member of the cast. Returning cast members for this series include Paul Bohill, Steve Pinner, Ben Pinner, Stewart McCracken, Elmor Victor, Iain Taylor and Gareth Short, who made his debut appearance in the last series. Delroy Anglin also guest starred in one episode. Brian O'Shaughnessy, Dael Anglin and Craig Vernall will not be returning to the series.
The Radio Times initially confirmed that this series will contain a total of thirty episodes; however, this subsequently increased to thirty - two; and a further ten episodes were later added to the schedule; bringing the final number of episodes to forty - two. This series was split into three broadcast segments, with the first airing from March 22, 2017, the second airing from August 30, 2017 (with an additional two unplanned episodes broadcasting from November 8, 2017, replacing a planned broadcast of Big Family Values), and the third set to be broadcast in 2018.
Max and Steve head to London to try and recover over £ 21,000 in unpaid court costs after a car accident, while Aron and Iain are in Middlesex chasing nearly £ 4,000 after the organiser of a music festival refused to pay a supplier. Elsewhere, Aron and Cona team up to recover almost £ 7,000 owed after a debtor failed to repay a loan to her ex-partner.
The current listings description of this episode is identical to Episode 22. The actual content of this episode will be available after broadcast.
The current listings description of this episode is identical to Episode 38. The actual content of this episode will be available after broadcast.
Gareth and Mitch find themselves in rural Wales chasing a debtor who owes £ 1,750 in multiple parking fines. Later, they find themselves on the trail of a tanning salon owner who owes more than £ 10,000.
Max and Steve visit an east London restaurant whose owner owes £ 7,000 to his gas supplier. Gareth and Mitch try to get £ 3,000 from a car wash owner after a customer 's car was damaged. Max and Steve assist a dissatisfied customer who is owed £ 4,000 from a second - hand car dealer. Stewart and Vic visit a shutters and blinds shop in Manchester who owe more than £ 5,000 to a dissatisfied customer.
|
which term best describes the tempo of the fourth movement of symphony no. 101 in d | Symphony No. 101 (Haydn) - wikipedia
The Symphony No. 101 in D major (Hoboken 1 / 101) is the ninth of the twelve London symphonies written by Joseph Haydn. It is popularly known as The Clock because of the "ticking '' rhythm throughout the second movement.
Haydn completed the symphony in 1793 or 1794. He wrote it for the second of his two visits to London. Having heard one of his symphonies played in London with an orchestra of 300 - strong, his Clock Symphony has that large scale grandeur written in it. On 3 March 1794, the work was premiered with an orchestra of 60 personally gathered by Haydn 's colleague and friend Johann Peter Salomon, who also acted as concertmaster, in the Hanover Square Rooms, as part of a concert series featuring Haydn 's work organized by Salomon; a second performance took place a week later.
As was generally true for the London symphonies, the response of the audience was very enthusiastic. The Oracle reported that "the connoisseurs admit (it) to be his best work. '' Additionally, the Morning Chronicle reported:
The work has always been popular and continues to appear frequently on concert programs and in recordings. An average performance lasts about 27 minutes.
It is scored for two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons, two horns, two trumpets, timpani and strings.
The work is in standard four - movement form, as follows:
The opening movement starts with a minor introduction consisting of 23 measures. A rising scale motif opens the Adagio, similar to the opening of the main theme of the Presto, and connects the Adagio to the main movement. The main theme of the Presto is meant to catch attention -- the rising scale motif begins and ends on the dominant, and two broken chords follow -- the tonic and the second degree minor, and ends on the tonic. This phrase also consists of 10 bars, broken into two parts of an odd 1 + 4 bar distribution. After the main theme, this phrase returns and starts the modulation by the usage of the A diminished chord, leading to E minor, which finally leads to E major, the dominant of A major. The secondary theme, although more subtle than the primary theme, is very close to it, which makes this a monothematic exposition. A triumphant codetta concludes the exposition. The development begins with the secondary theme motif reoccurring in different instruments in counterpoint, and transitions into the different motifs of the main theme, also playing contrapuntally. The development turns toward conclusion with the secondary theme once more, and ends with a long falling scale. The recapitulation is straightforward, and the triumphant coda finishes this grand movement. The Morning Chronicle said, "Nothing can be more original than the subject of the first movement, and having found a happy subject, no man knows like Haydn how to produce incessant variety, without once departing from it. ''
The second movement, from which the symphony gets its name, begins with plucked strings and a bassoon. Towards the middle of the movement, there is a dark, fierce passage in G minor, followed by Haydnesque humor and finally the clock theme once again. Michael Steinberg said, "Haydn has a gratifying number of different clocks in his shop, offering ' tick - tock ' in a happy variety of colors. ''
In 1793, Haydn had given his employer Prince Esterházy an elaborate musical clock, for which he wrote 12 short pieces, one of them being the basis for this movement. The third movement, a minuet, is one of Haydn 's longest. The trio evokes a bungling village band, with more Haydnesque humor, similar to what Beethoven would use in the trio of his Pastoral Symphony. Many scholars, publishers, and musicians, not knowing Haydn 's humor, would often "correct '' the trio.
The finale of the work is a monothematic rondo - sonata. This means that the main theme and the secondary theme are similar, or in this case, almost identical, and the main theme is played every time a theme ends. Haydn vastly changes the main theme with each occurrence -- something that is not done in rondo works. Even the bridges in between themes are similar to the main theme. Haydn also builds a fugue into the last movement.
|
what did france do during the great depression | Great Depression in France - wikipedia
The Great Depression affected France from about 1931 through the remainder of the decade. The crisis affected France a bit later than other countries, hitting around 1931. While the 1920s grew at the very strong rate of 4.43 % per year, the 1930s rate fell to only 0.63 %. The depression was relatively mild: unemployment peaked under 5 %, the fall in production was at most 20 % below the 1929 output; there was no banking crisis. The depression had some effects on the local economy, which can partly explain the 6 February 1934 crisis and even more the formation of the Popular Front, led by SFIO socialist leader Léon Blum, who won the election of 1936.
Like the United Kingdom, France had initially struggled to recover from the devastation of World War I, trying without much success to recover war reparations from Germany. Unlike Britain, though, France had a more self - sufficient economy. In 1929, France seemed an island of prosperity, for three reasons. First, it was a country traditionally wary of trusts and big companies. The economy of France was above all founded in small and medium - sized businesses not financed by shares. Unlike the English - speaking world and particularly Americans, the French invested little on the stock exchange and put their confidence into gold, which in the crisis of 1929 was a currency of refuge. Gold had played the same role in the first world war, which explained French attachment to it. Finally, France had had a positive balance of payments for some years thanks mainly to invisible exports such as tourism. French investments abroad were numerous.
The German reparations decided by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 brought in large amounts of money which served principally to repay war loans to the United States. Reparations payments ended in 1923. In January of that year, Germany defaulted on its payments and the French president, Raymond Poincaré, invoked a clause of the Versailles Treaty and sent troops to occupy the Ruhr valley in the hope of enforcing payment. Germany responded by flooding the area with inflated money, ruining its currency and denying France any hope of full reparations. Poincaré accepted an agreement mediated by the United States in which it received smaller payments, but Poincaré 's government fell soon afterward.
While the United States experienced a sharp rise in unemployment, France had almost none. Much of that was due to a simple lack of manpower; at the end of the war, France had 1,322,000 dead and three million wounded, almost 4,000,000 casualties. One in four of the dead was younger than 24. That in turn lowered the birth rate, so that by 1938 France still had only half the number of 19 - to 21 - year - olds it would have had had the war not happened. But whatever the causes of full employment, confidence in the government was high. The French economy was stronger than those of its neighbors, notably because of the solidarity of the franc. The introduction of the US economic model, inspired particularly by Ford, ended suddenly and, with it, the modernization of French businesses. Everything seemed to favour the French; production did n't weaken before 1930, particularly in primary materials, and the country was the world 's leading producer of iron in 1930. France felt confident in its systems and proud of its vertu budgétaire, in other words the balancing of the budget, which France had managed more or less for nearly a decade.
In 1927, France gained from the world crisis in becoming the world 's largest holder of gold, its reserves growing from 18 billion francs in 1927 to 80 billion in 1930.
Le Figaro said: "For our part let us rejoice in our timid yet prosperous economy as opposed to the presumptuousness and decadent economy of the Anglo - Saxon races. ''
There was a further contrast in the way France and Anglo - Saxon nations viewed their economies. The Anglo - Saxon model encouraged growth of the money stock; in France, the Depression was seen as a necessary evil, to "purge '' the excess liquidity in the world economy and to push over-indebted companies into failure.
Successive governments maintained restrictive policies into 1934 and interest rates were kept high to maintain the attractiveness of the franc. The absence of contra - cyclical policies kept the state budget in balance.
In 1934 - 35, the Pierre - Étienne Flandin government allowed a less restrictive policy allowing short - term indebtedness. The Banque de France lost 15 per cent of its reserves and the government was replaced by one led by Pierre Laval, who installed a provisionally deflationist policy before himself accepting a public deficit. The franc ran into a new crisis.
Laval tried in 1935 to reduce salaries in an effort to lessen unemployment. He ran into the resistance of unions in the public sector.
The inability of French production to take off was in contrast to the experience of the United Kingdom, which had devalued in 1931. Devaluation was something France did n't want and it happened only in 1936.
The distress of the population had political consequences. A riot on 6 February 1934 led to the fall of the government and a nation which had traditionally leaned to the right elected the socialist Popular Front government in 1936.
The Popular Front, an alliance of Socialists and Radicals with support outside the government of the Communists, was led by Léon Blum. The Popular Front introduced many measures such as the 40 - hour working week and holidays with pay, but Blum felt handicapped in introducing more than limited changes to the economy because of his dependence on the more right - wing Radicals. This did little to placate a population anxious for change and a wave of strikes broke involving two million workers Factories were occupied and membership of the Communist party rose to 300,000 in 1937.
On the night of 7 -- 8 June 1936, employers and unions signed the Matignon Agreements by which they raised wages by 7 to 15 percent to increase workers ' buying power, to stimulate the economy and to bring an end to the strikes. Blum brought in measures to control cereal prices, to insist that the Banque de France place the national interest above that of the shareholders, and nationalized the armaments industry. That upset the Left, which saw too much legislation, and did nothing to please the Right, which believed that state involvement in a capitalist economy would bring about disaster.
The Radicals would not accept currency controls and the result of the unrest was that capital fled abroad. That weakened the economy and employers tried to minimize the results of the Matignon agreement, which created more social tension and in turn a further flight of capital.
Devaluation of the franc by 30 per cent became inevitable, despite government assurances that it would not happen. In January 1937, Blum went further and announced "a pause '' to social reforms. The Senate refused to give him emergency powers to cope with the recession and he resigned on 20 June 1937 and the first Popular Front began to fall apart. A second had even less success.
The President, Lebrun, called on the Radical leader Édouard Daladier to form a new government without the Socialists. Daladier relied on liberal economics to rescue, or at any rate keep afloat the economy on a worldwide sea of financial difficulties. Employers and police acted harshly against strikers and determined to root out "troublemakers ''. In 1938 the Senate gave Daladier the emergency powers that Blum had been denied and the government favored employers over workers in industrial disputes, particularly in companies which had come close to coming under the control of their workers.
Under Daladier, economic conditions slightly improved, to a backdrop of growing, increasingly vocal communist and fascist movements. These gains, however, were due as much as anything to the growth of the armaments industry. On 3 September 1939, following the illegal attack against its Polish ally by Germany, France declared war on Germany.
|
where did the classifications of hutu and tutsi come from in rwanda | Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa - wikipedia
The origins of the Tutsi and Hutu peoples is a major issue in the histories of Rwanda and Burundi, as well as the Great Lakes region of Africa. While the Hutu are the largest social group in Rwanda, (although in racialist ideology originally introduced by European colonizers, the Tutsi were often identified as a separate race and also foreign, that settled amongst and intermarried with the Hutu, a Bantu group that had arrived in the region earlier, during the Bantu expansion). The relationship between the two modern populations is thus, in many ways, derived from the perceived origins and claim to "Rwandan - ness ''. The largest conflicts related to this question were the Rwandan genocide, the Burundian genocide, and the First and Second Congo Wars.
Ugandan scholar Mahmoud Mamdani identifies at least four distinct foundations for studies that support the "distinct difference between Hutu and Tutsi '' school of thought: phenotype, genotype, cultural memory of inhabitants of Rwanda, and archeology / linguistics.
In comparison to the Hutu, the Tutsi are reputed to have three times as much genetic influence from Nilo - Saharan populations (14.9 % B) as the Hutu (4.3 % B) perhaps demonstrating a Nilo - Saharan origin that supports their pastoralist historical affiliations, as opposed to the Hutu who were primarily Bantu agriculturalists.
