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how can i update my mac os x 10.7.5 | MacOS - Wikipedia
macOS (/ ˌmækoʊˈɛs /; previously Mac OS X, then OS X) is a series of graphical operating systems developed and marketed by Apple Inc. since 2001. It is the primary operating system for Apple 's Mac family of computers. Within the market of desktop, laptop and home computers, and by web usage, it is the second most widely used desktop OS, after Microsoft Windows.
macOS is the second major series of Macintosh operating systems. The first is colloquially called the "classic '' Mac OS, which was introduced in 1984, and the final release of which was Mac OS 9 in 1999. The first desktop version, Mac OS X 10.0, was released in March 2001, with its first update, 10.1, arriving later that year. After this, Apple began naming its releases after big cats, which lasted until OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion. Since OS X 10.9 Mavericks, releases have been named after landmarks in California. Apple shortened the name to "OS X '' in 2012 and then changed it to "macOS '' in 2016, adopting the nomenclature that it uses for their other operating systems, iOS, watchOS, and tvOS. The latest version is macOS High Sierra, which was publicly released in September 2017.
Between 1999 and 2009, Apple sold a separate series of operating systems called Mac OS X Server. The initial version, Mac OS X Server 1.0, was released in 1999 with a user interface similar to Mac OS 8.5. After this, new versions were introduced concurrently with the desktop version of Mac OS X. Beginning with Mac OS X 10.7 Lion, the server functions were made available as a separate package on the Mac App Store.
macOS is based on technologies developed between 1985 and 1997 at NeXT, a company that Apple co-founder Steve Jobs created after leaving the company. The "X '' in Mac OS X and OS X is the Roman numeral for the number 10 and is pronounced as such. The X was a prominent part of the operating system 's brand identity and marketing in its early years, but gradually receded in prominence since the release of Snow Leopard in 2009. UNIX 03 certification was achieved for the Intel version of Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard and all releases from Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard up to the current version also have UNIX 03 certification. macOS shares its Unix - based core, named Darwin, and many of its frameworks with iOS, tvOS and watchOS. A heavily modified version of Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger was used for the first - generation Apple TV.
Releases of Mac OS X from 1999 to 2005 can run only on the PowerPC - based Macs from that time period. After Apple announced that they were switching to Intel CPUs from 2006 onwards, a separate version of Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger was made and distributed exclusively with early Intel - based Macs; it included an emulator known as Rosetta, which allowed users to run most PowerPC applications on Intel - based Macs. Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard was the sole release to be built as a universal binary, meaning that the installer disc supported both Intel and PowerPC processors. Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard was the first release to be available exclusively for Intel - based Macs. In 2011, Apple released Mac OS X 10.7 Lion, which no longer supported 32 - bit Intel processors and also did not include Rosetta. All versions of the system released since then run exclusively on 64 - bit Intel CPUs and do not support PowerPC applications.
The heritage of what would become macOS had originated at NeXT, a company founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985. There, the Unix - like NeXTSTEP operating system was developed, and then launched in 1989. The kernel of NeXTSTEP is based upon the Mach kernel, which was originally developed at Carnegie Mellon University, with additional kernel layers and low - level user space code derived from parts of BSD. Its graphical user interface was built on top of an object - oriented GUI toolkit using the Objective - C programming language.
Throughout the early 1990s, Apple had tried to create a "next - generation '' OS to succeed its classic Mac OS through the Taligent, Copland and Gershwin projects, but all of them were eventually abandoned. This led Apple to purchase NeXT in 1996, allowing NeXTSTEP, then called OPENSTEP, to serve as the basis for Apple 's next generation operating system. This purchase also led to Steve Jobs returning to Apple as an interim, and then the permanent CEO, shepherding the transformation of the programmer - friendly OPENSTEP into a system that would be adopted by Apple 's primary market of home users and creative professionals. The project was first code named "Rhapsody '' and then officially named Mac OS X.
Mac OS X was originally presented as the tenth major version of Apple 's operating system for Macintosh computers; current versions of macOS retain the major version number "10 ''. Previous Macintosh operating systems (versions of the classic Mac OS) were named using Arabic numerals, as with Mac OS 8 and Mac OS 9. The letter "X '' in Mac OS X 's name refers to the number 10, a Roman numeral. It is therefore correctly pronounced "ten '' / tɛn / in this context. However, it is also commonly pronounced like the letter "X '' / ɛks /.
The first version of Mac OS X, Mac OS X Server 1.0, was a transitional product, featuring an interface resembling the classic Mac OS, though it was not compatible with software designed for the older system. Consumer releases of Mac OS X included more backward compatibility. Mac OS applications could be rewritten to run natively via the Carbon API; many could also be run directly through the Classic Environment with a reduction in performance.
The consumer version of Mac OS X was launched in 2001 with Mac OS X 10.0. Reviews were variable, with extensive praise for its sophisticated, glossy Aqua interface but criticizing it for sluggish performance. With Apple 's popularity at a low, the makers of several classic Mac applications such as FrameMaker and PageMaker declined to develop new versions of their software for Mac OS X. Ars Technica columnist John Siracusa, who reviewed every major OS X release up to 10.10, described the early releases in retrospect as ' dog - slow, feature poor ' and Aqua as ' unbearably slow and a huge resource hog '.
Apple rapidly developed several new releases of Mac OS X. Siracusa 's review of version 10.3, Panther, noted "It 's strange to have gone from years of uncertainty and vaporware to a steady annual supply of major new operating system releases. '' Version 10.4, Tiger, reportedly shocked executives at Microsoft by offering a number of features, such as fast file searching and improved graphics processing, that Microsoft had spent several years struggling to add to Windows with acceptable performance.
As the operating system evolved, it moved away from the classic Mac OS, with applications being added and removed. Considering music to be a key market, Apple developed the iPod music player and music software for the Mac, including iTunes and GarageBand. Targeting the consumer and media markets, Apple emphasized its new "digital lifestyle '' applications such as the iLife suite, integrated home entertainment through the Front Row media center and the Safari web browser. With increasing popularity of the internet, Apple offered additional online services, including the. Mac, MobileMe and most recently iCloud products. It later began selling third - party applications through the Mac App Store.
Newer versions of Mac OS X also included modifications to the general interface, moving away from the striped gloss and transparency of the initial versions. Some applications began to use a brushed metal appearance, or non-pinstriped titlebar appearance in version 10.4. In Leopard, Apple announced a unification of the interface, with a standardized gray - gradient window style.
In 2006, the first Intel Macs released used a specialized version of Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger.
A key development for the system was the announcement and release of the iPhone from 2007 onwards. While Apple 's previous iPod media players used a minimal operating system, the iPhone used an operating system based on Mac OS X, which would later be called "iPhone OS '' and then iOS. The simultaneous release of two operating systems based on the same frameworks placed tension on Apple, which cited the iPhone as forcing it to delay Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard. However, after Apple opened the iPhone to third - party developers its commercial success drew attention to Mac OS X, with many iPhone software developers showing interest in Mac development.
In 2007, Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard was the sole release with universal binary components, allowing installation on both Intel Macs and select PowerPC Macs. It is also the final release with PowerPC Mac support. Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard was the first version of OS X to be built exclusively for Intel Macs, and the final release with 32 - bit Intel Mac support. The name was intended to signal its status as an iteration of Leopard, focusing on technical and performance improvements rather than user - facing features; indeed it was explicitly branded to developers as being a ' no new features ' release. Since its release, several OS X or macOS releases (namely OS X Mountain Lion, OS X El Capitan and macOS High Sierra) follow this pattern, with a name derived from its predecessor, similar to the ' tick - tock model ' used by Intel.
In two succeeding versions, Lion and Mountain Lion, Apple moved some applications to a highly skeuomorphic style of design inspired by contemporary versions of iOS, at the same time simplifying some elements by making controls such as scroll bars fade out when not in use. This direction was, like brushed metal interfaces, unpopular with some users, although it continued a trend of greater animation and variety in the interface previously seen in design aspects such as the Time Machine backup utility, which presented past file versions against a swirling nebula, and the glossy translucent dock of Leopard and Snow Leopard. In addition, with Mac OS X 10.7 Lion, Apple ceased to release separate server versions of Mac OS X, selling server tools as a separate downloadable application through the Mac App Store. A review described the trend in the server products as becoming "cheaper and simpler... shifting its focus from large businesses to small ones. ''
In 2012, with the release of OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion, the name of the system was shortened from Mac OS X to OS X. That year, Apple removed the head of OS X development, Scott Forstall, and design was changed towards a more minimal direction. Apple 's new user interface design, using deep color saturation, text - only buttons and a minimal, ' flat ' interface, was debuted with iOS 7 in 2013. With OS X engineers reportedly working on iOS 7, the version released in 2013, OS X 10.9 Mavericks, was something of a transitional release, with some of the skeuomorphic design removed, while most of the general interface of Mavericks remained unchanged. The next version, OS X 10.10 Yosemite, adopted a design similar to iOS 7 but with greater complexity suitable for an interface controlled with a mouse.
From 2012 onwards, the system has shifted to an annual release schedule similar to that of iOS. It also steadily cut the cost of updates from Snow Leopard onwards, before removing upgrade fees altogether from 2013 onwards. Some journalists and third - party software developers have suggested that this decision, while allowing more rapid feature release, meant less opportunity to focus on stability, with no version of OS X recommendable for users requiring stability and performance above new features. Apple 's 2015 update, OS X 10.11 El Capitan, was announced to focus specifically on stability and performance improvements.
In 2016, with the release of macOS 10.12 Sierra, the name was changed from OS X to macOS to streamline it with the branding of Apple 's other primary operating systems: iOS, watchOS, and tvOS.
macOS 10.12 Sierra 's main features are the introduction of Siri to macOS, Optimized Storage, improvements to included applications, and greater integration with Apple 's iPhone and Apple Watch. The Apple File System (APFS) was announced at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference in 2016 as a replacement for HFS+, a highly criticized file system.
At the 2017 Worldwide Developers Conference Apple previewed macOS 10.13 High Sierra. It uses APFS, rather than HFS+, on solid state drives.
At macOS 's core is a POSIX compliant operating system built on top of the XNU kernel, with standard Unix facilities available from the command line interface. Apple has released this family of software as a free and open source operating system named Darwin. On top of Darwin, Apple layered a number of components, including the Aqua interface and the Finder, to complete the GUI - based operating system which is macOS.
With its original introduction as Mac OS X, the system brought a number of new capabilities to provide a more stable and reliable platform than its predecessor, the classic Mac OS. For example, pre-emptive multitasking and memory protection improved the system 's ability to run multiple applications simultaneously without them interrupting or corrupting each other. Many aspects of macOS 's architecture are derived from OPENSTEP, which was designed to be portable, to ease the transition from one platform to another. For example, NeXTSTEP was ported from the original 68k - based NeXT workstations to x86 and other architectures before NeXT was purchased by Apple, and OPENSTEP was later ported to the PowerPC architecture as part of the Rhapsody project.
Prior to macOS High Sierra, and on drives other than solid state drives (SSDs), the default file system is HFS+, which it inherited from the classic Mac OS. Operating system designer Linus Torvalds has criticized HFS+, saying it is "probably the worst file system ever '', whose design is "actively corrupting user data ''. He criticized the case insensitivity of file names, a design made worse when Apple extended the file system to support Unicode. Initially, HFS+ was designed for classic Mac OS, which runs on big - endian 68K and PowerPC systems. When Apple switched Macintosh to little - endian Intel processors, it continued to use big - endian byte order on HFS+ file systems. As a result, macOS on current Macs must do byte swap when it reads file system data. These concerns are being addressed with the new Apple File System, which is used for file systems on SSDs in macOS High Sierra.
The Darwin subsystem in macOS is in charge of managing the file system, which includes the Unix permissions layer. In 2003 and 2005, two Macworld editors expressed criticism of the permission scheme; Ted Landau called misconfigured permissions "the most common frustration '' in macOS, while Rob Griffiths suggested that some users may even have to reset permissions every day, a process which can take up to 15 minutes. More recently, another Macworld editor, Dan Frakes, called the procedure of repairing permissions vastly overused. He argues that macOS typically handles permissions properly without user interference, and resetting permissions should just be tried when problems emerge.
The architecture of macOS incorporates a layered design: the layered frameworks aid rapid development of applications by providing existing code for common tasks. Apple provides its own software development tools, most prominently an integrated development environment called Xcode. Xcode provides interfaces to compilers that support several programming languages including C, C++, Objective - C, and Swift. For the Apple -- Intel transition, it was modified so that developers could build their applications as a universal binary, which provides compatibility with both the Intel - based and PowerPC - based Macintosh lines. First and third - party applications can be controlled programatically using the AppleScript framework, retained from the classic Mac OS, or using the newer Automator application that offers pre-written tasks that do not require programming knowledge.
Apple offered two main APIs to develop software natively for macOS: Cocoa and Carbon. Cocoa was a descendant of APIs inherited from OPENSTEP with no ancestry from the classic Mac OS, while Carbon was an adaptation of classic Mac OS APIs, allowing Mac software to be minimally rewritten in order to run natively on Mac OS X.
The Cocoa API was created as the result of a 1993 collaboration between NeXT Computer and Sun Microsystems. This heritage is highly visible for Cocoa developers, since the "NS '' prefix is ubiquitous in the framework, standing variously for NeXTSTEP or NeXT / Sun. The official OPENSTEP API, published in September 1994, was the first to split the API between Foundation and ApplicationKit and the first to use the "NS '' prefix. Traditionally, Cocoa programs have been mostly written in Objective - C, with Java as an alternative. However, on July 11, 2005, Apple announced that "features added to Cocoa in Mac OS X versions later than 10.4 will not be added to the Cocoa - Java programming interface. '' macOS also used to support the Java Platform as a "preferred software package '' -- in practice this means that applications written in Java fit as neatly into the operating system as possible while still being cross-platform compatible, and that graphical user interfaces written in Swing look almost exactly like native Cocoa interfaces. Since 2014, Apple has promoted its new programming language Swift as the preferred language for software development on Apple platforms.
Apple 's original plan with macOS was to require all developers to rewrite their software into the Cocoa APIs. This caused much outcry among existing Mac developers, who threatened to abandon the platform rather than invest in a costly rewrite, and the idea was shelved. To permit a smooth transition from Mac OS 9 to Mac OS X, the Carbon Application Programming Interface (API) was created. Applications written with Carbon were initially able to run natively on both classic Mac OS and Mac OS X, although this ability was later dropped as Mac OS X developed. Carbon was not included in the first product sold as Mac OS X: the little - used original release of Mac OS X Server 1.0, which also did not include the Aqua interface. Apple limited further development of Carbon from the release of Leopard onwards, announcing Carbon applications would not receive the ability to run at 64 - bit. A number of macOS applications continued to use Carbon for some time afterwards, especially ones with heritage dating back to the classic Mac OS and for which updates would be difficult, uneconomic or not necessary. This included Microsoft Office up to Office 2016, and Photoshop up to CS5. Early versions of macOS could also run some classic Mac OS applications through the Classic Environment with performance limitations; this feature was removed from 10.5 onwards and all Macs using Intel processors.
Because macOS is POSIX compliant, many software packages written for the other Unix - like systems including Linux can be recompiled to run on it, including much scientific and technical software. Third - party projects such as Homebrew, Fink, MacPorts and pkgsrc provide pre-compiled or pre-formatted packages. Apple and others have provided versions of the X Window System graphical interface which can allow these applications to run with an approximation of the macOS look - and - feel. The current Apple - endorsed method is the open - source XQuartz project; earlier versions could use the X11 application provided by Apple, or before that the XDarwin project.
Applications can be distributed to Macs and installed by the user from any source and by any method such as downloading (with or without code signing, available via an Apple developer account) or through the Mac App Store, a marketplace of software maintained by Apple by way of a process requiring the company 's approval. Apps installed through the Mac App Store run within a sandbox, restricting their ability to exchange information with other applications or modify the core operating system and its features. This has been cited as an advantage, by allowing users to install apps with confidence that they should not be able to damage their system, but also as a disadvantage due to blocking the Mac App Store 's use for professional applications that require elevated privileges. Applications without any code signature can not be run by default except from a computer 's administrator account.
Apple produces macOS applications, some of which are included and some sold separately. This includes iWork, Final Cut Pro, Logic Pro, iLife, and the database application FileMaker. Numerous other developers also offer software for macOS.
Tools such as XPostFacto and patches applied to the installation media have been developed by third parties to enable installation of newer versions of macOS on systems not officially supported by Apple. This includes a number of pre-G3 Power Macintosh systems that can be made to run up to and including Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar, all G3 - based Macs which can run up to and including Tiger, and sub-867 MHz G4 Macs can run Leopard by removing the restriction from the installation DVD or entering a command in the Mac 's Open Firmware interface to tell the Leopard Installer that it has a clock rate of 867 MHz or greater. Except for features requiring specific hardware such as graphics acceleration or DVD writing, the operating system offers the same functionality on all supported hardware.
As most Mac hardware components, or components similar to those, since the Intel transition are available for purchase, some technology - capable groups have developed software to install macOS on non-Apple computers. These are referred to as Hackintoshes, a portmanteau of the words "hack '' and "Macintosh ''. This violates Apple 's EULA (and is therefore unsupported by Apple technical support, warranties etc.), but communities that cater to personal users, who do not install for resale and profit, have generally been ignored by Apple. These self - made computers allow more flexibility and customization of hardware, but at a cost of leaving the user more responsible for their own machine, such as on matter of data integrity or security. Psystar, a business that attempted to profit from selling macOS on non-Apple certified hardware, was sued by Apple in 2008.
In April 2002, eWeek announced a rumor that Apple had a version of Mac OS X code - named Marklar, which ran on Intel x86 processors. The idea behind Marklar was to keep Mac OS X running on an alternative platform should Apple become dissatisfied with the progress of the PowerPC platform. These rumors subsided until late in May 2005, when various media outlets, such as The Wall Street Journal and CNET, announced that Apple would unveil Marklar in the coming months.
On June 6, 2005, Steve Jobs announced in his keynote address at the annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference that Apple would be making the transition from PowerPC to Intel processors over the following two years, and that Mac OS X would support both platforms during the transition. Jobs also confirmed rumors that Apple had versions of Mac OS X running on Intel processors for most of its developmental life. Intel - based Macs would run a new recompiled version of OS X along with Rosetta, a binary translation layer which enables software compiled for PowerPC Mac OS X to run on Intel Mac OS X machines. The system was included with Mac OS X versions up to version 10.6. 8. Apple dropped support for Classic mode on the new Intel Macs. Third party emulation software such as Mini vMac, Basilisk II and SheepShaver provided support for some early versions of Mac OS. A new version of Xcode and the underlying command - line compilers supported building universal binaries that would run on either architecture.
PowerPC - only software is supported with Apple 's official emulation software, Rosetta, though applications eventually had to be rewritten to run properly on the newer versions released for Intel processors. Apple initially encouraged developers to produce universal binaries with support for both PowerPC and Intel. There is a performance penalty when PowerPC binaries run on Intel Macs through Rosetta. Moreover, some PowerPC software, such as kernel extensions and System Preferences plugins, are not supported on Intel Macs at all. Some PowerPC applications would not run on macOS at all. Plugins for Safari need to be compiled for the same platform as Safari, so when Safari is running on Intel, it requires plug - ins that have been compiled as Intel - only or universal binaries, so PowerPC - only plug - ins will not work. While Intel Macs are able to run PowerPC, Intel, and universal binaries; PowerPC Macs support only universal and PowerPC builds.
Support for the PowerPC platform was dropped following the transition. In 2009, Apple announced at its Worldwide Developers Conference that Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard would drop support for PowerPC processors and be Intel - only. Rosetta continued to be offered as an optional download or installation choice in Snow Leopard before it was discontinued with Mac OS X 10.7 Lion. In addition, new versions of Mac OS X first - and third - party software increasingly required Intel processors, including new versions of iLife, iWork, Aperture and Logic Pro.
One of the major differences between the classic Mac OS and the current macOS was the addition of Aqua, a graphical user interface with water - like elements, in the first major release of Mac OS X. Every window element, text, graphic, or widget is drawn on - screen using spatial anti-aliasing technology. ColorSync, a technology introduced many years before, was improved and built into the core drawing engine, to provide color matching for printing and multimedia professionals. Also, drop shadows were added around windows and isolated text elements to provide a sense of depth. New interface elements were integrated, including sheets (dialog boxes attached to specific windows) and drawers, which would slide out and provide options.
The use of soft edges, translucent colors, and pinstripes, similar to the hardware design of the first iMacs, brought more texture and color to the user interface when compared to what Mac OS 9 and Mac OS X Server 1.0 's "Platinum '' appearance had offered. According to Siracusa, the introduction of Aqua and its departure from the then conventional look "hit like a ton of bricks. '' Bruce Tognazzini (who founded the original Apple Human Interface Group) said that the Aqua interface in Mac OS X 10.0 represented a step backwards in usability compared with the original Mac OS interface. Third - party developers started producing skins for customizable applications and other operating systems which mimicked the Aqua appearance. To some extent, Apple has used the successful transition to this new design as leverage, at various times threatening legal action against people who make or distribute software with an interface the company says is derived from its copyrighted design.
Apple has continued to change aspects of the macOS appearance and design, particularly with tweaks to the appearance of windows and the menu bar. Since 2012, Apple has sold many of its Mac models with high - resolution Retina displays, and macOS and its APIs have extensive support for resolution - independent development on supporting high - resolution displays. Reviewers have described Apple 's support for the technology as superior to that on Windows.
The human interface guidelines published by Apple for macOS are followed by many applications, giving them consistent user interface and keyboard shortcuts. In addition, new services for applications are included, which include spelling and grammar checkers, special characters palette, color picker, font chooser and dictionary; these global features are present in every Cocoa application, adding consistency. The graphics system OpenGL composites windows onto the screen to allow hardware - accelerated drawing. This technology, introduced in version 10.2, is called Quartz Extreme, a component of Quartz. Quartz 's internal imaging model correlates well with the Portable Document Format (PDF) imaging model, making it easy to output PDF to multiple devices. As a side result, PDF viewing and creating PDF documents from any application are built - in features. Reflecting its popularity with design users, macOS also has system support for a variety of professional video and image formats and includes an extensive pre-installed font library, featuring many prominent brand - name designs.
The Finder is a file browser allowing quick access to all areas of the computer, which has been modified throughout subsequent releases of macOS. Quick Look is part of the Finder since version 10.5. It allows for dynamic previews of files, including videos and multi-page documents without opening any other applications. Spotlight, a file searching technology which has been integrated into the Finder since version 10.4, allows rapid real - time searches of data files; mail messages; photos; and other information based on item properties (metadata) and / or content. macOS makes use of a Dock, which holds file and folder shortcuts as well as minimized windows.
Apple added "Exposé '' in version 10.3 (called Mission Control since version 10.7), a feature which includes three functions to help accessibility between windows and desktop. Its functions are to instantly display all open windows as thumbnails for easy navigation to different tasks, display all open windows as thumbnails from the current application, and hide all windows to access the desktop. Also, FileVault was introduced, which is an optional encryption of the user 's files with the 128 - bit Advanced Encryption Standard (AES - 128).
Features introduced in version 10.4 include Automator, an application designed to create an automatic workflow for different tasks; Dashboard, a full - screen group of small applications called desktop widgets that can be called up and dismissed in one keystroke; and Front Row, a media viewer interface accessed by the Apple Remote. Moreover, the Sync Services were included, which is a system that allows applications to access a centralized extensible database for various elements of user data, including calendar and contact items. The operating system then managed conflicting edits and data consistency.
All system icons are scalable up to 512 × 512 pixels as of version 10.5 to accommodate various places where they appear in larger size, including for example the Cover Flow view, a three - dimensional graphical user interface included with iTunes, the Finder, and other Apple products for visually skimming through files and digital media libraries via cover artwork. That version also introduced Spaces, a virtual desktop implementation which enables the user to have more than one desktop and display them in an Exposé - like interface; an automatic backup technology called Time Machine, which provides the ability to view and restore previous versions of files and application data; and Screen Sharing was built in for the first time.
In more recent releases, Apple has developed support for emoji characters by including the proprietary Apple Color Emoji font. Apple has also connected macOS with social networks such as Twitter and Facebook through the addition of share buttons for content such as pictures and text. Apple has brought several applications and features that originally debuted in iOS, its mobile operating system, to macOS in recent releases, notably the intelligent personal assistant Siri, which was introduced in version 10.12 of macOS.
There are 34 system languages available in macOS for the user at the moment of installation; the system language is used throughout the entire operating system environment. Input methods for typing in dozens of scripts can be chosen independently of the system language. Recent updates have added increasing support for Chinese characters and interconnections with popular social networks in China.
macOS can be updated using the Mac App Store application or the softwareupdate command line utility. Until OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion, a separate Software Update application performed this functionality. In Mountain Lion and later, this was merged into the Mac App Store application, although the underlying update mechanism remains unchanged and is fundamentally different than the download mechanism used when purchasing an App Store application.
With the exception of Mac OS X Server 1.0 and the original public beta, OS X versions were named after big cats until OS X 10.9 Mavericks, when Apple switched to using California locations. Prior to its release, Mac OS X 10.0 was code named "Cheetah '' internally at Apple, and Mac OS X 10.1 was code named internally as "Puma ''. After the immense buzz surrounding Mac OS X 10.2, codenamed "Jaguar '', Apple 's product marketing began openly using the code names to promote the operating system. Mac OS X 10.3 was marketed as "Panther '', Mac OS X 10.4 as "Tiger '', Mac OS X 10.5 as "Leopard '', Mac OS X 10.6 as "Snow Leopard '', Mac OS X 10.7 as "Lion '', OS X 10.8 as "Mountain Lion '', and OS X 10.9 as "Mavericks ''.
"Panther '', "Tiger '' and "Leopard '' are registered as trademarks of Apple, but "Cheetah '', "Puma '' and "Jaguar '' have never been registered. Apple has also registered "Lynx '' and "Cougar '' as trademarks, though these were allowed to lapse. Computer retailer Tiger Direct sued Apple for its use of the name "Tiger ''. On May 16, 2005 a US federal court in the Southern District of Florida ruled that Apple 's use did not infringe on Tiger Direct 's trademark.
On September 13, 2000, Apple released a $29.95 "preview '' version of Mac OS X internally codenamed Kodiak in order to gain feedback from users.
The "PB '' as it was known marked the first public availability of the Aqua interface and Apple made many changes to the UI based on customer feedback. Mac OS X Public Beta expired and ceased to function in Spring 2001.
On March 24, 2001, Apple released Mac OS X 10.0 (internally codenamed Cheetah). The initial version was slow, incomplete, and had very few applications available at the time of its launch, mostly from independent developers. While many critics suggested that the operating system was not ready for mainstream adoption, they recognized the importance of its initial launch as a base on which to improve. Simply releasing Mac OS X was received by the Macintosh community as a great accomplishment, for attempts to completely overhaul the Mac OS had been underway since 1996, and delayed by countless setbacks. Following some bug fixes, kernel panics became much less frequent.
Later that year on September 25, 2001, Mac OS X 10.1 (internally codenamed Puma) was released. It featured increased performance and provided missing features, such as DVD playback. Apple released 10.1 as a free upgrade CD for 10.0 users, in addition to the US $129 boxed version for people running Mac OS 9. It was discovered that the upgrade CDs were full install CDs that could be used with Mac OS 9 systems by removing a specific file; Apple later re-released the CDs in an actual stripped - down format that did not facilitate installation on such systems. On January 7, 2002, Apple announced that Mac OS X was to be the default operating system for all Macintosh products by the end of that month.
On August 23, 2002, Apple followed up with Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar, the first release to use its code name as part of the branding. It brought great raw performance improvements, a sleeker look, and many powerful user - interface enhancements (over 150, according to Apple), including Quartz Extreme for compositing graphics directly on an ATI Radeon or Nvidia GeForce2 MX AGP - based video card with at least 16 MB of VRAM, a system - wide repository for contact information in the new Address Book, and an instant messaging client named iChat. The Happy Mac which had appeared during the Mac OS startup sequence for almost 18 years was replaced with a large grey Apple logo with the introduction of Mac OS X v10. 2.
Mac OS X v10. 3 Panther was released on October 24, 2003. In addition to providing much improved performance, it also incorporated the most extensive update yet to the user interface. Panther included as many or more new features as Jaguar had the year before, including an updated Finder, incorporating a brushed - metal interface, Fast user switching, Exposé (Window manager), FileVault, Safari, iChat AV (which added videoconferencing features to iChat), improved Portable Document Format (PDF) rendering and much greater Microsoft Windows interoperability. Support for some early G3 computers such as "beige '' Power Macs and "WallStreet '' PowerBooks was discontinued.
Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger was released on April 29, 2005. Apple stated that Tiger contained more than 200 new features. As with Panther, certain older machines were no longer supported; Tiger requires a Mac with 256 MB and a built - in FireWire port. Among the new features, Tiger introduced Spotlight, Dashboard, Smart Folders, updated Mail program with Smart Mailboxes, QuickTime 7, Safari 2, Automator, VoiceOver, Core Image and Core Video. The initial release of the Apple TV used a modified version of Tiger with a different graphical interface and fewer applications and services. On January 10, 2006, Apple released the first Intel - based Macs along with the 10.4. 4 update to Tiger. This operating system functioned identically on the PowerPC - based Macs and the new Intel - based machines, with the exception of the Intel release dropping support for the Classic environment.
Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard was released on October 26, 2007. It was called by Apple "the largest update of Mac OS X ''. It brought more than 300 new features. Leopard supports both PowerPC - and Intel x86 - based Macintosh computers; support for the G3 processor was dropped and the G4 processor required a minimum clock rate of 867 MHz, and at least 512 MB of RAM to be installed. The single DVD works for all supported Macs (including 64 - bit machines). New features include a new look, an updated Finder, Time Machine, Spaces, Boot Camp pre-installed, full support for 64 - bit applications (including graphical applications), new features in Mail and iChat, and a number of new security features. Leopard is an Open Brand UNIX 03 registered product on the Intel platform. It was also the first BSD - based OS to receive UNIX 03 certification. Leopard dropped support for the Classic Environment and all Classic applications. It was the final version of Mac OS X to support the PowerPC architecture.
Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard was released on August 28, 2009. Rather than delivering big changes to the appearance and end user functionality like the previous releases of Mac OS X, Snow Leopard focused on "under the hood '' changes, increasing the performance, efficiency, and stability of the operating system. For most users, the most noticeable changes were: the disk space that the operating system frees up after a clean install compared to Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard, a more responsive Finder rewritten in Cocoa, faster Time Machine backups, more reliable and user friendly disk ejects, a more powerful version of the Preview application, as well as a faster Safari web browser. Snow Leopard only supported machines with Intel CPUs, required at least 1 GB of RAM, and dropped default support for applications built for the PowerPC architecture (Rosetta could be installed as an additional component to retain support for PowerPC - only applications).
Snow Leopard also featured new 64 - bit technology capable of supporting greater amounts of RAM, improved support for multi-core processors through Grand Central Dispatch, and advanced GPU performance with OpenCL.
An update introduced support for the Mac App Store, Apple 's digital distribution platform for macOS applications.
Mac OS X 10.7 Lion was released on July 20, 2011. It brought developments made in Apple 's iOS, such as an easily navigable display of installed applications called Launchpad and a greater use of multi-touch gestures, to the Mac. This release removed Rosetta, making it incompatible with PowerPC applications.
Changes made to the GUI include auto - hiding scrollbars that only appear when they are being used, and Mission Control which unifies Exposé, Spaces, Dashboard, and full - screen applications within a single interface. Apple also made changes to applications: they resume in the same state as they were before they were closed, similar to iOS. Documents auto - save by default.
OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion was released on July 25, 2012. Following the release of Lion the previous year, it was the first of the annual rather than two - yearly updates to OS X (and later macOS), which also closely alined with the annual iOS operating system updates. It incorporates some features seen in iOS 5, which include Game Center, support for iMessage in the new Messages messaging application, and Reminders as a to - do list app separate from iCal (which is renamed as Calendar, like the iOS app). It also includes support for storing iWork documents in iCloud. Notification Center, which makes its debut in Mountain Lion, is a desktop version similar to the one in iOS 5.0 and higher. Application pop - ups are now concentrated on the corner of the screen, and the Center itself is pulled from the right side of the screen. Mountain Lion also includes more Chinese features including support for Baidu as an option for Safari search engine, QQ, 163.com and 126.com services for Mail, Contacts and Calendar, Youku, Tudou and Sina Weibo are integrated into share sheets.
Starting with Mountain Lion, Apple software updates (including the OS) are distributed via the App Store. This updating mechanism replaced the Apple Software Update utility.
OS X 10.9 Mavericks was released on October 22, 2013. It was a free upgrade to all users running Snow Leopard or later with a 64 - bit Intel processor. Its changes include the addition of the previously iOS - only Maps and iBooks applications, improvements to the Notification Center, enhancements to several applications, and many under - the - hood improvements.
OS X 10.10 Yosemite was released on October 16, 2014. It features a redesigned user interface similar to that of iOS 7, intended to feature a more minimal, text - based ' flat ' design, with use of translucency effects and intensely saturated colors. Apple 's showcase new feature in Yosemite is Handoff, which enables users with iPhones running iOS 8.1 or later to answer phone calls, receive and send SMS messages, and complete unfinished iPhone emails on their Mac. As of OS X 10.10. 3, Photos replaced iPhoto and Aperture.
OS X 10.11 El Capitan was released on September 30, 2015. Similar to Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard, Apple described this release as containing "refinements to the Mac experience '' and "improvements to system performance '' rather than new features. Refinements include public transport built into the Maps application, GUI improvements to the Notes application, adopting San Francisco as the system font for clearer legibility, and the introduction of System Integrity Protection. The Metal API, first introduced in iOS 8, was also included in this operating system for "all Macs since 2012 ''.
macOS 10.12 Sierra was released to the public on September 20, 2016. New features include the addition of Siri, Optimized Storage, and updates to Photos, Messages, and iTunes.
The fall release of macOS 10.13 High Sierra was announced on June 5, 2017 at Apple 's WWDC event. On September 12, 2017 at Apple 's iPhone event, they announced its release to be September 25, 2017. Like OS X El Capitan and OS X Mountain Lion, High Sierra is a refinement - based update having very few new features. High Sierra uses the new Apple File System and includes enhancements to Safari, Photos, and Mail, among other changes.
As of July 2016, macOS is the second-most - active general - purpose desktop client operating system in use on the World Wide Web following Microsoft Windows, with a 4.90 % usage share according to statistics compiled by the Wikimedia Foundation. It is the second most widely used desktop operating system (for web browsing), after Windows, and is estimated at approximately five times the usage of Linux (which has 1.01 %). Usage share generally continues to shift away from the desktop and toward mobile operating systems such as iOS and Android.
In its earlier years, Mac OS X enjoyed a near - absence of the types of malware and spyware that have affected Microsoft Windows users. macOS has a smaller usage share compared to Windows, but it also has traditionally more secure Unix roots. Worms, as well as potential vulnerabilities, were noted in 2006, which led some industry analysts and anti-virus companies to issue warnings that Apple 's Mac OS X is not immune to malware. Increasing market share coincided with additional reports of a variety of attacks. In early 2011, Mac OS X experienced a large increase in malware attacks, and malware such as Mac Defender, MacProtector, and MacGuard were seen as an increasing problem for Mac users. At first, the malware installer required the user to enter the administrative password, but later versions were able to install without user input. Initially, Apple support staff were instructed not to assist in the removal of the malware or admit the existence of the malware issue, but as the malware spread, a support document was issued. Apple announced an OS X update to fix the problem. An estimated 100,000 users were affected. Apple releases security updates for macOS on a regular basis, as well as signature files for Xprotect, an anti-malware feature part of File Quarantine present since Mac OS X Snow Leopard.
As a devices company, most large - scale Apple promotion for macOS has been part of the sale of Macs, with promotion of macOS updates generally focused on existing users, promotion at Apple Store and other retail partners, or through events for developers. In larger scale advertising campaigns, Apple specifically promoted macOS as better for handling media and other home - user applications, and comparing Mac OS X (especially versions Tiger and Leopard) with the heavy criticism Microsoft received for the long - awaited Windows Vista operating system.
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how many passengers does the adventure of the seas hold | Ms Adventure of the Seas - wikipedia
MS Adventure of the Seas is a Voyager - class cruise ship operated by Royal Caribbean International.
She was built at Kværner Masa - Yards Turku New Shipyard, Finland and completed in 2001. From 2001, she mostly sailed in the Southern Caribbean and departed weekly from the port of San Juan, Puerto Rico. As of 2012, she is based in the Atlantic in the Summer and offers seven - day cruises from Málaga and in the winter she departs from San Juan, Puerto Rico. In 2013, her summer cruises will be based out of Southampton, England and offer Baltic, Mediterranean, and Northern Europe itineraries.
The ship 's godparents are Tara Stackpole and Kevin Hannafin of the New York Fire Department along with Margaret McDonnell and Richard Lucas of the NYPD.
In April 2014, Adventure of the Seas received "Royal Advantage '' upgrades, including an outdoor movie screen, digital signage, ship - wide Wifi, new Concierge and Diamond lounges, and the changeover of the Portofino restaurant to the Giovanni 's Table concept first introduced on the Oasis class cruise ships.
On May 31, 2016, Royal Caribbean announced features for the upcoming refit in November 2016. This includes the Splashaway Bay Aqua Park, cyclone and typhoon water slides, as well as a FlowRider. In addition, a new lineup of culinary and entertainment venues with Izumi Japanese Cuisine, the brand 's signature steakhouse, Chops Grille and Boleros Latin Lounge. The ship also will receive more than 100 new staterooms, a refresh of all existing staterooms and a brand new Suites Lounge.
On October 31, 2016, Royal Caribbean announced modified revitalization plans for Adventure of the Seas due to storm damage caused by Hurricane Matthew at Grand Bahama Shipyard in Freeport. Plans to add 100 new staterooms as well as the lines signature Japanese restaurant Izumi were cancelled. In addition, the storm forced delays in completion of the aqua park, FlowRider, and water slides as well as Chops Grille and Suites Lounge.
Adventure of the Seas routinely cruises the Caribbean. During the first quarter of 2012, she cruised to St. Kitts with over 280,000 passengers in total, the most of any Royal Caribbean vessel.
In 2013, Adventure of the Seas was moved to a new base in Southampton, Hampshire for her European season. Royal Caribbean had confirmed that the ship will continue to be based in the UK for the 2013 season.
For 2017, Adventure of the Seas offers weekly sailings from San Juan, Puerto Rico to the Southern Caribbean.
In September 2017, Adventure of the Seas provided supplies to the destroyed after Category 5 Hurricane Irm a islands of St. Maarten and St. Thomas and transported evacuees.
On November 10, 2017, Adventure of the Seas was the first Royal Caribbean 's ship that visited St. Thomas after Category 5 Hurricane Irma.
For 2018, Adventure of the Seas will sail sailings from San Juan, Puerto Rico to the Southern Caribbean during the winter season and then will reposition north to Bayonne to offer weekly voyages to Florida and the Bahamas and Canada and New England for the summer season and reposition to Fort Lauderdale to offer cruises to both the Eastern Caribbean and Western Caribbean.
Departing Southampton in May 2013
Sapphire Dining room
Sapphire Dining room
Pool deck at night
Promenade deck
Atrium as seen from above
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the band induction into the hall of fame | List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees - wikipedia
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, established in 1983 and located in Cleveland, Ohio, United States, is dedicated to recording the history of some of the best - known and most influential musicians, bands, producers, and others that have in some major way influenced the music industry, particularly in the area of rock and roll. Originally, there were four categories of induction: performers, non-performers, early influences, and lifetime achievement. In 2000, "sidemen '' was introduced as a category.
The only category that has seen new inductees every single year is the performers category. Artists become eligible for induction in that category 25 years after the release of their first record. In order to be inducted, an artist must be nominated by a committee that selects anywhere from nine to a dozen candidates. Ballots are then sent to 600 "rock experts '' who evaluate the candidates and vote on who should be inducted. The performers that receive the highest number of votes and more than 50 percent of the vote are inducted. In 2010, the number inducted was five. The rest of the categories are voted on by special committees. As of 2017, new inductees will be honored at an annual ceremony held alternately in New York and at the Hall of Fame in Cleveland; prior to that, the ceremonies rotated between Cleveland, New York, and Los Angeles.
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame has garnered criticism for allegedly allowing the nomination process to be controlled by a few individuals, nominating too many artists in too many genres that are not entirely rock, ignoring entire rock genres, and using technicalities to induct groups who may not have been among the top vote getters. The Sex Pistols, who were inducted in 2006, refused to attend the ceremony; John Lydon writing a note, read out by Jann Wenner, calling the museum a "piss stain. ''
The performers category is meant for recording artists and bands that have "influence and significance to the development and perpetuation of rock and roll. '' Artists become eligible for induction in that category 25 years after the release of their first record. In order to be inducted, an artist must be nominated by a committee that selects anywhere from nine to a dozen candidates. Ballots are sent to 600 "rock experts '' who then evaluate the candidates and vote on who should be inducted. The performers who receive the highest number of votes and more than 50 percent of the vote are inducted. In 2011, the number inducted was five. The rest of the categories are voted on by special committees. In 2012, six additional bands and groups were inducted as performers by a special committee, due to the controversial nature of their band being excluded when their lead singer was inducted. "There was a lot of discussion about this, '' said Terry Stewart, a member of the nominating committee. "There had always been conversations about why the groups were n't included when the lead singers were inducted. Very honestly, nobody could really answer that question -- it was so long ago... We decided we 'd sit down as an organization and look at that. This is the result. ''
^ Note 1. These backing bands were inducted by a separate committee, and not by the ballot voting used for all other performer inductees.
Artists inducted into the early influences category are those "whose music predated rock and roll but had an impact on the evolution of rock and roll and inspired rock 's leading artists. '' Unlike the performers category, these inductees are selected by a committee. The full process is not transparent and it is unclear who comprises this selection committee.
^ A. Inducted members: Bill Kenny, Charlie Fuqua, Deek Watson, and Orville "Hoppy '' Jones. ^ B. Inducted members: Roy Crain Sr., R.H. Harris, Jesse Farley, and E.A. Rundless. ^ C. Inducted members: Sonny Til, Tommy Gaither, George Nelson, Johnny Reed, and Alexander Sharp. ^ D. Inducted members: Bob Wills, Tommy Duncan, Leon McAuliffe, Johnny Gimble, Joe "Jody '' Holley, Tiny Moore, Herb Remington, Eldon Shamblin, and Al Stricklin. ^ E. Nominated as a performer. ^ F. Inducted members: John L. Tanner, Eugene Tanner, James E. Moore, Obadiah H. Carter and Lowman Pauling, Jr
The non-performer category honors "songwriters, producers, disc jockeys, record executives, journalists and other industry professionals who have had a major influence on the development of rock and roll. '' Several of the inductees in this category were in fact prominent performers as well. The inductees in this category are selected by the same committee that chooses the early influences. The full process is not transparent and it is unclear who comprises this selection committee. This category has been criticized for inducting those that have "been coming to the dinner for years and paying for their tickets '' and not revealing their full criteria. In 2008, this category was renamed the "Ahmet Ertegün Award ''.
This category, which replaced sidemen, "honors those musicians, producers and others who have spent their careers out of the spotlight working with major artists on various parts of their recording and live careers. ''
^ G. Inducted members: Garry Tallent, Roy Bittan, Max Weinberg, Steven Van Zandt, Nils Lofgren, Patti Scialfa, Clarence Clemons, Danny Federici, Vini Lopez, David Sancious.
Established in 2000, the sidemen category "honors those musicians who have spent their careers out of the spotlight, performing as backup musicians for major artists on recording sessions and in concert. '' A separate committee, composed mainly of producers, chooses the inductees. In 2010, the category was renamed to "Award for Musical Excellence ''. According to Joel Peresman, the president of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Foundation, "This award gives us flexibility to dive into some things and recognize some people who might not ordinarily get recognized. ''
The following were inducted for "Lifetime Achievement in the Non-Performer Category. ''
As of 2017, 22 performers have been inducted twice or more; fourteen have been recognized as a solo artist and with a band and seven have been inducted with two separate bands. Eric Clapton is the only one to be inducted three times: as a solo artist, with Cream and The Yardbirds. Clyde McPhatter was the first to ever be inducted twice and is one of three artists to be inducted first as a solo artist and then as a member of a band, the other artists being Neil Young and Rod Stewart. Stephen Stills is the only artist to be inducted twice in the same year. Crosby, Stills & Nash, inducted in 1997, is the only band to see all of its inducted members be inducted with other acts: David Crosby with The Byrds in 1991, Stephen Stills with Buffalo Springfield in 1997, and Graham Nash with The Hollies in 2010. The Beatles, inducted in 1988, is the second band to have all of its members be inducted, as well as the only band to have each of its members be inducted for their solo careers as their second induction. Ringo Starr is the first inductee to be inducted twice in different categories (The Beatles were inducted in the performers category in 1988 and Starr was inducted as a solo artist in the Award for Musical Excellence category in 2015). He also holds the record for the longest time between first and second inductions, at 27 years. Both of Stills ' inductions happened during the 1997 ceremony and Clapton and McPhatter were inducted in back - to - back years (1987 / 88 for McPhatter, 1992 / 93 for Clapton, as well as his solo induction in 2000). The Traveling Wilburys are the only band to have all of its members be inducted without the band itself having been inducted: Roy Orbison as a solo artist in 1987, Bob Dylan as a solo artist in 1988, George Harrison with the Beatles in 1988 and as a solo artist in 2004, Tom Petty with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers in 2002, and Jeff Lynne with the Electric Light Orchestra in 2017.
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where did the high school musical characters go to college | High School Musical 3: Senior Year - wikipedia
High School Musical 3: Senior Year is a 2008 American musical film and is the third installment in the High School Musical trilogy. Produced and released on October 24, 2008, by Walt Disney Pictures, the film is a sequel to Disney Channel Original Movie 2006 television film High School Musical. It was the only film in the series to be released theatrically. Kenny Ortega returned as director and choreographer, as did all six primary actors.
The sequel follows the main six high school seniors: Troy, Gabriella, Ryan, Sharpay, Chad, and Taylor as they are faced with the challenging prospect of being separated after graduating from high school. Joined by the rest of their East High Wildcat classmates, they stage an elaborate spring musical reflecting their experiences, hopes, and fears about the future.
The film received mixed reviews, though relatively better than the first installment of the series, and, in its first three days of release, Senior Year grossed $50 million in North America and an additional $40 million overseas, setting a new record for the largest opening weekend for a musical film.
It was followed up by a spin - off, starring Ashley Tisdale. Sharpay 's Fabulous Adventure was released direct - to - DVD on April 19, 2011, and premiered on Disney Channel on May 22, 2011.
The movie begins with the Wildcats trailing the West High Knights, with the Wildcats entering the locker room for the final half feeling bitter. Team captain Troy rallies the team 's spirit ("Now or Never '') and, with the help of new transfer Jimmie "Rocket - man '' Zara, the Wildcats win the championship game which is the last one for the seniors on the squad at East High. Later, at Troy 's after - match party at his house, Troy and Gabriella are seen thinking about their future and wishing that their last few months at East High would not end ("Right Here, Right Now '').
Sharpay meets Tiara Gold, a British exchange student whom she hires to be her personal assistant. When drama teacher Ms. Darbus notices that there were so few sign - ups for the spring musical, Sharpay suggests she could do a one - woman show. This alarms Kelsi, who is writing the show, so she immediately signs up everyone in their homeroom for it instead. This results in Ms. Darbus announcing they will create a play about their final days at East High, called Senior Year. In addition, she reveals that Sharpay, Ryan, Kelsi, and Troy have all been considered for a scholarship at Juilliard School, but only one of them is to be chosen. Troy is confused because he did not apply to Juilliard. Seeing his friends laughing, he believes they gave his name to Juilliard. Sharpay becomes desperate to win the scholarship, and knowing that Kelsi will give the best songs to Troy and Gabriella in the musical, she gets Ryan to try to persuade Kelsi to give them a song, by predicting her (and Ryan 's) future ("I Want It All '').
The very next day, Troy asks Gabriella to the dance while on the rooftop (seen previously in the first film as The Garden Club, a place where Troy goes seeking some quiet). She then teaches him how to waltz ("Can I Have This Dance? ''). After that, Troy and Chad steal Jimmie and Donnie 's clothes, thus leading through a big chase and Ms. Darbus forced them to volunteer as understudies. Chad then asks Taylor to go to prom with him with a cheesy pick - up line. She initially refuses, but later relents when Chad proves he can put in some effort and asks again in front of everyone in school. The group rehearses for the musical, a scene about their prom night ("A Night to Remember ''). The next day, Ryan walks in on Kelsi composing in the music room and they start to sing ("Just Wanna Be with You '') which leads to Ryan asking Kelsi to prom. While Troy and Chad reminisce about their past ("The Boys Are Back ''), Tiara overhears Gabriella and Taylor 's conversation about the Stanford Freshman 's Honors Program and informs Sharpay about it, while Sharpay convinces Troy that he is the only thing keeping Gabriella from her dream. Troy talks to Gabriella about this and after sharing an awkward goodnight, Gabriella sings ("Walk Away '') and leaves for college the next day.
Troy 's father, Jack, talks to him about his academic future, which he expects will be in the University of Albuquerque. This assumption makes Troy become angry and confused about which college he is going to, and he runs away, storming around East High bewildered until he finally screams at the top of his lungs in the theater ("Scream ''). Ms. Darbus is secretly watching and reveals that she sent in his application for Juilliard. Troy later gets a call from Gabriella saying that although she loves him, she will not return to Albuquerque for prom or graduation. However, on the day of the prom, Troy visits Gabriella at Stanford University and convinces her to return and they kiss during the lunch break ("Can I Have This Dance? (Reprise) ''). Back at East High, Sharpay is prepared for the last musical at East High and Troy 's fellow basketball player Jimmie receives a text from Troy to tell him to cover for him onstage because he is going to be late. The Juilliard representatives are there, and watch as the show seems to go well.
Kelsi and Ryan start out the show followed by a couple other numbers; Jimmie then performs with Sharpay and embarrasses her, although the audience applauds the performance. Troy and Gabriella appear during the second half of the show and sing their duet together. Tiara then betrays Sharpay and tells her how she is going to take over next year in the drama department. Sharpay finally learns how it feels to be manipulated and humiliated, but nevertheless does not wish to go down. While Tiara performs, Sharpay immediately crashes her performance and upstages her ("Senior Year Spring Musical '').
At the end of the musical, Ms. Darbus reveals that both Kelsi and Ryan have won the Juilliard scholarship and tells about everyone 's future plans, in which Troy reveals he 's chosen University of California, Berkeley so he can be close to Gabriella where he can play basketball and perform in theater ("We 're All in This Together '' (Graduation Mix)).
At the graduation ceremony, Troy gives the class speech after being selected by Ms. Darbus. Throwing their caps in the air, the graduates form a giant "wildcat '' before breaking out into song and dance ("High School Musical ''). As the film ends, the graduates run across the field, the curtain falls, and they appear on the East High stage. The main cast performs the song, "High School Musical '', before jumping and bowing when the curtain falls.
According to the Salt Lake City Tribune, "... to help lure the production back to where it all began -- at Salt Lake City 's East High School -- the GOED board Friday approved a maximum $2 million incentive for the production, the largest ever given to entice a filmmaker to Utah. ''
Principal photography began on May 3, 2008; the 41 days scheduled for shooting was a longer period than for the first two films.
Stan Carrizosa, the winner of ABC 's summer reality show, High School Musical: Get in the Picture appears in a music video "Just Getting Started '' that is shown over the end credits of the theatrical release of the film. The show 's other 11 finalists were featured in the music video as well.
Zac Efron was quoted in People Magazine as saying, "I can tell you that if the script is good and if we all agree on a final script, then there 's nothing that is going to hold us back from doing it. We have fun making these movies and that 's very rare in this business. '' Rumors persisted of ongoing salary disputes between Disney and the lead performers, particularly Efron. According to Rachel Abramowitz, as reported online by the Chicago Tribune, "an eclectic cross-section of Hollywood insiders think Efron should get a cool $5 million for High School Musical 3, the theatrical version of the franchise, which Disney hoped to make before the Writers Guild strike and Screen Actors Guild strike shut down Hollywood for several months. Efron declined to comment for the article, and although contract negotiations still are ongoing, sources say Efron is being offered a salary closer to $3 million, not $5 million, for the follow - up, which focuses on senior year at East High. Whatever the price, he 's still perceived as a steal. '' The movie was originally titled "Haunted High School Musical '' with plans of a Halloween theme but was later scrapped.
Ortega stated that pre-production would most likely start in January 2008. Filming began May 3, 2008, at East High School in Salt Lake City, Utah. He stated that the script had been submitted before the writers ' strike started and that they were developing music. He added that filming will happen in Salt Lake City, Utah (as the first two films), hinted that the plot will be something of the nature of the Wildcat 's final year in High School and stated, "it looks like we 've rounded up the cast. ''
Before filming began, the HSM3 board and cast held a press conference at East High School announcing the start of filming. The film would be released in theaters (in the United States) on October 24, 2008, though the film was to open in several countries including the UK at least one week earlier. The film had a $11 million budget and a 40 - day shooting period. The film was said at the time to be the final installment with the current cast. The London premiere was the biggest London premiere of all time.
Despite early speculation that Vanessa Hudgens would be dropped from the film due to her nude photo scandal, The Walt Disney Company denied the reports, saying, "Vanessa has apologized for what was obviously a lapse in judgment. We hope she 's learned a valuable lesson. ''
On November 7, 2008, High School Musical 3: Senior Year: The Sing - Along Edition with lyrics highlighted on the screen was released in selected theaters. The sing along version was released on May 21, 2011.
High School Musical 3: Senior Year received generally mixed to positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 65 %, based on 121 reviews, with an average rating of 6.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "It wo n't win many converts, but High School Musical 3 is bright, energetic, and well - crafted. '' The site also gave it a Golden Tomato for best musical film of 2008. Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score, the film has a score of 57 out of 100, based on 26 critics, "mixed or average reviews ''.
The Telegraph praised the changes brought about by the higher budget of a theatrical release: "High School Musical 3 uses its bigger budget to inject colour, scale, and visual depth. The opening basketball game alone is dizzying as the camera swoops high and wide before a winning point makes the crowd erupt ''.
Stephen Farber, for Reuters UK, says the film "will please fan base but wo n't win converts '', as the story "never really does kick in '' and that "the picture quickly grows tedious '', while MSNBC 's Alonso Duralde describes it as "a stitched - together Frankenstein monster of an entertainment, featuring major components that were already trotted out the first two times. ''
Peter Johnson of The Guardian describes the film as so bland that it "makes cellophane taste like chicken jalfrezi '', and says that "the sheer squeaky - cleanness of everything is creepy, and when the characters are called upon to dance, they do so with robotic efficiency, and sing in that decaffeinated high vibrato, like 21st - century Hollywood castrati. ''
Entertainment Weekly, on the other hand, was very positive towards the film, praising the stars ' energy: "the beauty of Efron 's performance is that he 's a vibrant athletic hoofer who leaps and clowns with the heartthrob vigor of a young Erika Casanova, yet he 's also achingly sincere. His fast - break alertness makes him the most empathetic of teen idols; he 's like a David Cassidy who knows how to act, and who can swoon without getting too moist about it. Apart from Efron, the breakout star is Ashley Tisdale, whose Sharpay makes narcissism a goofy, bedazzled pleasure. ''
MovieGuide has also favorably reviewed the film, strongly recommending it for the family as "fun, clean and full of energy '' and describing it as "thin on plot '' yet nevertheless "a phenomenon. ''
The BBC film critic Mark Kermode loved the film and said it was in his top 5 films for the year, and named Tisdale the "Best Supporting Actress '' of 2008.
The Fort Worth Star - Telegram stated that the latest installment was "critic - proof '' and "everything fans could hope for and more. '' They go on to say that "the kids finally look like true performers rather than Disney Channel mainstays desperately trying to remain relevant, and they deserve the lucrative careers that lie ahead '' and gave the film a rating of four out of five stars. The film was also well received in the UK. Hudgens was recognized as Favorite Movie Actress at Nickelodeon 's Kids ' Choice Awards, Efron was voted Best Male Performance at the 2009 MTV awards and Choice Actor: Music / Dance at the 2009 Teen Choice Awards and Tisdale was voted Breakthrough Performance Female at the 2009 MTV Movie awards and Best Supporting Actress at the 2009 UK Kermode Awards.
The film opened with $16 million on Friday for the biggest opening day for a musical film of all time until the record was topped in 2012 by Les Miserables ($18.1 million). It also debuted at the # 1 spot (beating out Saw V in box office earnings) with an opening weekend of over $42,030,184 in the United States and breaking the record, previously held by Enchanted, for the biggest opening ever for a movie musical. This record would later be broken by Pitch Perfect 2 in 2015 ($69.2 million). The film also opened at # 1 overseas, with an international opening of $42,622,505. High School Musical 3: Senior Year grossed $90,559,416 in North America and $162,349,761 in other territories leading to a worldwide total of $252,909,177, which was above even Disney 's expectations.
High School Musical 3: Senior Year was released in Region 1 DVD and Blu - ray on February 17, 2009, in Region 2 DVD on February 16, 2009 and in Region 3 DVD on February 24, 2009. The DVD was released in single - and two - disc editions.
In Region 2, the single - disc edition DVD featured most of the two - disc edition bonus features such as bloopers, deleted scenes, extended version of the film, sing - along and cast goodbyes. In Region 3, only the single - disc edition DVD was released with all of the two - disc bonus features as well the extended edition of the film. In the Philippines, it was released on February 25, 2009. The Region 4 DVD was released on April 8, 2009. As of November 1, 2009, the DVD has sold over 23 million copies and generated over $200 million in sales revenue.
On March 2, 2016, 10 years after the first High School Musical movie, Disney announced that there would be a fourth High School Musical film. Casting calls for actors to audition as new characters are underway but there has n't been a release date for the film as of yet.
The film premiered on Disney Channel before the series premiere of Good Luck Charlie. The premiere on Disney Channel US brought 4 million viewers.
The film premiered on Disney Channel India on 18 October 2009 and on 5 December 2009 in Disney Channel Asia. On 4 December 2009, for one night only, it premiered on Disney Cinemagic, and it premiered on Disney Channel in the United Kingdom and Ireland in January / February 2010. It premiered on 12 December 2009 on Disney Channel New Zealand / Australia. And 16 March 2011 in Latin America. It premiered in France on 31 October 2011 on M6.
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who tells the story of the chamber of secrets in the book | Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets - wikipedia
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets is a fantasy novel written by British author J.K. Rowling and the second novel in the Harry Potter series. The plot follows Harry 's second year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, during which a series of messages on the walls of the school 's corridors warn that the "Chamber of Secrets '' has been opened and that the "heir of Slytherin '' would kill all pupils who do not come from all - magical families. These threats are found after attacks which leave residents of the school "petrified '' (frozen like stone). Throughout the year, Harry and his friends Ron and Hermione investigate the attacks.
The book was published in the United Kingdom on 2 July 1998 by Bloomsbury and later, in the United States on 2 June 1999 by Scholastic Inc. Although Rowling says she found it difficult to finish the book, it won high praise and awards from critics, young readers and the book industry, although some critics thought the story was perhaps too frightening for younger children. Much like with other novels in the series, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets triggered religious debates; some religious authorities have condemned its use of magical themes, while others have praised its emphasis on self - sacrifice and on the way in which a person 's character is the result of the person 's choices.
Several commentators have noted that personal identity is a strong theme in the book, and that it addresses issues of racism through the treatment of non-human, non-magical and non-living people. Some commentators regard the diary as a warning against uncritical acceptance of information from sources whose motives and reliability can not be checked. Institutional authority is portrayed as self - serving and incompetent.
The film adaptation of the novel, released in 2002, became (at that time) the seventh highest - grossing film ever and received generally favourable reviews. Video games loosely based on Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets were also released for several platforms, and most obtained favourable reviews.
On Harry Potter 's birthday in 1992, the Dursley family -- Harry 's Uncle Vernon, Aunt Petunia, and cousin Dudley -- hold a dinner party for a potential client of Vernon 's drill - manufacturing company. Harry is not invited, but is content to spend the evening quietly in his bedroom, although he is confused that his school friends have not sent cards or presents. However, when he goes to his room, a house - elf named Dobby warns him not to return to Hogwarts and admits to intercepting Harry 's post from his friends. Having failed to persuade Harry to voluntarily give up his place at Hogwarts, Dobby then attempts to get him expelled by using magic to smash Petunia 's dessert on a dinner party guest and framing it on Harry, who is not allowed to use magic out of school. Uncle Vernon 's business deal falls through, but Harry is given a second chance from the Ministry of Magic, and allowed to return at the start of the school year.
In the meantime, Uncle Vernon punishes Harry, fitting locks to his bedroom door and bars to the windows. However, Ron Weasley arrives with his twin brothers Fred and George, in their father Arthur 's enchanted Ford Anglia. They rescue Harry, who stays at their family home, the Burrow, for the remainder of his holidays. Harry and the other Weasleys -- mother Molly, third eldest son Percy, and daughter Ginny (who has a crush on Harry) -- travel to Diagon Alley. They are then reunited with Hermione Granger and introduced to Lucius Malfoy, father of Harry 's school nemesis Draco, and Gilderoy Lockhart, a conceited autobiographer who has been appointed Defence Against the Dark Arts professor after the death of Professor Quirrel. When Harry and Ron approach Platform 9 3 / 4 in King 's Cross station it refuses to allow them to pass. They decide to fly Arthur 's car to Hogwarts, where they crash into a sentient willow tree on the grounds.
In trouble for the crash, Ron is punished by having to clean the school trophies and Harry by helping the celebrity teacher Professor Lockhart, whose classes are chaotic, with addressing his fan mail. Harry learns of some wizards ' prejudice about blood status in terms of "pure '' blood (only wizarding heritage) and those with Muggle parentage. He is alone in hearing an unnerving voice seemingly coming from the walls of the school itself. During a deathday party for Gryffindor House 's ghost Nearly Headless Nick, he, Ron, and Hermione run into the school caretaker Argus Filch 's petrified cat, Mrs. Norris, along with a warning scrawled across one of the walls: "The chamber of secrets has been opened. Enemies of the heir, beware. ''
Rumours fly around the school regarding the Chamber of Secrets ' history. Harry and his friends discover from Cuthbert Binns, the ghostly professor of History of Magic, that it houses a terrible monster and was created by one of the school 's founders, Salazar Slytherin, after a fundamental disagreement with the other founders (Godric Gryffindor, Helga Hufflepuff, and Rowena Ravenclaw). Slytherin believed that students of non-magical parentage should be refused entry to the school. During a Quidditch game, a Bludger, one of the balls involved in Quidditch, chases after Harry instead of zigzagging toward any player it can hit, breaking his arm. Dobby returns in the middle of the night to visit Harry in the hospital wing, revealing that it was he who charmed the Bludger and sealed the gateway at King 's Cross and that the Chamber of Secrets had been opened before. Another attack occurs, this time to a first - year Gryffindor named Colin Creevey who idolises Harry, and the school goes into a state of panic. A duelling class is then set up for the students (led by Lockhart and Potions master / Head of Slytherin House Severus Snape), during which it is revealed that Harry is a ' Parselmouth ', meaning he has the rare gift to speak to snakes.
This sparks rumours yet again, as students around the school suspect Harry of being the Heir of Slytherin (as Slytherin was also a parselmouth), and circumstantial evidence to support this theory arrives in the form of another attack. This time on Hufflepuff second - year Justin Finch Fletchley and the Gryffindor ghost. Harry, Ron, and Hermione begin to suspect that Draco is behind the attacks, given his family history of remaining well within Slytherin ranks and open hostility toward Muggle - born students. After talking about their speculations, Hermione concocts Polyjuice potion, which allows them to become Draco 's boorish lackeys, Vincent Crabbe and Gregory Goyle, for an hour to interrogate him. This comes to nothing, as Draco 's father only told his son the general facts of the previous opening of the Chamber and that it occurred fifty years previously. Meanwhile, Myrtle Warren, an existentially mopey ghost that haunts a bathroom, unwittingly provides a new clue in the form of a diary deposited in her stall -- a diary. The trio discover the diary belonged to Tom Riddle, a student who knows all too well about the Chamber, having been witness to a fellow student 's death fifty years ago. The culprit, he reveals to Harry, was none other than Rubeus Hagrid, now gamekeeper for Hogwarts School. When Hermione is attacked next, alongside a Ravenclaw prefect, the school is put on lockdown, and Dumbledore and Hagrid are forced to leave the premises.
Fortunately for Harry and Ron, Hagrid left a set of instructions: to follow the spiders currently fleeing into the Forbidden Forest. They do this, only to find the monster that was blamed for the attacks fifty years before, a massive spider named Aragog, who explains to the duo that the real monster is one that spiders fear above all others. Hermione provides the last set of clues that inform them of the monster 's identity: It is a basilisk, (hence Harry 's ability to understand it,) that kills with a stare (although no one is dead because of various devices through which they indirectly saw the monster) and which spiders (such as Aragog and his offspring) fear above all others. Harry figures out from hints Aragog dropped that a student who died during the previous attacks is Myrtle, and when Ginny is taken by the monster into the Chamber, they discover that the entrance is in the bathroom they have been using to make Polyjuice Potion. Harry, Ron, and Lockhart enter the Chamber, but the dunderheaded professor (who reveals that he is a fraud) causes a rockfall while attempting to modify the boys ' memories with Ron 's damaged wand.
Separated from Ron, Harry enters the Chamber of Secrets alone to find an unconscious Ginny and Tom Riddle who claims to be a memory preserved in his diary for the last fifty years. Tom Riddle shows Harry that his full name, Tom Marvolo Riddle, can be made into the anagram "I am Lord Voldemort. '' Tom Riddle is in fact Voldemort 's true name and it was he who opened the Chamber fifty years before, and framed Hagrid as Riddle is the true Heir of Slytherin. By possessing Ginny through his diary, Riddle has been continuing what he started fifty years before. Harry 's loyalty to Dumbledore in the face of Riddle summons Dumbledore 's phoenix, Fawkes, who arrives with the Sorting Hat. Fawkes blinds the basilisk, allowing Harry to remove the Sword of Godric Gryffindor from the Sorting Hat and slay the creature. Though fatally poisoned by the basilisk, Fawkes saves Harry who uses a basilisk fang to stab Riddle 's diary. Both the diary and Riddle are destroyed and Ginny is restored.
Harry, Ron, Ginny, and Lockhart return to the main castle and reunite with McGonagall, Dumbledore, and Mr. and Mrs. Weasley. Ginny, whose possession by Voldemort caused all of the petrification and troubles over the course of the year, is given a reprieve by Dumbledore. He reasons that greater wizards have been duped by Voldemort before, and takes great interest in the qualities of the diary, which Harry gives to him. Lucius Malfoy bursts in after this meeting, demanding to know why and how Dumbledore has returned to the school. He is accompanied by Dobby, revealing the family to whom he is enslaved. The house - elf also provides Harry with unspoken cues regarding the diary 's ownership: While it was Tom Riddle 's, it had been in the Malfoys ' possession. While in Diagon Alley over the summer, Lucius, a follower of Voldemort, had slipped the diary into Ginny 's cauldron to ensure the reopening of the Chamber of Secrets. Harry returns the diary, devising a scenario involving his own sock that frees Dobby from the Malfoys ' employment, hence provoking an attack on Harry, only for Dobby to jump in and save him. The petrified students are cured, the end - of - year exams are cancelled (much to Hermione 's chagrin), Hagrid comes back in the middle of the final feast, Lockheart is discharged from his job as Defence Against the Dark Arts Teacher, and Harry returns to Privet Drive in higher spirits than he last left it.
Rowling found it difficult to finish Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets because she was afraid it would not live up to the expectations raised by Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone in the US). After delivering the manuscript to Bloomsbury on schedule, she took it back for six weeks of revision.
In early drafts of the book, the ghost Nearly Headless Nick sang a self - composed song explaining his condition and the circumstances of his unknown death. This was cut as the book 's editor did not care for the poem, which has been subsequently published as an extra on J.K. Rowling 's official website. The family background of Dean Thomas was removed because Rowling and her publishers considered it an "unnecessary digression '', and she considered Neville Longbottom 's own journey of discovery "more important to the central plot ''.
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999. It immediately took first place in UK best - seller lists, displacing popular authors such as John Grisham, Tom Clancy, and Terry Pratchett, and making Rowling the first author to win the British Book Awards Children 's Book of the Year for two years in succession. In June 1999, it went straight to the top of three US best - seller lists, including The New York Times '.
First edition printings had several errors, which were fixed in subsequent reprints. Initially Dumbledore said that Voldemort was the last remaining ancestor of Salazar Slytherin, instead of his descendant. Gilderoy Lockhart 's book on werewolves is entitled Weekends with Werewolves at one point and Wanderings with Werewolves later in the book.
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was met with near universal acclaim. In The Times, Deborah Loudon described it as a children 's book that would be "re-read into adulthood '' and highlighted its "strong plots, engaging characters, excellent jokes and a moral message which flows naturally from the story ''. Fantasy author Charles de Lint agreed, and considered the second Harry Potter book to be just as good as Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, a rare achievement among series of books. Thomas Wagner regarded the plot as very similar to that of the first book, based on searching for a secret hidden under the school. However, he enjoyed the parody of celebrities and their fans that centres round Gilderoy Lockhart, and approved of the book 's handling of racism. Tammy Nezol found the book more disturbing than its predecessor, particularly in the rash behaviour of Harry and his friends after Harry withholds information from Dumbledore, and in the human - like behaviour of the mandragoras used to make a potion that cures petrification. Nevertheless, she considered the second story as enjoyable as the first.
Mary Stuart thought the final conflict with Tom Riddle in the Chamber was almost as scary as in some of Stephen King 's works, and perhaps too strong for young or timid children. She commented that "there are enough surprises and imaginative details thrown in as would normally fill five lesser books. '' Like other reviewers, she thought the book would give pleasure to both children and adult readers. According to Philip Nel, the early reviews gave unalloyed praise while the later ones included some criticisms, although they still agreed that the book was outstanding.
Writing after all seven books had been published, Graeme Davis regarded Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets as the weakest of the series, and agreed that the plot structure is much the same as in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone. He described Fawkes 's appearance to arm Harry and then to heal him as a deus ex machina: he said that the book does not explain how Fawkes knew where to find Harry; and Fawkes 's timing had to be very precise, as arriving earlier would probably have prevented the battle with the basilisk, while arriving later would have been fatal to Harry and Ginny.
Rowling 's Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was the recipient of several awards. The American Library Association listed the novel among its 2000 Notable Children 's Books, as well as its Best Books for Young Adults. In 1999, Booklist named Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets as one of its Editors ' Choices, and as one of its Top Ten Fantasy Novels for Youth. The Cooperative Children 's Book Center made the novel a CCBC Choice of 2000 in the "Fiction for Children '' category. The novel also won Children 's Book of the Year British Book Award, and was shortlisted for the 1998 Guardian Children 's Award and the 1998 Carnegie Award.
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets won the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize 1998 Gold Medal in the 9 -- 11 years division. Rowling also won two other Nestlé Smarties Book Prizes for Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone and Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. The Scottish Arts Council awarded their first ever Children 's Book Award to the novel in 1999, and it was also awarded Whitaker 's Platinum Book Award in 2001. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 23 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read.
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets continues to examine what makes a person who he or she is, which began in the first book. As well as maintaining that Harry 's identity is shaped by his decisions rather than any aspect of his birth, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets provides contrasting characters who try to conceal their true personalities: as Tammy Nezol puts it, Gilderoy Lockhart "lacks any real identity '' because he is nothing more than a charming liar. Riddle also complicates Harry 's struggle to understand himself by pointing out the similarities between the two: "both half - bloods, orphans raised by Muggles, probably the only two Parselmouths to come to Hogwarts since the great Slytherin. ''
Opposition to class, death and its impacts, experiencing adolescence, sacrifice, love, friendship, loyalty, prejudice, and racism are constant themes of the series. In Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets Harry 's consideration and respect for others extends to the lowly, non-human Dobby and the ghost Nearly Headless Nick. According to Marguerite Krause, achievements in the novel depend more on ingenuity and hard work than on natural talents.
Edward Duffy, associate professor at Marquette University, says that one of the central characters of Chamber of Secrets is Tom Riddle 's enchanted diary, which takes control of Ginny Weasley -- just as Riddle planned. Duffy suggests Rowling intended this as a warning against passively consuming information from sources that have their own agendas. Although Bronwyn Williams and Amy Zenger regard the diary as more like an instant messaging or chat room system, they agree about the dangers of relying too much on the written word, which can camouflage the author, and they highlight a comical example, Lockhart 's self - promoting books.
Immorality and the portrayal of authority as negative are significant themes in the novel. Marguerite Krause states there are few absolute moral rules in Harry Potter 's world, for example Harry prefers to tell the truth, but lies whenever he considers it necessary -- very like his enemy Draco Malfoy. At the end of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Dumbledore retracts his promise to punish Harry, Ron, and Hermione if they break any more school rules -- after Professor McGonagall estimates they have broken over 100 -- and lavishly rewards them for ending the threat from the Chamber of Secrets. Krause further states that authority figures and political institutions receive little respect from Rowling. William MacNeil of Griffith University, Queensland, Australia states that the Minister for Magic is presented as a mediocrity. In his article "Harry Potter and the Secular City '', Ken Jacobson suggests the Ministry as a whole is portrayed as a tangle of bureaucratic empires, saying that "Ministry officials busy themselves with minutiae (e.g. standardising cauldron thicknesses) and coin politically correct euphemisms like ' non-magical community ' (for Muggles) and ' memory modification ' (for magical brainwashing). ''
This novel implies it begins in 1992: the cake for Nearly - Headless Nick 's 500th deathday party bears the words "Sir Nicholas De Mimsy Porpington died 31 October 1492 ''.
The film version of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was released in 2002. Chris Columbus directed the film, and the screenplay was written by Steve Kloves. It became the third film to exceed $600 million in international box office sales, preceded by Titanic, released in 1997, and Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, released in 2001. The film was nominated for a Saturn Award for the Best Fantasy Film, According to Metacritic, the film version of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets received "generally favourable reviews '' with an average score of 63 %, and another aggregator, Rotten Tomatoes, gave it a score of 82 %.
Five unique video games by different developers were released between 2002 and 2003 by Electronic Arts, loosely based on the book:
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who played the real big momma in big momma house | Big Momma 's house - wikipedia
Big Momma 's House is a 2000 American action comedy film directed by Raja Gosnell, written by Darryl Quarles and Don Rhymer, and starring Martin Lawrence as FBI agent Malcolm Turner. The majority of the film took place in Cartersville, Georgia, but the film was shot on location in California. The prime shooting spots were Los Angeles and Orange County. The film is also notable for being one of only four titles to be released on the EVD video format.
The film begins in an illegal underground dog - fighting arena in Korea, where an undercover FBI agent, John Patterson, has been identified and is later ordered by a Korean mob boss to be killed. However, John is eventually rescued by his undercover partner and master of disguise, Malcolm Turner.
Meanwhile, a criminal named Lester Vesco, who was originally serving a life sentence in prison for murder and armed robbery, escapes from his cell by killing a doctor and stealing his car. The FBI assigns Malcolm and John to capture Lester by sending them to small - town Cartersville, Georgia to stake out the house of an overweight, elderly African American woman named Hattie Mae Pierce, whom her friends call her Big Momma. Big Momma is the estranged Southern grandmother of Lester 's ex-girlfriend, Sherry Pierce, a bank employee who supposedly aided Lester in his robbery by giving him the key to the vault. After Big Momma unexpectedly leaves town for two weeks to help an ill friend, Malcolm and John sneak into her house to plant security cameras and tap the phones. Sherry calls Big Momma 's house, and Malcolm disguises his voice as Big Momma in order to lure Sherry to the house and possibly obtain a confession. The plan works, and Malcolm and John work together on a Big Momma disguise costume before Sherry 's arrival.
The next day, Sherry arrives at Big Momma 's house with her 10 - year - old son, Trent. However, Malcolm 's behaviour and sudden inexperience with cooking confuses Sherry. Malcolm also has to deal with Big Momma 's lecherous boyfriend, Ben Rawley; act as midwife for a woman named Ritha, who has gone into labor; and attend self - defense classes under Ritha 's older brother, a dim - witted security guard named Nolan, whom Malcolm handily defeats. After Malcolm almost damages the suit while sleeping, he tries to sneak back to the safe house where he and John are staying. However, Sherry captures Malcolm on the porch and he poses as Big Momma 's handyman. Malcolm and John repair the suit. When Malcolm leaves with Sherry, John searches Trent and Sherry 's belongings for clues, but to no avail. Malcolm bonds with Trent when he defends him against the two older boys who bullied Trent and kicked him off a basketball court so they could play. Malcolm and Trent eventually beat the boys at basketball, amazing Nolan and Trent. Malcolm also begins to bond with Sherry and Trent when he accompanies them on a fishing trip as himself. That night, Nolan discovers Malcolm and John 's undercover operation and is reluctantly recruited to help them after he insists.
Malcolm accompanies Sherry and Trent to church, where the Reverend calls on Malcolm to give his testimony. Malcolm attempts to influence Sherry and Trent by giving them his testimony about the importance of not keeping secrets. When Malcolm, Sherry, and Trent return to Big Momma 's house, they discover a surprise birthday party for Big Momma. During the party, the real Big Momma returns home prematurely, whom John tries to stall her. Malcolm accidentally finds the stolen money hidden in Trent 's footlocker. Sherry tells Malcolm the real story: Lester had wooed Sherry so he could steal her keys to gain access to the bank vault; Sherry did not tell anyone about her stolen keys out of fear of getting fired. John quietly tells Nolan that the real Big Momma is back, at which point Nolan accidentally locks Malcolm out of the house, believing he is the real Big Momma. When Lester arrives after tracking down Sherry, Malcolm breaks through the window and fights Lester, causing confusion among the partygoers as they see two Big Mommas at once. Lester shoots John in his right shoulder and rips Malcolm 's mask during a fistfight, which reveals his identity. Nonetheless, Malcolm subdues Lester by knocking him out through the window. Sherry and Trent are heartbroken to realize that Malcolm was an FBI agent all along, and they refuse to speak to him. The police arrest Lester and paramedics takes John to the hospital to heal his right shoulder.
On Sunday morning, Malcolm goes to church to testify Sherry, Trent, and Big Momma. Malcolm delivers his confession and heartfelt speech to Sherry and Trent, and later admits that he genuinely loves them. Big Momma forgives Malcolm, and the crowd cheers as Malcolm and Sherry kiss. The crowd celebrates as Big Momma and the choir sings "Oh Happy Day '' during the film 's closing credits.
Big Momma 's House received generally negative reviews at the time of its release. It has a rating of 4.4 / 10 at Rotten Tomatoes, with 30 % of 81 reviews being positive. The critical consensus was that "Big Momma 's House is funny in some parts, but it is essentially a one - joke movie. '' Metacritic gives the film a score of 33 % based on reviews from 27 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''.
The film, and the series as a whole, have been derided as typical of "representations of the big black woman that have appeared in mass marketed comedies '' which at the same time devalue the women by casting "male actors wearing Latex fat suits ''. One review of the third film sarcastically comments, "Believe it or not, the Big Momma 's House series rigidly follows the classic Hollywood trilogy structure ''. By the third film, the series was derided for its unnecessary rehashing of the cross-dressing gimmick.
The film was released on 2 June 2000, and was a surprise hit as it opened as the number two movie in North America, and almost overtook Mission: Impossible 2 for the top spot that weekend. Big Momma 's House went on to gross over $117 million at the US box office, and with a worldwide total just under $174 million. Each installment in the series declined from the box office realized by the original:
A soundtrack containing hip hop music was released on May 30, 2000 by So So Def Records. The film 's theme song was "Bounce with Me '' by Lil Bow Wow. The soundtrack was also a moderate success and has been certified gold since its release. Other than Lil Bow Wow, the soundtrack featured artists such as Jermaine Dupri, Da Brat, and Black Dave, whose single Go Big Girl can be heard briefly in the film. It peaked at 41 on the Billboard 200 and 12 on the Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums and spawned two hit singles, "Bounce with Me '' and "I 've Got to Have It ''.
This was the only Big Momma film to have an official soundtrack. However, the third film spawned one single, "Imma Do It Big '', by T - Pain, Brandon T. Jackson, and One Chance.
Big Momma 's House spawned 2 sequels: Big Momma 's House 2 (2006) and Big Mommas: Like Father, Like Son (2011). Both sequels are notable for being lighter and family - friendlier than the original. The sequels included some, but not all, of the same crew members, characters, and actors from the original:
The film is one of very few titles to be released on EVD as well as DVD and VHS. The film was re-released on Blu - ray and DVD.
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who does charlie from party of five end up with | List of party of five episodes - wikipedia
The following is a list of episodes for the television show Party of Five. 142 original episodes were broadcast across six seasons.
The arrival of Charlie 's old girlfriend, Pamela Rush, interrupts Kirsten and Charlie 's wedding plans. She claims that Charlie fathered her four - year - old son, Spencer. Meanwhile, Will plays matchmaker for Bailey, who is still grieving over the death of Jill, by trying to set him up on a date with school friend Sarah Reeves. Justin returns from Europe and Julia learns that he was not alone. But she has yet to tell him that she spent her summer getting to know Jill 's brother, Griffin.
Claudia breaks her arm while ice - skating, and Ross worries about her future as a violinist. Julia gets Griffin a job at Salinger 's Restaurant, but she begins to see how immature and irresponsible Griffin is when he skips the first day and Charlie fires him immediately on the second day when Griffin slacks off and talks back to Charlie and almost gets into a fistfight with him. Meanwhile, Bailey and Sarah 's relationship starts to get serious. A fortuneteller tells Kirsten that she would not marry Charlie. She convinces him to take dancing classes for their wedding, and they fight. Julia sees Justin with another girl, and he is mean to her after learning that she has been spending time with Griffin because of his bad guy reputation. Julia gets upset with Griffin for not being romantic.
Will surprises Bailey showing up at his place for a weekend visit. After seeing how frequently (and how much) Bailey drinks beer and hard liquor on a daily basis, Will thinks Bailey drinks too much. Will asks Sarah what is going on, but she does not want to talk about Bailey because of their recent breakup (and because of his drinking all the time). Before leaving town, Will tries to advise Bailey about cutting back on his excessive drinking, but Bailey convinces Will that it is no big deal. Callie asks Bailey to move into her room. Meanwhile, Grace 's apartment burns down, so she moves into the Salinger house. Charlie does not want Julia to turn down Stanford. Julia, angry with Charlie, moves to Sam 's so she would not have to listen to him. Charlie does not want her there, and they have a big fight. Upset over Julia invading his privacy, Sam tells Julia she should go back to the house. Seeing how drunk that Bailey frequently is, Claudia tries to get Bailey to stop drinking, but he ignores her.
The Salinger family tries to solve Bailey 's drinking problem. Claudia calls him and tells a story about Owen falling down the stairs. Bailey rushes to the house, when Charlie, Julia, Claudia, Grace and Sarah confront him. One by one, they all try to show Bailey that he has a serious drinking problem. Still in denial, Bailey refuses to accept it and fights with everybody. Joe arrives later that day and tells Bailey and everyone else that his late father, Nick Salinger, also had a serious drinking problem for many years, but he stayed sober for 18 years until he died. Bailey does not believe Joe, but Charlie does and proves it to be true with stories from his childhood. They all try to get Bailey into an AA program, but he refuses claiming that alcoholism is a part of who he is, and he openly states he would rather die than seek treatment. After everybody has given up, Claudia tells Bailey that if he does not face his drinking problem and look for help to stop his self - destructive lifestyle, than he will no longer be a part of the family. Bailey leaves without saying a word.
Bailey is sober for a week. Callie gets jealous because Bailey is spending much more time with Sarah -- who meets a guy at her doctor 's office and they hit it off -- than with her. Callie tries to help Bailey, but he tells her that she 's part of the reason for his drinking. Callie goes to Sarah and tries to find out why Sarah is helping Bailey so much. In response, Sarah tells Callie that she does not want to get back with Bailey because she 's dating someone new. Callie gets drunk and insults Bailey. The next day, Bailey moves out of Callie 's apartment and back to the Salinger house. Meanwhile, Julia starts skipping school in order to hang out with rebel Griffin, and she starts to get an ' F ' in history. Griffin tells her to go back to school, and she does. Also, Claudia is rightfully convinced that Grace is too self - absorbed with running for city council and does not care about her and Owen, so she makes up a story about a reporter wanting to meet her just to spend some time with Grace. When the ruse is revealed, Charlie gets somewhat angry with Claudia that she led Grace on, but Claudia points out that she proved that Grace is more concerned about the reporter and the publicity from the family.
Daphne hires Victor as a nanny for Diana, and gets help job - hunting from Kirsten. Charlie counsels a troubled teen named Myra at work. Meanwhile, Julia investigates her parents ' relationship for her written assignment, which upsets Bailey. Claudia figures out that Cameron is attacking his friends on a web page. Sarah thinks she 's found her father in New York and plans to meet him, meaning that she will have to leave Bailey.
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who sets the salaries for senate and house members | United States House of Representatives - Wikipedia
The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress, which along with the Senate composes the legislature of the United States.
The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. The House is composed of representatives who sit in congressional districts which are allocated to each of the 50 states on a basis of population as measured by the U.S. Census, with each district entitled one representative. Since its inception in 1789, all representatives are directly elected. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435. As of the 2010 Census, the largest delegation is that of California, with fifty - three representatives; seven states have the smallest delegation possible, a single representative: Alaska, Delaware, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming.
The House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. In addition to this basic power, the House has certain exclusive powers which include the power to initiate all bills related to revenue, the impeachment of federal officers, who are sent to trial in the Senate, and in cases wherein no candidate receives a majority of electors for President, the duty falls upon the House to elect one of the top three recipients of electors for that office, with one vote given to each state for that purpose.
The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is therefore traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other floor leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conference, depending on whichever party has more voting members. The House meets in the south wing of the United States Capitol.
Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a unicameral body in which each state was equally represented, and in which each state had a veto over most action. After eight years of a more limited confederal government under the Articles, numerous political leaders, such as James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, initiated the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which received the Confederation Congress 's sanction to "amend the Articles of Confederation ''. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates.
The issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. Edmund Randolph 's Virginia Plan called for a bicameral Congress: the lower house would be "of the people '', elected directly by the people of the United States and representing public opinion, and a more deliberative upper house that would represent the individual states, and would be less susceptible to variations of mass sentiment, would be elected by the lower house.
The House is referred to as the lower house, with the Senate being the upper house, although the United States Constitution does not use that terminology. Both houses ' approval is necessary for the passage of legislation. The Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, which called for a unicameral Congress with equal representation for the states.
Eventually, the Convention reached the Connecticut Compromise, or the Great Compromise, under which one house of Congress (the House of Representatives) would provide representation proportional to each state 's population, whereas the other (the Senate) would provide equal representation amongst the states. The Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states (nine out of the 13) in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4, 1789. The House began work on April 1, 1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time.
During the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives. However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed.
Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery. One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican -- American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War (1861 -- 1865), which began soon after several southern states attempted to secede from the Union. The war culminated in the South 's defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the Senate did not have the balance of power between North and South during the war.
The years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Union 's victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877; the ensuing era, known as the Gilded Age, was marked by sharp political divisions in the electorate. The Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times.
The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw a dramatic increase in the power of the Speaker of the House. The rise of the Speaker 's influence began in the 1890s, during tenure of Republican Thomas Brackett Reed. "Czar Reed '', as he was nicknamed, attempted to put into effect his view that "The best system is to have one party govern and the other party watch. '' The leadership structure of the House also developed during approximately the same period, with the positions of Majority Leader and Minority Leader being created in 1899. While the Minority Leader was the head of the minority party, the Majority Leader remained subordinate to the Speaker. The Speakership reached its zenith during the term of Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon, 1903 to 1911. The powers of the Speaker included chairmanship of the influential Rules Committee and the ability to appoint members of other House committees. These powers, however, were curtailed in the "Revolution of 1910 '' because of the efforts of Democrats and dissatisfied Republicans who opposed Cannon 's arguably heavy - handed tactics.
The Democratic Party dominated the House of Representatives during the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933 -- 1945), often winning over two - thirds of the seats. Both Democrats and Republicans were in power at various times during the next decade. The Democratic Party maintained control of the House from 1955 until 1995. In the mid-1970s, there were major reforms of the House, strengthening the power of sub-committees at the expense of committee chairs and allowing party leaders to nominate committee chairs. These actions were taken to undermine the seniority system, and to reduce the ability of a small number of senior members to obstruct legislation they did not favor. There was also a shift from the 1990s to greater control of the legislative program by the majority party; the power of party leaders (especially the Speaker) grew considerably.
The Republicans took control of the House in 1995, under the leadership of Speaker Newt Gingrich. Gingrich attempted to pass a major legislative program, the Contract with America, on which the House Republicans had been elected, and made major reforms of the House, notably reducing the tenure of committee chairs to three two - year terms. Many elements of the Contract did not pass Congress, were vetoed by President Bill Clinton, or were substantially altered in negotiations with Clinton. The Republicans held on to the House until 2006, when the Democrats won control and Nancy Pelosi was subsequently elected by the House as the first female Speaker. The Republicans retook the House in 2011, with the largest shift of power since the 1930s.
Under Article I, Section 2 of the Constitution, seats in the House of Representatives are apportioned among the states by population, as determined by the census conducted every ten years. Each state, however, is entitled to at least one Representative.
The only constitutional rule relating to the size of the House states: "The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative. '' Congress regularly increased the size of the House to account for population growth until it fixed the number of voting House members at 435 in 1911. The number was temporarily increased to 437 in 1959 upon the admission of Alaska and Hawaii (seating one representative from each of those states without changing existing apportionment), and returned to 435 four years later, after the reapportionment consequent to the 1960 census.
The Constitution does not provide for the representation of the District of Columbia or of territories. The District of Columbia and the territories of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands are each represented by one non-voting delegate. Puerto Rico elects a Resident Commissioner, but other than having a four - year term, the Resident Commissioner 's role is identical to the delegates from the other territories. The five Delegates and Resident Commissioner may participate in debates; prior to 2011, they were also allowed to vote in committees and the Committee of the Whole when their votes would not be decisive.
States that are entitled to more than one Representative are divided into single - member districts. This has been a federal statutory requirement since 1967. Prior to that law, general ticket representation was used by some states.
States typically redraw district boundaries after each census, though they may do so at other times, such as the 2003 Texas redistricting. Each state determines its own district boundaries, either through legislation or through non-partisan panels. "Malapportionment '' is unconstitutional and districts must be approximately equal in population (see Wesberry v. Sanders). Additionally, Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibits redistricting plans that are intended to, or have the effect of, discriminating against racial or language minority voters. Aside from malapportionment and discrimination against racial or language minorities, federal courts have allowed state legislatures to engage in gerrymandering for the benefit of political parties or incumbents. In a 1984 case, Davis v. Bandemer, the Supreme Court held that gerrymandered districts could be struck down on the basis of the Equal Protection Clause, but the Court did not articulate a standard for when districts are impermissibly gerrymandered. However, the court overruled Davis in 2004 in Vieth v. Jubelirer, and Court precedent currently holds gerrymandering to be a political question. According to calculations made by Burt Neuborne using criteria set forth by the American Political Science Association, about 40 seats, less than 10 % of the House membership, are chosen through a genuinely contested electoral process, given bipartisan gerrymandering.
Article I, Section 2 of the Constitution sets three qualifications for representatives. Each representative must: (1) be at least twenty - five years old; (2) have been a citizen of the United States for the past seven years; and (3) be (at the time of the election) an inhabitant of the state they represent. Members are not required to live in the district they represent, but they traditionally do. The age and citizenship qualifications for representatives are less than those for senators. The constitutional requirements of Article I, Section 2 for election to Congress are the maximum requirements that can be imposed on a candidate. Therefore, Article I, Section 5, which permits each House to be the judge of the qualifications of its own members does not permit either House to establish additional qualifications. Likewise a State could not establish additional qualifications.
Disqualification: under the Fourteenth Amendment, a federal or state officer who takes the requisite oath to support the Constitution, but later engages in rebellion or aids the enemies of the United States, is disqualified from becoming a representative. This post -- Civil War provision was intended to prevent those who sided with the Confederacy from serving. However, disqualified individuals may serve if they gain the consent of two - thirds of both houses of Congress.
Elections for representatives are held in every even - numbered year, on Election Day the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. By law, Representatives must be elected from single - member districts. After a census is taken (in a year ending in 0), the year ending in 2 is the first year in which elections for U.S. House districts are based on that census (with the Congress based on those districts starting its term on the following Jan. 3).
In most states, major party candidates for each district are nominated in partisan primary elections, typically held in spring to late summer. In some states, the Republican and Democratic parties choose their respective candidates for each district in their political conventions in spring or early summer, which often use unanimous voice votes to reflect either confidence in the incumbent or the result of bargaining in earlier private discussions. Exceptions can result in so - called floor fight -- convention votes by delegates, with outcomes that can be hard to predict. Especially if a convention is closely divided, a losing candidate may contend further by meeting the conditions for a primary election.
The courts generally do not consider ballot access rules for independent and third party candidates to be additional qualifications for holding office and there are no federal regulations regarding ballot access. As a result, the process to gain ballot access varies greatly from state to state, and in the case of a third party may be affected by results of previous years ' elections.
In 1967, the United States Congress passed the Uniform Congressional District Act, which requires almost all representatives be elected from single - member - districts, Following the Wesberry v. Sanders decision, Congress was motivated by fears that courts would impose at - large plurality districts on states that did not redistrict to comply with the new mandates for districts roughly equal in population, and Congress also sought to prevent attempts by southern states to use such voting systems to dilute the vote of racial minorities. Several states have used multi-member districts in the past, although only two states (Hawaii and Maine) used multi-member districts in 1967. Hawaii and Maine were made exempt from the Uniform Congressional District Act, and are free to use multi-member districts, although neither state chooses to do so.
Louisiana is unique in that it holds an all - party "primary election '' on the general Election Day with a subsequent runoff election between the top two finishers (regardless of party) if no candidate received a majority in the primary. The states of Washington and California now use a similar (though not identical) system to that used by Louisiana. Seats vacated during a term are filled through special elections, unless the vacancy occurs closer to the next general election date than a pre-established deadline. The term of a member chosen in a special election usually begins the next day, or as soon as the results are certified.
Additionally, Washington D.C. and the five inhabited U.S. territories each elect a non-voting delegate. With the exception of the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, each representative and delegate serves for a two - year term. They have a voice on the floor, but can not vote there.
Representatives and Delegates serve for two - year terms, while the Resident Commissioner serves for four years. The Constitution permits the House to expel a member with a two - thirds vote. In the history of the United States, only five members have been expelled from the House; in 1861, three were removed for supporting the Confederate states ' secession: John Bullock Clark (D - MO), John William Reid (D - MO) and Henry Cornelius Burnett (D - KY). Michael Myers (D - PA) was expelled after his criminal conviction for accepting bribes in 1980, and James Traficant (D - OH) was expelled in 2002 following his conviction for corruption. The House also has the power to formally censure or reprimand its members; censure or reprimand of a member requires only a simple majority, and does not remove that member from office.
As a check on the regional, popular, and rapidly changing politics of the House, the Senate has several distinct powers. For example, the "advice and consent '' powers (such as the power to approve treaties) are a sole Senate privilege. The House, however, has the exclusive power to initiate bills for raising revenue, to impeach officials, and to choose the President in the event that a presidential candidate fails to get a majority of the Electoral College votes. The Senate and House are further differentiated by term lengths and the number of districts represented: the Senate has longer terms of six years, fewer members (currently one hundred, two for each state), and (in all but seven delegations) larger constituencies per member. The Senate is informally referred to as the "upper '' house, and the House of Representatives as the "lower '' house.
As of December 2014, the annual salary of each Representative is $ 174,000. The Speaker of the House and the Majority and Minority Leaders earn more: $223,500 for the Speaker and $193,400 for their party leaders (the same as Senate leaders). A cost - of - living - adjustment (COLA) increase takes effect annually unless Congress votes to not accept it. Congress sets members ' salaries; however, the Twenty - seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits a change in salary (but not COLA) from taking effect until after the next election of the whole House. Representatives are eligible for retirement benefits after serving for five years. Outside pay is limited to 15 % of congressional pay, and certain types of income involving a fiduciary responsibility or personal endorsement are prohibited.
Representatives use the prefix "The Honorable '' before their names. A member of the House is referred to as a representative, congressman, or congresswoman. While senators are members of Congress, the terms congressman and congresswoman are not generally used by them.
All members of Congress are automatically (without the option of withdrawal) enrolled in the Federal Employees Retirement System, a pension system also used for federal civil servants. They become eligible to receive benefits after five years of service (two and one - half terms in the House). The FERS is composed of three elements:
Members of Congress may retire with full benefits at age 62 after five years of service, at age 50 after twenty years of service, and at any age after twenty - five years of service. They may retire with reduced benefits at ages 55 to 59 after five years of service. Depending on birth year, they may receive a reduced pension after ten years of service if they are between 55 years and 57 years of age.
Members of Congress are permitted to deduct up to $3,000 of living expenses per year incurred while living away from their district or home state.
Prior to 2014, members of Congress and their staff had access to essentially the same health benefits as federal civil servants; they could voluntarily enroll in the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program (FEHBP), an employer - sponsored health insurance program, and were eligible to participate in other programs, such as the Federal Flexible Spending Account Program (FSAFEDS).
However, Section 1312 (d) (3) (D) of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) provided that the only health plans that the federal government can make available to members of Congress and certain congressional staff are those created under the ACA or offered through a health care exchange. The Office of Personnel Management promulgated a final rule to comply with Section 1312 (d) (3) (D). Under the rule, effective January 1, 2014, members and designated staff are no longer able to purchase FEHBP plans as active employees. However, if members enroll in a health plan offered through a Small Business Health Options Program (SHOP) exchange, they remain eligible for an employer contribution toward coverage, and members and designated staff who are eligible for retirement may enroll in a FEHBP plan upon retirement.
The ACA and the final rule do not affect members ' or staffers ' eligibility for Medicare benefits. The ACA and the final rule also do not affect members ' and staffers ' eligibility for other health benefits related to federal employment, so current members and staff are eligible to participate in FSAFEDS (which has three options within the program), the Federal Employees Dental and Vision Insurance Program, and the Federal Long Term Care Insurance Program.
There is an Office of the Attending Physician at the U.S. Capitol, which current members may seek health care from for an annual fee. The attending physician provides routine exams, consultations, and certain diagnostics, and may write prescriptions (although it does not dispense them). The office does not provide vision or dental care.
Current members (but not their dependents, and not former members) may also receive medical and emergency dental care at military treatment facilities. There is no charge for outpatient care if it is provided in the National Capital Region, but members are billed at full reimbursement rates (set by the Department of Defense) for inpatient care. (Outside the National Capital Region, charges are at full reimbursement rates for both inpatient and outpatient care).
House members are eligible for a Member 's Representational Allowance (MRA) to support them in their official and representational duties to their district. The MRA is calculated based on three components: one for personnel, one for official office expenses and one for official or franked mail. The personnel allowance is the same for all members; the office and mail allowances vary based on the members ' district 's distance from Washington, D.C., the cost of office space in the member 's district, and the number of non-business addresses in their district. These three components are used to calculate a single MRA that can fund any expense -- even though each component is calculated individually, the franking allowance can be used to pay for personnel expenses if the member so chooses. In 2011 this allowance averaged $1.4 million per member, and ranged from $1.35 to $1.67 million.
The Personnel allowance was $944,671 per member in 2010. Each member may employ no more than 18 permanent employees. Members ' employees ' salary is capped at $168,411 as of 2009.
Each member - elect and one staffer can be paid for one round trip between their home in their congressional district and Washington, D.C. for organization caucuses.
The party with a majority of seats in the House is known as the majority party. The next - largest party is the minority party. The Speaker, committee chairs, and some other officials are generally from the majority party; they have counterparts (for instance, the "ranking members '' of committees) in the minority party.
The Constitution provides that the House may choose its own Speaker. Although not explicitly required by the Constitution, every Speaker has been a member of the House. The Constitution does not specify the duties and powers of the Speaker, which are instead regulated by the rules and customs of the House. Speakers have a role both as a leader of the House and the leader of their party (which need not be the majority party; theoretically, a member of the minority party could be elected as Speaker with the support of a fraction of members of the majority party). Under the Presidential Succession Act (1947), the Speaker is second in the line of presidential succession behind the Vice President.
The Speaker is the presiding officer of the House but does not preside over every debate. Instead, s / he delegates the responsibility of presiding to other members in most cases. The presiding officer sits in a chair in the front of the House chamber. The powers of the presiding officer are extensive; one important power is that of controlling the order in which members of the House speak. No member may make a speech or a motion unless s / he has first been recognized by the presiding officer. Moreover, the presiding officer may rule on a "point of order '' (a member 's objection that a rule has been breached); the decision is subject to appeal to the whole House.
Speakers serve as chairs of their party 's steering committee, which is responsible for assigning party members to other House committees. The Speaker chooses the chairmen of standing committees, appoints most of the members of the Rules Committee, appoints all members of conference committees, and determines which committees consider bills.
Each party elects a floor leader, who is known as the Majority Leader or Minority Leader. The Minority Leader heads their party in the House, and the Majority Leader is their party 's second - highest - ranking official, behind the Speaker. Party leaders decide what legislation members of their party should either support or oppose.
Each party also elects a Whip, who works to ensure that the party 's members vote as the party leadership desires. The current majority whip in the House of Representatives is Steve Scalise, who is a member of the Republican Party. The current minority whip is Steny Hoyer, who is a member of the Democratic Party. The whip is supported by chief deputy whips.
In the 112th Congress, the Democratic Party has an additional Assistant Minority Leader, Jim Clyburn, who ranks between the whips and the caucus / conference chair.
After the whips, the next ranking official in the House party 's leadership is the Party Conference Chair (styled as the Republican Conference Chair and Democratic Caucus Chair).
After the Conference Chair, there are differences between each party 's subsequent leadership ranks. After the Democratic Caucus Chair is the Campaign Committee Chair (Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee), then the co-chairs of the Steering Committee. For the Republicans it is the Chair of the House Republican Policy Committee, followed by the Campaign Committee Chairman (styled as the National Republican Congressional Committee).
The chairs of House committees, particularly influential standing committees such as Appropriations, Ways and Means, and Rules, are powerful but not officially part of House leadership hierarchy. Until the post of Majority Leader was created, the Chair of Ways and Means was the de facto majority leader.
When the Presidency and Senate are controlled by a different party from the one controlling the House, the Speaker can become the de facto "leader of the opposition ''. Some notable examples include Tip O'Neill in the 1980s, Newt Gingrich in the 1990s, and John Boehner and Paul Ryan in the 2010s. Since the Speaker is a partisan officer with substantial power to control the business of the House, the position is often used for partisan advantage.
In the instance when the Presidency and both Houses of Congress are controlled by one party, the Speaker normally takes a low profile and defers to the President. For that situation the House Minority Leader can play the role of a de facto "leader of the opposition '', often more so than the Senate Minority Leader, due to the more partisan nature of the House and the greater role of leadership.
The House is also served by several officials who are not members. The House 's chief officer is the Clerk, who maintains public records, prepares documents, and oversees junior officials, including pages, until the junior position 's discontinuation in 2011. The Clerk also presides over the House at the beginning of each new Congress pending the election of a Speaker. Another officer is the Chief Administrative Officer, responsible for the day - to - day administrative support to the House of Representatives. This includes everything from payroll to foodservice.
The position of Chief Administrative Officer (CAO) was created by the 104th Congress following the 1994 mid-term elections, replacing the positions of Doorkeeper and Director of Non-Legislative and Financial Services (created by the previous congress to administer the non-partisan functions of the House). The CAO also assumed some of the responsibilities of the House Information Services, which previously had been controlled directly by the Committee on House Administration, then headed by Representative Charlie Rose of North Carolina, along with the House "Folding Room ''.
The Chaplain leads the House in prayer at the opening of the day. There is also a Sergeant at Arms, who as the House 's chief law enforcement officer maintains order and security on House premises. Finally, routine police work is handled by the United States Capitol Police, which is supervised by the Capitol Police Board, a body to which the Sergeant at Arms belongs.
Like the Senate, the House of Representatives meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. At one end of the chamber of the House is a rostrum from which the Speaker, Speaker Pro Tempore, or (when in the Committee of the Whole) the Chair presides. The lower tier of the rostrum is used by clerks and other officials. Members ' seats are arranged in the chamber in a semicircular pattern facing the rostrum and are divided by a wide central aisle. By tradition, Democrats sit on the left of the center aisle, while Republicans sit on the right, facing the presiding officer 's chair. Sittings are normally held on weekdays; meetings on Saturdays and Sundays are rare. Sittings of the House are generally open to the public; visitors must obtain a House Gallery pass from a congressional office. Sittings are broadcast live on television and have been streamed live on C - SPAN since March 19, 1979, and on HouseLive, the official streaming service operated by the Clerk, since the early 2010s.
The procedure of the House depends not only on the rules, but also on a variety of customs, precedents, and traditions. In many cases, the House waives some of its stricter rules (including time limits on debates) by unanimous consent. A member may block a unanimous consent agreement; in practice, objections are rare. The presiding officer, the Speaker of the House enforces the rules of the House, and may warn members who deviate from them. The Speaker uses a gavel to maintain order. The box in which legislation is placed to be considered by the House is called the hopper.
In one of its first resolutions, the U.S. House of Representatives established the Office of the Sergeant at Arms. In an American tradition adopted from English custom in 1789 by the first Speaker of the House, Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania, the Mace of the United States House of Representatives is used to open all sessions of the House. It is also used during the inaugural ceremonies for all Presidents of the United States. For daily sessions of the House, the sergeant at Arms carries the mace in front of the Speaker in procession to the rostrum. It is placed on a green marble pedestal to the Speaker 's right. When the House is in committee, the mace is moved to a pedestal next to the desk of the Sergeant at Arms.
The Constitution provides that a majority of the House constitutes a quorum to do business. Under the rules and customs of the House, a quorum is always assumed present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise. House rules prevent a member from making a point of order that a quorum is not present unless a question is being voted on. The presiding officer does not accept a point of order of no quorum during general debate, or when a question is not before the House.
During debates, a member may speak only if called upon by the presiding officer. The presiding officer decides which members to recognize, and can therefore control the course of debate. All speeches must be addressed to the presiding officer, using the words "Mr. Speaker '' or "Madam Speaker ''. Only the presiding officer may be directly addressed in speeches; other members must be referred to in the third person. In most cases, members do not refer to each other only by name, but also by state, using forms such as "the gentleman from Virginia '', "the distinguished gentlewoman from California '', or "my distinguished friend from Alabama ''.
There are 448 permanent seats on the House Floor and four tables, two on each side. These tables are occupied by members of the committee that have brought a bill to the floor for consideration and by the respective party leadership. Members address the House from microphones at any table or "the well, '' the area immediately in front of the rostrum.
Per the constitution, the House determines the rules according to which it passes legislation. The rules are in principle open to change with each new Congress, but in practice each new session amends a standing set of rules built up over the history of the body in an early resolution published for public inspection. Before legislation reaches the floor of the House, the Rules Committee normally passes a rule to govern debate on that measure (which then must be passed by the full House before it becomes effective). For instance, the committee determines if amendments to the bill are permitted. An "open rule '' permits all germane amendments, but a "closed rule '' restricts or even prohibits amendment. Debate on a bill is generally restricted to one hour, equally divided between the majority and minority parties. Each side is led during the debate by a "floor manager '', who allocates debate time to members who wish to speak. On contentious matters, many members may wish to speak; thus, a member may receive as little as one minute, or even thirty seconds, to make his / her point.
When debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote. In many cases, the House votes by voice vote; the presiding officer puts the question, and members respond either "yea '' or "aye '' (in favor of the motion) or "nay '' or "no '' (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote. A member may however challenge the presiding officer 's assessment and "request the yeas and nays '' or "request a recorded vote ''. The request may be granted only if it is seconded by one - fifth of the members present. In practice, however, members of congress second requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy. Some votes are always recorded, such as those on the annual budget.
A recorded vote may be taken in one of three different ways. One is electronically. Members use a personal identification card to record their votes at 46 voting stations in the chamber. Votes are usually held in this way. A second mode of recorded vote is by teller. Members hand in colored cards to indicate their votes: green for "yea '', red for "nay '', and orange for "present '' (i.e., to abstain). Teller votes are normally held only when electronic voting breaks down. Finally, the House may conduct a roll call vote. The Clerk reads the list of members of the House, each of whom announces their vote when their name is called. This procedure is only used rarely (such as for the election of a Speaker) because of the time consumed by calling over four hundred names.
Voting traditionally lasts for, at most, fifteen minutes, but it may be extended if the leadership needs to "whip '' more members into alignment. The 2003 vote on the prescription drug benefit was open for three hours, from 3: 00 to 6: 00 a.m., to receive four additional votes, three of which were necessary to pass the legislation. The 2005 vote on the Central American Free Trade Agreement was open for one hour, from 11: 00 p.m. to midnight. An October 2005 vote on facilitating refinery construction was kept open for forty minutes.
Presiding officers may vote like other members. They may not, however, vote twice in the event of a tie; rather, a tie vote defeats the motion.
The House uses committees and their subcommittees for a variety of purposes, including the review of bills and the oversight of the executive branch. The appointment of committee members is formally made by the whole House, but the choice of members is actually made by the political parties. Generally, each party honors the preferences of individual members, giving priority on the basis of seniority. Historically, membership on committees has been in rough proportion to the party 's strength in the House as a whole, with two exceptions: on the Rules Committee, the majority party fills nine of the thirteen seats; and on the Ethics Committee, each party has an equal number of seats. However, when party control in the House is closely divided, extra seats on committees are sometimes allocated to the majority party. In the 109th Congress, for example, the Republicans controlled about 53 % of the House as a whole, but had 54 % of the Appropriations Committee members, 55 % of the members on the Energy and Commerce Committee, 58 % of the members on the Judiciary Committee, and 69 % of the members on the Rules Committee.
The largest committee of the House is the Committee of the Whole, which, as its name suggests, consists of all members of the House. The Committee meets in the House chamber; it may consider and amend bills, but may not grant them final passage. Generally, the debate procedures of the Committee of the Whole are more flexible than those of the House itself. One advantage of the Committee of the Whole is its ability to include otherwise non-voting members of Congress.
Most committee work is performed by twenty standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a specific set of issues, such as Agriculture or Foreign Affairs. Each standing committee considers, amends, and reports bills that fall under its jurisdiction. Committees have extensive powers with regard to bills; they may block legislation from reaching the floor of the House. Standing committees also oversee the departments and agencies of the executive branch. In discharging their duties, standing committees have the power to hold hearings and to subpoena witnesses and evidence.
The House also has one permanent committee that is not a standing committee, the Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, and from time to time may establish committees that are temporary and advisory in nature, such as the Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming. This latter committee, created in the 110th Congress and reauthorized for the 111th, has no jurisdiction over legislation and must be chartered anew at the start of every Congress. The House also appoints members to serve on joint committees, which include members of the Senate and House. Some joint committees oversee independent government bodies; for instance, the Joint Committee on the Library oversees the Library of Congress. Other joint committees serve to make advisory reports; for example, there exists a Joint Committee on Taxation. Bills and nominees are not referred to joint committees. Hence, the power of joint committees is considerably lower than those of standing committees.
Each House committee and subcommittee is led by a chairman (always a member of the majority party). From 1910 to the 1970s, committee chairs were powerful. Woodrow Wilson in his classic study, suggested:
Power is nowhere concentrated; it is rather deliberately and of set policy scattered amongst many small chiefs. It is divided up, as it were, into forty - seven seigniories, in each of which a Standing Committee is the court - baron and its chairman lord - proprietor. These petty barons, some of them not a little powerful, but none of them within the reach of the full powers of rule, may at will exercise almost despotic sway within their own shires, and may sometimes threaten to convulse even the realm itself.
From 1910 to 1975 committee and subcommittee chairmanship was determined purely by seniority; congressmembers sometimes had to wait 30 years to get one, but their chairship was independent of party leadership. The rules were changed in 1975 to permit party caucuses to elect chairs, shifting power upward to the party leaders. In 1995, Republicans under Newt Gingrich set a limit of three two - year terms for committee chairs. The chair 's powers are extensive; they control the committee / subcommittee agenda, and may prevent the committee from dealing with a bill. The senior member of the minority party is known as the Ranking Member. In some committees like Appropriations, partisan disputes are few.
Most bills may be introduced in either House of Congress. However, the Constitution states, "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ''. As a result of the Origination Clause, the Senate can not initiate bills imposing taxes. This provision barring the Senate from introducing revenue bills is based on the practice of the British Parliament, in which only the House of Commons may originate such measures. Furthermore, congressional tradition holds that the House of Representatives originates appropriation bills.
Although it can not originate revenue bills, the Senate retains the power to amend or reject them. Woodrow Wilson wrote the following about appropriations bills:
(T) he constitutional prerogative of the House has been held to apply to all the general appropriations bills, and the Senate 's right to amend these has been allowed the widest possible scope. The upper house may add to them what it pleases; may go altogether outside of their original provisions and tack to them entirely new features of legislation, altering not only the amounts but even the objects of expenditure, and making out of the materials sent them by the popular chamber measures of an almost totally new character.
The approval of the Senate and the House of Representatives is required for a bill to become law. Both Houses must pass the same version of the bill; if there are differences, they may be resolved by a conference committee, which includes members of both bodies. For the stages through which bills pass in the Senate, see Act of Congress.
The President may veto a bill passed by the House and Senate. If he does, the bill does not become law unless each House, by a two - thirds vote, votes to override the veto.
The Constitution provides that the Senate 's "advice and consent '' is necessary for the President to make appointments and to ratify treaties. Thus, with its potential to frustrate Presidential appointments, the Senate is more powerful than the House.
The Constitution empowers the House of Representatives to impeach federal officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors '' and empowers the Senate to try such impeachments. The House may approve "articles of impeachment '' by a simple majority vote; however, a two - thirds vote is required for conviction in the Senate. A convicted official is automatically removed from office and may be disqualified from holding future office under the United States. No further punishment is permitted during the impeachment proceedings; however, the party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law.
In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. (Another, Richard Nixon, resigned after the House Judiciary Committee passed articles of impeachment but before a formal impeachment vote by the full House.) Only two Presidents of the United States have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson 's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two - thirds majority required for conviction.
Under the Twelfth Amendment, the House has the power to elect the President if no presidential candidate receives a majority of votes in the Electoral College. The Twelfth Amendment requires the House to choose from the three candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes. The Constitution provides that "the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote. '' It is rare for no presidential candidate to receive a majority of electoral votes. In the history of the United States, the House has only had to choose a President twice. In 1800, which was before the adoption of the Twelfth Amendment, it elected Thomas Jefferson over Aaron Burr. In 1824, it elected John Quincy Adams over Andrew Jackson and William H. Crawford. If no presidential candidate receives a majority of the electoral votes, the Senate elects the Vice President from the two candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes.
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 20 '' N 77 ° 0 ′ 32 '' W / 38.88889 ° N 77.00889 ° W / 38.88889; - 77.00889
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what you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven | Binding and loosing - wikipedia
Binding and loosing is originally a Jewish phrase appearing in the New Testament, as well as in the Targum. In usage, to bind and to loose simply means to forbid by an indisputable authority and to permit by an indisputable authority. The Targum to a particular Psalm implies that these actions were considered to be as effectual as the spell of an enchanter.
The poseks had, by virtue of their ordination, the power of deciding disputes relating to Jewish law. Hence, the difference between the two main schools of thought in early classical Judaism were summed up by the phrase the school of Shammai binds; the school of Hillel looses.
Theoretically, however, the authority of the poseks proceeded from the Sanhedrin, and there is therefore a Talmudic statement that there were three decisions made by the lower house of judgment (the Sanhedrin) to which the upper house of judgment (the heavenly one) gave its supreme sanction. The claim that whatsoever (a disciple) bind (s) or loose (s) on earth shall be bound or loosed in heaven, which the Gospel of Matthew attributes to Jesus, is probably therefore just an adoption of a phrase popular at the time.
This is also the meaning of the phrase when it is applied in the text to Simon Peter and the other apostles in particular when they are invested with the power to bind and loose by Christ.
This also serves as the scriptural and traditional foundation for the Catholic Church 's conception of papal authority, stemming from such an investiture of St. Peter, since, according to Roman Catholic doctrine, the Popes are the Successors of St. Peter.
13 When Jesus came to the region of Caesarea Philippi, he asked his disciples, "Who do people say the Son of Man is? ''
14 They replied, "Some say John the Baptist; others say Elijah; and still others, Jeremiah or one of the prophets. ''
15 "But what about you? '' he asked. "Who do you say I am? ''
16 Simon Peter answered, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God. ''
17 Jesus replied, "Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah, for this was not revealed to you by flesh and blood, but by my Father in heaven. 18 And I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it. 19 I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven. '' 20 Then he ordered his disciples not to tell anyone that he was the Messiah. -- Matthew 16: 13 - 20
Acts chapter 15 expresses the first documented instance of loosening and binding; what has been later termed the Council at Jerusalem. Here the early controversy of circumcision was resolved, and loosened from being a qualification for salvation and acceptance into the community of believers. In the depiction below, we see an appeal to follow what has been revealed by the Holy Spirit, and not what opinions of men would suppose. Four things are bound while one thing is loosened:
1 Certain people came down from Judea to Antioch and were teaching the believers: "Unless you are circumcised, according to the custom taught by Moses, you can not be saved. '' 2 This brought Paul and Barnabas into sharp dispute and debate with them. So Paul and Barnabas were appointed, along with some other believers, to go up to Jerusalem to see the apostles and elders about this question. 3 The church sent them on their way, and as they traveled through Phoenicia and Samaria, they told how the Gentiles had been converted. This news made all the believers very glad. 4 When they came to Jerusalem, they were welcomed by the church and the apostles and elders, to whom they reported everything God had done through them.
5 Then some of the believers who belonged to the party of the Pharisees stood up and said, "The Gentiles must be circumcised and required to keep the law of Moses. ''
6 The apostles and elders met to consider this question. 7 After much discussion, Peter got up and addressed them: "Brothers, you know that some time ago God made a choice among you that the Gentiles might hear from my lips the message of the gospel and believe (first Gentile conversion, Acts 10). 8 God, who knows the heart, showed that he accepted them by giving the Holy Spirit to them, just as he did to us. 9 He did not discriminate between us and them, for he purified their hearts by faith. 10 Now then, why do you try to test God by putting on the necks of Gentiles a yoke that neither we nor our ancestors have been able to bear? 11 No! We believe it is through the grace of our Lord Jesus that we are saved, just as they are. ''
12 The whole assembly became silent as they listened to Barnabas and Paul telling about the signs and wonders God had done among the Gentiles through them. 13 When they finished, James spoke up. "Brothers, '' he said, "listen to me. 14 Simon has described to us how God first intervened to choose a people for his name from the Gentiles. 15 The words of the prophets are in agreement with this, as it is written:
16 "' After this I will return and rebuild David 's fallen tent. Its ruins I will rebuild, and I will restore it, 17 that the rest of mankind may seek the Lord, even all the Gentiles who bear my name, says the Lord, who does these things ' -- 18 things known from long ago.
19 "It is my judgment (James speaking), therefore, that we should not make it difficult for the Gentiles who are turning to God. 20 Instead we should write to them, telling them to abstain from food polluted by idols, from sexual immorality, from the meat of strangled animals and from blood. 21 For the law of Moses has been preached in every city from the earliest times and is read in the synagogues on every Sabbath. ''
22 Then the apostles and elders, with the whole church, decided to choose some of their own men and send them to Antioch with Paul and Barnabas. They chose Judas (called Barsabbas) and Silas, men who were leaders among the believers. 23 With them they sent the following letter:
The apostles and elders, your brothers,
To the Gentile believers in Antioch, Syria and Cilicia:
Greetings.
24 We have heard that some went out from us without our authorization and disturbed you, troubling your minds by what they said. 25 So we all agreed to choose some men and send them to you with our dear friends Barnabas and Paul -- 26 men who have risked their lives for the name of our Lord Jesus Christ. 27 Therefore we are sending Judas and Silas to confirm by word of mouth what we are writing. 28 It seemed good to the Holy Spirit and to us not to burden you with anything beyond the following requirements: 29 You are to abstain from food sacrificed to idols, from blood, from the meat of strangled animals and from sexual immorality. You will do well to avoid these things.
Farewell.
30 So the men were sent off and went down to Antioch, where they gathered the church together and delivered the letter. 31 The people read it and were glad for its encouraging message. 32 Judas and Silas, who themselves were prophets, said much to encourage and strengthen the believers. 33 After spending some time there, they were sent off by the believers with the blessing of peace to return to those who had sent them. (34) 35 But Paul and Barnabas remained in Antioch, where they and many others taught and preached the word of the Lord.
-- Acts 15: 1 - 35
Controversy still exists Today whether the authority to loosen or bind is still in effect, if it passed at some point during the church 's early development, or to what extent gospel and doctrine as been loosened or bound by either the Catholic, Eastern, Coptic, Protestant and other organizations.
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how to make a snow angel in the snow | Snow angel - wikipedia
A snow angel is a design, made in fresh snow, by lying on one 's back and moving one 's arms up and down, and one 's legs from side to side, to form the shape of an angel. Making snow angels is a common childhood game.
The creation of the snow angel is a simple process. The first step is to find an undisturbed plane of fresh snow. The next step is to lie with arms and legs outstretched, on the snow. The limbs are then swept back and forth, creating a trough through the snow. When it is finished, the snow angel should have the appearance of a stylized angel, the movement of the arms having formed wings, and that of the legs having formed a gown.
On March 28, 2007, Guinness World Records confirmed that North Dakota holds the world record for the most snow angels made simultaneously in one place. The event occurred on February 17, 2007 when 8,962 snow angels were created by people on the state Capitol grounds in Bismarck.
Previously, the record was held by Michigan Technological University with 3,784 students, locals, and alumni making snow angels on the school football field.
Some birds (e.g. pheasant) leave on the snow a figure similar to a snow angel. Also Weddell seals can leave an outline of themselves, similar to a snow angel, melted into the ice; also these seals can thumb their nose at the cold, leaving images called seal shadows.
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what is the difference between proportional band and gain | Proportional control - wikipedia
In engineering and process control, Proportional control is a type of linear feedback control system in which a correction is applied to the controlled variable which is proportional to the difference between the desired value (set point, SP) and the measured value (process value, PV). Two classic mechanical examples are the toilet bowl float proportioning valve and the fly - ball governor.
The proportional control concept is more complex than an on -- off control system like a bi-metallic domestic thermostat, but simpler than a proportional -- integral -- derivative (PID) control system used in something like an automobile cruise control. On -- off control will work where the overall system has a relatively long response time, but can result in instability if the system being controlled has a rapid response time. Proportional control overcomes this by modulating the output to the controlling device, such as a control valve at a level which avoids instability, but applies correction as fast as practicable by applying the optimum quantity of proportional gain.
A drawback of proportional control is that it can not eliminate the residual SP − PV error in processes with compensation e.g. temperature control, as it requires an error to generate a proportional output. To overcome this the PI controller was devised, which uses a proportional term (P) to remove the gross error, and an integral term (I) to eliminate the residual offset error by integrating the error over time to produce an "I '' component for the controller output.
In the proportional control algorithm, the controller output is proportional to the error signal, which is the difference between the setpoint and the process variable. In other words, the output of a proportional controller is the multiplication product of the error signal and the proportional gain.
This can be mathematically expressed as,
where
Constraints: In a real plant, actuators have physical limitations that can be expressed as constraints on P o u t (\ displaystyle P_ (\ mathrm (out))). For example, P o u t (\ displaystyle P_ (\ mathrm (out))) may be bounded between − 1 and + 1 if those are the maximum output limits.
Qualifications: It is preferable to express K p (\ displaystyle K_ (p)) as a unitless number. To do this, we can express e (t) (\ displaystyle e (t)) as a ratio with the span of the instrument. This span is in the same units as error (e.g. C degrees) so the ratio has no units.
Proportional control dictates g c = k c (\ displaystyle (\ mathit (g_ (c) = k_ (c)))). From the block diagram shown, assume that r, the setpoint, is the flowrate into a tank and e is error, which is the difference between setpoint and measured process output. g p, (\ displaystyle (\ mathit (g_ (p))),) is process transfer function; the input into the block is flow rate and output is tank level.
The output as a function of the setpoint, r, is known as the closed - loop transfer function. g c l = g p g c 1 + g p g c, (\ displaystyle (\ mathit (g_ (cl))) = (\ frac (\ mathit (g_ (p) g_ (c))) (1 + g_ (p) g_ (c))),) If the poles of g c l, (\ displaystyle (\ mathit (g_ (cl))),) are stable, then the closed - loop system is stable.
Proportional control can not eliminate the offset error, which is the difference between the desired value and the actual value, SP − PV error, as it requires an error to generate an output. When a disturbance (deviation from existing state) occurs in the process value being controlled, any corrective control action, based purely on Proportional Control, will always leave out the error between the next steady state and the desired setpoint, and result in a residual error called the offset error. This error will increase as greater process demand is put on the system, or by increasing the set point.
Consider an object suspended by a spring as a simple proportional control. The spring will attempt to maintain the object in a certain location despite disturbances which may temporarily displace it. Hooke 's law tells us that the spring applies a corrective force that is proportional to the object 's displacement. While this will tend to hold the object in a particular location, the absolute resting location of the object will vary if its mass is changed. This difference in resting location is the offset error.
Imagine the same spring and object in a weightless environment. In this case, the spring will tend to hold the object in the same location regardless of its mass. There is no offset error in this case because the proportional action is not working against anything in the steady state.
The proportional band is the band of controller output over which the final control element (a control valve, for instance) will move from one extreme to another. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
P B = 100 K p (\ displaystyle PB = (\ frac (100) (K_ (p))) \)
So if K p (\ displaystyle K_ (p)), the proportional gain, is very high, the proportional band is very small, which means that the band of controller output over which the final control element will go from minimum to maximum (or vice versa) is very small. This is the case with on -- off controllers, where K p (\ displaystyle K_ (p)) is very high and hence, for even a small error, the controller output is driven from one extreme to another.
The clear advantage of proportional over on -- off control can be demonstrated by car speed control. An analogy to on -- off control is driving a car by applying either full power or no power and varying the duty cycle, to control speed. The power would be on until the target speed is reached, and then the power would be removed, so the car reduces speed. When the speed falls below the target, with a certain hysteresis, full power would again be applied. It can be seen that this would obviously result in poor control and large variations in speed. The more powerful the engine; the greater the instability, the heavier the car; the greater the stability. Stability may be expressed as correlating to the power - to - weight ratio of the vehicle.
In proportional control, the power output is always proportional to the (actual versus target speed) error. If the car is at target speed and the speed increases slightly due to a falling gradient, the power is reduced slightly, or in proportion to the change in error, so that the car reduces speed gradually and reaches the new target point with very little, if any, "overshoot '', which is much smoother control than on -- off control. In practice, PID controllers are used for this and the large number of control processes that require more response control than proportional alone.
Bequette, B. Wayne. Process Control: Modeling, Design, and Simulation. Prentice Hall PTR, 2010. (1)
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largest population for an inland city in australia | List of cities in Australia by population - Wikipedia
This list of Australian cities by population provides rankings of Australian cities according to various systems defined by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Firstly, they are ranked by Greater Capital City Statistical Area (for capital cities excluding Canberra) and Significant Urban Area (for other cities not otherwise included in a Greater Capital City Statistical Area). In separate tables, they are then also ranked by Significant Urban Area (all cities) and by Local Government Area (known internationally as ' cities proper ').
Each capital city forms its own Greater Capital City Statistical Area (GCCSA), which according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) represents a broad socioeconomic definition of each of the eight state and territory capital cities. These correspond to the more common and international usage of metropolitan areas. Significant Urban Areas are similarly defined but include population centres which are not capital cities. In Australia the population of the GCCSA / SUA is the most - often quoted figure for that city 's population. The following ranks GCSSAs and SUAs which are not included within the GCCSAs with populations of over 30,000.
Greater Capital City Statistical Areas are in bold, the remainder are Significant Urban Areas.
Urban Centres are defined by the Australian Bureau of Statistics as being a population cluster of 1,000 or more people. For statistical purposes, people living in Urban Centres are classified as urban. The figures below represent the populations of the contiguous built - up areas of each city; with State and territory capitals in bold. These figures are only updated every census, as the ABS does not render population projections for Urban Centres, and as such can only be as up - to - date as the most recent census year.
Local government areas are the main units of local government in Australia. They may be termed cities, shires, councils or other names, and all function similarly. Brisbane, which covers multiple LGAs, is the only state capital city with a local government area covering a significant portion of its urban area. Other capital cities are serviced by LGAs which cover a much smaller proportion of their total urban areas. A New South Wales review of local government areas resulted in various amalgamations of local government authorities in the state, reflected below. Where marked a new, the local government authority did not exist in this format at the 2011 census and the population is based on an amalgamation of 2015 Australian Bureau of Statistics population figures.
The following table lists local government areas ranked by order based on the estimated population as sourced from the 2016 census.
Apart from the City of Brisbane, the populations of the central local government areas in other capitals is relatively small. As at 2015, Melbourne had 128,980, Darwin 82,912, Hobart 50,714, Adelaide 23,169 and Perth 21,092. Generally speaking, there are many suburban local government areas in most Australian capitals that are significantly larger in population than the central business district local government area.
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icd 10 code for hx of pulmonary embolus | Pulmonary embolism - wikipedia
Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a blockage of an artery in the lungs by a substance that has moved from elsewhere in the body through the bloodstream (embolism). Symptoms of a PE may include shortness of breath, chest pain particularly upon breathing in, and coughing up blood. Symptoms of a blood clot in the leg may also be present such as a red, warm, swollen, and painful leg. Signs of a PE include low blood oxygen levels, rapid breathing, rapid heart rate, and sometimes a mild fever. Severe cases can lead to passing out, abnormally low blood pressure, and sudden death.
PE usually results from a blood clot in the leg that travels to the lung. The risk of blood clots is increased by cancer, prolonged bed rest, smoking, stroke, certain genetic conditions, estrogen - based medication, pregnancy, obesity, and after some types of surgery. A small proportion of cases are due to the embolization of air, fat, or amniotic fluid. Diagnosis is based on signs and symptoms in combination with test results. If the risk is low a blood test known as a D - dimer will rule out the condition. Otherwise a CT pulmonary angiography, lung ventilation / perfusion scan, or ultrasound of the legs may confirm the diagnosis. Together deep vein thrombosis and PE are known as venous thromboembolism (VTE).
Efforts to prevent PE include beginning to move as soon as possible after surgery, lower leg exercises during periods of sitting, and the use of blood thinners after some types of surgery. Treatment is typically with blood thinners such as heparin or warfarin. Often these are recommended for six months or longer. Severe cases may require thrombolysis using medication such as tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), or may require surgery such as a pulmonary thrombectomy. If blood thinners are not appropriate, a vena cava filter may be used.
Pulmonary emboli affect about 430,000 people each year in Europe. In the United States between 300,000 and 600,000 cases occur each year, which results in between 50,000 and 200,000 deaths. Rates are similar in males and females. They become more common as people get older.
Symptoms of pulmonary embolism are typically sudden in onset and may include one or many of the following: dyspnea (shortness of breath), tachypnea (rapid breathing), chest pain of a "pleuritic '' nature (worsened by breathing), cough and hemoptysis (coughing up blood). More severe cases can include signs such as cyanosis (blue discoloration, usually of the lips and fingers), collapse, and circulatory instability because of decreased blood flow through the lungs and into the left side of the heart. About 15 % of all cases of sudden death are attributable to PE.
On physical examination, the lungs are usually normal. Occasionally, a pleural friction rub may be audible over the affected area of the lung (mostly in PE with infarct). A pleural effusion is sometimes present that is exudative, detectable by decreased percussion note, audible breath sounds, and vocal resonance. Strain on the right ventricle may be detected as a left parasternal heave, a loud pulmonary component of the second heart sound, and / or raised jugular venous pressure. A low - grade fever may be present, particularly if there is associated pulmonary hemorrhage or infarction.
As smaller pulmonary emboli tend to lodge in more peripheral areas without collateral circulation they are more likely to cause lung infarction and small effusions (both of which are painful), but not hypoxia, dyspnea or hemodynamic instability such as tachycardia. Larger PEs, which tend to lodge centrally, typically cause dyspnea, hypoxia, low blood pressure, fast heart rate and fainting, but are often painless because there is no lung infarction due to collateral circulation. The classic presentation for PE with pleuritic pain, dyspnea and tachycardia is likely caused by a large fragmented embolism causing both large and small PEs. Thus, small PEs are often missed because they cause pleuritic pain alone without any other findings and large PEs often missed because they are painless and mimic other conditions often causing ECG changes and small rises in troponin and BNP levels.
PEs are sometimes described as massive, submassive and nonmassive depending on the clinical signs and symptoms. Although the exact definitions of these are unclear, an accepted definition of massive PE is one in which there is hemodynamic instability such as sustained low blood pressure, slowed heart rate, or pulselessness.
About 90 % of emboli are from proximal leg deep vein thromboses (DVTs) or pelvic vein thromboses. DVTs are at risk for dislodging and migrating to the lung circulation. The conditions are generally regarded as a continuum termed venous thromboembolism (VTE).
The development of thrombosis is classically due to a group of causes named Virchow 's triad (alterations in blood flow, factors in the vessel wall and factors affecting the properties of the blood). Often, more than one risk factor is present.
After a first PE, the search for secondary causes is usually brief. Only when a second PE occurs, and especially when this happens while still under anticoagulant therapy, a further search for underlying conditions is undertaken. This will include testing ("thrombophilia screen '') for Factor V Leiden mutation, antiphospholipid antibodies, protein C and S and antithrombin levels, and later prothrombin mutation, MTHFR mutation, Factor VIII concentration and rarer inherited coagulation abnormalities.
In order to diagnose a pulmonary embolism, a review of clinical criteria to determine the need for testing is recommended. In those who have low risk, age less than 50, heart rate less than 100 beats per minute, oxygen level more than 94 % on room air, and no leg swelling, coughing up of blood, surgery or trauma in the last four weeks, previous blood clots, or estrogen use, further testing is not typically needed.
If there are concerns this is followed by testing to determine a likelihood of being able to confirm a diagnosis by imaging, followed by imaging if other tests have shown that there is a likelihood of a PE diagnosis.
The diagnosis of PE is based primarily on validated clinical criteria combined with selective testing because the typical clinical presentation (shortness of breath, chest pain) can not be definitively differentiated from other causes of chest pain and shortness of breath. The decision to perform medical imaging is based on clinical reasoning, that is, the medical history, symptoms and findings on physical examination, followed by an assessment of clinical probability.
The most commonly used method to predict clinical probability, the Wells score, is a clinical prediction rule, whose use is complicated by multiple versions being available. In 1995, Philip Steven Wells, initially developed a prediction rule (based on a literature search) to predict the likelihood of PE, based on clinical criteria. The prediction rule was revised in 1998 This prediction rule was further revised when simplified during a validation by Wells et al. in 2000. In the 2000 publication, Wells proposed two different scoring systems using cutoffs of 2 or 4 with the same prediction rule. In 2001, Wells published results using the more conservative cutoff of 2 to create three categories. An additional version, the "modified extended version '', using the more recent cutoff of 2 but including findings from Wells 's initial studies were proposed. Most recently, a further study reverted to Wells 's earlier use of a cutoff of 4 points to create only two categories.
There are additional prediction rules for PE, such as the Geneva rule. More importantly, the use of any rule is associated with reduction in recurrent thromboembolism.
The Wells score:
Traditional interpretation
Alternative interpretation
Recommendations for a diagnostic algorithm were published by the PIOPED investigators; however, these recommendations do not reflect research using 64 slice MDCT. These investigators recommended:
The pulmonary embolism rule - out criteria (PERC) helps assess people in whom pulmonary embolism is suspected, but unlikely. Unlike the Wells score and Geneva score, which are clinical prediction rules intended to risk stratify people with suspected PE, the PERC rule is designed to rule out risk of PE in people when the physician has already stratified them into a low - risk category.
People in this low risk category without any of these criteria may undergo no further diagnostic testing for PE: Hypoxia -- Sa < 95 %, unilateral leg swelling, hemoptysis, prior DVT or PE, recent surgery or trauma, age > 50, hormone use, tachycardia. The rationale behind this decision is that further testing (specifically CT angiogram of the chest) may cause more harm (from radiation exposure and contrast dye) than the risk of PE. The PERC rule has a sensitivity of 97.4 % and specificity of 21.9 % with a false negative rate of 1.0 % (16 / 1666).
In people with a low or moderate suspicion of PE, a normal D - dimer level (shown in a blood test) is enough to exclude the possibility of thrombotic PE, with a three - month risk of thromboembolic events being 0.14 %. D - dimer is highly sensitive but not specific (specificity around 50 %). In other words, a positive D - dimer is not synonymous with PE, but a negative D - dimer is, with a good degree of certainty, an indication of absence of a PE. The typical cut off is 500 μg / L, although this varies based on the assay. However, in those over the age of 50, changing the cut - off value to the person 's age multiplied by 10 μg / L (accounting for assay which has been used) is recommended as it decreases the number of falsely positive tests without missing any additional cases of PE.
When a PE is being suspected, several blood tests are done in order to exclude important secondary causes of PE. This includes a full blood count, clotting status (PT, aPTT, TT), and some screening tests (erythrocyte sedimentation rate, renal function, liver enzymes, electrolytes). If one of these is abnormal, further investigations might be warranted.
Troponin levels are increased in between 16 -- 47 % with pulmonary embolism.
In typical people who are not known to be at high risk of PE, imaging is helpful to confirm or exclude a diagnosis of PE after simpler first - line tests are used. Medical societies recommend tests such as the D - dimer to first provide supporting evidence for the need for imaging, and imaging would be done if other tests confirmed a moderate or high probability of finding evidence to support a diagnosis of PE.
CT pulmonary angiography is the recommended first line diagnostic imaging test in most people.
Historically, the gold standard for diagnosis was pulmonary angiography, but this has fallen into disuse with the increased availability of non-invasive techniques. Ultrasound of the legs can confirm the presence of a PE but can not rule it out.
CT pulmonary angiography (CTPA) is a pulmonary angiogram obtained using computed tomography (CT) with radiocontrast rather than right heart catheterization. Its advantages are clinical equivalence, its non-invasive nature, its greater availability to people, and the possibility of identifying other lung disorders from the differential diagnosis in case there is no pulmonary embolism.
On CT scan, pulmonary emboli can be classified according to level along the arterial tree.
Segmental and subsegmental pulmonary emboli on both sides
CT pulmonary angiography showing a "saddle embolus '' at the bifurcation of the main pulmonary artery and thrombus burden in the lobar arteries on both sides.
Assessing the accuracy of CT pulmonary angiography is hindered by the rapid changes in the number of rows of detectors available in multidetector CT (MDCT) machines. According to a cohort study, single - slice spiral CT may help diagnose detection among people with suspected pulmonary embolism. In this study, the sensitivity was 69 % and specificity was 84 %. In this study which had a prevalence of detection was 32 %, the positive predictive value of 67.0 % and negative predictive value of 85.2 %. However, this study 's results may be biased due to possible incorporation bias, since the CT scan was the final diagnostic tool in people with pulmonary embolism. The authors noted that a negative single slice CT scan is insufficient to rule out pulmonary embolism on its own. A separate study with a mixture of 4 slice and 16 slice scanners reported a sensitivity of 83 % and a specificity of 96 %, which means that it is a good test for ruling out a pulmonary embolism if it is not seen on imaging and that it is very good at confirming a pulmonary embolism is present if it is seen. This study noted that additional testing is necessary when the clinical probability is inconsistent with the imaging results. CTPA is non-inferior to VQ scanning, and identifies more emboli (without necessarily improving the outcome) compared to VQ scanning.
A ventilation / perfusion scan (or V / Q scan or lung scintigraphy) shows that some areas of the lung are being ventilated but not perfused with blood (due to obstruction by a clot). This type of examination is as accurate as multislice CT, but is less used, due to the greater availability of CT technology. It is particularly useful in people who have an allergy to iodinated contrast, impaired renal function, or are pregnant (due to its lower radiation exposure as compared to CT). The test can be performed with planar two - dimensional imaging, or single photon emission tomography (SPECT) which enables three - dimensional imaging. Hybrid devices combining SPECT and CT (SPECT / CT) further enable anatomic characterization of any abnormality.
Tests that are frequently done that are not sensitive for PE, but can be diagnostic.
The primary use of the ECG is to rule out other causes of chest pain. An electrocardiogram (ECG) is routinely done on people with chest pain to quickly diagnose myocardial infarctions (heart attacks), an important differential diagnosis in an individual with chest pain. While certain ECG changes may occur with PE, none are specific enough to confirm or sensitive enough to rule out the diagnosis. An ECG may show signs of right heart strain or acute cor pulmonale in cases of large PEs -- the classic signs are a large S wave in lead I, a large Q wave in lead III, and an inverted T wave in lead III (S1Q3T3), which occurs in 12 -- 50 % of people with the diagnosis, yet also occurs in 12 % without the diagnosis.
This is occasionally present (occurring in up to 20 % of people), but may also occur in other acute lung conditions, and, therefore, has limited diagnostic value. The most commonly seen signs in the ECG are sinus tachycardia, right axis deviation, and right bundle branch block. Sinus tachycardia, however, is still only found in 8 -- 69 % of people with PE.
ECG findings associated with pulmonary emboli may suggest worse prognosis since the six findings identified with RV strain on ECG (heart rate > 100 beats per minute, S1Q3T3, inverted T waves in leads V1 - V4, ST elevation in aVR, complete right bundle branch block, and atrial fibrillation) are associated with increased risk of circulatory shock and death.
In massive and submassive PE, dysfunction of the right side of the heart may be seen on echocardiography, an indication that the pulmonary artery is severely obstructed and the right ventricle, a low - pressure pump, is unable to match the pressure. Some studies (see below) suggest that this finding may be an indication for thrombolysis. Not every person with a (suspected) pulmonary embolism requires an echocardiogram, but elevations in cardiac troponins or brain natriuretic peptide may indicate heart strain and warrant an echocardiogram, and be important in prognosis.
The specific appearance of the right ventricle on echocardiography is referred to as the McConnell 's sign. This is the finding of akinesia of the mid-free wall but a normal motion of the apex. This phenomenon has a 77 % sensitivity and a 94 % specificity for the diagnosis of acute pulmonary embolism in the setting of right ventricular dysfunction.
Ultrasound of the heart showing signs of PE
Ultrasound of the heart showing signs of PE
Pulmonary embolism may be preventable in those with risk factors. People admitted to hospital may receive preventative medication, including unfractionated heparin, low molecular weight heparin (LMWH), or fondaparinux, and anti-thrombosis stockings to reduce the risk of a DVT in the leg that could dislodge and migrate to the lungs.
Following the completion of warfarin in those with prior PE, long - term aspirin is useful to prevent recurrence.
Anticoagulant therapy is the mainstay of treatment. Acutely, supportive treatments, such as oxygen or analgesia, may be required. People are often admitted to hospital in the early stages of treatment, and tend to remain under inpatient care until the INR has reached therapeutic levels. Increasingly, however, low - risk cases are managed at home in a fashion already common in the treatment of DVT. Evidence to support one approach versus the other is weak.
Usually, anticoagulant therapy is the mainstay of treatment. Unfractionated heparin (UFH), low molecular weight heparin (LMWH), or fondaparinux is administered initially, while warfarin, acenocoumarol, or phenprocoumon therapy is commenced (this may take several days, usually while the patient is in the hospital). LMWH may reduce bleeding among people with pulmonary embolism as compared to UFH according to a systematic review of randomized controlled trials by the Cochrane Collaboration. According to the same review, LMWH reduced the incidence of recurrent thrombotic complications and reduced thrombus size when compared to heparin. There was no difference in overall mortality between participants treated with LMWH and those treated with unfractionated heparin.
Warfarin therapy often requires a frequent dose adjustment and monitoring of the international normalized ratio (INR). In PE, INRs between 2.0 and 3.0 are generally considered ideal. If another episode of PE occurs under warfarin treatment, the INR window may be increased to e.g. 2.5 -- 3.5 (unless there are contraindications) or anticoagulation may be changed to a different anticoagulant e.g. LMWH.
In patients with an underlying malignancy, therapy with a course of LMWH is favored over warfarin; it is continued for six months, at which point a decision should be reached whether ongoing treatment is required.
Similarly, pregnant women are often maintained on low molecular weight heparin until at least six weeks after delivery to avoid the known teratogenic effects of warfarin, especially in the early stages of pregnancy.
Warfarin therapy is usually continued for 3 -- 6 months, or "lifelong '' if there have been previous DVTs or PEs, or none of the usual risk factors is present. An abnormal D - dimer level at the end of treatment might signal the need for continued treatment among patients with a first unprovoked pulmonary embolus. For those with small PEs (known as subsegmental PEs) the effects of anticoagulation is unknown as it has not been properly studied as of 2014.
Massive PE causing hemodynamic instability (shock and / or low blood pressure, defined as a systolic blood pressure < 90 mmHg or a pressure drop of 40 mmHg for > 15 min if not caused by new - onset arrhythmia, hypovolemia or sepsis) is an indication for thrombolysis, the enzymatic destruction of the clot with medication. In this situation, it is the best available treatment in those without contraindications and is supported by clinical guidelines. It is also recommended in those in cardiac arrest with a known PE.
Catheter - directed thrombolysis (CDT) is a new technique found to be relatively safe and effective for massive PEs. This involves accessing the venous system by placing a catheter into a vein in the groin and guiding it through the veins by using fluoroscopic imaging until it is located next to the PE in the lung circulation. Medication that breaks up blood clots is released through the catheter so that its highest concentration is directly next to the pulmonary embolus. CDT is performed by interventional radiologists, and in medical centers that offer CDT, it may be offered as a first - line treatment. Catheter - based ultrasound - assisted thrombolysis is being investigated.
The use of thrombolysis in non-massive PEs is still debated. Some have found that the treatment decreases the risk of death and increases the risk of bleeding including intracranial hemorrhage. Others have found no decrease in the risk of death.
There are two situations when an inferior vena cava filter is considered advantageous, and those are if anticoagulant therapy is contraindicated (e.g. shortly after a major operation), or a person has a pulmonary embolus in spite of being anticoagulated. In these instances, it may be implanted to prevent new or existing DVTs from entering the pulmonary artery and combining with an existing blockage. In spite of the device 's theoretical advantage of preventing pulmonary emboli, there is a lack of evidence supporting its effectiveness.
Inferior vena cava filters should be removed as soon as it becomes safe to start using anticoagulation. Although modern filters are meant to be retrievable, complications may prevent some from being removed. The long - term safety profile of permanently leaving a filter inside the body is not known.
Surgical management of acute pulmonary embolism (pulmonary thrombectomy) is uncommon and has largely been abandoned because of poor long - term outcomes. However, recently, it has gone through a resurgence with the revision of the surgical technique and is thought to benefit certain people. Chronic pulmonary embolism leading to pulmonary hypertension (known as chronic thromboembolic hypertension) is treated with a surgical procedure known as a pulmonary thromboendarterectomy.
Pulmonary emboli occur in more than 600,000 people in the United States each year. It results in between 50,000 and 200,000 deaths per year in the United States. The risk in those who are hospitalized is around 1 %. The rate of fatal pulmonary emboli has declined from 6 % to 2 % over the last 25 years in the United States.
Less than 5 to 10 % of symptomatic PEs are fatal within the first hour of symptoms.
There are several markers used for risk stratification and these are also independent predictors of adverse outcome. These include hypotension, cardiogenic shock, syncope, evidence of right heart dysfunction, and elevated cardiac enzymes. Some ECG changes including S1Q3T3 also correlate with worse short - term prognosis. There have been other patient - related factors such as COPD and chronic heart failure thought to also play a role in prognosis.
Prognosis depends on the amount of lung that is affected and on the co-existence of other medical conditions; chronic embolisation to the lung can lead to pulmonary hypertension. After a massive PE, the embolus must be resolved somehow if the patient is to survive. In thrombotic PE, the blood clot may be broken down by fibrinolysis, or it may be organized and recanalized so that a new channel forms through the clot. Blood flow is restored most rapidly in the first day or two after a PE. Improvement slows thereafter and some deficits may be permanent. There is controversy over whether small subsegmental PEs need treatment at all and some evidence exists that patients with subsegmental PEs may do well without treatment.
Once anticoagulation is stopped, the risk of a fatal pulmonary embolism is 0.5 % per year.
Mortality from untreated PEs was said to be 26 %. This figure comes from a trial published in 1960 by Barrit and Jordan, which compared anticoagulation against placebo for the management of PE. Barritt and Jordan performed their study in the Bristol Royal Infirmary in 1957. This study is the only placebo controlled trial ever to examine the place of anticoagulants in the treatment of PE, the results of which were so convincing that the trial has never been repeated as to do so would be considered unethical. That said, the reported mortality rate of 26 % in the placebo group is probably an overstatement, given that the technology of the day may have detected only severe PEs.
The PESI and sPESI scoring tools can estimate mortality of patients. The Geneva prediction rules and Wells criteria are used to calculate a pre-test probability of patients to predict who has a pulmonary embolism. These scores are tools to be used with clinical judgment in deciding diagnostic testing and types of therapy. The PESI algorithm comprises 11 routinely available clinical variables. It puts the subjects into one of five classes (I-V), with 30 - day mortality ranging from 1.1 % to 24.5 %. Those in classes I and II are low - risk and those in classes III - V are high - risk.
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when do leap year babies celebrate their birthdays | February 29 - wikipedia
February 29, also known as leap day or leap year day, is a date added to most years that are divisible by 4, such as 2008, 2012, 2016, 2020, and 2024. A leap day is added in various solar calendars (calendars based on the Earth 's revolution around the Sun), including the Gregorian calendar standard in most of the world. Lunisolar calendars (whose months are based on the phases of the Moon) instead add a leap or intercalary month.
In the Gregorian calendar, years that are divisible by 100, but not by 400, do not contain a leap day. Thus, 1700, 1800, and 1900 did not contain a leap day; neither will 2100, 2200, and 2300. Conversely, 1600 and 2000 did and 2400 will. Years containing a leap day are called leap years. Years not containing a leap day are called common years. February 29 is the 60th day of the Gregorian calendar, in such a year, with 306 days remaining until the end of the year. In the Chinese calendar, this day will only occur in years of the monkey, dragon, and rat.
A leap day is observed because a complete revolution around the Sun takes approximately 6 hours longer than 365 days (8,760 hours). A leap day compensates for this lag, realigning the calendar with the Earth 's position in the Solar System; otherwise, seasons would occur earlier than intended in the calendar year. The Julian calendar used in Christendom until the 16th century added a leap day every four years; but this rule adds too many days (roughly 3 every 400 years), making the equinoxes and solstices shift gradually to earlier dates. By the 16th century the vernal equinox had drifted to March 11, and the Gregorian calendar was introduced both to shift it back by omitting several days, and to reduce the number of leap years via the "century rule '' to keep the equinoxes more or less fixed and the date of Easter consistently close to the vernal equinox.
Although most modern calendar years have 365 days, a complete revolution around the Sun (one solar year) takes approximately 365 days and 6 hours. An extra 24 hours thus accumulates every four years, requiring that an extra calendar day be added to align the calendar with the Sun 's apparent position. Without the added day, in future years the seasons would occur later in the calendar, eventually leading to confusion about when to undertake activities dependent on weather, ecology, or hours of daylight.
A solar year is actually slightly shorter than 365 days and 6 hours (365.25 days). As early as the 13th century it was recognized that the year is shorter than the 365.25 days assumed by the Julian calendar: the Earth 's orbital period around the Sun was derived from the medieval Alfonsine tables as 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, and 16 seconds (365.2425 days). The currently accepted modern figure is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 45 seconds. Adding a calendar day every four years, therefore, results in an excess of around 44 minutes for those four years, or about 3 days every 400 years. To compensate for this, three days are removed every 400 years. The Gregorian calendar reform implements this adjustment by making an exception to the general rule that there is a leap year every four years. Instead, a year divisible by 100 is not a leap year unless that year is also divisible by 400. This means that the years 1600, 2000, and 2400 are leap years, while the years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, and 2500 are common years.
The Gregorian calendar repeats itself every 400 years, which is exactly 20,871 weeks including 97 leap days. Over this period, February 29 falls on Sunday, Tuesday, and Thursday 13 times each; 14 times each on Friday and Saturday; and 15 times each on Monday and Wednesday. Excepting when a century mark that is not a multiple of 400 intervenes, consecutive leaps days fall in order Thursday, Tuesday, Sunday, Friday, Wednesday, Monday, and Saturday; then repeating with Thursday again.
The calendar of the Roman king Numa Pompilius had only 355 days (even though it was not a lunar calendar) which meant that it would quickly become unsynchronized with the solar year. An earlier Roman solution to this problem was to lengthen the calendar periodically by adding extra days to February, the last month of the year. February consisted of two parts, each with an odd number of days. The first part ended with the Terminalia on the 23rd, which was considered the end of the religious year, and the five remaining days formed the second part. To keep the calendar year roughly aligned with the solar year, a leap month, called Mensis Intercalaris ("intercalary month ''), was added from time to time between these two parts of February. The (usual) second part of February was incorporated in the intercalary month as its last five days, with no change either in their dates or the festivals observed on them. This followed naturally, because the days after the Ides (13th) of February (in an ordinary year) or the Ides of Intercalaris (in an intercalary year) both counted down to the Kalends of March (i.e. they were known as "the nth day before the Kalends of March ''). The Nones (5th) and Ides of Intercalaris occupied their normal positions.
The third - century writer Censorinus says:
When it was thought necessary to add (every two years) an intercalary month of 22 or 23 days, so that the civil year should correspond to the natural (solar) year, this intercalation was in preference made in February, between Terminalia (23rd) and Regifugium (24th).
The set leap day was introduced in Rome as a part of the Julian reform in the 1st century BC. As before, the intercalation was made after February 23. The day following the Terminalia (February 23) was doubled, forming the "bis sextum '' -- literally ' twice sixth ', since February 24 was ' the sixth day before the Kalends of March ' using Roman inclusive counting (March 1 was the Kalends of March and was also the first day of the calendar year). Inclusive counting initially caused the Roman priests to add the extra day every three years instead of four; Augustus was compelled to omit leap years for a few decades to return the calendar to its proper position. Although there were exceptions, the first day of the bis sextum (February 24) was usually regarded as the intercalated or "bissextile '' day since the 3rd century AD. February 29 came to be regarded as the leap day when the Roman system of numbering days was replaced by sequential numbering in the late Middle Ages, although this has only been formally enacted in Sweden and Finland. In Britain, the extra day added to leap years remains notionally the 24th, although the 29th remains more visible on the calendar.
A person born on February 29 may be called a "leapling '', a "leaper '', or a "leap - year baby ''. In non-leap years, some leaplings celebrate their birthday on either February 28 or March 1, while others only observe birthdays on the authentic intercalary date, February 29.
The effective legal date of a leapling 's birthday in non-leap years varies between jurisdictions.
In the United Kingdom and Hong Kong, when a person born on February 29 turns 18, they are considered to have their birthday on March 1 in the relevant year.
In New Zealand, a person born on February 29 is deemed to have their birthday on February 28 in non-leap years, for the purposes of Driver Licensing under § 2 (2) of the Land Transport (Driver Licensing) Rule 1999. The net result is that for drivers aged 75, or over 80, their driver licence expires at the end of the last day of February, even though their birthday would otherwise fall on the first day in March in non-leap years. Otherwise, New Zealand legislation is silent on when a person born on 29 February has their birthday, although case law would suggest that age is computed based on the number of years elapsed, from the day after the date of birth, and that the person 's birth day then occurs on the last day of the year period. This differs from English common law where a birthday is considered to be the start of the next year, the preceding year ending at midnight on the day preceding the birthday. While a person attains the same age on the same day, it also means that, in New Zealand, if something must be done by the time a person attains a certain age, that thing can be done on the birthday that they attain that age and still be lawful.
In Taiwan (Republic of China), the legal birthday of a leapling is February 28 in common years:
Thus, in England and Wales or in Hong Kong, a person born on February 29 will have legally reached 18 years old on March 1. If they were born in Taiwan they legally become 18 on February 28, a day earlier. In the United States, according to John Reitz, a professor of law at the University of Iowa, there is no "... statute or general rule that has anything to do with leap day. '' Reitz speculates that "March 1 would likely be considered the legal birthday in non-leap years of someone born on leap day, '' using the same reasoning as described for the United Kingdom and Hong Kong.
There are many instances in children 's literature where a person 's claim to be only a quarter of their actual age turns out to be based on counting their leap - year birthdays.
A similar device is used in the plot of Gilbert and Sullivan 's 1879 comic opera The Pirates of Penzance. As a child, Frederic was apprenticed to a band of pirates until his 21st birthday. Having passed his 21st year, he leaves the pirate band and falls in love. However, since he was born on February 29, his 21st birthday will not arrive until he is eighty - four, so he must leave his fiancée and return to the pirates.
There is a popular tradition known as Bachelor 's Day in some countries allowing a woman to propose marriage to a man on February 29. If the man refuses, he then is obliged to give the woman money or buy her a dress. In upper - class societies in Europe, if the man refuses marriage, he then must purchase 12 pairs of gloves for the woman, suggesting that the gloves are to hide the woman 's embarrassment of not having an engagement ring. In Ireland, the tradition is supposed to originate from a deal that Saint Bridget struck with Saint Patrick.
In the town of Aurora, Illinois, single women are deputized and may arrest single men, subject to a four - dollar fine, every February 29.
In Greece, it is considered unlucky to marry on a leap day.
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when did glad press and seal come out | The Glad products company - wikipedia
The Glad Products Company is an American company specializing in trash bags and plastic food storage containers.
The Glad brand originated in the United States in 1963 when the owner and CEO of the company, David Darroch, launched "Glad Wrap '', a polyethylene film used as a food wrap. Douglas G. Taylor was transferred that same year from the Union Carbide facility in Pittsburgh, Pa. to spearhead the Glad project. Mr. Taylor headed Sales and Marketing for the Glad products until he was retired from Union Carbide in 1985 after putting together the sale to FirstBrands. At the time of the sale, Mr. Taylor was Sr. VP of the Home and Automotive products division as well as the head of STP brands. Douglas G. Taylor died in Hilton Head, South Carolina. August 13, 1996.
The brand originally belonged to Union Carbide, but was divested in 1985 to First Brands Corporation (Eveready and Energizer batteries, Glad, Simoniz, and Prestone) in the United States. In 1998, First Brands was acquired by Clorox. In 2002, Clorox allowed Procter & Gamble to buy a 10 % share in Glad Products Company, thus making it a joint venture. Three years later, P&G exercised its option under the agreement to increase its ownership to 20 %, the maximum allowed under the joint venture agreement.
Glad Wrap was invented in Australia by Union Carbide 's research chemist, Douglas Lyons Ford, in the early 1960s, working in Union Carbide Australia 's Rhodes plant in Sydney. The film was made from polyethylene with a stickifier added, produced as a continuous tube by the blown - film method, the tube then slit to make flat material that was put on rolls, and recently released in a newly designed "Easy Cut Dispenser ''. It was first introduced to the American market in 1963 in competition with Saran Wrap.
Glad Wrap and Glad Bags were introduced in Australia in 1966; Glad was the first to introduce cling - type wrap to the Australian market.
In order to promote the product, a competition was run in The Australian Women 's Weekly asking readers to write in with suggested uses for the product. The winner of the competition was Lady Gwynnedd Casey, the wife of Lord Casey, the then Governor - General of Australia, who suggested it could be used to cover the hors d'ouvres before guests arrived at her garden party. Second prize went to a woman from western Sydney, who suggested it could be used to wrap up different kinds of buttons in her sewing kit to keep them separate from one another.
Union Carbide purchased the Brisbane company, OSO, and in 1968, launched the OSO brand in competition with its own Glad brand. The OSO brand was made to be cheaper than, and inferior to, the Glad brand.
In Australia, the Glad brand was acquired by Industrial Equity Limited in 1988, and then was floated as part of National Foods in 1991. In 1997, First Brands acquired the Glad brand from National Foods, thus consolidating worldwide ownership of the brand. Clorox took over ownership of Glad in Australia in 1998 as part of its acquisition of First Brands.
The Man from Glad is the Glad company 's spokesman featured in many of their advertisements. He is an older gentleman with white hair and is always dressed in a white suit. In the 1960s, he was known as the "Man From Glad '', and was summoned to various households in order to save housewives from their domestically challenged spouses. He wore a trenchcoat and would arrive in a wild variety of spy type contraptions (such as a jet pack or gyroglider), in the style of The Man from U.N.C.L.E and Mission: Impossible.
He has been portrayed by several actors over the years, most famously Tom Bosley. The trash bags ' slogans were "Why Take Chances, Get Glad! '' and "Do n't get mad! Get Glad! ''
In 2006, following Hurricane Katrina, Glad became the first official sponsor of Mardi Gras in New Orleans. In addition to its significant program commitment, Glad worked with the City of New Orleans Department of Sanitation in the carnival 's sanitation maintenance and clean - up efforts, which would otherwise have mounted a considerable expense for the municipality. Glad also was a major sponsor of the 2007 Mardi Gras.
In the novel Infinite Jest by David Foster Wallace the final year of commercially subsidized time is referred to as the "Year Of Glad '' in reference to the company. Additionally, James O. Incandenza, Sr. (whose son James O. Incandenza, Jr., and grandsons Orin, Mario, and Hal Incandenza are major characters) is mentioned as having played the Man from Glad in his time as an actor in the timeline of the book.
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who is the girl in every rose has its thorn video | Every Rose Has Its Thorn - wikipedia
"Every Rose Has Its Thorn '' is the title of a power ballad song by American glam metal band Poison. It was released in October 1988 as the third single from Poison 's second album Open Up and Say... Ahh!. It is the band 's only number - one hit in the U.S., reaching the top spot on December 18, 1988, for three weeks (carrying over into 1989) and it also charted at # 11 on the Mainstream Rock chart. It was a number 13 hit in the UK. "Every Rose Has Its Thorn '' was named number 34 on VH1 's "100 Greatest Songs of the 80s '', # 100 on their "100 Greatest Love Songs '' and # 7 on MTV and VH1 "Top 25 Power Ballads ''.
Musically, the song starts quietly and features two guitar solos, one mellow and one fast. During the writing of the song, Poison had been playing at a cowboy bar called "The Ritz '' in Dallas, Texas, accounting for the song 's recognizable references to cowboys in the chorus, along with the twang in Bret Michaels ' vocals, which give the song a country feel not often heard in power ballads composed by glam metal bands.
In an interview with VH1 's Behind the Music, Michaels said the inspiration for the song came from a night when he was in a laundromat waiting for his clothes to dry, and called his girlfriend on a pay phone. Michaels said he heard a male voice in the background and was devastated; he said he went into the laundromat and wrote "Every Rose Has Its Thorn '' as a result.
The music video to "Every Rose '' was similar to those filmed for other 1980s power ballads. It features Michaels in a cowboy hat and country attire sitting down on a stool playing the guitar and singing along to the song in a dimly lit room with one strobe light, interspersed with various clips from the band 's 1988 tour.
"Every Rose Has Its Thorn '' became the group 's first (and only to date) number - one single on the Billboard Hot 100; it climbed to the top during the two last weeks of 1988 and the first week of 1989. Billboard ranked it as the No. 3 song for 1989.
The song originally appeared on the album Open Up and Say... Ahh!. It was later included in greatest hits compilations such as Poison 's Greatest Hits: 1986 -- 1996, The Best of Poison: 20 Years of Rock or Best of Ballads & Blues.
Live versions of the song appeared on the following albums:
An acoustic version appeared as a bonus track on Poison 's 2000 album Crack a Smile... and More!
Bret Michaels re-recorded the song in 2001 for his solo album Ballads, Blues & Stories.
A country version by Bret Michaels appears on
The song appeared in the films:
The song appeared in one or more episodes of the following TV shows:
An acoustic version of the song was performed by Bret Michaels in the January 29, 2014 episode ("Happy Endings '') of Revolution.
The song was made available to download on February 12, 2012 for play in Rock Band 3 Basic and PRO mode utilizing real guitar / bass guitar, and MIDI compatible electronic drum kits / keyboards plus vocal harmonies.
The song appeared in 2009 music game Band Hero.
American recording artist Miley Cyrus recorded a version of the song for her 2010 album Ca n't Be Tamed.
In early 2013, composer Bret Michaels recorded yet another version. This time, it was as a duet with the country music singer Loretta Lynn and can be found on his album Jammin ' with Friends.
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how many articles are there in indus water treaty | Indus waters treaty - wikipedia
The Indus Waters Treaty (English) or सिंधु जल संधि (Hindi) or "سندھ طاس معاہدہ '' (Urdu) is a water - distribution treaty between India and Pakistan, brokered by the World Bank (then the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) The treaty was signed in Karachi on September 19, 1960 by the first Prime Minister of India Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and then President of Pakistan Ayub Khan.
According to this agreement, control over the water flowing in three "eastern '' rivers of India -- the Beas, the Ravi and the Sutlej with the mean flow of 33 MAF -- was given to India, while control over the water flowing in three "western '' rivers of India -- the Indus, the Chenab and the Jhelum with the mean flow of 80 MAF -- to Pakistan. More controversial, however, were the provisions on how the waters were to be shared. Since Pakistan 's rivers receive more water flow from India, the treaty allowed India to use western rivers water for limited irrigation use and unrestricted use for power generation, domestic, industrial and non consumptive uses such as navigation, floating of property, fish culture, etc. while laying down precise regulations for India to build projects. The preamble of the treaty declares that the objectives of the treaty are recognizing rights & obligations of each country in settlement of water use from the Indus rivers system in a spirit of goodwill, friendship and cooperation contrary to the fears of Pakistan that India could potentially create droughts and famines in Pakistan, especially at times of war since substantial water inflows of the Indus basin rivers are from India.
Since the ratification of the treaty in 1960, India and Pakistan have not engaged in any water wars. Most disagreements and disputes have been settled via legal procedures, provided for within the framework of the treaty. The treaty is considered to be one of the most successful water sharing endeavours in the world today, even though analysts acknowledge the need to update certain technical specifications and expand the scope of the document to include climate change. As per the provisions in the treaty, India can use only 20 % of the total water carried by the Indus rivers system while Pakistan can use the remaining 80 %.
The Indus system of rivers comprises three western rivers -- the Indus, the Jhelum and Chenab -- and three eastern rivers -- the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi. The treaty, under Article 5.1, envisages the sharing of waters of the rivers Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, Jhelum and Chenab which join the Indus River on its left bank (eastern side) in Pakistan. According to this treaty, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, which constitute the eastern rivers, are allocated for exclusive use by India before they enter Pakistan. However, a transition period of 10 years was permitted in which India was bound to supply water to Pakistan from these rivers until Pakistan was able to build the canal system for utilization of waters of Jhelum, Chenab and the Indus itself, allocated to it under the treaty. Similarly, Pakistan has exclusive use of the western rivers Jhelum, Chenab and Indus. As Punjab was dependent on three eastern rivers too, India agreed to make fixed contribution of UK Pound Streling 62,060,000 / = (Pound Streling sixty two million and sixty thousand only) towards the cost of construction of new head - works and canal system for irrigation. India had to pay this amount in ten equal installments. allocated to it. The treaty resulted in partitioning of the rivers rather than sharing of their waters.
Both countries agreed to exchange data and co-operate in matters related to the treaty. For this purpose, treaty creates the Permanent Indus Commission, with a commissioner appointed by each country. It would follow the set procedure for adjudicating any future disputes arising over the allocation of waters. The Commission has survived three wars and provides an ongoing mechanism for consultation and conflict resolution through inspection, exchange of data and visits. The Commission is required to meet regularly to discuss potential disputes as well as cooperative arrangements for the development of the basin. Either party must notify the other of plans to construct any engineering works which would affect the other party and to provide data about such works. The annual inspections and exchange of data continue, unperturbed by tensions on the subcontinent. In cases of disagreement, Permanent Court of Arbitration or a neutral technical expert is called in for arbitration. Technical expert 's ruling was followed for clearing the Baglihar power plant and Permanent Court of Arbitration verdict was followed for clearing the Kishanganga Hydroelectric Plant.
The waters of the Indus basin begin in Tibet and the Himalayan mountains in the states of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. They flow from the hills through the states of Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir and Sindh, converging in Pakistan and emptying into the Arabian Sea south of Karachi. Where once there was only a narrow strip of irrigated land along these rivers, developments over the last century have created a large network of canals and storage facilities that provide water for more than 26 million acres (110,000 km), the largest irrigated area of any one river system in the world.