However, a more recent study (Trombetta et al. 2015) found 22.2 % E1b1b in a Tutsi sample from Burundi, but 0 % in the Hutu and Twa of Burundi. Particularly of the M293 variety associated with Southern Cushitic people and East African pastoralists.
More recent studies have de-emphasized physical appearance, such as height and nose width, in favor of examining blood factors, the presence of the sickle cell trait, lactose intolerance in adults, and other genotype expressions. Excoffier et al. (1987) found that the Tutsi and Hima, despite being surrounded by Bantu populations, are "closer genetically to Cushites and Ethiosemites ''.
Another study concluded that, while the sickle cell trait among the Rwandan Hutu was comparable to that of neighboring people, it was almost non-existent among Rwandan Tutsi. Presence of the sickle cell trait is evidence of survival in the presence of malaria over many centuries, suggesting differing origins. Regional studies of the ability to digest lactose are also supportive. The ability to digest lactose among adults is widespread only among desert - dwelling nomadic groups that have depended upon milk for millennia. Three quarters of the adult Tutsi of Rwanda and Burundi have a high ability to digest lactose, while only 5 % of the adults of the neighboring Shi people of eastern Congo can. Among Hutu, one in three adults has a high capacity for lactose digestion, a surprisingly high number for an agrarian people, which Mamdani suggests may be the result of centuries of intermarriage with Tutsi.
Bethwell Ogot in the 1988 UNESCO General History further notes that the number of pastoralists in Rwanda increased sharply around the fifteenth century. Although Luis et al. (2004) in a more general study on bi-allelic markers in many African countries found a statistically significant genetic difference between Tutsi and Hutu, the overall difference were not large.
Modern - day genetic studies of the Y - chromosome generally indicate that the Tutsi, like the Hutu, are largely of Bantu extraction (60 % E1b1a, 20 % B, 4 % E3). Paternal genetic influences associated with the Horn of Africa and North Africa are few (16 % E1b1b), and are ascribed to much earlier inhabitants who were assimilated. However, the Tutsi have considerably more Nilo - Saharan paternal lineages (14.9 % B) than the Hutu (4.3 % B).
Trombetta et al. (2015) found 22.2 % of E1b1b in a small sample of Tutsis from Burundi, but no bearers of the haplogroup among the local Hutu and Twa populations. The subclade was of the M293 variety, which suggests that the ancestors of Tutsis in this area may have assimilated some South Cushitic pastoralists.
In general, the Tutsi appear to share a close genetic kinship with neighboring Bantu populations, particularly the Hutu. However, it is unclear whether this similarity is primarily due to extensive genetic exchanges between these communities through intermarriage or whether it ultimately stems from common origins:
(...) generations of gene flow obliterated whatever clear - cut physical distinctions may have once existed between these two Bantu peoples -- renowned to be height, body build, and facial features. With a spectrum of physical variation in the peoples, Belgian authorities legally mandated ethnic affiliation in the 1920s, based on economic criteria. Formal and discrete social divisions were consequently imposed upon ambiguous biological distinctions. To some extent, the permeability of these categories in the intervening decades helped to reify the biological distinctions, generating a taller elite and a shorter underclass, but with little relation to the gene pools that had existed a few centuries ago. The social categories are thus real, but there is little if any detectable genetic differentiation between Hutu and Tutsi.
Tishkoff et al. (2009) found their mixed Hutu and Tutsi samples from Rwanda to be predominately of Bantu origin, with minor gene flow from Afro - Asiatic communities (17.7 % Afro - Asiatic genes found in the mixed Hutu / Tutsi population).
Razib Khan, based on a non-peer - reviewed analysis of the autosomal genetics of a single individual who is three quarters Tutsi, suggests that "the Tutsi were in all likelihood once a Nilotic speaking population, who switched to the language of the Bantus amongst whom they settled. ''
While most supporters of the migration theory are also supporters of the "Hamitic theory '', namely that the Tutsi came from the Horn of Africa, a later theory proposed that the Tutsi had instead migrated from nearby interior East Africa, and that the physical differences were the result of natural selection in a dry arid climate over millennia. Among the most detailed theories was one put forward by Jean Hiernaux, based on studies of blood factors and archeology. Noting the fossil record of a tall people with narrow facial features several thousand years ago in East Africa, including locations such as Gambles Cave in the Kenya Rift Valley and Olduvai Gorge in northern Tanzania, Hiernaux argues that while there was a migration, it was not as dramatic as some sources have proposed. He explicitly attacks the Hamitic theory that migrants from Ethiopia brought civilization to other Africans.
However, in light of recent genetic studies, Hiernaux 's theory on the origin of Tutsis in East Africa appears doubtful. It has also been demonstrated that the Tutsis harbor little to no Northeastern African genetic influence on their paternal line. On the other hand, there is currently no mtDNA data available for the Tutsi, which might have helped shed light on their background.
The colonial scholars who found complex societies in sub-Saharan Africa developed the Hamitic hypothesis, namely that "black Europeans '' had migrated into the African interior, conquering the primitive peoples they found there and introducing civilization. The Hamitic hypothesis continues to echo into the current day, both inside and outside of academic circles. As scholars developed a migration hypothesis for the origin of the Tutsi that rejected the Hamitic thesis, the notion that the Tutsi were civilizing alien conquerors was also put in question.
One school of thought noted that the influx of pastoralists around the fifteenth century may have taken place over an extended period of time and been peaceful, rather than sudden and violent. The key distinction made was that migration was not the same as conquest. Other scholars delinked the arrival of Tutsi from the development of pastoralism and the beginning of the period of statebuilding. It appears clear that pastoralism was practiced in Rwanda prior to the fifteenth century immigration, while the dates of state formation and pastoralist influx do not entirely match. This argument thus attempts to play down the importance of the pastoralist migrations.
Still other studies point out that cultural transmission can occur without actual human migration. This raises the question of how much of the changes around the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was the result of an influx of people as opposed to the existing population being exposed to new ideas. Studies that approach the subject of racial purity are among the most controversial. These studies point out that the pastoralist migrants and pre-migration Rwandans lived side by side for centuries and practiced extensive intermarriage. The notion that current Rwandans can claim exclusively Tutsi or Hutu bloodlines is thus questioned.
|
teams that have won the most nba championships | List of NBA champions - wikipedia
The National Basketball Association (NBA) (formerly Basketball Association of America (BAA) from 1946 -- 49) Finals is the championship series for the NBA and the conclusion of the NBA 's postseason. All Finals have been played in a best - of - seven format, and contested between the winners of the Eastern Conference and the Western Conference (formerly Divisions before 1970), except in 1950 in which the Eastern Division champion faced the winner between the Western and Central Division champions. Prior to 1949, the playoffs were instituted a three - stage tournament where the two semifinal winners played each other in the finals. The winning team of the series receives the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy.
The home - and - away format in the NBA Finals is in a 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format (the team with the better regular season record plays on their home court in Games 1, 2, 5 and 7) during 1947 -- 1948, 1950 -- 1952, 1957 -- 1970, 1972 -- 1974, 1976 -- 1977, 1979 -- 1984, 2014 -- present. It was previously in a 2 -- 3 -- 2 format (the team with the better regular season record plays on their home court in Games 1, 2, 6 and 7) during 1949, 1953 -- 1955, and 1985 -- 2013, in a 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format during 1956 and 1971 and in a 1 -- 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 format during 1975 and 1978.
The Eastern Conference / Division leads the Western Conference / Division in series won (38 -- 32). The defunct Central Division won one championship. The Boston Celtics and the Minneapolis / Los Angeles Lakers alone own almost half of the titles, having won a combined 33 of 70 championships.
Numbers in parentheses in the table are NBA Finals appearances as of the date of that NBA Finals, and are used as follows:
|
what is the meaning behind the song don't fear the reaper | (Do n't Fear) the Reaper - wikipedia
"(Do n't Fear) The Reaper '' is a song by American rock band Blue Öyster Cult from their 1976 album, Agents of Fortune. The song, written and sung by the band 's lead guitarist Donald "Buck Dharma '' Roeser, deals with eternal love and the inevitability of death. Dharma wrote the song while picturing an early death for himself.
Released as an edited single (omitting the slow building interlude that 's in the original), the song was Blue Öyster Cult 's biggest chart success, reaching # 7 in Cash Box and # 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 in late 1976. Additionally, critical reception was mainly positive and, in 2004, "(Do n't Fear) The Reaper '' was listed at number 405 on the Rolling Stone list of the top 500 songs of all time.
-- Buck Dharma, lead singer
The song is about the inevitability of death and the foolishness of fearing it, and was written when Dharma was thinking about what would happen if he died at a young age. Lyrics such as "Romeo and Juliet are together in eternity '' have led many listeners to interpret the song to be about a murder - suicide pact, but Dharma says the song is about eternal love, rather than suicide. He used Romeo and Juliet as motifs to describe a couple believing they would meet again in the afterlife. He guessed that "40,000 men and women '' died each day, and the figure was used several times in the lyrics; this rate was 100,000 off the mark.
"(Do n't Fear) The Reaper '' was written and sung by the band 's lead guitarist, Dharma, and produced by David Lucas, Murray Krugman, and Sandy Pearlman. The song 's distinctive guitar riff is built on the "i - VII - VI '' chord progression, in an A minor scale. The riff was recorded with Krugman 's Gibson ES - 175 guitar, which was run through a Music Man 410 combo amplifier, and Dharma 's vocals were captured with a Telefunken U47 tube microphone. The guitar solo and guitar rhythm sections were recorded in one take, while a four - track tape machine amplified them on the recording. Sound engineer Shelly Yakus remembers piecing together the separate vocals, guitar and rhythm section into a master track, with the overdubbing occurring in that order.
Mojo described its creation: "' Guys, this is it! ' engineer Shelly Yakus announced at the end of the first take. ' The legendary once - in - a-lifetime groove! '... What evolved in the studio was the extended solo section; it took them nearly as long to edit the five - minute track down to manageable length as it did to record it. ''
The song features prominent use of the cowbell percussion instrument, overdubbed on the original recording. Bassist Joe Bouchard remembered the producer requesting his brother, drummer Albert Bouchard, play the cowbell: "Albert thought he was crazy. But he put all this tape around a cowbell and played it. It really pulled the track together. '' However, producer David Lucas says that he played it, a claim supported by guitarist Eric Bloom.
The song was on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for 20 weeks, reaching number 12 for the weeks beginning November 6 and November 13 in 1976. It was BÖC 's highest - charting U.S. song and helped Agents of Fortune reach number 29 on the Billboard 200. "(Do n't Fear) The Reaper '' charted even higher in Canada, peaking at number 7. The single edit was released in the UK in July 1976 (CBS 4483) but failed to chart. However the unedited album version was released as a single (CBS 6333) in May 1978, where it reached number 16 on the UK Singles Chart.
Critical reaction was mostly positive. Denise Sullivan of Allmusic praised the song 's "gentle vocals and virtuoso guitar '' and "haunting middle break which delivers the listener straight back to the heart of the song once the thunder is finished ''. Nathan Beckett called it BÖC 's "masterpiece '' and compared the vocals to the Beach Boys. Writing for PopMatters, James Mann hailed it as a "landmark, genre - defining masterpiece '' that was "as grand and emotional as American rock and roll ever got ''. Pitchfork Media also referred to the song as a "masterpiece ''. "Extremely poetic '' was the verdict of Fountains of Wayne founder Chris Collingwood. "A sad ballad about a man who wants to die with his true love before their love is spoiled by earthly things. '' '
In 1976 Rolling Stone named "(Do n't Fear) The Reaper '' the song of the year and, in 2004, the magazine placed the song at number 397 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''; however, the 2010 version of the list moved it down to number 405. In 1997 Mojo listed the song as the 80th best single of all time, while Q ranked "(Do n't Fear) The Reaper '' number 404 in its 2003 countdown of the "1001 Best Songs Ever. ''
When The Guardian released its unranked list of the "1000 Songs Everyone Must Hear '' in 2009, the song was included. The publication wrote that the song 's charm "lies in the disjuncture between its gothic storyline and the sprightly, Byrdsian guitar line that carries it. '' In his book The Heart of Rock and Soul: The 1001 Greatest Singles Ever Made, rock critic Dave Marsh ranked the song at number 997.
Blue Öyster Cult performed a live version of "(Do n't Fear) The Reaper '' on the band 's 1978 album Some Enchanted Evening. A live version appears on their 1982 album Extraterrestrial Live. Blue Öyster Cult 's 1991 live album Live 1976 features "(Do n't Fear) The Reaper ''. A live version appears on their 2002 album A Long Day 's Night. Buck Dharma released an acoustic version of the song on the 1994 various artists compilation album Guitar Practicing Musicians 3.