The partition of British India created a conflict over the plentiful waters of the Indus basin. The newly formed states were at odds over how to share and manage what was essentially a cohesive and unitary network of irrigation. Furthermore, the geography of partition was such that the source rivers of the Indus basin were in India. Pakistan felt its livelihood threatened by the prospect of Indian control over the tributaries that fed water into the Pakistani portion of the basin. Where India certainly had its own ambitions for the profitable development of the basin, Pakistan felt acutely threatened by a conflict over the main source of water for its cultivable land.
During the first years of partition, the waters of the Indus were apportioned by the Inter-Dominion Accord of May 4, 1948. This accord required India to release sufficient waters to the Pakistani regions of the basin in return for annual payments from the government of Pakistan. The accord was meant to meet immediate requirements and was followed by negotiations for a more permanent solution. However, neither side was willing to compromise their respective positions and negotiations reached a stalemate. From the Indian point of view, there was nothing that Pakistan could do to prevent India from any of the schemes to divert the flow of water in the rivers. Pakistan wanted to take the matter to the International Court of Justice, but India refused, arguing that the conflict required a bilateral resolution.
In this same year, David Lilienthal, formerly the chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority and of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, visited the region to write a series of articles for Collier 's magazine. Lilienthal had a keen interest in the subcontinent and was welcomed by the highest levels of both Indian and Pakistani governments. Although his visit was sponsored by Collier 's, Lilienthal was briefed by state department and executive branch officials, who hoped that Lilienthal could help bridge the gap between India and Pakistan and also gauge hostilities on the subcontinent. During the course of his visit, it became clear to Lilienthal that tensions between India and Pakistan were acute, but also unable to be erased with one sweeping gesture. He wrote in his journal:
India and Pakistan were on the verge of war over Kashmir. There seemed to be no possibility of negotiating this issue until tensions abated. One way to reduce hostility... would be to concentrate on other important issues where cooperation was possible. Progress in these areas would promote a sense of community between the two nations which might, in time, lead to a Kashmir settlement. Accordingly, I proposed that India and Pakistan work out a program jointly to develop and jointly to operate the Indus Basin river system, upon which both nations were dependent for irrigation water. With new dams and irrigation canals, the Indus and its tributaries could be made to yield the additional water each country needed for increased food production. In the article I had suggested that the World Bank might use its good offices to bring the parties to agreement, and help in the financing of an Indus Development program.
Lilienthal 's idea was well received by officials at the World Bank, and, subsequently, by the Indian and Pakistani governments. Eugene R. Black, then president of the World Bank, told Lilienthal that his proposal "makes good sense all round ''. Black wrote that the Bank was interested in the economic progress of the two countries and had been concerned that the Indus dispute could only be a serious handicap to this development. India 's previous objections to third party arbitration were remedied by the Bank 's insistence that it would not adjudicate the conflict but rather work as a conduit for agreement.
Black also made a distinction between the "functional '' and "political '' aspects of the Indus dispute. In his correspondence with Indian and Pakistan leaders, Black asserted that the Indus dispute could most realistically be solved if the functional aspects of disagreement were negotiated apart from political considerations. He envisioned a group that tackled the question of how best to utilize the waters of the Indus Basin, leaving aside questions of historic rights or allocations.
Black proposed a Working Party made up of Indian, Pakistani and World Bank engineers. The World Bank delegation would act as a consultative group, charged with offering suggestions and speeding dialogue. In his opening statement to the Working Party, Black spoke of why he was optimistic about the group 's success:
One aspect of Mr. Lilienthal 's proposal appealed to me from the first. I mean his insistence that the Indus problem is an engineering problem and should be dealt with by engineers. One of the strengths of the engineering profession is that, all over the world, engineers speak the same language and approach problems with common standards of judgment.
Black 's hopes for a quick resolution to the Indus dispute were premature. While the Bank had expected that the two sides would come to an agreement on the allocation of waters, neither India nor Pakistan seemed willing to compromise their positions. While Pakistan insisted on its historical right to waters of all the Indus tributaries and that half of West Punjab was under threat of desertification, the Indian side argued that the previous distribution of waters should not set future allocation. Instead, the Indian side set up a new basis of distribution, with the waters of the Western tributaries going to Pakistan and the Eastern tributaries to India. The substantive technical discussions that Black had hoped for were stymied by the political considerations he had expected to avoid.
The World Bank soon became frustrated with this lack of progress. What had originally been envisioned as a technical dispute that would quickly untangle itself started to seem intractable. India and Pakistan were unable to agree on the technical aspects of allocation, let alone the implementation of any agreed upon distribution of waters. Finally, in 1954, after nearly two years of negotiation, the World bank offered its own proposal, stepping beyond the limited role it had apportioned for itself and forcing the two sides to consider concrete plans for the future of the basin. The proposal offered India the three eastern tributaries of the basin and Pakistan the three western tributaries. Canals and storage dams were to be constructed to divert waters from the western rivers and replace the eastern river supply lost by Pakistan.
While the Indian side was amenable to the World Bank proposal, Pakistan found it unacceptable. The World Bank allocated the eastern rivers to India and the western rivers to Pakistan. This new distribution did not account for the historical usage of the Indus basin, or the fact that West Punjab 's Eastern districts could turn into desert, and repudiated Pakistan 's negotiating position. Where India had stood for a new system of allocation, Pakistan felt that its share of waters should be based on pre-partition distribution. The World Bank proposal was more in line with the Indian plan and this angered the Pakistani delegation. They threatened to withdraw from the Working Party, and negotiations verged on collapse.
However, neither side could afford the dissolution of talks. The Pakistani press met rumors of an end to negotiation with talk of increased hostilities; the government was ill - prepared to forego talks for a violent conflict with India and was forced to reconsider its position. India was also eager to settle the Indus issue; large development projects were put on hold by negotiations, and Indian leaders were eager to divert water for irrigation.
In December 1954, the two sides returned to the negotiating table. The World Bank proposal was transformed from a basis of settlement to a basis for negotiation and the talks continued, stop and go, for the next six years.
One of the last stumbling blocks to an agreement concerned financing for the construction of canals and storage facilities that would transfer water from the western rivers to Pakistan. This transfer was necessary to make up for the water Pakistan was giving up by ceding its rights to the eastern rivers. The World Bank initially planned for India to pay for these works, but India refused. The Bank responded with a plan for external financing. An Indus Basin Development Fund Agreement (Karachi, 19 September 1960); a treaty between Australia, Canada, West Germany, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States with the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IRDC) and Pakistan who agreed to provide a combination of funds and loans. This solution cleared the remaining stumbling blocks to agreement, and the Indus Waters Treaty was signed by the leaders of both countries on the same day in 1960. The grants and loans to Pakistan were extended in 1964 through a supplementary agreement.
Presently, the World Bank role in the treaty is limited to keep the dispute settlement process moving when a party / country is not cooperating to follow the arbitration procedure given in the treaty in case of a dispute.
From the rivers flowing in India, India got nearly 33 million acre feet (MAF) from eastern rivers whereas Pakistan got nearly 125 MAF from western rivers. However India can use the western river waters for irrigation up to 701,000 acres with new water storage capacity not exceeding 1.25 MAF and use the rivers for non run of river hydro power plants (excluding unlimited run of the river hydro projects) with storage not exceeding 1.6 MAF and nominal flood storage capacity of 0.75 MAF. These water allocations made to the Jammu and Kashmir state of India are meagre to meet its irrigation water requirements whereas the treaty permitted enough water to irrigate 80 % of the cultivated lands in the Indus river basin of Pakistan. The storage capacity permitted by the treaty for hydro power generation is less than the total annual silt that would accumulate in the reservoirs if the total hydro potential of the state was to be exploited fully. Pakistan is also losing additional benefits by not permitting moderate water storages in upstream J&K state whose water would be ultimately released to the Pakistan for its use and avoid few dams requirement in its territory. Ultimately, J&K state is bound to resort costly de-silting of its reservoirs to keep them operational. Whereas Pakistan is planning to build multi purpose water reservoirs with massive storage for impounding multi year inflows such as 4,500 MW Diamer - Bhasha Dam, 3,600 MW Kalabagh Dam, 600 MW Akhori Dam, Dasu Dam, Bunji Dam, Thakot dam, Patan dam, etc. projects with huge population resettlement. In case of any dam break, downstream areas in Pakistan as well as Kutch region in India would face unprecedented water deluge or submergence as these dams are located in high seismically - active zones.
In 2003 J&K state assembly passed a unanimous resolution for the abrogation of the treaty and again in June 2016, the Jammu and Kashmir assembly demanded for revision of the Indus Water Treaty. The legislators feel that the treaty trampled upon the rights of the people and treats the state of Jammu and Kashmir as a non-entity.
The treaty has not considered Gujarat state in India as part of the Indus river basin. The Indus river is entering the Great Rann of Kutch area and feeding in to Kori Creek during floods. At the time of the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960, the Great Rann of Kutch area was disputed territory between the two nations which was later settled in the year 1968 by sharing total disputed area in 9: 1 ratio between India and Pakistan. Without taking consent from India, Pakistan has constructed Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) project passing through the Great Rann of Kutch area with the assistance from the world bank. LBOD 's purpose is to bypass the saline and polluted water which is not fit for agriculture use to reach sea via Rann of Kutch area without passing through its Indus delta. Water released by the LBOD is enhancing the flooding in India and contaminating the quality of water bodies which are source of water to salt farms spread over vast area. The LBOD water is planned to join the sea via disputed Sir Creek but LBOD water is entering Indian territory due to many breaches in its left bank caused by floods Gujarat state of India being the lower most riparian part of Indus basin, Pakistan is bound to provide all the details of engineering works taken up by Pakistan to India as per the provisions of the treaty and shall not proceed with the project works till the disagreements are settled by arbitration process.
In aftermath of the 2016 Uri attack, India reviewed the treaty and its provisions and proposed several changes.
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bank of the west los angeles corporate office | Bank of the West - wikipedia
Bank of the West is a regional financial services company, headquartered in San Francisco, California. It is a subsidiary of BNP Paribas. It has more than 600 branches and offices in the Midwest and Western United States.
Bank of the West began as Farmers National Gold Bank of San Jose, California, in 1874. When all bank notes became convertible to gold or silver in 1880, the bank converted from a gold national bank and changed its name to the First National Bank of San Jose, California.
In 1970, Banque Nationale de Paris (BNP) established the French Bank of California. Later that decade, First National Bank of San Jose changed its name to Bank of the West. In 1979, BNP bought Bank of the West and merged in the French Bank of California. The bank owned 35 locations and $350 million in assets.
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Bank of the West bought several other banks and branches. In 1987, Bank of the West bought Bank of Los Gatos. This was followed by the 1990 purchase of Central Banking Systems; the 1991 purchase of 30 branches in northern California from failed Imperial Savings and Loan; the 1992 purchase of Atlantic Financial Federal Savings Bank from the Resolution Trust Corporation; the 1993 purchase of 15 branches in northern California from Citibank for $360 million; the 1995 purchase of NorthBay Savings Bank, headquartered in Petaluma, California; and the 1997 purchase of branches from Bank of America and Coast Federal Bank.
In 1995, First Hawaiian Bank established Pacific One Bank to hold 30 branches in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho that it acquired from West One Bank when that bank was acquired by U.S. Bancorp and had to divest certain assets, due to the number of preexisting branches of U.S. Bank in the region. Three years later, in 1998, BNP and First Hawaiian Inc., the parent of First Hawaiian Bank and Pacific One Bank, created a company under the BancWest Bancorp name to hold Bank of the West and First Hawaiian Bank, with Bank of the West absorbing Pacific One. The creation of BancWest Bancorp caused the now - called BNP Paribas ' (BNPP) ownership of the holding company to fall to 45 %. BNPP also agreed not to increase its ownership of the bank holding company before November 2001.
In 1999, Bank of the West bought Sierra West Bancorp. This transaction temporarily diluted BNPP 's ownership of the holding company to 42 %.
In May 2000, BNP and Paribas merged to form BNP Paribas.
In 2001, as part of the regulatory approval process with Wells Fargo Banks 's acquisition of First Security Corp., Bank of the West acquired 23 First Security branches in New Mexico and seven First Security branches in Nevada to avoid antitrust issues with overlapping Wells Fargo operations. Also in 2001, First Hawaiian Bank bought Union Bank of California 's branches in Guam and Saipan. First Hawaiian had established its first branch in Guam in 1970 and its first branch in Saipan in 1997. (Union Bank of California had established its branch in Guam in 1974.) In May 2001, the independent directors of BancWest Bancorp established a special committee that then unanimously voted to accept BNP 's offer to acquire the remaining 55 % of BancWest Bancorp, making the holding company a wholly owned subsidiary of BNP. The year 2001 concluded with the December purchase by Bank of the West of United California Bank from Japan 's UFJ Bank.
In March 2004, Bank of the West announced the purchase of Community First Bankshares, a bank holding company that operated Community First National Bank, headquartered in Fargo, North Dakota, which had 155 offices in 12 states: Arizona, California, Colorado, Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. Soon after, Bank of the West agreed to buy USDB Bancorp, the parent of Union Safe Deposit Bank. In December 2005, Bank of the West bought Commercial Federal Corporation of Omaha, Nebraska. This merger added offices in Arizona, Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, and Oklahoma to Bank of the West.
In January 2006, Bank of the West opened a representative office in Tokyo, Japan, and in September 2007, it opened a representative office in Taipei, Taiwan.
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the first amendment to the constitution protects citizens against cruel and unusual punishment | Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution - wikipedia
The Eighth Amendment (Amendment VIII) of the United States Constitution prohibits the federal government from imposing excessive bail, excessive fines, or cruel and unusual punishment. The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that this amendment 's Cruel and Unusual Punishment Clause also applies to the states. The phrases in this amendment originated in the English Bill of Rights of 1689. This amendment was adopted on December 15, 1791, along with the rest of the United States Bill of Rights.
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
The Eighth Amendment was adopted, as part of the Bill of Rights, in 1791. It is almost identical to a provision in the English Bill of Rights of 1689, in which Parliament declared, "as their ancestors in like cases have usually done... that excessive bail ought not to be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. ''
The provision was largely inspired by the case in England of Titus Oates who, after the ascension of King James II in 1685, was tried for multiple acts of perjury which had caused many executions of people whom Oates had wrongly accused. Oates was sentenced to imprisonment including an annual ordeal of being taken out for two days pillory plus one day of whipping while tied to a moving cart. The Oates case eventually became a topic of the U.S. Supreme Court 's Eighth Amendment jurisprudence. The punishment of Oates involved ordinary penalties collectively imposed in a barbaric, excessive and bizarre manner. The reason why the judges in Oates ' perjury case were not allowed to impose the death penalty (unlike in the cases of those whom Oates had falsely accused) may be because such a punishment would have deterred even honest witnesses from testifying in later cases.
England 's declaration against "cruel and unusual punishments '' was approved by Parliament in February 1689, and was read to King William III and his wife Queen Mary II on the following day. Members of Parliament then explained in August 1689 that "the Commons had a particular regard... when that Declaration was first made '' to punishments like the one that had been inflicted by the King 's Bench against Titus Oates. Parliament then enacted the English Bill of Rights into law in December 1689. Members of parliament characterized the punishment in the Oates case as not just "barbarous '' and "inhuman '' but also "extravagant '' and "exorbitant ''.
In England, the "cruel and unusual punishments '' clause was a limitation on the discretion of judges, and required judges to adhere to precedent. According to the great treatise of the 1760s by William Blackstone entitled Commentaries on the Laws of England:
(H) owever unlimited the power of the court may seem, it is far from being wholly arbitrary; but its discretion is regulated by law. For the bill of rights has particularly declared, that excessive fines ought not to be imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted: (which had a retrospect to some unprecedented proceedings in the court of king 's bench, in the reign of king James the second)...
Virginia adopted this provision of the English Bill of Rights in the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776, and the Virginia convention that ratified the U.S. Constitution recommended in 1788 that this language also be included in the Constitution.
Virginians such as George Mason and Patrick Henry wanted to ensure that this restriction would also be applied as a limitation on Congress. Mason warned that, otherwise, Congress may "inflict unusual and severe punishments. '' Henry emphasized that Congress should not be allowed to depart from precedent:
What has distinguished our ancestors? -- That they would not admit of tortures, or cruel and barbarous punishment. But Congress may introduce the practice of the civil law, in preference to that of the common law. They may introduce the practice of France, Spain, and Germany...
Ultimately, Henry and Mason prevailed, and the Eighth Amendment was adopted. James Madison changed "ought '' to "shall '', when he proposed the amendment to Congress in 1789.
In England, sheriffs originally determined whether to grant bail to criminal suspects. Since they tended to abuse their power, Parliament passed a statute in 1275 whereby bailable and non-bailable offenses were defined. The King 's judges often subverted the provisions of the law. It was held that an individual may be held without bail upon the Sovereign 's command. Eventually, the Petition of Right of 1628 argued that the King did not have such authority. Later, technicalities in the law were exploited to keep the accused imprisoned without bail even where the offenses were bailable; such loopholes were for the most part closed by the Habeas Corpus Act 1679. Thereafter, judges were compelled to set bail, but they often required impracticable amounts. Finally, the English Bill of Rights (1689) held that "excessive bail ought not to be required. '' Nevertheless, the Bill did not determine the distinction between bailable and non-bailable offenses. Thus, the Eighth Amendment has been interpreted to mean that bail may be denied if the charges are sufficiently serious. The Supreme Court has also permitted "preventive '' detention without bail. In United States v. Salerno, 481 U.S. 739 (1987), the Supreme Court held that the only limitation imposed by the bail clause is that "the government 's proposed conditions of release or detention not be ' excessive ' in light of the perceived evil. '' In Stack v. Boyle, 342 U.S. 1 (1951), the Supreme Court declared that a bail amount is "excessive '' under the Eighth Amendment if it were "a figure higher than is reasonably calculated '' to ensure the defendant 's appearance at trial.
In Waters - Pierce Oil Co. v. Texas, 212 U.S. 86 (1909), the Supreme Court held that excessive fines are those which are "so grossly excessive as to amount to a deprivation of property without due process of law. '' The Court wrote in its syllabus:
The fixing of punishment for crime and penalties for unlawful acts is within the police power of the state, and this Court can not interfere with state legislation in fixing fines, or judicial action in imposing them, unless so grossly excessive as to amount to deprivation of property without due process of law. Where a state antitrust law fixed penalties at $5,000 a day, and, after verdict of guilty for over 300 days, a defendant corporation was fined over $1,600,000, this Court will not hold that the fine is so excessive as to amount to deprivation of property without due process of law where it appears that the business was extensive and profitable during the period of violation, and that the corporation has over $40,000,000 of assets and has declared dividends amounting to several hundred percent
The Court further stated in its opinion:
(I) t is contended that the fines imposed are so excessive as to constitute a taking of the defendant 's property without due process of law. It is not contended in this connection that the prohibition of the Eighth Amendment to the federal Constitution against excessive fines operates to control the legislation of the states. The fixing of punishment for crime or penalties for unlawful acts against its laws is within the police power of the state. We can only interfere with such legislation and judicial action of the states enforcing it if the fines imposed are so grossly excessive as to amount to a deprivation of property without due process of law.
In Waters - Pierce Oil Co. v. Texas the Supreme Court set up a standard for judging whether or not a fine is "excessive. '' The standard set up is that a fine must not be "so grossly excessive as to amount to deprivation of property without due process of law. '' In other words, the government must not be able to confiscate such a large amount of property without following an established set of rules created by the legislature.
In Browning - Ferris Industries v. Kelco Disposal, 492 U.S. 257 (1989), the Supreme Court ruled that the Excessive Fines Clause does not apply "when the government neither has prosecuted the action nor has any right to receive a share of the damages awarded. '' While punitive damages in civil cases are not covered by the Excessive Fines Clause, such damages were held to be covered by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, notably in State Farm v. Campbell, 538 U.S. 408 (2003).
In United States v. Bajakajian, 524 U.S. 321 (1998), the Supreme Court ruled that it was unconstitutional to confiscate $357,144 from Hosep Bajakajian who failed to report possession of over $10,000 while leaving the United States. In what was the first case in which the Supreme Court ruled a fine to violate the Excessive Fines Clause, the Court held that it was "grossly disproportional '' to take all of the money which Mr. Bajakajian attempted to take out of the United States, in violation of a federal law that required him to report an amount in excess of $10,000. In describing what constituted "gross disproportionality, '' the Court could not find any guidance from the history of the Excessive Fines Clause and so relied on Cruel and Unusual Punishment Clause case law:
We must therefore rely on other considerations in deriving a constitutional excessiveness standard, and there are two that we find particularly relevant. The first, which we have emphasized in our cases interpreting the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause, is that judgments about the appropriate punishment for an offense belong in the first instance to the legislature. See, e.g., Solem v. Helm, 463 U.S. 277, 290 (1983) ("Reviewing courts... should grant substantial deference to the broad authority that legislatures necessarily possess in determining the types and limits of punishments for crimes ''); see also Gore v. United States, 357 U.S. 386, 393 (1958) ("Whatever views may be entertained regarding severity of punishment,... these are peculiarly questions of legislative policy ''). The second is that any judicial determination regarding the gravity of a particular criminal offense will be inherently imprecise. Both of these principles counsel against requiring strict proportionality between the amount of a punitive forfeiture and the gravity of a criminal offense, and we therefore adopt the standard of gross disproportionality articulated in our Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause precedents. See, e.g., Solem v. Helm, supra, at 288; Rummel v. Estelle, 445 U.S. 263, 271 (1980).
Thus the Court declared that, within the context of judicial deference to the legislature 's power to set punishments, a fine would not offend the Eighth Amendment unless it were "grossly disproportional to the gravity of a defendant 's offense. ''
According to the Supreme Court, the Eighth Amendment forbids some punishments entirely, and forbids some other punishments that are excessive when compared to the crime, or compared to the competence of the perpetrator.
In Louisiana ex rel. Francis v. Resweber, 329 U.S. 459 (1947), the Supreme Court assumed arguendo that the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause applied to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In Robinson v. California, 370 U.S. 660 (1962), the Court ruled that it did apply to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. Robinson was the first case in which the Supreme Court applied the Eighth Amendment against the state governments through the Fourteenth Amendment. Before Robinson, the Eighth Amendment had only been applied previously in cases against the federal government.
Justice Potter Stewart 's opinion for the Robinson Court held that "infliction of cruel and unusual punishment is in violation of the Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments. '' The framers of the Fourteenth Amendment, such as John Bingham, had discussed this subject:
Many instances of State injustice and oppression have already occurred in the State legislation of this Union, of flagrant violations of the guarantied privileges of citizens of the United States, for which the national Government furnished and could furnish by law no remedy whatever. Contrary to the express letter of your Constitution, "cruel and unusual punishments '' have been inflicted under State laws within this Union upon citizens, not only for crimes committed, but for sacred duty done, for which and against which the Government of the United States had provided no remedy and could provide none.
In Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972), Justice Brennan wrote, "There are, then, four principles by which we may determine whether a particular punishment is ' cruel and unusual '. ''
Justice Brennan also wrote that he expected no state would pass a law obviously violating any one of these principles, so court decisions regarding the Eighth Amendment would involve a "cumulative '' analysis of the implication of each of the four principles. In this way, the United States Supreme Court "set the standard that a punishment would be cruel and unusual (if) it was too severe for the crime, (if) it was arbitrary, if it offended society 's sense of justice, or if it was not more effective than a less severe penalty. ''
In Wilkerson v. Utah, 99 U.S. 130 (1878), the Supreme Court commented that drawing and quartering, public dissection, burning alive, or disembowelment constituted cruel and unusual punishment. In Thompson v. Oklahoma, 487 U.S. 815 (1988), the Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty constituted cruel and unusual punishment if the defendant is under age 16 when the crime was committed. Furthermore, in Roper v. Simmons, 543 U.S. 551 (2005), the Court barred the executing of people who were under age 18 when the crime was committed. In Atkins v. Virginia, 536 U.S. 304 (2002), the Court declared that executing people who are mentally handicapped constituted cruel and unusual punishment.
The case of Weems v. United States, 217 U.S. 349 (1910), marked the first time that the Supreme Court exercised judicial review to overturn a criminal sentence as cruel and unusual. The Court overturned a punishment called cadena temporal, which mandated "hard and painful labor, '' shackling for the duration of incarceration, and permanent civil disabilities. This case is often viewed as establishing a principle of proportionality under the Eighth Amendment. However, others have written that "it is hard to view Weems as announcing a constitutional requirement of proportionality. ''
In Trop v. Dulles, 356 U.S. 86 (1958), the Supreme Court held that punishing a natural - born citizen for a crime by revoking his citizenship is unconstitutional, being "more primitive than torture '' because it involved the "total destruction of the individual 's status in organized society. ''
In Robinson v. California, 370 U.S. 660 (1962), the Court decided that a California law authorizing a 90 - day jail sentence for "be (ing) addicted to the use of narcotics '' violated the Eighth Amendment, as narcotics addiction "is apparently an illness, '' and California was attempting to punish people based on the state of this illness, rather than for any specific act. The Court wrote:
"To be sure, imprisonment for ninety days is not, in the abstract, a punishment which is either cruel or unusual. But the question can not be considered in the abstract. Even one day in prison would be a cruel and unusual punishment for the ' crime ' of having a common cold. ''
However, in Powell v. Texas, 392 U.S. 514 (1968), the Court upheld a statute barring public intoxication by distinguishing Robinson on the basis that Powell dealt with a person who was drunk in public, not merely for being addicted to alcohol.
Traditionally, the length of a prison sentence was not subject to scrutiny under the Eighth Amendment, regardless of the crime for which the sentence was imposed. It was not until the case of Solem v. Helm, 463 U.S. 277 (1983), that the Supreme Court held that incarceration, standing alone, could constitute cruel and unusual punishment if it were "disproportionate '' in duration to the offense. The Court outlined three factors that were to be considered in determining if the sentence is excessive: "(i) the gravity of the offense and the harshness of the penalty; (ii) the sentences imposed on other criminals in the same jurisdiction; and (iii) the sentences imposed for commission of the same crime in other jurisdictions. '' The Court held that in the circumstances of the case before it and the factors to be considered, a sentence of life imprisonment without parole for cashing a $100 check on a closed account was cruel and unusual.
However, in Harmelin v. Michigan, 501 U.S. 957 (1991), a fractured Court retreated from the Solem test and held that for non-capital sentences, the Eighth Amendment only constrains the length of prison terms by a "gross disproportionality principle. '' Under this principle, the Court sustained a mandatory sentence of life without parole imposed for possession of 672 grams (1.5 pounds) or more of cocaine. The Court acknowledged that a punishment could be cruel but not unusual, and therefore not prohibited by the Constitution. Additionally, in Harmelin, Justice Scalia, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist, said "the Eighth Amendment contains no proportionality guarantee, '' and that "what was ' cruel and unusual ' under the Eighth Amendment was to be determined without reference to the particular offense. '' Scalia wrote "If ' cruel and unusual punishments ' included disproportionate punishments, the separate prohibition of disproportionate fines (which are certainly punishments) would have been entirely superfluous. '' Moreover, "There is little doubt that those who framed, proposed, and ratified the Bill of Rights were aware of such provisions (outlawing disproportional punishments), yet chose not to replicate them. ''
In Graham v. Florida, 560 U.S. 48 (2010), the Supreme Court declared that a life sentence without any chance of parole, for a crime other than murder, is cruel and unusual punishment for a minor. Two years later, in Miller v. Alabama, 567 U.S. ___ (2012), the Court went further, holding that mandatory life sentences without parole can not be imposed on minors, even for homicide.
In Coker v. Georgia, 433 U.S. 584 (1977), the Court declared that the death penalty was unconstitutionally excessive for rape of a woman and, by implication, for any crime where a death does not occur. The majority in Coker stated that "death is indeed a disproportionate penalty for the crime of raping an adult woman. '' The dissent countered that the majority "takes too little account of the profound suffering the crime imposes upon the victims and their loved ones. '' The dissent also characterized the majority as "myopic '' for only considering legal history of "the past five years ''.
In Kennedy v. Louisiana, 554 U.S. 407 (2008), the Court extended the reasoning of Coker by ruling that the death penalty was excessive for child rape "where the victim 's life was not taken. '' The Supreme Court failed to note a federal law, which applies to military court - martial proceedings, providing for the death penalty in cases of child rape. On October 1, 2008, the Court declined to reconsider its opinion in this case, but did amend the majority and dissenting opinions in order to acknowledge that federal law. Justice Scalia (joined by Chief Justice Roberts) wrote in dissent that "the proposed Eighth Amendment would have been laughed to scorn if it had read ' no criminal penalty shall be imposed which the Supreme Court deems unacceptable. ' ''
The first significant general challenge to capital punishment that reached the Supreme Court was the case of Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972). In a 5 -- 4 decision, the Supreme Court overturned the death sentences of Furman for murder, as well as two other defendants for rape. Of the five justices voting to overturn the death penalty, two found capital punishment to be unconstitutionally cruel and unusual, while three found that the statutes at issue were implemented in a random and capricious fashion, discriminating against blacks and the poor. Furman v. Georgia did not hold -- even though it is sometimes claimed that it did -- that capital punishment is per se unconstitutional.
States with capital punishment rewrote their laws to address the Supreme Court 's decision, and the Court then revisited the issue in a murder case: Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153 (1976). In Gregg, the Court found, in a 7 -- 2 ruling, that Georgia 's new death penalty laws passed Eighth Amendment scrutiny: the statutes provided a bifurcated trial in which guilt and sentence were determined separately; and, the statutes provided for "specific jury findings '' followed by state supreme court review comparing each death sentence "with the sentences imposed on similarly situated defendants to ensure that the sentence of death in a particular case is not disproportionate. '' Because of the Gregg decision, executions resumed in 1977.
Some states have passed laws imposing mandatory death penalties in certain cases. The Supreme Court found these laws to be unconstitutional under the Eighth Amendment, in the murder case of Woodson v. North Carolina, 428 U.S. 280 (1976), because these laws remove discretion from the trial judge to make an individualized determination in each case. Other statutes specifying factors for courts to use in making their decisions have been upheld. Some have not: in Godfrey v. Georgia, 446 U.S. 420 (1980), the Supreme Court overturned a sentence based upon a finding that a murder was "outrageously or wantonly vile, horrible, and inhuman, '' as it deemed that any murder may be reasonably characterized in this manner. Similarly, in Maynard v. Cartwright, 486 U.S. 356 (1988), the Court found that an "especially heinous, atrocious or cruel '' standard in a homicide case was too vague. However, the meaning of this language depends on how lower courts interpret it. In Walton v. Arizona, 497 U.S. 639 (1990), the Court found that the phrase "especially heinous, cruel, or depraved '' was not vague in a murder case, because the state supreme court had expounded on its meaning.
The Court has generally held that death penalty cases require extra procedural protections. As the Court said in Herrera v. Collins, 506 U.S. 390 (1993), which involved the murder of a police officer, "the Eighth Amendment requires increased reliability of the process... ''
In Wilkerson v. Utah, 99 U.S. 130 (1878), the Court stated that death by firing squad was not cruel and unusual punishment under the Eighth Amendment.
In Rummel v. Estelle, 445 U.S. 263 (1980), the Court upheld a life sentence with the possibility of parole imposed per Texas 's three strikes law for fraud crimes totaling $230. A few months after pleading guilty Rummel was released.
In Harmelin v. Michigan, 501 U.S. 957 (1991), the Court upheld a life sentence without the possibility of parole for possession of 672 grams (1.5 pounds) of cocaine.
In Lockyer v. Andrade, 538 U.S. 63 (2003), the Court upheld a 50 years to life sentence with the possibility of parole imposed under California 's three strikes law when the defendant was convicted of shoplifting videotapes worth a total of about $150.
In Trop v. Dulles, 356 U.S. 86 (1958), Chief Justice Earl Warren said: "The (Eighth) Amendment must draw its meaning from the evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society. '' Subsequently, the Court has looked to societal developments, as well as looking to its own independent judgment, in determining what are those "evolving standards of decency ''.
Originalists like Justice Antonin Scalia argue that societies may rot instead of maturing, and may decrease in virtue or wisdom instead of increasing. Thus, they say, the framers wanted the amendment to be understood as it was written and ratified, instead of morphing as times change, and in any event legislators are more competent than judges to take the pulse of the public as to changing standards of decency.
The "evolving standards '' test is not without its scholarly critics as well. For example, Professor John Stinneford asserts that the "evolving standards '' test misinterprets the Eighth Amendment:
The Framers of the Bill of Rights understood the word "unusual '' to mean "contrary to long usage. '' Recognition of the word 's original meaning will precisely invert the "evolving standards of decency '' test, and ask the Court to compare challenged punishments with the longstanding principles and precedents of the common law, rather than shifting and nebulous notions of "societal consensus '' and contemporary "standards of decency. ''
On the other hand, Professor Dennis Baker defends the evolving standards of decency test as advancing the moral purpose of the Eighth Amendment to ban all forms of unjust punishment.
The Court has applied evolving standards not only to say what punishments are inherently cruel, but also to say what punishments that are not inherently cruel are nevertheless "grossly disproportionate '' to the offense in question. An example can be seen in Jackson v. Bishop (8th Cir., 1968), an Eighth Circuit decision outlawing corporal punishment in the Arkansas prison system: "The scope of the Amendment is not static... (D) isproportion, both among punishments and between punishment and crime, is a factor to be considered... ''
Professor Stinneford asserts that the Eighth Amendment forbids punishments that are very disproportionate to the offense, even if the punishment by itself is not intrinsically barbaric, but Stinneford argues that "proportionality is to be measured primarily in terms of prior practice '' according to the word "unusual '' in the amendment, instead of being measured according to shifting and nebulous evolving standards. Similarly, Professor John Bessler points to "An Essay on Crimes and Punishments, '' written by Cesare Beccaria in the 1760s, which advocated proportionate punishments; many of the Founding Fathers, including Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, read Beccaria 's treatise and were influenced by it.
Thus, Stinneford and Bessler disagree with the view of Justice Scalia, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist, in Harmelin v. Michigan where they denied that the Punishments Clause contains any proportionality principle. With Scalia and Rehnquist, Richard Epstein argues that the amendment does not refer broadly to the imposition of penalties, but rather refers more narrowly to the penalties themselves; Epstein says that judges who favor the broad view tend to omit the letter "s '' at the end of the word "punishments ''.
(E) ven if one stacked up all of Oates 's punishments together -- the fine, the whippings, the imprisonment, the pillorying, and the defrockment -- their cumulative effect was less harsh as an absolute matter than some punishments considered acceptable at the time, such as drawing and quartering or burning at the stake. If the punishments inflicted on Oates were unacceptably cruel, this could only be because they were disproportionate to the crime of perjury.
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what are the common themes associated with afro asian literature | African literature - wikipedia
African literature is literature of or from Africa and includes oral literature (or "orature '', in the term coined by Ugandan scholar Pio Zirimu).
As George Joseph notes in his chapter on African literature in Understanding Contemporary Africa, whereas European views of literature often stressed a separation of art and content, African awareness is inclusive:
Oral literature (or orature) may be in prose or verse. The prose is often mythological or historical and can include tales of the trickster character. Storytellers in Africa sometimes use call - and - response techniques to tell their stories. Poetry, often sung, includes: narrative epic, occupational verse, ritual verse, praise poems of rulers and other prominent people. Praise singers, bards sometimes known as "griots '', tell their stories with music. Also recited, often sung, are love songs, work songs, children 's songs, along with epigrams, proverbs and riddles.
Examples of pre-colonial African literature are numerous. Oral literature of west Africa includes the "Epic of Sundiata '' composed in medieval Mali, and the older "Epic of Dinga '' from the old Ghana Empire. In Ethiopia, there is a substantial literature written in Ge'ez going back at least to the fourth century AD; the best - known work in this tradition is the Kebra Negast, or "Book of Kings. '' One popular form of traditional African folktale is the "trickster '' story, in which a small animal uses its wits to survive encounters with larger creatures. Examples of animal tricksters include Anansi, a spider in the folklore of the Ashanti people of Ghana; Ijàpá, a tortoise in Yoruba folklore of Nigeria; and Sungura, a hare found in central and East African folklore. Other works in written form are abundant, namely in north Africa, the Sahel regions of west Africa and on the Swahili coast. From Timbuktu alone, there are an estimated 300,000 or more manuscripts tucked away in various libraries and private collections, mostly written in Arabic but some in the native languages (namely Fula and Songhai). Many were written at the famous University of Timbuktu. The material covers a wide array of topics, including astronomy, poetry, law, history, faith, politics, and philosophy. Swahili literature similarly, draws inspiration from Islamic teachings but developed under indigenous circumstances. One of the most renowned and earliest pieces of Swahili literature being Utendi wa Tambuka or "The Story of Tambuka ''.
In Islamic times, North Africans such as Ibn Khaldun attained great distinction within Arabic literature. Medieval north Africa boasted universities such as those of Fes and Cairo, with copious amounts of literature to supplement them.
The African works best known in the West from the periods of colonization and the slave trade are primarily slave narratives, such as Olaudah Equiano 's The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (1789).
In the colonial period, Africans exposed to Western languages began to write in those tongues. In 1911, Joseph Ephraim Casely Hayford (also known as Ekra - Agiman) of the Gold Coast (now Ghana) published what is probably the first African novel written in English, Ethiopia Unbound: Studies in Race Emancipation. Although the work moves between fiction and political advocacy, its publication and positive reviews in the Western press mark a watershed moment in African literature.
During this period, African plays written in English began to emerge. Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo of South Africa published the first English - language African play, The Girl Who Killed to Save: Nongqawuse the Liberator in 1935. In 1962, Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o of Kenya wrote the first East African drama, The Black Hermit, a cautionary tale about "tribalism '' (discrimination between African tribes).
Among the first pieces of African literature to receive significant worldwide critical acclaim was Things Fall Apart, by Chinua Achebe. Published in 1958, late in the colonial era, Things Fall Apart analyzed the effect of colonialism on traditional African society.
African literature in the late colonial period (between the end of World War I and independence) increasingly showed themes of liberation, independence, and (among Africans in French - controlled territories) négritude. One of the leaders of the négritude movement, the poet and eventual President of Senegal, Léopold Sédar Senghor, published in 1948 the first anthology of French - language poetry written by Africans, Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache de langue française (Anthology of the New Black and Malagasy Poetry in the French Language), featuring a preface by the French existentialist writer Jean - Paul Sartre.
For many writers this emphasis was not restricted to their publishing. Many, indeed, suffered deeply and directly: censured for casting aside his artistic responsibilities in order to participate actively in warfare, Christopher Okigbo was killed in battle for Biafra against the Nigerian movement of the 1960s ' civil war; Mongane Wally Serote was detained under South Africa 's Terrorism Act No 83 of 1967 between 1969 and 1970, and subsequently released without ever having stood trial; in London in 1970, his countryman Arthur Norje committed suicide; Malawi 's Jack Mapanje was incarcerated with neither charge nor trial because of an off - hand remark at a university pub; and, in 1995, Ken Saro - Wiwa was hanged by the Nigerian junta.
With liberation and increased literacy since most African nations gained their independence in the 1950s and 1960s, African literature has grown dramatically in quantity and in recognition, with numerous African works appearing in Western academic curricula and on "best of '' lists compiled at the end of the 20th century. African writers in this period wrote both in Western languages (notably English, French, and Portuguese) and in traditional African languages such as Hausa.
Ali A. Mazrui and others mention seven conflicts as themes: the clash between Africa 's past and present, between tradition and modernity, between indigenous and foreign, between individualism and community, between socialism and capitalism, between development and self - reliance and between Africanity and humanity. Other themes in this period include social problems such as corruption, the economic disparities in newly independent countries, and the rights and roles of women. Female writers are today far better represented in published African literature than they were prior to independence.
In 1986, Wole Soyinka became the first post-independence African writer to win the Nobel Prize in literature. Previously, Algerian - born Albert Camus had been awarded the 1957 prize.
There is a lot of literary production in Africa since the beginning of the current decade (2010), even though readers do not always follow in large numbers. One can also notice the appearance of certain writings that break with the academic style. In addition, the shortage of literary critics can be explored on the continent nowadays. Literary events seem to be very fashionable, including literary awards, some of which can be distinguished by their original concepts. The case of the Grand Prix of Literary Associations is quite illustrative.
Inaugurated in 1980 and running till 2009, the Noma Award for Publishing in Africa was presented for the outstanding work of the year published in Africa.
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where does the one finger salute come from | The finger - wikipedia
In Western culture, the finger or the middle finger (as in giving someone the (middle) finger or the bird or flipping someone off) is an obscene hand gesture. The gesture communicates moderate to extreme contempt, and is roughly equivalent in meaning to "fuck off '', "fuck you, '' "shove it up your ass / arse, '' "up yours, '' or "go fuck yourself. '' It is performed by showing the back of a hand that has only the middle finger extended upwards, though in some locales, the thumb is extended. Extending the finger is considered a symbol of contempt in several cultures, especially in the West. Many cultures use similar gestures to display their disrespect, although others use it to express pointing without intentional disrespect toward other cultures. The gesture is usually used to express contempt but can also be used humorously or playfully.
The gesture dates back to Ancient Greece and it was also used in Ancient Rome. Historically, it represented the phallus. In some modern cultures, it has gained increasing recognition as a sign of disrespect, and has been used by music artists (notably more common among hardcore punk bands and rappers), actors, celebrities, athletes, and politicians. Most still view the gesture as obscene. The index finger and ring finger besides the middle finger in more contemporary periods has been likened to represent the testes.
The middle finger gesture was used in ancient times as a symbol of sexual intercourse, in a manner meant to degrade, intimidate and threaten the individual receiving the gesture. It also represented the phallus, with the fingers next to the middle finger representing testicles; from its close association, the gesture may have assumed apotropaic potency. In the 1st - century Mediterranean world, extending the finger was one of many methods used to divert the ever - present threat of the evil eye.
In Greek the gesture was known as the katapygon (κατάπυγον, from kata -- κατά, "downwards '' and pugē -- πυγή, "rump, buttocks ''). In ancient Greek comedy, the finger was a gesture of insult toward another person, with the term katapugon also referring to "a male who submits to anal penetration '' or katapygaina to a female. In Aristophanes 's comedy The Clouds (423 BC), when the character Socrates is quizzing his student on poetic meters, Strepsiades declares that he knows quite well what a dactyl is, and gives the finger. The gesture is a visual pun on the two meanings of the Greek word dactylos, both "finger '' and the rhythmic measure composed of a long syllable and two short, like the joints of a finger (, which also appears as a visual pun on the penis and testicles in a medieval Latin text). Socrates called one who made the gesture "boorish and stupid ''. The gesture recurs as a form of mockery in Peace, alongside farting in someone 's face; the usage is later explained in the Suda and included in the Adagia of Erasmus. The verb "to play the Siphnian '' appears in a fragment of Aristophanes and has a similar meaning; the usage is once again explained in the Suda, where it is said to mean "to touch the anus with a finger ''. Diogenes Laërtius records how the Cynic philosopher Diogenes of Sinope directed the gesture at the orator Demosthenes in 4th - century BC Athens. In the Discourses of Epictetus, Diogenes 's target is instead one of the sophists.
In Latin, the middle finger was the digitus impudicus, meaning the "shameless, indecent or offensive finger ''. In the 1st century AD, Persius had superstitious female relatives concoct a charm with the "infamous finger '' (digitus infamis) and "purifying spit ''; while in the Satyricon, an old woman uses dust, spit and her middle finger to mark the forehead before casting a spell. The poet Martial has a character in good health extend "the indecent one '' toward three doctors. In another epigram, Martial wrote: "Laugh loud, Sextillus, at whoever calls you a cinaedus and extend your middle finger. '' Juvenal, through synecdoche, has the "middle nail '' cocked at threatening Fortuna. The indecent finger features again in a mocking context in the Priapeia, a collection of poems relating to the phallic god Priapus. In Late Antiquity, the term "shameless finger '' is explained in the Etymologiae of Isidore of Seville with reference to its frequent use when accusing someone of a "shameful action ''.
Linguist Jesse Sheidlower traces the gesture 's development in the United States to the 1890s. According to anthropologist Desmond Morris, the gesture probably came to the United States via Italian immigrants. The first documented appearance of the finger in the United States was in 1886, when Old Hoss Radbourn, a baseball pitcher for the Boston Beaneaters, was photographed giving it to a member of their rival the New York Giants. In the film Speedy (1928), Harold Lloyd 's character gives himself the finger into a distorting mirror at Luna Park, about 24 minutes into the film.
The gesture has been involved in notable political events. During the USS Pueblo incident, in which an American ship was captured by North Korea, the captured American crewmembers often discreetly gave the finger in staged photo ops, thus ruining the North Koreans ' efforts at propaganda. The North Koreans, ignorant of what the gesture meant, were at first told by the prisoners that it was a "Hawaiian good luck sign '', similar to the shaka. When the guards finally figured things out, the crewmembers were subjected to extremely severe beatings. Abbie Hoffman used the gesture at the 1968 Democratic National Convention. Ronald Reagan, while serving as the Governor of California, gave the middle finger to counterculture protestors in Berkeley, California. Nelson Rockefeller, then the Vice President of the United States, directed the gesture to hecklers at a 1976 campaign stop near Binghamton, New York, leading it to be called the "Rockefeller gesture ''. Pierre Trudeau, then the Prime Minister of Canada, gave the finger to protesters in Salmon Arm, British Columbia, earning the incident the nickname the "Salmon Arm salute ''. The gesture itself has also been nicknamed the "Trudeau salute ''. Former president George W. Bush gave the finger to the camera at an Austin production facility during his term as governor of Texas, saying it was "just a one - finger victory salute. '' Anthony Weiner gave the finger to reporters after leaving his election headquarters the night he lost the 2013 primary election for Mayor of New York City. During the campaign for the 2013 German federal election, the leading candidate of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, Peer Steinbrück controversially gave the finger in a photo interview with Süddeutsche Zeitung 's Magazin supplement.
During World War II, the 91st Bombardment Group of the United States Army Air Forces referred to the gesture as the "rigid digit '' salute. It was used in a more jocular manner, to suggest an airman had committed an error or infraction; the term was a reference to British slang terms for inattentiveness (i.e. "pull your finger out (of your bum) ''). The "order of the rigid digit '' continued after the war as a series of awards presented by the veteran 's association of the 91st, marked by wooden statuettes of a hand giving the single finger gesture. In 2005 during the war in Iraq, Gunnery Sergeant Michael Burghardt gained prominence when the Omaha World - Herald published a photo of Burghardt making the gesture towards Iraqi insurgents he believed to be watching after an improvised explosive device failed to kill him.
The middle finger has been involved in judicial hearings. An appellate court in Hartford, Connecticut ruled in 1976 that gesturing with the middle finger was offensive, but not obscene, after a police officer charged a 16 - year - old with making an obscene gesture when the student gave the officer the middle finger. The case was appealed to the Connecticut Supreme Court, which upheld the decision. In March 2006, a federal lawsuit was filed regarding the free speech issue.
Giving the finger has resulted in negative consequences. A Malaysian man was bludgeoned to death after giving the finger to a motorist following a car chase. A Pakistani man was deported by the United Arab Emirates for the gesture, which violates indecency codes.
People have given the finger as a method of political protest. At a concert, Ricky Martin gave a picture of George W. Bush the finger to protest the War in Iraq. Serbian protesters gave the finger to the Russian embassy regarding their support of Slobodan Milošević. Artist Ai Weiwei has used the finger in photographs and sculptures as a political statement. As a political message to the Czech President Miloš Zeman, Czech artist David Černý floated an outsize, purple statue of a hand on the River Vltava in Prague; its middle finger extended towards Prague Castle, the Presidential seat.
The use of the middle finger has become pervasive in popular culture. The band Cobra Starship released a song called "Middle Finger '', and released a music video that showed people giving the finger. Italian artist Maurizio Cattelan installed a marble statue of a middle finger measuring 11 metres (36 ft), located directly in front of the Milan Stock Exchange. A now - famous photograph of Johnny Cash shows him giving the middle finger to a photographer during a 1969 concert at San Quentin State Prison, released as At San Quentin. However, the photo remained fairly obscure until 1998, when producer Rick Rubin made it the centerpiece of an ad in Billboard criticizing country radio for not giving airplay to Cash 's Grammy - winning album Unchained. Cameron Diaz made the gesture during a photo shoot for Esquire. Harold Lloyd shot the finger to his own reflection in a Coney Island funhouse after getting paint on his suit in Speedy, his final silent feature, from 1928.
Athletes, including Stefan Effenberg, Ron Artest, Luis Suárez, Juan Pablo Montoya, Iván Rodríguez, Danny Graves, Jack McDowell, Natasha Zvereva, Josh Smith, Bryan Cox, and Johnny Manziel have been suspended or fined for making the gesture. José Paniagua was released by the Chicago White Sox after giving the middle finger to an umpire; he has n't played in the majors since. Baseball executive Chub Feeney once resigned after giving the finger to fans on Fan Appreciation Night. Bud Adams, owner of the National Football League 's Tennessee Titans, was fined US $250,000 for giving both middle fingers to the fans of the Buffalo Bills during a game. Professional wrestler Stone Cold Steve Austin is also famous for flashing one or both middle fingers as part of his gimmick. Hockey star Jaromír Jágr made the gesture several times following goals in the early 1990s.
The NME Awards, an annual music awards show in the UK, uses an extended middle finger design in the trophy handed out to the winners. Many musical artists, including Madonna, Lady Gaga, Eminem, Ariana Grande, Katy Perry, and Adele have publicly made the gesture. Britney Spears and Iggy Azalea have given the gesture towards members of the paparazzi, but had to apologize when fans interpreted the gesture as directed at them. M.I.A. gave the gesture during the Super Bowl XLVI Halftime Show. The National Football League, NBC, and M.I.A. apologized. The CD itself for Kid Rock 's album Devil Without a Cause is a picture of his raised middle finger. On the cover of Moby Grape 's first album, Moby Grape, band member Don Stevenson was caught flipping the bird at the camera. The finger was airbrushed out of subsequent releases of the album.
In automobile driving culture, giving the finger to a fellow motorist communicates displeasure at another person 's reckless driving habits and / or their disregard for common courtesy.
The finger is included in Unicode as U + 1F595 🖕 REVERSED HAND WITH MIDDLE FINGER EXTENDED.
The media sometimes refers to the gesture as being mistaken for an indication of "we 're number one '', typically indicated with a raised index finger. Sometimes, though, the "mistake '' is actually an intentional euphemism meant to indirectly convey the gesture in a medium where a direct description would be inappropriate. For example, Don Meredith is famously noted in a 1972 Monday Night Football game describing the Finger of a dejected Houston Oilers fan as, "He thinks they 're number one in the nation. '' Ira Robbins, a law professor, believes the finger is no longer an obscene gesture. Psychologist David Walsh, founder of the National Institute on Media and the Family, sees the growing acceptance of the middle finger as a sign of the growth of a "culture of disrespect ''.
Google Street View 's picture of the area around the Wisconsin Governor 's Mansion, taken in 2011 during the tenure of Scott Walker, shows a jogger giving the finger in the direction of the mansion.
In the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand, the V sign, "two - fingered salute '' or "the fingers '', when given with back of the hand towards the recipient, serves a similar purpose. According to a synopsis of the play, Henry V, written by The Royal Shakespeare Company, "the ' two - fingered salute ' is almost certainly older than Agincourt, appearing as it does in the Macclesfield Psalter of c. 1330 (in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge), being made by a glove in the psalter 's marginalia ''. George H.W. Bush, former President of the United States, accidentally made the gesture while on a diplomatic trip to Australia.
In countries where Spanish, Portuguese, or French are spoken, and especially in Spain, Portugal, Brazil, and France the gesture involving raising a fist and slapping the biceps on the same arm as the fist used, sometimes called the bras d'honneur or Iberian slap, is equivalent to the finger.
Italy, Poland, and countries under the influence of Russian culture, such as Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine, also see it as equivalent to the finger, but the majority of young people in these countries use the finger as an insult, which is associated with the Western culture.
In Islamic countries and cultures, a gesture involving exposing only the thumb in a vertical orientation -- a thumbs up -- is used in lieu of the finger to express roughly the same sentiment. A similarly obscene gesture is extending all five digits with the palm facing forward, meaning "you have five fathers '', thus calling someone a bastard. This is similar to a gesture known in Greece as the Moutza, where the five fingers are spread wide and the palm is pushed towards the recipient. More commonly in Turkish or Slavic regions, the fig sign (also known as nah or shish) serves as the equivalent to the finger, meaning "you wo n't get it '' or "in your dreams ''. The gesture is typically made with the hand and fingers curled and the thumb thrust between the middle and index fingers. This gesture is also used similarly in Indonesia, Turkey and China.
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where does mercury in the ocean come from | Mercury pollution in the ocean - wikipedia
Mercury is a toxic heavy metal which cycles through atmosphere, water, and soil in various forms to different parts of the world. Due to this natural cycle, irrespective of which part of the world releases mercury it could affect an entirely different part of the world making mercury pollution a global concern. Mercury pollution is now identified as a global problem and awareness has been raised on an international action plan to minimize anthropogenic mercury emissions and clean up mercury pollution. The 2002 Global Mercury Assessment concluded that "International actions to address the global mercury problem should not be delayed ''. Among many environments that are under the impact of mercury pollution, the ocean is one which can not be neglected as it has the ability to act as a "storage closet '' for mercury. According to a recent model study the total anthropogenic mercury released into the ocean is estimated to be around 80,000 to 45,000 metric tons and two thirds of this enormous amount is estimated to be found in waters shallower than 1000m level where many consumable fish live. Mercury can get bio-accumulated in marine food chains in the form of highly toxic methyl mercury which can cause health risks to human seafood consumers. According to statistics, about 66 % of the global fish consumption comes from ocean. Therefore, it is important to monitor and regulate oceanic mercury levels to prevent more and more mercury reaching human population through seafood consumption.
Mercury release occurs by both natural and anthropogenic processes. Natural processes are mainly geogenic such as volcanic activities and land emissions through soil. Volcanoes release mercury from the underground reservoirs upon eruption. Land emissions are usually observed in the regions closer to plate tectonic boundaries where soils are enriched with minerals such as cinnabar containing Mercury sulfide (HgS). This mercury is released by either natural weathering of the rocks or by geothermal reactions. While natural phenomena account for a certain percentage of present - day emissions, anthropogenic emissions alone have increased mercury concentration in the environment by threefold. Global Mercury Assessment 2013 states main anthropogenic sources of mercury emission are artisanal and small - scale gold mining, fossil fuel burning and primary production of non-ferrous metals. Other sources such as cement production, consumer products waste, contaminated sites and chlor - alkali industry also contributes in relatively small percentages.
Mercury enters the ocean in different ways. Atmospheric deposition is the largest source of mercury to the oceans. Atmospheric deposition introduces three types of mercury to the ocean. Gaseous elemental mercury (Hg0) enters the ocean through air - water exchange. Inorganic mercury (Hg2+ / HgII) and particle - bound mercury (Hg (P)) enters through wet and dry deposition. In addition, mercury enters the ocean via rivers, estuaries, sediments, and, hydrothermal vents etc. These sources also release organic mercury compounds such as Methyl mercury. Once they are in the ocean they can undergo many reactions primarily grouped as; redox reactions (gain or loss of electrons), adsorption processes (binding to solid particles), methylation and demethylation (addition or removal of a methyl group).
Mercury can enter seas and the open ocean as a result of the down - stream movement and re-deposition of contaminated sediments from urban estuaries. For example, high total Hg content up to 5 mg / kg and averaging about 2 mg / kg occur in the surface sediments and sediment cores of the tidal River Mersey, UK, due to discharge from historical industries located along the banks of the tidal river including industries such as historical chlor - alkali industry. Sediments along a 100 km stretch of the Thames Estuary have also been shown to have total Hg contents of up to 12 mg / kg and a mean of 2 mg / kg with the highest concentrations found at depth in and around London. A gradual and statistically significant decrease in sedimentary Hg content occurs in the Thames as a results of greater distance from the historical and current point - sources, sorption and in - river deposition in the mud reaches as well as dilution by marine sands from the Southern North Sea. In contrast sediments entering the ocean from the marsh creeks of East Coast USA and mangroves fringing the South China Sea generally have moderate sedimentary Hg (< 0.5 mg / kg).
Reduction and oxidation of mercury mostly occur closer to the ocean water surface. These are either driven by sunlight or by microbial activity. Under UV radiation, elemental mercury oxidizes and dissolves directly in ocean water or binds to other particles. The reverse reaction reduces some mercury Hg2+ to elemental mercury Hg (0) and returns to the atmosphere. Fine aerosols in the atmosphere such as ocean water droplets can act as small reaction chambers in this process providing the special reaction conditions required. Oxidation and reduction of mercury in the ocean are not very simple reversible reactions. Shown below is the proposed pathway of ocean aerosol mercuric photochemistry suggesting that it occurs through a reactive intermediate:
Photo oxidation is suspected to be driven by OH. radical and reduction is driven by wind and surface layer disturbances. In the dark, mercury redox reactions continue due to microbial activity. The biological transformations are different and have a smaller rate compared to sunlight driven processes above. Inorganic mercury Hg2+ and methyl mercury has the ability to get adsorbed in to particles. A positive correlation of binding is observed for the amount of organic matter vs. the concentration of these mercury species showing that most of them bind to organic matter. This phenomenon can determine the bioavailability and toxicity of mercury in the ocean. Some methyl mercury is released to the ocean through river run - off. However, most of the methyl mercury found in the ocean is produced in -- situ (inside the ocean itself). Methylation of inorganic mercury can occur via biotic and abiotic pathways. However, biotic pathways are more predominant. The reactions illustrated in a simplified scheme below are actually parts of complex enzyme driven metabolic pathways taking place inside microbial cells.
In abiotic reactions, humic substances act as methylating agents and therefore this process occur at shallow sea levels where decomposing organic matter is available to combine with inorganic mercury Hg2+. 9 Interestingly, mercury methylation studies in Polar Regions have also shown a positive correlation between methylation and chlorophyll content in water showing there could also be biogenic pathways for methyl mercury production. Produced methyl mercury gets accumulated in microbes. Due to the high permeability and absence of degradation for methyl mercury in other species that depend on those microbes, this very toxic compound gets biomagnified through marine food chains to the top predators. Human population consumes many types of marine fish who are top predators in the food chains which puts their health in great danger. Therefore, finding possible solutions to minimize further mercury emissions and cleaning up the already existing mercury pollution is extremely important.
Oceanic mercury pollution presents a serious threat to human health. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that mercury consumption by people of all ages can result in loss of peripheral vision, weakened muscles, impairment of hearing and speech, and deteriorated movement coordination. Infants and developing children face even more serious health risks because mercury exposure inhibits proper brain and nervous system development, damaging memory, cognitive thinking, language abilities, attention, and fine motor skills. The case of Minamata disease that occurred in Minamata Bay, Japan in the 1950s demonstrated the frightening effects of exposure to extremely high concentrations of mercury. Adult patients experienced extreme salivation, limb deformity, and irreversible dysarthria and intelligence loss. In children and fetuses (exposed to mercury through the mother 's consumption of contaminated seafood), extensive brain lesions were observed and the patients experienced more serious effects like cerebral palsy, mental retardation, and primitive reflexes. In order to avoid the toxic effects of mercury exposure, the United States EPA advises a mercury dose limit of 0.1 μg / kg / day.
In addition to human health, animal health is also seriously threatened by mercury pollution in the ocean. The effects of high mercury levels on animal health were revealed by the severe mercury poisoning in Minamata Bay in which many animals exhibited extremely strange behaviors and high mortality rates after consuming contaminated seafood or absorbing mercury from the seawater. The cat population essentially disappeared due to cats drowning in the ocean and simply collapsing dead and it became commonplace to witness birds falling out of the sky and fish swimming in circles. Low concentrations of mercury compounds were also found to cause irreparable damage to organisms in a study that subjected zebrafish to low levels of methyl mercury and mercuric chloride. The zebrafish experienced a 100 % mortality rate after 24 hour exposure to a mercuric chloride concentration of 1000 μg / L and a methylmercury concentration of just 100 μg / L. Additionally, both mercury species generated a decreased hatch rate, tail deformity, and diminished tail movement ability. The fact that even low concentrations of mercury compounds can cause irreparable damage to organisms displays the extreme danger that mercury poses to the environment.
Cleaning up the existing mercury pollution could be a tedious process. Nevertheless, there is some promising ongoing research bringing hope to the challenging task. One such research is based nanotechnology. It uses synthesized aluminum oxide nanoparticles (Al2O3) mimicking the coral structures. These structures absorb heavy metal toxins effectively due to high surface / volume ratio and the quality of surface. In nature, it has been long observed corals can absorb heavy metal ions due to its surface structure and this new technique has used to nanotechnology to create "synthetic corals '' which may help clean mercury in the ocean. The reactions involved in synthesizing this material are;
Another novel material (Patent application: PCT / US15 / 55205) is still under investigation which looks at the possibility of cleaning mercury pollution using orange peels as raw material. This technology produces sulfur limonene polysulphide (proposed material) using sulfur and limonene. Using industrial byproducts to manufacture this polymer makes it a highly sustainable approach. The scientists say 50 % of the mercury content could be reduced with a single treatment using this polymer.
In addition to the cleaning processes, minimizing usage of coal power and shifting to cleaner energy sources, reducing small scale artisanal gold mining, proper treatment of industrial mercury waste, and implementation of policies are sound approaches to reduce mercury emissions in the long term - large scale plan. Public awareness is critical in achieving this goal. Proper disposal of mercury containing items such as medicinal packaging and thermometers, using mercury - free bulbs and batteries, buying consumer products with zero or minimum mercury emission to the environment can make a significant difference in recovering world 's ecosystems from mercury pollution leaving minimum legacy of mercury pollution in the ocean for our future generations.
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who voices the monkey in the pg tips advert | Monkey (character) - wikipedia
This is about the advertising character. For the mythical Chinese character, see Sun Wukong.
Monkey (also known as The Monkey, ITV Digital Monkey or PG Tips Monkey, and often pronounced / ' muŋkε / in imitation of Johnny Vegas ' Lancashire accent), is an animated puppet advertising character in the form of a knitted sock monkey. He was first produced by The Jim Henson Company via their UK Creature Shop, puppeteered by Nigel Plaskitt and Susan Beattie and voiced by comedian Ben Miller.
Monkey has appeared in advertising campaigns in the United Kingdom for both the television company ITV Digital (now defunct) and the tea brand PG Tips, as well as being occasionally featured in TV programmes. Monkey is notable as one of a small number of advertising characters to eclipse the popularity of the product they advertise and also to be reused to advertise a completely different product.
A series of high - profile adverts for ITV Digital featured the laid - back, droll and composed Monkey (in a variety of T - shirts) playing the straight man to the comedian Johnny Vegas 's womanizer of a character "Al ''. Monkey was one of the few positive public relations successes of ITV Digital. Purchasers of ITV Digital were sent a free soft toy Monkey with their subscription.
For a period during the advertising campaign and after ITV Digital 's bankruptcy, the original promotional Monkey toy were in high demand and short supply. One sold for £ 150 at the bankruptcy auction and they were selling for several hundred pounds on eBay, where customers could also find replica Monkey knitting patterns delivered by email selling for several pounds. Later, The Gadget Shop purchased the remaining promotional toys from ITV Digital 's liquidators and sold them through their retail stores. These saw a boost in popularity after an appearance in the second series of award - winning British sitcom The Office.
As Monkey was created and owned by advertising agency Mother rather than by ITV Digital itself, it was the subject of a legal dispute as both claimed the rights to the character. This prevented its use for some time, despite many organisations being keen to acquire the rights. The dispute was eventually resolved by both parties agreeing to donate the intellectual property rights for Monkey to Comic Relief. Following the resolution of the dispute, Monkey appeared in a few TV shows, with the BBC using it for 2001 's Comic Relief, as well as making a guest appearance at the 2002 BRIT Awards. In both cases Monkey appeared without Johnny Vegas. In 2003, the BBC commissioned a variety show to be hosted by Monkey. A pilot was filmed titled "Watch with Monkey '' and featured Dawn French and the Ukulele Orchestra of Great Britain. The pilot has never been televised.
In January 2006, Monkey and Vegas reprised their double act in a new series of advertisements for PG Tips tea. The first advertisement was named "The Return '' and the adverts make reference to PG Tips ' popular series of adverts featuring live chimps which ran between 1956 and 2002, as well as to ITV Digital going out of business.
PG launched a website selling the newly branded "PG Monkey '' merchandise with profits being donated to Comic Relief, who still own the intellectual property rights. The online shop has since closed but during promotions PG Tips have given away free mini-Monkeys packaged with their tea.
Monkey also appeared in a short advertising film which was shown in cinemas at the beginning of selected showings of Horton Hears a Who, The Spiderwick Chronicles, Hannah Montana 3D and The Game Plan. The film was released on 21 March 2008. The film is called A Tale of Two Continents and has Monkey portraying various historical figures as he attempts to make the perfect cup of tea in the Kenya tea farms and then safely take it across the world to England for the Queen. The film was also given away on DVD with special packs of PG Tips tea.
In Monkey - Hero of Our Time, Monkey writes that his "parents owned a toy shop '', however this was forced into closure in ' 1982 ' He said "(a) s my parents were clearing away and throwing out what was left of the stock, my mother came across me, stuck behind a pile of empty cardboard boxes '' and "(s) he took me home and painstakingly restored me back to my former glory - cleaning me, re-stuffing me and sewing me up. Her love for me was so great that I amazingly found myself able to move and speak. '' Soon afterwards he claimed that his first words to her were "Put the kettle on, eh Mum? I 'm parched. ''.
Monkey is sometimes portrayed as being quite cowardly; for example his refusal to take responsibility for dropping a ceramic bowl dating back to 3000 BC, despite being filmed doing so. He is also prone to miserliness, having admitted that he re-uses discarded plasters he finds in swimming pools. Monkey hoards both his and Al 's wages, deliberately neglecting to inform the naive Al of the fact that they are in fact paid for their work, stating "I do n't bother Al with details '' and that his money is "safely invested in a portfolio of bananas ''. Despite his turbulent relationship with Al, the two share the same bed. Monkey is shown to be very passionate about tea, his favourite serving method being "three stirs clockwise, two stirs back, one and three quarters sugars ''. He vehemently insists that tea bags should precede milk when brewing. His exact species is never clarified; Monkey himself denies being a chimpanzee (the CHimp logo on his tea - shirt puns on CH sounding like the Chinese word for tea), and his response to Al 's idea that he may be "half monkey - half chimp '' is limited to "speak for yourself ''. Though he claims to be a "ladies ' monkey '', he is caught by Al surfing dating sites, giving exaggerated descriptions of his physical appearance. He is sometimes shown wearing a woman 's nightcap, a sheath dress and a ballet tutu. He gets distressed if tea is made in the wrong order.
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what are the five sorrowful mysteries of the holy rosary | Rosary - wikipedia
The Holy Rosary (/ ˈroʊzəri /, Latin: rosarium, in the sense of "crown of roses '' or "garland of roses ''), also known as the Dominican Rosary, refers to a form of prayer used in the Catholic Church and to the string of knots or beads used to count the component prayers. When used for the prayer, the word is usually capitalized ("the Rosary ''), as is customary for other names of prayers, such as "the Lord 's Prayer '', and "the Hail Mary ''; when referring to the beads, it is written with a lower - case initial letter ("a rosary '').
The prayers that comprise the Rosary are arranged in sets of ten Hail Marys, called decades. Each decade is preceded by one Lord 's Prayer and followed by one Glory Be. During recitation of each set, thought is given to one of the Mysteries of the Rosary, which recall events in the lives of Jesus and Mary. Five decades are recited per rosary. Other prayers are sometimes added before or after each decade. Rosary beads are an aid towards saying these prayers in the proper sequence.
A standard 15 Mysteries of the Rosary, based on the long - standing custom, was established by Pope Pius V during the 16th century, grouping the mysteries in three sets: the Joyful Mysteries, the Sorrowful Mysteries, and the Glorious Mysteries. During 2002 Pope John Paul II said that it is fitting that a new set of five be added, termed the Luminous Mysteries, bringing the total number of mysteries to 20. These mysteries had been used by Holy Cross father Patrick Peyton during the 20th century. The Glorious mysteries are said on Sunday and Wednesday, the Joyful on Monday and Saturday, the Sorrowful on Tuesday and Friday, and the Luminous Mysteries are said on Thursday. Usually five decades are recited in a session.
For more than four centuries, the rosary has been promoted by several popes as part of the veneration of Mary in Roman Catholicism, and consisting essentially in meditation on the life of Christ. The rosary also represents the Roman Catholic emphasis on "participation in the life of Mary, whose focus was Christ '', and the Mariological theme "to Christ through Mary. ''
During the 16th century, Pope Pius V associated the rosary with the General Roman Calendar by instituting the Feast of Our Lady of Victory (later changed to Our Lady of the Rosary), which is celebrated on 7 October.
Pope Leo XIII, known as "The Rosary Pope, '' issued twelve encyclicals and five apostolic letters concerning the rosary and added the invocation Queen of the most Holy Rosary to the Litany of Loreto. Pope Pius XII and his successors actively promoted veneration of the Virgin in Lourdes and Fatima, which is credited with a new resurgence of the rosary within the Catholic Church. Pope John Paul II issued the Apostolic Letter Rosarium Virginis Mariae which emphasized the Christocentric nature of the Rosary as a meditation on the life of Christ.
Pope John XXIII deemed the rosary of such importance that on April 28, 1962, in an apostolic letter he appealed for the recitation of the Rosary in preparation for the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council.
During 2002, Pope John Paul II said: "Through the Rosary the faithful receive abundant grace, as by the hands of the Mother of the Redeemer. ''
On 3 May 2008, Pope Benedict XVI stated that the Rosary was experiencing a new springtime: "It is one of the most eloquent signs of love that the young generation nourish for Jesus and his Mother. '' To Benedict XVI, the rosary is a meditation on all the important moments of salvation history.
The Congregation for Divine Worship 's directory of popular piety and the liturgy emphasizes the Christian meditation / meditative aspects of the rosary, and states that the Rosary is essentially a contemplative prayer which requires "tranquility of rhythm or even a mental lingering which encourages the faithful to meditate on the mysteries of the Lord 's life. '' The Congregation for Divine Worship points out the role the Rosary can have as a formative component of spiritual life.
The theologian Romano Guardini described the Roman Catholic emphasis on the rosary as "participation in the life of Mary, whose focus was Christ. '' This opinion was expressed earlier by Leo XIII who considered the rosary as way to accompany Mary in her contemplation of Christ.
Devotion to the rosary is one of the most notable features of popular Catholic spirituality. Pope John Paul II placed the rosary at the very center of Christian spirituality and called it "among the finest and most praiseworthy traditions of Christian contemplation. ''
Catholics believe the Rosary is a remedy against severe trials, temptations and the hardships of life, and that the Rosary is one of the great weapons given to believers in their battle against every evil.
Saints and popes have emphasized the meditative and contemplative elements of the rosary and provided specific teachings for how the rosary should be prayed, for instance the need for "focus, respect, reverence and purity of intention '' during rosary recitations and contemplations.
From the sixteenth century onwards, rosary recitations often involved "picture texts '' that assisted meditation. Such imagery continues to be used to depict the mysteries of the rosary. Catholic saints have stressed the importance of meditation and contemplation. Scriptural meditations concerning the rosary are based on the Christian tradition of Lectio Divina, (literally divine reading) as a way of using the Gospel to start a conversation between the person and Christ. Padre Pio, a rosary devotee, said: "Through the study of books one seeks God; by meditation one finds him. ''
References to the rosary have been part of a number of reported Marian Apparitions spanning two centuries. The reported messages from these apparitions have influenced the spread of rosary devotion worldwide. In Quamquam pluries Pope Leo XIII related rosary devotions to Saint Joseph and granted indulgences for adding a prayer to St. Joseph to the Rosary during the month of October.
Praying the Rosary may be prescribed by priests as a type of penance after confession. (Penance is not generally intended as a "punishment ''; rather, it is meant to encourage meditation upon and spiritual growth from past sins.)
According to pious tradition, the concept of the rosary was given to Saint Dominic in an apparition of the Virgin Mary during the year 1214 in the church of Prouille, though in fact it was known from the ninth century in various forms. This Marian apparition received the title of Our Lady of the Rosary. In the 15th century it was promoted by Alanus de Rupe (aka Alain de la Roche or Blessed Alan of the Rock), a Dominican priest and theologian, who established the "fifteen rosary promises '' and started many rosary confraternities.
According to Herbert Thurston, it is certain that in the course of the twelfth century and before the birth of St. Dominic, the practice of reciting 50 or 150 Ave Marias had become generally familiar. According to 20th century editions of the Catholic Encyclopedia, the story of St. Dominic 's devotion to the rosary and supposed apparition of Our Lady of the Rosary does not appear in any documents of the Church or Dominican Order prior to the writings of Blessed Alanus, some 250 years after Dominic. However recent scholarship by Donald H. Calloway, which has received the endorsement of some of the Church hierarchy, seeks to refute this claim.
Leonard Foley claimed that although Mary 's giving the rosary to St. Dominic is recognized as a legend, the development of this prayer form owes much to the Order of Preachers.
The practice of meditation during the praying of the Hail Mary is attributed to Dominic of Prussia (1382 -- 1460), a Carthusian monk who termed it "Life of Jesus Rosary ''. The German monk from Trier added a sentence to each of the 50 Hail Marys, using quotes from scriptures (which at that time followed the name "Jesus, '' before the intercessory ending was added during the Counter-Reformation). In 1569, the papal bull Consueverunt Romani Pontifices by the Dominican Pope Pius V officially established the devotion to the rosary in the Catholic Church.
From the 16th to the early 20th century, the structure of the rosary remained essentially unchanged. There were 15 mysteries, one for each of the 15 decades. During the 20th century, the addition of the Fatima Prayer to the end of each decade became more common. There were no other changes until 2002, when John Paul II instituted five optional new Luminous Mysteries, although variations of these had already been proposed by the likes of St. Louis de Montfort and were implemented during the mid-20th Century by figures such as Patrick Peyton.
The Rosary has been featured in the writings of Roman Catholic figures from saints to popes and continues to be mentioned in reported Marian apparitions, with a number of promises attributed to the power of the rosary.
According to Alan de la Roche, the Virgin Mary is reputed to have made 15 specific promises to Christians who pray the Rosary. The Fifteen rosary promises range from protection from misfortune to meriting a high degree of glory in heaven.
John T. McNicholas says that during the time of the Penal Laws in Ireland when Mass was either infrequent or impossible, the Rosary became a substitute within the home. During the 18th century, the French priest Louis de Montfort elaborated on the importance of the rosary and its power in his book Secret of the Rosary. He emphasized the power of the rosary and provided specific instructions on how it should be prayed, e.g. with attention, devotion, and modesty (reverence), with reflective pauses.
One of the forces that encouraged the spread of the rosary during the 19th century among Roman Catholics was the influence of the Rosary Pope, a title given to Leo XIII (1878 -- 1903) because he issued a record twelve encyclicals and five Apostolic Letters concerning the rosary, instituted the Catholic custom of daily rosary prayer during the month of October and, during 1883, added the invocation Queen of the most Holy Rosary to the Litany of Loreto.
Leo XIII explained the importance of the rosary as the one road to God from the faithful to the mother and from her to Christ and through Christ to the Father, and that the rosary was a vital means to participate with the life of Mary and to find the way to Christ. This emphasis on the path through Mary to Christ has since been a key direction in Roman Catholic Mariology, with Mariology being viewed as inherent in Christology.
Rosary as a family prayer was endorsed by Pope Pius XII in his encyclical Ingruentium malorum: "The custom of the family praying of the Holy Rosary is a most efficacious means. ''
The structure of the Rosary is as follows:
The Rosary is begun on the short strand:
The praying of the decades then follows, repeating this cycle for each mystery:
To conclude:
Instead of ending each decade with the Gloria Patri, Pope Pius IX would add "May the souls of the faithful departed through the mercy of God rest in peace. '' The Fatima Prayer, is commonly added here as a pious addition, still on the large bead.
Common pious additions to the Rosary occur after each decade and after recitation of the Hail Holy Queen. Some Catholics recite the Fatima Decade Prayer at the end of each decade, preceding or following the Glory Be. Some add the Miraculous Medal prayer "O Mary, conceived without sin... '' or the Fatima Ave refrain ("Ave, Ave, Ave Maria! Ave, Ave, Ave Maria! ''). Others add a praying of the pious Eucharistic prayer "O Sacrament Most Holy, O Sacrament Divine, All praise and all thanksgiving be every moment Thine '' at the end of each decade in honor of Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament. In the practice of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, there is an additional decade for the intentions of the students or the Virgin Mary.
After the Hail, Holy Queen many Catholics add the prayer "O God, by Your Only Begotten Son... '', the prayer to Saint Michael, and a prayer for the intentions of the Pope. In some cases, the Litany of Loreto may be recited at the end.
In the practice of the Dominican Order, the beginning prayers of the rosary correspond to the beginning of the Divine Office:
When a group recites the Rosary, it is customary that the prayers that constitute the decades are divided into two parts. A leader may recite the first half of the prayer while the other participants recite the rest.
The second part of the Our Father begins with "Give us this day our daily bread... ''; the second part of the Hail Mary begins with "Holy Mary, Mother of God... ''; and the second part of the Glory Be to the Father with "As it was in the beginning... ''
In another style of praying the Rosary, the recitation of the first part of the prayers is sometimes entrusted to different persons while still maintaining the traditional Leader versus Congregation style of praying.
Among certain cultures, the first, third, and fifth mysteries are recited by the single leader while the other members of the group say the second part; the second and fourth mysteries are recited by the congregation by saying the first part and the leader says the second part of the prayer.
The Mysteries of the Rosary are meditations on episodes in the life and death of Jesus from the Annunciation to the Ascension and beyond, known as the Joyful (or Joyous) Mysteries, the Sorrowful Mysteries, and the Glorious Mysteries. Each of these Mysteries contemplates five different stages of Christ 's life.
Typically a fruit (spiritual goal) are also assigned to the mystery. Below are listed from the appendix Louis Marie de Montfort 's book Secret of the Rosary for the original 15 mysteries, with other possible fruits being listed in other pamphlets bracketed:
Pope John Paul II, in his apostolic letter Rosarium Virginis Mariae (October 2002), recommended an additional set called the Luminous Mysteries (or the "Mysteries of Light '').
The original Mysteries of Light were written by George Preca, the only Maltese official Catholic Saint, and later reformed by the Pope.
The full rosary consists of praying all sets of mysteries, with the Joyful, Sorrowful and Glorious considered the minimal amount. Alternatively, a single set of five mysteries can be prayed each day, according to the following convention:
† Note: It is customary to pray only the Sorrowful Mysteries during the seasons of Septuagesima and Lent, regardless of the day of week.
The rosary beads provide a physical method of keeping count of the number of Hail Marys said as the mysteries are contemplated. The fingers are moved along the beads as the prayers are recited. By not having to keep track of the count mentally, the mind is free to meditate on the mysteries. A five - decade rosary contains five groups of ten beads (a decade), with additional large beads before each decade. The Hail Mary is said on the ten beads within a decade, while the Lord 's Prayer is said on the large bead before each decade. A new mystery meditation commences at each of the large beads. Some rosaries, particularly those used by religious orders, contain fifteen decades, corresponding to the traditional fifteen mysteries of the rosary. Both five - and fifteen - decade rosaries are attached to a shorter strand, which starts with a crucifix, followed by one large bead, three small beads, and one large bead, before connecting to the rest of the rosary. A five - decade rosary consists of a "total '' of 59 beads.
Although counting the prayers on a string of beads is customary, the prayers of the rosary do not actually require a set of beads, but can be said using any type of counting device, by counting on the fingers or by counting without any device at all.
Single - decade rosaries can also be used: the devotee counts the same ring of ten beads repeatedly for every decade. During religious conflict in 16th and 17th century Ireland severe legal penalties were prescribed against practicing Roman Catholics. Small, easily hidden rosaries were thus used to avoid identification and became known as Irish penal rosaries. Sometimes rather than a cross, other symbols of specific meanings were used, such as a hammer to signify the nails of the cross, cords to represent the scourging, a chalice to recall the Last Supper, or a crowing rooster signifying the denial of Peter.
The beads can be made from any materials, including wood, bone, glass, crushed flowers, semi-precious stones such as agate, jet, amber, or jasper, or precious materials including coral, crystal, silver, and gold. Beads may be made to include enclosed sacred relics or drops of holy water. Rosaries are sometimes made from the seeds of the "rosary pea '' or "bead tree. '' Today, the vast majority of rosary beads are made of glass, plastic or wood. It is common for beads to be made of material with some special significance, such as jet from the shrine of St. James at Santiago de Compostela, or olive seeds from the Garden of Gethsemane. In rare cases beads are made of expensive materials, from gold and silver to mother of pearl and Swarovski black diamond designs. Early rosaries were strung on thread, often silk, but modern ones are more often made as a series of chain - linked beads. Catholic missionaries in Africa have reported that rosaries made of tree bark have been used there for praying due to the lack of conventional rosaries. Our Lady 's Rosary Makers produce some 7 million rosaries annually that are distributed to those considered to be in economic and spiritual need.
Most rosaries used in the world today have simple and inexpensive plastic or wooden beads connected by cords or strings. The major cost is labor for assembly. A large number of inexpensive rosary beads are manufactured in Asia, especially in China and Taiwan. Italy has a strong manufacturing presence in medium - and high - cost rosaries.
Rosaries are often made for sale; hundreds of millions have also been made and distributed free of charge by Roman Catholic lay and religious apostolates worldwide. There are a number of rosary - making clubs around the world that make and distribute rosaries to missions, hospitals, prisons, etc. free of charge. To comply with safety precautions in prisons, special rosaries are donated using string that easily breaks.
The Apostolate of Holy Motherhood writes that the Virgin Mary encourages the faithful to wear the rosary and scapular because "it will help them to love Jesus more '' and serve as a "protection from Satan. '' In addition, Saint Louis - Marie Grignion de Montfort encouraged Christians to wear the rosary, stating that doing so "eased him considerably. '' Many religious orders wear the rosary as part of their habit. A rosary hanging from the belt often forms part of the Carthusian habit.
Canon Law § 1171 provides that sacred objects, which are designated for divine worship by dedication or blessing, are to be treated reverently and are not to be employed for profane or inappropriate use even if they are owned by private persons. As such, according to Edward McNamara, professor of liturgy at the Regina Apostolorum university:
If the reason for wearing a rosary is as a statement of faith, as a reminder to pray it, or some similar reason "to the glory of God, '' then there is nothing to object to. It would not be respectful to wear it merely as jewelry. This latter point is something to bear in mind in the case of wearing a rosary around the neck. In the first place, while not unknown, it is not common Catholic practice... While a Catholic may wear a rosary around the neck for a good purpose, he or she should consider if the practice will be positively understood in the cultural context in which the person moves. If any misunderstanding is likely, then it would be better to avoid the practice... Similar reasoning is observed in dealing with rosary bracelets and rings, although in this case there is far less danger of confusion as to meaning. They are never mere jewelry but are worn as a sign of faith.
A rosary ring is a ring worn around the finger with 10 indentations and a cross on the surface, representing one decade of a rosary. These rosary rings have been given to some Catholic nuns at the time of their solemn profession. A finger rosary is similar to a ring, but is somewhat larger. Rosaries like these are used by either rotating or just holding them between a finger and thumb while praying. A hand rosary is a decade in a complete loop, with one bead separated from ten other beads, this is meant to be carried while walking or running, so as not to entangle the larger type. Smaller ring rosaries became known as soldiers ' rosaries because they were often taken into battle by soldiers, most notably during World War I.
In addition to a string of beads, single - decade rosaries are made in other physical forms. A ring rosary, also known as a "Basque rosary, '' is a finger ring with eleven knobs on it, ten round ones and one crucifix.
A rosary bracelet is one with ten beads and often a cross or medal. Another form is the rosary card. A rosary card is either one with a "handle '' that moves like a slide rule to count the decade, or it has a whole rosary with bumps similar to Braille and ancient counting systems. Some households that can not afford Christian artwork or a crucifix hang up a rosary. In addition, many Christians hang rosaries from the rear - view mirror of their automobiles as a sign of their faith and for protection as they drive.