Gus Black covered the song in 1996 for the Scream soundtrack. Finnish gothic rock band HIM recorded a version of the song on their 1997 debut album Greatest Lovesongs, Vol. 666. Pop rock band the Goo Goo Dolls recorded a cover of "(Do n't Fear) The Reaper '' on their 1987 self - titled album. In 1992, Clint Ruin and Lydia Lunch released the extended play Do n't Fear the Reaper, on which their rendition of the song appears. Apollo 440 transcribed an electronic version of the track on the 1995 debut album Millennium Fever. In 1998, Jive Bunny & the Mastermixers recorded a cover of the song on their Rock the Party album. Celtic rock band Big Country included a cover of the song on their 2001 covers album Under Cover. The Mutton Birds recorded a version for the 1996 movie The Frighteners; this version is also included on their 2002 greatest hits compilation Flock: The Best of the Mutton Birds. Folk rock band Unto Ashes issued a rendition of "(Do n't Fear) The Reaper '' on the 2003 album Empty into White. Alternative rock group The Beautiful South covered the song on their 2004 album Golddiggas, Headnodders and Pholk Songs. "(Do n't Fear) The Reaper '' was covered by hardcore punk band Snuff on their 2005 album Six of One, Half a Dozen of the Other: 1986 - 2002. Synthpop band Heaven 17 recorded a cover of the song on their album Before After, also released in 2005. Pat DiNizio, frontman for the Smithereens, covered the song on his 2006 solo album This Is Pat DiNizio. In 2008, jam band moe. recorded a live version of the song on their Dr. Stan 's Prescription, Volume 2 album. Rock band L.A. Guns added a version of the song on their 2010 covers album Covered in Guns. Pierce the Veil covered the song on the Punk Goes Classic Rock (2010) compilation. Swedish doom metal band Candlemass covered the song on their 2010 EP Do n't Fear The Reaper.
The song was memorialized in the April 2000 Saturday Night Live comedy sketch "More Cowbell ''. The six - minute sketch presents a fictionalized version of the recording of "(Do n't Fear) The Reaper '' on an episode of VH1 's Behind the Music. Will Ferrell wrote the sketch and played Gene Frenkle, an overweight cowbell player. "Legendary '' producer Bruce Dickinson, played by Christopher Walken, asked Frenkle to "really explore the studio space '' and up the ante on his cowbell playing. The rest of the band are visibly annoyed by Frenkle, but Dickinson tells everyone, "I got a fever, and the only prescription -- is more cowbell! '' Buck Dharma thought the sketch was fantastic and said he never gets tired of it. A sample of the sketch is used in Tesla, Inc. 's current Model S, X and 3 cars as an easter egg.
Stephen King cited the song as the inspiration for his novel The Stand, and it appears as the theme song for the TV miniseries based on the novel. Its lyrics are also quoted at the beginning of the novel.
A segment of the song was performed by Red Hot Chili Peppers on May 22, 2014, as the conclusion of a drumming contest between the band 's drummer Chad Smith and actor Ferrell. In a repeat of the 2000 SNL sketch, Ferrell again played cowbell for the rendition, which appeared on an episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon.
with:
|
what is the ioc and what do they do | International Olympic Committee - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 46 ° 31 ′ 5 '' N 6 ° 35 ′ 49 '' E / 46.51806 ° N 6.59694 ° E / 46.51806; 6.59694
The International Olympic Committee (IOC; French: Comité International Olympique, CIO) is a Swiss private non-governmental organisation based in Lausanne, Switzerland, which is the authority responsible for the modern Olympic Games.
The IOC was created by Pierre de Coubertin, on 23 June 1894 with Demetrios Vikelas as its first president. As of June 2017, its membership consists of 95 active members, 41 honorary members, an honorary president (Jacques Rogge) and one honour member (Henry Kissinger). The IOC is the supreme authority of the worldwide modern Olympic movement.
The IOC organises the modern Olympic Games and Youth Olympic Games, held in summer and winter, every four years. The first Summer Olympics organised by the IOC was held in Athens, Greece, in 1896; the first Winter Olympics was in Chamonix, France, in 1924. Until 1992, both Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same year. After that year, however, the IOC shifted the Winter Olympics to the even years between Summer Games, to help space the planning of the two events from one another, and improve the financial balance of the IOC, which receives greater income on Olympic years. The first Summer Youth Olympics were in Singapore in 2010 and the first Winter Youth Olympics were held in Innsbruck in 2012.
In 2009, the UN General Assembly granted the IOC Permanent Observer status. This decision enables the IOC to be directly involved in the UN Agenda and to attend UN General Assembly meetings where it can take the floor. This has provided the possibility to promote sport at a new level. In addition, in 1993, the UN General Assembly approved a Resolution that further solidified IOC -- UN cooperation with the decision to revive the Olympic Truce, by adopting a Resolution entitled "Building a peaceful and better world through sport and the Olympic ideal, '' which calls upon Member States to observe the Olympic Truce before every iteration of the games, and to cooperate with the IOC and the International Paralympic Committee in their efforts to use sport as a tool to promote peace, dialogue and reconciliation in areas of conflict during and beyond the period of the Olympic and Paralympic Games.
During each proclamation at the Olympics, announcers speak in different languages, French is always spoken first followed by an English translation and the dominant language of the host nation.
The stated mission of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is to promote Olympic throughout the world and to lead the Olympic Movement.
(*) Interim Chairperson
The IOC Session is the general meeting of the members of the IOC, held once a year in which each member has one vote. It is the IOC 's supreme organ and its decisions are final.
Extraordinary Sessions may be convened by the President or upon the written request of at least one third of the members.
Among others, the powers of the Session are:
In addition to the Olympic medals for competitors, the IOC awards a number of other honours:
For most of its existence, the IOC was controlled by members who were selected by other members. Countries that had hosted the Games were allowed two members. When named, they did not become the representatives of their respective countries to the IOC, but rather the opposite, IOC members in their respective countries.
The membership of IOC members ceases in the following circumstances:
There are currently 73 sport federations recognised by IOC. These are:
During the first half of the 20th century the IOC ran on a small budget. As president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972, Avery Brundage rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interest. Brundage believed the lobby of corporate interests would unduly impact the IOC 's decision - making. Brundage 's resistance to this revenue stream meant the IOC left organising committees to negotiate their own sponsorship contracts and use the Olympic symbols. When Brundage retired the IOC had US $2 million in assets; eight years later the IOC coffers had swelled to US $45 million. This was primarily due to a shift in ideology toward expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights. When Juan Antonio Samaranch was elected IOC president in 1980 his desire was to make the IOC financially independent. Samaranch appointed Canadian IOC member Richard Pound to lead the initiative as Chairman of the "New Sources of Finance Commission ''.
In 1982 the IOC drafted ISL Marketing a Swiss sports marketing company, to develop a global marketing programme for the Olympic Movement. ISL successfully developed the programme but was replaced by Meridian Management, a company partly owned by the IOC in the early 1990s.
In 1989, one of the staff members at ISL Marketing, Michael Payne, moved to the IOC and became the organisation 's first marketing director. However ISL and subsequently Meridian, continued in the established role as the IOC 's sales and marketing agents until 2002. In 2002 the IOC terminated the relationship with Meridian and took its marketing programme in - house under the Direction of Timo Lumme, the IOC 's managing director of IOC Television and Marketing Services. During his 17 years with the IOC, in collaboration with ISL Marketing and subsequently Meridian Management, Payne made major contributions to the creation of a multibillion - dollar sponsorship marketing programme for the organisation which, along with improvements in TV marketing and improved financial management, helped to restore the IOC 's financial viability.
The Olympic Movement generates revenue through five major programmes. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) manages broadcast partnerships and The Olympic Partner (TOP) worldwide sponsorship programme. The Organising Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) manage domestic sponsorship, ticketing and licensing programmes within the host country under the direction of the IOC. The Olympic Movement generated a total of more than US $4 billion, € 2.5 billion in revenue during the Olympic quadrennium from 2001 to 2004.
The IOC distributes some of Olympic marketing revenue to organisations throughout the Olympic Movement to support the staging of the Olympic Games and to promote the worldwide development of sport. The IOC retains approximately 10 % of Olympic marketing revenue for the operational and administrative costs of governing the Olympic Movement.
The IOC provides The Olympic Partner (TOP) programme contributions and Olympic broadcast revenue to the OCOGs to support the staging of the Olympic Games and Olympic Winter Games:
The NOCs receive financial support for the training and development of Olympic teams, Olympic athletes and Olympic hopefuls. The IOC distributes TOP programme revenue to each of the NOCs throughout the world. The IOC also contributes Olympic broadcast revenue to Olympic Solidarity, an IOC organisation that provides financial support to NOCs with the greatest need.
The continued success of the TOP programme and Olympic broadcast agreements has enabled the IOC to provide increased support for the NOCs with each Olympic quadrennium. The IOC provided approximately US $318.5 million to NOCs for the 2001 -- 2004 quadrennium.
The IOC is now the largest single revenue source for the majority of IFs, with its contributions of Olympic broadcast revenue that assist the IFs in the development of their respective sports worldwide. The IOC provides financial support from Olympic broadcast revenue to the 28 IFs of Olympic summer sports and the seven IFs of Olympic winter sports after the completion of the Olympic Games and the Olympic Winter Games, respectively.
The continually increasing value of Olympic broadcast partnership has enabled the IOC to deliver substantially increased financial support to the IFs with each successive Games. The seven winter sports IFs shared US $85.8 million, € 75 million in Salt Lake 2002 broadcast revenue. The contribution to the 28 summer sports IFs from Athens 2004 broadcast revenue has not yet been determined, but the contribution is expected to mark a significant increase over the US $190 million, € 150 million that the IOC provided to the summer IFs following Sydney 2000.
The IOC contributes Olympic marketing revenue to the programmes of various recognised international sports organisations, including the International Paralympic Committee, and the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).
The International Olympic Committee (IOC) recognizes that the Olympic Games demand tremendous environmental resources, activities, and construction projects that could be detrimental to a host city 's environment. In 1995, IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch stated, "the International Olympic Committee is resolved to ensure that the environment becomes the third dimension of the organization of the Olympic Games, the first and second being sport and culture. '' Acting on this statement, in 1996 the IOC added the ' environment ' as a third pillar to its vision for Olympic games. The IOC requires cities bidding to host the Olympics to provide a comprehensive strategy to protect the environment in preparation for hosting, and following the conclusion of the Games. This initiative was most notably acted upon in 2000, when the "Green Olympics '' effort was developed by the Beijing Organizing Committee for the Beijing Olympic Games. The Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics effort to host environmentally friendly games resulted in over 160 projects meeting the goal of "green '' games through improved air quality and water quality, implementation of sustainable energy sources, improved waste management, and environmental education. These projects included industrial plant relocation or closure, furnace replacement, introduction of new emission standards, and more strict traffic control. Most of these measures were adopted on a temporary basis, and although real improvements were realized (particularly in air quality), most of these improvements had disappeared one year following the Games. Although these improvements were short lived, IOC 's inclusion of environmental policies in evaluating and selecting host cities demonstrates a corporate responsibility that may be built upon in years to come. Detailed frameworks for environmental sustainability have been released for the 2018 Winter Olympics, and 2020 Summer Olympics in PyeongChang, South Korea, and Tokyo, Japan, respectively.
The IOC has 4 major approaches to addressing environmental health concerns during the construction and competitions of the Olympic Games. First, the IOC Sustainability and Legacy Commission focuses on how the IOC can improve the strategies and policies associated with environmental health throughout the process of cities hosting the Olympic Games. Secondly, every candidate city must provide information to the IOC on environmental health issues like air quality and environmental impact assessments. Thirdly, every host city is given the option to declare "pledges '' to address specific or general environmental health concerns of hosting the Olympic Game. Fourthly, the IOC has every host city collaborate with the United Nations to work towards addressing environmental health objectives. Ultimately, the IOC uses these four major approaches in an attempt to minimize the negative environmental health concerns of a host city.
Cities hosting the Olympic Games have two primary concerns: traffic congestion and air pollution, both of which can result in compromised air quality during and after Olympic venue construction. Research at the Beijing Olympic Games identified particulate matter - measured in terms of PM10 (the amount of aerodynamic diameter of particle ≤ 10 μm in a given amount of air) - as a top priority that should be taken into consideration. The particulate matter in the air, along with other airborne pollutants, cause both serious health problems, such as asthma, and contribute to the deterioration of urban ecosystems. Black Carbon is released into the air from incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fluids contributing to global climate change and human health effects. The black carbon concentrations are highly impacted by the truck traffic due to the traffic congestion during the massive construction. Additionally, secondary pollutants like CO, NOx, SO2, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX) are also released during the venue construction, resulting in harmful effects to the environment.
Environmental magnetic methods have been established as a successful way of measuring the degree of pollution in air, water and soil. Environmental magnetism is sensitive to particle size, and has proven effective even at low detection levels. For these reasons, it is becoming more widely used.
Various air quality measures are undertaken before and after the Olympics Games. Research studies demonstrate that the primary method to reduce concentrations of air pollutants is traffic control, including barring heavy vehicles from the roads. For the Beijing Olympics, vehicles not meeting the Euro 1 emission standards were also banned from the roads, and the odd - even rule was implemented in the Beijing administrative area. Additional air quality improvement measures include replacing coal with natural gas, suspending construction and / or imposing strict dust control on construction sites, closing or relocating the polluting industrial plants, building long subway lines, using cleaner fluid in power plants, and reducing the activity by some of the polluting factories. These were several air quality improvement measures implemented by the Beijing government. There, levels of primary and secondary pollutants were reduced, and good air quality was recorded during the Beijing Olympics on most of the days.
Soil contamination can occur during the process of constructing the Olympic venues. In the case of the 2006 Winter Olympic Games in Torino, Italy, negative environmental impacts were observed, including impacts on soil. Before the Games, researchers studied four areas which the Games would likely affect: a floodplain, a highway, the motorway connecting the city to Lyon, France, and a landfill. They performed an extensive analysis in the types of chemicals found in the soils in these areas both before and after the Games. Their findings revealed an increase in the number of metals in the topsoils post-Games, and indicated that soil was capable, as part of an ecosystem, of negating, or "buffering, '' the effects of many heavy metals. However, their findings also revealed that this was not the case for all metals, and that mercury, lead, and arsenic may have been transferred into the food chain on a massive scale. One of the promises made to Londoners when they won the right to host the 2012 Olympic Games was that the Olympic Park would be a "blueprint for sustainable living. '' However, residents of the allotments of Manor Road were relocated, due to the building of the Olympic stadium, and would later disagree that the Olympics had had any positive effect on their lives. Allotments, originally, were intended to provide low - income residents with a plot of land on which to grow their own food, thus receiving the dual health benefits of a supply of fresh food and outdoor work. Many of these sites were lost as a result of the Olympic venue construction, most notably the Manor Road site. Residents were promised that the allotments would be returned, and they eventually were. However, the soil quality would never be the same. Crops tended by allotment residents were the result of years of careful cultivation, and thus, those years of care and attention were destroyed by a bulldozer. Further, allotment residents were exposed to radioactive waste for five months prior to moving, during the excavation of the site for the Games. Other local residents, construction workers, and onsite archeologists faced similar exposures and risks. In contrast, the Sydney Olympic Games of 2000 provided an opportunity to improve a highly contaminated area known as the Homebush Bay site. A study commissioned by the New South Wales Government Olympic Coordination Authority, which was responsible for the Games ' site preparation, looked at soil contamination prior to the Games. The work assessed soils that had been previously impacted by waste and identified areas that could pose a risk to the environment. Soil metal concentrations were found to be high enough to potentially contaminate groundwater. After risk areas were identified, a remediation strategy was developed. Contaminated soil was consolidated into four containment areas within the site, which left the remaining areas available for recreational use. Also, the contained waste materials no longer posed a threat to surrounding aquifers. Sydney 's winning Olympic bid provided a catalyst to undertake the "greenest '' single urban remediation ever attempted in Australia.
The Olympic Games can affect water quality in the surrounding region in several ways, including water runoff and the transfer of polluting substances from the air to water sources through rainfall. Harmful particulates come from both natural substances (such as plant matter crushed by higher volumes of pedestrian and vehicle traffic) and man - made substances (such as exhaust from vehicles or industry). Contaminants from these two categories lead to elevated amounts of toxins in street dust. Street dust then reaches water sources through runoff, facilitating the transfer of toxins to environments and communities that rely on these water sources. For example, one method of measuring the runoff contamination of water sources involves magnetism. Magnetism measurement systems allow specialists to measure the differences in mineral magnetic parameters in samples of water, air, and vegetation. Unlike traditional methods of measuring pollutants, magnetism is relatively inexpensive, and can identify smaller particle sizes. Another method used to assess the amount and effects of water pollutants is to measure the amount of PM2. 5 in rainfall. Measuring PM2. 5 (the amount of aerodynamic diameter of particle ≤ 2.5 μm in a given amount of air) is a common metric for assessing air quality. Comparing PM2. 5 levels between air and rainfall samples allows scientists to determine the amount of air pollution being transferred to water sources. Pollutants in rainfall quickly and directly affect pollution in groundwater sources. In 2013, researchers in Beijing found a significant relationship between the amount of PM2. 5 concentrations in the air and in rainfall. Studies showed that rainfall had a significant "washing '' effect on PM2. 5 in the air, transferring a large portion of these pollutants from the air to water sources. In this way, Beijing 's notorious air pollution has a direct and significant impact on rainfall, and therefore, on water resources throughout the region.
Pierre de Coubertin, founder of the IOC, was influenced by the ethos of the aristocracy as exemplified in the English public schools. The public schools subscribed to the belief that sport formed an important part of education and there was a prevailing concept of fairness in which practicing or training was considered cheating. As class structure evolved through the 20th century, the definition of the amateur athlete as an aristocratic gentleman became outdated. The advent of the state - sponsored "full - time amateur athlete '' of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self - financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full - time basis. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism.
Near the end of the 1960s, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive against the Soviet team 's full - time athletes and the other constantly improving European teams. They pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues but met opposition from the IIHF and IOC. Avery Brundage, president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972, was opposed to the idea of amateur and professional players competing together. At the IIHF Congress in 1969, the IIHF decided to allow Canada to use nine non-NHL professional hockey players at the 1970 World Championships in Montreal and Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The decision was reversed in January 1970 after Brundage said that ice hockey 's status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made. In response, Canada withdrew from international ice hockey competition and officials stated that they would not return until "open competition '' was instituted.
Beginning in the 1970s, amateurism requirements were gradually phased out of the Olympic Charter. After the 1988 Games, the IOC decided to make all professional athletes eligible for the Olympics, subject to the approval of the IFs.
The cities of Denver, Colorado, United States; Sion, Switzerland; Tampere, Finland; and Vancouver (with the Garibaldi mountains), Canada, made bids for the Games.
The games were originally awarded to Denver on 12 May 1970, but a 300 % rise in costs and worries about environmental impact led to Colorado voters ' rejection on 7 November 1972, by a 3 to 2 margin, of a $5 million bond issue to finance the games with public funds.
Denver officially withdrew on 15 November, and the IOC then offered the games to Whistler, British Columbia, Canada, but they too declined owing to a change of government following elections. Whistler would go on to be associated with neighbouring Vancouver 's successful bid for the 2010 games.
Salt Lake City, Utah, a 1972 Winter Olympics final candidate who would eventually host the 2002 Winter Olympics, offered itself as a potential host after the withdrawal of Denver. The IOC, still reeling from the Denver rejection, declined and selected Innsbruck to host the 1976 Winter Olympics, which had hosted the 1964 Winter Olympics games twelve years earlier, on 5 February 1973.
A scandal broke on 10 December 1998, when Swiss IOC member Marc Hodler, head of the coordination committee overseeing the organisation of the 2002 games, announced that several members of the IOC had taken bribes. Soon four independent investigations were underway: by the IOC, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC), the SLOC, and the United States Department of Justice.
Before any of the investigations could even get under way, both Welch and Johnson resigned their posts as the head of the SLOC. Many others soon followed. The Department of Justice filed charges against the two: fifteen charges of bribery and fraud. Johnson and Welch were eventually acquitted of all criminal charges in December 2003.
As a result of the investigation, ten members of the IOC were expelled and another ten were sanctioned. This was the first expulsion or sanction for corruption in the more than a century the IOC had existed. Although nothing strictly illegal had been done, it was felt that the acceptance of the gifts was morally dubious. Stricter rules were adopted for future bids, and caps were put into place as to how much IOC members could accept from bid cities. Additionally, new term and age limits were put into place for IOC membership, and fifteen former Olympic athletes were added to the committee.
In 2006, a report ordered by the Nagano region 's governor said the Japanese city provided millions of dollars in an "illegitimate and excessive level of hospitality '' to IOC members, including $4.4 million spent on entertainment alone. Earlier reports put the figure at approximately $14 million. The precise figures are unknown since Nagano, after the IOC asked that the entertainment expenditures not be made public, destroyed the financial records.
International groups attempted to pressure the IOC to reject Beijing 's bid in protest of the state of human rights in the People 's Republic of China. One Chinese dissident who expressed similar sentiments was arrested and sentenced to two years in prison for calling on the IOC to do just that at the same time that IOC inspectors were touring the city. Amnesty International expressed concern in 2006 regarding the Olympic Games to be held in China in 2008, likewise expressing concerns over the human rights situation. The second principle in the Fundamental Principles of Olympism, Olympic Charter states that The goal of Olympism is to place sport at the service of the harmonious development of man, with a view to promoting a peaceful society concerned with the preservation of human dignity. Amnesty International considers the policies and practices of the People 's Republic as failing to meet that principle, and urged the IOC to press China to immediately enact human rights reform.
In August 2008, the IOC issued DMCA take down notices on Tibetan Protest videos of the Beijing Olympics hosted on YouTube. YouTube and the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) both pushed back against the IOC, which then withdrew their complaint.
In 2010, the International Olympic Committee was nominated for the Public Eye Awards. This award seeks to present "shame - on - you - awards to the nastiest corporate players of the year ''.
Before the start of the 2012 Olympic Games, the IOC decided not to hold a minute of silence to honor the 11 Israeli Olympians who were killed 40 years prior in the Munich Massacre. Jacques Rogge, the then - IOC President, said it would be "inappropriate '' to do so. Speaking of the decision, Israeli Olympian Shaul Ladany, who had survived the Munich Massacre, commented: "I do not understand. I do not understand, and I do not accept it ''.
In February 2013, the IOC did not include wrestling as one of its core Olympic sports for the Summer Olympic program for the 2020 Olympics. This decision was poorly received by the sporting and wrestling community. Wrestling was still part of the program at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro. This decision was later overturned, and wrestling will be a part of the 2020 Olympic Games in Tokyo.
As planned, the alpine ski run and luge racing area of 2022 Beijing Olympic Winter Games will be built in the core area of Beijing Songshan National Reserves. A great number of valuable species such as Lonicera oblata and Cypripedium shanxiense S.C. Chen are found here and many of them can not be conserved through ex situ conservation. Many Chinese professionals of biology and environmentalists deemed that if the Olympic venues are developed in such area, the rare species and integrated ecological environment will be catastrophically collapsed. Chinese government intended to remove such area out from the range of the natural reserves and chose some other area with few rare species as the reserves. Besides, the comments regarding the strict compliance with laws and protection of Songshan National Reserves are widely deleted or restricted in China. All these actions have been criticized by some media and the professionals of biology in China.
Media attention began growing in December 2014 when German broadcaster ARD reported on state - sponsored doping in Russia, comparing it to doping in East Germany. In November 2015, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) published a report and the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) suspended Russia indefinitely from world track and field events. The United Kingdom Anti-Doping agency later assisted WADA with testing in Russia. In June 2016, they reported that they were unable to fully carry out their work and noted intimidation by armed Federal Security Service (FSB) agents. After a Russian former lab director made allegations about the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, WADA commissioned an independent investigation led by Richard McLaren. McLaren 's investigation found corroborating evidence, concluding in a report published in July 2016 that the Ministry of Sport and the FSB had operated a "state - directed failsafe system '' using a "disappearing positive (test) methodology '' (DPM) from "at least late 2011 to August 2015 ''.
In response to these findings, WADA announced that RUSADA should be regarded as non-compliant with respect to the World Anti-Doping Code and recommended that Russia be banned from competing at the 2016 Summer Olympics. The International Olympic Commission (IOC) rejected the recommendation, stating that the IOC and each sport 's international federation would make decisions on each athlete 's individual basis. One day prior to the opening ceremony, 270 athletes were cleared to compete under the Russian flag, while 167 were removed because of doping. In contrast, the entire Kuwaiti team was banned from competing under their own flag (for a non-doping related matter).
The IOC 's decision on 24 July 2016 was criticised by athletes and writers. It received support from the European Olympic Committees, which said that Russia is "a valued member ''. Cam Cole of Canada 's National Post said that the IOC had "caved, as it always does, defaulting to whatever compromise it could safely adopt without offending a superpower. '' Expressing disappointment, a member of the IOC Athletes ' Commission, Hayley Wickenheiser, wrote, "I ask myself if we were not dealing with Russia would this decision to ban a nation (have) been an easier one? I fear the answer is yes. '' Writing for Deutsche Welle in Germany, Olivia Gerstenberger said that Bach had "flunked '' his first serious test, adding, "With this decision, the credibility of the organization is shattered once more, while that of state - sponsored doping actually receives a minor boost. '' Bild (Germany) described Bach as "Putin 's poodle ''. Paul Hayward, chief sports writer of The Daily Telegraph (UK), remarked, "The white flag of capitulation flies over the International Olympic Committee. Russia 's deep political reach should have told us this would happen.