"The Rosary and the Scapular are inseparable '' were words attributed to the Virgin Mary by Lucia Santos, one of the three children who reported the Marian apparitions of Our Lady of Fátima in 1917 and later the Pontevedra apparitions in 1925. In these apparitions, the Virgin Mary reportedly called herself The Lady of the Rosary and in one of the final Fátima appearances on 13 October 1917 had a Brown Scapular in one hand and a Rosary in the other. The Lady of the Rosary reportedly encouraged the praying of the Rosary and the wearing of the Brown Scapular.
Throughout history, the Rosary and the Scapular as objects for devotions and prayers have been encouraged and associated by a number of popes, and specific indulgences have been attached to them.
The use of Novenas which include a rosary is popular among Roman Catholics. As in other Novenas, the traditional method consists of praying the rosary on nine consecutive days, and submitting a petition along with each prayer. Indulgences are provided for rosary Novenas that include specific prayers, e.g. a prayer to Saint Catherine of Siena and Saint Dominic.
The longer "54 - day Rosary Novena '' consists of two parts, 27 days each, i.e. three repetitions of the 9 day Novena cycle. It is an uninterrupted series of Rosaries in honor of the Virgin Mary, reported as a private revelation by Fortuna Agrelli in Naples, Italy, in 1884. The Novena is performed by praying five decades of the Rosary each day for twenty - seven days in petition. The second phase which immediately follows it consists of five decades each day for twenty - seven days in thanksgiving, and is prayed whether or not the petition has been granted. During the novena, the meditations rotate among the joyful, sorrowful and glorious mysteries.
Rosary beads are at times used to say rosary based prayers which do not primarily involve the Hail Mary and the mysteries of the rosary. Some forms of the Roman Catholic rosary are intended as reparation including the sins of others. An example is the Rosary of the Holy Wounds first introduced at the beginning of the 20th century by the Venerable Sister Marie Martha Chambon, a Roman Catholic nun of the Monastery of the Visitation Order in Chambéry, France. This rosary is somewhat similar in structure to the Chaplet of Divine Mercy introduced by Saint Faustina Kowalska said on the usual rosary beads and intended as an Act of Reparation to Jesus Christ for the sins of the world. These prayers often use rosary beads, but their words and format do not correspond to the Mysteries. Both Kowałska and Chambon attributed these prayers to visions of Jesus.
Recordings of the rosary prayers are sometimes used by devotees to help with aspects of prayer such as pacing, memorization, and by providing inspirational meditations. Some of the more well known include:
Many similar prayer practices exist in other Christian communities, each with its own set of prescribed prayers and its own form of prayer beads, such as the prayer rope in Eastern Orthodox Christianity. These other devotions and their associated beads are usually referred to as "chaplets. '' The rosary is sometimes used by other Christians, especially in Lutheranism, the Anglican Communion, and the Old Catholic Church.
Another example of Rosary - based prayers includes the non-denominational Ecumenical Miracle Rosary, "a set of prayers and meditations which covers key moments in the New Testament. ''
The use of the Catholic Rosary is fairly common among Anglicans of Anglo - Catholic churchmanship. Many Anglo - Catholic prayer books and manuals of devotion contain the Roman Catholic Rosary along with other Marian devotions. The public services of the Anglican churches, as contained in the Book of Common Prayer, do not directly invoke the Blessed Virgin or any other saint in prayer as the Thirty - Nine Articles reject the practice of praying to saints, but many Anglo - Catholics feel free to do so in their private devotions. Anglicans who pray the Roman Catholic Rosary tend not to use the Luminous Mysteries or the Fátima decade prayer.
Anglican prayer beads, also known informally as the "Anglican Rosary, '' are a recent innovation created in the 1980s. They consist of four "weeks '' (the equivalent of a decade) of seven beads each. The weeks are separated from each other by single beads termed "cruciform beads. '' A variety of different prayers may be said, the most common being the Jesus Prayer.
Anglican Prayer Beads are not a Marian devotion, and there are no appointed meditations. Although it is sometimes called the "Anglican rosary, '' it is distinct from the Rosary of Our Lady as prayed by Catholics, Anglicans, and other Western Christians.
A small minority of Lutherans pray the Rosary. However, while using the Catholic format of the Rosary, each "Hail Mary '' is replaced with the "Jesus Prayer. '' The only time the "Hail Mary '' is said is at the end of the Mysteries on the medal, where it is then replaced with the "Pre-Trent '' version of the prayer (which omits "Holy Mary, mother of God, pray for us sinners, now and at the hour of our death ''). The final "Hail Mary '' can also be replaced by reciting of either the prayer Magnificat, or Martin Luther 's "Evangelical praise of the Mother of God. '' The Wreath of Christ is used in the Swedish Lutheran church.
A number of churches around the world are named after the Rosary. These range from small churches in Poland, Canada, Brazil and Hong Kong to key basilicas at Lourdes and Fatima with millions of pilgrims per year.. Roman Catholic Marian churches around the world named in honor of the rosary include: the Shrine of the Virgin of the Rosary of Pompei in Italy, Our Lady of the Rosary Basilica in the Archdiocesan seat of Rosario province, Argentina; the Sanctuary of Our Lady of the Rosary of San Nicolás in the neighboring suffragan diocese of San Nicolás de los Arroyos, the Rosary Basilica in Lourdes, and Nossa Senhora do Rosário in Porto Alegre, Brazil.
Rosary Basilica, Fatima, Portugal, 1953.
Rosary Basilica, Lourdes, France, 1899.
Our Lady of the Rosary, Drawień, Poland, 1695.
Rosary Cathedral, Toledo, Ohio, 1931.
Sanctuary of Our Lady of the Rosary of San Nicolás, Buenes Aires province, Argentina
Since the 17th century, the Rosary began to appear as an element in key pieces of Roman Catholic Marian art. Key examples include Murrillo 's Madonna with the Rosary at the Museo del Prado in Spain and the statue of Madonna with Rosary at the church of San Nazaro Maggiore in Milan.
Madonna and rosary by Nicola Porta
Madonna with rosary, by Guido Reni, 1596
Madonna offering Saint Dominic rosary by August Palme, 1860
Madonna with the Rosary by Murillo, 1650
Madonna of the Rosary statue, Naples, Italy
Rosary Madonna, Porto Alegre, Brazil
Madonna with Rosary, South - Tyrol, Austria
Madonna with Rosary by Josef Mersa, Italy
Crucifixion and rosary
Saint Anthony with a rosary
Rosary with pomander
Old woman praying
Madonna of the Rosary by Caravaggio
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what is the active form of vit d | Vitamin D - wikipedia
Vitamin D is a group of fat - soluble secosteroids responsible for increasing intestinal absorption of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate, and multiple other biological effects. In humans, the most important compounds in this group are vitamin D (also known as cholecalciferol) and vitamin D (ergocalciferol). Cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol can be ingested from the diet and from supplements. Only a few foods contain vitamin D. The major natural source of the vitamin is synthesis of cholecalciferol in the skin from cholesterol through a chemical reaction that is dependent on sun exposure (specifically UVB radiation). Dietary recommendations typically assume that all of a person 's vitamin D is taken by mouth, as sun exposure in the population is variable and recommendations about the amount of sun exposure that is safe are uncertain in view of the skin cancer risk.
Vitamin D from the diet or skin synthesis is biologically inactive; enzymatic conversion (hydroxylation) in the liver and kidney is required for activation. As vitamin D can be synthesized in adequate amounts by most mammals exposed to sufficient sunlight, it is not an essential dietary factor, and so not technically a vitamin. Instead it could be considered as a hormone, with activation of the vitamin D pro-hormone resulting in the active form, calcitriol, which then produces effects via a nuclear receptor in multiple different locations. Cholecalciferol is converted in the liver to calcifediol (25 - hydroxycholecalciferol); ergocalciferol is converted to 25 - hydroxyergocalciferol. These two vitamin D metabolites (called 25 - hydroxyvitamin D or 25 (OH) D) are measured in serum to determine a person 's vitamin D status. Calcifediol is further hydroxylated by the kidneys to form calcitriol (also known as 1, 25 - dihydroxycholecalciferol), the biologically active form of vitamin D. Calcitriol circulates as a hormone in the blood, having a major role regulating the concentration of calcium and phosphate, and promoting the healthy growth and remodeling of bone. Calcitriol also has other effects, including some on cell growth, neuromuscular and immune functions, and reduction of inflammation.
Vitamin D has a significant role in calcium homeostasis and metabolism. Its discovery was due to effort to find the dietary substance lacking in children with rickets (the childhood form of osteomalacia). Vitamin D supplements are given to treat or to prevent osteomalacia and rickets, but the evidence for other health effects of vitamin D supplementation in the general population is inconsistent. The effect of vitamin D supplementation on mortality is not clear, with one meta - analysis finding a small decrease in mortality in elderly people, and another concluding no clear justification exists for recommending supplementation for preventing many diseases, and that further research of similar design is unneeded in these areas.
Several forms (vitamers) of vitamin D exist. The two major forms are vitamin D or ergocalciferol, and vitamin D or cholecalciferol; vitamin D without a subscript refers to either D or D or both. These are known collectively as calciferol. Vitamin D was chemically characterized in 1931. In 1935, the chemical structure of vitamin D was established and proven to result from the ultraviolet irradiation of 7 - dehydrocholesterol.
Chemically, the various forms of vitamin D are secosteroids, i.e., steroids in which one of the bonds in the steroid rings is broken. The structural difference between vitamin D and vitamin D is the side chain of D contains a double bond between carbons 22 and 23, and a methyl group on carbon 24.
The active vitamin D metabolite calcitriol mediates its biological effects by binding to the vitamin D receptor (VDR), which is principally located in the nuclei of target cells. The binding of calcitriol to the VDR allows the VDR to act as a transcription factor that modulates the gene expression of transport proteins (such as TRPV6 and calbindin), which are involved in calcium absorption in the intestine. The vitamin D receptor belongs to the nuclear receptor superfamily of steroid / thyroid hormone receptors, and VDRs are expressed by cells in most organs, including the brain, heart, skin, gonads, prostate, and breast.
VDR activation in the intestine, bone, kidney, and parathyroid gland cells leads to the maintenance of calcium and phosphorus levels in the blood (with the assistance of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin) and to the maintenance of bone content.
One of the most important roles of vitamin D is to maintain skeletal calcium balance by promoting calcium absorption in the intestines, promoting bone resorption by increasing osteoclast number, maintaining calcium and phosphate levels for bone formation, and allowing proper functioning of parathyroid hormone to maintain serum calcium levels. Vitamin D deficiency can result in lower bone mineral density and an increased risk of reduced bone density (osteoporosis) or bone fracture because a lack of vitamin D alters mineral metabolism in the body. Thus, vitamin D is also critical for bone remodeling through its role as a potent stimulator of bone resorption.
The VDR may be involved in cell proliferation and differentiation. Vitamin D also affects the immune system, and VDRs are expressed in several white blood cells, including monocytes and activated T and B cells. In vitro, vitamin D increases expression of the tyrosine hydroxylase gene in adrenal medullary cells, and affects the synthesis of neurotrophic factors, nitric oxide synthase, and glutathione.
A diet deficient in vitamin D in conjunction with inadequate sun exposure causes osteomalacia (or rickets when it occurs in children), which is a softening of the bones. In the developed world, this is a rare disease. However, vitamin D deficiency has become a worldwide problem in the elderly and remains common in children and adults. Low blood calcifediol (25 - hydroxy - vitamin D) can result from avoiding the sun. Deficiency results in impaired bone mineralization and bone damage which leads to bone - softening diseases, including rickets and osteomalacia.
Being deficient in vitamin D can cause intestinal absorption of dietary calcium to fall to 15 %. When not deficient, an individual usually absorbs between 60 - 80 %.
Rickets, a childhood disease, is characterized by impeded growth and soft, weak, deformed long bones that bend and bow under their weight as children start to walk. This condition is characterized by bow legs, which can be caused by calcium or phosphorus deficiency, as well as a lack of vitamin D; today, it is largely found in low - income countries in Africa, Asia, or the Middle East and in those with genetic disorders such as pseudovitamin D deficiency rickets.
Maternal vitamin D deficiency may cause overt bone disease from before birth and impairment of bone quality after birth. Nutritional rickets exists in countries with intense year - round sunlight such as Nigeria and can occur without vitamin D deficiency.
Although rickets and osteomalacia are now rare in Britain, outbreaks have happened in some immigrant communities in which osteomalacia sufferers included women with seemingly adequate daylight outdoor exposure wearing Western clothing. Having darker skin and reduced exposure to sunshine did not produce rickets unless the diet deviated from a Western omnivore pattern characterized by high intakes of meat, fish, and eggs, and low intakes of high - extraction cereals. The dietary risk factors for rickets include abstaining from animal foods.
Vitamin D deficiency remains the main cause of rickets among young infants in most countries, because breast milk is low in vitamin D and social customs and climatic conditions can prevent adequate sun exposure. In sunny countries such as Nigeria, South Africa, and Bangladesh, where rickets occurs among older toddlers and children, it has been attributed to low dietary calcium intakes, which are characteristic of cereal - based diets with limited access to dairy products.
Rickets was formerly a major public health problem among the US population; in Denver, where ultraviolet rays are about 20 % stronger than at sea level on the same latitude, almost two - thirds of 500 children had mild rickets in the late 1920s. An increase in the proportion of animal protein in the 20th century American diet coupled with increased consumption of milk fortified with relatively small quantities of vitamin D coincided with a dramatic decline in the number of rickets cases. Also, in the United States and Canada, vitamin D - fortified milk, infant vitamin supplements, and vitamin supplements have helped to eradicate the majority of cases of rickets for children with fat malabsorption conditions.
Osteomalacia is a disease in adults that results from vitamin D deficiency. Characteristics of this disease are softening of the bones, leading to bending of the spine, bowing of the legs, proximal muscle weakness, bone fragility, and increased risk for fractures. Osteomalacia reduces calcium absorption and increases calcium loss from bone, which increases the risk for bone fractures. Osteomalacia is usually present when 25 - hydroxyvitamin D levels are less than about 10 ng / mL. Although the effects of osteomalacia are thought to contribute to chronic musculoskeletal pain, there is no persuasive evidence of lower vitamin D levels in chronic pain sufferers or that supplementation alleviates chronic nonspecific musculoskeletal pain.
Dark - skinned people living in temperate climates have been shown to have low vitamin D levels but the significance of this is not certain. Dark - skinned people may be less efficient at making vitamin D because melanin in the skin hinders vitamin D synthesis.
The effects of vitamin D supplementation on health are uncertain. A 2013 review did not find any effect from supplementation on the rates of disease, other than a tentative decrease in mortality in the elderly. Vitamin D supplements do not alter the outcomes for myocardial infarction, stroke or cerebrovascular disease, cancer, bone fractures or knee osteoarthritis. Low vitamin D levels may result from disease rather than cause disease.
A United States Institute of Medicine report states: "Outcomes related to cancer, cardiovascular disease and hypertension, and diabetes and metabolic syndrome, falls and physical performance, immune functioning and autoimmune disorders, infections, neuropsychological functioning, and preeclampsia could not be linked reliably with calcium or vitamin D intake and were often conflicting. '' Some researchers claim the IOM was too definitive in its recommendations and made a mathematical mistake when calculating the blood level of vitamin D associated with bone health. Members of the IOM panel maintain that they used a "standard procedure for dietary recommendations '' and that the report is solidly based on the data. Research on vitamin D supplements, including large - scale clinical trials, is continuing.
Vitamin D supplementation has been tentatively found to lead to a reduced risk of death in the elderly, but the effect has not been deemed pronounced or certain enough to make taking supplements recommendable. Other forms (Vitamin D, alfacalcidol, and calcitriol) do not appear to have any beneficial effects with regard to the risk of death. High blood levels appear to be associated with a lower risk of death, but it is unclear if supplementation can result in this benefit. Both an excess and a deficiency in vitamin D appear to cause abnormal functioning and premature aging. The relationship between serum calcifediol level and all - cause mortality is parabolic. Harm from vitamin D appears to occur at a lower vitamin D level in the black population than in the white population.
In general, no good evidence supports the commonly held belief that vitamin D supplements can help prevent osteoporosis. Its general use for prevention of this disease in those without vitamin D deficiency is thus likely not needed. For older people with osteoporosis, taking vitamin D with calcium may help prevent hip fractures, but it also slightly increases the risk of stomach and kidney problems. Supplementation with higher doses of vitamin D, in those older than 65 years, may decrease fracture risk. The effect is small or none for people living independently. Low serum vitamin D levels have been associated with falls, and low bone mineral density. Taking extra vitamin D, however, does not appear to change the risk. Athletes who are vitamin D deficient are at an increased risk of stress fractures and / or major breaks, particularly those engaging in contact sports. The greatest benefit with supplementation is seen in athletes who are deficient (25 (OH) D serum levels < 30 ng / ml), or severely deficient (25 (OH) D serum levels < 25 ng / ml). Incremental decreases in risks are observed with rising serum 25 (OH) D concentrations plateauing at 50 ng / ml with no additional benefits seen in levels beyond this point.
Because it found mounting evidence for a benefit to bone health, though it had not found good evidence of other benefits, the US Food and Drug Administration has required manufacturers to declare the amount of vitamin D on nutrition facts labels, as "nutrients of public health significance '', since May 2016. By a proposed deadline extension, small manufacturers with less than $10 million in annual food sales will have to comply by 1 Jan 2021, while larger ones have to comply by 1 Jan 2020.
Vitamin D supplements have been widely marketed for their claimed anticancer properties. Associations have been shown in observational studies between low vitamin D levels and the risk of development of certain cancers including colon cancer. It is unclear, however, if taking additional vitamin D in the diet or as supplements affects the risk of cancer. Reviews have described the evidence as being "inconsistent, inconclusive as to causality, and insufficient to inform nutritional requirements '' and "not sufficiently robust to draw conclusions ''. One 2014 review found that supplements had no significant effect on cancer risk. Another 2014 review concluded that vitamin D may decrease the risk of death from cancer (one fewer death in 150 people treated over 5 years), but concerns with the quality of the data were noted. Insufficient evidence exists to recommend vitamin D supplements for people with cancer, although some evidence suggests that low vitamin D may be associated with a worse outcome for some cancers, and that higher 25 - hydroxy vitamin D levels at the time of diagnosis are associated with better outcomes.
Taking vitamin D supplements does not meaningfully reduce the risk of stroke, cerebrovascular disease, cardial infarction, or ischaemic heart disease. Supplementation has no effect on blood pressure.
In general, vitamin D functions to activate the innate and dampen the adaptive immune systems. Deficiency has been linked to increased risk or severity of viral infections, including HIV. Low levels of vitamin D appear to be a risk factor for tuberculosis, and historically it was used as a treatment. Supplementation slightly decreases the risk of respiratory tract infections and the exacerbation of asthma. Evidence is lacking on whether it does so in children under five years of age. No clinical trials have been done to assess its effect on preventing other infections, such as malaria.
Although tentative data link low levels of vitamin D to asthma, evidence to support a beneficial effect on asthmatics from supplementation is inconclusive. Accordingly, supplementation is not currently recommended for treatment or prevention of asthma. Vitamin D and multiple sclerosis incidence have been linked, but it is not clear what the nature of any causal relationship might be. There is no evidence that vitamin D supplementation is helpful for treating people with multiple sclerosis.
Low levels of vitamin D are associated with two major forms of human Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD): Crohn 's disease and ulcerative colitis. However, further studies are required to determine its significance and the potential role of vitamin D axis in IBD.
Diabetes -- A systematic review of 2014 concluded that the available studies show no evidence of vitamin D3 supplementation having an effect on glucose homeostasis or diabetes prevention. A review article of 2016 reported that while there is increasing evidence that vitamin D deficiency may be a risk factor for diabetes, over-all evidence regarding vitamin D levels and diabetes mellitus is contradictory, requiring further studies.
Depression -- Clinical trials of vitamin D supplementation for depressive symptoms have generally been of low quality and show no overall effect, although subgroup analysis showed supplementation for participants with clinically significant depressive symptoms or depressive disorder had a moderate effect.
Cognition and dementia -- A systematic review of clinical studies found an association between low vitamin D levels, and cognitive impairment and a higher risk of developing Alzheimer 's disease. However, lower vitamin D concentrations are also associated with poor nutrition and spending less time outdoors. Therefore, alternative explanations for the increase in cognitive impairment exist and hence a direct causal relationship between vitamin D levels and cognition could not be established.
Pregnancy -- Low levels of vitamin D in pregnancy are associated with gestational diabetes, pre-eclampsia, and small (for gestational age) infants. Although taking vitamin D supplements during pregnancy raises blood levels of vitamin D in the mother at term, the extent of benefits for the mother or baby is unclear. Pregnant women who take an adequate amount of vitamin D during gestation may experience a lower risk of pre-eclampsia and positive immune effects. A 2018 review found that supplements may reduce the risk of undersized babies and of their poor rate of growth. Pregnant women often do not take the recommended amount of vitamin D.
Weight loss -- Though hypothesized that vitamin D supplementation may be an effective treatment for obesity apart from calorie restriction, one systematic review found no association of supplementation with body weight or fat mass. A 2016 meta - analysis found that circulating vitamin D status was improved by weight loss, indicating that fat mass may be inversely associated with blood levels of vitamin D.
Governmental regulatory agencies stipulate for the food and dietary supplement industries certain health claims as allowable as statements on packaging.
European Food Safety Authority
US Food and Drug Administration
Health Canada
Other possible agencies with claim guidance: Japan FOSHU and Australia - New Zealand.
Conversion: 1 μg = 40 IU.
Various institutions have proposed different recommendations for the amount of daily intake of vitamin D. These vary according to precise definition, age, pregnancy or lactation, and the extent assumptions are made regarding skin synthesis of vitamin D.
The dietary reference intake for vitamin D issued in 2010 by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) for North America superseded previous recommendations which gave adequate intake values. The recommendations were formed assuming the individual has no skin synthesis of vitamin D because of inadequate sun exposure. The reference intake for vitamin D refers to total intake from food, beverages and supplements, and assumes that calcium requirements are being met.
The tolerable upper intake level (UL) is defined as "the highest average daily intake of a nutrient that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects for nearly all persons in the general population. '' Although tolerable upper intake levels are believed to be safe, information on the long - term effects is incomplete and these levels of intake are not recommended.
For U.S food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (% DV). For vitamin D labeling purposes, 100 % of the Daily Value was 400 IU (10 μg), but as of May 27, 2016 it was revised to 800 IU (20 μg) to bring it into agreement with the RDA. The deadline to be in compliance was extended by the FDA to January 1, 2020 for large companies and January 1, 2021 for small companies.
Health Canada published recommended dietary allowances (RDA) and tolerable upper intake levels for vitamin D in 2012 based on the Institute of Medicine report.
Australia and New Zealand published nutrient reference values including guidelines for dietary vitamin D intake in 2005. About a third of Australians have vitamin D deficiency.
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in 2016 reviewed the current evidence, finding the relationship between serum 25 (OH) D concentration and musculoskeletal health outcomes is widely variable. They considered that average requirements and population reference intakes values for vitamin D can not be derived, and that a serum 25 (OH) D concentration of 50 nmol / L was a suitable target value. For all people over the age of 1, including women who are pregnant or lactating, they set an adequate intake of 15 μg / day (600 IU).
The EFSA reviewed safe levels of intake in 2012, setting the tolerable upper limit for adults at 100 μg / day (4000 IU), a similar conclusion as the IOM.
The UK National Health Service recommends babies and young children aged six months to five years, pregnant or breastfeeding women, and sun - deprived elderly people should take daily vitamin supplements to ensure sufficient vitamin D intake. In July 2016, Public Health England recommended that everyone consider taking a daily supplement containing 10 μg of vitamin D during autumn and winter because of inadequate sunlight for vitamin D synthesis.
Non-government organisations in Europe have made their own recommendations. The German Society for Nutrition recommends 20 μg. The European Menopause and Andropause Society recommends postmenopausal women consume15 μg (600 IU) until age 70, and 20 μg (800 IU) from age 71. This dose should be increased to 100 μg (4,000 IU) in some patients with very low vitamin D status or in case of co-morbid conditions.
Although vitamin D is not present naturally in most foods, it is commonly added as a fortification in manufactured foods. In some countries, staple foods are artificially fortified with vitamin D.
In general, vitamin D is found in fungi and vitamin D is found in animals. Vitamin D is produced by ultraviolet irradiation of ergosterol found in many fungi. The vitamin D content in mushrooms and Cladina arbuscula, a lichen, increase with exposure to ultraviolet light. This process is emulated by industrial ultraviolet lamps, concentrating vitamin D levels to higher levels.
The United States Department of Agriculture reports D and D content combined in one value.
Manufactured foods fortified with Vitamin D include some fruit juices and fruit juice drinks, meal replacement energy bars, soy protein - based beverages, certain cheese and cheese products, flour products, infant formulas, many breakfast cereals, and milk.
In 2016 in the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) amended food additive regulations for milk fortification, stating that vitamin D levels not exceed 42 IU vitamin D per 100 g (400 IU per US quart) of dairy milk, 84 IU of vitamin D per 100 g (800 IU per quart) of plant milks, and 89 IU per 100 g (800 IU per quart) in plant - based yogurts. Plant milks are defined as beverages made from soy, almond, rice, among other plant sources intended as alternatives to dairy milk.
While some studies have found that vitamin D raises 25 (OH) D blood levels faster and remains active in the body longer, others contend that vitamin D sources are equally bioavailable and effective as D for raising and sustaining 25 (OH) D.
Vitamin D content in typical foods is reduced variably by cooking. Boiled, fried and baked foods retained 69 -- 89 % of original vitamin D.
Recommendations on recommended 25 (OH) D serum levels vary across authorities, and vary based on factors like age. US labs generally report 25 (OH) D levels in ng / ml. Other countries often use nmol / L. One ng / ml is approximately equal to 2.5 nmol / L.
A 2014 review concluded that the most advantageous serum levels for 25 (OH) D for all outcomes appeared to be close to 30 ng / ml (75 nmol / L). The optimal vitamin D levels are still controversial and another review concluded that ranges from 30 to 40 ng / ml (75 to 100 nmol / L) were to be recommended for athletes. Part of the controversy is because numerous studies have found differences in serum levels of 25 (OH) D between ethnic groups; studies point to genetic as well as environmental reasons behind these variations. Supplementation to achieve these standard levels could cause harmful vascular calcification.
A 2012 meta - analysis showed that the risk of cardiovascular diseases increases when blood levels of vitamin D are lowest in a range of 8 to 24 ng / ml (20 to 60 nmol / L), although results among the studies analyzed were inconsistent.
In 2011 an IOM committee concluded a serum 25 (OH) D level of 20 ng / ml (50 nmol / L) is needed for bone and overall health. The dietary reference intakes for vitamin D are chosen with a margin of safety and ' overshoot ' the targeted serum value to ensure the specified levels of intake achieve the desired serum 25 (OH) D levels in almost all persons. No contributions to serum 25 (OH) D level are assumed from sun exposure and the recommendations are fully applicable to people with dark skin or negligible exposure to sunlight. The Institute found serum 25 (OH) D concentrations above 30 ng / ml (75 nmol / L) are "not consistently associated with increased benefit ''. Serum 25 (OH) D levels above 50 ng / ml (125 nmol / L) may be cause for concern. However, some people with serum 25 (OH) D between 30 and 50 ng / ml (75 nmol / L - 125 nmol / L) will also have inadequate vitamin D.
Vitamin D toxicity is rare. It is caused by supplementing with high doses of vitamin D rather than sunlight. The threshold for vitamin D toxicity has not been established; however, according to some research, the tolerable upper intake level (UL) is 4,000 IU / day for ages 9 -- 71 (100 μg / day), while other research concludes that, in healthy adults, sustained intake of more than 1250 μg / day (50,000 IU) can produce overt toxicity after several months and can increase serum 25 - hydroxyvitamin D levels to 150 ng / ml and greater. Those with certain medical conditions, such as primary hyperparathyroidism, are far more sensitive to vitamin D and develop hypercalcemia in response to any increase in vitamin D nutrition, while maternal hypercalcemia during pregnancy may increase fetal sensitivity to effects of vitamin D and lead to a syndrome of mental retardation and facial deformities.
A review published in 2015 noted that adverse effects have been reported only at 25 (OH) D serum concentrations above 200 nmol / L.
Published cases of toxicity involving hypercalcemia in which the vitamin D dose and the 25 - hydroxy - vitamin D levels are known all involve an intake of ≥ 40,000 IU (1,000 μg) per day.
Pregnant or breastfeeding women should consult a doctor before taking a vitamin D supplement. The FDA advised manufacturers of liquid vitamin D supplements that droppers accompanying these products should be clearly and accurately marked for 400 international units (1 IU is the biological equivalent of 25 ng cholecalciferol / ergocalciferol). In addition, for products intended for infants, the FDA recommends the dropper hold no more than 400 IU. For infants (birth to 12 months), the tolerable upper limit (maximum amount that can be tolerated without harm) is set at 25 μg / day (1,000 IU). One thousand micrograms per day in infants has produced toxicity within one month. After being commissioned by the Canadian and American governments, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) as of 30 November 2010, has increased the tolerable upper limit (UL) to 2,500 IU per day for ages 1 -- 3 years, 3,000 IU per day for ages 4 -- 8 years and 4,000 IU per day for ages 9 -- 71 + years (including pregnant or lactating women).
Calcitriol itself is auto - regulated in a negative feedback cycle, and is also affected by parathyroid hormone, fibroblast growth factor 23, cytokines, calcium, and phosphate.
Vitamin D overdose causes hypercalcemia, which is a strong indication of vitamin D toxicity -- this can be noted with an increase in urination and thirst. If hypercalcemia is not treated, it results in excess deposits of calcium in soft tissues and organs such as the kidneys, liver, and heart, resulting in pain and organ damage.
The main symptoms of vitamin D overdose which are those of hypercalcemia including anorexia, nausea, and vomiting. These may be followed by polyuria, polydipsia, weakness, insomnia, nervousness, pruritus and ultimately renal failure. Furthermore, proteinuria, urinary casts, azotemia, and metastatic calcification (especially in the kidneys) may develop. Other symptoms of vitamin D toxicity include mental retardation in young children, abnormal bone growth and formation, diarrhea, irritability, weight loss, and severe depression.
Vitamin D toxicity is treated by discontinuing vitamin D supplementation and restricting calcium intake. Kidney damage may be irreversible. Exposure to sunlight for extended periods of time does not normally cause vitamin D toxicity. The concentrations of vitamin D precursors produced in the skin reach an equilibrium, and any further vitamin D produced is degraded.
Synthesis of vitamin D in nature is dependent on the presence of UV radiation and subsequent activation in liver and in kidney. Many animals synthesize vitamin D from 7 - dehydrocholesterol, and many fungi synthesize vitamin D from ergosterol.
Click on icon in lower right corner to open. Click on genes, proteins and metabolites below to link to respective articles.
The transformation that converts 7 - dehydrocholesterol to vitamin D occurs in two steps. First, 7 - dehydrocholesterol is photolyzed by ultraviolet light in a 6 - electron conrotatory ring - opening electrocyclic reaction; the product is previtamin D. Second, previtamin D spontaneously isomerizes to vitamin D (cholecalciferol) in an antarafacial sigmatropic (1, 7) hydride shift. At room temperature, the transformation of previtamin D to vitamin D in an organic solvent takes about 12 days to complete. The conversion of previtamin D to vitamin D in the skin is about 10 times faster than in an organic solvent.
The conversion from ergosterol to vitamin D follows a similar procedure, forming previtamin D by photolysis, which isomerizes to vitamin D. The transformation of previtamin D to vitamin D in methanol has a rate comparable to that of previtamin D. The process is faster in white button mushrooms.
Vitamin D is produced photochemically from 7 - dehydrocholesterol in the skin of most vertebrate animals, including humans. The precursor of vitamin D, 7 - dehydrocholesterol is produced in relatively large quantities. 7 - Dehydrocholesterol reacts with UVB light at wavelengths between 270 and 300 nm, with peak synthesis occurring between 295 and 297 nm. These wavelengths are present in sunlight, as well as in the light emitted by the UV lamps in tanning beds (which produce ultraviolet primarily in the UVA spectrum, but typically produce 4 % to 10 % of the total UV emissions as UVB). Exposure to light through windows is insufficient because glass almost completely blocks UVB light.
Adequate amounts of vitamin D can be produced with moderate sun exposure to the face, arms and legs, averaging 5 -- 30 minutes twice per week, or approximately 25 % of the time for minimal sunburn. The darker the skin, and the weaker the sunlight, the more minutes of exposure are needed. Vitamin D overdose is impossible from UV exposure; the skin reaches an equilibrium where the vitamin degrades as fast as it is created.
Sunscreen absorbs or reflects ultraviolet light and prevents much of it from reaching the skin. Sunscreen with a sun protection factor (SPF) of 8 based on the UVB spectrum decreases vitamin D synthetic capacity by 95 %, and SPF 15 decreases it by 98 %.
The skin consists of two primary layers: the inner layer called the dermis, composed largely of connective tissue, and the outer, thinner epidermis. Thick epidermis in the soles and palms consists of five strata; from outer to inner, they are: the stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale. Vitamin D is produced in the keratinocytes of two innermost strata, the stratum basale and stratum spinosum.
Vitamin D can be synthesized only by a photochemical process. Phytoplankton in the ocean (such as coccolithophore and Emiliania huxleyi) have been photosynthesizing vitamin D for more than 500 million years. Primitive vertebrates in the ocean could absorb calcium from the ocean into their skeletons and eat plankton rich in vitamin D.
Land vertebrates required another source of vitamin D other than plants for their calcified skeletons. They had to either ingest it or be exposed to sunlight to photosynthesize it in their skin. Land vertebrates have been photosynthesizing vitamin D for more than 350 million years.
In birds and fur - bearing mammals, fur or feathers block UV rays from reaching the skin. Instead, vitamin D is created from oily secretions of the skin deposited onto the feathers or fur, and is obtained orally during grooming. However, some animals, such as the naked mole - rat, are naturally cholecalciferol - deficient, as serum 25 - OH vitamin D levels are undetectable.
Vitamin D (cholecalciferol) is produced industrially by exposing 7 - dehydrocholesterol to UVB light, followed by purification. The 7 - dehydrocholesterol is a natural substance in fish organs, especially the liver, or in wool grease (lanolin) from sheep. Vitamin D (ergocalciferol) is produced in a similar way using ergosterol from yeast or mushrooms as a starting material.
Vitamin D is carried in the bloodstream to the liver, where it is converted into the prohormone calcifediol. Circulating calcifediol may then be converted into calcitriol, the biologically active form of vitamin D, in the kidneys.
Whether it is made in the skin or ingested, Vitamin D is hydroxylated in the liver at position 25 (upper right of the molecule) to form 25 - hydroxycholecalciferol (calcifediol or 25 (OH) D). This reaction is catalyzed by the microsomal enzyme vitamin D 25 - hydroxylase, the product of the CYP2R1 human gene, and expressed by hepatocytes. Once made, the product is released into the plasma, where it is bound to an α - globulin carrier protein named the vitamin D - binding protein.
Calcifediol is transported to the proximal tubules of the kidneys, where it is hydroxylated at the 1 - α position (lower right of the molecule) to form calcitriol (1, 25 - dihydroxycholecalciferol, 1, 25 (OH) D). The conversion of calcifediol to calcitriol is catalyzed by the enzyme 25 - hydroxyvitamin D 1 - alpha - hydroxylase, which is the product of the CYP27B1 human gene. The activity of CYP27B1 is increased by parathyroid hormone, and also by low calcium or phosphate.
Following the final converting step in the kidney, calcitriol is released into the circulation. By binding to vitamin D - binding protein, calcitriol is transported throughout the body, including to the classical target organs of intestine, kidney and bone. Calcitriol is the most potent natural ligand of the vitamin D receptor, which mediates most of the physiological actions of vitamin D.
In addition to the kidneys, calcitriol is also synthesized by certain other cells including monocyte - macrophages in the immune system. When synthesized by monocyte - macrophages, calcitriol acts locally as a cytokine, modulating body defenses against microbial invaders by stimulating the innate immune system.
The activity of calcifediol and calcitriol can be reduced by hydroxylation at position 24 by vitamin D3 24 - hydroxylase, forming secalciferol and calcitetrol respecively.
Vitamin D (ergocalciferol) and Vitamin D (cholecaliferol) share a similar mechanism of action as outlined above. Metabolites produced by vitamin D is sometimes named with a er - or ergo prefix to differentiate them from the D - based counterparts. Nevertheless, these differences are present in the metabolism of Vitamin D and Vitamin D:
American researchers Elmer McCollum and Marguerite Davis in 1914 discovered a substance in cod liver oil which later was called "vitamin A ''. British doctor Edward Mellanby noticed dogs that were fed cod liver oil did not develop rickets and concluded vitamin A, or a closely associated factor, could prevent the disease. In 1922, Elmer McCollum tested modified cod liver oil in which the vitamin A had been destroyed. The modified oil cured the sick dogs, so McCollum concluded the factor in cod liver oil which cured rickets was distinct from vitamin A. He called it vitamin D because it was the fourth vitamin to be named. It was not initially realized that, unlike other vitamins, vitamin D can be synthesised by humans through exposure to UV light.
In 1925, it was established that when 7 - dehydrocholesterol is irradiated with light, a form of a fat - soluble vitamin is produced (now known as D). Alfred Fabian Hess stated: "Light equals vitamin D. '' Adolf Windaus, at the University of Göttingen in Germany, received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1928 for his work on the constitution of sterols and their connection with vitamins. In 1929, a group at NIMR in Hampstead, London, were working on the structure of vitamin D, which was still unknown, as well as the structure of steroids. A meeting took place with J.B.S. Haldane, J.D. Bernal, and Dorothy Crowfoot to discuss possible structures, which contributed to bringing a team together. X-ray crystallography demonstrated the sterol molecules were flat, not as proposed by the German team led by Windaus. In 1932, Otto Rosenheim and Harold King published a paper putting forward structures for sterols and bile acids which found immediate acceptance. The informal academic collaboration between the team members Robert Benedict Bourdillon, Otto Rosenheim, Harold King, and Kenneth Callow was very productive and led to the isolation and characterization of vitamin D. At this time, the policy of the Medical Research Council was not to patent discoveries, believing the results of medical research should be open to everybody. In the 1930s, Windaus clarified further the chemical structure of vitamin D.
In 1923, American biochemist Harry Steenbock at the University of Wisconsin demonstrated that irradiation by ultraviolet light increased the vitamin D content of foods and other organic materials. After irradiating rodent food, Steenbock discovered the rodents were cured of rickets. A vitamin D deficiency is a known cause of rickets. Using $300 of his own money, Steenbock patented his invention. His irradiation technique was used for foodstuffs, most memorably for milk. By the expiration of his patent in 1945, rickets had been all but eliminated in the US.
In 1969, after studying nuclear fragments of intestinal cells, a specific binding protein for Vitamin D called the Vitamin D Receptor was identified by Mark Haussler and Tony Norman. In 1971 -- 72, the further metabolism of vitamin D to active forms was discovered. In the liver, vitamin D was found to be converted to calcifediol. Calcifediol is then converted by the kidneys to calcitriol, the biologically active form of vitamin D. Calcitriol circulates as a hormone in the blood, regulating the concentration of calcium and phosphate in the bloodstream and promoting the healthy growth and remodeling of bone. The vitamin D metabolites, calcifediol and calcitriol, were identified by competing teams led by Michael F. Holick in the laboratory of Hector DeLuca and by Tony Norman and colleagues.
There is considerable research activity looking at effects of vitamin D and its metabolites in animal models, cell systems, gene expression studies, epidemiology and clinical therapeutics. These different types of studies can produce conflicting evidence as to the benefits of interventions with vitamin D. One school of thought contends the human physiology is fine - tuned to an intake of 4,000 -- 12,000 IU / day from sun exposure with concomitant serum 25 - hydroxyvitamin D levels of 40 to 80 ng / ml and this is required for optimal health. Proponents of this view, who include some members of the panel that drafted a now - superseded 1997 report on vitamin D from the IOM, contend the IOM 's warning about serum concentrations above 50 ng / ml lacks biological plausibility. They suggest, for some people, reducing the risk of preventable disease requires a higher level of vitamin D than that recommended by the IOM.
The United States National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements established a Vitamin D Initiative in 2014 to track current research and provide education to consumers. In their 2016 review, they recognise that a growing body of research suggests that vitamin D might play some role in the prevention and treatment of types 1 and 2 diabetes, glucose intolerance, hypertension, multiple sclerosis, and other medical conditions. They state further: "however, most evidence for these roles comes from in vitro, animal, and epidemiological studies, not the randomized clinical trials considered to be more definitive. Until such trials are conducted, the implications of the available evidence for public health and patient care will be debated ''.
Some preliminary studies link low vitamin D levels with disease later in life. Evidence as of 2013 is insufficient to determine whether vitamin D affects the risk of cancer. One meta - analysis found a decrease in mortality in elderly people. Another meta - analysis covering over 350,000 people concluded that vitamin D supplementation in unselected community - dwelling individuals does not reduce skeletal (total fracture) or non-skeletal outcomes (myocardial infarction, ischaemic heart disease, stroke, cerebrovascular disease, cancer) by more than 15 %, and that further research trials with similar design are unlikely to change these conclusions.
Vitamin D deficiency is widespread in the European population. European research is assessing vitamin D intake levels in association with disease rates and policies of dietary recommendations, food fortification, vitamin D supplementation, and small amounts of sun exposure.
Apart from VDR activation, various alternative mechanisms of action are under study, such as inhibition of signal transduction by hedgehog, a hormone involved in morphogenesis.
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when was the last time france was in the finals | France at the FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
This is a record of France 's results at the FIFA World Cup. France was one of the four European teams that participated at the inaugural World Cup in 1930 and have appeared in 15 FIFA World Cups, tied for the sixth most of any country. The national team is one of eight to have won the FIFA World Cup title and one of only six to have done so more than once.
The French team won its first World Cup title in 1998. The tournament was played on home soil and France defeated Brazil 3 -- 0 in the final match. The tournament was hosted in France once before in 1938, where France was eliminated by defending champions Italy in the quarter finals.
In 2006, France finished as runners - up, losing on penalties (5 -- 3) to Italy after the game was tied 1 -- 1 after 120 minutes. The team has also finished in third place on two occasions, in 1958 and 1986, and in fourth place once, in 1982. In 2018 France won the World Cup for the second time 4 -- 2 against Croatia in Luzhniki Stadium, Russia.
Head coach: Aimé Jacquet
Assistant referees: Arnaldo Pinto (Brazil) Merere Gonzales (Trinidad and Tobago) Fourth official: Mario Sánchez Yanten (Chile)
Assistant referees: Reynaldo Salinas (Honduras) Luis Torres Zúñiga (Costa Rica) Fourth official: Alberto Tejada Noriega (Peru)
Assistant referees: Nimal Wickeramatunge (Sri Lanka) Emanuel Zammit (Malta) Fourth official: Vítor Melo Pereira (Portugal)
Assistant referees: Nimal Wickeramatunge (Sri Lanka) Lencie Fred (Vanuatu) Fourth official: Esse Baharmast (United States)
Assistant referees: Mark Warren (England) Nicolae Grigorescu (Romania) Fourth official: Said Belqola (Morocco)
Assistant referees: Fernando Tresaco Gracia (Spain) Jorge Díaz Gálvez (Chile) Fourth official: Epifanio González Chávez (Paraguay)
The 1998 final was held on 12 July at the Stade de France, Saint - Denis. France defeated holders Brazil 3 -- 0, with two goals from Zinedine Zidane and a stoppage time strike from Emmanuel Petit. The win gave France their first World Cup title, becoming the sixth national team after Uruguay, Italy, England, West Germany and Argentina to win the tournament on their home soil. They also inflicted the heaviest defeat on Brazil since 1930.
The pre-match build up was dominated by the omission of Brazilian striker Ronaldo from the starting lineup only to be reinstated 45 minutes before kick - off. He managed to create the first open chance for Brazil in the 22nd minute, dribbling past defender Thuram before sending a cross out on the left side that goalkeeper Fabien Barthez struggled to hold onto. France however took the lead in the 27th minute after Brazilian defender Roberto Carlos conceded a corner which Zidane scored with a header from the right. Three minutes before half - time, Zidane scored his second goal of the match, similarly another header from a corner, this time from the left side. The tournament hosts went down to ten men in the 68th minute as Marcel Desailly was sent off for a second bookable offence. Brazil reacted to this by making an attacking substitution and although they applied pressure France sealed the win with a third goal: substitute Patrick Vieira set up his club teammate Petit in a counterattack to shoot low past goalkeeper Cláudio Taffarel.
French president Jacques Chirac was in attendance to congratulate and commiserate the winners and runners - up respectively after the match. Several days after the victory, winning manager Aimé Jacquet announced his resignation from the French team with immediate effect.
Goalkeeper Fabien Barthez also shares the FIFA World Cup record for most matches without conceding a goal, which he achieved ten times. The only other player to have reached that number is England 's Peter Shilton.
Just Fontaine scored all his 13 World Cup goals in 1958, where France reached third place. This makes him record holder for most goals scored in a single FIFA World Cup. At the time, it also made him the most successful World Cup scorer of all time until the record was broken by West Germany 's Gerd Müller in the World Cup final of 1974.
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the mighty gateway found at the temples of south india are called | Gopuram - Wikipedia
A Gopuram or gopura (Sanskrit: गोपुरम्, gopuram) is a monumental gatehouse tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of a Hindu temple, in the Dravidian architecture of the Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, and Telangana states of Southern India. Ancient and early medieval temples feature smaller gopuram, while in later temples they are a prominent feature of Hindu temples of the Dravidian style; or in many cases the temple compound was expanded and new larger gopuram built along the new boundary. They are topped by the kalasam, a bulbous stone finial. They function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex.
The gopuram 's origins can be traced back to early structures of the Pallava kings, and relate to the central shikhara towers of North India. Between the twelfth and sixteenth century, during the Pandya, Nayaka and Vijayanagara era when Hindu temples increasingly became a hub of the urban life, these gateways became a dominant feature of a temple 's outer appearance, eventually overshadowing the inner sanctuary which became obscured from view by the gopuram 's colossal size and courtyards. It also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than one gopuram. They also appear in architecture outside India, especially Khmer architecture, as at Angkor Wat.
A large Dravidian - style temple, or koil, may have multiple gopurams as the openings into successively smaller walled enclosures around the main shrine, with the largest generally at the outer edges. The temple compound is typically square or rectangular with at least the outermost wall having gopuras, often from the four cardinal directions. The multiple storeys of a gopuram typically repeat the lower level features on a rhythmic diminishing scale. The inner sanctum and its towering roof (the central deity 's shrine) is also called the Vimanam (shrine), although in the south it is typically smaller than the gopurams in large temples.
The Tamil derivation is from the two words: கோ (kō) and புறம் (puram) meaning ' king ' and ' exterior ' respectively. It originates from the Sangam age when it was known as ஓங்கு நிலை வாயில் (ōnggu nilai vāyil) meaning ' imperishable gateway '.
An alternative derivation is from the Sanskrit word gopuram, which can be broken down to go (Sanskrit: गो), which means either ' a city ' or ' a cow ', and puram (Sanskrit: पुरम्), ' a town ', or ' a settlement '.
A gopuram is usually a tapering oblong in form with ground - level wooden doors, often richly decorated, providing access. Above is the tapering or "battered '' gopuram, divided into many storeys which diminish in size as the gopuram tower narrows. Usually the tower is topped with a barrel vaulted roof with a finial. The form began rather modestly in the 10th century, as at Shore Temple, Mamallapuram, with the 11th century Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur marking a crucial step forward with two multi-storey gopurams from that period, much larger than any earlier ones, though much smaller than the main tower (vimanam) of the temple. The four gopurams of the Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram are important early examples, begun in the mid-13th century but completed over a longer period. Gopurams are exquisitely decorated with sculpture and carvings and painted with a variety of themes derived from the Hindu mythology, particularly those associated with the presiding deity of the temple where the gopuram is located.
The two tallest gopuras are both modern, at least in part. The Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam, Tamil Nadu, has 21 gopurams (tower gateways), including the towering 239.5 - foot (73.0 m) Rajagopuram (shrine of the main gateway), which is claimed as the tallest temple tower in Asia. The 73 - metre (240 ft) - tall 13 - tiered Rajagopuram was completed in 1987 (having previously been incomplete) and dominates the landscape for kilometers around, while the remaining 20 gopurams were built between the 14th and 17th centuries. Competing for the title of "tallest '' is the twenty storey 249 - foot (76 m) gopura at the modern Murdeshwar Temple, which, unusually, is provided with a lift.
Thiruvannamalai Annamalaiyar Temple Gopurams
Annamalaiyar Temple, Thiruvannamalai
Murdeshwar
Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam
Srivilliputhur
Pariyur
Tiruchendur
Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram
Kancheepuram
Hampi
Tirumala
Kuala Lumpur
Annavaram
Simhachalam
Athi Koneswaram
Madurai
Nanjangud
Biccavolu
Chebrolu
Besakih, Bali
Toronto
On left is a gopuram, to the right above the sanctum is vimana
Dallapiccola, Anna L. (2002). Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0 - 500 - 51088 - 1.
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what type of bread for philly cheese steak | Cheesesteak - wikipedia
A cheesesteak, also known as a Philadelphia cheesesteak, Philly cheesesteak, cheesesteak sandwich, cheese steak, or steak and cheese, is a sandwich made from thinly sliced pieces of beefsteak and melted cheese in a long hoagie roll. A popular regional fast food, it has its roots in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States.
The cheesesteak was developed in the early 20th century "by combining frizzled beef, onions, and cheese in a small loaf of bread '', according to a 1987 exhibition catalog published by the Library Company of Philadelphia and the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
Philadelphians Pat and Harry Olivieri are often credited with inventing the sandwich by serving chopped steak on an Italian roll in the early 1930s. The exact story behind its creation is debated, but in some accounts, Pat and Harry Olivieri originally owned a hot dog stand, and on one occasion, decided to make a new sandwich using chopped beef and grilled onions. While Pat was eating the sandwich, a cab driver stopped by and was interested in it, so he requested one for himself. After eating it, the cab driver suggested that Olivieri quit making hot dogs and instead focus on the new sandwich. They began selling this variation of steak sandwiches at their hot dog stand near South Philadelphia 's Italian Market. They became so popular that Pat opened up his own restaurant which still operates today as Pat 's King of Steaks. The sandwich was originally prepared without cheese; Olivieri said provolone cheese was first added by Joe "Cocky Joe '' Lorenza, a manager at the Ridge Avenue location.
Cheesesteaks have become popular at restaurants and food carts throughout the city with many locations being independently owned, family - run businesses. Variations of cheesesteaks are now common in several fast food chains. Versions of the sandwich can also be found at high - end restaurants. Many establishments outside of Philadelphia refer to the sandwich as a "Philly cheesesteak. ''
The meat traditionally used is thinly sliced rib - eye or top round, although other cuts of beef are also used. On a lightly oiled griddle at medium temperature, the steak slices are quickly browned and then scrambled into smaller pieces with a flat spatula. Slices of cheese are then placed over the meat, letting it melt, and then the roll is placed on top of the cheese. The mixture is then scooped up with a spatula and pressed into the roll, which is then cut in half.
Common additions include sautéed onions, bell peppers, mushrooms, mayonnaise, hot sauce, salt, pepper.
In Philadelphia, most cheesesteak places use Amoroso rolls; these rolls are long, soft, and slightly salted. One source writes that "a proper cheesesteak consists of provolone or Cheez Whiz slathered on an Amoroso roll and stuffed with thinly shaved grilled meat, '' while a reader 's letter to an Indianapolis magazine, lamenting the unavailability of good cheesesteaks, wrote that "the mention of the Amoroso roll brought tears to my eyes. '' After commenting on the debates over types of cheese and "chopped steak or sliced, '' Risk and Insurance magazine declared "The only thing nearly everybody can agree on is that it all has to be piled onto a fresh, locally baked Amoroso roll. ''
American cheese, Cheez Whiz, and provolone are the most commonly used cheeses or cheese products put on to the Philly cheesesteak.
White American cheese, along with provolone cheese, are the favorites due to their mild flavor and medium consistency. Some establishments melt the American cheese to achieve the creamy consistency, while others place slices over the meat, letting them melt slightly under the heat. Philadelphia Inquirer restaurant critic Craig LaBan says "Provolone is for aficionados, extra-sharp for the most discriminating among them. '' Geno 's owner, Joey Vento, said, "We always recommend the provolone. That 's the real cheese. ''
Cheez Whiz, first marketed in 1952, was not yet available for the original 1930 version, but has spread in popularity. A 1986 New York Times article called Cheez Whiz "the sine qua non of cheesesteak connoisseurs. '' In a 1985 interview, Pat Olivieri 's nephew Frank Olivieri said that he uses "the processed cheese spread familiar to millions of parents who prize speed and ease in fixing the children 's lunch for the same reason, because it is fast. '' Cheez Whiz is "overwhelmingly the favorite '' at Pat 's, outselling runner - up American by a ratio of eight or ten to one, while Geno 's claims to go through eight to ten cases of Cheez Whiz a day.
In 2003, while running for President of the United States, John Kerry made what was considered a major faux pas when campaigning in Philadelphia and went to Pat 's King of Steaks and ordered a cheesesteak with Swiss.
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who determines the way in which primaries are set up | United states presidential primary - wikipedia
The presidential primary elections and caucuses held in the various states, the District of Columbia, and territories of the United States form part of the nominating process of candidates for United States presidential elections. The United States Constitution has never specified the process; political parties have developed their own procedures over time. Some states hold only primary elections, some hold only caucuses, and others use a combination of both. These primaries and caucuses are staggered, generally beginning sometime in January or February, and ending about mid-June before the general election in November. State and local governments run the primary elections, while caucuses are private events that are directly run by the political parties themselves. A state 's primary election or caucus is usually an indirect election: instead of voters directly selecting a particular person running for President, they determine the number of delegates each party 's national convention will receive from their respective state. These delegates then in turn select their party 's presidential nominee. The first state in the United States to hold its presidential primary was New Hampshire in 1920.
Each party determines how many delegates it allocates to each state. Along with those "pledged '' delegates chosen during the primaries and caucuses, state delegations to both the Democratic and Republican conventions also include "unpledged '' delegates who have a vote. For Republicans, they consist of the three top party officials who serve At Large from each state and territory. Democrats have a more expansive group of unpledged delegates called "superdelegates '', who are party leaders and elected officials (PLEO). If no single candidate has secured an absolute majority of delegates (including both pledged and unpledged), then a "brokered convention '' occurs: all pledged delegates are "released '' after the first round of voting and are able to switch their allegiance to a different candidate, and then additional rounds take place until there is a winner with an absolute majority.
The staggered nature of the presidential primary season allows candidates to concentrate their resources in each area of the country one at a time instead of campaigning in every state simultaneously. In some of the less populous states, this allows campaigning to take place on a much more personal scale. However, the overall results of the primary season may not be representative of the U.S. electorate as a whole: voters in Iowa, New Hampshire and other less populous states which traditionally hold their primaries and caucuses in late - January / February usually have a major impact on the races, while voters in California and other large states which traditionally hold their primaries in June generally end up having no say because the races are usually over by then. As a result, more states vie for earlier primaries, known as "front - loading '', to claim a greater influence in the process. The national parties have used penalties and awarded bonus delegates in efforts to stagger the system over broadly a 90 - day window. Where state legislatures set the primary or caucus date, sometimes the out - party in that state has endured penalties in the number of delegates it can send to the national convention.
There is no provision for the role of political parties in the United States Constitution, since the Founding Fathers did not originally intend for American politics to be partisan. In Federalist Papers No. 9 and No. 10, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, respectively, wrote specifically about the dangers of domestic political factions. Thus in the first two presidential elections, the Electoral College handled the nominations and elections in 1789 and 1792 that selected George Washington. The beginnings of the American two - party system then emerged from Washington 's immediate circle of advisors. Hamilton and Madison, who wrote the aforementioned Federalist Papers against political factions, ended up being the core leaders in this partisanship: Hamilton became the leader of Federalist Party while Madison co-helmed the Democratic - Republican Party with Thomas Jefferson.
Starting with the 1796 election, Congressional party or a state legislature party caucus selected the party 's presidential candidates. Before 1820, Democratic - Republican members of Congress would nominate a single candidate from their party. That system collapsed in 1824, and since 1832 the preferred mechanism for nomination has been a national convention.
The first national convention was called by the Anti-Masonic Party in 1831, as they could not use the caucus system because they had no Congressmen. The party leaders instead called for a national meeting of supporters to set the party 's candidate. This convention was held in Baltimore, Maryland on September 26, 1831 which selected William Wirt as their Presidential candidate.
Delegates to the national convention were usually selected at state conventions whose own delegates were chosen by district conventions. Sometimes they were dominated by intrigue between political bosses who controlled delegates; the national convention was far from democratic or transparent. Progressive Era reformers looked to the primary election as a way to measure popular opinion of candidates, as opposed to the opinion of the bosses. Florida enacted the first presidential primary in 1901. The Wisconsin direct open primary of 1905 was the first to eliminate the caucus and mandate direct selection of national convention delegates. In 1910, Oregon became the first state to establish a presidential preference primary, which requires delegates to the National Convention to support the winner of the primary at the convention. By 1912, twelve states either selected delegates in primaries, used a preferential primary, or both. By 1920 there were 20 states with primaries, but some went back, and from 1936 to 1968, 12 states used them.
The primary received its first major test in the 1912 election pitting incumbent President William Howard Taft against challengers Theodore Roosevelt and Robert La Follette. Roosevelt proved the most popular candidate, but as most primaries were non-binding "preference '' shows and held in only fourteen of the - then forty - eight states, the Republican nomination went to Taft, who controlled the convention.
Seeking to boost voter turnout, New Hampshire simplified its ballot access laws in 1949. In the ensuing non-binding "beauty contest '' of 1952, Republican Dwight Eisenhower demonstrated his broad voter appeal by out - polling the favored Robert A. Taft, "Mr. Republican. '' Also, Democrat Estes Kefauver defeated incumbent President Harry S. Truman, leading the latter to decide not to run for another term. The first - in - the - nation New Hampshire primary has since become a widely observed test of candidates ' viability.
The impetus for national adoption of the binding primary election was the chaotic 1968 Democratic National Convention. Vice President Hubert Humphrey secured the Presidential nomination despite not winning a single primary under his own name. After this, a Democratic National Committee - commissioned panel led by Senator George McGovern -- the McGovern -- Fraser Commission -- recommended that states adopt new rules to assure wider participation. A large number of states, faced with the need to conform to more detailed rules for the selection of national delegates, chose a presidential primary as an easier way to come into compliance with the new national Democratic Party rules. The result was that many more future delegates would be selected by a state presidential primary. The Republicans also adopted many more state presidential primaries. By 1992, Democrats had primaries in 40 states and Republicans in 39.
With the broadened use of the primary system, states have tried to increase their influence in the nomination process. One tactic has been to create geographic blocs to encourage candidates to spend time in a region. Vermont and Massachusetts attempted to stage a joint New England primary on the first Tuesday of March, but New Hampshire refused to participate so it could retain its traditional place as the first primary. The first regional primary was the Southern Super Tuesday of March 8, 1988, in which nine states united in the idea that a candidate would reflect regional interests. It failed as all but two of the eight major candidates won at least one primary on that day.
Another trend is to stage earlier and earlier primaries, given impetus by Super Tuesday and the mid-1990s move (since repealed) of the California primary and its bloc of votes -- the largest in the nation -- from June to March. To retain its tradition as the first primary in the country (and adhere to a state law which requires it to be), New Hampshire moved their primary forward, from early March to early January.
A major reason states try to increase their influence, and vie for earlier primaries, is that in recent years the races have usually been decided before the primary season has ended in June. For example, John McCain officially clinched the 2008 Republican presidential nomination in March, while during that same month Barack Obama held a substantial lead in pledged delegates in the Democratic Party primaries. In 2012, Obama faced no major challenger in the Democratic Party primaries since he had the advantage of incumbency (see below), while Mitt Romney gained enough delegates to be declared the presumptive Republican nominee by late April.
In 2012, both the Republicans and the Democrats moved their Florida primary to January 31, which was an earlier date than past election cycles. In response, other states also changed their primary election dates for 2012, in order to claim a greater influence, creating a cascade of changes in other states. This followed what happened in 2008 when Nevada moved its caucuses to January, causing other states to also move their primaries to earlier dates. Senate Majority Leader and Nevada Senator Harry Reid was a major proponent of moving that state 's caucuses to January, arguing that Nevada would be the perfect American microcosm: its western location, significant minority population, and strong labor population would be more representative of the country as a whole than Iowa and New Hampshire.
Both parties then enacted stricter timing rules for 2016: primaries and caucuses can not start until February 1; and only Iowa, New Hampshire, South Carolina and Nevada are entitled to February contests.
The primary and caucus system is the only method in which voters in Puerto Rico, Guam, and other U.S. territories can have a say in the presidential race. Under the U.S. Constitution, U.S. territories are not represented in the Electoral College, and thus voters residing in those areas are basically ineligible to vote in the general election. On the other hand, as stated above, the primaries and caucuses are non-governmental party affairs. Both the Democratic and Republican parties, as well as other third parties, have agreed to let these territories participate in the presidential nomination process. In the two major party 's rules, "territories '' are referred to as "states '', which can be carried over in discussion and media implying there are more than 50 states.
An incumbent President seeking re-election usually faces no opposition during their respective party 's primaries, especially if they are still popular. For Presidents Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush and Barack Obama, for example, their respective paths to nomination became uneventful and the races become merely pro forma; all four then went on to win a second presidential term. Serious challenges are rare, but then generally presage failure to win the general election in the fall. During the 1976 Republican Party primaries, then - former California Governor Reagan carried 23 states while running against incumbent President Gerald Ford; Ford then went on to lose the Presidential election to Jimmy Carter. Senator Ted Kennedy then carried 12 states while running against Carter during the 1980 Democratic Party primaries; Reagan then defeated Carter in the fall. Pat Buchanan captured a decent percentage of a protest vote against George H.W. Bush during the 1992 Republican primaries, but only received a handful of delegates; Bush too subsequently went on to lose in the general election to Clinton.
Both major political parties of the U.S. -- the Democratic Party and the Republican Party -- officially nominate their candidate for President at their respective national conventions. Each of these conventions is attended by a number of delegates selected in accordance with the given party 's bylaws. The results of the presidential primaries and caucuses bind many of these delegates, known as pledged delegates, to vote for a particular candidate.
Both parties also have a group of unpledged delegates. Republicans have three At - Large delegates selected at the state convention from all the states and territories, 168 in number. These are each states ' two national committeepersons and the state chairperson.
In Democratic primaries through 2016, about 85 % of delegates to the Democratic National Convention are "pledged delegates '' who are apportioned to candidates according to the results of primaries and caucuses. The remaining 15 % are unpledged superdelegates (consisting of sitting Democratic governors, sitting Democratic members of Congress (i.e., senators and representatives), former and current Democratic presidents and vice presidents, and a few leaders of Democratic National Committee - affiliated organizations, such as the Young Democrats of America) who can vote for whomever they wish. Some superdelegates are former or current state or federal lobbyists. In 2016, following a push by Senator Bernie Sanders, the party voted in favor of superdelegate reform, such that in future presidential elections most superdelegates will be bound to their state primary results.
Franchise in a primary or caucus is governed by rules established by the state party, although the states may impose other regulations.
While most states hold primary elections, a handful of states hold caucuses. Instead of going to a polling place, voters attend local private events run by the political parties, and cast their selections there. The advantage of caucuses is that the state party runs the process directly instead of having the state and local governments run them. The disadvantage is that most election laws do not normally apply to caucuses.
Nearly all states have a binding primary or caucus, in which the results of the election depending on state law or party rules legally bind some or all of the delegates to vote for a particular candidate at the national convention, for a certain number of ballots or until the candidate releases the delegates. Some binding primaries are winner - take - all contests, in which all of a state 's delegates are required to vote for the same candidate. In a proportional vote, a state 's delegation is allocated in proportion to the candidates ' percent of the popular vote in a congressional district. In many of those states that have proportional vote primaries, a candidate must meet a certain threshold in the popular vote to be given delegates.
A handful of states practice non-binding "beauty contests '', which are public opinion surveys for use by caucus delegates to select candidates to a state convention, which then in turn selects delegates to the national convention.
In many states, only voters registered with a party may vote in that party 's primary, known as a closed primary. In some states, a semi-closed primary is practiced, in which voters unaffiliated with a party (independents) may choose a party primary in which to vote. In an open primary, any voter may vote in any party 's primary. In all of these systems, a voter may participate in only one primary; that is, a voter who casts a vote for a candidate standing for the Republican nomination for president can not cast a vote for a candidate standing for the Democratic nomination, or vice versa. A few states once staged a blanket primary, in which voters could vote for one candidate in multiple primaries, but the practice was struck down by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 2000 case of California Democratic Party v. Jones as violating the freedom of assembly guaranteed by the First Amendment.
Both the Democratic Party and the Republican Party usually modify their delegate selection rules between presidential elections, including how delegates are allocated to each state and territory.
Under the current Democratic Party selection rules, adopted in 2006, pledged delegates are selected under proportional representation, which requires a candidate have a minimum of 15 % of a state 's popular vote to receive delegates. In addition, the Democratic Party may reject any candidate under their bylaws. Each state publishes a Delegate Selection Plan that notes the mechanics of calculating the number of delegates per congressional district, and how votes are transferred from local conventions to the state and national convention. Since the 2012 Democratic primaries, the number of pledged delegates allocated to each of the 50 U.S. states and Washington, D.C. is based on two main factors: (1) the proportion of votes each state gave to the Democratic candidate in the last three presidential elections, and (2) the number of electoral votes each state has in the United States Electoral College. States who schedule their primary or caucus later in the primary season may also get additional bonus delegates.
The Republican Party 's rules since 2008 leave more discretion to the states in choosing a method of allocating pledged delegates. As a result, states variously applied the statewide winner - take - all method (e.g., New York), district - and state - level winner - take - all (e.g., California), or proportional allocation (e.g., Massachusetts). Changes in the rules before 2012 brought proportional representation to more states. Also, three delegates are allocated for each congressional district. For at - large ones elected statewide, each state gets at least 10, plus additional bonus delegates based on whether it has a Republican governor, it has GOP majorities in one or all chambers of its state legislature, and whether it has GOP majorities in its delegation to the U.S. Congress, among other factors.
Each party 's bylaws also specify which current and former elected officeholders and party leaders qualify as unpledged delegates. Because of possible deaths, resignations, or the results of intervening or special elections, the final number of these superdelegates may not be known until the week of the convention.
During the convention, there is generally a roll call of the votes. Each delegation announces its vote tallies, usually accompanied with some boosterism of their state or territory. The delegation may pass, nominally to retally their delegates ' preferences, but often to allow a different delegation to give the leading candidate the honor of casting the majority - making vote.
If no single candidate has secured a majority of delegates (including both pledged and unpledged) during the first vote, then a "brokered convention '' results. All pledged delegates are then "released '' and are able to switch their allegiance to a different candidate. Thereafter, the nomination is decided through a process of alternating political horse trading, and additional rounds of re-votes.
A customary ceremonial practice has been for the losing candidate (s) in the primary season to "release '' their delegates at the convention and exhort them to vote for the winning nominee as a sign of party unity. Thus, the vote tallied on the convention floor is unanimous or nearly so. For example, during the 2008 Democratic National Convention, Hillary Clinton (who only captured about 22 percent of delegates compared to Barack Obama 's approximate 72 percent) moved to nominate Obama by acclamation, making it a unanimous vote.
Campaigning for President often begins almost a year before the New Hampshire primary, almost two years before the presidential election. This is largely because federal campaign finance laws including the Federal Election Campaign Act state that a candidate who intends to receive contributions aggregating in excess of $5,000 or make expenditures aggregating in excess of $5,000, among others, must first file a Statement of Candidacy with the Federal Election Commission. Thus, presidential candidates officially announce their intentions to run that early so they can start raising or spending the money needed to mount their nationwide campaigns.
During the first six months of the year, primaries and caucuses are separately held in each state, Puerto Rico, insular areas, and the District of Columbia, Each party sets its own calendar and rules, and in some cases actually administers the election. However, to reduce expenses and encourage turnout, the major parties ' primaries are usually held the same day and may be consolidated with other state elections. The primary election itself is administered by local governments according to state law. In some cases, state law determines how delegates will be awarded and who may participate in the primary; where it does not, party rules prevail.
Since the 1970s, states have held increasingly early primaries to maximize their leverage (see Front - loading and compression below). In reaction to these moves, both the Democratic and Republican National Committees imposed a timing tier system of scheduling rules, stripping states of delegates if they move their primaries early, such as the case in both the Florida Democratic primary and the Florida Republican primary in 2008.
The election dates for 2016, up to and including Super Tuesday are as follows:
The first binding event, in which a candidate can secure convention delegates, is traditionally the Iowa caucus, usually held in late January or early February of the presidential election year. It is generally followed by the New Hampshire primary, the first primary by tradition since 1920 and by New Hampshire state law. New Hampshire law states the primary shall be held "on the Tuesday at least seven days immediately preceding the date on which any other state shall hold a similar election. '' The Iowa caucuses are not considered to be "a similar election '' under New Hampshire 's law because the former uses caucuses instead of primary elections. Should any other state move its primary too close to New Hampshire 's, or before, the New Hampshire Secretary of State is required to reschedule the primary accordingly.
In recent elections, the Iowa caucuses and New Hampshire primary have garnered over half the media attention paid to the entire selection process. After Iowa and New Hampshire, the front runners then attempt to solidify their status, while the others fight to become # 2.
Because these states are small, campaigning takes place on a much more personal scale. As a result, even a little - known, underfunded candidate can use "retail politics '' to meet intimately with interested voters and perform better than expected. The Iowa caucuses and New Hampshire primary have produced a number of headline - making upsets in history:
South Carolina is generally the "First in the South '' primary. For the Republicans, it is considered a "firewall '' to protect establishment favorites and frontrunners in the presidential nomination race, being designed to stop the momentum of insurgent candidates who could have received a boost from strong showings in Iowa and New Hampshire. From its inception in 1980 through the election of 2008, the winner of the South Carolina Republican presidential primary has gone on to win the nomination. In the 2012 Republican primaries, Newt Gingrich initially finished poorly in the early states, but then scored an upset victory in South Carolina over frontrunner Mitt Romney. However, after suffering a decisive defeat to Romney in Florida, Gingrich 's campaign was relegated back to third place, leaving Rick Santorum as the main challenger to Romney for the rest of the primaries.
The Tuesday in February or March when the greatest number of states hold primary elections and caucuses is known as "Super Tuesday ''. Because it is held in various states from geographically and socially diverse regions of the country, it typically represents a presidential candidate 's first test of national electability. More delegates can be won on Super Tuesday than on any other single day of the primary calendar, thus convincing wins during this day have usually propelled candidates to their party 's nomination.
Because they are the states that traditionally hold their respective contests first, the Iowa caucuses and the New Hampshire primary usually attract the most media attention; however, critics, such as Mississippi Secretary of State Eric Clark and Tennessee Senator William Brock, point out that these states are not representative of the United States as a whole: they are overwhelmingly white, more rural, and wealthier than the national average, and neither is in the fast - growing West or South.
Conversely, states that traditionally hold their primaries in June, like California (the most populous state overall) and New Jersey (the most densely populated state), usually end up having no say in who the presidential candidate will be. As stated above, the races were usually over well before June. California and New Jersey moved their primaries to February for the 2008 election, but in 2012 both states ended up moving them back to June. California lawmakers stated that consolidating their presidential and statewide primary election in June saves them about $100 million, and that it is not worth the cost when there is generally no competitive balance between the two political parties within California.
In 2005, the primary commission of the Democratic National Committee began considering removing Iowa and New Hampshire from the top of the calendar, but this proposal never gained approval, so those two states remain as the first two contests. New Hampshire also fought back by obliging candidates who wanted to campaign in the state to pledge to uphold that primary as the first one.
States vie for earlier primaries to claim greater influence in the nomination process, as the early primaries can act as a signal to the nation, showing which candidates are popular and giving those who perform well early on the advantage of the bandwagon effect. Also, candidates can ignore primaries that fall after the nomination has already been secured, and would owe less to those states politically. As a result, rather than stretching from March to July, most primaries take place in a compressed time frame in February and March. National party leaders also have an interest in compressing the primary calendar, as it enables the party to reduce the chance of a bruising internecine battle and to preserve resources for the general campaign.
In such a primary season, however, many primaries will fall on the same day, forcing candidates to choose where to spend their time and resources. Indeed, Super Tuesday was created deliberately to increase the influence of the South. When states can not agree to coordinate primaries, however, attention flows to larger states with large numbers of delegates at the expense of smaller ones. Because the candidate 's time is limited, paid advertising may play a greater role. Moreover, a compressed calendar limits the ability of lesser - known candidates to corral resources and raise their visibility among voters, especially when a better - known candidate enjoys the financial and institutional backing of the party establishment.
In an article from Detroit News, Tennessee Senator William (Bill) Brock said about front - loading, "Today, too many people in too many states have no voice in the election of our major party nominees. For them, the nominations are over before they have begun. ''
The term "superdelegate '' itself was used originally as a criticism of unpledged delegates. Political commentator Susan Estrich argued in 1981 that these delegates, who at the time were predominantly white and male, had more power than other delegates because of their greater freedom to vote as they wish. The Democratic Party in particular has faced accusations that it conducts its nominating process in an undemocratic way, because superdelegates are generally chosen without regard to their preferences in the presidential race and are not obligated to support the candidate chosen by the voters.
There are several proposals for reforming the primary system. Some have called for a single nationwide primary to be held on one day. Others point out that requiring candidates to campaign in every state simultaneously would exacerbate the purported problem of campaigns being dominated by the candidates who raise the most money. The following proposals attempt to return the primary system to a more relaxed schedule, and would help less - funded candidates by lowering the cost of entry.
One reform concept is the graduated random presidential primary system, variations of which have been referred to as the American Plan or the California Plan. This plan starts with small primaries, and gradually moves up to larger ones, in 10 steps, with states chosen at random. The idea is that fewer initial primaries, typically in smaller states, would allow grassroots campaigns to score early successes and pick up steam. However, since states are chosen at random, travel costs may still be significant.
A commission empaneled by the Republican National Committee recommended the Delaware Plan in 2000. This plan had states grouped by size into four groups, with the smallest primaries first, then the next - smallest, and so on. Populous states objected to the plan, however, because it would have always scheduled their primaries at the end of the season. Other criticisms included the wide geographic range of the states, necessitating high travel costs. The Delaware Plan was put to vote at Republican National Convention of 2000 and rejected.
The National Association of Secretaries of State has endorsed a rotating regional primary system, with the country split into four regions: the West, the Midwest, the South, and the Northeast. Unlike the Delaware Plan and the American Plan, the Rotating Regional Primary System would lower campaigning costs by restricting groups of primaries to single, contiguous regions.
Author and political scientist Larry J. Sabato is also a proponent of this plan, but his proposal would have the order of regional primaries determined by lottery on January 1 of each presidential election year instead of on a rotating basis. In addition, his plan would allow for a few small population states, such as Iowa and New Hampshire, to hold their primaries in advance of the first region.
Criticisms of the regional plan include the higher entry costs than the other plans (since 1 / 4 of the country would vote in the first regional), and the political bias of certain regions (the South or the Northeast) unduly influencing the selection of a nominee.
In the interregional primary plan, the country is divided into geographical regions. On each primary date from March to June, one state from each of six regions votes. Each election date would contain a wide variety of perspectives. The order of the states in each region is set by a lottery. In a 24 - year cycle, every state would have a chance to be among the first primary states. The primary criticism of this plan is that travel costs would be quite high: in each round, candidates would essentially have to cover the entire country to campaign effectively. Contrary to most reform plans, this would reduce the ability of lesser - funded candidates to build up from small contests to large ones.
In the 2008 Republican primary, states that ran early primaries were punished by a reduction of 50 % in the number of delegates they could send to the national convention. Extension of this idea would set timing tiers, under which states that ran earlier primaries would send proportionally fewer delegates to the national convention, and states that waited would get a higher proportional number of delegates to the convention. For example, the party allowed primaries before March 1 to send 40 % of delegates; those during March could send 60 %; those during April could send 80 %; those during May could send 100 %; and those during June could send 120 %.
The effect of such a plan would be clumping of primaries at the beginning of each month. It would still allow states to determine the timing of their own primaries, while giving them some incentive to hold primaries later. The disadvantage of the timing adjustment method is that it does not reduce travel time as the regional plans do, although it does permit regional groups of states to voluntarily clump together in a single superprimary as they have done in the past.
In practice, however, this timing tier system did not prevent states from moving their primaries in 2008 and 2012. For example, during the 2012 Republican primary, Florida and several other states still moved their primaries to earlier dates despite being penalized delegates.
Both parties then enacted more severe penalties in 2016 for violating their timing rules. For Republicans, states with more than 30 delegates that violate the timing rules will be deprived of all their delegates but nine; states with less than 30 will be reduced to six. For Democrats, states violating these rules will be penalized half of their pledged delegates and all of their unpledged delegates.
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briefly explain the reason for measuring temperatures and rainfall figures | Temperature measurement - wikipedia
Temperature measurement, also known as thermometry, describes the process of measuring a current local temperature for immediate or later evaluation. Datasets consisting of repeated standardized measurements can be used to assess temperature trends.
Attempts at standardized temperature measurement prior to the 17th century were crude at best. For instance in 170 AD, physician Claudius Galenus mixed equal portions of ice and boiling water to create a "neutral '' temperature standard. The modern scientific field has its origins in the works by Florentine scientists in the 1600s including Galileo constructing devices able to measure relative change in temperature, but subject also to confounding with atmospheric pressure changes. These early devices were called thermoscopes. The first sealed thermometer was constructed in 1641 by the Grand Duke of Toscani, Ferdinand II. The development of today 's thermometers and temperature scales began in the early 18th century, when Gabriel Fahrenheit produced a mercury thermometer and scale, both developed by Ole Christensen Rømer. Fahrenheit 's scale is still in use, alongside the Celsius and Kelvin scales.
Many methods have been developed for measuring temperature. Most of these rely on measuring some physical property of a working material that varies with temperature. One of the most common devices for measuring temperature is the glass thermometer. This consists of a glass tube filled with mercury or some other liquid, which acts as the working fluid. Temperature increase causes the fluid to expand, so the temperature can be determined by measuring the volume of the fluid. Such thermometers are usually calibrated so that one can read the temperature simply by observing the level of the fluid in the thermometer. Another type of thermometer that is not really used much in practice, but is important from a theoretical standpoint, is the gas thermometer.
Other important devices for measuring temperature include:
One must be careful when measuring temperature to ensure that the measuring instrument (thermometer, thermocouple, etc.) is really the same temperature as the material that is being measured. Under some conditions heat from the measuring instrument can cause a temperature gradient, so the measured temperature is different from the actual temperature of the system. In such a case the measured temperature will vary not only with the temperature of the system, but also with the heat transfer properties of the system.
What thermal comfort humans, animals and plants experience is related to more than temperature shown on a glass thermometer. Relative humidity levels in ambient air can induce more or less evaporative cooling. Measurement of the wet - bulb temperature normalizes this humidity effect. Mean radiant temperature also can affect thermal comfort. The wind chill factor makes the weather feel colder under windy conditions than calm conditions even though a glass thermometer shows the same temperature. Airflow increases the rate of heat transfer from or to the body, resulting in a larger change in body temperature for the same ambient temperature.
The theoretical basis for thermometers is the zeroth law of thermodynamics which postulates that if you have three bodies, A, B and C, if A and B are at the same temperature, and B and C are at the same temperature then A and C are at the same temperature. B, of course, is the thermometer.
The practical basis of thermometry is the existence of triple point cells. Triple points are conditions of pressure, volume and temperature such that three phases are simultaneously present, for example solid, vapor and liquid. For a single component there are no degrees of freedom at a triple point and any change in the three variables results in one or more of the phases vanishing from the cell. Therefore, triple point cells can be used as universal references for temperature and pressure (see Gibbs phase rule).
Under some conditions it becomes possible to measure temperature by a direct use of the Planck 's law of black - body radiation. For example, the cosmic microwave background temperature has been measured from the spectrum of photons observed by satellite observations such as the WMAP. In the study of the quark -- gluon plasma through heavy - ion collisions, single particle spectra sometimes serve as a thermometer.
During recent decades, many thermometric techniques have been developed. The most promising and widespread non-invasive thermometric techniques are based on the analysis of magnetic resonance images, computerised tomography images and echotomography images. These techniques allow monitoring temperature within tissues without introducing a sensing element.
The temperature of the air near the surface of the Earth is measured at meteorological observatories and weather stations, usually using thermometers placed in a shelter such as Stevenson screen, a standardized well - ventilated white - painted instrument shelter. The thermometers should be positioned 1.25 -- 2 m above the ground. Details of this setup are defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
A true daily mean could be obtained from a continuously - recording thermograph. Commonly it is approximated by the mean of discrete readings (e.g. 24 hourly readings, four 6 - hourly readings, etc.) or by the mean of the daily minimum and maximum readings (though the latter can result in mean temperatures up to 1 ° C cooler or warmer than the true mean, depending on the time of observation).
The world 's average surface air temperature is about 14 ° C. For information on temperature changes relevant to climate change or Earth 's geologic past see: Temperature record.
The temperature scale is in disuse, and of mere historical interest. Normal human body temperature is 36.8 ± 0.7 ° C, or 98.2 ± 1.3 ° F. The commonly given value 98.6 ° F is simply the exact conversion of the nineteenth - century German standard of 37 ° C. Since it does not list an acceptable range, it could therefore be said to have excess (invalid) precision. See Temperature of a Healthy Human (Body Temperature) for more information. Some numbers in this table have been rounded off.
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) has developed two separate and distinct standards on temperature Measurement, B40. 200 and PTC 19.3. B40. 200 provides guidelines for bimetallic - actuated, filled - system, and liquid - in - glass thermometers. It also provides guidelines for thermowells. PTC 19.3 provides guidelines for temperature measurement related to Performance Test Codes with particular emphasis on basic sources of measurement errors and techniques for coping with them.
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hill are alive with the sound of music | The Sound of Music (song) - wikipedia
"The Sound of Music '' is the title song from the 1959 musical The Sound of Music. It was composed by Richard Rodgers with lyrics written by Oscar Hammerstein II.
In 1959, Rodgers and Hammerstein asked singer Patti Page to record the title song of their forthcoming musical, The Sound of Music, hoping for some national attention. Page recorded the song for Mercury Records on the day that the musical opened on Broadway. Since Page 's version was recorded a week before the original Broadway cast album, Page was the first artist to record any song from the musical. She featured the song on her national TV variety show sponsored by Oldsmobile, The Patti Page Olds Show.
The song was sung by Mary Martin in the 1959 original Broadway production.
The version of the song which is perhaps the best known was sung by Julie Andrews in the 1965 film version, with a reprise by the Von Trapp family later in the film. The song introduces the character of Maria, a young novice in an Austrian abbey.
Neely Plumb was the music producer of the film 's soundtrack album, which incorporated this version.
The stage version of the song has a four - line vocal prelude ("My day in the hills has come to an end I know... '') followed by the familiar "The hills are alive with the sound of music... '' The film soundtrack and the soundtrack album have two different instrumental preludes to "The hills are alive... '' both of which contain portions of the original vocal prelude. The cast album to the 1998 Broadway revival contains the four - line prelude as well as the instrumental prelude present in the film version. This version is also the same key as the film version.
The song was ranked tenth in the American Film Institute 's list of the 100 Greatest Songs in Movie History.
Italo - American opera / romantic crossover artist Sergio Franchi recorded the song in his 1963 RCA Victor Red Seal album Broadway, I Love You.
In 2007, Grammy - winning and multi-platinum country recording artist Carrie Underwood sang a rendition at the Movies Rock festival; in 2013 Underwood recorded the song for The Sound of Music: Music from the NBC Television Event, and also performed the song acting out the lead role of Maria in The Sound of Music Live!
The song was covered by Hong Kong female singer Kong Ling (江 玲), on her LP album Kong Ling with Diamond Records in 1966.
This song is referenced many times in the film Moulin Rouge! The well - known opening line, "the hills are alive with the sound of music, '' also appears in the movie Yellow Submarine and the TV show Friends in Season 1 Episode 22.
Australian pop princess Kylie Minogue performed the opening lines at the beginning of her KylieFever2002 Tour and in the film Moulin Rouge!
The Julie Andrews recording from the film features in the 1993 film Addams Family Values.