Leaders of thirteen national anti-doping organisations wrote that the IOC had "violated the athletes ' fundamental rights to participate in Games that meet the stringent requirements of the World Anti-Doping Code '' and "(demonstrated that) it lacks the independence required to keep commercial and political interests from influencing the tough decisions necessary to protect clean sport. '' WADA 's former chief investigation, Jack Robertson, said "The anti-doping code is now just suggestions to follow or not '' and that "WADA handed the IOC that excuse (not enough time before the Olympics) by sitting on the allegations for close to a year. '' McLaren was dissatisfied with the IOC 's handling of his report, saying "It was about state - sponsored doping and the mis - recording of doping results and they turned the focus into individual athletes and whether they should compete. (...) it was a complete turning upside down of what was in the report and passing over responsibility to all the different international federations. ''
In contrast to the IOC, the International Paralympic Committee voted unanimously to ban the entire Russian team from the 2016 Summer Paralympics, having found evidence that the DPM was also in operation at the 2014 Winter Paralympics.
On 5 December 2017, the IOC announced that the Russian Olympic Committee had been suspended effective immediately from the 2018 Winter Olympics. Athletes who had no previous drug violations and a consistent history of drug testing were to be allowed to compete under the Olympic Flag as an "Olympic Athlete from Russia '' (OAR). Under the terms of the decree, Russian government officials were barred from the Games, and neither the country 's flag nor anthem would be present. The Olympic Flag and Olympic Anthem will be used instead, and on 20 December 2017 the IOC proposed an alternate logo for the uniforms (seen at right). IOC President Thomas Bach said that "after following due process (the IOC) has issued proportional sanctions for this systematic manipulation while protecting the clean athletes. ''
On 1 February 2018, the Court of Arbitration for Sport partially overturned IOC 's doping suspensions. For 28 of 42 suspended athletes, their appeals were upheld, the sanctions annulled and their individual results achieved in Sochi 2014 were reinstated.
The IOC has been was harshly criticized for their handling of the Russian doping scandal. After reinstating the Russian Olympic committee following the 2018 Winter Olympics, Jim Walden, attorney for Dr. Grigory Rodchenkov, who masterminded Russia 's program, called the move "weakness in the face of evil. ''
|
where was the final match of womens cricket team held | 2017 Women 's Cricket World Cup final - wikipedia
The 2017 ICC Women 's World Cup Final was a one - day international cricket match played between England and India to decide the winner of the 2017 Women 's World Cup. England won the game by nine runs to secure their fourth World Cup title, with Anya Shrubsole named player of the match. It was one of the closest finals in tournament history, with only the 2000 final being decided by a narrower margin.
The final was played at Lord 's Cricket Ground, London, on 23 July 2017. Lord 's had been announced as the host on 8 February 2016. The game was sold out, with a near - capacity crowd of around 24,000 in attendance. The bell to signal the start of play was rung by Eileen Ash, who at 105 years old is the oldest surviving international cricketer.
England were playing in the Women 's World Cup Final for the fifth time, a mark surpassed only by Australia. However, in the preceding five tournaments (1997 -- 2013), England had made the final just once, defeating New Zealand in the 2009 final to claim their third World Cup title. India on the other hand was playing in the World Cup Final, only for the second time in their history. The first had been a loss to Australia in 2005.
The group stage of the 2017 World Cup consisted of a simple round - robin, with each of the eight teams playing each other once and the top four teams progressing to the semi-finals. In the opening match of the tournament, India unexpectedly defeated England by 35 runs. However, England went on to win all six of their remaining group - stage games, finishing top of the table -- with the same number of points as Australia but a superior net run rate. India finished third in the group stage, after losses to South Africa (by 115 runs) and Australia (by eight wickets).
In the first semi-final, played on 18 July at Bristol County Ground, England defeated South Africa by two wickets. South Africa batted first, posting a score of 218 / 6 from their 50 overs. Towards the end of their innings, England required three runs from the final over to win, with Anya Shrubsole hitting the winning runs off Shabnim Ismail with just two balls to spare.
The second semi-final, played at The County Ground, Derby, was reduced to 42 overs per side due to rain. India posted a score of 281 / 4, with Harmanpreet Kaur scoring 171 (not out) from 115 balls, including seven sixes. This was the highest individual score in the knockout stages of a World Cup, and was widely heralded as one of the greatest ever World Cup innings. In response, Australia was bowled out for 245, leaving India the victors by 36 runs.
Each team had 15 players in its tournament squad, 11 of whom played in the final. Both teams selected the same line - up for the final as they used in their semi-finals. Only five selected players had previously played in a World Cup final -- Mithali Raj and Jhulan Goswami for India, and Katherine Brunt, Laura Marsh, and Sarah Taylor for England.
England 's captain Heather Knight won the toss and elected to bat. Their openers, Lauren Winfield (24 runs) and Tammy Beaumont (23), made steady progress, putting on 47 runs before Winfield was bowled by Rajeshwari Gayakwad. Beaumont was out three overs later, caught in the deep off the bowling of Poonam Yadav. This brought Heather Knight (1) to the crease, but she lasted just seven balls before also being dismissed by Yadav, leg before wicket (lbw; via DRS). Sarah Taylor (45) and Natalie Sciver (51) steadied the ship somewhat, putting on 83 runs for the fourth wicket whilst light rain fell. With the score at 146, Taylor was caught behind from the bowling of Jhulan Goswami. Goswami then had Fran Wilson out next ball, for a golden duck. Sciver also fell to Goswami a few overs later, unsuccessfully challenging an lbw decision. Katherine Brunt (34) and Jenny Gunn (25 not out) put on 32 runs for the seventh wicket before Brunt was run out by Goswami with a direct hit. Gunn continued on with Laura Marsh (14 not out) for the last four overs, with England finishing on 228 / 7 from their 50 overs. Jhulan Goswami was the pick of the Indian bowlers, finished with 3 / 23.
India lost a wicket in their second over, with Smriti Mandhana bowled by Anya Shrubsole for a duck. Poonam Raut (86 runs) and Mithali Raj (17) then put on 38 runs before Raj was run out by Natalie Sciver. Raut and Harmanpreet Kaur (51) compiled a 95 - run fourth - wicket partnership, lasting just over 20 overs, before Kaur was caught in the deep off the bowling of Alex Hartley. Raut then combined with Veda Krishnamurthy (35) for an additional 53 runs. Raut 's dismissal with the score at 191 prompted a batting collapse, with India losing their final seven wickets for just 28 runs. As the match reached its climax, India required 11 runs from the last two overs, but instead lost their last two wickets in the first four balls of the 49th over, bowled by Anya Shrubsole. Shrubsole -- the player of the match -- finished with 6 / 46 from 9.4 overs, the best bowling figures in any World Cup final.
|
factors that are necessary for extracellular matrix formation | Extracellular matrix - wikipedia
In biology, the extracellular matrix (ECM) is a collection of extracellular molecules secreted by support cells that provides structural and biochemical support to the surrounding cells. Because multicellularity evolved independently in different multicellular lineages, the composition of ECM varies between multicellular structures; however, cell adhesion, cell - to - cell communication and differentiation are common functions of the ECM.
The animal extracellular matrix includes the interstitial matrix and the basement membrane. Interstitial matrix is present between various animal cells (i.e., in the intercellular spaces). Gels of polysaccharides and fibrous proteins fill the interstitial space and act as a compression buffer against the stress placed on the ECM. Basement membranes are sheet - like depositions of ECM on which various epithelial cells rest. Each type of connective tissue in animals has a type of ECM: collagen fibers and bone mineral comprise the ECM of bone tissue; reticular fibers and ground substance comprise the ECM of loose connective tissue; and blood plasma is the ECM of blood.
The plant ECM includes cell wall components, like cellulose, in addition to more complex signaling molecules. Some single - celled organisms adopt multicellular biofilms in which the cells are embedded in an ECM composed primarily of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS).
Components of the ECM are produced intracellularly by resident cells and secreted into the ECM via exocytosis. Once secreted, they then aggregate with the existing matrix. The ECM is composed of an interlocking mesh of fibrous proteins and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs).
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are carbohydrate polymers and mostly attached to extracellular matrix proteins to form proteoglycans (hyaluronic acid is a notable exception, see below). Proteoglycans have a net negative charge that attracts positively charged sodium ions (Na), which attracts water molecules via osmosis, keeping the ECM and resident cells hydrated. Proteoglycans may also help to trap and store growth factors within the ECM.
Described below are the different types of proteoglycan found within the extracellular matrix.
Heparan sulfate (HS) is a linear polysaccharide found in all animal tissues. It occurs as a proteoglycan (PG) in which two or three HS chains are attached in close proximity to cell surface or ECM proteins. It is in this form that HS binds to a variety of protein ligands and regulates a wide variety of biological activities, including developmental processes, angiogenesis, blood coagulation, and tumour metastasis.
In the extracellular matrix, especially basement membranes, the multi-domain proteins perlecan, agrin, and collagen XVIII are the main proteins to which heparan sulfate is attached.
Chondroitin sulfates contribute to the tensile strength of cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and walls of the aorta. They have also been known to affect neuroplasticity.
Keratan sulfates have a variable sulfate content and, unlike many other GAGs, do not contain uronic acid. They are present in the cornea, cartilage, bones, and the horns of animals.
Hyaluronic acid (or "hyaluronan '') is a polysaccharide consisting of alternating residues of D - glucuronic acid and N - acetylglucosamine, and unlike other GAGs, is not found as a proteoglycan. Hyaluronic acid in the extracellular space confers upon tissues the ability to resist compression by providing a counteracting turgor (swelling) force by absorbing significant amounts of water. Hyaluronic acid is thus found in abundance in the ECM of load - bearing joints. It is also a chief component of the interstitial gel. Hyaluronic acid is found on the inner surface of the cell membrane and is translocated out of the cell during biosynthesis.
Hyaluronic acid acts as an environmental cue that regulates cell behavior during embryonic development, healing processes, inflammation, and tumor development. It interacts with a specific transmembrane receptor, CD44.
Collagens are the most abundant protein in the ECM. In fact, collagen is the most abundant protein in the human body and accounts for 90 % of bone matrix protein content. Collagens are present in the ECM as fibrillar proteins and give structural support to resident cells. Collagen is exocytosed in precursor form (procollagen), which is then cleaved by procollagen proteases to allow extracellular assembly. Disorders such as Ehlers Danlos Syndrome, osteogenesis imperfecta, and epidermolysis bullosa are linked with genetic defects in collagen - encoding genes. The collagen can be divided into several families according to the types of structure they form:
Elastins, in contrast to collagens, give elasticity to tissues, allowing them to stretch when needed and then return to their original state. This is useful in blood vessels, the lungs, in skin, and the ligamentum nuchae, and these tissues contain high amounts of elastins. Elastins are synthesized by fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells. Elastins are highly insoluble, and tropoelastins are secreted inside a chaperone molecule, which releases the precursor molecule upon contact with a fiber of mature elastin. Tropoelastins are then deaminated to become incorporated into the elastin strand. Disorders such as cutis laxa and Williams syndrome are associated with deficient or absent elastin fibers in the ECM.
In 2016, Huleihel et al., reported the presence of DNA, RNA, and Matrix - bound nanovesicles (MBVs) within ECM bioscaffolds. MBVs shape and size were found to be consistent with previously described exosomes. MBVs cargo includes different protein molecules, lipids, DNA, fragments, and miRNAs. Similar to ECM bioscaffolds, MBVs can modify the activation state of macrophages and alter different cellular properties such as; proliferation, migration and cell cycle. MBVs are now believed to be an integral and functional key component of ECM bioscaffolds.
Fibronectins are glycoproteins that connect cells with collagen fibers in the ECM, allowing cells to move through the ECM. Fibronectins bind collagen and cell - surface integrins, causing a reorganization of the cell 's cytoskeleton to facilitate cell movement. Fibronectins are secreted by cells in an unfolded, inactive form. Binding to integrins unfolds fibronectin molecules, allowing them to form dimers so that they can function properly. Fibronectins also help at the site of tissue injury by binding to platelets during blood clotting and facilitating cell movement to the affected area during wound healing.
Laminins are proteins found in the basal laminae of virtually all animals. Rather than forming collagen - like fibers, laminins form networks of web - like structures that resist tensile forces in the basal lamina. They also assist in cell adhesion. Laminins bind other ECM components such as collagens and nidogens.
There are many cell types that contribute to the development of the various types of extracellular matrix found in plethora of tissue types. The local components of ECM determine the properties of the connective tissue.
Fibroblasts are the most common cell type in connective tissue ECM, in which they synthesize, maintain, and provide a structural framework; fibroblasts secrete the precursor components of the ECM, including the ground substance. Chondrocytes are found in cartilage and produce the cartilagenous matrix. Osteoblasts are responsible for bone formation.
The ECM can exist in varying degrees of stiffness and elasticity, from soft brain tissues to hard bone tissues. The elasticity of the ECM can differ by several orders of magnitude. This property is primarily dependent on collagen and elastin concentration, and it has recently been shown to play an influential role in regulating numerous cell functions.
Cells can sense the mechanical properties of their environment by applying forces and measuring the resulting backlash. This plays an important role because it helps regulate many important cellular processes including cellular contraction, cell migration, cell proliferation, differentiation and cell death (apoptosis). Inhibition of nonmuscle myosin II blocks most of these effects, indicating that they are indeed tied to sensing the mechanical properties of the ECM, which has become a new focus in research during the past decade.
Differing mechanical properties in ECM exert effects on both cell behaviour and gene expression. Although the mechanism by which this is done has not been thoroughly explained, adhesion complexes and the actin - myosin cytoskeleton, whose contractile forces are transmitted through transcellular structures are thought to play key roles in the yet to be discovered molecular pathways.
ECM elasticity can direct cellular differentiation, the process by which a cell changes from one cell type to another. In particular, naive mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been shown to specify lineage and commit to phenotypes with extreme sensitivity to tissue - level elasticity. MSCs placed on soft matrices that mimic brain differentiate into neuron - like cells, showing similar shape, RNAi profiles, cytoskeletal markers, and transcription factor levels. Similarly stiffer matrices that mimic muscle are myogenic, and matrices with stiffnesses that mimic collagenous bone are osteogenic.
Stiffness and elasticity also guide cell migration, this process is called durotaxis. The term was coined by Lo CM and colleagues when they discovered the tendency of single cells to migrate up rigidity gradients (towards more stiff substrates) and has been extensively studied since. The molecular mechanisms behind durotaxis are thought to exist primarily in the focal adhesion, a large protein complex that acts as the primary site of contact between the cell and the ECM. This complex contains many proteins that are essential to durotaxis including structural anchoring proteins (integrins) and signaling proteins (adhesion kinase (FAK), talin, vinculin, paxillin, α - actinin, GTPases etc.) which cause changes in cell shape and actomyosin contractility. These changes are thought to cause cytoskeletal rearrangements in order to facilitate directional migration.
Due to its diverse nature and composition, the ECM can serve many functions, such as providing support, segregating tissues from one another, and regulating intercellular communication. The extracellular matrix regulates a cell 's dynamic behavior. In addition, it sequesters a wide range of cellular growth factors and acts as a local store for them. Changes in physiological conditions can trigger protease activities that cause local release of such stores. This allows the rapid and local growth factor - mediated activation of cellular functions without de novo synthesis.
Formation of the extracellular matrix is essential for processes like growth, wound healing, and fibrosis. An understanding of ECM structure and composition also helps in comprehending the complex dynamics of tumor invasion and metastasis in cancer biology as metastasis often involves the destruction of extracellular matrix by enzymes such as serine proteases, threonine proteases, and matrix metalloproteinases.
The stiffness and elasticity of the ECM has important implications in cell migration, gene expression, and differentiation. Cells actively sense ECM rigidity and migrate preferentially towards stiffer surfaces in a phenomenon called durotaxis. They also detect elasticity and adjust their gene expression accordingly which has increasingly become a subject of research because of its impact on differentiation and cancer progression.
Many cells bind to components of the extracellular matrix. Cell adhesion can occur in two ways; by focal adhesions, connecting the ECM to actin filaments of the cell, and hemidesmosomes, connecting the ECM to intermediate filaments such as keratin. This cell - to - ECM adhesion is regulated by specific cell - surface cellular adhesion molecules (CAM) known as integrins. Integrins are cell - surface proteins that bind cells to ECM structures, such as fibronectin and laminin, and also to integrin proteins on the surface of other cells.
Fibronectins bind to ECM macromolecules and facilitate their binding to transmembrane integrins. The attachment of fibronectin to the extracellular domain initiates intracellular signalling pathways as well as association with the cellular cytoskeleton via a set of adaptor molecules such as actin.
Extracellular matrix has been found to cause regrowth and healing of tissue. Although the mechanism of action by which extracellular matrix promotes constructive remodeling of tissue is still unknown, researchers now believe that Matrix - bound nanovesicles (MBVs) are a key player in the healing process. In human fetuses, for example, the extracellular matrix works with stem cells to grow and regrow all parts of the human body, and fetuses can regrow anything that gets damaged in the womb. Scientists have long believed that the matrix stops functioning after full development. It has been used in the past to help horses heal torn ligaments, but it is being researched further as a device for tissue regeneration in humans.
In terms of injury repair and tissue engineering, the extracellular matrix serves two main purposes. First, it prevents the immune system from triggering from the injury and responding with inflammation and scar tissue. Next, it facilitates the surrounding cells to repair the tissue instead of forming scar tissue.
For medical applications, the ECM required is usually extracted from pig bladders, an easily accessible and relatively unused source. It is currently being used regularly to treat ulcers by closing the hole in the tissue that lines the stomach, but further research is currently being done by many universities as well as the U.S. Government for wounded soldier applications. As of early 2007, testing was being carried out on a military base in Texas. Scientists are using a powdered form on Iraq War veterans whose hands were damaged in the war.
Not all ECM devices come from the bladder. Extracellular matrix coming from pig small intestine submucosa are being used to repair "atrial septal defects '' (ASD), "patent foramen ovale '' (PFO) and inguinal hernia. After one year 95 % of the collagen ECM in these patches is replaced by the normal soft tissue of the heart.
Extracellular matrix proteins are commonly used in cell culture systems to maintain stem and precursor cells in an undifferentiated state during cell culture and function to induce differentiation of epithelial, endothelial and smooth muscle cells in vitro. Extracellular matrix proteins can also be used to support 3D cell culture in vitro for modelling tumor development.
A class of biomaterials derived from processing human or animal tissues to retain portions of the extracellular matrix are called ECM Biomaterial.
Plant cells are tessellated to form tissues. The cell wall is the relatively rigid structure surrounding the plant cell. The cell wall provides lateral strength to resist osmotic turgor pressure, but it is flexible enough to allow cell growth when needed; it also serves as a medium for intercellular communication. The cell wall comprises multiple laminate layers of cellulose microfibrils embedded in a matrix of glycoproteins, including hemicellulose, pectin, and extensin. The components of the glycoprotein matrix help cell walls of adjacent plant cells to bind to each other. The selective permeability of the cell wall is chiefly governed by pectins in the glycoprotein matrix. Plasmodesmata (singular: plasmodesma) are pores that traverse the cell walls of adjacent plant cells. These channels are tightly regulated and selectively allow molecules of specific sizes to pass between cells.
The extracellular matrix functionality of animals / metazoa developed in the common ancestor of the pluriformea and filozoa, after the Ichthyosporea diverged.
The importance of the extracellular matrix has long been recognized (Lewis, 1922), but the usage of the term is more recent (Gospodarowicz et al., 1979).
|
how many managers have won the premier league in their first season | List of English football championship - winning managers - wikipedia
This is a list of English football championship - winning managers.
Bold: Manager is still active.
|
who hit the most 3 pointers in a nba game | NBA Regular season records - wikipedia
This article lists all - time records achieved in the NBA regular season in major statistical categories recognized by the league, including those set by teams and individuals in a game, season, and career. The NBA also recognizes records from its original incarnation, the Basketball Association of America (BAA).
In 2006, the NBA introduced age requirement restrictions. Prospective high school players must wait a year before entering the NBA, making age - related records harder to break.
Note: Other than the longest game and disqualifications in a game, all records in this section are since the 24 - second shot clock was instituted for 1954 -- 55 season onward.
* This award has only been given since the 1968 -- 69 season. * * This award has only been given since the 1982 -- 83 season.
|
who wrote mary had a little lamb song | Mary had a Little lamb - wikipedia
"Mary Had a Little Lamb '' is an English language nursery rhyme of the early nineteenth - century American origin. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 7622.
The nursery rhyme was first published by the Boston publishing firm Marsh, Capen & Lyon, as a poem by Sarah Josepha Hale on May 24, 1830, and was possibly inspired by an actual incident.
There are competing theories on the origin and inspiration of this poem. One holds that John Roulstone wrote the first four lines and that the final twelve lines, less childlike than the first, were composed by Sarah Josepha Hale; others claim that Hale was responsible for the entire poem.
As a young girl, Mary Sawyer (later Mary Tyler) kept a pet lamb that she took to school one day at the suggestion of her brother. A commotion naturally ensued. Mary recalled: "Visiting school that morning was a young man by the name of John Roulstone, a nephew of the Reverend Lemuel Capen, who was then settled in Sterling. It was the custom then for students to prepare for college with ministers, and for this purpose Roulstone was studying with his uncle. The young man was very much pleased with the incident of the lamb; and the next day he rode across the fields on horseback to the little old schoolhouse and handed me a slip of paper which had written upon it the three original stanzas of the poem... ''
Mary Sawyer 's house, located in Sterling, Massachusetts, was destroyed by arson on August 12, 2007. A statue representing Mary 's Little Lamb stands in the town center. The Redstone School, which was built in 1798, was purchased by Henry Ford and relocated to a churchyard on the property of Longfellow 's Wayside Inn in Sudbury, Massachusetts.
In the 1830s, Lowell Mason set the nursery rhyme to a melody adding repetition in the verses, starting with "Mary had a little lamb, little lamb, little lamb, Mary had a little lamb whose fleece was white as snow.
The rhyme was the first audio recorded by Thomas Edison on his newly invented phonograph in 1877. It was the first instance of recorded verse. In 1927, Edison reenacted the recording, which still survives. The earliest recording (1878) was retrieved by 3D imaging equipment in 2012.
Blues musicians Buddy Guy and Stevie Ray Vaughan both recorded the song: Guy composing his own bluesy version of the song for his album A Man and the Blues in 1968 and Vaughan covering Guy 's version in his 1983 debut album, Texas Flood, with both also infusing the first four lines of the nursery rhyme, "A-Tisket, A-Tasket '', into the song. In 1972, Paul McCartney released a version of the song. Just as he had done with the 16th - century poem Golden Slumbers which was released on The Beatles ' Abbey Road LP in 1969, he added his own melody to the lyrics. The single was a top 20 hit in Britain although both the choice for and the saccharine arrangement of "Mary Had a Little Lamb '' did much to erode his standing with leading rock journalists. McCartney played the song during Wings ' 1972 summer tour and it was included in the Spring 1973 James Paul McCartney television special. It is commercially available on the 1993 CD issue of the Wings Wild Life LP.
Note: This melody is the British version, which is slightly different from the American version.
|
who was the troll in shut up and dance | Shut up and Dance (Black Mirror) - wikipedia
"Shut Up and Dance '' is the third episode of the third series of British science fiction anthology series Black Mirror. It was written by series creator and showrunner Charlie Brooker and William Bridges, and premiered on Netflix on 21 October 2016, together with the rest of series three.
The episode tells the story of a teenage boy (Alex Lawther) who is blackmailed into committing bizarre and criminal acts by a mysterious hacker possessing a video of him masturbating. The boy is joined by a middle - aged man (Jerome Flynn), whom the same hacker is blackmailing over infidelity.
The episode received mixed reviews, with the twist ending polarising critical opinion, and some reviewers finding the episode too dark. "Shut Up and Dance '' places poorly in critics ' rankings of Black Mirror episodes by quality, though both Lawther and Flynn 's performances were well received. The episode is thematically similar to "White Bear '', a previous episode of the show.
Teenager Kenny (Alex Lawther) returns home from his restaurant job to find that his younger sister Lindsay has unintentionally infected his laptop with malware; Kenny downloads a purported anti-malware tool called Shrive which actually allows an unseen hacker to use the laptop 's camera to record him masturbating. The hacker emails Kenny, threatening to send the video to everyone in his contact list unless he follows a series of instructions.
The next day at work, Kenny receives a text directing him to a location 15 miles away, with only 45 minutes to get there; he feigns illness to his boss and frantically cycles to the coordinates. There he is met by a man on a scooter, also acting on instructions from the hacker, who gives Kenny a box with a cake inside. Kenny is instructed to deliver the cake to a hotel room, where he finds Hector (Jerome Flynn). Hector then receives blackmail messages of his own: he was about to cheat on his wife with a prostitute, and follows the instructions out of fear he will lose custody of his children.
Kenny and Hector are instructed to drive to a location outside the city. However, when they stop for petrol, Hector 's wife 's friend Karen (Natasha Little) asks Hector for a lift home, for which they must drive recklessly without explanation, before continuing to their destination. There they are told to use a gun concealed in the cake to rob a bank. Hector insists on being the driver, leaving Kenny to perform the robbery. Though Kenny urinates out of nervousness during the robbery, he manages to get a bag full of cash and flee the scene with Hector.