Renée Zellweger performs the song in the 2004 film Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason.
Per Gessle, of Roxette, played this song as an opening for his European solo tour The Party Crasher.
JLS sample the song on their 2010 single "The Club Is Alive. ''
A Simpsons comic book has a section in which Sideshow Bob and his brother Cecil sing parodies of musicals. Some of their songs are based on The Sound of Music, with the original lyrics replaced by ones about killing Bart Simpson. One example: "The hills are alive and they ate Bart Simpson. '' (This is sung as hills in the background literally belch.)
Japanese voice actress Ayahi Takagaki sang her rendition of this song during her 2013 Relation of Colors series of concert tours.
American singer / songwriter Lady Gaga performed the song along with a medley of others from the musical as part of a tribute to commemorate the 50th Anniversary of the film at the 87th Academy Awards.
In 1966 British singer Shirley Bassey recorded the song on her album I 've Got A Song For You
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who starred in the first star is born | A Star is Born (1937 film) - wikipedia
A Star Is Born is a 1937 American Technicolor romantic drama film produced by David O. Selznick, directed by William A. Wellman from a script by Wellman, Robert Carson, Dorothy Parker, and Alan Campbell, and starring Janet Gaynor (in her only Technicolor film) as an aspiring Hollywood actress, and Fredric March (in his Technicolor debut) as a fading movie star who helps launch her career. The supporting cast features Adolphe Menjou, May Robson, Andy Devine, Lionel Stander, and Owen Moore.
The film was remade three times: in 1954 (directed by George Cukor and starring Judy Garland and James Mason), in 1976 (directed by Frank Pierson and starring Barbra Streisand and Kris Kristofferson), and in 2018 (starring Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper, who also directed).
North Dakota farm girl Esther Victoria Blodgett yearns to become a Hollywood actress. Although her aunt and father discourage such thoughts, Esther 's grandmother gives Esther her savings to follow her dream.
Esther goes to Hollywood and tries to land a job as an extra, but so many others have had the same idea that the casting agency has stopped accepting applications. Esther is told that her chances of becoming a star are one in 100,000. She befriends a new resident at her boarding house, assistant director Danny McGuire, himself out of work. When Danny and Esther go to a concert to celebrate Danny 's employment, Esther has her first encounter with Norman Maine, an actor she admires greatly. Norman has been a major star for years, but his alcoholism has sent his career into a downward spiral.
Danny gets Esther a one - time waitressing job at a fancy Hollywood party. While serving hors d'œuvre, she catches Norman 's eye. He gets his longtime producer and good friend, Oliver Niles, to give her a screen test. Impressed, Oliver gives her a new name ("Vicki Lester '') and a contract. She practices her few lines for her first tiny role.
When the studio has trouble finding a female lead for Norman 's current film, entitled The Enchanted Hour, Norman persuades Oliver to cast Esther. The film makes her an overnight success, even as viewers continue to lose interest in Norman.
Norman proposes to Esther; she accepts when he promises to give up drinking. They elope without publicity, much to press agent Matt Libby 's disgust, and enjoy a trailer - camping honeymoon in the mountains. When they return, Esther 's popularity continues to skyrocket, while Norman realizes his own career is over, despite Oliver 's attempts to help him. Norman stays sober for a while, but his frustration over his situation finally pushes him over the edge. He starts drinking again. When Esther wins the industry 's top award (the Academy Award for Best Actress), he interrupts her acceptance speech by drunkenly demanding three awards for the worst acting of the year.
A stay at a sanatorium seems to cure Norman 's increasingly disruptive alcoholism, but a chance encounter with Libby gives the press agent an opportunity to vent his long - concealed contempt and dislike for Norman. Norman goes on a four - day drinking binge and winds up arrested for drunk driving. In court, the judge sentences him to 90 days of incarceration, but Esther pleads with the judge to put Norman under her care. The judge, who is impressed with Esther 's acting success, suspends Norman 's sentence and puts Norman 's custody into Esther 's hands. Esther decides to give up her career in order to devote herself to his rehabilitation. After Norman overhears her discussing her plan with Oliver, he drowns himself in the Pacific Ocean.
Shattered, Esther decides to quit and go home. Soon afterward, her grandmother shows up once she hears Esther is quitting. Her grandmother tells her of a letter Norman sent her when they got married. The letter stated how proud he was of Esther, and how much he loved her. Because of her grandmother 's words, and the reminder of Norman 's deep love, Esther is convinced to stay in show business. At the premiere of her next film at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre, when Esther is asked to say a few words into the microphone to her many fans listening across the world, she announces, "Hello, everybody. This is Mrs. Norman Maine. ''
A Star Is Born was filmed from October to December 1936 with an estimated budget of $1,173,639, and premiered in Los Angeles, California, on April 20, 1937, at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre. The film 's New York premiere took place two days later at Radio City Music Hall.
It is not known how much Dorothy Parker contributed to the finished script. When she first saw the film, Parker was proud of her contribution and boasted about both the script and the film, but in later life she believed that she had contributed nothing of significance.
Early in their careers, Budd Schulberg (then a script reader for David O. Selznick) and Ring Lardner, Jr. (who was working in Selznick 's publicity department) were assigned to write some additional dialogue for the film, a collaboration which produced Janet Gaynor 's (and the film 's) final words: "This is Mrs. Norman Maine. '' The line was used again in the 1954 Warner Bros. musical remake starring Judy Garland and James Mason. George Cukor, who directed the remake, suggested adding the scene in the 1937 film where Menjou offers the fading star a supporting role.
Some film historians believe that the marriage of Barbara Stanwyck and Frank Fay was the film 's real - life inspiration. John Bowers has also been identified as inspiration for the Norman Maine character and the dramatic suicide - by - drowning scene near the end of the film (Bowers drowned in November 1936). The film contains several inside jokes, including Gaynor 's brief imitations of Greta Garbo, Katharine Hepburn, and Mae West; the "Crawford Smear '', referring to Joan Crawford 's lipstick; and the revelation that the glamorous Norman Maine 's real last name is Hinkle. (Hinkle was the real last name of silent film star Agnes Ayres, and not far removed from Fredric March 's real last name, Bickel.)
This film also has many similarities to the earlier film What Price Hollywood? (1932), released by RKO Radio Pictures. The 1932 film 's original title was The Truth About Hollywood based on a story by Adela Rogers St. Johns. St. Johns loosely based her plot on the experiences of actress Colleen Moore and her husband, alcoholic producer John McCormick (1893 -- 1961), and the life and death of director Tom Forman, who committed suicide following a nervous breakdown.
Four years after What Price Hollywood? was released, Selznick approached George Cukor and asked him to direct A Star Is Born. Cukor felt the plot was too similar to What Price Hollywood? so he declined. RKO executives considered filing a plagiarism suit against Selznick International Pictures because of the similarities in the story, but eventually chose not to take legal action. Cukor later directed the 1954 musical remake starring Judy Garland.
A common Hollywood myth about the film is that Lana Turner appeared as an extra in one of the scenes in the film. Turner often denied the myth over the years, mentioning that she was discovered several months after the picture had finished production.
"A Star is Born '', sung by Buddy Clark with the orchestra of Eddy Duchin. The lyrics were written by Dorothy Dick to the music of Max Steiner.
Contemporary reviews were very positive. Frank S. Nugent of The New York Times called the film "one of the year 's best shows '' as well as "good entertainment by any standards, including the artistic, and convincing proof that Hollywood need not travel to Ruritania for its plots; there is drama aplenty in its own backyard. '' Variety raved: "A smash which unquestionably will rate among the half dozen best of the season... While the story is somewhat reminiscent of other behind - the - scene yarns, the manner of its telling makes it convincing and distinguished. '' Harrison 's Reports called it "a powerful human interest drama '' and "great entertainment. '' Film Daily said it was "superbly done in all departments, '' and John Mosher of The New Yorker called it "a pleasant movie '' with "many nice touches. ''
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an approval rating of 100 % based on 11 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5 / 10.
By the end of 1939 the film had earned a profit of $181,000.
At the 10th Academy Awards, A Star is Born was nominated in seven categories, winning in one. Wellman won the award for original story, the only Oscar he was to win during his career. W. Howard Greene received an honorary Academy Award for the film 's color photography; this award was recommended by a committee of leading cinematographers after viewing all the color pictures made during the year.
At the time of the release of the film, a 15 - minute transcription -- a pre-recorded radio show issued on 16 - inch disc -- promoting the film 's release was made. The narrated promotional radio show included sound clips from the film. The show was recorded and released through the World Broadcasting System, with disc matrix number H - 1636 - 2.
The film was adapted as a radio play on the September 13, 1937, episode of Lux Radio Theater with Robert Montgomery and Janet Gaynor, the November 17, 1940, episode of The Screen Guild Theater starring Loretta Young and Burgess Meredith, the December 28, 1942, episode of Lux Radio Theater with Judy Garland and Walter Pidgeon, the June 29, 1946, episode of Academy Award Theater, starring Fredric March, the May 23, 1948, episode of the Ford Theatre and the June 16, 1950, episode of Screen Director 's Playhouse starring Fredric March.
A Star Is Born has been remade three times, in 1954 with Judy Garland and James Mason, in 1976 with Barbra Streisand and Kris Kristofferson, and in 2018 with Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper. Production on the 2018 version began in 2017, with the film released on October 5, 2018.
Selznick International Pictures dissolved leaving the film 's rights to financier John Hay Whitney. Whitney then sold the film to Film Classics, Inc. in 1943. With declining rerun revenue, Film Classics place the film up for sale with producer Edward L. Alperson with the intent to remake the film. Instead Alperson sold the film 's copyright including film, story, screenplay, and score to Warner Bros. in 1953. Warner in 1954 issued the first remake. In 1965, the film entered the public domain in the United States because Warner did not renew its copyright registration in the 28th year after publication. The original 35mm master elements remain with Warner Bros. The rights to the film 's story, screenplay, and score also remain with Warner Bros.; thus it still has exclusive rights to all three remakes as well as any future remakes.
The film was released on Blu - ray in the US by Kino Lorber Inc. on February 2012, featuring an edition authorized by the estate of David O. Selznick from the collection of George Eastman House.
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4 input and gate 74ls series part number | List of 7400 - series integrated circuits - wikipedia
The following is a list of 7400 - series digital logic integrated circuits. The original 7400 - series integrated circuits were made by Texas Instruments with the prefix "SN '' to create the name SN74xx. Due to the popularity of these parts, other manufacturers have released pin - to - pin compatible devices which kept the 7400 sequence number as an aid to identification of compatible parts. However, different manufacturers will use different prefixes or no prefix at all.
Some TTL logic parts were made with an extended military - specification temperature range. These parts are prefixed with 54 instead of 74 in the part number. A short - lived 64 prefix on Texas Instruments parts indicated an industrial temperature range; this prefix had been dropped from the TI literature by 1973. Most recent 7400 series parts are fabricated in CMOS or BiCMOS technology rather than TTL. Surface mount parts with a single gate (often in a 5 - pin or 6 - pin package) are prefixed with 741G instead of 74.
Some manufacturers released some 4000 - series equivalent CMOS circuits with a 74 prefix, for example the 74HC4066 was a replacement for the 4066 with slightly different electrical characteristics (different power supply voltage ratings, higher frequency capabilities, lower "on '' resistances in analog switches, etc.). See List of 4000 - series integrated circuits. Conversely, the 4000 - series has "borrowed '' from the 7400 series - such as the CD40193 and CD40161 being pin - for - pin functional replacements for 74C193 and 74C161.
Older TTL parts made by manufacturers such as Signetics, Motorola, Mullard and Siemens may have different numeric prefix and numbering series entirely, such as in the European FJ family FJH101 is an 8 - input NAND gate like a 7430.
A few alphabetic characters to designate a specific logic subfamily may immediately follow the 74 or 54 in the part number, e.g., 74LS74 for Low - power Schottky. Some CMOS parts such as 74HCT74 for High - speed CMOS with TTL - compatible input thresholds are functionally similar to the TTL part. Not all functions are available in all families.
In a few instances, such as the 7478 and 74107, the same suffix in different families do not have completely equivalent logic functions.
Another extension to the series is the 7416xxx variant, representing mostly the 16 - bit wide counterpart of otherwise 8 - bit - wide "base '' chips with the same three ending digits. Thus e.g. a "7416373 '' would be the 16 - bit - wide equivalent of a "74373 ''. Some 7416xxx parts, however, do not have a direct counterpart from the standard 74xxx range but deliver new functionality instead, which needs making use of the 7416xxx series ' higher pin count. For more details, refer primarily to the Texas Instruments documentation mentioned in the References section.
For CMOS (AC, HC, etc.) subfamilies, read "open drain '' for "open collector '' in the table below.
There are a few numeric suffixes that have multiple conflicting assignments, such as the 74453.
Parts in this section have a pin count of 14 pins or more. The lower part numbers were established in the 1960s and 1970s, then higher part numbers were added incrementally over decades. IC manufacturers continue to make a core subset of this group, but many of these part numbers are considered obsolete and no longer manufactured. Older discontinued parts may be available from a limited number of sellers as new old stock (NOS), though some are much harder to find.
For the following table:
As board designs have migrated away from large amounts of logic chips, so has the need for many of the same gate in one package. Since about 1996, there has been an ongoing trend towards one / two / three logic gates per chip. Now logic can be placed where it is physically needed on a board, instead of running long signal traces to a full - size logic chip that has many of the same gate.
All chips in the following sections are available 4 to 12 pin surface mount packages. The right digits, after the 1G / 2G / 3G, typically has the same functional features as older legacy chips, except for the multifunctional chips and 4 - digit chip numbers which are unique to these newer families. The "x '' in the part number is a place holder for the logic family name. For example, 74x1G14 in "LVC '' logic family would be "74LVC1G14 ''. The previously stated prefixes of "SN - '' and "MC - '' are used to denote manufacturers, Texas Instruments and ON Semiconductor respectively.
Some of the manufacturers that make these smaller IC chips are: Diodes Incorporated, Nexperia (NXP Semiconductors), ON Semiconductor (Fairchild Semiconductor), Texas Instruments (National Semiconductor), Toshiba.
All chips in this section have one gate, noted by the "1G '' in the part numbers. The most popular logic families are LVC and AUP, however there have been other releases such as AUC and AXP families with shorter propagation delays or expansions of the existing families such as the AHC (T) and HC (T).
All chips in this section have two gates, noted by the "2G '' in the part numbers. The "2G '' chips mainly consist of AUG and LVC logic families, more recently AHC, AHCT, HC, HCT families have been expanding, plus some support for AXP family.
All chips in this section have three gates, noted by the "3G '' in the part numbers. The "3G '' chips mainly consist of AUG and LVC logic families, more recently AHC, AHCT, HC, HCT families have been expanding.
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when did cork last win football all ireland | List of All - Ireland Senior football Championship finals - wikipedia
The All - Ireland Senior Football Championship, the premier competition in Gaelic football, is an annual series of games played in Ireland during the summer and early autumn, and organised by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA). Contested by the top inter-county football teams in Ireland, the tournament has taken place every year since 1887, except in 1888 when the competition was not played due to a tour of the United States by would - be competitors.
The competition culminates on the third or fourth Sunday in September with the All - Ireland Senior Football Championship Final. The winning team receives the Sam Maguire Cup. The final has been played at Croke Park in Dublin since 1913, with the exception of the 1947 final which was played at the Polo Grounds in New York. Finals held before the GAA 's acquirement of Croke Park were played at venues around Dublin and the counties of Cork, Kildare and Tipperary.
Teams from the southern province of Munster shared the early titles, with Limerick, Tipperary and Cork winning the first three finals. The first Championship featured club teams who represented their respective counties after their county championship. The 21 a-side final, played in Beech Hill, Clonskeagh on 29 April 1888, was contested between Commercials of Limerick and Young Irelands of Louth, with Commercials winning by 1 - 4 to 0 - 3. Unlike later All - Irelands, there were no provincial championships and it was an open draw.
The second Championship was unfinished owing to the American Invasion Tour. The 1888 provincial championships had been completed (won by Tipperary, Kilkenny and Monaghan, with no Connacht teams entering) but after the Invasion Tour ended, the All - Ireland semi-final and final were not played. London reached the final four times in the early years of the competition (1900 -- 03).
The 1903 Championship brought Kerry 's first All - Ireland title. They went on to become the most successful football team in the history of the All - Ireland Senior Football Championship. As of 2017, they have won the competition on 37 occasions, including two four - in - a-rows (1929 -- 32 and 1978 -- 81) and two three - in - a-rows (1939 -- 41 and 1984 -- 86). Galway were the first team from the western province of Connacht to win an All - Ireland title, in 1925, while Cavan were the first from the northern province of Ulster, in 1933.
The first half of the twentieth century brought the rise of several teams who won two or more All - Ireland titles during this period, such as Kildare, Mayo, Cavan, Wexford and Roscommon. Wexford won four consecutive titles between 1915 and 1918, while Kildare were the first winners of the Sam Maguire Cup in 1928. Cavan won five titles between 1933 and 1952, including in 1947 when the final was played in New York. None of these teams have won an All - Ireland title since, with only Kildare, Mayo and Roscommon reaching the final. Most notably, Mayo have appeared in nine finals since winning their last title in 1951, losing them all (1989, 1996 after a replay, 1997, 2004, 2006, 2012, 2013, 2016 after a replay and 2017); this is the longest unbroken sequence of losing finals in the history of the competition.
A record 90,556 attended the 1961 final between Down and Offaly. In the 1990s, a significant sea change took place, as the All - Ireland was claimed by an Ulster team in four consecutive years (1991 -- 94). Since then Ulster has produced more All - Ireland winning teams than any other province. The introduction of the qualifier system (commonly known as the "back door '') in 2001 enabled Galway to reach and win that year 's final despite losing to Roscommon in the Connacht semi-finals; a further five teams have since claimed the All - Ireland after coming through the qualifiers (Tyrone in 2005 and 2008, Kerry in 2006 and 2009, and Cork in 2010). The 2003 final between Tyrone and Armagh was the first to be contested by two teams from the same province.
The following table sets out the winning team and beaten finalist of each All - Ireland Senior Football Championship final. The vast majority of finals were contested by the winning semi-finalists, although in certain cases in the early years a provincial championship had not been completed in time and the affected province nominated a team to participate in the All - Ireland semi-final. In some of these cases, the nominated team (e.g. Dublin in 1905) won its semi-final, but was then vanquished in their provincial championship, and their place in the All - Ireland final taken by another team from that province.
All teams are based in Ireland, except for London.
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virginia woolf a room of one's ow | A Room of One 's own - wikipedia
A Room of One 's Own is an extended essay by Virginia Woolf. First published on 24 October 1929, the essay was based on a series of lectures she delivered at Newnham College and Girton College, two women 's colleges at Cambridge University in October 1928. While this extended essay in fact employs a fictional narrator and narrative to explore women both as writers of and characters in fiction, the manuscript for the delivery of the series of lectures, titled "Women and Fiction '', which was published in Forum March 1929, and hence the essay, are considered non-fiction. The essay is generally seen as a feminist text and is noted in its argument for both a literal and figurative space for women writers within a literary tradition dominated by men.
The essay was based on a series of lectures Woolf delivered at Newnham College and Girton College, two women 's colleges at Cambridge University in October 1928. She stayed at Newnham at the invitation of Pernel Strachey whose family were key members of the Bloomsbury Group and was also Newnham 's principal.
The title of the essay comes from Woolf 's conception that, "a woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction ''. Woolf notes that women have been kept from writing because of their relative poverty, and financial freedom will bring women the freedom to write; "In the first place, to have a room of her own... was out of the question, unless her parents were exceptionally rich or very noble ''. The title also refers to any author 's need for poetic licence and the personal liberty to create art.
The essay examines whether women were capable of producing, and in fact free to produce work of the quality of William Shakespeare, addressing the limitations that past and present women writers face.
Woolf 's father, Sir Leslie Stephen, in line with the thinking of the era, believed that only the boys of the family should be sent to school. In delivering the lectures outlined in the essay, Woolf is speaking to women who have the opportunity to learn in a formal, communal setting. Woolf lets her audience know the importance of their education at the same time warning them of the precariousness of their position in society.
In one section, Woolf invented a fictional character, Judith, "Shakespeare 's sister, '' to illustrate that a woman with Shakespeare 's gifts would have been denied the same opportunities to develop them because of the doors that were closed to women. Like Woolf, who stayed at home while her brothers went off to school, Judith stays at home while William goes off to school. Judith is trapped in the home: "She was as adventurous, as imaginative, as agog to see the world as he was. But she was not sent to school. '' While William learns, Judith is chastised by her parents should she happen to pick up a book, as she is inevitably abandoning some household chore to which she could be attending. Judith is betrothed, and when she does not want to marry, she is beaten and then shamed into marriage by her father. While Shakespeare establishes himself, Judith is trapped by the confines of the expectations of women. Judith kills herself, and her genius goes unexpressed, while Shakespeare lives on and establishes his legacy.
In the essay, Woolf constructs a critical and historical account of women writers thus far. Woolf examines the careers of several female authors, including Aphra Behn, Jane Austen, the Brontë sisters, Anne Finch, Countess of Winchilsea, and George Eliot. In addition to female authors, Woolf also discusses and draws inspiration from noted scholar and feminist Jane Ellen Harrison. Harrison is presented in the essay only by her initials separated by long dashes, and Woolf first introduces Harrison as "the famous scholar... J -- -- H -- -- herself ''.
Woolf also discusses Rebecca West, questioning Desmond MacCarthy 's (referred to as "Z '') uncompromising dismissal of West as an "' arrant feminist ' ''. Among the men attacked for their views on women, F.E. Smith, 1st Earl of Birkenhead (referred to as "Lord Birkenhead '') is mentioned, though Woolf further rebukes his ideas in stating she will not "trouble to copy out Lord Birkenhead 's opinion upon the writing of women ''. Birkenhead was an opponent of suffrage. The essay quotes Oscar Browning through the words of his (possibly inaccurate) biographer H.E. Wortham: "'... the impression left on his mind, after looking over any set of examination papers, was that... the best woman was intellectually the inferior of the worst man. ' '' In addition to these mentions, Woolf subtly refers to several of the most prominent intellectuals of the time, and her hybrid name from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge -- Oxbridge -- has become a well - known term, although she was not the first to use it.
The narrator of the work is at one point identified as "Mary Beaton, Mary Seton, or Mary Carmichael '', alluding to the sixteenth century ballad Mary Hamilton. In referencing the tale of a woman about to be hanged for existing outside of marriage and rejecting motherhood, the narrator identifies women writers such as herself as outsiders who exist in a potentially dangerous space. It is important to note that Woolf 's heroine, Judith Shakespeare, dies by her own hand, after she becomes pregnant with the child of an actor. Like the woman in the Four Marys, she is pregnant and trapped in a life imposed on her. Woolf sees Judith Shakespeare, Mary Beaton, Mary Seton, Mary Carmichael, as powerless, impoverished women everywhere as threatened by the spectre of death.
In another section, describing the work of a fictional woman writer, Mary Carmichael, Woolf deliberately invokes lesbianism: "Then may I tell you that the very next words I read were these -- ' Chloe liked Olivia... ' Do not start. Do not blush. Let us admit in the privacy of our own society that these things sometimes happen. Sometimes women do like women. '' Woolf references the obscenity trial and public uproar resulting from the publishing of Radclyffe Hall 's lesbian - themed novel, The Well of Loneliness published in 1928. Before she can discuss Chloe liking Olivia, the narrator, has to be assured that Sir Chartres Biron, the magistrate of Hall 's obscenity trial is not in the audience: "Are there no men present? Do you promise the figure of Sir Chartres Biron is not concealed? We are all women, you assure me? Then I may tell you... ''
Woolf scholar and feminist critic Jane Marcus believes Woolf was giving Radclyffe Hall and other writers a demonstration of how to discuss lesbianism discreetly enough to avoid obscenity trials; "Woolf was offering her besieged fellow writer a lesson in how to give a lesbian talk and write a lesbian work and get away with it. '' Marcus describes the atmosphere of Woolf 's arrival and presence at the women 's college with her lover Vita Sackville - West as "sapphic. '' Woolf is comfortable discussing lesbianism in her talks with the women students because she feels a women 's college is a safe and essential place for such discussions.
In this paragraph, Woolf sums up the stark contrast her research has uncovered between how women are idealised in fiction written by men, and how patriarchal society has treated them in real life:
Women have burnt like beacons in all the works of all the poets from the beginning of time. Indeed if woman had no existence save in the fiction written by men, one would imagine her a person of the utmost importance; very various; heroic and mean; splendid and sordid; beautiful and hideous in the extreme; as great as a man, some would say greater. But this is woman in fiction. In fact, as Professor Trevelyan points out, she was locked up, beaten and flung about the room. A very queer, composite being thus emerges. Imaginatively she is of the highest importance; practically she is completely insignificant. She pervades poetry from cover to cover; she is all but absent from history. She dominates the lives of kings and conquerors in fiction; in fact she was the slave of any boy whose parents forced a ring upon her finger. Some of the most inspired words and profound thoughts in literature fall from her lips; in real life she could hardly read; scarcely spell; and was the property of her husband.
Woolf 's famous demand on behalf of the hypothetical female author, narratively framed by the Four Marys, is articulated in the line:
Give her a room of her own and five hundred a year, let her speak her mind and leave out half that she now puts in, and she will write a better book one of these days.
Inflation - adjusting £ 500 in 1929 to the present (2013), gives about £ 25,000 (about US $43,000) (using inflation of the cost of goods) or about £ 75,000 (about US $130,000) (using inflation of people 's earnings). Converting £ 500 in 1929 to 1913 yields £ 230 to £ 310, which is below the group that George Orwell describes in The Road to Wigan Pier (published in 1937, but describing pre-War life in this passage) as the lower end of the upper - middle class:
To belong to this class when you were at the £ 400 a year level was a queer business, for it meant that your gentility was almost purely theoretical. You lived, so to speak, at two levels simultaneously. Theoretically you knew all about servants and how to tip them, although in practice you had one, at most, two resident servants. Theoretically you knew how to wear your clothes and how to order a dinner, although in practice you could never afford to go to a decent tailor or a decent restaurant. Theoretically you knew how to shoot and ride, although in practice you had no horses to ride and not an inch of ground to shoot over.
The £ 500 was just enough to live on without employment but without any extravagance. This (minimal) independent wealth introduces a socio - political element into Woolf 's argument which speaks not only to gender dynamics but to divisions in social class. This element of Woolf 's argument has been addressed in a number of scholarly and literary attacks.
Alice Walker, to the subject of much criticism, demeaned Woolf 's essay for its exclusion of women of color, and women writers who do not have any means for obtaining the independence of a room of their own. In In Search of Our Mothers ' Gardens: Womanist Prose, Walker writes: "Virginia Woolf, in her book A Room of One 's Own, wrote that in order for a woman to write fiction she must have two things, certainly: a room of her own (with key and lock) and enough money to support herself. What then are we to make of Phillis Wheatley, a slave, who owned not even herself? This sickly, frail, Black girl who required a servant of her own at times -- her health was so precarious -- and who, had she been white, would have been easily considered the intellectual superior of all the women and most of the men in the society of her day. ''
Walker recognises that Wheatley is in a position far different from the narrator of Woolf 's essay, in that she does not own herself, much less "a room of her own ''. Wheatley and other women writers exist outside of this room, outside of this space Woolf sets asides for women writers. Though she calls attention to the limits of Woolf 's essay, Walker, in uniting womanist prose (women 's writing) with the physical and metaphorical space of "our mothers ' gardens '', pays homage to Woolf 's similar endeavour of seeking space, "room '', for women writers.
It was adapted as a play by Patrick Garland who also directed Eileen Atkins in its stage performance. The television adaptation directed by Patrick Garland was broadcast on PBS Masterpiece Theatre in 1991.
Feminist and LGBT bookstore A Room of One 's Own in Madison, Wisconsin, was named after Woolf 's essay. Canadian literary journal showcasing the work of women writers and visual artists, Room of One 's Own, now Room, was also named for Woolf 's essay. The Smiths ' song "Shakespeare 's Sister '' is named after a section of the essay. The group Two Nice Girls ' third album was called Chloe Liked Olivia. The women 's coworking space in Singapore, "Woolf Works '', was named after Virginia Woolf as a response to this essay. The story idea for playwright Patricia Lamkin 's play Balancing the Moon was inspired by Woolf 's essay.
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how long on concorde from london to new york | Concorde - wikipedia
Aérospatiale / BAC Concorde (/ ˈkɒnkɔːrd /) is a British - French turbojet - powered supersonic passenger airliner that was operated until 2003. It had a maximum speed over twice the speed of sound at Mach 2.04 (1,354 mph or 2,180 km / h at cruise altitude), with seating for 92 to 128 passengers. First flown in 1969, Concorde entered service in 1976 and continued flying for the next 27 years. It is one of only two supersonic transports to have been operated commercially; the other is the Soviet - built Tupolev Tu - 144, which operated in passenger service from 1977 to 1978.
Concorde was jointly developed and manufactured by Sud Aviation (later Aérospatiale) and the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) under an Anglo - French treaty. Twenty aircraft were built, including six prototypes and development aircraft. Air France (AF) and British Airways (BA) were the only airlines to purchase and fly Concorde. The aircraft was used mainly by wealthy passengers who could afford to pay a high price in exchange for Concorde 's speed and luxury service. For example, in 1997, the round - trip ticket price from New York to London was $7,995, more than 30 times the cost of the cheapest option to fly this route.
The original program cost estimate of £ 70 million met huge overruns and delays, with the program eventually costing £ 1.3 billion. It was this extreme cost that became the main factor in the production run being much smaller than anticipated. Another major factor which affected the viability of all supersonic transport programmes was in how supersonic route options were eventually limited to ocean - crossing only to prevent sonic boom disturbance on populated areas. With only seven airframes each being operated by the British and French, the per - unit cost were impossible to recoup, so the French and British governments absorbed the development costs. British Airways and Air France were able to operate Concorde at a profit, in spite of very high maintenance costs, because Concorde was able to sustain a high ticket price.
Among other destinations, Concorde flew regular transatlantic flights from London 's Heathrow Airport and Paris 's Charles de Gaulle Airport to John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York, Washington Dulles International Airport in Virginia, and Grantley Adams International Airport in Barbados; it flew these routes in less than half the time of other airliners.
Concorde 's name, meaning "harmony '' or "union '', was chosen to reflect the co-operation on the project between the United Kingdom and France. In the UK, any or all of the type are known simply as Concorde, with no definite article the. Concorde won the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, beating other well - known designs such as the BMC Mini, the miniskirt, the Jaguar E-Type, the London Tube map and the Supermarine Spitfire. The type was retired in 2003, three years after the crash of Air France Flight 4590, in which all passengers and crew were killed. The general downturn in the commercial aviation industry after the September 11 attacks in 2001 and the end of maintenance support for Concorde by Airbus (the successor company of both Aérospatiale and BAC) also contributed.
The origins of the Concorde project date to the early 1950s, when Arnold Hall, director of the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) asked Morien Morgan to form a committee to study the supersonic transport (SST) concept. The group met for the first time in February 1954 and delivered their first report in April 1955.
At the time it was known that the drag at supersonic speeds was strongly related to the span of the wing. This led to the use of very short - span, very thin rectangular wings such as those seen on the control surfaces of many missiles, or in aircraft like the Lockheed F - 104 Starfighter or the Avro 730 that the team studied. The team outlined a baseline configuration that looked like an enlarged Avro 730.
This same short span produced very little lift at low speed, which resulted in extremely long take - off runs and frighteningly high landing speeds. In an SST design, this would have required enormous engine power to lift off from existing runways, and to provide the fuel needed, "some horribly large aeroplanes '' resulted. Based on this, the group considered the concept of an SST infeasible, and instead suggested continued low - level studies into supersonic aerodynamics.
Soon after, Johanna Weber and Dietrich Küchemann at the RAE published a series of reports on a new wing planform, known in the UK as the "slender delta '' concept. The team, including Eric Maskell whose report "Flow Separation in Three Dimensions '' contributed to an understanding of the physical nature of separated flow, worked with the fact that delta wings can produce strong vortexes on their upper surfaces at high angles of attack. The vortex will lower the air pressure and cause lift to be greatly increased. This effect had been noticed earlier, notably by Chuck Yeager in the Convair XF - 92, but its qualities had not been fully appreciated. Weber suggested that this was no mere curiosity, and the effect could be deliberately used to improve low speed performance.
Küchemann 's and Weber 's papers changed the entire nature of supersonic design almost overnight. Although the delta had already been used on aircraft prior to this point, these designs used planforms that were not much different from a swept wing of the same span. Weber noted that the lift from the vortex was increased by the length of the wing it had to operate over, which suggested that the effect would be maximised by extending the wing along the fuselage as far as possible. Such a layout would still have good supersonic performance inherent to the short span, while also offering reasonable take - off and landing speeds using vortex generation. The only downside to such a design is that the aircraft would have to take off and land very "nose high '' to generate the required vortex lift, which led to questions about the low speed handling qualities of such a design. It would also need to have long landing gear to produce the required angle of attack while still on the runway.
Küchemann presented the idea at a meeting where Morgan was also present. Test pilot Eric Brown recalls Morgan 's reaction to the presentation, saying that he immediately seized on it as the solution to the SST problem. Brown considers this moment as being the true birth of the Concorde project.
On 1 October 1956 the Ministry of Supply asked Morgan to form a new study group, the Supersonic Transport Advisory Committee (STAC), with the explicit goal of developing a practical SST design and finding industry partners to build it. At the very first meeting, on 5 November 1956, the decision was made to fund the development of a test bed aircraft to examine the low - speed performance of the slender delta, a contract that eventually produced the Handley Page HP. 115. This aircraft would ultimately demonstrate safe control at speeds as low as 69 mph, about 1⁄3 that of the F - 104 Starfighter.
STAC stated that an SST would have economic performance similar to existing subsonic types. Although they would burn more fuel in cruise, they would be able to fly more sorties in a given period of time, so fewer aircraft would be needed to service a particular route. This would remain economically advantageous as long as fuel represented a small percentage of operational costs, as it did at the time.
STAC suggested that two designs naturally fell out of their work, a transatlantic model flying at about Mach 2, and a shorter - range version flying at perhaps Mach 1.2. Morgan suggested that a 150 - passenger transatlantic SST would cost about £ 75 to £ 90 million to develop, and be in service in 1970. The smaller 100 passenger short - range version would cost perhaps £ 50 to £ 80 million, and be ready for service in 1968. To meet this schedule, development would need to begin in 1960, with production contracts let in 1962. Morgan strongly suggested that the US was already involved in a similar project, and that if the UK failed to respond it would be locked out of an airliner market that he believed would be dominated by SST aircraft.
In 1959, a study contract was awarded to Hawker Siddeley and Bristol for preliminary designs based on the slender delta concept, which developed as the HSA. 1000 and Bristol 198. Armstrong Whitworth also responded with an internal design, the M - Wing, for the lower - speed shorter - range category. Even at this early time, both the STAC group and the government were looking for partners to develop the designs. In September 1959, Hawker approached Lockheed, and after the creation of British Aircraft Corporation in 1960, the former Bristol team immediately started talks with Boeing, General Dynamics, Douglas Aircraft and Sud Aviation.
Küchemann and others at the RAE continued their work on the slender delta throughout this period, considering three basic shapes; the classic straight - edge delta, the "gothic delta '' that was rounded outwards to appear like a gothic arch, and the "ogival wing '' that was compound - rounded into the shape of an ogee. Each of these planforms had its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of aerodynamics. As they worked with these shapes, a practical concern grew to become so important that it forced selection of one of these designs.
Generally one wants to have the wing 's centre of pressure (CP, or "lift point '') close to the aircraft 's centre of gravity (CG, or "balance point '') to reduce the amount of control force required to pitch the aircraft. As the aircraft layout changes during the design phase, it is common for the CG to move fore or aft. With a normal wing design this can be addressed by moving the wing slightly fore or aft to account for this. With a delta wing running most of the length of the fuselage, this was no longer easy; moving the wing would leave it in front of the nose or behind the tail. Studying the various layouts in terms of CG changes, both during design and changes due to fuel use during flight, the ogee planform immediately came to the fore.
While the wing planform was evolving, so was the basic SST concept. Bristol 's original Type 198 was a small design with an almost pure slender delta wing, but evolved into the larger Type 223.
By this time similar political and economic concerns in France had led to their own SST plans. In the late 1950s the government requested designs from both the government - owned Sud Aviation and Nord Aviation, as well as Dassault. All three returned designs based on Küchemann and Weber 's slender delta; Nord suggested a ramjet powered design flying at Mach 3, the other two were jet powered Mach 2 designs that were similar to each other. Of the three, the Sud Aviation Super-Caravelle won the design contest with a medium - range design deliberately sized to avoid competition with transatlantic US designs they assumed were already on the drawing board.
As soon as the design was complete, in April 1960, Pierre Satre, the company 's technical director, was sent to Bristol to discuss a partnership. Bristol was surprised to find that the Sud team had designed a very similar aircraft after considering the SST problem and coming to the very same conclusions as the Bristol and STAC teams in terms of economics. It was later revealed that the original STAC report, marked "For UK Eyes Only '', had secretly been passed to the French to win political favour. Sud made minor changes to the paper, and presented it as their own work.
Unsurprisingly, the two teams found much to agree on. The French had no modern large jet engines, and had already concluded they would buy a British design anyway (as they had on the earlier subsonic Caravelle). As neither company had experience in the use of high - heat metals for airframes, a maximum speed of around Mach 2 was selected so aluminium could be used -- above this speed the friction with the air warms the metal so much that aluminium begins to soften. This lower speed would also speed development and allow their design to fly before the Americans. Finally, everyone involved agreed that Küchemann 's ogee shaped wing was the right one.
The only disagreements were over the size and range. The UK team was still focused on a 150 - passenger design serving transatlantic routes, while the French were deliberately avoiding these. However, this proved not to be the barrier it might seem; common components could be used in both designs, with the shorter range version using a clipped fuselage and four engines, the longer one with a stretched fuselage and six engines, leaving only the wing to be extensively re-designed. The teams continued to meet through 1961, and by this time it was clear that the two aircraft would be considerably more similar in spite of different range and seating arrangements. A single design emerged that differed mainly in fuel load. More powerful Bristol Siddeley Olympus engines, being developed for the TSR - 2, allowed either design to be powered by only four engines.
While the development teams met, French Minister of Public Works and Transport Robert Buron was meeting with the UK Minister of Aviation Peter Thorneycroft, and Thorneycroft soon revealed to the cabinet that the French were much more serious about a partnership than any of the US companies. The various US companies had proved uninterested in such a venture, likely due to the belief that the government would be funding development and would frown on any partnership with a European company, and the risk of "giving away '' US technological leadership to a European partner.
When the STAC plans were presented to the UK cabinet, a very negative reaction resulted. The economic considerations were considered highly questionable, especially as these were based on development costs, now estimated to be £ 150 million, which were repeatedly overrun in the industry. The Treasury Ministry in particular presented a very negative view, suggesting that there was no way the project would have any positive financial returns for the government, especially in light that "the industry 's past record of over-optimistic estimating (including the recent history of the TSR. 2) suggests that it would be prudent to consider the £ 150 million (cost) to turn out much too low. ''
This concern led to an independent review of the project by the Committee on Civil Scientific Research and Development, which met on topic between July and September 1962. The Committee ultimately rejected the economic arguments, including considerations of supporting the industry made by Thorneycroft. Their report in October stated that it was unlikely there would be any direct positive economic outcome, but that the project should still be considered for the simple reason that everyone else was going supersonic, and they were concerned they would be locked out of future markets. Conversely, it appeared the project would not be likely to significantly impact other, more important, research efforts.
After considerable argument, the decision to proceed ultimately fell to an unlikely political expediency. At the time, the UK was pressing for admission to the European Common Market, which was being controlled by Charles de Gaulle who felt the UK 's Special Relationship with the US made them unacceptable in a pan-European group. Cabinet felt that signing a deal with Sud would pave the way for Common Market entry, and this became the main deciding reason for moving ahead with the deal. It was this belief that had led the original STAC documents being leaked to the French. However, De Gaulle spoke of the European origin of the design, and continued to block the UK 's entry into the Common Market.
The development project was negotiated as an international treaty between the two countries rather than a commercial agreement between companies and included a clause, originally asked for by the UK, imposing heavy penalties for cancellation. A draft treaty was signed on 29 November 1962.
Reflecting the treaty between the British and French governments that led to Concorde 's construction, the name Concorde is from the French word concorde (IPA: (kɔ̃kɔʁd)), which has an English equivalent, concord. Both words mean agreement, harmony or union. The name was officially changed to Concord by Harold Macmillan in response to a perceived slight by Charles de Gaulle. At the French roll - out in Toulouse in late 1967, the British Government Minister for Technology, Tony Benn, announced that he would change the spelling back to Concorde. This created a nationalist uproar that died down when Benn stated that the suffixed "e '' represented "Excellence, England, Europe and Entente (Cordiale) ''. In his memoirs, he recounts a tale of a letter from an irate Scotsman claiming: "(Y) ou talk about ' E ' for England, but part of it is made in Scotland. '' Given Scotland 's contribution of providing the nose cone for the aircraft, Benn replied, "(I) t was also ' E ' for ' Écosse ' (the French name for Scotland) -- and I might have added ' e ' for extravagance and ' e ' for escalation as well! ''
Concorde also acquired an unusual nomenclature for an aircraft. In common usage in the United Kingdom, the type is known as Concorde without an article, rather than the Concorde or a Concorde.
Described by Flight International as an "aviation icon '' and "one of aerospace 's most ambitious but commercially flawed projects '', Concorde failed to meet its original sales targets, despite initial interest from several airlines.
At first, the new consortium intended to produce one long - range and one short - range version. However, prospective customers showed no interest in the short - range version and it was dropped.
An advertisement covering two full pages, promoting Concorde, ran in the 29 May 1967 issue of Aviation Week & Space Technology. The advertisement predicted a market for 350 aircraft by 1980 and boasted of Concorde 's head start over the United States ' SST project.
Concorde had considerable difficulties that led to its dismal sales performance. Costs had spiralled during development to more than six times the original projections, arriving at a unit cost of £ 23 million in 1977 (equivalent to £ 131.14 million in 2016). Its sonic boom made travelling supersonically over land impossible without causing complaints from citizens. World events had also dampened Concorde sales prospects, the 1973 - 74 stock market crash and the 1973 oil crisis had made many airlines cautious about aircraft with high fuel consumption rates; and new wide - body aircraft, such as the Boeing 747, had recently made subsonic aircraft significantly more efficient and presented a low - risk option for airlines. While carrying a full load, Concorde achieved 15.8 passenger miles per gallon of fuel, while the Boeing 707 reached 33.3 pm / g, the Boeing 747 46.4 pm / g, and the McDonnell Douglas DC - 10 53.6 pm / g. An emerging trend in the industry in favour of cheaper airline tickets had also caused airlines such as Qantas to question Concorde 's market suitability.
The consortium secured orders (i.e., non-binding options) for over 100 of the long - range version from the major airlines of the day: Pan Am, BOAC, and Air France were the launch customers, with six Concordes each. Other airlines in the order book included Panair do Brasil, Continental Airlines, Japan Airlines, Lufthansa, American Airlines, United Airlines, Air India, Air Canada, Braniff, Singapore Airlines, Iran Air, Olympic Airways, Qantas, CAAC, Middle East Airlines, and TWA. At the time of the first flight the options list contained 74 options from 16 airlines:
The design work was supported by a preceding research programme studying the flight characteristics of low ratio delta wings. A supersonic Fairey Delta 2 was modified to carry the ogee planform, and, renamed as the BAC 221, used for flight tests of the high speed flight envelope, the Handley Page HP. 115 also provided valuable information on low speed performance.
Construction of two prototypes began in February 1965: 001, built by Aérospatiale at Toulouse, and 002, by BAC at Filton, Bristol. Concorde 001 made its first test flight from Toulouse on 2 March 1969, piloted by André Turcat, and first went supersonic on 1 October. The first UK - built Concorde flew from Filton to RAF Fairford on 9 April 1969, piloted by Brian Trubshaw. Both prototypes were presented to the public for the first time on 7 -- 8 June 1969 at the Paris Air Show. As the flight programme progressed, 001 embarked on a sales and demonstration tour on 4 September 1971, which was also the first transatlantic crossing of Concorde. Concorde 002 followed suit on 2 June 1972 with a tour of the Middle and Far East. Concorde 002 made the first visit to the United States in 1973, landing at the new Dallas / Fort Worth Regional Airport to mark that airport 's opening.
While Concorde had initially held a great deal of customer interest, the project was hit by a large number of order cancellations. The Paris Le Bourget air show crash of the competing Soviet Tupolev Tu - 144 had shocked potential buyers, and public concern over the environmental issues presented by a supersonic aircraft -- the sonic boom, take - off noise and pollution -- had produced a shift in public opinion of SSTs. By 1976 four nations remained as prospective buyers: Britain, France, China, and Iran. Only Air France and British Airways (the successor to BOAC) took up their orders, with the two governments taking a cut of any profits made.
The United States cancelled the Boeing 2707, its rival supersonic transport programme, in 1971. Observers have suggested that opposition to Concorde on grounds of noise pollution had been encouraged by the United States Government, as it lacked its own competitor. The US, India, and Malaysia all ruled out Concorde supersonic flights over the noise concern, although some of these restrictions were later relaxed. Professor Douglas Ross characterised restrictions placed upon Concorde operations by President Jimmy Carter 's administration as having been an act of protectionism of American aircraft manufacturers. Concorde flew to an altitude of 68,000 ft (20,700 m) during a test flight in June 1973.
Concorde is an ogival delta winged aircraft with four Olympus engines based on those employed in the RAF 's Avro Vulcan strategic bomber. It is one of the few commercial aircraft to employ a tailless design (the Tupolev Tu - 144 being another). Concorde was the first airliner to have a (in this case, analogue) fly - by - wire flight - control system; the avionics system Concorde used was unique because it was the first commercial aircraft to employ hybrid circuits. The principal designer for the project was Pierre Satre, with Sir Archibald Russell as his deputy.
Concorde pioneered the following technologies:
For high speed and optimisation of flight:
For weight - saving and enhanced performance:
A symposium titled "Supersonic - Transport Implications '' was hosted by the Royal Aeronautical Society on 8 December 1960. Various views were put forward on the likely type of powerplant for a supersonic transport, such as podded or buried installation and turbojet or ducted - fan engines. Boundary layer management in the podded installation was put forward as simpler with only an inlet cone but Dr. Seddon of the RAE saw "a future in a more sophisticated integration of shapes '' in a buried installation. Another concern highlighted the case with two or more engines situated behind a single intake. An intake failure could lead to a double or triple engine failure. The advantage of the ducted fan over the turbojet was reduced airport noise but with considerable economic penalties with its larger cross-section producing excessive drag. At that time it was considered that the noise from a turbojet optimised for supersonic cruise could be reduced to an acceptable level using noise suppressors as used on subsonic jets.
The powerplant configuration selected for Concorde, and its development to a certificated design, can be seen in light of the above symposium topics (which highlighted airfield noise, boundary layer management and interactions between adjacent engines) and the requirement that the powerplant, at Mach 2, tolerate combinations of pushovers, sideslips, pull - ups and throttle slamming without surging. Extensive development testing with design changes and changes to intake and engine control laws would address most of the issues except airfield noise and the interaction between adjacent powerplants at speeds above Mach 1.6 which meant Concorde "had to be certified aerodynamically as a twin - engined aircraft above Mach 1.6 ''.
Rolls - Royce had a design proposal, the RB. 169, for the aircraft at the time of Concorde 's initial design but "to develop a brand - new engine for Concorde would have been prohibitively expensive '' so an existing engine, already flying in the TSR - 2 prototype, was chosen. It was the Olympus 320 turbojet, a development of the Bristol engine first used for the Avro Vulcan bomber.
Great confidence was placed in being able to reduce the noise of a turbojet and massive strides by SNECMA in silencer design were reported during the programme. However, by 1974 the spade silencers which projected into the exhaust were reported to be ineffective. The Olympus Mk. 622 with reduced jet velocity was proposed to reduce the noise but it was not developed.
Situated behind the leading edge of the wing the engine intake had wing boundary layer ahead of it. Two thirds was diverted and the remaining third which entered the intake did not adversely affect the intake efficiency except during pushovers when the boundary layer thickened ahead of the intake and caused surging. Extensive wind tunnel testing helped define leading edge modifications ahead of the intakes which solved the problem.
Each engine had its own intake and the engine nacelles were paired with a splitter plate between them to minimise adverse behaviour of one powerplant influencing the other. Only above Mach 1.6 was an engine surge likely to affect the adjacent engine.
Concorde needed to fly long distances to be economically viable; this required high efficiency from the powerplant. Turbofan engines were rejected due to their larger cross-section producing excessive drag. Olympus turbojet technology was available to be developed to meet the design requirements of the aircraft, although turbofans would be studied for any future SST.
The aircraft used reheat (afterburners) at take - off and to pass through the upper transonic regime and to supersonic speeds, between Mach 0.95 and Mach 1.7. The afterburners were switched off at all other times. Due to jet engines being highly inefficient at low speeds, Concorde burned two tonnes of fuel (almost 2 % of the maximum fuel load) taxiing to the runway. Fuel used is Jet A-1. Due to the high thrust produced even with the engines at idle, only the two outer engines were run after landing for easier taxiing and less brake pad wear -- at low weights after landing, the aircraft would not remain stationary with all four engines idling requiring the brakes to be continuously applied to prevent the aircraft from rolling.
The intake design for Concorde 's engines was especially critical. The intakes had to provide low distortion levels (to prevent engine surge) and high efficiency for all likely ambient temperatures to be met in cruise. They had to provide adequate subsonic performance for diversion cruise and low engine - face distortion at take - off. They also had to provide an alternate path for excess intake air during engine throttling or shutdowns. The variable intake features required to meet all these requirements consisted of front and rear ramps, a dump door, an auxiliary inlet and a ramp bleed to the exhaust nozzle.
As well as supplying air to the engine, the intake also supplied air through the ramp bleed to the propelling nozzle. The nozzle ejector (or aerodynamic) design, with variable exit area and secondary flow from the intake, contributed to good expansion efficiency from take - off to cruise.
Engine failure causes problems on conventional subsonic aircraft; not only does the aircraft lose thrust on that side but the engine creates drag, causing the aircraft to yaw and bank in the direction of the failed engine. If this had happened to Concorde at supersonic speeds, it theoretically could have caused a catastrophic failure of the airframe. Although computer simulations predicted considerable problems, in practice Concorde could shut down both engines on the same side of the aircraft at Mach 2 without the predicted difficulties. During an engine failure the required air intake is virtually zero. So, on Concorde, engine failure was countered by the opening of the auxiliary spill door and the full extension of the ramps, which deflected the air downwards past the engine, gaining lift and minimising drag. Concorde pilots were routinely trained to handle double engine failure.
Concorde 's Air Intake Control Units (AICUs) made use of a digital processor to provide the necessary accuracy for intake control. It was the world 's first use of a digital processor to be given full authority control of an essential system in a passenger aircraft. It was developed by the Electronics and Space Systems (ESS) division of the British Aircraft Corporation after it became clear that the analogue AICUs fitted to the prototype aircraft and developed by Ultra Electronics were found to be insufficiently accurate for the tasks in hand.
Concorde 's thrust - by - wire engine control system was developed by Ultra Electronics.
Air compression on the outer surfaces caused the cabin to heat up during flight. Every surface, such as windows and panels, was warm to the touch by the end of the flight. Besides engines, the hottest part of the structure of any supersonic aircraft is the nose, due to aerodynamic heating. The engineers used Hiduminium R.R. 58, an aluminium alloy, throughout the aircraft because of its familiarity, cost and ease of construction. The highest temperature that aluminium could sustain over the life of the aircraft was 127 ° C (261 ° F), which limited the top speed to Mach 2.02. Concorde went through two cycles of heating and cooling during a flight, first cooling down as it gained altitude, then heating up after going supersonic. The reverse happened when descending and slowing down. This had to be factored into the metallurgical and fatigue modelling. A test rig was built that repeatedly heated up a full - size section of the wing, and then cooled it, and periodically samples of metal were taken for testing. The Concorde airframe was designed for a life of 45,000 flying hours.
Owing to air compression in front of the plane as it travelled at supersonic speed, the fuselage heated up and expanded by as much as 300 mm (almost 1 ft). The most obvious manifestation of this was a gap that opened up on the flight deck between the flight engineer 's console and the bulkhead. On some aircraft that conducted a retiring supersonic flight, the flight engineers placed their caps in this expanded gap, wedging the cap when it shrank again. To keep the cabin cool, Concorde used the fuel as a heat sink for the heat from the air conditioning. The same method also cooled the hydraulics. During supersonic flight the surfaces forward from the cockpit became heated, and a visor was used to deflect much of this heat from directly reaching the cockpit.
Concorde had livery restrictions; the majority of the surface had to be covered with a highly reflective white paint to avoid overheating the aluminium structure due to heating effects from supersonic flight at Mach 2. The white finish reduced the skin temperature by 6 to 11 degrees Celsius. In 1996, Air France briefly painted F - BTSD in a predominantly blue livery, with the exception of the wings, in a promotional deal with Pepsi. In this paint scheme, Air France was advised to remain at Mach 2 for no more than 20 minutes at a time, but there was no restriction at speeds under Mach 1.7. F - BTSD was used because it was not scheduled for any long flights that required extended Mach 2 operations.
Due to its high speeds, large forces were applied to the aircraft during banks and turns, and caused twisting and distortion of the aircraft 's structure. In addition there were concerns over maintaining precise control at supersonic speeds. Both of these issues were resolved by active ratio changes between the inboard and outboard elevons, varying at differing speeds including supersonic. Only the innermost elevons, which are attached to the stiffest area of the wings, were active at high speed. Additionally, the narrow fuselage meant that the aircraft flexed. This was visible from the rear passengers ' viewpoints.
When any aircraft passes the critical mach of that particular airframe, the centre of pressure shifts rearwards. This causes a pitch down moment on the aircraft if the centre of gravity remains where it was. The engineers designed the wings in a specific manner to reduce this shift, but there was still a shift of about 2 metres. This could have been countered by the use of trim controls, but at such high speeds this would have dramatically increased drag. Instead, the distribution of fuel along the aircraft was shifted during acceleration and deceleration to move the centre of gravity, effectively acting as an auxiliary trim control.
To fly non-stop across the Atlantic Ocean, Concorde required the greatest supersonic range of any aircraft. This was achieved by a combination of engines which were highly efficient at supersonic speeds, a slender fuselage with high fineness ratio, and a complex wing shape for a high lift - to - drag ratio. This also required carrying only a modest payload and a high fuel capacity, and the aircraft was trimmed with precision to avoid unnecessary drag.
Nevertheless, soon after Concorde began flying, a Concorde "B '' model was designed with slightly larger fuel capacity and slightly larger wings with leading edge slats to improve aerodynamic performance at all speeds, with the objective of expanding the range to reach markets in new regions. It featured more powerful engines with sound deadening and without the fuel - hungry and noisy afterburner. It was speculated that it was reasonably possible to create an engine with up to 25 % gain in efficiency over the Rolls - Royce / Snecma Olympus 593. This would have given 500 mi (805 km) additional range and a greater payload, making new commercial routes possible. This was cancelled due in part to poor sales of Concorde, but also to the rising cost of aviation fuel in the 1970s.
Concorde 's high cruising altitude meant passengers received almost twice the flux of extraterrestrial ionising radiation as those travelling on a conventional long - haul flight. Upon Concorde 's introduction, it was speculated that this exposure during supersonic travels would increase the likelihood of skin cancer. Due to the proportionally reduced flight time, the overall equivalent dose would normally be less than a conventional flight over the same distance. Unusual solar activity might lead to an increase in incident radiation. To prevent incidents of excessive radiation exposure, the flight deck had a radiometer and an instrument to measure the rate of decrease of radiation. If the radiation level became too high, Concorde would descend below 47,000 feet (14,000 m).
Airliner cabins were usually maintained at a pressure equivalent to 6,000 -- 8,000 feet (1,800 -- 2,400 m) elevation. Concorde 's pressurisation was set to an altitude at the lower end of this range, 6,000 feet (1,800 m). Concorde 's maximum cruising altitude was 60,000 feet (18,000 m); subsonic airliners typically cruise below 40,000 feet (12,000 m).
A sudden reduction in cabin pressure is hazardous to all passengers and crew. Above 50,000 feet (15,000 m), a sudden cabin depressurisation would leave a "time of useful consciousness '' up to 10 -- 15 seconds for a conditioned athlete. At Concorde 's altitude, the air density is very low; a breach of cabin integrity would result in a loss of pressure severe enough that the plastic emergency oxygen masks installed on other passenger jets would not be effective and passengers would soon suffer from hypoxia despite quickly donning them. Concorde was equipped with smaller windows to reduce the rate of loss in the event of a breach, a reserve air supply system to augment cabin air pressure, and a rapid descent procedure to bring the aircraft to a safe altitude. The FAA enforces minimum emergency descent rates for aircraft and noting Concorde 's higher operating altitude, concluded that the best response to pressure loss would be a rapid descent. Continuous positive airway pressure would have delivered pressurised oxygen directly to the pilots through masks.
While subsonic commercial jets took eight hours to fly from New York to Paris, the average supersonic flight time on the transatlantic routes was just under 3.5 hours. Concorde had a maximum cruise altitude of 18,300 metres (60,039 ft) and an average cruise speed of Mach 2.02, about 1155 knots (2140 km / h or 1334 mph), more than twice the speed of conventional aircraft.
With no other civil traffic operating at its cruising altitude of about 56,000 ft (17,000 m), Concorde had exclusive use of dedicated oceanic airways, or "tracks '', separate from the North Atlantic Tracks, the routes used by other aircraft to cross the Atlantic. Due to the significantly less variable nature of high altitude winds compared to those at standard cruising altitudes, these dedicated SST tracks had fixed co-ordinates, unlike the standard routes at lower altitudes, whose co-ordinates are replotted twice daily based on forecast weather patterns (jetstreams). Concorde would also be cleared in a 15,000 - foot (4,600 m) block, allowing for a slow climb from 45,000 to 60,000 ft (18,000 m) during the oceanic crossing as the fuel load gradually decreased. In regular service, Concorde employed an efficient cruise - climb flight profile following take - off.
The delta - shaped wings required Concorde to adopt a higher angle of attack at low speeds than conventional aircraft, but it allowed the formation of large low pressure vortices over the entire upper wing surface, maintaining lift. The normal landing speed was 170 miles per hour (274 km / h). Because of this high angle, during a landing approach Concorde was on the "back side '' of the drag force curve, where raising the nose would increase the rate of descent; the aircraft was thus largely flown on the throttle and was fitted with an autothrottle to reduce the pilot 's workload.
The only thing that tells you that you 're moving is that occasionally when you 're flying over the subsonic aeroplanes you can see all these 747s 20,000 feet below you almost appearing to go backwards, I mean you are going 800 miles an hour or thereabouts faster than they are. The aeroplane was an absolute delight to fly, it handled beautifully. And remember we are talking about an aeroplane that was being designed in the late 1950s -- mid 1960s. I think it 's absolutely amazing and here we are, now in the 21st century, and it remains unique.
Because of the way Concorde 's delta - wing generated lift, the undercarriage had to be unusually strong and tall to allow for the angle of attack at low speed. At rotation, Concorde would rise to a high angle of attack, about 18 degrees. Prior to rotation the wing generated almost no lift, unlike typical aircraft wings. Combined with the high airspeed at rotation (199 knots indicated airspeed), this increased the stresses on the main undercarriage in a way that was initially unexpected during the development and required a major redesign. Due to the high angle needed at rotation, a small set of wheels were added aft to prevent tailstrikes. The main undercarriage units swing towards each other to be stowed but due to their great height also need to contract in length telescopically before swinging to clear each other when stowed. The four main wheel tyres on each bogie unit are inflated to 232 lb / sq in (1,600 kPa). The twin - wheel nose undercarriage retracts forwards and its tyres are inflated to a pressure of 191 lb / sq in (1,320 kPa), and the wheel assembly carries a spray deflector to prevent standing water being thrown up into the engine intakes. The tyres are rated to a maximum speed on the runway of 250 mph (400 km / h). The starboard nose wheel carries a single disc brake to halt wheel rotation during retraction of the undercarriage. The port nose wheel carries speed generators for the anti-skid braking system which prevents brake activation until nose and main wheels rotate at the same rate.
Additionally, due to the high average take - off speed of 250 miles per hour (400 km / h), Concorde needed upgraded brakes. Like most airliners, Concorde has anti-skid braking -- a system which prevents the tyres from losing traction when the brakes are applied for greater control during roll - out. The brakes, developed by Dunlop, were the first carbon - based brakes used on an airliner. The use of carbon over equivalent steel brakes provided a weight - saving of 1,200 lb (540 kg). Each wheel has multiple discs which are cooled by electric fans. Wheel sensors include brake overload, brake temperature, and tyre deflation. After a typical landing at Heathrow, brake temperatures were around 300 -- 400 ° C (570 -- 750 ° F). Landing Concorde required a minimum of 6,000 feet (1,800 m) runway length, this in fact being considerably less than the shortest runway Concorde ever actually landed on, that of Cardiff Airport.
Concorde 's drooping nose, developed by Marshall 's of Cambridge at Cambridge Airport, enabled the aircraft to switch between being streamlined to reduce drag and achieve optimal aerodynamic efficiency without obstructing the pilot 's view during taxi, take - off, and landing operations. Due to the high angle of attack, the long pointed nose obstructed the view and necessitated the capability to droop. The droop nose was accompanied by a moving visor that retracted into the nose prior to being lowered. When the nose was raised to horizontal, the visor would rise in front of the cockpit windscreen for aerodynamic streamlining.
A controller in the cockpit allowed the visor to be retracted and the nose to be lowered to 5 ° below the standard horizontal position for taxiing and take - off. Following take - off and after clearing the airport, the nose and visor were raised. Prior to landing, the visor was again retracted and the nose lowered to 12.5 ° below horizontal for maximal visibility. Upon landing the nose was raised to the 5 ° position to avoid the possibility of damage.
The US Federal Aviation Administration had objected to the restrictive visibility of the visor used on the first two prototype Concordes, which had been designed before a suitable high - temperature window glass had become available, and thus requiring alteration before the FAA would permit Concorde to serve US airports. This led to the redesigned visor used on the production and the four pre-production aircraft (101, 102, 201, and 202). The nose window and visor glass, needed to endure temperatures in excess of 100 ° C (210 ° F) at supersonic flight, were developed by Triplex.
Concorde 001 was modified with rooftop portholes for use on the 1973 Solar Eclipse mission and equipped with observation instruments. It performed the longest observation of a solar eclipse to date, about 74 minutes.
Scheduled flights began on 21 January 1976 on the London -- Bahrain and Paris -- Rio de Janeiro (via Dakar) routes, with BA flights using the Speedbird Concorde call sign to notify air traffic control of the aircraft 's unique abilities and restrictions, but the French using their normal call signs. The Paris - Caracas route (via Azores) began on 10 April. The US Congress had just banned Concorde landings in the US, mainly due to citizen protest over sonic booms, preventing launch on the coveted North Atlantic routes. The US Secretary of Transportation, William Coleman, gave permission for Concorde service to Washington Dulles International Airport, and Air France and British Airways simultaneously began a thrice - weekly service to Dulles on 24 May 1976. Due to low demand, Air France cancelled its Washington service in October 1982, while British Airways cancelled it in November 1994.
When the US ban on JFK Concorde operations was lifted in February 1977, New York banned Concorde locally. The ban came to an end on 17 October 1977 when the Supreme Court of the United States declined to overturn a lower court 's ruling rejecting efforts by the Port Authority and a grass - roots campaign led by Carol Berman to continue the ban. In spite of complaints about noise, the noise report noted that Air Force One, at the time a Boeing VC - 137, was louder than Concorde at subsonic speeds and during take - off and landing. Scheduled service from Paris and London to New York 's John F. Kennedy Airport began on 22 November 1977.
In 1977, British Airways and Singapore Airlines shared a Concorde for flights between London and Singapore International Airport at Paya Lebar via Bahrain. The aircraft, BA 's Concorde G - BOAD, was painted in Singapore Airlines livery on the port side and British Airways livery on the starboard side. The service was discontinued after three return flights because of noise complaints from the Malaysian government; it could only be reinstated on a new route bypassing Malaysian airspace in 1979. A dispute with India prevented Concorde from reaching supersonic speeds in Indian airspace, so the route was eventually declared not viable and discontinued in 1980.
During the Mexican oil boom, Air France flew Concorde twice weekly to Mexico City 's Benito Juárez International Airport via Washington, DC, or New York City, from September 1978 to November 1982. The worldwide economic crisis during that period resulted in this route 's cancellation; the last flights were almost empty. The routing between Washington or New York and Mexico City included a deceleration, from Mach 2.02 to Mach 0.95, to cross Florida subsonically and avoid creating a sonic boom over the state; Concorde then re-accelerated back to high speed while crossing the Gulf of Mexico. On 1 April 1989, on an around - the - world luxury tour charter, British Airways implemented changes to this routing that allowed G - BOAF to maintain Mach 2.02 by passing around Florida to the east and south. Periodically Concorde visited the region on similar chartered flights to Mexico City and Acapulco.
From December 1978 to May 1980, Braniff International Airways leased 11 Concordes, five from Air France and six from British Airways. These were used on subsonic flights between Dallas - Fort Worth and Washington Dulles International Airport, flown by Braniff flight crews. Air France and British Airways crews then took over for the continuing supersonic flights to London and Paris. The aircraft were registered in both the United States and their home countries; the European registration was covered while being operated by Braniff, retaining full AF / BA liveries. The flights were not profitable and typically less than 50 % booked, forcing Braniff to end its tenure as the only US Concorde operator in May 1980.
In its early years, the British Airways Concorde service had a greater number of "no shows '' (passengers who booked a flight and then failed to appear at the gate for boarding) than any other aircraft in the fleet.
Following the launch of British Airways Concorde services, Britain 's other major airline, British Caledonian (BCal), set up a task force headed by Gordon Davidson, BA 's former Concorde director, to investigate the possibility of their own Concorde operations. This was seen as particularly viable for the airline 's long - haul network as there were two unsold aircraft then available for purchase.
One important reason for BCal 's interest in Concorde was that the British Government 's 1976 aviation policy review had opened the possibility of BA setting up supersonic services in competition with BCal 's established sphere of influence. To counteract this potential threat, BCal considered their own independent Concorde plans, as well as a partnership with BA. BCal were considered most likely to have set up a Concorde service on the Gatwick -- Lagos route, a major source of revenue and profits within BCal 's scheduled route network; BCal 's Concorde task force did assess the viability of a daily supersonic service complementing the existing subsonic widebody service on this route.
BCal entered into a bid to acquire at least one Concorde. However, BCal eventually arranged for two aircraft to be leased from BA and Aérospatiale respectively, to be maintained by either BA or Air France. BCal 's envisaged two - Concorde fleet would have required a high level of aircraft usage to be cost - effective; therefore, BCal had decided to operate the second aircraft on a supersonic service between Gatwick and Atlanta, with a stopover at either Gander or Halifax. Consideration was given to services to Houston and various points on its South American network at a later stage. Both supersonic services were to be launched at some point during 1980; however, steeply rising oil prices caused by the 1979 energy crisis led to BCal shelving their supersonic ambitions.
By around 1981 in the UK, the future for Concorde looked bleak. The British government had lost money operating Concorde every year, and moves were afoot to cancel the service entirely. A cost projection came back with greatly reduced metallurgical testing costs because the test rig for the wings had built up enough data to last for 30 years and could be shut down. Despite this, the government was not keen to continue. In 1983, BA 's managing director, Sir John King, convinced the government to sell the aircraft outright to the then state - owned British Airways for £ 16.5 million plus the first year 's profits. British Airways was subsequently privatized in 1987.
In 1984, Pan American accused the British Government of subsidising British Airways Concorde air fares, on which a return London - New York was £ 2,399 (£ 7076 today), compared to £ 1,986 (£ 5858) with a subsonic first class return, and London - Washington return was £ 2,426 (£ 7156) instead of £ 2,258 (£ 6660) subsonic.
Research revealed that the Concorde passengers thought that the fare was higher than it actually was, so airlines raised ticket prices to match these perceptions. It is reported that British Airways then ran Concorde at a profit, unlike their French counterpart.
Its estimated operating costs were $3,800 per block hour in 1972, compared to actual 1971 operating costs of $1,835 for a 707 and $3,500 for a 747; for a 3,050 nmi London -- New York sector, a 707 cost $13,750 -- $3.04 c per set / nmi, a 747 $26,200 -- $2.4 c per seat / nmi and the Concorde $14,250 -- $4.5 c per seat / nmi.
Between March 1984 and March 1991, British Airways flew a thrice - weekly Concorde service between London and Miami, stopping at Washington Dulles International Airport. Until 2003, Air France and British Airways continued to operate the New York services daily. From 1987 to 2003 British Airways flew a Saturday morning Concorde service to Grantley Adams International Airport, Barbados, during the summer and winter holiday season.
Prior to the Air France Paris crash, several UK and French tour operators operated charter flights to European destinations on a regular basis; the charter business was viewed as lucrative by British Airways and Air France.
In 1997, British Airways held a promotional contest to mark the 10th anniversary of the airline 's move into the private sector. The promotion was a lottery to fly to New York held for 190 tickets valued at £ 5,400 each, to be offered at £ 10. Contestants had to call a special hotline to compete with up to 20 million people.
On 10 April 2003, Air France and British Airways simultaneously announced that they would retire Concorde later that year. They cited low passenger numbers following the 25 July 2000 crash, the slump in air travel following the September 11 attacks, and rising maintenance costs. Although Concorde was technologically advanced when introduced in the 1970s, 30 years later, its analogue cockpit was outdated. There had been little commercial pressure to upgrade Concorde due to a lack of competing aircraft, unlike other airliners of the same era such as the Boeing 747. By its retirement, it was the last aircraft in the British Airways fleet that had a flight engineer; other aircraft, such as the modernised 747 - 400, had eliminated the role.
On 11 April 2003, Virgin Atlantic founder Sir Richard Branson announced that the company was interested in purchasing British Airways ' Concorde fleet "for the same price that they were given them for -- one pound ''. British Airways dismissed the idea, prompting Virgin to increase their offer to £ 1 million each. Branson claimed that when BA was privatised, a clause in the agreement required them to allow another British airline to operate Concorde if BA ceased to do so, but the Government denied the existence of such a clause. In October 2003, Branson wrote in The Economist that his final offer was "over £ 5 million '' and that he had intended to operate the fleet "for many years to come ''. The chances for keeping Concorde in service were stifled by Airbus 's lack of support for continued maintenance.
It has been suggested that Concorde was not withdrawn for the reasons usually given but that it became apparent during the grounding of Concorde that the airlines could make more profit carrying first - class passengers subsonically. A lack of commitment to Concorde from Director of Engineering Alan MacDonald was cited as having undermined BA 's resolve to continue operating Concorde.
Air France made its final commercial Concorde landing in the United States in New York City from Paris on 30 May 2003. Air France 's final Concorde flight took place on 27 June 2003 when F - BVFC retired to Toulouse.
An auction of Concorde parts and memorabilia for Air France was held at Christie 's in Paris on 15 November 2003; 1,300 people attended, and several lots exceeded their predicted values. French Concorde F - BVFC was retired to Toulouse and kept functional for a short time after the end of service, in case taxi runs were required in support of the French judicial enquiry into the 2000 crash. The aircraft is now fully retired and no longer functional.
French Concorde F - BTSD has been retired to the "Musée de l'Air '' at Paris -- Le Bourget Airport near Paris; unlike the other museum Concordes, a few of the systems are being kept functional. For instance, the famous "droop nose '' can still be lowered and raised. This led to rumours that they could be prepared for future flights for special occasions.
French Concorde F - BVFB currently rests at the Auto & Technik Museum Sinsheim at Sinsheim, Germany, after its last flight from Paris to Baden - Baden, followed by a spectacular transport to Sinsheim via barge and road. The museum also has a Tupolev Tu - 144 on display -- this is the only place where both supersonic airliners can be seen together.
In 1989, Air France signed a letter of agreement to donate a Concorde to the National Air and Space Museum in Washington D.C. upon the aircraft 's retirement. On 12 June 2003, Air France honoured that agreement, donating Concorde F - BVFA (serial 205) to the Museum upon the completion of its last flight. This aircraft was the first Air France Concorde to open service to Rio de Janeiro, Washington, D.C., and New York and had flown 17,824 hours. It is on display at the Smithsonian 's Steven F. Udvar - Hazy Center at Dulles Airport.
British Airways conducted a North American farewell tour in October 2003. G - BOAG visited Toronto Pearson International Airport on 1 October, after which it flew to New York 's John F. Kennedy International Airport. G - BOAD visited Boston 's Logan International Airport on 8 October, and G - BOAG visited Washington Dulles International Airport on 14 October.
In a week of farewell flights around the United Kingdom, Concorde visited Birmingham on 20 October, Belfast on 21 October, Manchester on 22 October, Cardiff on 23 October, and Edinburgh on 24 October. Each day the aircraft made a return flight out and back into Heathrow to the cities, often overflying them at low altitude. On 22 October, both Concorde flight BA9021C, a special from Manchester, and BA002 from New York landed simultaneously on both of Heathrow 's runways. On 23 October 2003, the Queen consented to the illumination of Windsor Castle, an honour reserved for state events and visiting dignitaries, as Concorde 's last west - bound commercial flight departed London.
British Airways retired its Concorde fleet on 24 October 2003. G - BOAG left New York to a fanfare similar to that given for Air France 's F - BTSD, while two more made round trips, G - BOAF over the Bay of Biscay, carrying VIP guests including former Concorde pilots, and G - BOAE to Edinburgh. The three aircraft then circled over London, having received special permission to fly at low altitude, before landing in sequence at Heathrow. The captain of the New York to London flight was Mike Bannister. The final flight of a Concorde in the US occurred on 5 November 2003 when G - BOAG flew from New York 's JFK Airport to Seattle 's Boeing Field to join the Museum of Flight 's permanent collection. The plane was piloted by Mike Bannister and Les Broadie, who claimed a flight time of three hours, 55 minutes and 12 seconds, a record between the two cities. The museum had been pursuing a Concorde for their collection since 1984. The final flight of a Concorde worldwide took place on 26 November 2003 with a landing at Filton, Bristol, UK.
All of BA 's Concorde fleet have been grounded, drained of hydraulic fluid and their airworthiness certificates withdrawn. Jock Lowe, ex-chief Concorde pilot and manager of the fleet estimated in 2004 that it would cost £ 10 -- 15 million to make G - BOAF airworthy again. BA maintain ownership and have stated that they will not fly again due to a lack of support from Airbus. On 1 December 2003, Bonhams held an auction of British Airways Concorde artefacts, including a nose cone, at Kensington Olympia in London. Proceeds of around £ 750,000 were raised, with the majority going to charity. G - BOAD is currently on display at the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum in New York. In 2007, BA announced that the advertising spot at Heathrow where a 40 % scale model of Concorde was located would not be retained; the model is now on display at the Brooklands Museum, in Surrey, England.
Although only used for spares after being retired from test flying and trials work in 1981, Concorde G - BBDG was dismantled and transported by road from Filton then restored from essentially a shell at the Brooklands Museum in Surrey, where it remains open to visitors to the museum.
One of the youngest Concordes (F - BTSD) is on display at Le Bourget Air and Space Museum in Paris. In February 2010, it was announced that the museum and a group of volunteer Air France technicians intend to restore F - BTSD so it can taxi under its own power. In May 2010, it was reported that the British Save Concorde Group and French Olympus 593 groups had begun inspecting the engines of a Concorde at the French museum; their intent is to restore the airliner to a condition where it can fly in demonstrations. Save Concorde Group hoped to get F - BTSD flying for the 2012 London Olympics, but this never happened. The work for restoring F - BTSD to operating condition as of September 2015 is currently not very well known, and it is still being housed in Le Bourget as a museum exhibit. In 2015, the organisation Club Concorde announced that it had raised funds of £ 120 million for a static display and to buy the Concorde at Le Bourget, restore it and return it to service as a heritage aircraft for air displays and charter hire by 2019, to coincide with the 50th anniversary of Concorde 's first flight.
In July 2015, it was reported that planning permission had been granted for the construction of the museum at Bristol Filton Airport to house G - BOAF the last Concorde where it is intended to form a key exhibit of the new Bristol Aviation Heritage Museum.
In September 2015, Club Concorde announced it had secured over £ 160 million to return an aircraft to service. Club Concorde president Paul James said:
The main obstacle to any Concorde project to date has been "Where 's the money? '' -- a question we heard ad nauseam, until we found an investor. Now that money is no longer the problem it 's over to those who can help us make it happen.
The organisation aims to buy the Concorde currently on display at Le Bourget airport. A tentative date of 2019 has been put forward for the return to flight -- 50 years after its maiden journey. However, due to regulatory and technical hurdles, some of the aviation community are highly skeptical of the plan, including former Concorde captain and Club Concorde co-founder William "Jock '' Lowe, who was quoted in June 2016 saying:
Let 's assume you could rip the whole thing apart and ultrasound the fuselage. There are thousands, many thousands of hydraulic seals on the airplane.... Every one of them would have to be remanufactured and replaced. (But) the manufacturing facilities are just not there.... And if you got them all together, what sort of testing regimen would be there?... It took seven years of flight testing to get it into service in the first place.
On 25 July 2000, Air France Flight 4590, registration F - BTSC, crashed in Gonesse, France after departing from Paris - Charles de Gaulle en route to John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City, killing all 100 passengers and 9 crew members on board the flight, and 4 people on the ground. It was the only fatal accident involving Concorde.
According to the official investigation conducted by the Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la Sécurité de l'Aviation Civile (BEA), the crash was caused by a metallic strip that had fallen from a Continental Airlines DC - 10 that had taken off minutes earlier. This fragment punctured a tyre on Concorde 's left main wheel bogie during take - off. The tyre exploded, and a piece of rubber hit the fuel tank, which caused a fuel leak and led to a fire. The crew shut down engine number 2 in response to a fire warning, and with engine number 1 surging and producing little power, the aircraft was unable to gain altitude or speed. The aircraft entered a rapid pitch - up then a violent descent, rolling left and crashing tail - low into the Hôtelissimo Les Relais Bleus Hotel in Gonesse.
The claim that a metallic strip caused the crash was disputed during the trial both by witnesses (including the pilot of Jacques Chirac 's aircraft that had just landed on an adjacent runway when Flight 4590 caught fire) and by an independent French TV investigation that found a wheel spacer had not been installed in the left - side main gear and that the plane caught fire some 1,000 feet from where the metallic strip lay. British investigators and former French Concorde pilots looked at several other possibilities that the BEA report ignored, including an unbalanced weight distribution in the fuel tanks and loose landing gear. They came to the conclusion that the Concorde veered off course on the runway, which reduced takeoff speed below the crucial minimum. John Hutchinson, who had served as a Concorde captain for 15 years with British Airways, said that "the fire on its own should have been ' eminently survivable; the pilot should have been able to fly his way out of trouble ' '', had it not been for a "lethal combination of operational error and ' negligence ' by the maintenance department of Air France '' that "nobody wants to talk about ''.
On 6 December 2010, Continental Airlines and John Taylor, one of its mechanics, were found guilty of involuntary manslaughter, but on 30 November 2012, a French court overturned the conviction, saying mistakes by Continental and Taylor did not make them criminally responsible.
Prior to the accident, Concorde had been arguably the safest operational passenger airliner in the world in passenger deaths - per - kilometres travelled with zero, but there had been two prior non-fatal accidents and a rate of tyre damage some 30 times higher than subsonic airliners from 1995 to 2000. Safety improvements were made in the wake of the crash, including more secure electrical controls, Kevlar lining on the fuel tanks and specially developed burst - resistant tyres. The first flight with the modifications departed from London Heathrow on 17 July 2001, piloted by BA Chief Concorde Pilot Mike Bannister. During the 3 - hour 20 - minute flight over the mid-Atlantic towards Iceland, Bannister attained Mach 2.02 and 60,000 ft (18,000 m) before returning to RAF Brize Norton. The test flight, intended to resemble the London -- New York route, was declared a success and was watched on live TV, and by crowds on the ground at both locations.
The first flight with passengers after the accident took place on 11 September 2001, landing shortly before the World Trade Center attacks in the United States. This was not a commercial flight: all the passengers were BA employees. Normal commercial operations resumed on 7 November 2001 by BA and AF (aircraft G - BOAE and F - BTSD), with service to New York JFK, where mayor Rudy Giuliani greeted the passengers.
Concorde had suffered two previous non-fatal accidents that were similar to each other.
Of the twenty aircraft built, 18 are still complete. Many are on display at museums in the United Kingdom, France, the United States, Germany and Barbados.
The only supersonic airliner in direct competition with Concorde was the Soviet Tupolev Tu - 144, nicknamed "Concordski '' by Western European journalists for its outward similarity to Concorde. It had been alleged that Soviet espionage efforts had resulted in the theft of Concorde blueprints, supposedly to assist in the design of the Tu - 144. As a result of a rushed development programme, the first Tu - 144 prototype was substantially different from the preproduction machines, but both were cruder than Concorde. The Tu - 144S had a significantly shorter range than Concorde. Jean Rech, Sud Aviation, attributed this to two things, a very heavy powerplant with an intake twice as long as that on Concorde, and low - bypass turbofan engines with too - high a bypass ratio which needed afterburning for cruise. The aircraft had poor control at low speeds because of a simpler supersonic wing design; in addition the Tu - 144 required braking parachutes to land while Concorde used anti-lock brakes. The Tu - 144 had two crashes, one at the 1973 Paris Air Show, and another during a pre-delivery test flight in May 1978.
Later production Tu - 144 versions were more refined and competitive. They had retractable canards for better low - speed control, turbojet engines providing nearly the fuel efficiency and range of Concorde and a top speed of Mach 2.35. Passenger service commenced in November 1977, but after the 1978 crash the aircraft was taken out of service. The aircraft had an inherently unsafe structural design as a consequence of an automated production method chosen to simplify and speed up manufacturing.
The American designs, the "SST '' project (for Supersonic Transport) were the Boeing 2707 and the Lockheed L - 2000. These were to have been larger, with seating for up to 300 people. Running a few years behind Concorde, the Boeing 2707 was redesigned to a cropped delta layout; the extra cost of these changes helped to kill the project. The operation of US military aircraft such as the Mach 3 + North American XB - 70 Valkyrie prototypes and Convair B - 58 Hustler strategic nuclear bomber had shown that sonic booms were quite capable of reaching the ground, and the experience from the Oklahoma City sonic boom tests led to the same environmental concerns that hindered the commercial success of Concorde. The American government cancelled its SST project in 1971, after having spent more than $1 billion.
The only other large supersonic aircraft comparable to Concorde are strategic bombers, principally the Russian Tu - 22, Tu - 22M, M - 50 (experimental), T - 4 (experimental), Tu - 160 and the American XB - 70 (experimental) and B - 1.
Before Concorde 's flight trials, developments in the civil aviation industry were largely accepted by governments and their respective electorates. Opposition to Concorde 's noise, particularly on the east coast of the United States, forged a new political agenda on both sides of the Atlantic, with scientists and technology experts across a multitude of industries beginning to take the environmental and social impact more seriously. Although Concorde led directly to the introduction of a general noise abatement programme for aircraft flying out of John F. Kennedy Airport, many found that Concorde was quieter than expected, partly due to the pilots temporarily throttling back their engines to reduce noise during overflight of residential areas. Even before commercial flights started, it had been claimed that Concorde was quieter than many other aircraft. In 1971, BAC 's technical director was quoted as saying, "It is certain on present evidence and calculations that in the airport context, production Concordes will be no worse than aircraft now in service and will in fact be better than many of them. ''
Concorde produced nitrogen oxides in its exhaust, which, despite complicated interactions with other ozone - depleting chemicals, are understood to result in degradation to the ozone layer at the stratospheric altitudes it cruised. It has been pointed out that other, lower - flying, airliners produce ozone during their flights in the troposphere, but vertical transit of gases between the layers is restricted. The small fleet meant overall ozone - layer degradation caused by Concorde was negligible. In 1995, David Fahey, of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in the United States, warned that a fleet of 500 supersonic aircraft with exhausts similar to Concorde might produce in a 2 per cent drop in global ozone levels, much higher than previously thought. Each 1 per cent drop in ozone is estimated to increase the incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer worldwide by 2 per cent. Dr Fahey said if these particles are produced by highly oxidised sulphur in the fuel, as he believed, then removing sulphur in the fuel will reduce the ozone - destroying impact of supersonic transport.