Hector is instructed to destroy the car, while Kenny carries the money to a drop - off point in a nearby wood. There he meets another blackmail victim (Paul Bazely), who explains they are to fight to the death while the blackmailer observes through a camera - equipped drone; the money goes to the winner. Kenny tearfully protests that he merely looked at some pictures. The man asks whether, like him, it was child pornography; Kenny, now an emotional wreck, says nothing. Kenny brandishes the gun, then attempts suicide, but finds the gun is not loaded. The two then approach each other to fight as the drone camera continues its transmission.
Meanwhile, Hector returns home to his family, but finds the hackers have already sent his wife the evidence of his infidelity. The other blackmail victims have also had their information released, despite having complied with instructions; they each receive a trollface image from the blackmailer.
Bloody from the fight, Kenny staggers from the woodland with the money. He receives a call from his mother hysterically crying that Kenny 's sister saw the video, and that "they 're saying it 's kids! That you 've been looking at kids! '' He ends the call as the police arrive, offering feeble resistance as they apprehend him.
Whilst series one and two of Black Mirror were shown on Channel 4 in the UK, in September 2015 Netflix commissioned the series for 12 episodes (split into two series of six episodes), and in March 2016 it outbid Channel 4 for the rights to distributing the third series, with a bid of $40 million. Due to its move to Netflix, the show had a larger budget than in previous series. "Shut Up and Dance '' is the third episode of the third series; all six episodes in this series were released on Netflix simultaneously on 21 October 2016. Two days prior to the release of series 3 on Netflix, Den of Geek! published an interview in which Brooker hinted that the episode is "a grimy, contemporary nightmare? (...) Set in absolutely present - day London. It 's not sci - fi at all. '' Brooker states in one interview that the absence of science fiction elements from the episode is a "very conscious thing '', noting that prior episodes "The National Anthem '' and "The Waldo Moment '' also "touch base with the real world ''. In another interview, he says of that episode that "in the same way that one of the things that led to doing "San Junipero '' was me thinking, Can I do a story set in the past? -- that was where that idea kind of sprang from -- we thought, Can we do a story just set today? '' Brooker noted that the story went through many different iterations and some did not include the suggestion that Kenny was (or may have been) looking at child pornography when the blackmailers filmed him. He revealed that in one version of the story, there was no reason why the events were happening, and in another the roles were reversed, with Jerome Flynn 's character having the extremely dark secret.
The episode was filmed over a three week period. Alex Lawther plays the main character Kenny; Lawther was a "huge fan '' of the series prior to auditioning, and particularly liked the previous episode "White Bear ''. When first auditioning, Lawther had only seen the script for a couple of scenes and was unaware of the twist ending. Lawther first met co-star Jerome Flynn, who plays Hector, during the shooting. Whilst shooting, Lawther notes that "there was a news story in the real world about something very similar '' to the episode, which he describes as "a very surreal thing. '' Director James Watkins was previously known for The Woman in Black and Eden Lake, which Lawther says made Watkins "really (learn) the craft of sustaining incredible suspense over long periods of time. ''
On the topic of reception to the episode, Brooker comments that "no one can agree on what is their favourite episode '', claiming that "Oh my God, it 's absolutely chilling '' and "It 's about nothing, it 's boring '' are both things people say about "Shut Up and Dance ''.
This episode is considered the best of series 3 in a ranking by The Independent; Christopher Hooton writes that "the pacing is breakneck and it 's impossible to take your eyes off the screen. '' Hooton says "it 's what initially seems a gripe with the episode that ends up flooring you '' when the twist ending "leaves you feeling as though all your entrails just dropped out ''. Paul Tassi of Forbes believes the episode to be second best of the series, as it "does not carry an overt message like so many of these other episodes '' but has "one of the best twists in the entire season '', and "even if the rest of the episode is merely good, the ending elevates it to great. ''
Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter praised Alex Lawther 's performance in the episode, calling it "one of the best things of 2016 ''; Goodman says the episode "unapologetically -- and frantically -- punches you right in the face, proving how nimble Brooker is at storytelling. '' Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph rated the episode 5 out of 5, describing it as "soul - scorching (and) relentlessly riveting ''. Collin says that director James Watkins "outdoes himself here, immediately establishing a mood of barely suppressed panic, then tightening every screw and ratchet at his disposal '', and notes that the episode is "the most nihilistic episode of Black Mirror so far. '' Matt Fowler of IGN similarly praised the episode, saying that it may leave the viewer "utterly shaken '', and that it was a "remarkably heart - pounding episode ''. In the Daily Mirror, Suchandrika Chakrabarti gave the episode 5 out of 5 stars, summarising that the episode is "very simple, but incredibly effective '' and "the least - technical episode of Black Mirror on Netflix, but among the very scariest ''.
Pat Stacey of Irish Independent gives the episode four stars out of five, commenting that the episode is the first in series 3 to be set in England and "feels most like the old Black Mirror ''. Stacey summarises that it is a "fantastically tense, blackly funny tale with a shock, rug - pulling ending that packs a terrific wallop. '' An article in TheWrap ranks the episode sixth best of the first 13, with the authors saying "it 's brilliantly plotted '' and "no episode of "Black Mirror '' will leave you feeling worse about humanity than this one. '' Another review in which the episode is sixth of the 13 in the first three series is Corey Atad 's, for Esquire; Atad opines that it is "the most purely disturbing episode '' and that "as with many of the most disturbing stories, the fact that they touch such a nerve speaks their human insight. '' Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B+ rating, complimenting Black Mirror 's "willingness to force moral questions that make everyone feel awful '', and saying that the episode was "never boring, but (...) not all that engaging, either ''.
Josh Dzieza of The Verge gave the episode a mixed review, criticising the twist ending as a "letdown ''. Dzieza comments that the episode is "a clammy hour of sustained anxiety '' which "does a fine job driving home hacking 's humiliating invasiveness '', but says the twist reveals that "the episode is more interested in turning gadgets into weapons of maximum humiliation than in saying anything more interesting about how digital humiliation works ''. Dzieza writes of the aesthetics that "the episode takes place in a series of cramped spaces shot with a cool tint '' and of the actors that Lawther has an aura of "adolescent desperation '' while Flynn "switches between gruffness and utilitarian friendliness ''. Alex Mullane of Digital Spy gives "Shut Up and Dance '' a mixed review, writing that it is a "progressively and particularly nasty hour of television ''. Mullane praises that Lawther is "superb in the main role '' and Flynn is "suitably sleazy, without ever being a caricature ''. However, Mullane critiques that the episode "feels a bit thin '' as it does not have "much to say '' and is simply "a story in which bad people do bad things and then get punished for it '', though Mullane concedes that "the closing sequence as the trollfaces come through to the various sinners is fantastic. '' Adam Chitwood of Collider stated that although it was n't a "bad episode '', it was a "frustratingly tense one (...) (and) a bit too long and has one of the darkest throughlines of the season ''.
In a largely negative review, Sophie Gilbert of The Atlantic described the episode as "something of a redux '' of "White Bear '' due to structural similarities. Criticising the episode as "too much of an endurance test, with no clear message or moment of redemption to take away from it '', Gilbert infers that "the question for viewers at the end is, can we still sympathize with him? Should we? '' Gilbert also notes a similarity to "Paedogeddon '', a Brass Eye episode co-written by Brooker, as both are "a condemnation of those who refuse to empathize with people who have terrible impulses, or who 've done terrible things. '' Charles Bramesco of Vulture ranks the episode tenth among the first 13 episodes, calling it a "spiritual sequel '' to "White Bear '' which is "all but identical ''. Bramesco lambasts the episode as "one sick, distasteful joke '' filled with "sheer unpleasantness in want of a greater statement ''. Mat Elfring of GameSpot writes that "it follows the same formula as another episode '' in an article which puts the episode as 10th best in the first 13 of the series.
Aubrey Page of Collider rates the episode 11th best of the first 13, commenting that "never before has Black Mirror delivered such a compelling, masterfully handled introduction only to toss it all away with a few final moments '' and writing that the ending causes the episode to become "one of the series ' least plausible yet. '' Morgan Jeffery of Digital Spy also ranks the episode 11 of 13, with the justification that there are "issues with how far we 're expected to sympathise along the way, adding up to a general whiff of nastiness as the dust settles. '' The episode is at position 12 of 13 in Entertainment Weekly 's ranking of the first three series by James Hibberd, with the comment that "this nihilistic hour is perhaps a victim of its own anguished mood. ''
|
alexei sayle ullo john gotta new motor lyrics | Ullo John! Gotta new motor? - Wikipedia
"' Ullo John! Gotta New Motor? '' is a song written by the comedian Alexei Sayle, originally released as a single in the UK in 1982. The single eventually achieved UK Top Twenty success in 1984, following a reissue.
The song and its title have subsequently been adapted and reused in a number of different cultural contexts.
The song is predominantly a rap comprising a mix of banal, absurd and generally unconnected sentences (including the song 's title), each sentence being delivered twice in succession. Occasionally, a succeeding line provides the punch line to the preceding one. These rap passages are occasionally interrupted by short comic monologues or the consecutive repetition of the song 's title for an extended period.
The UK single features four versions of the song spread across the 7 - and 12 - inch formats, and designated "Part I '' through "Part IV ''. All versions feature the same pop / funk musical backdrop, but lyrically the versions are distinct from each other.
All versions of the song feature Cockney phrasing and slang, often heavily stylised for comic effect. Hence, in the song 's title, "' ullo '' is "hullo '' with a dropped - H, "John '' is a colloquial placeholder name (comparable to "mate ''), and "motor '' is shortened slang for "motor car ''.
Several London placenames are mentioned in the song, including Peckham, Bermondsey and Stanmore. Originally released in 1982, the song references several then topical themes, such as the ongoing construction of the Thames Barrier.
Recurrent among these themes is the Ford Motor Company 's announced decision to replace the long - running Ford Cortina brand with the new Ford Sierra by September 1982. The song asserts the "poetry '' of the Cortina, and the superior sound of the name "Cortina '' to "Sierra '', with varying degrees of vigour, during "Part II '' to "Part IV '' of the song.
This lyrical theme was reflected in the marketing of the single: the single 's front cover features Sayle leaning against a Ford Cortina Mark V, the rear cover features a reproduction of a Ford press release for the 1973 Cortina 2000E model, and the 1983 reissue included a picture disc format featuring Sayle reclining on the bonnet of a Cortina Mark III.
"Part IV '' of the song, included on the UK 12 - inch, differs significantly from the other three versions lyrically, featuring a sustained onslaught of high - speed profanity and faux - coprolalia, which was adapted from the "Mr. Sweary '' routine then current in Sayle 's live stand - up act. "Part IV '' also contains profane variations and parodies of some of the lyrics and monologues featured in the other versions of the song.
Largely as a consequence of "Part IV '', the reissued 12 - inch sleeve was labelled with a warning sticker that read: "This record contains explicit language -- Abusive, lewd and funny -- Expletives not deleted ''.
The single was not a hit upon original release, but it received a reissue from Island Records in late 1983, by which time Sayle had appeared in Gorky Park and several TV shows, including the first series of the BBC sitcom The Young Ones, and the ITV sitcom Whoops Apocalypse.
The re-issued single eventually reached number 15 in the UK Singles Chart on 24 March 1984.
The song and its title have been adapted and reused numerous times in a variety of contexts.
Around the time of the single 's initial release (1982) BBC2 Arena had made a programme detailing the cultural influence of the Ford Cortina and its recently announced demise; "The Private Life of the Ford Cortina '' in which Sayle (the presenter) talks through the influence of the car on the post war working classes and also features villain John McVicar (who appears on the cover artwork alongside Sayle) discussing Britain 's most stolen car of the period.
In 1985, Toshiba ran a TV advertising campaign that featured the song with altered lyrics -- "' Ello Tosh! Gotta Toshiba? '' -- performed by Ian Dury.
Upon an obscenity trial over their song "Bata Motel '', the anarchist punk band Crass presented the b - side to this song as an example that there were much more obscene records out there than "Bata Motel ''. While it was being played, much of the court responded with uproarious laughter. This outraged the magistrates, who threatened anyone who laughed with a charge for contempt of court. This resulted in members of the band reportedly biting their lips so hard that they bled, so as to prevent themselves from laughing.
The # 18 UK single Has it Come To This from the ground - breaking UK Hip - Hop / Rap album Original Pirate Material appears to reference the song in the lyric "Bravery in the face of defeat All line up and grab yer seat - Cos Tony 's got a new motor - SR Nova driving like a joyrider - Speeding to the corner - Yer mother warned it 'll be a sound system banger ''
In 2005, the song was revived for a new Toshiba campaign featuring vocalist Suggs, Toshiba 's advertising agency claiming that "the ' ello Tosh tagline has gone down in advertising history, demonstrated by the fact people still remember it today ''.
The song 's title was adapted by the British tabloid newspaper The Sun to provide headlines at least twice during 2009: "' Ello Rosie, got ta new motor? '' (article relating to a soap opera storyline); and "' Ello Ron, got ta new motor? '' (news of Cristiano Ronaldo 's car accident).
Sayle himself has commented on the longevity of the song 's title, in his column for The Independent: "There is seldom a magazine or newspaper article even loosely connected with cars or the transport industry in general that does n't use some variation of that title. Only last week there was a piece in the London Evening Standard about powerful in - car stereos entitled, ' Ullo Jon, Gotta New Woofer? ' In fact sometimes the articles do n't even have anything to do with cars. ''
Looking back on the single itself almost twenty years after its release, Sayle has also stated: "It is a really good song! Original, tuneful and the only Top 20 record to mention tropical fish and Peckham. ''
Upon release of the single, Sayle performed the song live on the TV series O.T.T., broadcast 27 February 1982, using a musical backing track that differed from the released single.
Sayle also performed the song on the live comedy album, Cak!, released later in 1982. This album also contained "Say Hello Mr. Sweary '', an example of the routine that provided the lyrical concept for "Part IV '' of "' Ullo John! Gotta New Motor? ''.
Sayle performed the song, with different lyrics ("out here it 's really breezy coz I 'm riding free and easy / I got a brand new Morrison, a brand new 10 - speed Morrison '') on a TV commercial in New Zealand for Morrison bicycles.
All tracks written by Alexei Sayle except "Pop Up Toasters '' by Sayle / Harry Bogdanovs. All tracks produced by Clive Langer and Alan Winstanley except "Pop Up Toasters '' produced by Martin Lewis.
|
when does wonder come out in the movies | Wonder (film) - wikipedia
Wonder is an upcoming American family comedy - drama film directed by Stephen Chbosky and written by Steve Conrad based on the 2012 novel of the same name by R.J. Palacio. The film stars Julia Roberts and Owen Wilson as the parents of a young boy, portrayed by Jacob Tremblay, who struggles to overcome a congenital facial deformity (in the book, the condition resembles Treacher Collins syndrome), The film will be released on November 17, 2017, in the United States by Lionsgate.
August "Auggie '' Pullman (Jacob Tremblay) is a young boy born with a facial deformity who has been in and out of hospitals for years. With the help of his mother, Isabel (Julia Roberts), and his father, Nate (Owen Wilson), he tries to fit in at a new school, Beecher Prep, and to show everyone he is just an ordinary kid and that beauty is not just on the outside.
On November 27, 2012, it was announced that Lionsgate was developing the feature film adaptation of R.J. Palacio 's debut novel Wonder, while in talks with John August to write the screenplay. Mandeville Films ' David Hoberman and Todd Lieberman would be producing the film. On May 8, 2013, Jack Thorne was hired to adapt the novel, while August, who was previously reported as writer, had departed from the project. In October 2014, John Krokidas was reported to be directing the film, but in April 2015, Paul King was hired to take the directing duties. Steven Conrad was writing the script at that time.
On April 14, 2016, Jacob Tremblay was cast in the film to play the lead role as Auggie Pullman, while Julia Roberts was in talks to play Auggie 's mother. On May 5, 2016, Roberts was confirmed to play the mother, with Stephen Chbosky signed on to direct the film. On June 27, 2016, Owen Wilson had joined the film to play Auggie 's father. On July 11, 2016, newcomer Noah Jupe joined the film to play Auggie 's best friend at school. On July 15, 2016, Daveed Diggs was cast in the film to play Mr. Browne, an English teacher at the school. On August 19, 2016, Sonia Braga joined the cast of the film, portraying the role of Roberts ' character 's mother.
Marcelo Zarvos composed the film 's score.
Bea Miller composed a song entitled "Brand New Eyes ''. It was released on August 3, 2017.
Wonder was scheduled to be released in the United States on April 7, 2017 by Lionsgate. On February 13, 2017, it was announced that the release date for Wonder has been delayed to November 17, 2017.
|
saline glucose is a solution of glucose and | Intravenous sugar solution - wikipedia
Intravenous sugar solution, also known as dextrose solution, is a mixture of dextrose (glucose) and water. It is used to treat low blood sugar or water loss without electrolyte loss. Water loss without electrolyte loss may occur in fever, hyperthyroidism, high blood calcium, or diabetes insipidus. It is also used in the treatment of high blood potassium, diabetic ketoacidosis, and as part of parenteral nutrition. It is given by injection into a vein.
Side effects may include irritation of the vein in which it is given, high blood sugar, and swelling. Excess use may result in low blood sodium and other electrolyte problems. Intravenous sugar solutions are in the crystalloid family of medications. They come in a number of strengths including 5 %, 10 %, and 50 % dextrose. While they may start out hypertonic they become hypotonic solutions as the sugar is metabolised. Versions are also available mixed with saline.
Dextrose solutions for medical use became available in the 1920s and 1930s. It is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in the developing world is about 1.00 to 1.80 USD per liter of 10 % dextrose in water and it is about 0.60 to 2.40 USD per liter of 5 % dextrose in normal saline. In the United Kingdom a 50 ml vial of 50 % solution costs the NHS 2.01 pounds.
Administering a 5 % sugar solution peri - and postoperatively usually achieves a good balance between starvation reactions and hyperglycemia caused by sympathetic activation. A 10 % solution may be more appropriate when the stress response from the reaction has decreased, after approximately one day after surgery. After more than approximately 2 days, a more complete regimen of total parenteral nutrition is indicated.
In patients with hypernatremia and euvolemia, free water can be replaced using either 5 % D / W or 0.45 % saline.
In patients with fatty - acid oxidation disorders (FOD), 10 % solution may be appropriate upon arrival to the emergency room.
Intravenous glucose is used in some Asian countries as a pick - me - up, for "energy, '' but is not a part of routine medical care in the United States where a glucose solution is a prescription drug. Asian immigrants to the United States are at risk if they seek intravenous glucose treatment. It may be had at store - front clinics catering to Asian immigrants, but, despite having no more effect than drinking sugared water, poses medical risks such as the possibility of infection. The procedure is commonly called "ringer. ''
Types of glucose / dextrose include:
The percentage is a mass percentage, so a 5 % glucose / dextrose solution contains 50 g / L of glucose / dextrose (5g / 100ml).
Glucose provides energy 4 kcal / gram, so a 5 % glucose solution provides 0.2 kcal / ml. If prepared from dextrose monohydrate, which provides 3.4 kcal / gram, a 5 % solution provides 0.17 kcal / ml.
|
when does the 3 season of jane the virgin come out on netflix | Jane the Virgin (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of Jane the Virgin premiered on The CW on October 17, 2016 and ended on May 22, 2017. The season consisted of 20 episodes and stars Gina Rodriguez as Jane Villanueva a young Latina university student accidentally artificially inseminated with her boss ' sperm, Rafael Solano (Justin Baldoni). In this season, Jane marries Michael Cordero, Jr. (Brett Dier) and must deal with married life while Rafael discovers secrets from his past and his ex-wife, Petra Solano (Yael Grobglas), deals with her evil twin sister.
|
who plays fiona's boss on shameless season 4 | Shameless (season 4) - Wikipedia
The fourth season episode 10 of Shameless, an American comedy - drama television series based on the award - winning British series of the same name by Paul Abbott, premiered on January 12, 2014, at Sunday 9: 00 p.m. EST on the Showtime television network. Executive producers are John Wells, Paul Abbott and Andrew Stearn, with producer Michael Hissrich. The season concluded after 12 episodes on April 6, 2014. The shows season premiere brought in 1.69 million viewers, while the episode airing February 2, "Strangers on a Train '', received 1.22 million total viewers, its lowest rated episode of the season. The season finale scored 1.93 million viewers, becoming the show highest rated episode for the season.
Now that Fiona has a steady job and Lip is enrolled in college, it looks like the Gallaghers may have a shot at happiness. But when you 're down and out, moving up is n't so easy. Frank 's liver fails, forcing him to find a donor or live out his last days, Carl takes it on himself to find him an organ donor. Fiona is arrested when Liam tries cocaine at a house party and is hospitalized. Lip goes to college and meets a young woman named Amanda who helps him through a difficult time. Lip begins a relationship with Amanda. Debbie attempts to reinvent herself. Ian comes back from the army drastically changed. Veronica finds out that she 's pregnant with triplets, and Kevin reveals that the bar is losing money, Carol refuses her request to abort her own baby.
On January 29, 2013, Showtime announced the series would be renewed for a fourth season. The show 's fourth season began production on September 20, 2013 and began filming the following week, and premiered on Sunday, January 12, 2014.
|
how did will in me before you die | Me Before You - wikipedia
Me Before You is a romance novel written by Jojo Moyes. The book was first published on 5 January 2012 in the United Kingdom. A sequel titled After You was released 29 September 2015 through Pamela Dorman Books. A second sequel, Still Me, was published in January 2018.
Twenty - six - year - old Louisa Clark lives with her working - class family. Unambitious and with few qualifications, she feels constantly outshone by her younger sister, Treena, an outgoing single mother. Louisa, who helps support her family, loses her job at a local café when the café closes. She goes to the Job Centre and, after several failed attempts, is offered a unique employment opportunity: help care for Will Traynor, a successful, wealthy, and once - active young man who developed quadriplegia in a pedestrian - motorcycle accident two years earlier. Will 's mother, Camilla, hires Louisa despite her lack of experience, believing Louisa can brighten his spirit. Louisa meets Nathan, who cares for Will 's medical needs, and Will 's father, Steven, a friendly upper - class businessman whose marriage to Camilla is strained.
Louisa and Will 's relationship starts out rocky due to his bitterness and resentment over being disabled. Things worsen after Will 's ex-girlfriend, Alicia, and best friend Rupert reveal that they are getting married. Under Louisa 's care, Will gradually becomes more communicative and open - minded as they share experiences together. Louisa notices Will 's scarred wrists and later overhears his mother and sister discussing how he attempted suicide shortly after Camilla refused his request to end his life through Dignitas, a Swiss - based assisted suicide organisation. Horrified by his attempt, Camilla promised to honour her son 's wish, but only if he agreed to live six more months. Camilla intends to prove that, in time, he will believe his life 's worth living.
Louisa conceals knowing about Will and Camilla 's agreement. However, she tells Treena, and together they devise ways that will help convince Will to abandon his death wish. Over the next few weeks, Will loosens up and lets Louisa shave his beard and cut his shaggy hair. Louisa begins taking Will on outings and the two grow closer.
Through their frequent talks, Louisa learns that Will has travelled extensively; his favourite place is a café in Paris. Noticing how limited her life is and that she has few ambitions, Will tries to motivate Louisa to change.
Louisa continues seeing her longtime boyfriend of 6 years, Patrick, though they eventually break up due to her relationship with Will. Meanwhile, Louisa 's father loses his job, causing more financial difficulties. Mr. Traynor offers Mr. Clark a position. Louisa realises that Will is trying to help her secure her freedom from her family. The two attend Alicia and Rupert 's wedding where they dance and flirt. Will tells Louisa that she is the only reason he wakes in the morning.
Louisa convinces Will to go on a holiday with her, but before they can leave, Will contracts near - fatal pneumonia. Louisa cancels the plans for a whirlwind trip. Instead, she takes Will to the island of Mauritius. The night before returning home, Louisa tells Will that she loves him. Will says he wants to confide something, but she admits that she already knows about his plans with Dignitas. Will says their time together has been special, but he can not bear to live in a wheelchair. He will be following through with his plans. Angry and hurt, Louisa storms off and does not speak to him for the remainder of the trip. When they return home, Will 's parents are pleasantly surprised by his good physical condition. Louisa, however, resigns as his caretaker, and they understand that Will intends to end his life.
On the night of Will 's flight to Switzerland, Louisa visits him one last time. They agree that the past six months have been the best in their lives. He dies shortly after in the clinic, and it is revealed that he left Louisa a considerable inheritance, meant to continue her education and to fully experience life. The novel ends with Louisa at a café in Paris, reading Will 's last words to her in a letter, that tell her to ' live well '.
The book was placed on the Richard and Judy Book Club.
Disability advocates have criticised the book and film for suggesting that life may not be worth living for some with severe disabilities.
In 2014 MGM announced it would make a film adaptation of Me Before You, to be directed by Thea Sharrock and released via Warner Bros. The film was initially set to release in August 2015 but was pushed back to 3 June 2016.
Emilia Clarke and Sam Claflin portray the main characters, and filming began in the spring of 2015. The film has grossed over $200 million worldwide.
|
Subsets and Splits
No saved queries yet
Save your SQL queries to embed, download, and access them later. Queries will appear here once saved.