Concorde 's technical leap forward boosted the public 's understanding of conflicts between technology and the environment as well as awareness of the complex decision analysis processes that surround such conflicts. In France, the use of acoustic fencing alongside TGV tracks might not have been achieved without the 1970s controversy over aircraft noise. In the UK, the CPRE has issued tranquillity maps since 1990.
Some sources say Concorde typically flew 17 miles per U.S. gallon (14 L / 100 km; 20 mpg) per passenger.
Concorde was normally perceived as a privilege of the rich, but special circular or one - way (with return by other flight or ship) charter flights were arranged to bring a trip within the means of moderately well - off enthusiasts.
The aircraft was usually referred to by the British as simply "Concorde ''. In France it was known as "le Concorde '' due to "le '', the definite article, used in French grammar to introduce the name of a ship or aircraft, and the capital being used to distinguish a proper name from a common noun of the same spelling. In French, the common noun concorde means "agreement, harmony, or peace ''. Concorde 's pilots and British Airways in official publications often refer to Concorde both in the singular and plural as "she '' or "her ''.
As a symbol of national pride, an example from the BA fleet made occasional flypasts at selected Royal events, major air shows and other special occasions, sometimes in formation with the Red Arrows. On the final day of commercial service, public interest was so great that grandstands were erected at Heathrow Airport. Significant numbers of people attended the final landings; the event received widespread media coverage.
In 2006, 37 years after its first test flight, Concorde was announced the winner of the Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum. A total of 212,000 votes were cast with Concorde beating other British design icons such as the Mini, mini skirt, Jaguar E-Type, Tube map, the World Wide Web, K2 telephone box and the Supermarine Spitfire.
The heads of France and the United Kingdom flew Concorde many times. Presidents Georges Pompidou, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and François Mitterrand regularly used Concorde as French flagman aircraft in foreign visits. Queen Elizabeth II and Prime Ministers Edward Heath, Jim Callaghan, Margaret Thatcher, John Major and Tony Blair took Concorde in some charter flights such as the Queen 's trips to Barbados on her Silver Jubilee in 1977, in 1987 and in 2003, to the Middle East in 1984 and to the United States in 1991. Pope John Paul II flew on Concorde in May 1989.
Concorde sometimes made special flights for demonstrations, air shows (such as the Farnborough, Paris - LeBourget and MAKS air shows) as well as parades and celebrations (for example, of Zürich airport 's anniversary in 1998). The aircraft were also used for private charters (including by the President of Zaire Mobutu Sese Seko on multiple occasions), for advertising companies (including for the firm OKI), for Olympic torch relays (1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville) and for observing solar eclipses, including the solar eclipse of June 30, 1973 and again for the total solar eclipse on August 11, 1999.
The fastest transatlantic airliner flight was from New York JFK to London Heathrow on 7 February 1996 by the British Airways G - BOAD in 2 hours, 52 minutes, 59 seconds from take - off to touchdown aided by a 175 mph (282 km / h) tailwind. On 13 February 1985, a Concorde charter flight flew from London Heathrow to Sydney -- on the opposite side of the world -- in a time of 17 hours, 3 minutes and 45 seconds, including refuelling stops.
Concorde also set other records, including the official FAI "Westbound Around the World '' and "Eastbound Around the World '' world air speed records. On 12 -- 13 October 1992, in commemoration of the 500th anniversary of Columbus ' first New World landing, Concorde Spirit Tours (US) chartered Air France Concorde F - BTSD and circumnavigated the world in 32 hours 49 minutes and 3 seconds, from Lisbon, Portugal, including six refuelling stops at Santo Domingo, Acapulco, Honolulu, Guam, Bangkok, and Bahrain.
The eastbound record was set by the same Air France Concorde (F - BTSD) under charter to Concorde Spirit Tours in the US on 15 -- 16 August 1995. This promotional flight circumnavigated the world from New York / JFK International Airport in 31 hours 27 minutes 49 seconds, including six refuelling stops at Toulouse, Dubai, Bangkok, Andersen AFB in Guam, Honolulu, and Acapulco. By its 30th flight anniversary on 2 March 1999 Concorde had clocked up 920,000 flight hours, with more than 600,000 supersonic, many more than all of the other supersonic aircraft in the Western world combined.
On its way to the Museum of Flight in November 2003, G - BOAG set a New York City - to - Seattle speed record of 3 hours, 55 minutes, and 12 seconds. Due to the restrictions on supersonic overflights within the USA the flight was granted permission by the Canadian authorities for the majority of the journey to be flown supersonically over sparsely - populated Canadian territory.
Data from The Wall Street Journal, The Concorde Story, The International Directory of Civil Aircraft,
General characteristics
Performance
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who established a powerful empire in north india | List of largest empires in India - wikipedia
This is a historical list of the largest empires in India with an area covering more than 1 million square kilometres. An empire involves the extension of a state 's sovereignty over external territories. The values given here should generally be interpreted as being only indicative, and not as determining a precise ranking. The calculation of the land area of a particular empire is controversial. In general, the list centres on the side of including any land area that was explored and explicitly claimed, even if the areas were populated very sparsely or not at all.
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say my salam to her meaning in urdu | Peace be upon him - wikipedia
The Arabic phrase ʿalayhi as - salām (عليه السلام), which translates as "peace be upon him '' is a conventionally complimentary phrase or durood attached to the names of the prophets in Islam. The English phrase is also given the abbreviation pbuh in writing. An extended variant of the phrase reads ṣallā Allāhu ʿalayhi wa - ala ālihi wa - sallam (Arabic: صلى الله عليه وعلى آله وسلم ) (lit.) "blessings of God be upon him and his family and peace '', and it is often abbreviated SAWS in writing in an English - language context. The Arabic phrase is given the name ṣalawāt. The phrase is encoded as a ligature at Unicode codepoint U + FDFA صلى_الله_عليه_وسلم ARABIC LIGATURE SALLALLAHOU ALAYHE WASALLAM
Some Islamic scholars have voiced disagreement with the practice of abbreviating these phrases, arguing that it demonstrates laziness and a lack of respect.
When mentioning the Sahabah (the companions, disciples, scribes and family of the Islamic prophet Muhammad), raḍiya llāhu ʿan - hu (for males) and raḍiya ' llāhu ʿan - ha (for women) are used by Sunnis; they mean, "May God be pleased with him or her, '' respectively. The phrase is sometimes also used after mentioning other names, including those of Jesus and Moses, but the term عليه سلام ʿalayhi salām, "On him be peace, '' is more common.
In the translation of the meanings of the Qur'an in Surah (chapter) 33 entitled Al - Ahzab (The Confederates), ayah (verse) 56:
Surely Allah and His angels bless the Prophet; O you who believe! call for (Divine) blessings on him and salute him with a (becoming) salutation.
The Islamic scholar, ibn Kathir, titled the section in his tafsir (i.e., explanation of the Qur'an), the Tafsir ibn Kathir, regarding this verse, The Command to say Salah upon the Prophet (Muhammad).
This point is further founded in the saying by Muhammad that,
The miser is the one in whose presence I am mentioned, then he does not send the Salam upon me.
This was recorded by Ahmad ibn Hanbal in his Musnad.
The evidence for sending salat on Muhammad is not limited to the Qur'an. It is also found in hadith about Muhammad. Examples include:
Al - Tirmidhi recorded that Abu Hurairah said:
The Messenger of Allah said, "May he be humiliated, the man in whose presence I am mentioned and he does not send Salah upon me; may he be humiliated, the man who sees the month of Ramadan come and go, and he is not forgiven; may he be humiliated, the man whose parents live to old age and they do not cause him to be granted admittance to Paradise. ''
Al - Tirmidhi said that this hadith was, "Hasan gharib '' ("Good but only reported once '').
In Sahih Muslim, Sunan Abi Dawood, Sunan al - Tirmidhi, and Al - Sunan al - Sughra (Sunan al - Nasa'i), four of the six major Sunni hadith collections, recorded that Abu Hurairah said,
The Messenger of Allah said: "Whoever sends one Salah upon me, Allah will send ten upon him. ''
Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal reported in his Musnad that the companion of Muhammad, Abu Talha ibn Thabit said:
One morning the Messenger of Allah was in a cheerful mood and looked happy. They said, "O Messenger of Allah, this morning you are in a cheerful mood and look happy. '' He said, "Of course, just now someone (an angel) came to me from my Lord (Allah) and said, ' Whoever among your Ummah sends Salah upon you, Allah will record for him ten good deeds and will erase for him ten evil deeds, and will raise his status by ten degrees, and will return his greeting with something similar to it. ' ''
The isnad (chain of narrators) of this hadith is good.
Ahmad Bayhaqi reports that Abu Hurairah said that Muhammad said:
Send the Salat on Allah 's messengers and prophets for Allah sent them as He sent me.
Many Islamic scholars have instructed Muslims not to abbreviate sending the salat on Muhammad. Abd al - Aziz ibn Baz, the Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia said regarding the issue:
As it is prescribed to send prayers upon the Prophet (peace and prayers of Allah be upon him) in prayer when saying the tashahhud, and it is prescribed when giving khutbahs, saying Du'a and praying for forgiveness, and after the Adhan, and when entering and exiting the mosque, and when mentioning him in other circumstances, so it is more important to do so when writing his name in a book, letter, article and so on. So it is prescribed to write the prayers in full so as to fulfil the command that Allah has given to Muslims, and so that the reader will remember to say the prayers when he reads it. So one should not write the prayers on the Prophet (peace and prayers of Allah be upon him) in short form such as writing (S) or (SAWS) etc, or other forms that some writers use, because that is going against the command of Allah in His Book, where He says (interpretation of the meaning):
"Send your Salaah on (ask Allah to bless) him (Muhammad), and (you should) greet (salute) him with the Islamic way of greeting (salutation, i.e. As ‐ Salaamu ' Alaykum) '' (Quran 33: 56)
And that (writing it in abbreviated form) does not serve that purpose and is devoid of the virtue of writing "salla Allaahu ' alayhi wa salaam (May Allah send prayers and peace upon him) '' in full. Moreover the reader may not take notice of it and may not understand what is meant by it. It should also be noted that the symbol used for it is regarded as disapproved by the scholars, who warned against it.
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when was the last census held in nigeria | Population and housing censuses by country - Wikipedia
This is a list of national population and housing censuses.
UN recommends a census enumeration at least once every ten years, and once every 5 for even better data, rather than simply relying on estimates and projections alone. Complications to carrying out a census include tribal conflict, war, borders not demarcated, budget, inexperience, political snags, lack of manpower, and poor geographic information systems. A number of nations have not carried them out once a decade. It is not uncommon for a scheduled census to be deferred or delayed.
However, Lebanon has completely breached the rule, not having one since 1932. Afghanistan is closing in on 4 decades without a census, DRC, and Uzbekistan stand out as not having a census since before 1990. Madagascar has not had counts since 1990s. Eritrea only as a part of Ethiopia in 90s.
A partial and incomplete population census was taken in Afghanistan in June 1979. Wars since then have caused significant population displacement and there has not been an updated count nor does the nation seem to have the technical ability nor will to tackle a modern census.
The latest population census was conducted in Albania on September 30, 2011.
The previous census was conducted in April 2001. Prior to that, a census was conducted in 1989 at the end of the Communist regime.
Population and housing censuses have been carried out in Algeria in 1967, 1977, 1987, 1998, and 2008. The next census is scheduled for 2016.
General censuses of population and housing (Portuguese: Recenseamento Geral da População e Habitação (RGPH)) have been carried out in 1970 and 2014. The 1970 census counted 5,646,166 habitants. Preliminary results of the 2014 census have been published and final results will be published by the end of 2015. The 2014 census counted 24,383,301 habitants as of May 16, 2014.
Population & Housing Censuses was carried out in 1991, 2001, and 2011. The 2011 census was released in May 2014.
National population censuses are carried out in Argentina roughly every ten years, the last ones having been carried out in 2001 and on October 27, 2010.
The Australian census is operated by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. It is currently conducted every five years, the last occurrence being on August 9, 2016. Past Australian censuses were conducted in 1911, 1921, 1933, 1947, 1954, and 1961 -- 2011 every five years. In 2006, for the first time, Australians were able to complete their census online.
The Austrian census is run by Statistics Austria. It is carried out every ten years, the last one on October 31, 2011.
Population censuses have been taken in Azerbaijan under Russian / Soviet rule in 1897, 1926, 1937, 1939, 1959, 1970, 1979, and 1989. Beginning in 1991, two more census have been carried out in Azerbaijan: one in 1999 and one in 2009.
Population censuses were conducted by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) in 1974, 1981, 1991 and 2001. The 2011 Census was held from March 15 to 19. Well over ten million Bangladeshis who live / moved to India were not included in the 2011 count, while India 's census 2011 count did include them. If repatriated, numbers would be skewed significantly and go some way to explain the missing people (as calculated from birthrates) in Bangladesh 's count.
Censuses on population sizes in Barbados are conducted by the Barbados Statistical Service (BSS). The last major census was conducted in 2010.
The Belgium census is run by Statistics Belgium. The first census was carried out in 1846 then it is carried out every 10 years. The last census was taken in 2011. This is the first registered based census.
Population and housing censuses have been carried out in 1978, 1992, 2002 and 2013. 2013 census preliminary results have been published. Final results will be published in 2015.
Population and housing censuses have been carried out in 1992, 2001 and 2012.
Population censuses in Bosnia and Herzegovina were conducted in 1879, 1885, 1895, 1910, 1921, 1931, 1948, 1953, 1961, 1971, 1981 and 1991. The 2013 Census was organized in period between October 1 -- 15, 2013. This is the first census after the end of the Bosnian War.
Censuses in Botswana are run by the Central Statistics Office. There have been twelve censuses in Botswana 's history. The most recent was the 2011 Botswana Population and Housing Census, which occurred in August 2011.
The Brazilian census is carried out by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics every 10 years. The last one was in 2010. Earlier censuses were taken in 1872 (the first), 1900, 1920, 1941, 1950, 1960, 1970, 1980, 1991, 2000 and 2010.
Brazil 's Demographic Census is one of the most hierarchical collection of census data in the world. Its hierarchies include: Brazil (Country), Major Regions, States, Macro-regions, micro-regions, municipalities, districts, sub-districts, Neighborhoods and census tracts.
Depending on the administrative hierarchy, some types of data are not published to respect confidentiality.
For example:
Information is collected with handheld computers equipped with GPS receivers and digitized maps.
(IBGE)
Bulgarian governors organized a national census soon after the liberation of the Bulgarian lands. In 1881 a census took place in the Principality, while in 1884 a census was organized in Eastern Rumelia. The first census covering the unified state took place in 1887.
Since these first accounts, Bulgarian authorities had organized several population censuses: 1892, 1900, 1905, 1910, 1920, 1926, 1934, 1946, 1956, 1965, 1975, 1985, 1992, 2001, and 2011.
The data provided in the Bulgarian censuses from 1888 until World War II is regarded as highly reliable according to the standards of the time. The Bulgarian leading statisticians of the period were generally educated in Western universities and participated vividly in the international cooperation, therefore insisted and succeeded in introducing the best practices of the time. The quality of the data provided of later censuses is a matter of debate. The religion question in the 2001 census did n't allow the unaffiliated Bulgarians to be counted as such.
The Canadian census is run by Statistics Canada. The 1666 census of New France was conducted by French intendant Jean Talon, when he took a census to ascertain the number of people living in New France. The method and data was later used when Canada was founded 201 years later. The individual provinces (sometimes in conjunction with each other) conducted censuses in the 19th century and before. In 1871, Canada 's first formal census was conducted, which counted the population of Nova Scotia, Ontario, New Brunswick, and Quebec.
Censuses in Canada are conducted in five - year intervals. The last census was conducted in 2016. Censuses taken in mid-decade (1976, 1986, 1996, etc.) are referred to as quinquennial censuses. Others are referred to as decennial censuses. The first quinquennial census was conducted in 1956.
For the 2006 Census of Canada, respondents were able to complete their census questionnaire online for the first time. Other options for answering the questionnaire included postal mail (using a pre-paid envelope) and telephone (using an 800 number).
At a sub-national level, two provinces (Alberta and Saskatchewan) and two territories (Nunavut and Yukon) have legislation that allows local governments to conduct their own municipal censuses.
National population censuses are carried out in Chile every ten years by the National Statistics Institute (INE). The last one took place in 2012, but its results were dismissed by the INE due to a high omission rate and other problems. A new abbreviated census took place in April 2017, with a full census to be carried out in 2022. The last official census results are from 2002.
China 's first censuses were irregular: the Republic of China held censuses in 1913 and 1944. Under Mao Zedong, the People 's Republic of China held its first in 1952, but the second in 1963 was secret and unacknowledged until the early 1980s.
The 1982 Chinese Census was much more thorough and well - conducted than the first two, and similar censuses have been conducted decennially in 1990, 2000, and 2010. These are the world 's biggest censuses and over 6 million enumerators were engaged in the 2000 and 2010 censuses.
Between the national censuses, 1 % National Population Sample Surveys were taken in 1987, 1995, and 2005; 0.1 % National Population Sample Surveys have been taken annually since 2000. National agricultural, economic, and industrial censuses are also taken on a regular basis. The first economic census was taken in 2004 and the second 2008.
Costa Rica carried out its tenth population census in 2011. INEC, National Institute of Statistics and Census is in charge of conduct these censuses. Past Costa Rican censuses were conducted in 1864, 1883, 1892, 1927, 1950, 1963, 1973, 1984, and 2000.
The census in Croatia is carried out every 10 years. The last census was taken in 2011 (from April 1 to 28). The first census was in 1857 when what is now Croatia was part of the Austrian Empire.
The British colonisers carried out seven censuses in Cyprus in total: six at ten - year intervals between 1881 and 1931, and the last in 1946. Following the establishment of the modern state, there have been seven more censuses: in 1960 (the year of establishment), 1973, 1976, 1982, 1992, 2001 and 2011. The Statistical Service of the Cypriot government counts from the first British census, i.e. the latest census, in 2011, is referred to as the 14th census. In Northern Cyprus there have been three censuses: in 1996, 2006 and 2011. All three have been a matter of controversy, both in the north and the south, and abroad.
The census in the Czech Republic is carried out every 10 years by the Czech Statistical Office. The last census was taken in 2011. Earlier censuses were taken in 1869, 1880, 1890, 1900, 1910, 1921, 1930, 1950, 1961, 1970, 1980, 1991 and 2001.
The results of the last census are also available via the interactive model based software.
The first Danish census was in 1700 -- 1701, and contained statistical information about adult men. Only about half of it still exists. A census of school children was taken during the 1730s.
Following these early undertakings, the first census to attempt completely covering all citizens (including women and children who had previously been listed only as numbers) of Denmark - Norway was taken in 1769. At that point there were 797,584 citizens in the kingdom. Georg Christian Oeder took a statistical census in 1771 which covered Copenhagen, Sjælland, Møn, and Bornholm.
After that, censuses followed somewhat regularly in 1787, 1801, and 1834, and between 1840 and 1860, the censuses were taken every five years, and then every ten years until 1890. Special censuses for Copenhagen were taken in 1885 and 1895.
In the 20th century, censuses were taken every five years from 1901 to 1921, and then every ten years from 1930. The last traditional census was taken in 1970.
A limited population census based on registers was taken in 1976. From 1981 and each year onwards information that corresponds to a population and housing census is retrieved from registers. Denmark was the first country in the world to conduct these censuses from administrative registers. The most important registers are the Population Register (Det Centrale Personregister), the Building and Dwelling Register and the Enterprise Register. The central statistical office, Statistics Denmark is responsible for compiling these data. This information is available online in the Statbank Denmark.
It is possible to search a portion of the Danish censuses online at the Dansk Demografisk Database, and also view scanned versions at Arkivalier Online.
The Statistical Department of the Ministry of Finance conducted the first census in 1882, which considered as a preparatory step; the first true population census was conducted in 1897. Thereafter, censuses were conducted at ten - year intervals in 1907, 1917, 1927 and so on. The last one being in 2006.
Population censuses have been carried out in 1881, 1897, 1922, 1934, 1959, 1970, 1979, 1989, 2000 and 2011.
The censuses of 1881 and 1897 were carried out during the reign of the Russian Empire, when Estonia was divided between the Governorate of Estonia and the Governorate of Livonia. The latter also included territories of modern - day Latvia, however its Estonian - populated counties of Võru, Tartu, Viljandi, Pärnu and Saaremaa roughly corresponded to the later borders of the Republic of Estonia. Only later Estonian territories of Valga, Narva, Jaanilinn and Petseri County remained outside these figures.
The 1922 and 1934 censuses were carried out by the independent Republic of Estonia. The 1959, 1979 and 1989 censuses were carried out by the Estonian SSR of the Soviet Union and excluded Jaanilinn and Petseri County, which were annexed by the Russian SFSR in 1945. The 2000 and 2011 censuses were again carried out by the independent Republic of Estonia and also excluded the territories annexed by Russia in 1945. The current responsible institution is the Statistics Estonia.
Three censuses have been taken in Ethiopia: 1984, 1994 and in 2007. The responsible institution is the Central Statistical Agency.
Most of the census in 2007 was taken in August, while the Somali Region and the Afar Region were not covered. The northern Afar region is a remote, hot and arid area. The eastern Somali region (Ogaden) hosts a large nomadic Somali population and is a conflict area where Ethiopian regular forces are fighting against Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF).
The first population census was taken in 1749 when Finland was a part of Sweden. Although the parliament authorized a modern census in 1938, it was not undertaken until 1950. Finland has an accurate population registry system, thus censuses are in practice conducted by studying the registry, rather than as a separate project. Statistics Finland publishes various statistics on population: preliminary population statistics are published monthly, population structure report is published annually and population projections every three years. Once in ten years, the official locations and demarcations for densely populated areas (taajama) for traffic purposes, and official numbers of the speakers of national languages (Finnish or Swedish), for bilinguality, are reviewed.
The census in France is currently carried out by INSEE. The first census in France was conducted in 1801. Since 2004, a partial census has been carried out every year, and the results published as averages over 5 years.
The first systematic population on the European continent was taken in 1719 in Prussia (roughly corresponding to today 's northern Germany and western Poland).
The first large - scale census in the German Empire took place in 1895. Attempts at introducing a census in West Germany sparked strong popular resentment in the 1980s since many quite personal questions were asked. Some campaigned for a boycott. In the end the Constitutional Court stopped the census in 1980 and 1983. The last census was in 1987. Germany has since used population samples in combination with statistical methods, in place of a full census.
Census takes place every 10 years and is carried out by the National Statistical Service of Greece. The 2011 census ended on 24 May.
Modern population censuses have been taken in Guatemala in 1930, 1950, 1964, 1973, 1981, 1994 and in 2002. Controversial censuses include those in 1950 and 1964 (misclassification of the Maya population) and 1994 (generally questioned). About 14,000,000 people live in Guatemala as of July 2009.
Census takes place every 10 years and by - census between two censuses by the Census and Statistics Department of Hong Kong. The last census was conducted March 2011.
General censuses of population and housing (French: Recensement Général de la Population et de l'Habitat (RGPH)) have been carried out in 1950, 1971, 1982, 2003 et 2014. First results of the 2014 census will be published between November and December 2014; final results will be published in November 2015.
Official decennial censuses have been taken in Hungary since 1870; the latest one -- in line with the recommendations of the United Nations and the Statistical Office of the European Union -- was carried out in 2001. Starting from 1880 the Hungarian census system was based on native language (the language spoken at home in the early life of the person and at the time of the survey), vulgar language (the most frequently used language in the family), and other spoken languages.
The first Icelandic census took place in 1703, following upon the first Danish census of 1700 -- 1701. Further censuses were carried out in 1801, 1845 and 1865. The 1703 exercise was the first census ever to cover all inhabitants of an entire country, mentioning the name, age, and social position of each individual. All of the information still exists, although some of the original documents have been lost.
The need for censuses was eliminated through the setting up, in 1952, of the National Registry (Þjóðskrá), which later merged with other entities to form Registers Iceland. All those born in Iceland, and all new residents, are automatically registered. Individuals are identified in the registry by means of a national identification number (the so - called kennitala), a number composed of the date of birth in the format ddmmyy and four additional digits, the third of which is a control digit, and the last of which indicates the century in which the person was born (9 for the 1900s and 0 for the 2000s).
The National Registry doubles as an electoral register. Likewise, all bank accounts are linked to the national identification of the owner (companies and institutions all have their own identification numbers).
The decennial census of India is the primary source of information about the demographic characteristics of the population of India. The 2011 census is one of the largest censuses in the history of mankind.
The first census in India in modern times was conducted in 1872. First regular census was started in 1881 by Lord Ripon. Since then, a population census has been carried out every 10 years. The latest census commenced on May 1, 2010. It will create a National Population Register with photographs and fingerprints of every resident. All usual residents of India will also be provided with their Unique ID numbers and National Identity Cards. The census is carried out by the office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India, Delhi, an office in the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, under the 1948 Census of India Act. The act gives Central Government many powers like to notify a date for Census, power to ask for the services of any citizen for census work. The law makes it compulsory for every citizen to answer the census questions truthfully. The Act provides penalties for giving false answers or not giving answers at all to the census questionnaire. One of the most important provisions of law is the guarantee for the maintenance of secrecy of the information collected at the census of each individual. The census records are not open to inspection and also not admissible in evidence.
The census is conducted in two phases: first, house listing and house numbering phase and second, the actual population enumeration phase. The census is carried out by the canvassing method. In this method, each household is visited and the information is collected by specially trained enumerator. They collect data related to households e.g. number of members, water & electricity supply, ownership of land, vehicles, computers and other assets and services. In the second phase, total population is counted and statistics related to individuals are collected.
The first population census was done during the colonial era, 1930. Before that, a non-overall census was already conducted in 1920. After that census was done irregularly. The first census after independence was 1961, followed by 1971. Since 1980 it is conducted regularly every 10 years. In between, there is also economical census (every 10 years, five years after population census) and agricultural census (three years after population census). The last census was held on May 2010.
The Statistical Center of Iran carried out nationwide population and housing censuses every 10 years, the last of which occurred in 2006 (1385 AP). In the Islamic Republic of Iran, based on Article 4 of the Act of the Statistical Center of Iran (SCI), the census shall be implemented once every 10 years according to the Presidential decree. So far there have been six incidences of population census in Iran in the years 1956, 1966, 1976, 1986, 1996, and 2006. Since 2008 census in Iran is carried out once every 5 years.
The Central Statistical Organization - Ministry of Planning of Iraq is responsible for population and housing censuses.
According to the British government in Iraq, the population estimate in 1920 was 3 million. In 1927, the General Directorate of Population carried out the census, the population estimate was 2,968,054. Later, There were another 8 censuses in the years 1934, 1947, 1957, 1965, 1977, 1987 and the last one that was carried out in 1997.
After the War of Iraq, there was a plan for a new population and housing census. Data was collected and published in Central Statistical Organization website. Later, Data was updated, but no census was carried out due to country situation and dispute about census law.
Population censuses covering all of Ireland were conducted every ten years from 1821 to 1911 inclusive. The first census following independence was conducted in 1926 and done every ten years until 1946. Since then, most censuses have been conducted every five years from 1951 to 2011 with two exceptions. Instead of censuses in 1976 and 2001, they were instead conducted in 1979 and 2002 respectively. The next census is scheduled for 2021. All original census returns from 1901 onwards survive, together with some 19th century fragments.
The census in Ireland is carried out by the Central Statistics Office. The census is taken every five years, with more detailed information collected in years ending in 1 and less in the years ending in 6. The 1976 census was cancelled as a cost - saving measure, but a supplementary census was held in 1979 after it became apparent that the 1970s had seen major demographic changes. The census scheduled for 2001 was postponed until 2002 due to the outbreak of foot - and - mouth disease.
Data from the 1901 Census of Ireland and the 1911 Census of Ireland were first made publicly available in 1961. Subsequent census records will be made available 100 years after collection. The 1901 and 1911 census returns, together with the 19th century fragments, are freely available to view at the National Archives of Ireland website.
The first census in the state of Israel was held in November 1948, six months after its creation, to establish the population registry. Subsequent censuses were conducted by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (ICBS) in 1961, 1972, 1983 and 1995. In these, 20 % of households completed a detailed survey and the remainder a shorter questionnaire. There is no legal requirement to hold a census within a given interval; in practice, the ICBS requests and the government decides. The next Census to be held was postponed from 2006 to late 2008 / early 2009. Only the detailed survey of 20 % will be carried out, as a cost - saving measure.
The census in Italy is carried out by ISTAT every 10 years. The last five were in 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001 and 2011.
Four general censuses of population and housing (French: Recensement Général de la Population et de l'Habitat (RGPH)) have been carried out in, the latest ones being in 1998 and 2014
Japan collects census information every five years. The exercise is conducted by the Statistics Bureau of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. October 1, 2010 and 2015 are Population Census Day.
The census - form solicits information on name, gender, relationship to head of household, year and month of birth, marital status, nationality, number of members of household, type and nature of dwelling, floor area of dwelling, number of hours worked during the week prior to October 1, employment status, name of employer and type of business, and kind of work.
Regardless of nationality, all residents in Japan are required to complete the census form. Census form is only written in Japanese, but translation is available upon request in 27 different languages. Online census is only available in Japanese.
All information collected by census is confidential and protected by Statistics Act. Information provided by census can never be used for any investigation purposes such as immigration control, police investigation, tax collections and so on. After the census, all forms are destroyed and recycled.
In Tokyo, people can choose to answer the census questions by filling out the paper form, or they can choose to answer census questions online. Unique ID and password are provided with the census form. The online census form is only available for residents of Tokyo. This is because a high concentration of people in Tokyo are living in apartment buildings or gated communities, which restricts the access of census workers.
The first population census after the independence in 1946 was taken in 1952. It did only count the number of people in the households and could therefore be considered only to be a housing census. The first real complete census was taken in 1961. The following censuses have been taken in 1979, 1994 and 2004. The distribution of Palestinians and Jordanians within the population has been a politically sensitive issue since the Six - Day war in 1967.
The first census in Kenya was conducted in 1948, when Kenya was still a colony administered by the British. Since 1969 census has been taken every ten years. The last census to date was in 2009. Kenya is the first African country to produce a completely processed census within one year after census
Kosovo, administered by the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo since 1999, declared independence in 2008. Kosovo government is planning a general population census for 2011. The first census was conducted in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1921.
The most recent census in Latvia was in 2011. Before that, most censuses were conducted under Soviet control. The census is carried out by the Centrālā Statistikas Pārvalde (Central Statistical Bureau).
No census has been conducted in Lebanon since 1932. It indicated a population of 861,399 Lebanese. Various estimates of the population have been taken since; in 1956 it was estimated a population of 1,411,416, with 54 % Christian and 44 % Muslim. Conducting a census since then has been complicated by various conflicts in the 1970s and 1980s, as well as by the sensitivity of religious issues.
The census in Malaysia is carried out every 10 years, like many nations, since 1960 (with the exception of the fourth census, which was carried out in 1991). The next census should be carried out in 2020. The most recent census was from July 6 to August 22, 2010.
The foundation of the Republic of Macedonia followed the breakup of the former Yugoslav Republic in 1991. The first population and housing census was taken in the summer 1994. The second census was taken in the autumn 2002. Both censuses were observed by international experts due to the sensitive issue regarding the ethnic distribution (i.e. of Macedonian or Albanian origin).
Population and housing censuses for Mauritius was collected in 1972, 1983, and 2000; although respondents were asked to identify their race / ethnic origin in the 1972 census, this question was dropped from the following censuses because "the government felt that it was a divisive question ''. The Statistics Act directed that all official censuses be conducted by Statistics Mauritius, as well as serve as the central depository for this information.
General censuses of population and housing (Arabic: الإحصاء العام للسكان والسكنى / French: Recensement Général de la Population et de l'Habitat (RGPH)) have been carried out since independence in 1960, 1971, 1982, 1994, 2004 and 2014. The 2014 census results will be published on http://rgph-2014.hcp.ma/ by the end of 2014.
The first census was taken in 1980. The second in 1997. The third was taken August 1 -- 14, 2007.
A general census of population and housing has been carried out in 2014. Provisional results have been published and final results will be published in May 2015. The 2014 census counted 51,419,420 inhabitants.
In accordance with the Statistics Act No. 66 of 1976, Namibia conducts a Population and Housing Census every ten years. After independence the first one was carried out in 1991, further rounds followed in 2001 and 2011. In Namibia, the de facto method is used. For enumeration purposes the country is demarcated into 4,042 enumeration areas. These areas do not overlap with constituency boundaries in order to get reliable data for election purposes as well.
The first census in the Netherlands was conducted in 1795, and the last in 1971. A law was produced on April 22, 1879, ordering a census to be conducted every ten years.
The census that was planned for 1981 was postponed and later cancelled. A call for privacy was responsible for the cancellation of any further census since 1991. Censuses are being conducted by the Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek since 1899. The censuses today are mostly (population, fiscal) register based, combined with surveying.
The census in New Zealand is carried out by Statistics New Zealand (Tatauranga Aotearoa), usually every five years. For the 2006 and 2013 Census of New Zealand, respondents could choose to complete their census questionnaire online. The Census scheduled for March 8, 2011 was cancelled due to the February 2011 Christchurch earthquake. A census was instead held on March 5, 2013. Statistics New Zealand plan to resume the 5 - yearly schedule after this with a census planned for 2018.
Population censuses are conducted every tenth year in Nepal. The first was held in 1911 and the most recent was held in 2011.
Population censuses have been taken in Nigeria during colonial time in 1866, 1871, 1896, 1901, 1911, 1921 and 1952. The censuses covered only the southern part of the country except for the 1952 census which was country wide, and the censuses before 1921 were based on administrative estimates rather than on an actual enumeration.
Censuses during the independence were taken 1962, 1963, 1973, 1991 and 2006. The results of the 1962 census were considered inaccurate enough that a new census was ordered on February 19, 1963. The results from 1973 and 2006 were highly disputed, but no recounts were taken. The preliminary results for 2006 indicates a population of 140 million people. 700,000 enumerators were engaged in this operation.
The two first male censuses was conducted during the 1660s and 1701. Later statistical censuses were held in 1769, 1815, 1835, 1845, and 1855. Norway 's first nominative, complete census was taken in 1801, when Norway still was ruled by the Oldenburg dynasty of Denmark - Norway. The scope of the census followed the de jure principle, so military persons should be included as well as foreigners if they were residents. The 1801, 1865, 1900 and 1910 censuses are transcribed and made searchable on the internet. The census records are made publicly available when 100 years have passed. Since 1900, a census has been conducted every ten years. (However, the 1940 census was postponed to 1946, and the census after 1990 came in 2001.) Since 2001 the population census has been combined with the housing statistics. The 2001 questionnaire only asked about households and who was living in them, while no questionnaires will be mailed out for the 2011 census, since the administrative data on households is sufficient.
Censuses have been taken in the Sultanate of Oman in 1993 and 2003.
The first Pakistani census after the proclamation of independence was conducted in 1951. It was decreed that censuses have to be carried out once in 10 years. The second census was conducted in 1961. However the third one was conducted in 1972 because of Bangladesh Liberation War. The fourth census was held in 1981. The fifth census was delayed to March 1998. The sixth census of Pakistan was planned for October 2008, but was delayed due to political instability. The long overdue census is planned to be held in March 2017, 19 years after the last one was undertaken.
The first census in Peru was carried out in 1836. The 11th and latest one was the 2007 Census and was carried out by Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática in August 2007.
The census of the Philippines is enumerated every 5 years (beginning on 1960, except in 2005 where it was moved to 2007 due to budgetary constraints) and the results are used to allocate Congressional seats (congressional apportionment) and government program funding.
The census is performed by the Philippine Statistics Authority. The first official census in the Philippines was carried out by the Spanish government pursuant to a royal decree calling for the counting of persons living as of the midnight of December 31, 1877. The first door - to - door census was conducted in 1903 to fulfill Public Act 467 which was approved by the U.S. Congress in July 1902. The last national census was held in 2010. For years between the censuses, the NSO issues estimates made using surveys and statistical models.
The census in Poland is carried out by GUS approximately every 10 years. The 2002 census was conducted between 21 May and June 8. Poland 's most recent census was held in 2011.
The first systematic census in Portugal was carried out in January 1, 1864. The census in Portugal is carried out by Instituto Nacional de Estatística (INE) every 10 years. The last census was taken in March 21, 2011.
The first census in Romania was carried out in 1859. It is now carried out every ten years by the Institutul Naţional de Statistică (INSSE). The last census was in 2011.
In Russia, the first census of the tax - payers was made in 1722 -- 1723 by the order of Peter the Great (only men were counted), and was ordered to be repeated every twenty years. The only complete Russian Empire Census was carried out in 1897. All - Union Population Censuses were carried out in the USSR (which included RSFSR and the other republics) in 1920 (urban only), 1926, 1937, 1939, 1959, 1970, 1979, and 1989. The first post-Soviet Russian Census was carried out in 2002, followed by the 2010 Census. Currently, the census is the responsibility of the Federal State Statistics Service.
Population censuses have been taken in Saudi Arabia in 1962 / 63 (incomplete), 1974 (complete but not reliable), 1992, 2004 and 2010. An agriculture census was taken in 1999.
The census ordinarily takes place every 10 years. The last census was in 2011, the previous one was in 2002 (although having been planned for 2001) and the next is planned for 2021. The censuses before were organized in 1991, 1981, 1971, 1961, 1953 and 1948, during Communist Yugoslavia. During the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, censuses were conducted in 1931 and 1921; the census in 1941 was never conducted due to the outbreak of WWII.
The autonomous Principality of Serbia, had conducted the first population census in 1834; the subsequent censuses were conducted in 1841, 1843, 1846, 1850, 1854, 1859, 1863 and 1866 and 1874. During the era of the independent Kingdom of Serbia, six censuses were conducted starting on 1884 and the last one being in 1910. And then the frequent wars had prevented organizing any census prior to the Yugoslav one in 1921.
For the portions of Serbia ruled by Austria - Hungary until 1918, there were a total of five Austro - Hungarian censuses -- 1910, 1900, 1890, 1880 and 1869, immediately after the Dual Monarchy 's constitution.
First modern census in the area of today 's Slovakia was taken in 1869. Today, the census is conducted every 10 years by the Statistical Office of Slovak Republic. Last census was in May 2011.
The first census of modern Slovenia was carried in 1991, after independence had been declared. The Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia conducted the second census in 2002. Further censuses were carried out in 2011 and then every 10 years.
The first census of South Africa was taken in 1911. Several enumerations have occurred since then, with the most recent three being carried out by Statistics South Africa in 1996, 2001 and 2011.
South Korea had a census in 2000.
The census was once again held in 2015.
The census in Spain is carried out by INE every 10 years. Although there has been an old tradition and like for making census in Spain, the oldest ones dating back to the 12th century (by Alfonso VII of the Kingdom of Castile), the first modern census was carried out in 1768 by Conde de aranda, under the reign of Carlos III. The last four were in 1971, 1981, 1991, and 2001.
The census in Sri Lanka is carried out by the Department of Census and Statistics every 10 years, with the next one being planned for 2011. The 2011 one being the first post-war census in three decades. The census will cover all Grama Niladhari (GN) divisions of the country. The first scientific census in Sri Lanka was conducted on March 27, 1871. The last four were in 1963, 1971, 1981 and 2001 with a census estimate in 1989. The 2001 census was only carried out in 18 Districts due to the Sri Lankan Civil War.
Population censuses have been carried out in Sudan in 1955 / 56, 1973 (national), 1983 (national) and 1993 (only north). A census was conducted in April 2008. Some areas -- namely Darfur, Juba, and Malakal -- were difficult to measure.
The first population census in Sweden was carried out in 1749. The last population and housing census was carried out in 1990. It is planned to conduct population and housing censuses based on registers in the future.
In Switzerland, the Federal Population Census (German: Eidgenössische Volkszählung, French: Recensement fédéral de la population, Italian: Censimento federale della popolazione, Romansh: Dumbraziun federala dal pievel) has been carried out every 10 years starting in 1850. The census was initiated by Federal Councillor Stefano Franscini, who evaluated the data of the first census all by himself after Parliament failed to provide the necessary funds. The census is now being conducted by the Swiss Federal Statistical Office.
Data collected include population data (citizenship, place of residence, place of birth, position in household, number of children, religion, languages, education, profession, place of work, etc.), household data (number of individuals living in the household, etc.), accommodation data (surface area, amount of rent paid, etc.) and building data (geo coordinates, time of construction, number of floors, etc.). Participation is compulsory and reached 99.87 % of the population in 2000.
Since 2010, the population census has been carried out and analysed annually in a new format by the Federal Statistical Office (FSO). In order to ease the burden on the population, the information is primarily drawn from population registers and supplemented by sample surveys. Only a small proportion of the population (about 5 %) is surveyed in writing or by telephone. The first reference day for the new census was December 31, 2010.
The first population census in Syria was taken by the French Mandatory Regime in 1921 -- 22. This is however not considered reliable. Censuses during independence have been taken 1947, 1960 (the first comprehensive demographic investigation), 1970, 1976 (a sample census), 1981, 1994 and 2004 and the next would be taken at 2017.
The first census in Taiwan was conducted in 1905, while Taiwan was under Japanese rule.
A census is conducted every 10 years, the latest being in 2010. The National Statistical Office of Thailand is in charge of conducting the census.
General population and housing censuses were carried out in 1960, 1970, 1981 and 2010.
General censuses of population and housing (French: Recensement Général de la Population et de l'Habitat (RGPH)) have been carried out in 1921, 1926, 1931, 1936, 1946, 1956, 1966, 1975, 1984, 1994, 2004 and 2014. First results (20 %) were published in September 12, 2014, the final results will be published between January and December 2015.
The Turkish census is run by the Turkish Statistical Institute. The first census in Turkey was conducted in 1927. After 1935, it took place every 5 years until 1990. Now, the census takes place every 10 years. The last census was in 2000. It can be noted that the census enumeration takes place on one single day in Turkey (in other countries it takes 1 -- 2 weeks). This required some 900,000 enumerators in 2000. The 15th census based on improved geographical information systems is planned for 2010.
A census was taken in the Ottoman Empire 1831 -- 38 by Sultan Mahmud II (1808 -- 1839) as a part of the reform movement Tanzimat. Christian and Jewish men were counted but the female population was excluded.
The first censuses in Uganda were taken in 1911, 1921 and 1931. It was done in a rather primitive way. The enumeration unit was ' huts ' and not individuals. More scientific censuses were taken 1948 and 1959 where the enumeration unit was persons. The census was however divided into two separate enumerations, one for Africans, and one for the non-African population. The censuses during independence 1969, 1980, 1991 were taken jointly for all races. The censuses 1980 and 1991 included housing information and in addition a larger questionnaire for a sample of the population. However, the questionnaires for the 1980 were lost and only provisional figures are available from this census.
The census in 2002 involved some 50,000 enumerators and supervisors. It covered several topics including: population and housing; agriculture; and Micro - and small Enterprises administered at individual / household level. The Preliminary Results were published two weeks after the enumeration. The Final Results were released in March 2005, while the analytical findings and the district level results were scheduled to be released in the second quarter of 2006.
The most recent census was in August 2014.
The first post-Soviet Ukrainian Census was carried out by State Statistics Committee of Ukraine in 2001, 12 years after the last All - Union census in 1989.
In the seventh century, Dál Riata was the first territory in what is now the UK to conduct a census. The Domesday Book of 1086 in England contained listings of households but its coverage was not complete and its intent was not the same as modern censuses.
Following the influence of Malthus and concerns stemming from his An Essay on the Principle of Population the UK census as we know it today started in 1801. The census has been conducted every ten years since 1801 and most recently in 2011.
The first four censuses (1801 -- 1831) were mainly headcounts and contained little personal information. The 1841 Census, conducted by the General Register Office, was the first to record the names of everyone in a household or institution. From 1851 onwards the census shows the stated age and relationship to the head of household for each individual. Because of World War II, there was no census in 1941. The actual census dates were 6 June 1841, 30 March 1851, 7 April 1861, 2 April 1871, 3 April 1881, 5 April 1891, 31 March 1901, 27 March 1911.
The census of England & Wales is undertaken for the government by the Office for National Statistics (ONS). The General Register Office for Scotland (GROS) conducts its own census, while the census in Northern Ireland is carried out by the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA). Public access to the census returns is restricted under the terms of the 100 - year rule. The most recent returns made available to researchers are those of the 1911 Census.
The most recent census, the United Kingdom Census 2011 took place on March 27, 2011. The next census will take place in 2021. The Office for National Statistics is looking into supplementing the census data with administrative data already collected by government departments and agencies, to lessen the burden on the population. They are also planning to conduct the 2021 Census online.
The United States Constitution and federal law mandate that a census be taken every ten years in order to apportion the number of members of the United States House of Representatives among the several states. Census statistics are also used in order to apportion federal funding for many social and economic programs.
The first U.S. Census was conducted in 1790 by Federal marshals. During the 19th century and through the 1940 census, enumeration was accomplished through political districts. Each ward was responsible for producing a census.
From 1950 onward, census forms were mailed to every address on record with the United States Post Office, including the Armed Services Postal System, in an effort to enhance completeness of the data collected. Beginning in 1970, it was made illegal to fail to return a completed census form. Computer technology was also introduced.
The 2010 census counted over 308 million people.
By law (92 Stat. 915, Public Law 95 - 416, enacted on October 5, 1978), individual census records are sealed for 72 years. The individual census data most recently released to the public was the 1940 census, released on April 2, 2012. Aggregate census data are released when available.
In addition to the decennial federal census, local censuses have also been conducted, for example, in Massachusetts, which conducted a statewide census every five years until 1985. Some states conducted limited censuses for various purposes, and these are typically located in state archives.
The last census in Uzbekistan was carried out in 1989 during Soviet rule. Uzbekistan itself has never carried one out.
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what was the population in china before the one child policy | One - child policy - wikipedia
The one - child policy, a part of the family planning policy, was a population planning policy of China. It was introduced in 1979 and began to be formally phased out near the end of 2015 and the beginning of 2016. The policy allowed exceptions for many groups, including ethnic minorities. In 2007, 36 % of China 's population was subject to a strict one - child restriction, with an additional 53 % being allowed to have a second child if the first child was a girl. Provincial governments imposed fines for violations, and the local and national governments created commissions to raise awareness and carry out registration and inspection work.
According to the Chinese government, 400 million births were prevented. Scholars have widely disputed this claim with Martin King Whyte and Wang et al finding that the policy had little effect on population growth or the size of the total population. China has been compared to countries with similar socioeconomic development like Thailand and Iran, along with the Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, which achieved similar declines of fertility without a one - child policy. Although 76 % of Chinese people supported the policy in a 2008 survey, it was controversial outside of China.
On October 29, 2015, it was reported that the existing law would be changed to a two - child policy, citing a statement from the Communist Party of China. The new law became effective on January 1, 2016, following its passage in the standing committee of the National People 's Congress on December 27, 2015.
During the period of Mao Zedong 's leadership in China, the birth rate fell from 37 per thousand to 20 per thousand. Infant mortality declined from 227 per thousand births in 1949 to 53 per thousand in 1981, and life expectancy dramatically increased from around 35 years in 1948 to 66 years in 1976. Until the 1960s, the government encouraged families to have as many children as possible because of Mao 's belief that population growth empowered the country, preventing the emergence of family planning programs earlier in China 's development. The population grew from around 540 million in 1949 to 940 million in 1976. Beginning in 1970, citizens were encouraged to marry at later ages and have only two children.
Although the fertility rate began to decline, the Chinese government observed the global debate over a possible overpopulation catastrophe suggested by organizations such as Club of Rome and Sierra Club. While visiting Europe in 1979, one of the top Chinese officials, Song Jian, read two influential books of the movement, The Limits to Growth and A Blueprint for Survival. With a group of mathematicians, Song determined the correct population of China to be 700 million. A plan was prepared to reduce China 's population to the desired level by 2080, with the one - child policy as one of the main instruments of social engineering. In spite of some criticism inside the party, the plan (also referred to as the Family Planning Policy) was officially adopted in 1979. The plan called for families to have one child each in order to curb a then - surging population and limit the demands for water and other resources, as well as to alleviate social, economic, and environmental problems in China. The policy was formally implemented as a temporary measure on September 18, 1980.
The one - child policy was originally designed to be a One - Generation Policy. It was enforced at the provincial level and enforcement varied; some provinces had more relaxed restrictions. The one - child limit was most strictly enforced in densely populated urban areas.
Beginning in 1980, the official policy granted local officials the flexibility to make exceptions and allow second children in the case of "practical difficulties '' (such as cases in which the father is a disabled serviceman) or when both parents are single children, and some provinces had other exemptions worked into their policies as well. In most areas, families were allowed to apply to have a second child if their first - born is a daughter. Furthermore, families with children with disabilities have different policies and families whose first child suffers from physical disability, mental illness, or intellectual disability were allowed to have more children. However, second children were sometimes subject to birth spacing (usually 3 or 4 years). Children born in overseas countries were not counted under the policy if they do not obtain Chinese citizenship. Chinese citizens returning from abroad were allowed to have a second child. Sichuan province allowed exemptions for couples of certain backgrounds. By one estimate there were at least 22 ways in which parents could qualify for exceptions to the law towards the end of the one - child policy 's existence. As of 2007, only 35.9 % of the population were subjected to a strict one - child limit. 52.9 % were permitted to have a second child if their first was a daughter; 9.6 % of Chinese couples were permitted two children regardless of their gender; and 1.6 % -- mainly Tibetans -- had no limit at all.
Following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, a new exception to the regulations was announced in Sichuan province for parents who had lost children in the earthquake. Similar exceptions had previously been made for parents of severely disabled or deceased children. People have also tried to evade the policy by giving birth to a second child in Hong Kong, but at least for Guangdong residents, the one - child policy was also enforced if the birth was given in Hong Kong or abroad.
In accordance with China 's affirmative action policies towards ethnic minorities, all non-Han ethnic groups are subjected to different laws and were usually allowed to have two children in urban areas, and three or four in rural areas. Han Chinese living in rural towns were also permitted to have two children. Because of couples such as these, as well as who simply pay a fine (or "social maintenance fee '') to have more children, the overall fertility rate of mainland China was close to 1.4 children per woman as of 2011.
The Family Planning Policy was enforced through a financial penalty in the form of the "social child - raising fee '', sometimes called a "family planning fine '' in the West, which was collected as a fraction of either the annual disposable income of city dwellers or of the annual cash income of peasants, in the year of the child 's birth. For instance, in Guangdong, the fee is between 3 and 6 annual incomes for incomes below the per capita income of the district, plus 1 to 2 times the annual income exceeding the average. Both members of the couple need to pay the fine.
As part of the policy, women were required to have a contraceptive intrauterine device (IUD) surgically installed after having a first child, and to be sterilized by tubal ligation after having a second child. From 1980 to 2014, 324 million Chinese women were fitted with IUDs in this way and 108 million were sterilized. Women who refused these procedures -- which many resented -- could lose their government employment and their children could lose access to education or health services. The IUDs installed in this way were modified such that they could not be removed manually, but only through surgery. In 2016, following the abolition of the one - child policy, the Chinese government announced that IUD removals would now be paid for by the government.
In 2013, Deputy Director Wang Peian of the National Health and Family Planning Commission said that "China 's population will not grow substantially in the short term ''. A survey by the commission found that only about half of eligible couples wish to have two children, mostly because of the cost of living impact of a second child.
In November 2013, following the Third Plenum of the 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, China announced the decision to relax the one - child policy. Under the new policy, families could have two children if one parent, rather than both parents, was an only child. This mainly applied to urban couples, since there were very few rural only children due to long - standing exceptions to the policy for rural couples. The coastal province of Zhejiang, one of China 's most affluent, became the first area to implement this "relaxed policy '' in January 2014. The relaxed policy has been implemented in 29 out of the 31 provinces, with the exceptions of Xinjiang and Tibet. Under this policy, approximately 11 million couples in China are allowed to have a second child; however, only "nearly one million '' couples applied to have a second child in 2014, less than half the expected number of 2 million per year. By May 2014, 241,000 out of 271,000 applications had been approved. Officials of China 's National Health and Family Planning Commission claimed that this outcome was expected, and that "second - child policy '' would continue progressing with a good start.
In 2016, 433 births and 211 deaths were recorded in Wulipu, Hubei. The birth rate was 8.9 ‰ and death rate was 4.3 ‰ resulting in a natural population increase of 4.6 ‰. In the results of a separate survey published by the Shayang County government, Wulipu 's population had increased from 48,044 to 48,132 during a survey period. 424 children were born during the survey period resulting in a birth rate of 8.82 ‰. During the same period, 63 people died, resulting in death rate of 1.31 ‰. Of the births in the survey, 406 (95.75 %) were in compliance with the family planning policy of China. 312 (73.58 %) of the births were the firstborn in the family. (All of these births were in compliance with the family planning policy of China.) Among the firstborn children, 157 were female. 107 (25.24 %) of the births were the second - born child in the family. 90 of these births were in compliance with the family planning policy of China. Among the second - born children, 47 were female. Five (1.18 %) of the births surveyed were neither the firstborn nor second - born child in the family. Four of these births were in compliance with the family planning policy of China. Among the children born who were neither firstborn nor second - born, two were female.
In October 2015, the Chinese news agency Xinhua announced plans of the government to abolish the one - child policy, now allowing all families to have two children, citing from a communiqué issued by the Communist Party "to improve the balanced development of population '' -- an apparent reference to the country 's female - to - male sex ratio -- and to deal with an aging population according to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. The new law took effect on 1 January 2016 after it was passed in the standing committee of the National People 's Congress on 27 December 2015.
The rationale for the abolition was summarized by former Wall Street Journal reporter Mei Fong: "The reason China is doing this right now is because they have too many men, too many old people, and too few young people. They have this huge crushing demographic crisis as a result of the one - child policy. And if people do n't start having more children, they 're going to have a vastly diminished workforce to support a huge aging population. '' China 's ratio is about five working adults to one retiree; the huge retiree community must be supported, and that will dampen future growth, according to Fong.
Since the citizens of China are living longer and having fewer children, the growth of the population imbalance is expected to continue, as reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation which referred to a United Nations projections forecast that "China will lose 67 million working - age people by 2030, while simultaneously doubling the number of elderly. That could put immense pressure on the economy and government resources. '' The longer term outlook is also pessimistic, based on an estimate by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, revealed by Cai Fang, deputy director. "By 2050, one - third of the country will be aged 60 years or older, and there will be fewer workers supporting each retired person. ''
Although many critics of China 's reproductive restrictions approve of the policy 's abolition, Amnesty International said that the move to the two - child policy would not end forced sterilizations, forced abortions, or government control over birth permits. Others also stated that the abolition is not a sign of the relaxation of authoritarian control in China. A reporter for CNN said, "It was not a sign that the party will suddenly start respecting personal freedoms more than it has in the past. No, this is a case of the party adjusting policy to conditions... The new policy, raising the limit to two children per couple, preserves the state 's role. ''
The abolition may not achieve a significant benefit, as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation analysis indicated: "Repealing the one - child policy may not spur a huge baby boom, however, in part because fertility rates are believed to be declining even without the policy 's enforcement. Previous easings of the one - child policy have spurred fewer births than expected, and many people among China 's younger generations see smaller family sizes as ideal. '' The CNN reporter adds that China 's new prosperity is also a factor in the declining birth rate, saying, "Couples naturally decide to have fewer children as they move from the fields into the cities, become more educated, and when women establish careers outside the home. ''
The one - child policy was managed by the National Population and Family Planning Commission under the central government since 1981. The Ministry of Health of the People 's Republic of China and the National Health and Family Planning Commission were made defunct and a new single agency National Health and Family Planning Commission took over national health and family planning policies in 2013. The agency reports to the State Council.
The policy was enforced at the provincial level through fines that were imposed based on the income of the family and other factors. "Population and Family Planning Commissions '' existed at every level of government to raise awareness and carry out registration and inspection work.
According to a 2017 study in the Journal of Economic Perspectives, it is complicated to evaluate the effects of the one - child policy on family outcomes because the Chinese government had already enacted aggressive family planning policy before the introduction of the one - child policy; seen a sharp drop in fertility rates before the enactment of the one - child policy; the one - child policy coincided with Chinese economic reform which would have contributed to reduced fertility rates; and other developing East Asian countries also experienced sharp declines in fertility rates. According to the study, "In general, very different views exist on how the one - child policy affected fertility: one group of studies argued that the one - child policy had a significant or decisive effect on fertility in China, while another group argued that socioeconomic development played a key role in China 's fertility decline. A plausible reconciliation of these views is that the one - child policy accelerated the already - occurring drop in fertility for a few years, but in the longer term, economic development played a more fundamental role in leading to and maintaining China 's low fertility level. To put it more bluntly, China 's fertility might well have dropped to the current low level with rapid economic development, even without the one - child policy, although the timeline of the decline would not appear quite the same. ''
The fertility rate in China continued its fall from 2.8 births per woman in 1979 (already a sharp reduction from more than five births per woman in the early 1970s) to 1.5 in 2010. This is similar to demographic transition seen in Thailand, Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu which have undergone similar changes in fertility rates without a one - child policy. China 's one - child policy significantly accelerated the advent of an aging society, radically altered the structure of the population, and helped create an aging population. While the policy may have achieved the stated demographic goals of preventing an estimated 200 million or more births (the official claim is 400 million), it produced many unintended and far - reaching consequences. These include a deficit of 40 million female babies, mostly as a direct consequence of illegal sex - selective abortions, and a population with an artificially large elderly demographic.
The sex ratio of a newborn infant (between male and female births) in mainland China reached 117: 100, and stabilized between 2000 and 2013, substantially higher than the natural baseline, which ranges between 103: 100 and 107: 100. It had risen from 108: 100 in 1981 -- at the boundary of the natural baseline -- to 111: 100 in 1990. According to a report by the National Population and Family Planning Commission, there will be 30 million more men than women in 2020, potentially leading to social instability, and courtship - motivated emigration.
The disparity in the gender ratio at birth increases dramatically after the first birth, for which the ratios remained steadily within the natural baseline over the 20 year interval between 1980 and 1999. Thus, a large majority of couples appear to accept the outcome of the first pregnancy, whether it is a boy or a girl. If the first child is a girl, and they are able to have a second child, then a couple may take extraordinary steps to assure that the second child is a boy. If a couple already has two or more boys, the sex ratio of higher parity births swings decidedly in a feminine direction. This demographic evidence indicates that while families highly value having male offspring, a secondary norm of having a girl or having some balance in the sexes of children often comes into play. Zeng 1993 reported a study based on the 1990 census in which they found sex ratios of just 65 or 70 boys per 100 girls for births in families that already had two or more boys. A study by Anderson & Silver (1995) found a similar pattern among both Han and non-Han nationalities in Xinjiang Province: a strong preference for girls in high parity births in families that had already borne two or more boys. This tendency to favour girls in high parity births to couples who had already borne sons was later also noted by Coale and Banister, who suggested as well that once a couple had achieved its goal for the number of males, it was also much more likely to engage in "stopping behavior '', i.e., to stop having more children.
The long - term disparity has led to a significant gender imbalance or skewing of the sex ratio. As reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, China has between 32 million and 36 million more males than would be expected naturally, and this has led to social problems. "Because of a traditional preference for baby boys over girls, the one - child policy is often cited as the cause of China 's skewed sex ratio... Even the government acknowledges the problem and has expressed concern about the tens of millions of young men who wo n't be able to find brides and may turn to kidnapping women, sex trafficking, other forms of crime or social unrest. '' The situation will not improve in the near future. According to the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, there will be 24 million more men than women of marriageable age by 2020.
According to a 2017 study in the Journal of Economic Perspectives, "existing studies indicate either a modest or minimal effect of the fertility change induced by the one - child policy on children education ''.
The one - child policy of China made it more expensive for parents with children to adopt, which may have had an effect upon the numbers of children living in state - sponsored orphanages. However, in the 1980s and early 1990s, poor care and high mortality rates in some state institutions generated intense international pressure for reform.
In the 1980s, adoptions accounted for half of the so - called "missing girls ''. Through the 1980s, as the one - child policy came into force, parents who desired a son but had a daughter often failed to report or delayed reporting female births to the authorities. Some parents may have offered up their daughters for formal or informal adoption. A majority of children who went through formal adoption in China in the later 1980s were girls, and the proportion who were girls increased over time.
In an interview with National Public Radio on October 30, 2015, Adam Pertman, president and CEO of the National Center on Adoption and Permanency, indicated that many young girls were adopted by citizens of other countries, particularly the United States, a trend which has been declining for some years. "The infant girls of yesteryear have not been available, if you will, for five, seven years. China has been... trying to keep the girls within the country... And the consequence is that, today, rather than those young girls who used to be available -- primarily girls -- today, it 's older children, children with special needs, children in sibling groups. It 's very, very different. ''
Since there are no penalties for multiple births, it is believed that an increasing number of couples are turning to fertility medicines to induce the conception of twins. According to a 2006 China Daily report, the number of twins born per year was estimated to have doubled.
The one - child policy has played a major role in improving the quality of life for women in China. For thousands of years, girls have held a lower status in Chinese households. However, the one - child policy 's limit on the number of children has prompted parents of women to start investing money in their well - being. As a result of being an only child, women have increased opportunity to receive an education, and support to get better jobs. One of the side effects of the one - child policy is to have liberated women from heavy duties in terms of taking care of many children and the family in the past; instead women had a lot of spare time for themselves to pursue their career or hobbies. The other major "side effect '' of the one child policy is that the traditional concepts of gender roles between men and women have weakened. Being one and the only "chance '' the parents have, women are expected to compete with peer men for better educational resources or career opportunities. Especially in cities where one - child policy was much more regulated and enforced, expectations on women to succeed in life are no less than on men.
It is reported that the focus of China on population planning helps provide a better health service for women and a reduction in the risks of death and injury associated with pregnancy. At family planning offices, women receive free contraception and pre-natal classes that contributed to the policy 's success in two respects. First, the average Chinese household expends fewer resources, both in terms of time and money, on children, which gives many Chinese people more money with which to invest. Second, since Chinese adults can no longer rely on children to care for them in their old age, there is an impetus to save money for the future.
As the first generation of law - enforced only - children came of age for becoming parents themselves, one adult child was left with having to provide support for his or her two parents and four grandparents. Called the "4 - 2 - 1 Problem '', this leaves the older generations with increased chances of dependency on retirement funds or charity in order to receive support. If personal savings, pensions, or state welfare fail, most senior citizens would be left entirely dependent upon their very small family or neighbours for assistance. If, for any reason, the single child is unable to care for their older adult relatives, the oldest generations would face a lack of resources and necessities. In response to such an issue, all provinces have decided that couples are allowed to have two children if both parents were only children themselves. By 2007, all provinces in the nation except Henan had adopted this new policy; Henan followed in 2011.
Heihaizi (Chinese: 黑 孩子; pinyin: hēiháizi) or "black child '' is a term denoting children born outside the one - child policy, or generally children who are not registered in the Chinese national household registration system.
Being excluded from the family register means they do not possess a Hukou, which is "an identifying document, similar in some ways to the American social security card. '' Since they do not legally exist and as a result can not access most public services, such as education and health care, and do not receive protection under the law.
Some parents may over-indulge their only child. The media referred to the indulged children in one - child families as "little emperors ''. Since the 1990s, some people have worried that this will result in a higher tendency toward poor social communication and cooperation skills amongst the new generation, as they have no siblings at home. No social studies have investigated the ratio of these over-indulged children and to what extent they are indulged. With the first generation of children born under the policy (which initially became a requirement for most couples with first children born starting in 1979 and extending into the 1980s) reaching adulthood, such worries were reduced.
However, the "little emperor syndrome '' and additional expressions, describing the generation of Chinese singletons are very abundant in the Chinese media, Chinese academia and popular discussions. Being over-indulged, lacking self - discipline and having no adaptive capabilities are traits that are highly associated with Chinese singletons.
Some 30 delegates called on the government in the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference in March 2007 to abolish the one - child rule, citing "social problems and personality disorders in young people ''. One statement read, "It is not healthy for children to play only with their parents and be spoiled by them: it is not right to limit the number to two children per family, either. '' The proposal was prepared by Ye Tingfang, a professor at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, who suggested that the government at least restore the previous rule that allowed couples to have up to two children. According to a scholar, "The one - child limit is too extreme. It violates nature 's law. And in the long run, this will lead to mother nature 's revenge. ''
Reports surfaced of Chinese women giving birth to their second child overseas, a practice known as birth tourism. Many went to Hong Kong, which is exempt from the one - child policy. Likewise, a Hong Kong passport differs from China mainland passport by providing additional advantages. Recently though, the Hong Kong government has drastically reduced the quota of births set for non-local women in public hospitals. As a result, fees for delivering babies there have surged. As further admission cuts or a total ban on non-local births in Hong Kong are being considered, mainland agencies that arrange for expectant mothers to give birth overseas are predicting a surge in those going to North America.
As the United States practises birthright citizenship, all children born in the US will automatically have US citizenship. The closest US location from China is Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands, a US dependency in the western Pacific Ocean that allows Chinese visitors without visa restrictions. As of 2012, the island was experiencing an upswing in Chinese births, since birth tourism there had become cheaper than to Hong Kong. This option is used by relatively affluent Chinese who often have secondary motives as well, wishing their children to be able to leave mainland China when they grow older or bring their parents to the US. Canada, compared to US, is less achievable as their government denies many visa requests.
Due to the preference in Rural Chinese society to birth a son, pre-natal sex determination and sex - selective abortions are illegal in China. Often argued as one of the key factors in the imbalanced sex - ratio in China, as excess female infant mortality and underreporting of female births can not solely explain this gender disparity. Researchers have found that the gender of the firstborn child in rural parts of China impact whether or not the mother will seek an ultrasound for the second child. 40 % of women with a firstborn son seek an ultrasound for their second pregnancy, versus 70 % of women with firstborn daughters. This clearly depicts a desire for women to birth a son if one has not yet been birthed. In response to this, the Chinese government made sex - selective abortions illegal in 2005.
The policy is controversial outside China for many reasons, including accusations of human rights abuses in the implementation of the policy, as well as concerns about negative social consequences.
The Chinese government, quoting Zhai Zhenwu, director of Renmin University 's School of Sociology and Population in Beijing, estimates that 400 million births were prevented by the one - child policy as of 2011, while some demographers challenge that number, putting the figure at perhaps half that level, according to CNN. Zhai clarified that the 400 million estimate referred not just to the one - child policy, but includes births prevented by predecessor policies implemented one decade before, stating that "there are many different numbers out there but it does n't change the basic fact that the policy prevented a really large number of births ''.
This claim is disputed by Wang Feng, director of the Brookings - Tsinghua Center for Public Policy, and Cai Yong from the Carolina Population Center at University of North Carolina Chapel Hill Wang claims that "Thailand and China have had almost identical fertility trajectories since the mid 1980s '', and "Thailand does not have a one - child policy. '' China 's Health Ministry has also disclosed that at least 336 million abortions were performed on account of the policy.
According to a report by the US Embassy, scholarship published by Chinese scholars and their presentations at the October 1997 Beijing conference of the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population seemed to suggest that market - based incentives or increasing voluntariness is not morally better but that it is in the end more effective. In 1988, Zeng Yi and Professor T. Paul Schultz of Yale University discussed the effect of the transformation to the market on Chinese fertility, arguing that the introduction of the contract responsibility system in agriculture during the early 1980s weakened family planning controls during that period. Zeng contended that the "big cooking pot '' system of the People 's Communes had insulated people from the costs of having many children. By the late 1980s, economic costs and incentives created by the contract system were already reducing the number of children farmers wanted.
A long - term experiment in a county in Shanxi Province, in which the family planning law was suspended, suggested that families would not have many more children even if the law were abolished. A 2003 review of the policy - making process behind the adoption of the one - child policy shows that less intrusive options, including those that emphasized delay and spacing of births, were known but not fully considered by China 's political leaders.
Corrupted government officials and especially wealthy individuals have often been able to violate the policy in spite of fines. Filmmaker Zhang Yimou had three children and was subsequently fined 7.48 million yuan ($1.2 million). For example, between 2000 and 2005, as many as 1,968 officials in central China 's Hunan province were found to be violating the policy, according to the provincial family planning commission; also exposed by the commission were 21 national and local lawmakers, 24 political advisors, 112 entrepreneurs and 6 senior intellectuals.
Some of the offending officials did not face penalties, although the government did respond by raising fines and calling on local officials to "expose the celebrities and high - income people who violate the family planning policy and have more than one child ''. Also, people who lived in the rural areas of China were allowed to have two children without punishment, although the family is required to wait a couple of years before having another child.
The one - child policy has been challenged for violating a human right to determine the size of one 's own proper family. According to a 1968 proclamation of the International Conference on Human Rights, "Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children. ''
According to the UK newspaper The Daily Telegraph, a quota of 20,000 abortions and sterilizations was set for Huaiji County in Guangdong Province in one year due to reported disregard of the one - child policy. According to the article local officials were being pressured into purchasing portable ultrasound devices to identify abortion candidates in remote villages. The article also reported that women as far along as 8.5 months pregnant were forced to abort, usually by an injection of saline solution. A 1993 book by social scientist, Steven W. Mosher, reported that women in their ninth month of pregnancy, or already in labour, were having their children killed whilst in the birth canal or immediately after birth.
According to a 2005 news report by Australian Broadcasting Corporation correspondent, John Taylor, China outlawed the use of physical force to make a woman submit to an abortion or sterilization in 2002 but ineffectively enforces the measure. In 2012, Feng Jianmei, a villager from central China 's Shaanxi province was forced into an abortion by local officials after her family refused to pay the fine for having a second child. Chinese authorities have since apologized and two officials were fired, while five others were sanctioned.
In the past, China promoted eugenics as part of its population planning policies, but the government has backed away from such policies, as evidenced by China 's ratification of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which compels the nation to significantly reform its genetic testing laws. Recent research has also emphasized the necessity of understanding a myriad of complex social relations that affect the meaning of informed consent in China. Furthermore, in 2003, China revised its marriage registration regulations and couples no longer have to submit to a pre-marital physical or genetic examination before being granted a marriage license.
The United Nations Population Fund 's (UNFPA) support for family planning in China, which has been associated with the One - Child policy in the United States, led the United States Congress to pull out of the UNFPA during the Reagan administration, and again under George W. Bush 's presidency, citing human rights abuses and stating that the right to "found a family '' was protected under the Preamble in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. President Obama resumed U.S. government financial support for the UNFPA shortly after taking office in 2009, intending to "work collaboratively to reduce poverty, improve the health of women and children, prevent HIV / AIDS and provide family planning assistance to women in 154 countries ''.
Sex - selected abortion, abandonment, and infanticide are illegal in China. Nevertheless, the United States Department of State, the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and the human rights organization Amnesty International have all declared that infanticide still exists. A writer for the Georgetown Journal of International Affairs wrote, "The ' one - child ' policy has also led to what Amartya Sen first called ' Missing Women ', or the 100 million girls ' missing ' from the populations of China (and other developing countries) as a result of female infanticide, abandonment, and neglect ''.
The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation offered the following summary as to the long term effects of sex - selective abortion and abandonment of female infants: "Multiple research studies have also found that sex - selective abortion -- where a woman undergoes an ultrasound to determine the sex of her baby, and then aborts it if it 's a girl -- was widespread for years, particularly for second or subsequent children. Millions of female fetuses have been aborted since the 1970s. China outlawed sex selective abortions in 2005, but the law is tough to enforce because of the difficulty of proving why a couple decided to have an abortion. The abandonment, and killing, of baby girls has also been reported, though recent research studies say it has become rare, in part due to strict criminal prohibitions. ''
Anthropologist G. William Skinner at the University of California, Davis and Chinese researcher Yuan Jianhua have claimed that infanticide was fairly common in China before the 1990s.
General:
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weapons used by the us army in ww2 | List of World War II weapons of the United States - wikipedia
Below are lots of different types of weapons used in World War II by the United States.
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el ministerio del tiempo season 4 release date | El Ministerio del Tiempo - wikipedia
El Ministerio del Tiempo, or The Ministry of Time, is a Spanish fantasy television series created by Javier and Pablo Olivares and produced by Onza Partners and Cliffhanger for Televisión Española. It premiered on 24 February 2015 on TVE 's main channel La 1. The series follows the exploits of a patrol of the fictional Ministry of Time, which deals with incidents caused by time travel.
On 24 March 2015, it was confirmed that TVE had renewed the series for a second season. The show was renewed for a third season on 22 September 2016. On 29 December 2016 it was announced that RTVE had sold the rights to Netflix to broadcast the third series internationally, outside of Spain, resulting in a bigger production budget.
The show was not renewed for a fourth season, as announced by Javier Olivares at the Fun & Serious festival in December 2017.
The Ministry of Time is the best kept secret of the Spanish state: an autonomous government institution that reports directly to the Prime Minister. Its patrols have to watch the doors of time so that no intruder from other eras can change history for their own benefit.
The series follows the assignments of the Ministry 's newest patrol: the one formed by Army of Flanders soldier Alonso de Entrerríos, 19th century student Amelia Folch and 21st century Samur paramedic Julián Martínez.
The series won the 2015 Ondas Award for Best Spanish Series. In 2017 it won at Premios Feroz the awards for best drama series, best lead actress (Aura Garrido) and best supporting actor for a television series (Hugo Silva, tied with Velvet 's José Sacristán).
Portugal was the first country to have the series adapted locally, with a version entitled Ministério do Tempo produced by Iniziomedia. As of December 2016 the format has also been sold to China, with negotiations mentioned for Germany, France, Italy and US.
On 27 September 2016 Onza Partners presented a lawsuit to the CDCA against Sony Pictures, NBCUniversal, and executive producers Shawn Ryan, Eric Kripke and John Davis for copyright infringement and breach of implied contract, claiming that the U.S. TV series Timeless is a copy of El Ministerio del Tiempo.
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is it legal to smoke weed in new zealand | Cannabis in New Zealand - Wikipedia
The use of cannabis in New Zealand is governed by the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, which makes unauthorised possession of any amount of cannabis illegal. There are political efforts to remove penalties on its use for those over 18 years of age. In October 2017, following the ascension of a Labour / Green / New Zealand First coalition to government, the Greens announced a nationwide referendum of the legality of cannabis for both medical and personal use, set to be held by 2020.
Cannabis is the fourth most widely used recreational drug in New Zealand, after caffeine, alcohol and tobacco, and the most widely used illegal drug. In the population of more than 4 million, 13.4 % of those aged 16 -- 64 use cannabis. This ranks as the ninth highest cannabis consumption level in the world.
Among Britain 's colonies, New Zealand was one of the few areas where the United Kingdom did not encourage extensive industrial hemp production, as the native harakeke plant could instead be used for fibre. In 1927, New Zealand passed the Dangerous Drugs Act, whose schedule listed, among other controlled drugs:
Indian hemp -- that is, the dried flowering or fruiting tops of the pistillate plant known as Cannabis sativa L. from which the resin has not been extracted, and
including --
Cannabis continued to be used as a prescription medication. In accordance with its international obligations under the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, New Zealand passed the Narcotics Act in 1965, which banned a number of drugs, including cannabis.
Recreational cannabis use was rare in New Zealand for most of the 20th century, with one scholar noting 1967 as a watershed point where demand for cannabis boomed among "musicians and university students ''.
Cannabis is the most widely used illegal drug in New Zealand and the fourth most widely used recreational drug after caffeine, alcohol and tobacco. The usage by those aged between 16 -- 64 is 13.4 %, the ninth highest level of consumption in the world, and 15.1 % of those who smoked cannabis used it ten times or more per month. According to a UN study usage by 15 - to 45 - year - olds in 2003 was about 20 % and this dropped to 17.9 % in 2010.
A 25 - year longitudinal study of "1000 Christchurch born young people between the ages of 15 -- 25 '' concluded that "regular or heavy cannabis use was associated with an increased risk of using other illicit drugs, abusing or becoming dependent upon other illicit drugs, and using a wider variety of other illicit drugs ''. The lead author of the study, David Fergusson, stated:
Cannabis use is controlled by the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975. Possession of any amount of cannabis is illegal. The maximum penalty for possession of cannabis is imprisonment for a term not exceeding three months or a $500 fine, although section 7 (2) of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 contains a rebuttable presumption against imprisonment in respect of possession offences in respect of class C controlled drugs, which include cannabis. Cultivation of cannabis carries a maximum penalty of seven years imprisonment. Selling cannabis, offering to sell or supplying cannabis to a person under the age of 18 years carries a maximum penalty of eight years imprisonment. Cannabis oil and hashish are defined as class B drugs, and those convicted of manufacturing or supplying face a maximum penalty of 14 years imprisonment. Possession of a class B controlled drugs carries a maximum sentence of up to three months imprisonment or a fine not exceeding $500.
Anyone caught in possession of at least 28 grams (1 oz) of cannabis or 100 cannabis joints is presumed to be a supplier, unless the defendant can prove they are not. However, in R v Hansen (2007), a majority of the Supreme Court held that this presumption was inconsistent with section 25 (c) of the Bill of Rights Act, which affirms the right of those charged with an offence to be presumed innocent until proven guilty. They also held that it was not a justified limitation under section 5 of that Act. Cannabis is a class C drug, of which the penalty for dealing can result in a maximum prison sentence of eight years under the Act. There have been many public campaigns to decriminalise cannabis but so far none have succeeded. It is generally accepted that the usage rate is high and possession in small quantities may not often be prosecuted. In some cases first offences may result in a formal warning and confiscation by police.
The Aotearoa Legalise Cannabis Party has stood candidates since the 1996 general election. They won 1.66 % of the party vote in that election, the largest proportion in its history. The party has never won an electorate seat, without which they must receive at least 5 % of the party vote to be represented in parliament.
In 2006, Green Party MP Metiria Turei 's Misuse of Drugs (Medicinal Cannabis) Amendment Bill was drawn from the member 's ballot. The purpose of the bill was to amend the Misuse of Drugs Act so that cannabis could be used for medicinal purposes, and to permit the cultivation and possession of a small amount of cannabis by registered medical users or a designated agent. The bill received a conscience vote at its first reading in July 2009, and was defeated 84 -- 34. All MPs in the ruling National Party voted against the bill, as did the sole members from United Future and Jim Anderton 's Progressive Party; while all members from the Green Party and ACT voted in favour of the bill (other than ACT MP Roger Douglas, who did not vote). The vote was split from MPs in the opposition Labour Party and the Māori Party.
In March 2016, New Zealand 's Associate Health Minister Peter Dunne has said that he would support policy change regarding medical marijuana if it is proven to be effective in treating illnesses. This, along with the seasonal shortage of cannabis that has been intensified by multiple police raids on cannabis crops, has put New Zealand 's cannabis policies in the political spotlight locally. There have been talks of policy change among government officials, and multiple MPs do support policy change, but as of yet there have been no actual plans made to change New Zealand 's laws around cannabis. NORML NZ is currently the predominant organisation pushing for a change, but support from a large proportion of the public exists. A poll carried out by the research company UMR surveyed 1750 New Zealanders, and the results concluded that 71 % of the people surveyed supported the idea of a medicinal marijuana regime in New Zealand.
In December 2016, the Green Party said that if it formed a government in the 2017 election it will legalise cannabis. ' Under its proposal, people would be able to legally grow and possess marijuana for personal use '. The party would also ' urgently amend the law so sick people using medicinal marijuana were not penalised '. In the formation of the Sixth Labour Government in 2017, the Greens leveraged a cannabis referendum, to be held before the expiration of the 52nd New Zealand Parliament in 2020.
At least four people have died while policing cannabis in New Zealand. Detective Travis Hughes and Christopher Scott were killed when their Cessna 172 crashed in Central Otago while on cannabis reconnaissance. Detective Tony Harrod died falling from a helicopter sling recovering plants in Taranaki.
During the 2009 Napier shootings, Jan Molenaar fired on three police officers executing a cannabis search warrant, killing Senior Constable Len Snee. People who knew Molenaar described a long - standing, tense relationship between him and the police surrounding the legality of his cannabis involvement, saying, ' Molenaar believed his home was being watched and told friends he was determined to "go out in blaze of glory '' if police came to arrest him ', and, ' police knew who Molenaar was and knew what he would do in a situation '.
A notable case involving cannabis growing equipment was the prosecution of the owner and general manager of the Switched on Gardener stores following a series of arrests and raids in 2010.
Approved cannabis - based pharmaceuticals can be prescribed by a specialist doctor, but requires patients to meet strict criteria. As of April 2016, only Sativex is approved for use in New Zealand; it is not subsidised, so patients must pay the full retail cost. Unapproved cannabis - based pharmaceuticals (e.g. Cesamet, Marinol) and non-pharmaceutical cannabis products can be approved on case - by - case basis by the Minister of Health. On 9 June 2015, Associate Health Minister Peter Dunne approved the one - off use of Elixinol, a cannabidiol (CBD) product from the United States for a coma patient., and on 4 April 2016, he approved the one - off use of Aceso Calm Spray, a non-pharmaceutical grade CBD cannabis - based product for a patient with a severe case of Tourette 's Syndrome. These two cases are the only ones to this date to have been approved by the Health Minister.
The New Zealand Medical Association (NZMA) supports having evidence - based, peer - reviewed studies of medical cannabis. In 2010 the New Zealand Law Commission made a recommendation to allow for its medical use. The NZMA, which made submissions on the issues paper, supports the stance put forward by the Law Commission. GreenCross New Zealand was the first legally registered support group fighting for patient rights to access cannabis as medicine, however, this group is now defunct due to not filing financial statements. As of September 2017 the only explicitly Medical Advocacy group is Medical Cannabis Awareness New Zealand (MCANZ) a registered Charity dedicated to legal access for patients now, and is mildly successful with the Non pharmaceutical route, having introduced Tilray for a small number of patients thereby allowing NZ stocks to be held.
In December 2017, it was announced that medicinal use will be legalized, in order to "ease suffering '' for those with "terminal illnesses or chronic pain ''. Those qualified to receive prescriptions will be able to purchase medicinal cannabis from licensed pharmacies. Additionally, the terminally ill who are found to possess cannabis without a license will not be prosecuted or penalized. Minister of Health David Clark stated that "the compassionate measure legalises what some people are already doing, and will ensure no prosecutions while the new prescribing framework is set - up. '' The particulars of the new law are currently vague and subject to future changes.
In August 2018 Hikurangi Cannabis became the first New Zealand company to be issued a license to cultivate cannabis for medical purposes.
A medicinal cannabis industry body, the New Zealand Medical Cannabis Council was established in September 2018.
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where does the name west indies come from | West Indies - wikipedia
The West Indies is a region of the North Atlantic Ocean in the Caribbean that includes the island countries and surrounding waters of three major archipelagoes: the Greater Antilles, the Lesser Antilles and the Lucayan Archipelago.
The region is known as the area running from Florida westward along the Gulf Coast, and then south along the Mexican coast through Central America and then eastward across the northern coast of South America.
Indigenous peoples were the first inhabitants of the West Indies. In 1492, Christopher Columbus became the first European to arrive at the islands, where he is believed by historians to have first set foot on land in the Bahamas. After the first of the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, Europeans began to use the term West Indies to distinguish the region from the East Indies of South Asia and Southeast Asia.
In the late sixteenth century, French, English and Dutch merchants and privateers began their operations in the Caribbean Sea, attacking Spanish and Portuguese shipping and coastal areas. They often took refuge and refitted their ships in the areas the Spanish could not conquer, including the islands of the Lesser Antilles, the northern coast of South America including the mouth of the Orinoco, and the Atlantic Coast of Central America. In the Lesser Antilles they managed to establish a foothold following the colonisation of St Kitts in 1624 and Barbados in 1626, and when the Sugar Revolution took off in the mid-seventeenth century, they brought in thousands of Africans to work the fields and mills as slave labourers. These Africans wrought a demographic revolution, replacing or joining with either the indigenous Caribs or the European settlers who were there as indentured servants.
The struggle between the northern Europeans and the Spanish spread southward in the mid to late seventeenth century, as English, Dutch, French and Spanish colonists, and in many cases their slaves from Africa first entered and then occupied the coast of The Guianas (which fell to the French, English and Dutch) and the Orinoco valley, which fell to the Spanish. The Dutch, allied with the Caribs of the Orinoco would eventually carry the struggles deep into South America, first along the Orinoco and then along the northern reaches of the Amazon.
Since no European country had occupied much of Central America, gradually the English of Jamaica established alliances with the Miskito Kingdom of modern - day Nicaragua and Honduras, and then began logging on the coast of modern - day Belize. These interconnected commercial and diplomatic relations made up the Western Caribbean Zone which was in place in the early eighteenth century. In the Miskito Kingdom, the rise to power of the Miskito - Zambos, who originated in the survivors of a rebellion aboard a slave ship in the 1640s and the introduction of African slaves by British settlers within the Miskito area and in Belize, also transformed this area into one with a high percentage of persons of African descent as was found in most of the rest of the Caribbean.
From the 17th through the 19th century, the European colonial territories of the West Indies were the French West Indies, British West Indies, the Danish West Indies, the Netherlands Antilles (Dutch West Indies), and the Spanish West Indies.
In 1916, Denmark sold the Danish West Indies to the United States for US $25 million in gold, per the Treaty of the Danish West Indies. The Danish West Indies became an insular area of the U.S., called the United States Virgin Islands.
Between 1958 and 1962, the United Kingdom re-organised all their West Indies island territories (except the British Virgin Islands and the Bahamas) into the West Indies Federation. They hoped that the Federation would coalesce into a single, independent nation. However, the Federation had limited powers, numerous practical problems, and a lack of popular support; consequently, it was dissolved by the British in 1963, with nine provinces eventually becoming independent sovereign states and four becoming current British Overseas Territories.
West Indies or West India was the namesake of several companies of the 17th and 18th centuries, including the Danish West India Company, the Dutch West India Company, the French West India Company, and the Swedish West India Company.
West Indian is the official term used by the U.S. government to refer to people of the West Indies.
Tulane University professor Rosanne Adderly says:
(T) he phrase "West Indies '' distinguished the territories encountered by Columbus or and claimed by Spain from discovery claims by other powers in (Asia 's) "East Indies ''.... The term "West Indies '' was eventually used by all European nations to describe their own acquired territories in the Americas.... considering British Caribbean colonies collectively as the "West Indies '' had its greatest political importance in the 1950s with the movement to create a federation of those colonies that could ultimately become an independent nation... Despite the collapse of the Federation (in the early 1960s)... the West Indies continues to field a joint cricket team for international competition.
The West Indies cricket team includes participants from Guyana, which is geographically located in South America.
Coordinates: 21 ° 59 ′ 00 '' N 79 ° 02 ′ 00 '' W / 21.9833 ° N 79.0333 ° W / 21.9833; - 79.0333
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the reluctant fundamentalist original motion picture soundtrack songs | The Reluctant Fundamentalist: Original Motion Picture soundtrack - wikipedia
The Reluctant Fundamentalist: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the film soundtrack to the film of the same name, originally composed, orchestrated and conducted by Michael Andrews. The soundtrack was released by Universal Music Group India in Asia and Internationally released by Knitting Factory under Universal rights on April 30, 2013.
The music is composed by Michael Andrews (Original film scorer & composer). Other composers include Amy Ray, Wazir Afzal, Fareed Ayaz & Abu Muhammad, Farhad Humayun, Mohsin Raza Khan, Atif Aslam, Amy Ray, Meesha Shafi, Rizzle Kicks, Ali Sethi, Zahra Haider Khan, Faiz Ahmed Faiz (lyrics), Hazeen Qadri, Javed Akhtar and Peter Gabriel (uncredited).
Mira Nair, working with American composer Michael Andrews, layered the film 's score with traditional Pakistani songs, Urdu poetry set to music, cutting - edge Pakistani pop, funk and rap, vocals from Amy Ray of folk group the Indigo Girls, and a new original song from Peter Gabriel, an old friend of Nair 's. Album first song includes Qawwali, a form of devotional Sufi music, sung by a family of 12 renowned Pakistani Qawwali singers, led by brothers Fareed Ayaz & Abu Muhammad, from Karachi.
For The Reluctant Fundamentalist, Pakistani modern funk was the inspiration of film director. The director discovered the new sounds of Pakistan on the Coca - Cola Company 's Coke Studio, a hugely popular and influential Pakistani music TV series. It melds together legendary singers and younger musicians to re-imagine ancient songs with jazz and folk influences. Says Nair in an interview "It 's not just fusion. There is a real depth to this amalgam ''. "It 's like nothing I have heard. ''
Film director chooses Faiz Ahmed poetry for her film in an interview she said: "The poems of the Pakistani poet laureate Faiz Ahmed Faiz, beloved by my father, have become the heart of many songs in the film '', for the Pakistani songs Mira went to Pakistan and take Atif Aslam for her film, who is the biggest Pakistani pop star, Aslam sings in Urdu on two songs in the film: "Mori Araj Suno '' featured in the scene Changez sails down the Bosphorus in Istanbul, and the Urdu vocals of Peter Gabriel 's final song "Bol '' Gabriel sings the English lyrics. For the Pakistani songs, the Los Angeles - based Andrews created the overlay of contemporary funk. Mira called him up from Delhi, and invited to India, Andrews began composing the near hour - long score, on which he plays everything almost entirely himself, except for the orchestral sequences, for folk songs mira consult with Pakistani folk musicians for instruments, in an interview Andrew explains: "She has great relationships with folks in the region, and because I was so far away, Mira took care of it. I sent her my music to be overdubbed with melodies represented and she actually recorded bansuri flute, and also took care of the vocal on "Mori Araj Suno. '' Simultaneously, I added Alam Khan, Ali Akbar 's son, and Salar Nader. Then I put the tracks under the vocal and the orchestra under the mockup and real bansuri.
Singer Atif Aslam and Music director Peter Gabriel performed one song from the Pakistani acclaimed movie Bol, Atif aslam re-composed it and sung Urdu vocals but English vocals and music was performed by gabriel, this song is not included in album soundtrack and goes uncredited for that due to the budget of film, this song is produced and financed by both musicians. However in film song is there and highly praised by viewers as it has a flavour of both Pakistani - folk and American - folk.
In India and Pakistan the soundtrack was released by Universal Music Group of India, on April 30, 2012. Universal Music India, on 22 April 2013, announced that they obtained music rights to Mira Nair 's upcoming movie ' The Reluctant Fundamentalist '. The film soundtrack gained generally positive reviews. Universal Music group of India 's Managing Director Devraj Sanyal said on its release: "The Reluctant Fundamentalist eclectic mix of many world sounds is just what the new Indian consumer is looking for. I personally think songs like Bijli & Mori Araj are on their way to give commercial Bollywood cinema a run for its money. I 'm looking to work with Mira & her very gifted crew to totally up the game for her movies, especially in the digital domains, where we are unqualified leaders, for many years to come. '' The album is available on both physical and digital formats on Universal Music.
Internationally it was released by Knitting Factory on same date. Upon its music release it gained generally positive reviews from Indian music websites.
Unlike most soundtrack albums from stage adaptations, this album does not contain all musical numbers in the film, songs like "Bum Phatta '' performed and penned by Ali Azmat, "Scottish '' by Robert Walter, Atif and Gabriel Bol song, two more songs, "Rich and well '' Written By Jacques Slade, Lamar Van Sciver, and Frank Greenfield Performed By Jacques Slade Produced By Boss Beats and Deville of The Dentmakers and "No More Dues Aml '' Written / produced by Jerry Kalaf Performed by This Side Up being omitted from the album.
On April 30, 2013, Universal Music and Knitting factory released featuring a total of 14 tracks in album. In the soundtrack album 5 songs are missing and go uncredited but in the movie all songs are added and featured.
All lyrics written by Faiz Ahmed Faiz, Farhad Humayun, Amy Ray, Javed Akhtar, Peter Gabriel and Hazeen Qadri; all music composed by Michael Andrews (musician) with various other Artists.
The music from the movie was not hit on the board and remain uncredited from any professional music chart sites and boards, due to Pakistani and Indian touches in the album the music is immensely famous in Pakistan as it features 3 major classic hits of the Pakistani music Industry.
Backing Music:
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how many episodes does season 7 of shameless have | Shameless (season 7) - wikipedia
The seventh season of Shameless, based on the award - winning British series of the same name by Paul Abbott, is an American comedy - drama television series with executive producers John Wells, Christopher Chulack, Krista Vernoff, Etan Frankel, Nancy M. Pimental and Sheila Callaghan. The season premiered on October 2, 2016, the first time the series has debuted in autumn. Showtime premiered a free preview of the season premiere online on September 23, 2016, ahead of the October 2 broadcast.
In this season, Frank starts a successful homeless shelter, but later gets kicked out despite owning the property. He later finds out that Monica has terminal brain damage. The two try to make the best of Monica 's last days. Fiona struggles with owning two separate properties, and is happy being single. She begins to use Tinder to find one night stands to "save energy '' on other things. Carl is uncircumcised and tries to keep his girlfriend whose father greatly disapproves of him. He later forms a bond with her father and leaves for military school. Lip dates Sierra, who works at Patsy 's Pies, and struggles to stay sober. Ian refuses to take his medication and meets a new boyfriend named Trevor. He later finds out Mickey is out of prison. Debbie struggles to raise and keep Franny as she gets kidnapped by Derek 's family. Kev and Veronica continue their "thrupple '' with Svetlana until they find out Svetlana lied and betrayed them.
Recurring actress Isidora Goreshter has been promoted to series regular with the commencement of the season. Star Emmy Rossum made her directorial debut with the fourth episode, "I Am A Storm ''.
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who sang the song when i ruled the world | Viva la Vida - wikipedia
"Viva la Vida '' (/ ˈviːvə lə ˈviːdə /; Spanish: (ˈbiβa la ˈβiða)) is a song by the British rock band Coldplay. It was written by all members of the band for their fourth album, Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends (2008), and was released as the second single from the album. On the album, this song segues directly into the next track, "Violet Hill ''. Viva la Vida is Spanish for "Long Live Life '' or "Live (the) Life ''. It is recognized as one of Coldplay 's signature songs.
The lyrics to the song contain historical and Christian references, and the track is built around a looping string section in unison with a digital processed piano, with other layers gradually being added as the song builds.
The song was released on 13 June 2008 as the album 's second single, debuting to critical acclaim and commercial success. "Viva la Vida '' reached the top spot of the UK Singles Chart and Billboard Hot 100, becoming the band 's first number - one single in both the US and UK. The song won the Grammy Award for Song of the Year at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards in 2009. The song became the sixth song to reach the 4 million mark in paid downloads in the United States. It has sold over 7.1 million copies worldwide by 2014, and over 6 million in the US alone by June 2013.
The song 's Spanish title, "Viva la Vida '', is taken from a painting by 20th - century Mexican artist Frida Kahlo. In Spanish "viva '' is an expression used to acclaim someone or something, so "Long Live Life '' is an accurate translation and the painting reflects the artistic irony of acclaiming life while suffering physically. When asked about the album 's title, referring to Frida Kahlo 's strength, enduring polio, a broken spine, and a decade of chronic pain, lead singer Chris Martin said: "She went through a lot of pain, of course, and then she started a big painting in her house that said ' Viva la Vida ', I just loved the boldness of it. ''
During the album 's production, "Viva la Vida '' was one of the songs that had polarised each member 's opinion over which version they should choose. In an interview, Martin recalled: "We did quite a few different versions and went round the houses a bit and eventually settled on those treatments for it. '':
The lyrics to "Viva la Vida '' are narrated by a protagonist who says he "used to rule the world ''. Martin has explained the song lyric "I know Saint Peter wo n't call my name '' in an interview with Q magazine: "It 's about... You 're not on the list, '' When asked about the song, bass guitarist Guy Berryman said: "It 's a story about a king who 's lost his kingdom, and all the album 's artwork is based on the idea of revolutionaries and guerrillas. There 's this slightly anti-authoritarian viewpoint that 's crept into some of the lyrics and it 's some of the pay - off between being surrounded by governments on one side, but also we 're human beings with emotions and we 're all going to die and the stupidity of what we have to put up with every day. Hence the album title. ''
Unlike the typical arrangement of Coldplay songs, in which either the guitar or piano is the prominent instrument, the track mostly consists of a string section and a digital piano playing the song 's upbeat riff, along with a steady bass drum beat, percussion (including a timpani and a church bell), bass guitar, and Martin 's vocals; there is limited use of electric guitar. All the strings are arranged and conducted by violinist Davide Rossi, who is one of the main collaborators of the album. Rossi 's strings comprise the main driving force throughout the song, with a strong beginning loop that supports Martin 's voice, until the choruses where the symphonic power of the orchestra takes its fullest shape. The prominent chords played by the string section throughout the song (and in the chorus of "Rainy Day, '' another of the band 's songs) are very similar to those used by "Viva la Vida '' co-producer Brian Eno in his piece "An Ending (Ascent), '' meaning they could have been suggested partially for the song by Eno.
"Viva la Vida '' was initially released only with iTunes Store pre-orders of Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends on 7 May 2008 -- the "new edit '' version of the song -- which led to the song 's temporary exclusion from the UK Singles Chart. It was released as a download - only single on 25 May 2008, and a physical CD single in Europe on 29 July 2008 to coincide with the release of the single 's music videos. "Viva la Vida '' was well - downloaded in the internet, becoming iTunes ' best - selling song of 2008.
The song was used as part of Apple Inc. 's iPod + iTunes advertisement campaign. Coldplay performed the song live for the first time at the 2008 MTV Movie Awards. It has since gone on to make many media appearances, including being featured throughout the episode "A Person of Interest '' from the paranormal drama Medium, as a song played on the radio in the episode "We 're Not in Kansas Anymore '' from the teen drama 90210, used as bumper music on Bill Bennett 's "Morning in America '' radio talk show, and on the international soundtrack to the Brazilian soap opera A Favorita which helped push "Viva la Vida '' up the charts in Brazil, where the telenovela been shown. In 2009, Solange Knowles covered the song. Lady Gaga also covered the song for BBC Radio 1. A live version of the song appeared on Coldplay 's 2009 live album LeftRightLeftRightLeft. Pet Shop Boys also performed the song live on their 2009 Pandemonium Tour and the song appeared on their Christmas EP. It was also used in an episode entitled "Million Dollar Maybe '' of The Simpsons. The song was covered in the seventh series of The X Factor by the boyband One Direction in 2010.
The official music video for "Viva la Vida '' was directed by Hype Williams and premiered at Coldplay 's official website on 1 August 2008. The video depicts the band performing against a blurry, warped version of Eugène Delacroix 's painting La Liberté guidant le peuple, ending with the band members crumbling into rose petals. The video currently has over 470 million views on YouTube.
A second, alternate video was shot in The Hague, the Netherlands, directed by Anton Corbijn and released alongside the first. This second version is a tribute to Corbijn 's video for Depeche Mode 's "Enjoy the Silence '' and portrays Chris Martin as the king from whose perspective the song is sung. During the video, he carries Delacroix 's painting. At the end, he hangs the picture up in a white stall on top of a hill. As he sings the last chorus, his band mates surface heading his way, tying in loose ends from the "Violet Hill '' video.
"Viva la Vida '' received widespread critical acclaim. In the Entertainment Weekly review of the album, critic Chris Willman wrote: "Take the title track... on which (Martin) imagines himself as a paranoid monarch. ' Who would ever want to be king? ' Martin asks. ' Revolutionaries wait / For my head on a silver plate! ' The confident majesty of the music, however, belies how he and his bandmates have invigorated their rock - lite reign. '' Josh Hathaway from The Plain Dealer noted "Viva la Vida '' as the "catchiest '' song on the album. Chris Jones of the BBC noted: "The string / brass mutations that bolster a track like ' Viva La Vida '... conjure tunes so sweetly melancholy. '' In the IGN review, critic Chad Grischow wrote, "It is their one and only foray into unabashed orchestral pop, but the punchy strut of the strings and fantastic marching vocals make it far too charming and lively to dislike, and even harder not to love. ''
"Viva la Vida '' was nominated for "Record of the Year '', and won "Song of the Year '', and "Best Pop Performance by a Duo or a Group '' at the 2009 Grammy Awards. This song also won the Ivor Novello Award for "Best Selling British Single ''. The song was included in Rolling Stone 's annual "100 Best Songs '' of 2008 at number nine; it was also voted number two on Rolling Stone 's Readers ' Rock List: Best Songs of 2008. "Viva la Vida '' was also listed at number five on Blender 's 1001 Downloads: The Top 144 Songs of 2008, as well in the number eight position on Village Voice 's Pazz and Jop list.
"Viva la Vida '' has been sampled in several other songs, including Flo Rida 's single "Be on You ''.
"Viva la Vida '' has become the band 's highest - charting single. Fueled by high digital sales, the song peaked at the top spot of the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, becoming the band 's first and, to date, only US number - one single and their second top ten on the Hot 100. It is the first song by a British group to reach number - one on the Billboard Hot 100 since "Wannabe '' by the Spice Girls in 1996. Although the song was initially successful in digital sales, after being released, it went on to become the band 's highest - charting single in American radio, becoming their first top - ten hit on the Hot 100 Airplay where it peaked at number eight. It had also become the band 's first number - one single on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. On the Billboard Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks, the song has become the band 's first number one, as well as the first single on the Capitol Records label to ever top the chart. The single has been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. The song also became one of the first six songs to reach the 4 million mark in paid digital downloads. As of January 2014, it had sold 6,131,000 units in the US.
The single was also successful in the United Kingdom. Although the song had been disqualified from the UK charts due to initially being available only by pre-ordering the album on iTunes, it became eligible to chart after the album was released. "Viva la Vida '' hit number one on the UK Singles Chart, becoming Coldplay 's first chart - topping single in the UK.
In Canada, the single made a "Hot Shot Debut '' at number four on the Canadian Hot 100 on the issue of 24 May, making it Coldplay 's highest debut there. It is also one of Coldplay 's three highest - charting singles in Australia, reaching number two (both "A Sky Full of Stars '' and "Something Just Like This '' matched this peak in 2014 and 2017, respectively). In New Zealand, the song was less successful, only peaking at number 16; however, the song stayed in the top 40 for 27 non-consecutive weeks.
In Spain, the single peaked at # 2 and achieved Double Platinum status due to the 80,000 copies sold. It also had a strong airplay on the Spanish radio stations.
During the 2008 -- 09 season, the German football club Hamburger SV used "Viva la Vida '' as their goal celebration song. It 's also the goal celebration song of the German football club Hannover 96. The song also became the anthem of Spanish football club FC Barcelona during the 2008 -- 09 season. It turned out to be a season of unprecedented success for the Spanish club in 2009, as they won all six competitions they could possibly be involved in, which no football club has managed before in history. The song was selected by the manager of the club, Pep Guardiola -- himself a Coldplay fan -- to help motivate and encourage his team. It was often played at the Camp Nou before the start of a Barcelona match. The song was also played during Pep Guardiola 's farewell before his final match coaching Barcelona at the Nou Camp, a 4 -- 0 victory against Espanyol on 5 May 2012. UEFA used "Viva la Vida '' as the goal celebration song for the 2012 UEFA Champions League Final and Europa League Final.
The National Hockey League 's New York Rangers played "Viva la Vida '' at Madison Square Garden after victories during the 2011 season. The song was used by the Vancouver Canucks in a tribute video during Markus Näslund 's number retirement ceremony held in Vancouver 's Rogers Arena. It was also used in Game 7 of the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals when the Boston Bruins won the Stanley Cup on Vancouver Ice. The Kansas City Chiefs play the song at the end of home games in Arrowhead Stadium. Additionally, it is also used by the Kansas City Royals to celebrate home runs and wins at Kauffman Stadium. This was the at - bat music of Scott Rolen, former third baseman of the Cincinnati Reds. The song was also used pre-match during every 2008 Rugby League World Cup game before the two teams took to the field and in the halftime show of Super Bowl 50 in 2016.
Coldplay were first accused of plagiarism of "The Songs I Did n't Write '' by American alternative band Creaky Boards, for the melody of "Viva la Vida ''. Creaky Boards ' band member Andrew Hoepfner claimed that Martin had heard them playing the song at a live show in October 2007. The band released a video clip, in which it compares sections of both songs. Coldplay denied the claim. Band spokesman Murray Chambers said Martin was working in AIR Studios in London at that time, having checked the singer 's diary. In addition, Coldplay had recorded a demo version of "Viva la Vida '' in March 2007, long before Creaky Boards performed it live in October of the same year. Creaky Boards later retracted the accusations and speculated that both songs may have been inspired by the video game The Legend of Zelda.
On December 4, 2008, American guitarist Joe Satriani filed a copyright infringement suit against Coldplay in Los Angeles. The suit claims that "Viva la Vida '' incorporates "substantial, original portions '' of his instrumental track "If I Could Fly '' from his 2004 album Is There Love in Space? The band has denied the allegation, saying the similarities were "entirely coincidental ''. On September 14, 2009, the case was dismissed by the California Central District Court, with both parties potentially agreeing to an out - of - court settlement.
In May 2009, Yusuf Islam stated that the song is very similar to his song "Foreigner Suite, '' recorded under his former stage name, Cat Stevens. He said "My son brought it to my attention and said: ' Does n't that sound like ' Foreigner Suite? ' '' Islam said that any legal action he might take "depends on how well Satriani does. '' Coldplay drummer Will Champion denied the claim, stating, "We 're confident we have n't done anything wrong. '' In June 2009, Islam later said, "They did copy my song but I do n't think they did it on purpose, '' adding, "I do n't want them to think I am angry with them. I 'd love to sit down and have a cup of tea with them and let them know it 's okay. ''
In a documentary for Sveriges Television (2011) American music professor Dr. Lawrence Ferrara showed that the melody structures of "Viva La Vida '', "If I Could Fly '' and "Foreigner Suite '' were very similar to the composition "Se tu m'ami '' by the Italian composer Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, who died in 1736. "Obviously this is a work that we would call in the ' public domain ' '', Dr. Ferrara said.
Chris Martin once said that the plagiarism allegations were inspiring him and added: "If everyone 's trying to take away our best song, then we 'd better write 25 better ones! '' Will Champion has also talked about the accusation saying, "For some reason, God only knows why, the successful songs seem to be the ones that are accused of being stolen. ''
The song and "Lost+ '' was performed live at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards, took place at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, on February 8, 2009. Coldplay performed a medley of "Lost + '' and "Viva la Vida '' on the ceremony. American rapper, Jay - Z, who was the featured vocals of "Lost + '', performed "Lost + '' with Coldplay in the stage.
The performance was recorded and released on 8 February 2009, after the release of "Life in Technicolor II ''
Swedish singer Darin 's cover of the song reached number 1 on 30 October 2009 on the Swedish Singles Chart. The song appears in Darin 's 2010 album Lovekiller.
In 2010, it was yet again included as the B - side of Darin 's "You 're Out of My Life '' single, reaching # 3 in the Swedish Singles Chart.
Coldplay 's original single had already charted in Sweden for a total of 49 weeks between 15 May 2008 and 23 October 2009, peaking at number seven.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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when is the next summer olympics going to be held | 2020 Summer Olympics - Wikipedia
The 2020 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXXII Olympiad (Japanese: 第 三 十 二 回 オリンピック 競技 大会, Hepburn: Dai Sanjūni - kai Orinpikku Kyōgi Taikai) and commonly known as Tokyo 2020, is a forthcoming international multi-sport event that is scheduled to take place from 24 July to 9 August 2020.
Tokyo was selected as the host city during the 125th IOC Session in Buenos Aires on 7 September 2013. These Games will mark the return of the Summer Olympics to Tokyo for the first time since 1964, and the fourth Olympics overall to be held in Japan, following the 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo and the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano. They will be the second of three consecutive Olympic Games to be held in East Asia, following the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea, and preceding the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing, China.
These Games will see the introduction of additional disciplines within several of the Summer Olympics sports, including 3x3 basketball, freestyle BMX and Madison cycling, as well as further mixed events. Under new IOC policies that allow sports to be added to the Games ' programme to augment the permanent "core '' Olympic events, these Games will see karate, sport climbing, surfing and skateboarding make their Olympic debuts, and the return of baseball and softball (which were removed from the summer programme after 2008).
Tokyo, Istanbul, and Madrid were the three candidate cities. The applicant cities of Baku (Azerbaijan) and Doha (Qatar) were not promoted to candidate status. A bid from Rome was withdrawn.
The IOC voted to select the host city of the 2020 Summer Olympics on 7 September 2013 at the 125th IOC Session at the Buenos Aires Hilton in Buenos Aires, Argentina. An exhaustive ballot system was used. No city won over 50 % of the votes in the first round, and Madrid and Istanbul were tied for second place. A run - off vote between these two cities was held to determine which would be eliminated. In the final vote, a head - to - head contest between Tokyo and Istanbul, Tokyo was selected by 60 votes to 36, as it got at least 49 votes needed for a majority.
The Tokyo metropolitan government set aside a fund of 400 billion Japanese yen (over 3.67 billion USD) to cover the cost of hosting the Games. The Japanese government is considering increasing slot capacity at both Haneda Airport and Narita International Airport by easing airspace restrictions. A new railway line is planned to link both airports through an expansion of Tokyo Station, cutting travel time from Tokyo Station to Haneda from 30 minutes to 18 minutes, and from Tokyo Station to Narita from 55 minutes to 36 minutes; the line would cost 400 billion yen and would be funded primarily by private investors. But East Japan Railway Company (East JR) is planning a new route near Tamachi to Haneda Airport. Funding is also planned to accelerate completion of the Central Circular Route, Tokyo Gaikan Expressway and Ken - Ō Expressway, and to refurbish other major expressways in the area. There are also plans to extend the Yurikamome automated transit line from its existing terminal at Toyosu Station to a new terminal at Kachidoki Station, passing the site of the Olympic Village, although the Yurikamome would still not have adequate capacity to serve major events in the Odaiba area on its own.
The Organizing Committee is headed by former Prime Minister Yoshirō Mori. Olympic and Paralympic Minister Shunichi Suzuki is overseeing the preparations on behalf of the Japanese government.
Japan has traditionally used Olympic events to showcase new technology. Telecom company NTT DoCoMo signed a deal with Finland 's Nokia to provide 5G - ready baseband networks in Japan in time for the Olympics.
It was confirmed in February 2012 that the Olympic Stadium in Tokyo would be demolished and reconstructed, and receive a £ 1 billion upgrade for the 2019 Rugby World Cup as well as the 2020 Olympics. As a result, a design competition for the new stadium was launched. In November 2012, the Japan Sport Council announced that out of 46 finalists, Zaha Hadid Architects was awarded the design for the new stadium. Plans included dismantling the original stadium, and expanding the capacity from 50,000 to a modern Olympic capacity of about 80,000. However, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe announced in July 2015 that plans to build the New National Stadium would be scrapped and rebid on amid public discontent over the stadium 's building costs. In Autumn 2015 a new design by Kengo Kuma was approved as winning project of new stadium design competition which decreased the capacity to between 60,000 -- 80,000 depending by event
Twenty - eight of the thirty - three competition venues in Tokyo are within 8 kilometres (4.97 miles) of the Olympic Village. Eleven new venues are to be constructed.
It was reported in September 2016 that a review panel said that the cost of hosting the Olympics and Paralympics could quadruple from the original estimate, and therefore proposed a major overhaul to the current plan to reduce costs, including moving venues outside Tokyo.
Seven venues for nine sports will be located within the central business area of Tokyo, northwest of the Olympic Village. Several of these venues were also used for the 1964 Summer Olympics.
13 venues for 15 sports will be located in the vicinity of Tokyo Bay, southeast of the Olympic Village, predominantly on Ariake, Odaiba and the surrounding artificial islands.
Twelve venues for 16 sports will be situated farther than 8 kilometres (5 mi) from the Olympic Village.
The opening ceremony tickets will range from 12,000 to 300,000 yen, with a maximum price of 130,000 yen for the finals of athletics. The average price of all the Olympic tickets is 7,700 yen. 50 % of the tickets will be sold for 8,000 yen or less. A symbolic ticket price of 2,020 yen will be for families, groups resident in Japan and in conjunction with a school programme. Tickets will be sold through 40,000 shops in Japan and by mail order to Japanese addresses through the Internet. International guests will need to visit Japan during the sales period or arrange for tickets through a third party, such as a travel agent.
The official programme for the 2020 Summer Olympics was approved by the IOC executive board on 9 June 2017. The president of the IOC, Thomas Bach, stated that the goal for the Tokyo Games was to make them "more youthful, more urban '' and to "include more women ''.
The games will feature 339 events in 33 different sports, encompassing 50 disciplines. Alongside the five new sports that will be introduced in Tokyo, there will be fifteen new events within existing sports, including 3 - on - 3 basketball, freestyle BMX and Madison cycling, and new mixed events in several sports.
In the list below, the number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses.
As part of a goal to control costs and ensure that the Olympics remain "relevant to sports fans of all generations '', the IOC assessed the 26 sports contested at the 2012 Olympics, with the remit of dropping one sport and thus retaining 25 "core '' sports to join new entrants golf and rugby sevens at the 2020 Games. This move would bring the total number of sports to 27, one less than the requirement of 28 for the 2020 Olympics programme, thus leaving a single vacancy which the IOC would seek to fill from a shortlist containing seven unrepresented sports as well as the sport that had been dropped from the 2012 Olympics programme.
On 12 February 2013, IOC leaders voted to drop wrestling from the "core '' programme for the 2020 Games; this was a surprising decision considering that wrestling is one of the oldest Olympic sports, having been included since the ancient Olympic Games and included in the original programme for the modern Games. The New York Times felt that the decision was based on the shortage of well - known talent and the absence of women 's events in the sport. Wrestling was duly added to the shortlist of applicants for inclusion in the 2020 Games, alongside the seven new sports that were put forward for consideration.
On 29 May 2013, it was announced that three sports had made the final shortlist: baseball / softball, squash and wrestling. The other five sports were excluded from consideration at this point: karate, roller sports, sport climbing, wakeboarding, and wushu. On 8 September 2013, at the 125th IOC Session, the IOC selected wrestling to be included in the Olympic programme for 2020 and 2024. Wrestling secured 49 votes, while baseball / softball and squash received 24 votes and 22 votes respectively.
Under new IOC policies that shift the Games to an "event - based '' programme rather than sport - based, the host organizing committee can now also propose the addition of sports to the programme. This rule is designed so that sports popular in the host country can be added to the programme to improve local interest. As a result of these changes, a new shortlist of eight sports was unveiled on 22 June 2015, consisting of baseball / softball, bowling, karate, roller sports, sport climbing, squash, surfing, and wushu. On 28 September 2015, organisers submitted their shortlist of five proposed sports to the IOC: baseball / softball, karate, sport climbing, surfing, and skateboarding. The five proposed sports were approved on 3 August 2016 by the IOC during the 129th IOC Session in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and will be included in the sports programme for 2020 only, bringing the total number of sports at the 2020 Olympics to 33.
The 2020 schedule by session was approved by the IOC Executive Board on 18 July 2018, with the exception of swimming, diving, and synchronized swimming. A more detailed schedule by event is expected to be available in the spring of 2019.
In July 2018, FINA sided with U.S. broadcaster NBC in regards to the scheduling of swimming finals during the Games, in order to allow live primetime broadcasts in the Americas (following the precedent of swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, and figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang). Japanese broadcasters are against this proposal and requested evening sessions, since swimming is one of the country 's most popular Olympic events. Due to this dispute, aquatics events were not included in the session schedule issued that month.
The official emblems for the 2020 Olympics and Paralympics were unveiled on 25 April 2016; designed by Asao Tokolo, who won a nationwide design contest, it takes the form of a ring in an indigo - coloured checkerboard pattern. The design is meant to "express a refined elegance and sophistication that exemplifies Japan ''. The designs replaced a previous emblem which had been scrapped due to allegations that it plagiarized the logo of a Belgian theatre.
The Tokyo 2020 Organising Committee began accepting submissions for the official mascots of the Games from 1 to 14 August 2017. A total of 2,042 entries were received. Three shortlisted entries were unveiled at the Kakezuka Elementary School on 7 December 2017. A poll was then conducted between 11 December 2017 and 22 February 2018 to choose the winning entry, with each participating elementary school class allocated one vote. The results were announced on 28 February 2018. The winning entry was candidate pair A, created by Ryo Taniguchi, which received 109,041 votes, followed by Kana Yano 's pair B with 61,423 votes and Sanae Akimoto 's pair C with 35,291 votes. Miraitowa is a figure with blue checkered patterns inspired by the Games ' official logo, which has old - fashioned charm and new innovation combined with a special power of instant teleportation. Both Miraitowa and Someity were named by the Organising Committee on 22 July 2018.
Although Ubisoft acquired the video game rights to the 2018 Winter Olympics, Japanese video game publisher Sega secured the rights for the 2020 Summer Olympics as early as October 2016. Sega has developed officially licensed Olympic video games for various platforms since the 2008 Summer Olympics, most notably the Mario & Sonic series.
As of 2015 total sponsorship for the 2020 Games reached approximately $1.3 billion, setting an Olympics record (the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing attracted $1.2 billion).
In January 2016, the second part of a World Anti-Doping Agency commission report into corruption included a footnote detailing a conversation between Khalil Diack, son of former International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) president Lamine Diack, and Turkish officials heading up the Istanbul bid team. A transcript of the conversation cited in the report suggested that a "sponsorship '' payment of between US $ 4 million and 5 million had been made by the Japanese bid team "either to the Diamond League or IAAF ''. The footnote claimed that because Istanbul did not make such a payment, the bid lost the support of Lamine Diack. The WADA declined to investigate the claims because it was, according to its independent commission, outside the agency 's remit.
In July and October 2013 (prior to and after being awarded the Games), Tokyo made two bank payments totalling SG $ 2.8 million to a Singapore - based company known as Black Tidings. The company is tied to Papa Massata Diack, a son of Lamine Diack who worked as a marketing consultant for the IAAF, and is being pursued by French authorities under allegations of bribery, corruption, and money laundering. Black Tidings is held by Ian Tan Tong Han, a consultant to Athletics Management and Services -- which manages the IAAF 's commercial rights, and has business relationships with Japanese firm Dentsu. Black Tidings has also been connected to a doping scandal involving the Russian athletics team.
Japanese Olympic Committee and Tokyo 2020 board member Tsunekazu Takeda stated that the payments were for consulting services, but refused to discuss the matter further because it was confidential. Toshiaki Endo called on Takeda to publicly discuss the matter. Massata denied that he had received any money from Tokyo 's organizing committee. The IOC established a team to investigate these matters, and will closely follow the French investigation.
The initial design for the official emblems of the 2020 Summer Olympics and Paralympics were unveiled on 24 July 2015. The logo resembled a stylized "T ''; a red circle in the top - right corner represented a beating heart, the flag of Japan, and an "inclusive world in which everyone accepts each other '', and a dark grey column in the centre represented diversity. The Paralympic emblem was an inverted version of the pattern made to resemble an equal sign.
Shortly after the unveiling, Belgian graphics designer Olivier Debie accused the organizing committee of plagiarizing a logo he had designed for the Théâtre de Liège, which aside from the circle, consisted of nearly identical shapes. Tokyo 's organizing committee denied that the emblem design was plagiarized, arguing that the design had gone through "long, extensive and international '' intellectual property examinations before it was cleared for use. Debie filed a lawsuit against the IOC to prevent use of the infringing logo.
The emblem 's designer, Kenjirō Sano, defended the design, stating that he had never seen the Liège logo, while TOCOG released an early sketch of the design that emphasized a stylized "T '' and did not resemble the Liège logo. However, Sano was found to have had a history of plagiarism, with others alleging his early design plagiarized work of Jan Tschichold, that he used a photo without permission in promotional materials for the emblem, along with other past cases. On 1 September 2015, following an emergency meeting of TOCOG, Governor of Tokyo Yōichi Masuzoe announced that they had decided to scrap Sano 's two logos. The committee met on 2 September 2015 to decide how to approach another new logo design.
On 24 November 2015, an Emblems Selection Committee was established to organize an open call for design proposals, open to Japanese residents over the age of 18, with a deadline set for 7 December 2015. The winner would receive ¥ 1 million and tickets to the opening ceremonies of both the 2020 Summer Olympics and Paralympics. On 8 April 2016, a new shortlist of four pairs of designs for the Olympics and Paralympics were unveiled by the Emblems Selection Committee; the Committee 's selection -- with influence from a public poll, was presented to TOCOG on 25 April 2016 for final approval.
Sony and Panasonic are partnering with NHK to develop broadcasting standards for 8K resolution television, with a goal to release 8K television sets in time for the 2020 Olympics.
In the United States, the 2020 Summer Olympics will be broadcast by NBCUniversal properties, as part of a US $4.38 billion agreement that began at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi.
In Europe, this will be the first Summer Olympics under the IOC 's exclusive pan-European rights deal with Discovery Communications, which began at the 2018 Winter Olympics and run through 2024. The rights for the 2020 Games cover almost all of Europe, excluding France due to an existing rights deal that will expire following these Games, and Russia due to a pre-existing deal with a marketer through 2024. Discovery will sub-license coverage to free - to - air networks in each territory. In the United Kingdom, these will be the last Games whose rights are fully owned by the BBC, although as a condition of a sub-licensing agreement that will carry into the 2022 and 2024 Games, Discovery holds exclusive pay television rights to these Games.
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which four books of the new testament are the gospels | Gospel - wikipedia
Gospel (/ ˈɡɒspəl /) is the Old English translation of Greek εὐαγγέλιον, evangelion, meaning "good news ''. It originally meant the Christian message itself, but in the 2nd century it came to be used for the books in which the message was set out.
The four gospels of the New Testament -- Matthew, Mark, Luke and John -- are the main source of information on the life of Jesus. For various reasons modern scholars are cautious of relying on them uncritically, but nevertheless they do provide a good idea of the public career of Jesus, and critical study can attempt to distinguish the original ideas of Jesus from those of the later authors.
The four canonical gospels, like the rest of the New Testament, were written in Greek. The Gospel of Mark probably dates from c. AD 66 -- 70, Matthew and Luke around AD 85 -- 90, and John AD 90 -- 110. Despite the traditional ascriptions, all four are anonymous, and none were written by eyewitnesses.
In the immediate aftermath of Jesus ' death his followers expected him to return at any moment, certainly within their own lifetimes, and in consequence there was little motivation to write anything down for future generations, but as eyewitnesses began to die, and as the missionary needs of the church grew, there was an increasing demand and need for written versions of the founder 's life and teachings. The stages of this process can be summarised as follows:
Mark, the first gospel to be written, uses a variety of sources, including conflict stories (Mark 2: 1 -- 3: 6), apocalyptic discourse (4: 1 -- 35), and collections of sayings, although not the sayings gospel known as the Gospel of Thomas and probably not the Q source used by Matthew and Luke. The authors of Matthew and Luke, acting independently, used Mark for their narrative of Jesus 's career, supplementing it with the collection of sayings called the Q document and additional material unique to each called the M source (Matthew) and the L source (Luke). Mark, Matthew and Luke are called the synoptic gospels because of the close similarities between them in terms of content, arrangement, and language. The authors and editors of John may have known the synoptics, but did not use them in the way that Matthew and Luke used Mark. There is a near - consensus that this gospel had its origins as a "signs '' source (or gospel) that circulated within the Johannine community (the community that produced John and the three epistles associated with the name), later expanded with a Passion narrative and a series of discourses.
All four also use the Jewish scriptures, by quoting or referencing passages, or by interpreting texts, or by alluding to or echoing biblical themes. Such use can be extensive: Mark 's description of the Parousia (second coming) is made up almost entirely of quotations from scripture. Matthew is full of quotations and allusions, and although John uses scripture in a far less explicit manner, its influence is still pervasive. Their source was the Greek version of the scriptures, called the Septuagint -- they do not seem familiar with the original Hebrew.
The gospels are memories of the deeds and words of Jesus. The four narratives share a story in which the earthly career of Jesus culminates in his death and resurrection, an event of crucial redemptive significance. The four are inconsistent in detail. John and the three synoptics relate the same basic story - line, but within this overall framework they present completely different pictures of Jesus ' career. John has no baptism, no temptation, no transfiguration, and lacks the Lord 's Supper and stories of Jesus ' ancestry, birth, and childhood. Jesus 's career in the synoptics takes up a single year while in John it takes three, with the cleansing of the Temple at the beginning of his ministry while in the synoptics it happens at the end, and in the synoptics the Last Supper takes place as a Passover meal, while in John it happens on the day before Passover.
Mark, the first gospel, never calls Jesus "God '' or claims that Jesus existed prior to his earthly life, never mentions a virgin birth (the author apparently believes that Jesus had a normal human parentage and birth), and makes no attempt to trace Jesus ' ancestry back to King David or Adam. Crucially, Mark originally had no post-resurrection appearances of Jesus, although Mark 16: 7, in which the young man discovered in the tomb instructs the women to tell "the disciples and Peter '' that Jesus will see them again in Galilee, hints that the author may have known of the tradition. Matthew reinterprets Mark, stressing Jesus ' teachings as much as his acts, and making subtle changes to the narrative in order to stress his divine nature -- Mark 's "young man '' who appears at Jesus ' tomb, for example, becomes a radiant angel in Matthew. The miracle stories in Mark confirm Jesus ' status as an emissary of God (which was Mark 's understanding of the Messiah), but in Matthew they demonstrate his divinity. Luke, while following Mark 's plot more faithfully than does Matthew, has expanded on the source, corrected Mark 's grammar and syntax, and eliminated some passages entirely, notably most of chapters 6 and 7, which he apparently felt reflected poorly on the disciples and painted Jesus too much like a magician.
The synoptic gospels represent Jesus as an exorcist and healer who preached in parables about the coming Kingdom of God. He preached first in Galilee and later in Jerusalem, where he cleansed the temple. He states that he offers no sign as proof (Mark) or only the sign of Jonah (Matthew and Luke). In Mark, apparently written with a Roman audience in mind, Jesus is a heroic man of action, given to powerful emotions, including agony. In Matthew, apparently written for a Jewish audience, Jesus is repeatedly called out as the fulfillment of Hebrew prophecy. In Luke, apparently written for gentiles, Jesus is especially concerned with the poor. Luke emphasizes the importance of prayer and the action of the Holy Spirit in Jesus 's life and in the Christian community. Jesus appears as a stoic supernatural being, unmoved even by his own crucifixion. Like Matthew, Luke insists that salvation offered by Christ is for all, and not only for the Jews. The Gospel of John is the only gospel to call Jesus God, and in contrast to Mark, where Jesus hides his identity as messiah, in John he openly proclaims it. It represents Jesus as an incarnation of the eternal Word (Logos), who spoke no parables, talked extensively about himself, and did not explicitly refer to a Second Coming. Jesus preaches in Jerusalem, launching his ministry with the cleansing of the temple. He performs several miracles as signs, most of them not found in the synoptics. The Gospel of John ends: (21: 25) "And there are also many other things which Jesus did, the which, if they should be written every one, I suppose that even the world itself could not contain the books that should be written. Amen. ''
The consensus among modern scholars is that the gospels belong to the ancient genre of bios, or biography. Ancient biographies were concerned with providing examples for readers to emulate while preserving and promoting the subject 's reputation and memory, and so they included both propaganda and kerygma (preaching) in their works. Mark, for example, is not biography in the modern sense but an apocalyptic history depicting Jesus caught up in events at the end of time. Despite this, scholars are confident that the gospels do provide a good idea of the public career of Jesus, and that critical study can attempt to distinguish the ideas of Jesus from those of later authors and editors.
As Luke 's attempt to link the birth of Jesus to the census of Quirinius demonstrates, there is no guarantee that the gospels are historically accurate. Matthew and Luke have frequently edited Mark to suit their own ends, and the contradictions and discrepancies between John and the synoptics make it impossible to accept both as reliable. In addition the gospels we read today have been edited and corrupted over time, leading Origen to complain in the 3rd century that "the differences among manuscripts have become great,... (because copyists) either neglect to check over what they have transcribed, or, in the process of checking, they make additions or deletions as they please. '' For these reasons modern scholars are cautious of relying on the gospels uncritically, but nevertheless they do provide a good idea of the public career of Jesus, and critical study can attempt to distinguish the original ideas of Jesus from those of the later authors.
The creation of a Christian canon was probably a response to the career of the heretic Marcion (c. 85 -- 160), who established a canon of his own with just one gospel, the gospel of Luke, which he edited to fit his own theology. The Muratorian canon, the earliest surviving list of books considered (by its own author at least) to form Christian scripture, included Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. Irenaeus of Lyons went further, stating that there must be four gospels and only four because there were four corners of the Earth and thus the Church should have four pillars.
Epiphanius, Jerome and other early church fathers preserve in their writings citations from Jewish - Christian gospels. Most modern critical scholars consider that the extant citations suggest at least two and probably three distinct works, at least one of which (possibly two) closely parallels the Gospel of Matthew.
The Gospel of Thomas is mostly wisdom without narrating Jesus 's life. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church says that the original may date from c. 150. It may represent a tradition independent from the canonical gospels, but that developed over a long time and was influenced by Matthew and Luke. While it can be understood in Gnostic terms, it lacks the characteristic features of Gnostic doctrine. It includes two unique parables, the parable of the empty jar and the parable of the assassin. It had been lost but was discovered, in a Coptic version dating from c. 350, at Nag Hammadi in 1945 -- 46, and three papyri, dated to c. 200, which contain fragments of a Greek text similar to but not identical with that in the Coptic language, have also been found.
The Gospel of Peter was likely written in the first half of the 2nd century. It seems to be largely legendary, hostile toward Jews, and including docetic elements. It is a narrative gospel and is notable for asserting that Herod, not Pontius Pilate, ordered the crucifixion of Jesus. It had been lost but was rediscovered in the 19th century.
The Gospel of Judas is another controversial and ancient text that purports to tell the story of the gospel from the perspective of Judas, the disciple who is usually said to have betrayed Jesus. It paints an unusual picture of the relationship between Jesus and Judas, in that it appears to interpret Judas 's act not as betrayal, but rather as an act of obedience to the instructions of Jesus. The text was recovered from a cave in Egypt by a thief and thereafter sold on the black market until it was finally discovered by a collector who, with the help of academics from Yale and Princeton, was able to verify its authenticity. The document itself does not claim to have been authored by Judas (it is, rather, a gospel about Judas), and is known to date to at least 180 AD.
The Gospel of Mary was originally written in Greek during the 2nd century. It is often interpreted as a Gnostic text. It consists mainly of dialog between Mary Magdalene and the other disciples. It is typically not considered a gospel by scholars since it does not focus on the life of Jesus.
The Gospel of Barnabas was a gospel which is claimed to be written by Barnabas, one of the apostles. It contradicts the ministry of Jesus in cannonical New Testament, but has clear parallels with the Islamic faith, by mentioning Muhammad as Messenger of God. It also strongly deny Pauline doctrine, and Jesus testified himself as a prophet, not the son of God.
Marcion of Sinope, c. 150, had a much shorter version of the gospel of Luke, differing substantially from what has now become the standard text of the gospel and far less oriented towards the Jewish scriptures. Marcion is said to have rejected all other gospels, including those of Matthew, Mark and especially John, which he allegedly rejected as having been forged by Irenaeus. Marcion 's critics alleged that he had edited out the portions he did not like from the then canonical version, though Marcion is said to have argued that his text was the more genuinely original one.
A genre of "Infancy gospels '' (Greek: protoevangelion) arose in the 2nd century, and includes the Gospel of James, which introduces the concept of the Perpetual Virginity of Mary, and the Infancy Gospel of Thomas (not to be confused with the absolutely different sayings Gospel of Thomas), both of which related many miraculous incidents from the life of Mary and the childhood of Jesus that are not included in the canonical gospels.
Another genre is that of the gospel harmony, in which the four canonical gospels are combined into a single narrative, either to present a consistent text or to produce a more accessible account of Jesus ' life. The oldest known harmony, the Diatessaron, was compiled by Tatian around 175, and may have been intended to replace the separate gospels as an authoritative text. It was accepted for liturgical purposes for as much as two centuries in Syria, but eventually developed a reputation as being heretical and was suppressed. Subsequent harmonies were written with the more limited aim of being study guides or explanatory texts. They still use all the words and only the words of the four gospels, but the possibility of editorial error, and the loss of the individual viewpoints of the separate gospels, keeps the harmony from being canonical.
Quotations related to Gospel at Wikiquote
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who sings the theme song from grace under fire | Grace Under Fire - wikipedia
Grace Under Fire is an American sitcom that aired on ABC from September 29, 1993, to February 17, 1998. The show starred Brett Butler as a single mother learning how to cope with raising her three children alone after finally divorcing her abusive husband. The series was created by Chuck Lorre and produced by Carsey - Werner Productions.
Grace Under Fire was the highest rated new comedy of the 1993 -- 94 season.
Grace Under Fire, produced by Carsey - Werner International, was part of a wave of shows in the late 1980s and 1990s that were built around a comedian (and in some cases, closely based on his or her comedy routine). As for Carsey - Werner, many of their shows were based on non-traditional, non-nuclear families.
Grace Under Fire followed a similar formula; set in a small Missouri town, Butler starred as Grace Kelly, a divorced single mother and recovering alcoholic. The show begins after the main character divorces her abusive alcoholic husband of eight years in an attempt to start life anew and prevent her children from making the same mistakes she did. The show revolved around Grace; her children, mischievous Quentin (Noah Segan, pilot; Jon Paul Steuer, seasons 1 - 3; Sam Horrigan, seasons 4 - 5), happy - go - lucky Libby (Kaitlin Cullum), and infant Patrick (Dylan and Cole Sprouse); her happily married best friends and neighbors, Nadine and Wade Swoboda (Julie White and Casey Sander); and the town 's bachelor pharmacist, Russell Norton (Dave Thomas). All of them helped Grace keep whatever shreds of sanity she had left.
In the first three seasons, the show had a very blue - collar appeal due to Grace 's chosen line of work, post-divorce; she operated pipelines at the local oil refinery, and had a second family of fellow crew workers down at the plant. Among them were heavy - set Dougie Boudreau (Walter Olkewicz), friendly Vic (Dave Florek), and Carl (Louis Mandylor). Their gruff boss was Bill Davis (Charles Hallahan). Both Bill and Carl were dropped after the first season; while Carl had n't a permanent on - screen replacement, the crew 's new boss was John Shirley (Paul Dooley) starting in the second season.
Russell 's friendship with Grace, and their on - and - off dating rituals, became a running theme in the series. Throughout their friendship they often dated other people; for a time in 1994, Grace dated Ryan Sparks (William Fichtner), a quirky chemist who worked in the oil refinery 's labs. In season three, Grace entered into a relationship with suave plant executive Rick Bradshaw (Alan Autry). As with Ryan, the affair between Grace and Rick occurred despite their radically different places in the company ladder. When the fourth season opened, Grace moved on from the oil refinery and took an entry - level position with an ad agency, working her way up to being a white - collar professional. That job only lasted a month, but she then took on similar business work for a construction company owned by D.C. (Don "D.C. '' Curry). In the final season, Russell found some romantic interest in Dottie (Lauren Tom), a gossiping makeup artist.
Throughout the entire five - year run, Grace 's ex-husband Jimmy Kelly (Geoff Pierson) showed up, sometimes causing problems and at others miraculously clean and sober, trying to win Grace back. A reconciliation never quite happened, but the two did settle on a good friendship for the sake of the kids. In the midst of Jimmy 's attempts to get straight, his father Emmett (guest star Matt Clark) died. In the aftermath of his death, it was revealed that Emmett was gay. At this time, Jimmy 's mother Jean (Peggy Rea), Grace 's disapproving and moralizing former mother - in - law, offered to move in and help Grace raise the kids (Rea had previously guest starred as Jean a few times since the series premiered). Russell eventually reconciled with his estranged dad, Floyd (Tom Poston), who ended up moving in with him and working with him in the pharmacy. As far as Grace 's own kin and past life went, she had a regular source of support from her sister Faith (Valri Bromfield) in the first two seasons. Another development came when Grace was contacted by her first child, Matthew (guest star Tom Everett Scott), whom she gave up for adoption before meeting Jimmy. Matthew had questions about his ancestry and ended up meeting his biological father.
In early 1998, Grace 's old friend Bev Henderson (Julia Duffy) came back to town and ended up moving in with the Kellys. In the intervening years, Bev had become quite successful and wealthy. She briefly moved in with Grace to get in touch with her working - class roots. Grace and Bev 's personal reunion was unexpectedly the last major storyline of the series. Although she was joining the cast full - time, Duffy only appeared in two network - aired episodes of Grace Under Fire before the series was abruptly canceled in mid-February.
The episode "Vega $ '' is part of a crossover with Coach, The Drew Carey Show and Ellen set in Las Vegas. It features Drew Carey as Drew Carey, Joely Fisher as Paige Clark, Jeremy Piven as Spence Kovak and Jerry Van Dyke as Luther Van Damme.
The show was the highest rated new show in its first season. In the month before Grace Under Fire first aired, Showtime broadcast the Carsey Werner - produced Brett Butler Special, a half - hour comedy performance by Butler.
Grace Under Fire was nominated for three Golden Globe awards: Best Performance by an Actress in a TV Series Comedy / Musical in 1995 and 1997 and Best TV Series Comedy / Musical in 1995.
Jean Stapleton was nominated for the 1995 Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy series Emmy Award for playing Aunt Vivian in the episode "The Road to Paris Texas. '' Diane Ladd was nominated for the same award the previous year for playing Louise Burdett in the episode entitled "Things Left Undone '' written by Brett Butler and Wayne Lemon.
As the third season concluded in the spring of 1996, Jon Paul Steuer left the series. Sources have speculated that Steuer 's mother pulled him out of the show after an incident with Butler, who allegedly flashed her breasts at the 12 - year - old actor. At the start of Season 4, Sam Horrigan became the third actor to play Quentin Kelly, and with him in the role, the character 's age advanced to 16.
In the fourth and fifth seasons of the show, Butler was fighting a painkiller addiction, for which she eventually sought medical help. Cast member Julie White left the show after Season 4, also citing Butler 's behavior as the reason. The show, which had been a Top 20 series for its first three seasons, began to take a significant drop in the ratings during season four, from 13th place to 45th.
Butler 's first round of treatment and rehab delayed the start of the 1997 -- 98 season until November. After Grace Under Fire resumed production on season five, a newly clean Butler struggled to stay that way; the morale on the set was little better than in the previous season, due to the star 's erratic behavior. Around the holidays, Butler relapsed again, and although the producers were as committed as ever to continuing the show, ABC was becoming concerned about Butler 's overall health, and was less patient with her accelerated amount of missed tapings.
The show 's ratings continued to fall dramatically, which may have well been attributed to Butler 's reputation in the press, the longer - than - usual hiatus the series took between seasons four and five, and the fact that the character of Grace Kelly no longer went through the kinds of struggles that had made the show successful earlier on. The addition of Julia Duffy several episodes into the fifth season was a last - ditch attempt to improve the ratings, but with Butler in her current state, the network was not inspired to continue on. Rather abruptly, with the February 17, 1998 telecast, ABC canceled the series. The three - month - long final season averaged at # 68 in the 1997 - 98 Nielsen ratings.
The series aired in syndication on the Oxygen Network in the United States, and TVtropolis in Canada. In the United Kingdom, the series was picked up by BBC2 where it aired from 1994 to 1999. The show was added to Hulu on March 1, 2014. The series is currently running on the Laff digital broadcast network that went on the air on April 15, 2015.
On May 4, 2015, it was announced that Visual Entertainment (VEI) had acquired the rights to the series in Region 1.
It was subsequently announced that they will release Grace Under Fire: Complete Collection on DVD on October 6, 2015.
The show was remade in Russia as Lyuba, Children and the Factory in 2005. A Polish adaptation, Hela w opałach (Hela Under Fire; Hela is short form from Helen), aired on TVN in September 2006.
Also there is another Russian adaptation as Ольга (Olga). The show premiered on TNT on September 5, 2016.
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what are the different articles of the 1987 philippine constitution | Constitution of the Philippines - Wikipedia
The Constitution of the Philippines (Filipino: Saligang Batas ng Pilipinas or Konstitusyon ng Pilipinas) is the constitution or supreme law of the Republic of the Philippines. Its final draft was completed by the Constitutional Commission on October 12, 1986 and was ratified by a nationwide plebiscite on February 2, 1987.
Three other constitutions have effectively governed the country in its history: the 1935 Commonwealth Constitution, the 1973 Constitution, and the 1986 Freedom Constitution.
The earliest constitution establishing a "Philippine Republic, '' the 1899 Malolos Constitution, was never fully implemented throughout the Philippines and did not establish a state that was internationally recognized, due in great part to the ongoing American invasion during the time of its adoption.
Ruling by decree during the early part of her tenure and as a president installed via the People Power Revolution, President Corazon C. Aquino issued Proclamation No. 3 on March 25, 1986 which abrogated many of the provisions of the then 1973 Constitution adopted during the Marcos regime including the unicameral legislature (the Batasang Pambansa), the office of Prime Minister, and provisions which gave the President legislative powers. Often called the "Freedom Constitution, '' this constitution was only intended as a temporary constitution to ensure the freedom of the people and the return to democratic rule. A constitutional assembly was soon called to draft a new constitution for the country.
The Constitutional Commission was composed of fifty members appointed by Aquino from varied backgrounds including several former members of the House of Representatives, former justices of the Supreme Court, a Roman Catholic bishop, and political activists against the Marcos regime. The Commission elected Cecilia Muñoz - Palma, a former Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, as its president. Several issues were of particular contention during the Commission 's sessions, including the form of government to adopt, the abolition of the death penalty, the retention of the U.S. bases in Clark and Subic, and the integration of economic policies into the constitution. Lino Brocka, a film director and political activist who was member of the Commission, walked out before the constitution 's completion, and two other delegates dissented from the final draft. The Commission finished the final draft on October 12, 1986 and presented it to Aquino on October 15. The constitution was ratified by a nationwide plebiscite on February 8, 1987.
The Constitution contains a preamble and eighteen self - contained articles with a section numbering that resets for every article.
The preamble introduces the constitution and the source of sovereignty, the people. It follows the pattern in past constitutions, including an appeal to God. The preamble reads:
We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God, in order to build a just and humane society and establish a Government that shall embody our ideals and aspirations, promote the common good, conserve and develop our patrimony, and secure to ourselves and our posterity the blessings of independence and democracy under the rule of law and a regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality, and peace, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution.
The national territory comprises the Philippine archipelago, with all the islands and waters embraced therein, and all other territories over which the Philippines has sovereignty or jurisdiction, consisting of its terrestrial, fluvial, and aerial domains, including its territorial sea, the seabed, the subsoil, the insular shelves, and other submarine areas. The waters around, between, and connecting the islands of the archipelago, regardless of their breadth and dimensions, form part of the internal waters of the Philippines.
Article II lays out the basic social and political creed of the Philippines, particularly the implementation of the constitution and sets forth the objectives of the government. Some essential provisions are:
Article III enumerates specific protections against the abuse of state power, most of which are similar to the provisions of the U.S. Constitution. Some essential provisions are:
Similar to U.S. jurisprudence and other common law jurisdictions, the scope and limitations of these rights have largely been determined by the Supreme Court through case law.
Article IV defines the citizenship of Filipinos. It enumerates two kinds of citizens: natural - born citizens and naturalized citizens. Natural - born citizens are those who are citizens from birth without having to perform any act to acquire or perfect Philippine citizenship. The Philippines follows a jus sanguinis system where citizenship is mainly acquired through a blood relationship with Filipino citizens.
Natural - born citizenship forms an important part of the political system as only natural - born Filipinos are eligible to hold high offices, including all elective offices beginning with a representative in the House of Representatives up to the President.
Article V mandates various age and residence qualifications to vote and a system of secret ballots and absentee voting. It also mandates a procedure for overseas and disabled and illiterate Filipinos to vote.
Article VI provides for a bicameral legislature called the Congress composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives. It vests upon Congress, among others, the power of investigation and inquiry in aid of legislation, the power to declare the existence of a state of war, the power of the purse, the power of taxation, and the power of eminent domain.
Article VII provides for a presidential form of government where the executive power is vested on the President. It provides for the qualification, terms of office, election, and power and functions of the President. It also provides for a Vice President and for the presidential line of succession.
Article VIII vests the judicial power upon the Supreme Court and other lower courts as may be established by law (by Congress). While the power to appoint justices and judges still reside with the President, the President may only appoint nominees pre-selected by the Judicial and Bar Council, a body composed of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the Secretary of Justice, the Chairs of the Senate and House Committees on Justice, and representatives from the legal profession.
Article IX establishes three constitutional commissions: the Civil Service Commission, the Commission on Elections, and the Commission on Audit.
Article X pursues for local autonomy and mandates Congress to enact a law for the local government, now currently the Local Government Code.
Article XI establishes the Office of the Ombudsman which is responsible for investigating and prosecuting government officials. It also vests upon the Congress the power to impeach the President, the Vice President, members of the Supreme Court, and the Ombudsman.
The Constitution also contains several other provisions enumerating various state policies including, i.e., the affirmation of labor "as a primary social economic force '' (Section 14, Article II); the equal protection of "the life of the mother and the life of the unborn from conception '' (Section 12, Article II); the "Filipino family as the foundation of the nation '' (Article XV, Section 1); the recognition of Filipino as "the national language of the Philippines '' (Section 6, Article XIV), and even a requirement that "all educational institutions shall undertake regular sports activities throughout the country in cooperation with athletic clubs and other sectors. '' (Section 19.1, Article XIV) Whether these provisions may, by themselves, be the source of enforceable rights without accompanying legislation has been the subject of considerable debate in the legal sphere and within the Supreme Court. The Court, for example, has ruled that a provision requiring that the State "guarantee equal access to opportunities to public service '' could not be enforced without accompanying legislation, and thus could not bar the disallowance of so - called "nuisance candidates '' in presidential elections. But in another case, the Court held that a provision requiring that the State "protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology '' did not require implementing legislation to become the source of operative rights.
The Katipunan 's revolution led to the Tejeros Convention where, at San Francisco de Malabón, Cavite, on March 22, 1897, the first presidential and vice presidential elections in Philippine history were held -- although only Katipuneros (viz., members of the Katipunan) were able to take part, and not the general populace. A later meeting of the revolutionary government established there, held on November 1, 1897 at Biak - na - Bato in the town of San Miguel de Mayumo in Bulacán, established the Republic of Biak - na - Bato. The republic had a constitution drafted by Isabelo Artacho and Félix Ferrer and based on the first Cuban Constitution. It is known as the "Constitución Provisional de la República de Filipinas '', and was originally written in and promulgated in the Spanish and Tagalog languages.
The Malolos Constitution was the first republican constitution in Asia. It declared that sovereignty resides exclusively in the people, stated basic civil rights, separated the church and state, and called for the creation of an Assembly of Representatives to act as the legislative body. It also called for a parliamentary republic as the form of government. The president was elected for a term of four years by a majority of the Assembly. It was titled "Constitución política '', and was written in Spanish following the declaration of independence from Spain, proclaimed on January 20, 1899, and was enacted and ratified by the Malolos Congress, a Congress held in Malolos, Bulacan.
The Preamble reads:
The Philippines was a United States Territory from December 10, 1898 to March 24, 1934 and therefore under the jurisdiction of the Federal Government of the United States. Two acts of the United States Congress passed during this period can be considered Philippine constitutions in that those acts defined the fundamental political principles and established the structure, procedures, powers and duties of the Philippine government.
The Philippine Organic Act of 1902, sometimes known as the "Philippine Bill of 1902 '', was the first organic law for the Philippine Islands enacted by the United States Congress. It provided for the creation of a popularly elected Philippine Assembly, and specified that legislative power would be vested in a bicameral legislature composed of the Philippine Commission (upper house) and the Philippine Assembly (lower house). Its key provisions included a bill of rights for the Filipinos and the appointment of two non-voting Filipino Resident Commissioner of the Philippines to represent the Philippines in the United States House of Representatives.
The Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916, sometimes known as "Jones Law '', modified the structure of the Philippine government by removing the Philippine Commission as the legislative upper house and replacing it with a Senate elected by Filipino voters, creating the Philippines ' first fully elected national legislature. This act also explicitly stated that it was and had always been the purpose of the people of the United States to end their sovereignty over the Philippine Islands and to recognise Philippine independence as soon as a stable government can be established therein.
Though not a constitution itself, the Tydings -- McDuffie Act of 1934 provided authority and defined mechanisms for the establishment of a formal constitution via a constitutional convention.
The 1935 Constitution was written in 1934, approved and adopted by the Commonwealth of the Philippines (1935 -- 1946) and later used by the Third Republic (1946 -- 1972). It was written with an eye to meeting the approval of the United States Government as well, so as to ensure that the U.S. would live up to its promise to grant the Philippines independence and not have a premise to hold onto its possession on the grounds that it was too politically immature and hence unready for full, real independence.
The Preamble reads:
The original 1935 Constitution provided for unicameral National Assembly and the President was elected to a six - year term without re-election. It was amended in 1940 to have a bicameral Congress composed of a Senate and House of Representatives, as well the creation of an independent electoral commission. The Constitution now granted the President a four - year term with a maximum of two consecutive terms in office.
A Constitutional Convention was held in 1971 to rewrite the 1935 Constitution. The convention was stained with manifest bribery and corruption. Possibly the most controversial issue was removing the presidential term limit so that Ferdinand E. Marcos could seek election for a third term, which many felt was the true reason for which the convention was called. In any case, the 1935 Constitution was suspended in 1972 with Marcos ' proclamation of martial law, the rampant corruption of the constitutional process providing him with one of his major premises for doing so.
The 1943 Constitution was drafted by a committee appointed by the Philippine Executive Commission, the body established by the Japanese to administer the Philippines in lieu of the Commonwealth of the Philippines which had established a government - in - exile. In mid-1942 Japanese Premier Hideki Tōjō had promised the Filipinos "the honor of independence '' which meant that the commission would be supplanted by a formal republic.
The Preparatory Committee for Philippine Independence tasked with drafting a new constitution was composed in large part, of members of the prewar National Assembly and of individuals with experience as delegates to the convention that had drafted the 1935 Constitution. Their draft for the republic to be established under the Japanese Occupation, however, would be limited in duration, provide for indirect, instead of direct, legislative elections, and an even stronger executive branch.
Upon approval of the draft by the Committee, the new charter was ratified in 1943 by an assembly of appointed, provincial representatives of the Kalibapi, the organization established by the Japanese to supplant all previous political parties. Upon ratification by the Kalibapi assembly, the Second Republic was formally proclaimed (1943 -- 1945). José P. Laurel was appointed as President by the National Assembly and inaugurated into office in October 1943. Laurel was highly regarded by the Japanese for having openly criticised the US for the way they ran the Philippines, and because he had a degree from Tokyo International University.
The 1943 Constitution remained in force in Japanese - controlled areas of the Philippines, but was never recognized as legitimate or binding by the governments of the United States or of the Commonwealth of the Philippines and guerrilla organizations loyal to them. In late 1944, President Laurel declared a state of war existed with the United States and the British Empire and proclaimed martial law, essentially ruling by decree. His government in turn went into exile in December 1944, first to Taiwan and then Japan. After the announcement of Japan 's surrender, Laurel formally dissolved the Second Republic.
The Preamble reads:
The 1943 Constitution provided strong executive powers. The Legislature consisted of a unicameral National Assembly and only those considered to be anti-US could stand for election, although in practice most legislators were appointed rather than elected.
Until the 1960s, the Second Republic and its officers, were not viewed as a legitimate Philippine government or as having any standing, with the exception of the Supreme Court, whose decisions, limited to reviews of criminal and commercial cases as part of a policy of discretion by Chief Justice José Yulo continued to be part of the official records. This was made easier by the Commonwealth government - in - exile never constituting a Supreme Court, and the formal vacancy in the position of Chief Justice for the Commonwealth with the execution of José Abad Santos by the Japanese). It was only during the Macapagal administration that a partial political rehabilitation of the Japanese - era republic took place, with the official recognition of Laurel as a former president and the addition of his cabinet and other officials to the roster of past government officials. However, the 1943 Constitution was not taught in schools, and the laws of the 1943 - 44 National Assembly never recognized as valid or relevant.
The 1973 Constitution, promulgated after Marcos ' declaration of martial law, was supposed to introduce a parliamentary - style government. Legislative power was vested in a unicameral National Assembly whose members were elected for six - year terms. The President was ideally elected as the symbolic and purely ceremonial head of state chosen from amongst the Members of the National Assembly for a six - year term and could be re-elected to an unlimited number of terms. Upon election, the President ceased to be a Member of the National Assembly. During his term, the President was not allowed to be a member of a political party or hold any other office.
Executive power was meant to be exercised by the Prime Minister who was also elected from amongst the sitting Assemblymen. The Prime Minister was to be the head of government and Commander - in - Chief of the Armed Forces. This constitution was subsequently amended four times (arguably five, depending on how one considers Proclamation No 3 of 1986, see below).
From 16 -- 17 October 1976, a majority of barangay voters (also called "Citizen Assemblies '') approved that martial law should be continued and ratified the amendments to the Constitution proposed by President Marcos.
The 1976 amendments were:
The Sixth Amendment authorized the President to legislate on his own on an "emergency '' basis:
Whenever in the judgement of the President there exists a grave emergency or a threat or imminence thereof, or whenever the Interim Batasang Pambansa or the regular National Assembly fails or is unable to act adequately on any matter for any reason that in his judgment requires immediate action, he may, in order to meet the exigency, issue the necessary decrees, orders or letters of instructions, which shall form part of the law of the land.
The 1973 Constitution was further amended in 1980 and 1981. In the 1980 amendment, the retirement age of the members of the judiciary was extended to 70 years. In the 1981 amendments, the false parliamentary system was formally modified into a French - style semi-presidential system:
The last amendments in 1984 abolished the Executive Committee and restored the position of Vice-President (which did not exist in the original, unamended 1973 Constitution).
While the 1973 Constitution ideally provided for a true parliamentary system, in practise, Marcos had made use of subterfuge and manipulation in order to keep executive powers for himself, rather than devolving these to the Assembly and the cabinet headed by the Prime Minister. The end result was that the final form of the 1973 Constitution -- after all amendments and subtle manipulations -- was merely the abolition of the Senate and a series of cosmetic rewordings. The old American - derived terminology was replaced by names more associated with parliamentary government: for example, the House of Representatives became known as the "Batasang Pambansâ '' (National Assembly), Departments became "Ministries '', and their cabinet secretaries became known as "cabinet ministers '', with the President 's assistant -- the Executive Secretary -- now being styled the "Prime Minister ''. Marcos ' purported parliamentary system in practise functioned as an authoritaritan presidential system, with all real power concentrated in the hands of the President but with the premise that such was now constitutional.
Immediately following the 1986 People Power Revolution that ousted Marcos, President Corazon C. Aquino issued Proclamation No 3 as a provisional constitution. It adopted certain provisions from the 1973 Constitution while abolishing others. It granted the President broad powers to reorganise government and remove officials, as well as mandating the president to appoint a commission to draft a new, more formal Constitution. This document, described above, supplanted the "Freedom Constitution '' upon its ratification in 1987.
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how many number one singles does one direction have | One Direction Discography - wikipedia
English - Irish boy band One Direction have released five studio albums, one extended play, seventeen singles (including two charity singles), two video albums and fifteen music videos. They signed with Simon Cowell 's record label Syco Records after being formed and finishing third in the seventh series of British television singing competition The X Factor in 2010. They subsequently signed in North America with Columbia Records. One Direction: This Is Us, an official documentary movie was released on August 30, 2013 in England and the 29th of August, 2013 in the United States. This special limited - time - in - theaters film contains exclusive concert footage along with the story of the boys rise to fame.
The group 's debut studio album Up All Night was released in November 2011. It topped the charts in sixteen countries. The lead single, "What Makes You Beautiful '', was an international hit, reaching number one in the UK and number four in the US; it has since been certified four and six times platinum in the US and Australia, respectively. Subsequent singles, "Gotta Be You '' and "One Thing '', became top ten hits in the UK. The band 's second studio album Take Me Home was released in November 2012. The record sold 540,000 copies in its first week in the US and went to number - one in thirty - five countries. The album 's lead single, "Live While We 're Young '', became One Direction 's highest peaking song in a number of countries and recorded the highest one - week opening sales figure for a song by a non-US artist. "Little Things '' and "Kiss You '', the succeeding singles, were moderate successes.
One Direction 's third studio album, Midnight Memories, was released on 25 November 2013. The album was preceded by its lead single "Best Song Ever '' and its critically acclaimed second single "Story of My Life ''. The album was a commercial success, debuting at number one on the UK Albums Chart and the Billboard 200, making One Direction the first band in history to have their first three albums all debut atop the Billboard 200. With their fourth album, Four, they extended the record to four consecutive number - one albums. Their next album, Made in the A.M., was preceded by its lead single "Drag Me Down ''. In October 2015, the band announced the second single from the album: "Perfect ''. As of August 2016, the band had sold 20 million albums worldwide.
iTunes Festival: London 2012
Live While We 're Young EP
Best Song Ever (from "This Is Us '') EP
Midnight Memories EP
You & I EP
Perfect EP
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who threw the most touchdowns in a superbowl | List of Super Bowl records - wikipedia
This is a list of Super Bowl records, which includes performances of the highest and lowest caliber throughout the history of the Super Bowl. The list of records is separated by individual players and teams. Players and teams, along with their records, are noted with the Super Bowl game played. All records can be referenced at the National Football League (NFL) 's official website, NFL.com.
A complete list of Super Bowl records can be found in the 2017 Official NFL Record & Fact Book beginning at page 654. Records can also be found at Pro Football Reference.com.
00 In this category R = rushing touchdown (TD); P = pass reception TD; KR = kickoff return TD
This category includes rushing, receiving, interception returns, punt returns, kickoff returns, and fumble returns.
Note: The goal posts were moved to the back of the end zone in 1974. As such, this record can not be broken without another change to the layout of the field. Standard field goal protocol does not currently allow a kick 17 yards or shorter.
All records can be referenced at NFL.com.
Record holder team listed first.
Record holder team listed first.
Record holder team listed first.
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Record holder team listed first.
Combined rushing and passing
Record holder team listed first.
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Record holder team listed first.
Record holder team listed first.
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Record holder team listed first.
Turnovers are defined as the number of times losing the ball on interceptions and fumbles.
Record holder team listed first.
Record holder team listed first.
Record holder team listed first.
Record holder team listed first.
Record holder team listed first.
In the history of the Super Bowl, the following firsts have yet to occur:
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how did the portuguese man of war get its name | Portuguese man o ' war - wikipedia
The Atlantic Portuguese man o ' war (Physalia physalis), also known as the man - of - war, blue bottle, or floating terror, is a marine hydrozoan of the family Physaliidae found in the Atlantic Ocean, as well as the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Its venomous tentacles can deliver a painful sting, which can be fatal. Despite its outward appearance, the Portuguese man o ' war is not a jellyfish but a siphonophore, which, unlike jellyfish, is not actually a single multicellular organism, but a colonial organism made up of specialized individual animals (of the same species) called zooids or polyps. These polyps are attached to one another and physiologically integrated to the extent that they are unable to survive independently, and therefore have to work together and function like an individual animal.
The Indo - Pacific Portuguese man - of - war (P. utriculus), or blue bottle, is a related species with very similar appearance found throughout the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
The name "man o ' war '' comes from the man - of - war, an 18th - century armed sailing ship, and the cnidarian 's supposed resemblance to the Portuguese version at full sail. In other languages, it is known as the ' Portuguese war - ship ' (Dutch: Portugees oorlogsschip, Norwegian: portugisisk krigsskip, Finnish: portugalinsotalaiva, Chinese: 葡萄牙 戰艦; pinyin: Pútáoyá zhànjiàn), the ' Portuguese galley ' (German: portugiesische Galeere, Hungarian: portugál gálya), the ' Portuguese caravel ' (Portuguese: caravela portuguesa, Spanish: carabela portuguesa, Italian: caravella portoghese), (French: caravelle portugaise, the ' Portuguese little boat ' (Russian: португальский кораблик), the ' monk 's hat jellyfish ' (Chinese: 僧 帽 水母; pinyin: sēngmào shuǐmǔ), or the ' skipjack 's eboshi - hat ' (katsuo no eboshi (Japanese: 鰹 の 烏帽子)).
The Atlantic Portuguese man o ' war lives at the surface of the ocean. The gas - filled bladder, or pneumatophore, remains at the surface, while the remainder is submerged. As the Portuguese man o ' war has no means of propulsion, it moves according to the winds, currents, and tides. Although it is most commonly found in the open ocean in tropical and subtropical regions, it has been found as far north as the Bay of Fundy, Cape Breton and the Hebrides.
Strong winds may drive them into bays or onto beaches. Often, finding a single Portuguese man o'war is followed by finding many others in the vicinity. They can sting while beached; the discovery of a man o ' war washed up on a beach may lead to the closure of the beach.
The Portuguese man o ' war colony is composed of three types of medusoids (gonophores, siphosomal nectophores, and vestigial siphosomal nectophores) and four types of polypoids (free gastrozooids, gastrozooids with tentacles, gonozooids, and gonopalpons), grouped into cormidia beneath the pneumatophore, a sail shaped structure filled with gas. The pneumatophore develops from the planula, unlike the other polyps. This sail is bilaterally symmetrical, with the tentacles at one end. It is translucent, and is tinged blue, purple, pink, or mauve. It may be 9 to 30 cm (3.5 to 11.8 in) long and may extend as much as 15 cm (5.9 in) above the water. The Portuguese man o ' war fills its gas bladder with up to 14 % carbon monoxide. The remainder is nitrogen, oxygen, and argon -- atmospheric gases that diffuse into the gas bladder. Carbon dioxide also occurs at trace levels. The sail is equipped with a siphon. In the event of a surface attack, the sail can be deflated, allowing the organism to briefly submerge.
The other three polyp types are known as dactylozooid (defense), gonozooid (reproduction), and gastrozooid (feeding). These polyps are clustered. The dactylzooids make up the tentacles that are typically 10 m (33 ft) in length, but can reach over 30 m (98 ft). The long tentacles "fish '' continuously through the water, and each tentacle bears stinging, venom - filled nematocysts (coiled, thread - like structures), which sting and kill adult or larval squids and fishes. Large groups of Portuguese man o ' war, sometimes over 1,000 individuals, may deplete fisheries. Contractile cells in each tentacle drag the prey into range of the digestive polyps, the gastrozooids, which surround and digest the food by secreting enzymes that break down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, while the gonozooids are responsible for reproduction.
This species and the smaller Indo - Pacific man o ' war (Physalia utriculus) are responsible for up to 10,000 human stings in Australia each summer, particularly on the east coast, with some others occurring off the coast of South Australia and Western Australia. One of the problems with identifying these stings is that the detached tentacles may drift for days in the water, and the swimmer may not have any idea if they have been stung by a man o ' war or by some other less - venomous creature.
The stinging, venom - filled nematocysts in the tentacles of the Portuguese man o ' war can paralyze small fish and other prey. Detached tentacles and dead specimens (including those that wash up on shore) can sting just as painfully as the live organism in the water and may remain potent for hours or even days after the death of the organism or the detachment of the tentacle.
Stings usually cause severe pain to humans, leaving whip - like, red welts on the skin that normally last two or three days after the initial sting, though the pain should subside after about 1 to 3 hours (depending on the biology of the person stung). However, the venom can travel to the lymph nodes and may cause symptoms that mimic an allergic reaction including swelling of the larynx, airway blockage, cardiac distress, and an inability to breathe (though this is not due to a true allergy, which is defined by serum IgE). Other symptoms can include fever and shock, and in some extreme cases, even death, although this is extremely rare. Medical attention for those exposed to large numbers of tentacles may become necessary to relieve pain or open airways if the pain becomes excruciating or lasts for more than three hours, or breathing becomes difficult. Instances where the stings completely surround the trunk of a young child are among those that are potentially fatal.
Stings from a Portuguese man o ' war are often extremely painful. They result in severe dermatitis characterized by long, thin open wounds that resemble those caused by a whip. These are not caused by any impact or cutting action, but by irritating urticariogenic substances in the tentacles. Treatment for a Portuguese man o ' war sting usually begins with the application of poured salt water to rinse away any remaining microscopic nematocysts. Salt water is used as fresh water has been shown to cause nematocystic discharge.
Acetic acid (vinegar) or a solution of ammonia and water is believed to deactivate the remaining nematocysts and usually provides some pain relief, though some isolated studies suggest that in some individuals vinegar dousing may increase toxin delivery and worsen symptoms. Vinegar has also been claimed to provoke hemorrhaging when used on the less severe stings of cnidocytes of smaller species. The current recommended treatment from studies in Australia is to avoid the use of vinegar, as local studies have shown this to exacerbate the symptoms.
The vinegar or ammonia soak is then often followed by the application of shaving cream to the wound for 30 seconds, followed by shaving the area with a razor and rinsing the razor thoroughly between each stroke. This removes any remaining unfired nematocysts. Heat in the form of hot salt water or hot packs may be applied: heat speeds the breakdown of the toxins already in the skin. Hydrocortisone cream may also be used.
The Portuguese man o ' war is a carnivore. Using its venomous tentacles, a man o ' war traps and paralyzes its prey. It typically feeds on small marine organisms, such as fish and plankton, and has few predators of its own.
Exceptions to this are the loggerhead turtle, which feeds on the Portuguese man o ' war as a common part of its diet. The turtle 's skin, including that of its tongue and throat, is too thick for the stings to penetrate.
The blue sea slug Glaucus atlanticus specializes in feeding on the Portuguese man o ' war, as does the violet snail Janthina janthina.
The blanket octopus is immune to the venom of the Portuguese man o ' war; young individuals carry broken man o ' war tentacles, presumably for offensive and / or defensive purposes.
The ocean sunfish 's primary diet consists of jellyfish, but it also consumes the Portuguese man o ' war.
A small fish, Nomeus gronovii (the man - of - war fish or shepherd fish), is partially immune to the venom from the stinging cells and can live among the tentacles. It seems to avoid the larger, stinging tentacles but feeds on the smaller tentacles beneath the gas bladder. The Portuguese man o ' war is often found with a variety of other marine fish, including clownfish and yellow jack. The clownfish can swim among the tentacles with impunity, possibly owing to their mucus, which does not trigger the nematocysts.
All these fish benefit from the shelter from predators provided by the stinging tentacles, and for the Portuguese man o ' war, the presence of these species may attract other fish to eat.
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the contract that exists between the insurer and the insured | Insurance policy - wikipedia
In insurance, the insurance policy is a contract (generally a standard form contract) between the insurer and the insured, known as the policyholder, which determines the claims which the insurer is legally required to pay. In exchange for an initial payment, known as the premium, the insurer promises to pay for loss caused by perils covered under the policy language.
Insurance contracts are designed to meet specific needs and thus have many features not found in many other types of contracts. Since insurance policies are standard forms, they feature boilerplate language which is similar across a wide variety of different types of insurance policies.
The insurance policy is generally an integrated contract, meaning that it includes all forms associated with the agreement between the insured and insurer. In some cases, however, supplementary writings such as letters sent after the final agreement can make the insurance policy a non-integrated contract. One insurance textbook states that generally "courts consider all prior negotiations or agreements... every contractual term in the policy at the time of delivery, as well as those written afterward as policy riders and endorsements... with both parties ' consent, are part of the written policy ''. The textbook also states that the policy must refer to all papers which are part of the policy. Oral agreements are subject to the parol evidence rule, and may not be considered part of the policy if the contract appears to be whole. Advertising materials and circulars are typically not part of a policy. Oral contracts pending the issuance of a written policy can occur.
The insurance contract or agreement is a contract whereby the insurer promises to pay benefits to the insured or on their behalf to a third party if certain defined events occur. Subject to the "fortuity principle '', the event must be uncertain. The uncertainty can be either as to when the event will happen (e.g. in a life insurance policy, the time of the insured 's death is uncertain) or as to if it will happen at all (e.g. in a fire insurance policy, whether or not a fire will occur at all).
Insurance contracts were traditionally written on the basis of every single type of risk (where risks were defined extremely narrowly), and a separate premium was calculated and charged for each. Only those individual risks expressly described or "scheduled '' in the policy were covered; hence, those policies are now described as "individual '' or "schedule '' policies. This system of "named perils '' or "specific perils '' coverage proved to be unsustainable in the context of the Second Industrial Revolution, in that a typical large conglomerate might have dozens of types of risks to insure against. For example, in 1926, an insurance industry spokesman noted that a bakery would have to buy a separate policy for each of the following risks: manufacturing operations, elevators, teamsters, product liability, contractual liability (for a spur track connecting the bakery to a nearby railroad), premises liability (for a retail store), and owners ' protective liability (for negligence of contractors hired to make any building modifications).
In 1941, the insurance industry began to shift to the current system where covered risks are initially defined broadly in an "all risk '' or "all sums '' insuring agreement on a general policy form (e.g., "We will pay all sums that the insured becomes legally obligated to pay as damages... ''), then narrowed down by subsequent exclusion clauses (e.g., "This insurance does not apply to... ''). If the insured desires coverage for a risk taken out by an exclusion on the standard form, the insured can sometimes pay an additional premium for an endorsement to the policy that overrides the exclusion.
Insurers have been criticized in some quarters for the development of complex policies with layers of interactions between coverage clauses, conditions, exclusions, and exceptions to exclusions. In a case interpreting one ancestor of the modern "products - completed operations hazard '' clause, the Supreme Court of California complained:
In the United States, property and casualty insurers typically use similar or even identical language in their standard insurance policies, which are drafted by advisory organizations such as the Insurance Services Office and the American Association of Insurance Services. This reduces the regulatory burden for insurers as policy forms must be approved by states; it also allows consumers to more readily compare policies, albeit at the expense of consumer choice. In addition, as policy forms are reviewed by courts, the interpretations become more predictable as courts elaborate upon the interpretation of the same clauses in the same policy forms, rather than different policies from different insurers.
In recent years, however, insurers have increasingly modified the standard forms in company - specific ways or declined to adopt changes to standard forms. For example, a review of home insurance policies found substantial differences in various provisions. In some areas such as directors and officers liability insurance and personal umbrella insurance there is little industry - wide standardization.
For the vast majority of insurance policies, the only page that is heavily custom - written to the insured 's needs is the declarations page. All other pages are standard forms that refer back to terms defined in the declarations as needed. However, certain types of insurance, such as media insurance, are written as manuscript policies, which are either custom - drafted from scratch or written from a mix of standard and nonstandard forms. By analogy, policy endorsements which are not written on standard forms or whose language is custom - written to fit the insured 's particular circumstances are known as manuscript endorsements.
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who holds the record for people's sexiest man | People (magazine) - wikipedia
People is an American weekly magazine of celebrity and human - interest stories, published by Time Inc. With a readership of 46.6 million adults, People has the largest audience of any American magazine. People had $997 million in advertising revenue in 2011, the highest advertising revenue of any American magazine. In 2006, it had a circulation of 3.75 million and revenue expected to top $1.5 billion. It was named "Magazine of the Year '' by Advertising Age in October 2005, for excellence in editorial, circulation and advertising. People ranked # 6 on Advertising Age 's annual "A-list '' and # 3 on Adweek 's "Brand Blazers '' list in October 2006.
The magazine runs a roughly 50 / 50 mix of celebrity and human - interest articles. People 's editors claim to refrain from printing pure celebrity gossip, enough to lead celebrity publicists to propose exclusives to the magazine, and evidence of what one staffer calls a "publicist - friendly strategy ''.
People 's website, People.com, focuses on celebrity news and human interest stories. In February 2015, the website broke a new record: 72 million unique visitors.
People is perhaps best known for its yearly special issues naming the "World 's Most Beautiful, '' "Best & Worst Dressed '' and "Sexiest Man Alive ''. The magazine 's headquarters are in New York and it maintains editorial bureaus in Los Angeles and in London. For economic reasons it closed bureaus in Austin, Miami, and Chicago in 2006.
In December 2016, LaTavia Roberson engaged in a feud with People after alleging they misquoted and misrepresented her interview online.
The concept for People has been attributed to Andrew Heiskell, Time Inc. 's chief executive officer at the time and the former publisher of the weekly Life magazine. The founding managing editor of People was Richard B. (Dick) Stolley, a former assistant managing editor at Life and the journalist who acquired the Zapruder tapes of the John F. Kennedy assassination for Time Inc. in 1963. People 's first publisher was Richard J. (Dick) Durrell, another Time Inc. veteran.
Stolley characterized the magazine as "getting back to the people who are causing the news and who are caught up in it, or deserve to be in it. Our focus is on people, not issues. '' Stolley 's almost religious determination to keep the magazine people - focused contributed significantly to its rapid early success. It is said that although Time Inc. pumped an estimated $40 million into the venture, the magazine only broke even 18 months after its debut in March 1974. Initially, the magazine was sold primarily on newsstands and in supermarkets. To get the magazine out each week, founding staff members regularly slept on the floor of their offices two or three nights each week and severely limited all non-essential outside engagements. The premier edition for the week ending March 4, 1974 featured actress Mia Farrow, then starring in the film The Great Gatsby, on the cover. That issue also featured stories on Gloria Vanderbilt, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and the wives of U.S. Vietnam veterans who were Missing In Action. The magazine was, apart from its cover, printed in black - and - white. The initial cover price was 35 cents (equivalent to $1.70 in 2016).
The core of the small founding editorial team included other editors, writers, photographers and photo editors from Life magazine, which had ceased publication just 13 months earlier. This group included managing editor Stolley, senior editors Hal Wingo (father of ESPN anchor Trey Wingo), Sam Angeloff (the founding managing editor of Us magazine) and Robert Emmett Ginna (later a producer of films); writers James Watters (a theater reviewer) and Ronald B. Scott (later a biographer of Presidential candidate Mitt Romney); former Time senior editor Richard Burgheim (later the founder of Time 's ill - fated cable television magazine View); Chief of Photography, a Life photographer, John Loengard, to be succeeded by John Dominus, a noteworthy Life staff photographer; and design artist Bernard Waber, author and illustrator of the Lyle The Crocodile book series for children. Many of the noteworthy Life photographers contributed to the magazine as well, including legends Alfred Eisenstaedt and Gjon Mili and rising stars Co Rentmeester, David Burnett and Bill Eppridge. Other members of the first editorial staff included editors and writers: Ross Drake, Ralph Novak, Bina Bernard, James Jerome, Sally Moore, Mary Vespa, Lee Wohlfert, Joy Wansley, Curt Davis, Clare Crawford - Mason, and Jed Horne, later an editor of The Times - Picayune in New Orleans.
In 1996, Time Inc. launched a Spanish - language magazine entitled People en Español. The company has said that the new publication emerged after a 1995 issue of the original magazine was distributed with two distinct covers, one featuring the murdered Tejano singer Selena and the other featuring the hit television series Friends; the Selena cover sold out while the other did not. Although the original idea was that Spanish - language translations of articles from the English magazine would comprise half the content, People en Español over time came to have entirely original content.
In 2002, People introduced People Stylewatch, a title focusing on celebrity style, fashion, and beauty -- a newsstand extension of its Stylewatch column. Due to its success, the frequency of People Stylewatch was increased to 10 times per year in 2007.
In Australia, the localized version of People is titled Who because of a pre-existing lad 's mag published under the title People. The international edition of People has been published in Greece since 2010.
On July 26, 2013, Outlook Group announced that it was closing down the Indian edition of People, which began publication in 2008.
In 1998, the magazine introduced a version targeted at teens, called Teen People. However, on July 27, 2006 the company announced that it would shut down publication of Teen People immediately. The last issue to be released was scheduled for September 2006. In exchange subscribers to this magazine received Entertainment Weekly for the rest of their subscriptions. There were numerous reasons cited for the publication shutdown, including a downfall in ad pages, competition from both other teen - oriented magazines and the internet, along with a decrease in circulation numbers. Teenpeople.com was merged into People.com in April 2007. People.com will "carry teen - focused stories that are branded as TeenPeople.com '', Mark Golin, the editor of People.com explained, and on the decision to merge the brands he said, "We 've got traffic on TeenPeople, People is a larger site, why not combine and have the teen traffic going to one place? ''
In a July 2006 Variety article, Janice Min, Us Weekly editor - in - chief, blamed People for the increase in cost to publishers of celebrity photos:
They are among the largest spenders of celebrity photos in the industry... One of the first things they ever did, that led to the jacking up of photo prices, was to pay $75,000 to buy pictures of Jennifer Lopez reading Us magazine, so Us Weekly could n't buy them.
That was the watershed moment that kicked off high photo prices in my mind. I had never seen anything like it. But they saw a competitor come along, and responded. It was a business move, and probably a smart one.
People reportedly paid $4.1 million for photos of newborn Shiloh Nouvel Jolie - Pitt, the child of Angelina Jolie and Brad Pitt. The photos set a single - day traffic record for their website, attracting 26.5 million page views.
The annual feature the "Sexiest Man Alive '' is billed as a benchmark of male attractiveness and typically includes only famous people and celebrities. It is determined using a procedure similar to the procedure used for Time 's Person of the Year. The origin of the title was a discussion on a planned story on Mel Gibson. Someone exclaimed, "Oh my God, he is the sexiest man alive! '' And someone else said, "You should use that as a cover line. ''
For the first decade or so, the feature appeared at uneven intervals. Originally awarded in the wintertime, it shifted around the calendar, resulting in gaps as short as seven months and as long as a year and a half (with no selection at all during 1994, however 21 years later People selected Keanu Reeves to fill the 1994 gap, the runners up for that year includes Hugh Grant and Jim Carrey). Since 1997, the dates have settled between mid-November and early December.
Dates of magazine issues, winners, ages of winners at the time of selection, and pertinent comments are listed below.
As of 2016, John F. Kennedy, Jr. and Patrick Swayze are the only winners to have died since winning. Kennedy, Adam Levine and David Beckham are the only non-actors to have won the award.
In December 2014, People selected its first Sexiest Woman Alive.
At the end of each year People magazine famously selects 25 news - making individuals or couples who have received a lot of media attention over the past 12 months and showcases them in a special year - end issue, the ' 25 Most Intriguing People of the Year '. This series of full - page features and half - page featurettes includes world leaders and political activists, famous actors and entertainers, elite athletes, prominent business people, accomplished scientists and occasionally members of the public whose stories have made an unusual impact in news or tabloid media.
For example, the news - makers People named as the "Most Intriguing People of 2010 '' were:
People 's 100 Most Beautiful People is an annual list of 100 people judged to be the most beautiful individuals in the world. Until 2006, it was the 50 Most Beautiful People.
In 1990, Michelle Pfeiffer appeared on the cover of People 's first "50 Most Beautiful People In The World '' issue. She again was on the cover of the annual issue in 1999. Julia Roberts holds the record for most times named, with five.
^ a: The ratio, according to Variety, is 53 % to 47 %.
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where was the tv series hart of dixie filmed | Hart of Dixie - wikipedia
Hart of Dixie is an American comedy - drama television series that aired on The CW from September 26, 2011 to March 27, 2015. The series, created by Leila Gerstein, stars Rachel Bilson as Dr. Zoe Hart, a New Yorker who, after her dreams of becoming a heart surgeon fall apart, accepts an offer to work as a general practitioner in the fictional Gulf Coast town of Bluebell, Alabama.
On September 26, 2011, Hart of Dixie premiered. The show was scheduled to move back to Mondays in the fall for its third season having been paired with Beauty & the Beast. The show 's third season premiered on October 7, 2013.
On May 8, 2014, the CW renewed the show for its fourth season. On July 18, 2014, CW president Mark Pedowitz announced that Hart of Dixie would have ten episodes for its fourth season, which premiered on December 15, 2014. On March 14, 2015, Leila Gerstein revealed that season four of Hart of Dixie would be its last. On May 7, 2015, the CW officially cancelled the show.
The first season mostly revolves around Zoe adjusting to life in Bluebell and struggling to bring in 30 % of the patients to her practice; a clause she needs to adhere to if she wishes to keep half from Brick. She finds this difficult as she is at odds with most of the local residents due to her city persona. Zoe also struggles with her growing feelings towards George Tucker, feelings of which his fiancée Lemon is fully aware, leading her to make it her mission to ensure Zoe leaves Bluebell. Other storylines include Wade 's feelings for Zoe which may or may not be returned, Zoe 's friendship with the mayor, Lavon, and his past with Lemon, and Zoe 's unresolved issues regarding her family.
The season begins with Zoe confused with her feelings for both George and Wade. She later decides that George is n't ready for another relationship and decides to see Wade. Lavon 's former high school sweet - heart Ruby Jeffries played by Golden Brooks returns to Bluebell and reveals she is opposing for mayor. George begins dating again, first seeing newcomer Shelby Sinclair, however he later dumps her and Shelby begins dating Brick Breeland, and George later stars a relationship with Wade 's ex wife Tansy Truitt. As the season progresses, Ruby leaves after Lemon 's jealousy destroys her and Lavon. Wade and Zoe continue to date, however face set backs time and time again. Annabeth begins having feelings for Lavon and later the two sleep together, leaving Lemon devastated by her best friends betrayal.
The season begins with Zoe returning to Bluebell with her new boyfriend (Joel) played by Josh Cooke. George struggles to rebuild his life following his break up with Tansy but finds love with Lavon 's younger cousin. Lemon finds herself in a scandalous relationship while Annabeth hopes her relationship with Lavon will grow into something more. Zoe begins to learn more about her family roots in Bluebell.
The final season deals with Zoe 's pregnancy and her relationship with Wade. George, Lemon, Lavon and Annabeth enter a tumultuous love affair while Brick has to deal with his past in order to move forward.
On February 1, 2011, it was announced that The CW had ordered a pilot for Hart of Dixie. On May 17, 2011, the network officially picked up Hart of Dixie to series, set to air in fall 2011. The series marks the second time executive producer, Josh Schwartz, and series star, Rachel Bilson, have worked together on television. The first time the duo worked together was on the Fox teen drama The O.C., created by Schwartz. The show 's executive producer, Josh Schwartz, compared the show to The WB classics such as Felicity, Everwood, and Gilmore Girls.
With the reveal of The CW 's fall 2011 schedule, it was announced that Hart of Dixie would air on Monday at 9: 00 pm Eastern / 8: 00 pm Central, following Gossip Girl. It premiered on Monday, September 26, 2011. On October 12, 2011 the series was picked up for a full season, which will consist of twenty - two episodes. Along with pick - up for all other CW dramas, Mark Pedowitz said "We believe in the creative strength of these dramas, and by giving them back nine orders we can give our audience the chance to enjoy complete seasons of all three of them. '' On May 11, 2012, The CW renewed the show for a second season, which premiered on October 2, 2012. The CW renewed the show for a third season on April 26, 2013.
On February 8, 2011, TVLine reported that Rachel Bilson was nearing a deal to star in the series. Her role was later confirmed by The CW in a press release. Soon after, Wilson Bethel joined the cast as Wade Kinsella, Zoe 's "gorgeous bad - boy '' neighbor. Scott Porter was later cast as good - looking lawyer George Tucker, a potential love - interest for Bilson 's character.
On May 20, 2011, it was announced that Nancy Travis would not continue with the series due to her commitments with the 20th Century Fox - produced ABC sitcom Last Man Standing. Travis was written out after the first two episodes. Meredith Monroe appeared in one episode as Lemon 's estranged mother. JoBeth Williams appeared in three episodes as Candice Hart, the mother of Bilson 's character. On July 26, 2013, it was announced that Kaitlyn Black was upgraded to series regular status for season three.
Hart of Dixie 's first season has received mixed reviews, scoring a 43 out of 100 on the review aggregator Metacritic.
TVGuide.com described the show as "Southern Exposure '' and, in a later review, stated that the actors are better than the "cutesy '' material, although Bilson is not convincing as a heart surgeon. Both TVGuide.com and Robert Bianco of USA Today stated that the show is potentially offensive to the South. Bianco also wrote that the show is shallow and far - fetched, with Bilson giving an unconvincing performance, such as acting surprised when calling herself a doctor. Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter stated that the series is predictable and superficial, but "surprisingly touching ''. Goodman and Brian Lowry of Variety stated that Bilson does not look like a doctor, with Goodman writing that she looked too much "like a high - priced call girl '' and Lowry writing that she looked like she belonged in "Barbie 's medical dream house. ''
Writing for The New York Times, critic Neil Genzlinger wrote, "... the premiere, at least, does n't find a convincing way to balance the clashing strands: the city - mouse disorientation, the medical emergencies, the girlfights, the daddy issues, the young - pretty - and - available stuff. '' Los Angeles Times reviewer Mary McNamara described the show as, "a stack of familiar scenarios stitched together to form a pretty if not terribly substantial quilt. '' TVLine described the show as "Everwood-esque ''. TVLine later said: "Beautifully filmed with warm, cozy tones, the Southern setting utterly envelops the glowing Bilson '', adding that Porter 's appearance "wins us over and makes you forget that clunky intro '' and despite the "rom - coms clichés, the pilot is super-efficient at introducing us to those who will be the key players in Zoe 's story, laying the framework for storytelling places to go. '' Tv Times magazine gave Hart of Dixie its lowest score of 2011 -- 2012: 12 out of 100.
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goa is located in which part of india | Goa - Wikipedia
Goa / ˈɡoʊ. ə / (listen) is a state in India within the coastal region known as the Konkan, in Western India. It is bounded by Maharashtra to the north and Karnataka to the east and south, with the Arabian Sea forming its Western coast. It is India 's smallest state by area and the fourth smallest by population. Goa has the highest GDP per capita among all Indian states, that is two and a half times that of the country. It was ranked the ' best placed State ' by the "Eleventh Finance Commission '' for its infrastructure and ranked on top for the ' best quality of life ' in India by the National Commission on Population based on the 12 Indicators.
Panaji is the state 's capital, while Vasco da Gama is its largest city. The historic city of Margao still exhibits the cultural influence of the Portuguese, who first landed in the early 16th century as merchants and conquered it soon thereafter. Goa is a former Portuguese province; the Portuguese overseas territory of Portuguese India existed for about 450 years until it was annexed by India in 1961.
Goa is visited by large numbers of international and domestic tourists each year for its white sand beaches, nightlife, places of worship and world heritage architecture. It has rich flora and fauna, owing to its location on the Western Ghats range, a biodiversity hotspot.
In ancient literature, Goa was known by many names, such as Gomanchala, Gopakapattana, Gopakapattam, Gopakapuri, Govapuri, Govem, and Gomantak. Other historical names for Goa are Sindapur, Sandabur, and Mahassapatam.
Rock art engravings found in Goa exhibit the earliest traces of human life in India. Goa, situated within the Shimoga - Goa Greenstone Belt in the Western Ghats (an area composed of metavolcanics, iron formations and ferruginous quartzite), yields evidence for Acheulean occupation. Rock art engravings (petroglyphs) are present on laterite platforms and granite boulders in Usgalimal near the west flowing Kushavati river and in Kajur. In Kajur, the rock engravings of animals, tectiforms and other designs in granite have been associated with what is considered to be a megalithic stone circle with a round granite stone in the centre. Petroglyphs, cones, stone - axe, and choppers dating to 10,000 years ago have been found in various locations in Goa, including Kazur, Mauxim, and the Mandovi - Zuari basin. Evidence of Palaeolithic life is visible at Dabolim, Adkon, Shigao, Fatorpa, Arli, Maulinguinim, Diwar, Sanguem, Pilerne, and Aquem - Margaon. Difficulty in carbon dating the laterite rock compounds poses a problem for determining the exact time period.
Early Goan society underwent radical change when Indo - Aryan and Dravidian migrants amalgamated with the aboriginal locals, forming the base of early Goan culture.
In the 3rd century BC, Goa was part of the Maurya Empire, ruled by the Buddhist emperor, Ashoka of Magadha. Buddhist monks laid the foundation of Buddhism in Goa. Between the 2nd century BC and the 6th century AD, Goa was ruled by the Bhojas of Goa. Chutus of Karwar also ruled some parts as feudatories of the Satavahanas of Kolhapur (2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD), Western Kshatrapas (around 150 AD), the Abhiras of Western Maharashtra, Bhojas of the Yadav clans of Gujarat, and the Konkan Mauryas as feudatories of the Kalachuris. The rule later passed to the Chalukyas of Badami, who controlled it between 578 and 753, and later the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed from 753 to 963. From 765 to 1015, the Southern Silharas of Konkan ruled Goa as the feudatories of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas. Over the next few centuries, Goa was successively ruled by the Kadambas as the feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyani. They patronised Jainism in Goa.
In 1312, Goa came under the governance of the Delhi Sultanate. The kingdom 's grip on the region was weak, and by 1370 it was forced to surrender it to Harihara I of the Vijayanagara empire. The Vijayanagara monarchs held on to the territory until 1469, when it was appropriated by the Bahmani sultans of Gulbarga. After that dynasty crumbled, the area fell into the hands of the Adil Shahis of Bijapur, who established as their auxiliary capital the city known under the Portuguese as Velha Goa (or Old Goa).
In 1510, the Portuguese defeated the ruling Bijapur sultan Yousuf Adil Shah with the help of a local ally, Timayya. They set up a permanent settlement in Velha Goa. This was the beginning of Portuguese rule in Goa that would last for four and a half centuries, until its annexation in 1961.
In 1843 the Portuguese moved the capital to Panaji from Velha Goa. By the mid-18th century, Portuguese Goa had expanded to most of the present - day state limits. Simultaneously the Portuguese lost other possessions in India until their borders stabilised and formed the Estado da Índia Portuguesa or State of Portuguese India, of which Goa was the largest territory.
After India gained independence from the British in 1947, India requested that Portuguese territories on the Indian subcontinent be ceded to India. Portugal refused to negotiate on the sovereignty of its Indian enclaves. On 19 December 1961, the Indian Army invaded with Operation Vijay resulting in the annexation of Goa, and of Daman and Diu islands into the Indian union. Goa, along with Daman and Diu, was organised as a centrally administered union territory of India. On 30 May 1987, the union territory was split, and Goa was made India 's twenty - fifth state, with Daman and Diu remaining a union territory.
Goa encompasses an area of 3,702 km (1,429 sq mi). It lies between the latitudes 14 ° 53 ′ 54 '' N and 15 ° 40 ′ 00 '' N and longitudes 73 ° 40 ′ 33 '' E and 74 ° 20 ′ 13 '' E.
Goa is a part of the coastal country known as the Konkan, which is an escarpment rising up to the Western Ghats range of mountains, which separate it from the Deccan Plateau. The highest point is the Sonsogor, with an altitude of 1,167 metres (3,829 ft). Goa has a coastline of 101 km (63 mi).
Goa 's seven major rivers are the Zuari, Mandovi, Terekhol, Chapora, Galgibag, Kumbarjua canal, Talpona and the Sal. The Zuari and the Mandovi are the most important rivers, interspaced by the Kumbarjua canal, forming a major estuarine complex. These rivers are fed by the Southwest monsoon rain and their basin covers 69 % of the state 's geographical area. These rivers are some of the busiest in India. Goa has more than 40 estuarine, eight marine, and about 90 riverine islands. The total navigable length of Goa 's rivers is 253 km (157 mi). Goa has more than 300 ancient water - tanks built during the rule of the Kadamba dynasty and over 100 medicinal springs.
The Mormugao harbour on the mouth of the River Zuari is one of the best natural harbours in South Asia.
Most of Goa 's soil cover is made up of laterites rich in ferric - aluminium oxides and reddish in colour. Further inland and along the riverbanks, the soil is mostly alluvial and loamy. The soil is rich in minerals and humus, thus conducive to agriculture. Some of the oldest rocks in the Indian subcontinent are found in Goa between Molem and Anmod on Goa 's border with Karnataka. The rocks are classified as Trondjemeitic Gneiss estimated to be 3,600 million years old, dated by rubidium isotope dating. A specimen of the rock is exhibited at Goa University.
Goa features a tropical monsoon climate under the Köppen climate classification. Goa, being in the tropical zone and near the Arabian Sea, has a hot and humid climate for most of the year. The month of May is usually the hottest, seeing daytime temperatures of over 35 ° C (95 ° F) coupled with high humidity. The state 's three seasons are: Southwest monsoon period (June -- September), post-monsoon period (October -- January) and fair weather period (February -- May). Over 90 % of the average annual rainfall (120 inches) is received during the monsoon season.
The state is divided into two districts: North Goa and South Goa. Each district is administered by a district collector, appointed by the Indian government.
Panaji is the headquarters of North Goa district and is also the capital of Goa.
North Goa is further divided into three subdivisions -- Panaji, Mapusa, and Bicholim; and five taluks -- Ilhas de Goa (Tiswadi), Bardez (Mapusa), Pernem, Bicholim, and Sattari (Valpoi),
Margão is the headquarters of South Goa district.
South Goa is further divided into five subdivisions -- Ponda, Mormugao (Vasco da Gama), Margao, Quepem, and Dharbandora; and seven taluks -- Ponda, Mormugao, Salcete (Margao), Quepem, and Canacona (Chaudi), Sanguem, and Dharbandora. (Ponda Taluka shifted from North Goa to South Goa in January 2015).
Goa 's major cities include Vasco da Gama, Margão, Panaji, Mapusa and Ponda.
Panaji and Margao are the two Municipal Corporations in Goa.
There are thirteen Municipal Councils: Margao, Mormugao (including Vasco da Gama), Pernem, Mapusa, Bicholim, Sanquelim, Valpoi, Ponda, Cuncolim, Quepem, Curchorem, Sanguem, and Canacona. Goa has a total number of 334 villages.
The politics of Goa are a result of the uniqueness of this region due to 450 years of Portuguese rule, in comparison to three centuries of British colonialism experienced by the rest of India. The Indian National Congress was unable to achieve electoral success in the first two decades after the State 's incorporation into India. Instead, the state was dominated by the communal politics of the Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party and the United Goans Party.
Government In the Parliament of India, Goa has two seats in the Lok Sabha (House of the People), one representing each district, and one seat in the Rajya Sabha (Council of the States).
Goa 's administrative capital is Panaji in English, Pangim in Portuguese, and Ponjê in the local language. It lies on the left bank of the Mandovi. The seat of the Goa Legislative Assembly is in Porvorim, across the Mandovi from Panaji. As the state comes under the Bombay High Court, Panaji has a bench of it. Unlike other states, which follow the British Indian model of civil laws framed for individual religions, the Portuguese Goa Civil Code, a uniform code based on the Napoleonic code, has been retained in Goa.
Goa has a unicameral legislature of 40 members, headed by a speaker. The Chief Minister heads the executive, which is made up from the party or coalition elected with a majority in the legislature. The Governor, the head of the state, is appointed by the President of India. After having stable governance for nearly thirty years up to 1990, Goa is now notorious for its political instability having seen fourteen governments in the span of the fifteen years between 1990 and 2005. In March 2005 the assembly was dissolved by the Governor and President 's Rule was declared, which suspended the legislature. A by - election in June 2005 saw the Indian National Congress coming back to power after winning three of the five seats that went to polls. The Congress Party and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) are the two largest parties in the state. In the assembly poll of 2007, the INC - led coalition won and formed the government. In the 2012 Vidhan Sabha Elections, the Bharatiya Janata Party along with the Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party won a clear majority, forming the new government with Manohar Parrikar as the Chief Minister. Other parties include the United Goans Democratic Party, the Nationalist Congress Party. In the 2017 assembly elections, the Indian National Congress gained the most seats, with the BJP coming in second. However, no party was able to gain a majority in the 40 member house. The BJP was invited to form the Government by Governor Mridula Sinha. The Congress claimed the use of money power on the part of the BJP and took the case to the Supreme Court. However, the Manohar Parikkar led Government was able to prove its majority in the Supreme Court mandated "floor test ''.
Equatorial forest cover in Goa stands at 1,424 km (549.81 sq mi), most of which is owned by the government. Government owned forest is estimated at 1,224.38 km (472.74 sq mi) whilst private is given as 200 km (77.22 sq mi). Most of the forests in the state are located in the interior eastern regions of the state. The Western Ghats, which form most of eastern Goa, have been internationally recognised as one of the biodiversity hotspots of the world. In the February 1999 issue of National Geographic Magazine, Goa was compared with the Amazon and the Congo basins for its rich tropical biodiversity.
Goa 's wildlife sanctuaries boast of more than 1512 documented species of plants, over 275 species of birds, over 48 kinds of animals and over 60 genera of reptiles.
Goa is also known for its coconut cultivation. The coconut tree has been reclassified by the government as a palm (like a grass), enabling farmers and real estate developers to clear land with fewer restrictions.
Rice is the main food crop, and pulses (legume), Ragi (Finger Millet) and other food crops are also grown. Main cash crops are coconut, cashewnut, arecanut, sugarcane and fruits like pineapple, mango and banana. Goa 's state animal is the Gaur, the state bird is the Ruby Throated Yellow Bulbul, which is a variation of Black - crested Bulbul, and the state tree is the Asan.
The important forests products are bamboo canes, Maratha barks, chillar barks and the bhirand. Coconut trees are ubiquitous and are present in almost all areas of Goa barring the elevated regions. A large number of deciduous trees, such as teak, Sal tree, cashew and mango trees are present. Fruits include jackfruit, mango, pineapple and "black - berry '' ("podkoam '' in Konkani language). Goa 's forests are rich with medicinal plants.
Foxes, wild boar and migratory birds are found in the jungles of Goa. The avifauna (bird species) includes kingfisher, myna and parrot. Numerous types of fish are also caught off the coast of Goa and in its rivers. Crab, lobster, shrimp, jellyfish, oysters and catfish are the basis of the marine fishery. Goa also has a high snake population. Goa has many famous "National Parks '', including the renowned Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary on the island of Chorão. Other wildlife sanctuaries include the Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary, Molem Wildlife Sanctuary, Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary, Madei Wildlife Sanctuary, Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary, and Mahaveer Wildlife Sanctuary.
Goa has more than 33 % of its geographic area under government forests (1224.38 km2) of which about 62 % has been brought under Protected Areas (PA) of Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Park. Since there is a substantial area under private forests and a large tract under cashew, mango, coconut, etc. plantations, the total forest and tree cover constitutes 56.6 % of the geographic area.
Goa 's state domestic product for 2017 is estimated at $11 billion at current prices. Goa is India 's richest state with the highest GDP per capita -- two and a half times that of the country -- with one of its fastest growth rates: 8.23 % (yearly average 1990 -- 2000). Tourism is Goa 's primary industry: it gets 12 % of foreign tourist arrivals in India. Goa has two main tourist seasons: winter and summer. In winter, tourists from abroad (mainly Europe) come, and summer (which, in Goa, is the rainy season) sees tourists from across India. Goa 's net state domestic product (NSDP) was around US $7.24 billion in 2015 -- 16.
The land away from the coast is rich in minerals and ores, and mining forms the second largest industry. Iron, bauxite, manganese, clays, limestone and silica are mined. The Mormugao port handled 31.69 million tonnes of cargo last year, which was 39 % of India 's total iron ore exports. Sesa Goa (now owned by Vedanta Resources) and Dempo are the lead miners. Rampant mining has been depleting the forest cover as well as posing a health hazard to the local population. Corporations are also mining illegally in some areas. During 2015 -- 16, the total traffic handled by Mormugao port was recorded to be 20.78 million tones.
Agriculture, while of shrinking importance to the economy over the past four decades, offers part - time employment to a sizeable portion of the populace. Rice is the main agricultural crop, followed by areca, cashew and coconut. Fishing employs about 40,000 people, though recent official figures indicate a decline of the importance of this sector and also a fall in catch, due perhaps, to traditional fishing giving way to large - scale mechanised trawling.
Medium scale industries include the manufacturing of pesticides, fertilisers, tyres, tubes, footwear, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, wheat products, steel rolling, fruits and fish canning, cashew nuts, textiles, brewery products.
Currently there are 16 planned SEZs in Goa. The Goa government has recently decided to not allow any more special economic zones (SEZs) in Goa after strong opposition to them by political parties and the powerful Goa Catholic Church.
Goa is also notable for its low priced beer, wine and spirits prices due to its very low excise duty on alcohol. Another main source of cash inflow to the state is remittance, from many of its citizens who work abroad, to their families. It is said to have some of the largest bank savings in the country.
Goa is the second state in India to achieve a 100 per cent automatic telephone system with a solid network of telephone exchanges. As of September 2017, Goa had a total installed power generation capacity of 547.88 MW. Goa is also one of the few states in India to achieve 100 per cent rural electrification.
A native of Goa is called a Goan. Goa has a population of 1.459 million residents, making it India 's fourth smallest (after Sikkim, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh). The population has a growth rate of 8.23 % per decade. There are 394 people for each square kilometre of land which is higher than national average 382 per km. Goa is the state with highest proportion of urban population with 62.17 % of the population living in urban areas. The sex ratio is 973 females to 1,000 males. The birth rate is 15.70 per 1,000 people in 2007. Goa also is the state with lowest proportion of Scheduled Tribes at 0.04 %. A relatively small Goan - Portuguese mixed race population resulted from Portuguese colonization, one estimate being that less than 100 mestiço families left in 1961 when Portugal lost the colony.
The Goa, Daman and Diu Official Language Act, 1987 makes Konkani in the Devanagari script the sole official language of Goa, but provides that Marathi may also be used "for all or any of the official purposes ''. Portuguese was the sole official language during Portuguese colonial rule. It is now, however, mostly spoken by only the elderly Portuguese - educated populations and is no longer an official language. There is now a growing interest in Portuguese with the organisation of several contests and programmes to promote the language. The Government also has a policy of replying in Marathi to correspondence received in Marathi. Whilst there have been demands for according Konkani in the Roman script official status in the state, there is widespread support for keeping Konkani as the sole official language of Goa. It is however notable to mention that the entire liturgy and communication of the Catholic church in Goa is done solely in the Roman script of Konkani.
Konkani is spoken as a native language by about 57 % of the people in the state but almost all Goans can speak and understand Konkani. Other linguistic minorities in the state as per the 2001 census are speakers of Marathi (23 %), Kannada (5.5 %), Hindi (5.7 %), and Urdu (4 %). With the exception of Konkani, English, Portuguese, Marathi and Kannada, all other mentioned languages are primarily migrant - based languages, natively spoken in other Indian states.
Until 1987, Konkani was neither the official nor administrative language used by the various rulers of the State. Under the Kadambas (c. 960 - 1310) the court language was Kannada, a Dravidian language, and when under Muslim rule (1312 - 1370 and 1469 - 1510), the official and cultural language was Persian; various stones in the Goa Archaeological Museum from the period are inscribed in Canarese and Persian. During the intervening periods of Muslim rule, the Vijayanagara control of the State mandated the use of Telugu, another Dravidian language.
Religion in Goa (2011)
According to the 2011 census, in a population of 1,458,545 people, 66.1 % were Hindu, 25.1 % were Christian, and 8.3 % were Muslim. Smaller minorities of about 0.1 % each followed Sikhism, Buddhism, or Jainism.
Due to the economic decline of the Estado da India from the eighteenth century, there was a large scale migration of Goan Catholics. The local Indian Christians were called "indiacatos '' and the mixed population, mestiços by the Portuguese. The population moved from 64.5 % Christians and 35 % Hindus in 1851 to 50 % Christians and 50 % Hindus in 1900, with a steady increase in the Hindu proportion from then onwards.
The Catholics in Goa state and Daman and Diu union territory are served by the Metropolitan Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Goa and Daman, the primatial see of India, in which the titular Patriarchate of the East Indies is vested.
Tourism is generally focused on the coastal areas of Goa, with decreased tourist activity inland. In 2010, there were more than 2 million tourists reported to have visited Goa, about 1.2 million of whom were from abroad. As of 2013, Goa was a destination of choice for Indian and foreign tourists, particularly Britons and Russians, with limited means who wanted to party. The state was hopeful that changes could be made which would attract a more upscale demographic.
Goa stands 6th in the Top 10 Nightlife cities in the world in National Geographic Travel. One of the biggest tourist attractions in Goa is water sports. Beaches like Baga and Calangute offer jet - skiing, parasailing, banana boat rides, water scooter rides, and more. Patnem beach in Palolem stood 3rd in CNN Travel 's Top 20 Beaches in Asia.
Over 450 years of Portuguese rule and the influence of the Portuguese culture presents to visitors to Goa a cultural environment that is not found elsewhere in India. Goa is often described as a fusion between Eastern and Western culture with Portuguese culture having a dominant position in the state be it in its architectural, cultural or social settings. The state of Goa is famous for its excellent beaches, churches, and temples. The Bom Jesus Cathedral, Fort Aguada and a new wax museum on Indian history, culture and heritage in Old Goa are other tourism destinations.
Goa has two World Heritage Sites: the Bom Jesus Basilica and churches and convents of Old Goa. The basilica holds the mortal remains of St. Francis Xavier, regarded by many Catholics as the patron saint of Goa (the patron of the Archdiocese of Goa is actually Saint Joseph Vaz). These are both Portuguese - era monuments and reflect a strong European character. The relics are taken down for veneration and for public viewing, as per the prerogative of the Church in Goa, not every ten or twelve years as popularly thought and propagated. The last exposition was held in 2014.
Goa has the Sanctuary of Saint Joseph Vaz in Sancoale. Pilar monastery which holds novenas of Venerable Padre Agnelo Gustavo de Souza from 10 November to 20 November yearly. There is a claimed Marian Apparition at the Church of Saints Simon and Jude at Batim, Ganxim, near Pilar, where Goans and non-resident Goans visit. There is the statue of the bleeding Jesus on the Crucifix at the Santa Monica Convent in Velha Goa. There are churches (Igorzo), like the Baroque styled Nixkollounk Gorb - Sombhov Saibinnich Igorz (Church of the Our Lady of Immaculate Conception) in Panaji, the Gothic styled Mater Dei (Dêv Matechi Igorz / Mother of God) church in Saligao and each church having its own style and heritage, besides Kopelam / Irmidi (chapels).
The Velhas Conquistas regions are known for Goa - Portuguese style architecture. There are many forts in Goa such as Tiracol, Chapora, Corjuem, Aguada, Reis Magos, Nanus, Mormugao, Fort Gaspar Dias and Cabo de Rama.
In many parts of Goa, mansions constructed in the Indo - Portuguese style architecture still stand, though in some villages, most of them are in a dilapidated condition. Fontainhas in Panaji has been declared a cultural quarter, showcasing the life, architecture and culture of Goa. Influences from the Portuguese era are visible in some of Goa 's temples, notably the Shanta Durga Temple, the Mangueshi Temple, the Shri Damodar Temple and the Mahalasa Temple. After 1961, many of these were demolished and reconstructed in the indigenous Indian style.
Goa has three important museums: the Goa State Museum, the Naval Aviation Museum and the National Institute of Oceanography. The aviation museum is one of three in India (the others are in Delhi and Bengaluru). The Goa Science Centre is in Miramar, Panaji. The National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) is in Dona Paula.
Having been a Portuguese territory for over 450 years, Goa 's culture is an interesting amalgamation of both Eastern and Western styles, with the latter having a more dominant role. The tableau of Goa showcases religious harmony by focusing on the Deepastambha, the Cross and Ghode Modni followed by a chariot. Western royal attire of kings is as much part of Goa 's cultural heritage as are regional dances performed depicting a unique blend of different religions and cultures of this State. Prominent local festivals are Christmas, Easter, Carnival, Diwali, Shigmo, Chavoth, Samvatsar Padvo, Dasara etc. The Goan Carnival and Christmas - new year celebrations are well known to attract a large number of tourists.
The Gomant Vibhushan Award, the highest civilian honour of the State of Goa, is given annually by Government of Goa since 2010.
Traditional Goan art forms are Dekhnni, Fugdi, Corridinho, Mando, Dulpod and Fado. Goan Catholics are fond of social gatherings and Tiatr (Teatro). As part of its Portuguese history, music is an integral part of Goan homes. It is often said that "Goans are born with music and sport ''. Western musical instruments like the piano, guitars and violins are widely used in most religious and social functions of the Catholics.
Goan Hindus are very fond of Natak, Bhajan and Kirtan. Many famous Indian classical singers hail from Goa, including Mogubai Kurdikar, Kishori Amonkar, Kesarbai Kerkar, Jitendra Abhisheki and Pandit Prabhakar Karekar.
Goa is also known as the origin of Goa trance.
Natak, Tiatr (most popular) and Jagor are the chief forms of Goa 's traditional performance arts. Other forms are Ranmale, Dashavatari, Kalo, Goulankala, Lalit, Kala and Rathkala. Stories from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata along with more modern social subjects are narrated with song and dance.
"Jagor '', the traditional folk dance - drama, is performed by the Hindu Kunbi and Christian Gauda community of Goa, to seek the Devine Grace for protection and prosperity of the crop. Literal meaning of Jagor is "jagran '' or wakeful nights. The strong belief is that the night long performance, awakens the deities once a year and they continue to remain awake throughout the year guarding the village.
Perni Jagor is the ancient mask dance -- drama of Goa, performed by Perni families, using well crafted and painted wooden masks, depicting various animals, birds, super natural power, deities, demons and social characters.
Gauda Jagor, is an impression of social life, that displays all the existing moods and modes of human characters. It is predominantly based on three main characters, Gharasher, Nikhandar and Parpati wearing shining dress and headgears. The performance is accompanied by vibrant tunes of Goan folk instruments like Nagara / Dobe, Ghumat, Madale and Kansale.
In some places, Jagor performances are held with participation of both Hindus and Christian community, whereby, characters are played by Hindus and musical support is provided by Christian artistes.
Tiatr (Teatro) and its artists play a major role in keeping the Konkani language & music alive. Tiatr 's are conducted solely in the Roman script of Konkani as it is primarily a Christian community based act. They are played in scenes with music at regular intervals, the scenes are portrayals of daily life and are known to depict social and cultural scenarios. Tiatrs are regularly held especially on weekends mainly at Kala Academy, Panaji, Pai Tiatrist Hall at Ravindra Bhavan, Margao and most recent shows have also started at the new Ravindra Bhavan, Baina, Vasco. Western Musical Instruments such as Drums, bass, Keyboards, Trumpets etc. are part of the show and most of them are played acoustically. It is one of Goa 's few art forms that is renowned across the world with performances popular among Goans in the Middle - East, Americas and Europe.
Konkani cinema is an Indian film industry, where films are made in the Konkani language, which is spoken mainly in the Indian states of Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka and to a smaller extent in Kerala. Konkani films have been produced in Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Kerala.
The first full length Konkani film was Mogacho Anvddo, released on 24 April 1950, and was produced and directed by A.L. Jerry Braganza, a native of Mapusa, under the banner of ETICA Pictures. Hence, 24 April is celebrated as Konkani Film Day.
Since 2004, starting from the 35th edition, the International Film Festival of India moved its permanent venue to Goa, it is annually held in the months of November and December.
Konkani film Paltadcho manis has been included in the world 's best films of 2009 list.
Konkani films are eligible for the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Konkani. The most commercially successful Konkani film (as of June 2011) is O Maria directed by Rajendra Talak.
In 2012, the whole new change adopted in Konkani Cinema by introducing Digital Theatrical Film "The Victim '' directed by Milroy Goes.
Some old Konkani films are Sukhachem Sopon, Amchem Noxib, Nirmonn, Mhoji Ghorkarn, Kortubancho Sonvsar, Jivit Amchem Oxem, Mog ani Moipas, Bhuierantlo Munis, Suzanne, Boglantt, Padri and Bhogsonne. Ujwadu is a 2011 Konkani film directed by Kasargod Chinna and produced by KJ Dhananjaya and Anuradha Padiyar.
Rice with fish curry (xit koddi in Konkani) is the staple diet in Goa. Goan cuisine is famous for its rich variety of fish dishes cooked with elaborate recipes. Coconut and coconut oil are widely used in Goan cooking along with chili peppers, spices, and vinegar is used in the Catholic cuisine, giving the food a unique flavour. The Goan cuisine is heavily influenced by Portuguese cuisine.
Goan food may be divided into Goan Catholic and Goan Hindu cuisine with each showing very distinct tastes, characteristics, and cooking styles. Pork dishes such as Vindalho, Xacuti, chouriço, and Sorpotel are cooked for major occasions among the Goan Catholics. An exotic Goan vegetable stew, known as Khatkhate, is a very popular dish during the celebrations of festivals, Hindu and Christian alike. Khatkhate contains at least five vegetables, fresh coconut, and special Goan spices that add to the aroma.
Sannas, Hitt, are variants of idli and Polle, Amboli, and Kailoleo are variants of dosa; all are native to Goa. A rich egg - based, multi-layered sweet dish known as bebinca is a favourite at Christmas.
There are some places in Goa which are famous for Goa 's traditional & special cuisines. Ros omelette is one of the most popular snacks and street foods in Goa, it is traditionally sold on food carts on streets.
The most popular alcoholic beverage in Goa is feni; cashew feni is made from the fermentation of the fruit of the cashew tree, while coconut feni is made from the sap of toddy palms. Urrak is another local liquor prepared from Cashew fruit. In fact the bar culture is one of the unique aspects of the Goan villages where a local bar serves as a meeting point for villagers to unwind. Goa also has a rich wine culture.
The architecture of Goa is a combination of Goan, Ottoman and Portuguese styles. Since the Portuguese ruled and governed for four centuries, many churches and houses bear a striking element of the Portuguese style of architecture. Goan Hindu houses do not show any Portuguese influence, though the modern temple architecture is an amalgam of original Goan temple style with Dravidian, Hemadpanthi, Islamic, and Portuguese architecture. The original Goan temple architecture fell into disuse as the temples were demolished by the Portuguese and the Sthapati known as Thavayi in Konkani were converted to Christianity though the wooden work and the Kavi murals can still be seen. (see: Goa: Hindu temples and deities by Rui Gomes Pereira).
Goa is served by almost all television channels available in India. Channels are received through cable in most parts of Goa. In the interior regions, channels are received via satellite dishes. Doordarshan, the national television broadcaster, has two free terrestrial channels on air.
DTH (Direct To Home) TV services are available from Dish TV, Videocon D2H, Tata Sky & DD Direct Plus. The All India Radio is the only radio channel in the state that broadcasts on both FM and AM bands. Two AM channels are broadcast, the primary channel at 1287 kHz and the Vividh Bharati channel at 1539 kHz. AIR 's FM channel is called FM Rainbow and is broadcast at 105.4 MHz. A number of private FM radio channels are available, Big FM at 92.7 and Radio Indigo at 91.9 MHz. There is also an educational radio channel, Gyan Vani, run by IGNOU broadcast from Panaji at 107.8 MHz. In 2006, St Xavier 's College, Mapusa, became the first college in the state to launch a campus community radio station "Voice of Xavier 's ''.
Major cellular service operators include Bharti Airtel, Vodafone Essar, Idea Cellular, Telenor, Reliance Infocomm, Tata DoCoMo, BSNL CellOne and Jio.
Local publications include the English language O Heraldo (Goa 's oldest, once a Portuguese language paper), The Gomantak Times and The Navhind Times. In addition to these, The Times of India and The Indian Express are also received from Mumbai and Bangalore in the urban areas. The Times of India has recently started publication from Goa itself, serving the local population news directly from the state capital. Among the list of officially accredited newspapers are O Heraldo, The Navhind Times and The Gomantak Times in English; Bhaangar Bhuin in Konkani (Devanagari script); and Tarun Bharat, Gomantak, Navprabha, Goa Times, Sanatan Prabhat, Govadoot and Lokmat (all in Marathi). All are dailies. Other publications in the state include Planet Goa (English, monthly), Goa Today (English, monthly), Goan Observer (English, weekly), Vauraddeancho Ixtt (Roman - script Konkani, weekly) Goa Messenger, Vasco Watch, Gulab (Konkani, monthly), Bimb (Devanagari - script Konkani).
Normally other states are fond of cricket but association football is the most popular sport in Goa and is embedded in Goan culture as a result of the Portuguese influence. Its origins in the state are traced back to 1883 when the visiting Irish priest Fr. William Robert Lyons established the sport as part of a "Christian education ''. On 22 December 1959 the Associação de Futebol de Goa was formed, which continues to administer the game in the state under the new name Goa Football Association. Goa, along with West Bengal and Kerala is the locus of football in India and is home to many football clubs in the national I - League. The state 's football powerhouses include Salgaocar Sports Club, Dempo Sports Club, Churchill Brothers, Vasco Sports Club, Sporting Clube de Goa and FC Goa. The first Unity World Cup was held in Goa in 2014. The state 's main football stadium, Fatorda Stadium, is located at Margao and also hosts cricket matches. The state hosted few matches of the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup in Fatorda Stadium.
A number of Goans have represented India in football and six of them, namely Samir Naik, Climax Lawrence, Brahmanand Sankhwalkar, Bruno Coutinho, Mauricio Afonso and Roberto Fernandes have all captained the national team. Goa has its own state football team and league, the Goa Professional League. It is probably the only state in India where cricket is not considered the most important of all sports.
Goa also has its own cricket team. Dilip Sardesai remains the only Goan to date to play international cricket for India.
The Indian Olympic Association (IOA) has won the right to host the Asian Beach Games in 2020.
Goa had India 's earliest educational institutions built with European support. The Portuguese set up seminaries for religious education and parish schools for elementary education. Founded circa 1542 by saint Francis Xavier, Saint Paul 's College, Goa was a Jesuit school in Old Goa, which later became a college. St Paul 's was once the main Jesuit institution in the whole of Asia. It housed the first printing press in India and published the first books in 1556.
Medical education began in 1801 with the offering of regular medical courses at the Royal and Military Hospital in the old City of Goa. Built in 1842 as the Escola Médico - Cirúrgica de (Nova) Goa (Medical - Surgical School of Goa), Goa Medical College is one of Asia 's oldest medical colleges and has one of the oldest medical libraries (since 1845). It houses the largest hospital in Goa and continues to provide medical training to this day.
According to the 2011 census, Goa has a literacy rate of 87 %, with 90 % of males and 84 % of females being literate. Each taluka is made up of villages, each having a school run by the government. Private schools are preferred over government run schools. All schools come under the Goa Board of Secondary & Higher Secondary Education, whose syllabus is prescribed by the state education department. There are also a few schools that subscribe to the all - India ICSE syllabus or the NIOS syllabus. Most students in Goa complete their high school with English as the medium of instruction. Most primary schools, however, use Konkani and Marathi (in private, but government - aided schools). As is the case in most of India, enrolment for vernacular media has seen a fall in numbers in favour of English medium education. As per a report published in The Times of India, 84 % of Goan primary schools run without an administrative head.
The best known schools in Goa include Sharada Mandir School in Miramar, St Mary Angels Convent High School in Chinchinim, Perpetual Succour Convent High school, Navelim, Our Lady of the Rosary High School at Dona Paula, Vidya Prabhodini at Porvorim, K.B. Hedgewar High School, the Progress High School, Don Bosco High School, People 's High School, Mushtifund High School in Panaji, Saraswat Vidyalaya High School in Mapusa, Sunshine Worldwide school in Old Goa, Shiksha Niketan and Nisha 's Playschool in Torda, A.J. de Almeida High School in Ponda, S.S. Samiti 's I.V.B.D. High School in Dhawali -- Ponda, Vidya Bharati, Mahila And Nutan English High School in Margao, Manovikas in Margao, Loyola High School in Margao, St. Joseph 's Institute, Deepvihar High School in Vasco da Gama and Rosary High School in Navelim, Lourdes Convent High School in Saligao and The King 's School in São José de Areal.
After ten years of schooling, students join a Higher Secondary school, which offers courses in popular streams such as Science, Arts, Law and Commerce. A student may also opt for a course in vocational studies. Additionally, they may join three - year diploma courses. Two years of college is followed by a professional degree programme. Goa University, the sole university in Goa, is located in Taleigão and most Goan colleges are affiliated to it.
There are six engineering colleges in the state. Goa Engineering College and National Institute of Technology Goa are government funded colleges whereas the private engineering colleges include Don Bosco College of Engineering at Fatorda, Shree Rayeshwar Institute of Engineering and Information Technology at Shiroda, Agnel Institute of Technology and Design (AITD), Assagao, Bardez and Padre Conceicao College of Engineering at Verna. In 2004, BITS Pilani one of the premier institutes in India, inaugurated its second campus, the BITS Pilani Goa Campus, at Zuarinagar near Dabolim. The Indian Institute of Technology Goa (IIT Goa) began functioning from its temporary campus, located in Goa Engineering College since 2016. The site for permanent campus was finalized in Cotarli, Sanguem.
There are colleges offering pharmacy, architecture and dentistry along with numerous private colleges offering law, arts, commerce and science. There are also two National Oceanographic Science related centres: the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research in Vasco da Gama and the National Institute of Oceanography in Dona Paula.
Goa Institute of Management located at Sanquelim, near Panaji is one of India 's premier business schools.
In addition to the engineering colleges, there are government polytechnic institutions in Panaji, Bicholim and Curchorem, and aided institutions like Father Agnel Polytechnic in Verna and the Institute of Shipbuilding Technology in Vasco da Gama which impart technical and vocational training.
Other colleges in Goa include Shri Damodar College of Commerce and Economics, V.V.M 's R.M. Salgaocar Higher Secondary School in Margao, G.V.M 's S.N.J.A higher secondary school, Don Bosco College, D.M. 's College of Arts, Science and Commerce, St Xavier 's College, Carmel College, The Parvatibai Chowgule College, Dhempe College, Damodar College, MES College, S.S. Samiti 's Higher Secondary School of Science and Rosary College of Commerce & Arts.
Goa International Airport, is a civil enclave at INS Hansa, a Naval airfield located at Dabolim near Vasco da Gama. The airport caters to scheduled domestic and international air services. Goa has scheduled international connections to Doha, Dubai, Muscat, Sharjah and Kuwait in the Middle East by airlines like Air Arabia, Air India, GoAir, Indigo, Oman Air, SpiceJet, Jet Airways, JetKonnect and Qatar Airways. The proposed greenfield Mopa Airport will be built at Mopa in Pernem taluka.
Goa 's public transport largely consists of privately operated buses linking the major towns to rural areas. Government - run buses, maintained by the Kadamba Transport Corporation, link major routes (like the Panaji -- Margao route) and some remote parts of the state. The Corporation owns 15 bus stands, 4 depots and one Central workshop at Porvorim and a Head Office at Porvorim. In large towns such as Panajiand Margao, intra-city buses operate. However, public transport in Goa is less developed, and residents depend heavily on their own transportation, usually motorised two - wheelers and small family cars.
Goa has four National Highways passing through it. NH - 66 (ex NH - 17) runs along India 's west coast and links Goa to Mumbai in the north and Mangalore to the south. NH - 4A running across the state connects the capital Panaji to Belgaum in east, linking Goa to cities in the Deccan. The NH - 366 (ex NH - 17A) connects NH - 66 to Mormugao Port from Cortalim. The new NH - 566 (ex NH - 17B) is a four - lane highway connecting Mormugao Port to NH - 66 at Verna via Dabolim Airport, primarily built to ease pressure on the NH - 366 for traffic to Dabolim Airport and Vasco da Gama. NH - 768 (ex NH - 4A) links Panaji and Ponda to Belgaum and NH - 4. Goa has a total of 224 km (139 mi) of national highways, 232 km (144 mi) of state highway and 815 kilometres (506 miles) of district highway. National Highways in Goa are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are 45 metres (148 feet) wide. In other states National Highways are grade separated highways 60 metres (200 feet) wide with a minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8 lane access - controlled expressways.
Hired forms of transport include unmetered taxis and, in urban areas, auto rickshaws. Another form of transportation in Goa is the motorcycle taxi, operated by drivers who are locally called "pilots ''. These vehicles transport a single pillion rider, at fares that are usually negotiated. Other than buses, "pilots '' tend to be the cheapest mode of transport. River crossings in Goa are serviced by flat - bottomed ferry boats, operated by the river navigation department.
Goa has two rail lines -- one run by the South Western Railway and the other by the Konkan Railway. The line run by the South Western Railway was built during the colonial era linking the port town of Vasco da Gama, Goa with Belgaum, Hubli, Karnataka via Margao. The Konkan Railway line, which was built during the 1990s, runs parallel to the coast connecting major cities on the western coast.
The Mormugao harbour near the city of Vasco handles mineral ore, petroleum, coal, and international containers. Much of the shipments consist of minerals and ores from Goa 's hinterland. Panaji, which is on the banks of the Mandovi, has a minor port, which used to handle passenger steamers between Goa and Mumbai till the late 1980s. There was also a short - lived catamaran service linking Mumbai and Panaji operated by Damania Shipping in the 1990s.
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when was the bantu education law passed implemented and why | Bantu education Act, 1953 - wikipedia
The Bantu Education Act, 1953 (Act No. 47 of 1953; later renamed the Black Education Act, 1953) was a South African segregation law which legalised several aspects of the apartheid system passed by the Apartheid regime which was really not on the side of the black community. Its major provision was enforcing racially separated educational facilities. Even universities were made "tribal '', and all but three missionary schools chose to close down when the government no longer would help support their schools. Very few authorities continued using their own finances to support education for native Africans. In 1959, this type of education was extended to "non white '' universities and colleges with the Extension of University Education Act, and the internationally prestigious University College of Fort Hare was taken over by the government and degraded to being part of the Bantu education system. It is often argued that the policy of Bantu (African) education was aimed to direct black or non-white youth to the unskilled labour market, although Kiyaam Govind, at the time Minister of Native Affairs, claimed that the aim was to solve South Africa 's "ethnic problems '' by creating complementary economic and political units for different ethnic group.
The national authorities of the time is often said to have viewed education as having a rather pivotal position in their goal of eventually separating South Africa from the Bantustans entirely. The Minister of Native Affairs at the time, the "Architect of Apartheid '' Hendrik Verwoerd, stated that:
"There is no place for (the Bantu) in the European community above the level of certain forms of labour... What is the use of teaching the Bantu child mathematics when it can not use it in practice? ''
The introduction of Bantu Education led to a substantial increase of government funding to the learning institutions of black Africans, but it did not keep up with population increase. The law forced institutions under the direct control of the state and solve white man problems. The National Party now had the power to employ and train teachers as they saw fit. Black teachers ' salaries in 1953 were extremely low and resulted in a dramatic drop of trainee teachers. Only one third of the black teachers were qualified.
The schools reserved for the country 's white children were of Western standards. 30 % of the black schools did not have electricity, 25 % no running water and less than half had plumbing. The education for Blacks, Indians and Coloureds was substantially cheaper but not free. In the 70s, the per capita governmental spending on black education was one - tenth of the spending on white.
In 1976, the Afrikaans Medium Decree of 1974, which forced all black schools to use both Afrikaans and English as languages of instruction beginning with the last year of primary school, led to the Soweto Uprising in which more than 575 people died, at least 134 of them under the age of eighteen.
The act was repealed in 1979 by the Education and Training Act, 1979, which continued the system of racially segregated education, while also eliminating both discrimination in tuition fees and the segregated Department of Bantu Education and allowing the both use of native tongue education up to the fourth grade and limited attendance at private schools as well. Segregation became unconstitutional after the introduction of the Interim Constitution in 1994, and most sections of the Education and Training Act were repealed by the South African Schools Act, 1996.
http://nmmu.ac.za/documents/mward/Bantu%20Education%20Act%201953.pdf
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how long do painter turtle eggs take to hatch | Painted turtle - wikipedia
C. p. bellii C. p. dorsalis C. p. marginata C. p. picta
The painted turtle (Chrysemys picta) is the most widespread native turtle of North America. It lives in slow - moving fresh waters, from southern Canada to Louisiana and northern Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The turtle is the only species of the genus Chrysemys, which is part of the pond turtle family Emydidae. Fossils show that the painted turtle existed 15 million years ago. Four regionally based subspecies (the eastern, midland, southern, and western) evolved during the last ice age.
The adult painted turtle female is 10 -- 25 cm (4 -- 10 in) long; the male is smaller. The turtle 's top shell is dark and smooth, without a ridge. Its skin is olive to black with red, orange, or yellow stripes on its extremities. The subspecies can be distinguished by their shells: the eastern has straight - aligned top shell segments; the midland has a large gray mark on the bottom shell; the southern has a red line on the top shell; the western has a red pattern on the bottom shell.
The turtle eats aquatic vegetation, algae, and small water creatures including insects, crustaceans, and fish. Although they are frequently consumed as eggs or hatchlings by rodents, canines, and snakes, the adult turtles ' hard shells protect them from most predators. Reliant on warmth from its surroundings, the painted turtle is active only during the day when it basks for hours on logs or rocks. During winter, the turtle hibernates, usually in the mud at the bottom of water bodies. The turtles mate in spring and autumn. Females dig nests on land and lay eggs between late spring and mid-summer. Hatched turtles grow until sexual maturity: 2 -- 9 years for males, 6 -- 16 for females.
In the traditional tales of Algonquian tribes, the colorful turtle played the part of a trickster. In modern times, four U.S. states have named the painted turtle their official reptile. While habitat loss and road killings have reduced the turtle 's population, its ability to live in human - disturbed settings has helped it remain the most abundant turtle in North America. Adults in the wild can live for more than 55 years.
The painted turtle 's shell is 10 -- 25 cm (4 -- 10 in) long, oval, smooth with little grooves where the large scale - like plates overlap, and flat - bottomed. The color of the top shell (carapace) varies from olive to black. Darker specimens are more common where the bottom of the water body is darker. The bottom shell (plastron) is yellow, sometimes red, sometimes with dark markings in the center. Similar to the top shell, the turtle 's skin is olive to black, but with red and yellow stripes on its neck, legs, and tail. As with other pond turtles, such as the bog turtle, the painted turtle 's feet are webbed to aid swimming.
The head of the turtle is distinctive. The face has only yellow stripes, with a large yellow spot and streak behind each eye, and on the chin two wide yellow stripes that meet at the tip of the jaw. The turtle 's upper jaw is shaped into an inverted "V '' (philtrum), with a downward - facing, tooth - like projection on each side.
The hatchling has a proportionally larger head, eyes, and tail, and a more circular shell than the adult. The adult female is generally longer than the male, 10 -- 25 cm (4 -- 10 in) versus 7 -- 15 cm (3 -- 6 in). For a given length, the female has a higher (more rounded, less flat) top shell. The female weighs around 500 g (18 oz) on average, against the males ' average adult weight of roughly 300 g (11 oz). The female 's greater body volume supports her egg - production. The male has longer foreclaws and a longer, thicker tail, with the anus (cloaca) located further out on the tail.
Although the subspecies of painted turtle intergrade (blend together) at range boundaries they are distinct within the hearts of their ranges.
The painted turtle has a very similar appearance to the red - eared slider (the most common pet turtle) and the two are often confused. The painted turtle can be distinguished because it is flatter than the slider. Also, the slider has a prominent red marking on the side of its head (the "ear '') and a spotted bottom shell, both features missing in the painted turtle.
The painted turtle hunts along water bottoms. It quickly juts its head into and out of vegetation to stir potential victims out into the open water, where they are pursued. The turtle holds large prey in its mouth and tears the prey apart with its forefeet. It also consumes plants and skims the surface of the water with its mouth open to catch small particles of food.
Although all subspecies of painted turtle eat both plants and animals, their specific diets vary.
Painted turtles are most vulnerable to predators when young. Nests are frequently ransacked and the eggs eaten by garter snakes, crows, chipmunks, thirteen - lined ground and gray squirrels, skunks, groundhogs, raccoons, badgers, gray and red fox, and humans. The small and sometimes bite - size, numerous hatchlings fall prey to water bugs, bass, catfish, bullfrogs, snapping turtles, three types of snakes (copperheads, racers and water snakes), herons, rice rats, weasels, muskrats, minks, and raccoons. As adults, the turtles ' armored shells protect them from many potential predators, but they still occasionally fall prey to alligators, ospreys, crows, red - shouldered hawks, bald eagles, and especially raccoons.
Painted turtles defend themselves by kicking, scratching, biting, or urinating. In contrast to land tortoises, painted turtles can right themselves if they are flipped upside down.
The painted turtles mate in spring and fall in waters of 10 -- 25 ° C (50 -- 77 ° F). Males start producing sperm in early spring, when they can bask to an internal temperature of 17 ° C (63 ° F). Females begin their reproductive cycles in mid-summer, and ovulate the following spring.
Courtship begins when a male follows a female until he meets her face - to - face. He then strokes her face and neck with his elongated front claws, a gesture returned by a receptive female. The pair repeat the process several times, with the male retreating from and then returning to the female until she swims to the bottom, where they copulate. As the male is smaller than the female, he is not dominant. The female stores sperm, to be used for up to three clutches, in her oviducts; the sperm may remain viable for up to three years. A single clutch may have multiple fathers.
Nesting is done, by the females only, between late May and mid-July. The nests are vase - shaped and are usually dug in sandy soil, often at sites with southern exposures. Nests are often within 200 m (220 yd) of water, but may be as far away as 600 m (660 yd), with older females tending to nest further inland. Nest sizes vary depending on female sizes and locations but are about 5 -- 11 cm (2 -- 4 in) deep. Females may return to the same sites several consecutive years, but if several females make their nests close together, the eggs become more vulnerable to predators.
The female 's optimal body temperature while digging her nest is 29 -- 30 ° C (84 -- 86 ° F). If the weather is unsuitable, for instance a too hot night in the Southeast, she delays the process until later at night. Painted turtles in Virginia have been observed waiting three weeks to nest because of a hot drought.
While preparing to dig her nest, the female sometimes exhibits a mysterious preliminary behavior. She presses her throat against the ground of different potential sites, perhaps sensing moisture, warmth, texture, or smell, although her exact motivation is unknown. She may further temporize by excavating several false nests as the wood turtles also do.
The female relies on her hind feet for digging. She may accumulate so much sand and mud on her feet that her mobility is reduced, making her vulnerable to predators. To lighten her labors, she lubricates the area with her bladder water. Once the nest is complete, the female deposits into the hole. The freshly laid eggs are white, elliptical, porous, and flexible. From start to finish, the female 's work may take four hours. Sometimes she remains on land overnight afterwards, before returning to her home water.
Females can lay five clutches per year, but two is a normal average after including the 30 -- 50 % of a population 's females that do not produce any clutches in a given year. In some northern populations, no females lay more than one clutch per year. Bigger females tend to lay bigger eggs and more eggs per clutch. Clutch sizes of the subspecies vary, although the differences may reflect different environments, rather than different genetics. The two more northerly subspecies, western and midland, are larger and have more eggs per clutch -- 11.9 and 7.6, respectively -- than the two more southerly subspecies, southern (4.2) and eastern (4.9). Within subspecies, also, the more northerly females lay larger clutches.
Incubation lasts 72 -- 80 days in the wild and for a similar period in artificial conditions. In August and September, the young turtle breaks out from its egg, using a special projection of its jaw called the egg tooth. Not all offspring leave the nest immediately, though. Hatchlings north of a line from Nebraska to northern Illinois to New Jersey typically arrange themselves symmetrically in the nest and overwinter to emerge the following spring.
The hatchling 's ability to survive winter in the nest has allowed the painted turtle to extend its range further north than any other American turtle. The painted turtle is genetically adapted to survive extended periods of subfreezing temperatures with blood that can remain supercooled and skin that resists penetration from ice crystals in the surrounding ground. The hardest freezes nevertheless kill many hatchlings.
Immediately after hatching, turtles are dependent on egg yolk material for sustenance. About a week to a week and a half after emerging from their eggs (or the following spring if emergence is delayed), hatchlings begin feeding to support growth. The young turtles grow rapidly at first, sometimes doubling their size in the first year. Growth slows sharply at sexual maturity and may stop completely. Likely owing to differences of habitat and food by water body, growth rates often differ from population to population in the same area. Among the subspecies, the western painted turtles are the quickest growers.
Females grow faster than males overall, and must be larger to mature sexually. In most populations males reach sexual maturity at 2 -- 4 years old, and females at 6 -- 10. Size and age at maturity increase with latitude; at the northern edge of their range, males reach sexual maturity at 7 -- 9 years of age and females at 11 -- 16.
A cold - blooded reptile, the painted turtle regulates its temperature through its environment, notably by basking. All ages bask for warmth, often alongside other species of turtle. Sometimes more than 50 individuals are seen on one log together. Turtles bask on a variety of objects, often logs, but have even been seen basking on top of common loons that were covering eggs.
The turtle starts its day at sunrise, emerging from the water to bask for several hours. Warmed for activity, it returns to the water to forage. After becoming chilled, the turtle re-emerges for one to two more cycles of basking and feeding. At night, the turtle drops to the bottom of its water body or perches on an underwater object and sleeps.
To be active, the turtle must maintain an internal body temperature between 17 -- 23 ° C (63 -- 73 ° F). When fighting infection, it manipulates its temperature up to 5 ° C (8 ° F) higher than normal.
In the spring, when the water reaches 15 -- 18 ° C (59 -- 64 ° F), the turtle begins actively foraging. However, if the water temperature exceeds 30 ° C (86 ° F), the turtle will not feed. In fall, the turtle stops foraging when temperatures drop below the spring set - point.
During the winter, the turtle hibernates. In the north, the inactive season may be as long as from October to March, while the southernmost populations may not hibernate at all. While hibernating, the body temperature of the painted turtle averages 6 ° C (43 ° F). Periods of warm weather bring the turtle out of hibernation, and even in the north, individuals have been seen basking in February.
The painted turtle hibernates by burying itself, either on the bottom of a body of water, near water in the shore - bank or the burrow of a muskrat, or in woods or pastures. When hibernating underwater, the turtle prefers shallow depths, no more than 2 m (7 ft). Within the mud, it may dig down an additional 1 m (3 ft). In this state, the turtle does not breathe, although if surroundings allow, it may get some oxygen through its skin. The species is one of the best - studied vertebrates able to survive long periods without oxygen. Adaptations of its blood chemistry, brain, heart, and particularly its shell allow the turtle to survive extreme lactic acid buildup while oxygen - deprived.
Searching for water, food, or mates, the painted turtles travel up to several kilometers at a time. During summer, in response to heat and water - clogging vegetation, the turtles may vacate shallow marshes for more permanent waters. Short overland migrations may involve hundreds of turtles together. If heat and drought are prolonged, the turtles will bury themselves and, in extreme cases, die.
Foraging turtles frequently cross lakes or travel linearly down creeks. Daily crossings of large ponds have been observed. Tag and release studies show that sex also drives turtle movement. Males travel the most, up to 26 km (16 mi), between captures; females the second most, up to 8 km (5 mi), between captures; and juveniles the least, less than 2 km (1.2 mi), between captures. Males move the most and are most likely to change wetlands because they seek mates.
The painted turtles, through visual recognition, have homing capabilities. Many individuals can return to their collection points after being released elsewhere, trips that may require them to traverse land. One experiment placed 98 turtles varying several - kilometer distances from their home wetland; 41 returned. When living in a single large body of water, the painted turtles can home from up to 6 km (4 mi) away. Females may use homing to help locate suitable nesting sites.
The most widespread North American turtle, the painted turtle is the only turtle whose native range extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It is native to eight of Canada 's ten provinces, forty - five of the fifty United States, and one of Mexico 's thirty - one states. On the East Coast, it lives from the Canadian Maritimes to the U.S. state of Georgia. On the West Coast, it lives in British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon and offshore on southeast Vancouver Island. The northernmost American turtle, its range includes much of southern Canada. To the south, its range reaches the U.S. Gulf Coast in Louisiana and Alabama. In the southwestern United States there are only dispersed populations. It is found in one river in extreme northern Mexico. It is absent in a part of southwestern Virginia and the adjacent states as well as in north - central Alabama.
The borders between the four subspecies are not sharp, because the subspecies interbreed. Many studies have been performed in the border regions to assess the intermediate turtles, usually by comparing the anatomical features of hybrids that result from intergradation of the classical subspecies. Despite the imprecision, the subspecies are assigned nominal ranges.
The eastern painted turtle ranges from southeastern Canada to Georgia with a western boundary at approximately the Appalachians. At its northern extremes, the turtle tends to be restricted to the warmer areas closer to the Atlantic Ocean. It is uncommon in far north New Hampshire and in Maine is common only in a strip about 50 miles from the coast. In Canada, it lives in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia but not in Quebec or Prince Edward Island. To the south it is not found in the coastal lowlands of southern North Carolina, South Carolina, or Georgia, or in southern Georgia in general or at all in Florida.
The eastern subspecies 's range extends slightly into east central Alabama, where it intergrades with the southern subspecies. In the northeast, there is extensive mixing with the midland subspecies, and some writers have called these turtles a "hybrid swarm ''. In the southeast, the border between the eastern and midland is more sharp as mountain chains separate the subspecies to different drainage basins.
The midland painted turtle lives from southern Ontario and Quebec, through the eastern U.S. Midwest states, to Kentucky, Tennessee and northwestern Alabama, where it intergrades with the southern painted turtle. It also is found eastward through West Virginia, western Maryland and Pennsylvania. The midland painted turtle appears to be moving east, especially in Pennsylvania. To the northeast it is found in western New York and much of Vermont, and it intergrades extensively with the eastern subspecies.
The southern painted turtle ranges from extreme southern Illinois and Missouri, roughly along the Mississippi River Valley, to the south. In Arkansas, it branches out to the west towards Texas, where it is found in the far northeast part of that state (Caddo Lake region) as well as extreme southeastern Oklahoma (McCurtain County). It is found in much of Louisiana, where it reaches the Gulf of Mexico (in fresh water). Eastward it is found in western Tennessee, northern Mississippi and much of Alabama, including the Gulf Coast city of Mobile An isolated population in central Texas has been reported but is now believed to be non-native.
The western painted turtle 's northern range includes southern parts of western Canada from Ontario through Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia. In Ontario, the western subspecies is found north of Minnesota and directly north of Lake Superior, but there is a 130 km (80 mi) gap to the east of Lake Superior (in the area of harshest winter climate) where no painted turtles of any subspecies occur. Thus Ontario 's western subspecies does not intergrade with the midland painted turtle of southeastern Ontario. In Manitoba, the turtle is numerous and ranges north to Lake Manitoba and the lower part of Lake Winnipeg. The turtle is also common in south Saskatchewan, but in Alberta, there may only be 100 individuals, all found very near the U.S. border, mostly in the southeast.
In British Columbia, populations exist in the interior in the vicinity of the Kootenai, Columbia, Okanagan, and Thompson river valleys. At the coast, turtles occur near the mouth of the Fraser and a bit further north, as well as the bottom of Vancouver Island, and some other nearby islands. Within British Columbia, the turtle 's range is not continuous and can better be understood as northward extensions of the range from the United States. High mountains present barriers to east - west movement of the turtles within the province or from Alberta. Some literature has shown isolated populations much further north in British Columbia and Alberta, but these were probably pet - releases.
In the United States, the western subspecies forms a wide intergrade area with the midland subspecies covering much of Illinois as well as a strip of Wisconsin along Lake Michigan and part of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan (UP). Further west, the rest of Illinois, Wisconsin and the UP are part of the range proper, as are all of Minnesota and Iowa, as well as all of Missouri except a narrow strip in the south. All of North Dakota is within range, all of South Dakota except a very small area in the west, and all of Nebraska. Almost all of Kansas is in range; the border of that state with Oklahoma is roughly the species range border, but the turtle is found in three counties of north central Oklahoma.
To the northwest, almost all of Montana is in range. Only a narrow strip in the west, along most of the Idaho border (which is at the Continental Divide) lacks turtles. Wyoming is almost entirely out of range; only the lower elevation areas near the eastern and northern borders have painted turtles. In Idaho, the turtles are found throughout the far north (upper half of the Idaho Panhandle). Recently, separate Idaho populations have been observed in the southwest (near the Payette and Boise rivers) and the southeast (near St. Anthony). In Washington state, turtles are common throughout the state within lower elevation river valleys. In Oregon, the turtle is native to the northern part of the state throughout the Columbia River Valley as well as the Willamette River Valley north of Salem.
To the southwest, the painted turtle 's range is fragmented. In Colorado, while range is continuous in the eastern, prairie, half of the state, it is absent in most of the western, mountainous, part of the state. However, the turtle is confirmed present in the lower elevation southwest part of the state (Archuleta and La Plata counties), where a population ranges into northern New Mexico in the San Juan River basin. There are also some unconfirmed sightings in parts of the far west of the state (e.g. Mesa County). In New Mexico, the main distribution follows the Rio Grande and the Pecos River, two waterways that run in a north - south direction through the state. Within the aforementioned rivers, it is also found in the northern part of Far West Texas. In Utah, the painted turtle lives in an area to the south (Kane County) in streams draining into the Colorado River, although it is disputed if they are native. In Arizona, the painted turtle is native to an area in the east, Lyman Lake. The painted turtle is not native to Nevada or California.
In Mexico, painted turtles have been found about 50 miles south of New Mexico near Galeana in the state of Chihuahua. There, two expeditions found the turtles in the Rio Santa Maria which is in a closed basin.
Pet releases are starting to establish the painted turtle outside its native range. It has been introduced into waterways near Phoenix, Arizona, and to Germany, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Spain.
To thrive, painted turtles need fresh waters with soft bottoms, basking sites, and aquatic vegetation. They find their homes in shallow waters with slow - moving currents, such as creeks, marshes, ponds, and the shores of lakes. The subspecies have evolved different habitat preferences.
Within much of its range, the painted turtle is the most abundant turtle species. Population densities range from 10 to 840 turtles per hectare (2.5 acres) of water surface. Warmer climates produce higher relative densities among populations, and habitat desirability also influences density. Rivers and large lakes have lower densities because only the shore is desirable habitat; the central, deep waters skew the surface - based estimates. Also, lake and river turtles have to make longer linear trips to access equivalent amounts of foraging space.
Adults outnumber juveniles in most populations, but gauging the ratios is difficult because juveniles are harder to catch; with current sampling methods, estimates of age distribution vary widely. Annual survival rate of painted turtles increases with age. The probability of a painted turtle surviving from the egg to its first birthday is only 19 %. For females, the annual survival rate rises to 45 % for juveniles and 95 % for adults. The male survival rates follow a similar pattern, but are lower overall than females, creating an average male age lower than that of the female. Natural disasters can confound age distributions. For instance, a hurricane can destroy many nests in a region, resulting in fewer hatchlings the next year. Age distributions may also be skewed by migrations of adults.
To understand painted turtle adult age distributions, researchers require reliable methods. Turtles younger than four years (up to 12 years in some populations) can be aged based on "growth rings '' in their shells. For older turtles, some attempts have been made to determine age based on size and shape of their shells or legs using mathematical models, but this method is more uncertain. The most reliable method to study the long - lived turtles is to capture them, permanently mark their shells by notching with a drill, release the turtles, and then recapture them in later years. The longest - running study, in Michigan, has shown that painted turtles can live more than 55 years.
Adult sex ratios of painted turtle populations average around 1: 1. Many populations are slightly male - heavy, but some are strongly female - imbalanced; one population in Ontario has a female to male ratio of 4: 1. Hatchling sex ratio varies based on egg temperature. During the middle third of incubation, temperatures of 23 -- 27 ° C (73 -- 81 ° F) produce males, and anything above or below that, females. It does not appear that females choose nesting sites to influence the sex of the hatchlings; within a population, nests will vary sufficiently to give both male and female - heavy broods.
The painted turtle (C. picta) is the only species in the genus Chrysemys. The parent family for Chrysemys is Emydidae: the pond turtles. Emydidae is split into two sub families; Chrysemys is part of the Deirochelyinae (Western Hemisphere) branch. The four subspecies of the painted turtle are the eastern (C. p. picta), midland (C. p. marginata), southern (C. p. dorsalis), and western (C. p. bellii).
The painted turtle 's generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek words for "gold '' (chryso) and "freshwater tortoise '' (emys); the species name originates from the Latin for "colored '' (pictus). The subspecies name, marginata, derives from the Latin for "border '' and refers to the red markings on the outer (marginal) part of the upper shell; dorsalis is from the Latin for "back '', referring to the prominent dorsal stripe; and bellii honors zoologist Thomas Bell, a collaborator of Charles Darwin. An alternate East Coast common name for the painted turtle is "skilpot '', from the Dutch for turtle, schildpad.
Originally described in 1783 by Johann Gottlob Schneider as Testudo picta, the painted turtle was called Chrysemys picta first by John Edward Gray in 1855. The four subspecies were then recognized: the eastern by Schneider in 1783, the western by Gray in 1831, and the midland and southern by Louis Agassiz in 1857.
Until the 1930s many of the subspecies of the painted turtle were labeled by biologists as full species within Chrysemys, but this varied by the researcher. The painted turtles in the border region between the western and midland subspecies were sometimes considered a full species, treleasei. In 1931, Bishop and Schmidt defined the current "four in one '' taxonomy of species and subspecies. Based on comparative measurements of turtles from throughout the range, they subordinated species to subspecies and eliminated treleasei.
Since at least 1958, the subspecies were thought to have evolved in response to geographic isolation during the last ice age, 100,000 to 11,000 years ago. At that time painted turtles were divided into three different populations: eastern painted turtles along the southeastern Atlantic coast; southern painted turtles around the southern Mississippi River; and western painted turtles in the southwestern United States. The populations were not completely isolated for sufficiently long, hence wholly different species never evolved. When the glaciers retreated, about 11,000 years ago, all three subspecies moved north. The western and southern subspecies met in Missouri and hybridized to produce the midland painted turtle, which then moved east and north through the Ohio and Tennessee river basins.
Biologists have long debated the genera of closely related subfamily - mates Chrysemys, Pseudemys (cooters), and Trachemys (sliders). After 1952, some combined Pseudemys and Chrysemys because of similar appearance. In 1964, based on measurements of the skull and feet, Samuel B. McDowell proposed all three genera be merged into one. However, further measurements, in 1967, contradicted this taxonomic arrangement. Also in 1967, J. Alan Holman, a paleontologist and herpetologist, pointed out that, although the three turtles were often found together in nature and had similar mating patterns, they did not crossbreed. In the 1980s, studies of turtles ' cell structures, biochemistries, and parasites further indicated that Chrysemys, Pseudemys, and Trachemys should remain in separate genera.
David E. Starkey and collaborators advanced a new view of the subspecies in 2003. Based on a study of the mitochondrial DNA, they rejected the glacial development theory and argued that the southern painted turtle should be elevated to a separate species, C. dorsalis, while the other subspecies should be collapsed into one and not differentiated. However, this proposition was largely unrecognized because successful breeding between all subspecies was documented wherever they overlapped. Nevertheless, in 2010, the IUCN recognized both C. dorsalis and C. p. dorsalis as valid names for the southern painted turtle.
Although its evolutionary history -- what the forerunner to the species was and how the close relatives branched off -- is not well understood, the painted turtle is common in the fossil record. The oldest samples, found in Nebraska, date to about 15 million years ago. Fossils from 15 million to about 5 million years ago are restricted to the Nebraska - Kansas area, but more recent fossils are gradually more widely distributed. Fossils newer than 300,000 years old are found in almost all the United States and southern Canada.
The turtle 's karyotype (nuclear DNA, rather than mitochondrial DNA) consists of 50 chromosomes, the same number as the rest of its subfamily - mates and the most common number for Emydidae turtles in general. Less well - related turtles have from 26 to 66 chromosomes. Little systematic study of variations of the painted turtle 's karotype among populations has been done. (However, in 1967, research on protein structure of offshore island populations in New England, showed differences from mainland turtles.)
Comparison of subspecies chromosomal DNA has been discussed, to help address the debate over Starkey 's proposed taxonomy, but as of 2009 had not been reported. Interestingly, the complete sequencing of the genetic code for the painted turtle was at a "draft assembled '' state in 2010. The turtle was one of two reptiles chosen to be first sequenced.
The decline in painted turtle populations is not a simple matter of dramatic range reduction, like that of the American bison. Instead the turtle is classified as G5 (demonstrably widespread) in its Natural Heritage Global Rank, and the IUCN rates it as a species of least concern. The painted turtle 's high reproduction rate and its ability to survive in polluted wetlands and artificially made ponds have allowed it to maintain its range, but the post-Columbus settlement of North America has reduced its numbers.
Only within the Pacific Northwest is the turtle 's range eroding. Even there, in Washington, the painted turtle is designated S5 (demonstrably widespread). However, in Oregon, the painted turtle is designated S2 (imperiled), and in British Columbia, the turtle 's populations in the Coast and Interior regions are labeled "endangered '' and "of special concern '', respectively.
Much is written about the different factors that threaten the painted turtle, but they are unquantified, with only inferences of relative importance. A primary threat category is habitat loss in various forms. Related to water habitat, there is drying of wetlands, clearing of aquatic logs or rocks (basking sites), and clearing of shoreline vegetation, which allows more predator access or increased human foot traffic. Related to nesting habitat, urbanization or planting can remove needed sunny soils.
Another significant human impact is roadkill -- dead turtles, especially females, are commonly seen on summer roads. In addition to direct killing, roads genetically isolate some populations. Localities have tried to limit roadkill by constructing underpasses, highway barriers, and crossing signs. Oregon has introduced public education on turtle awareness, safe swerving, and safely assisting turtles across the road.
In the West, human - introduced bass, bullfrogs, and especially snapping turtles, have increased the predation of hatchlings. Outside the Southeast, where sliders are native, released pet red - eared slider turtles increasingly compete with painted turtles. In cities, increased urban predators (raccoons, canines, and felines) may impact painted turtles by eating their eggs.
Other factors of concern for the painted turtles include over-collection from the wild, released pets introducing diseases or reducing genetic variability, pollution, boating traffic, angler 's hooks (the turtles are noteworthy bait - thieves), wanton shooting, and crushing by agricultural machines or golf course lawnmowers or all - terrain vehicles. Gervais and colleagues note that research itself impacts the populations and that much funded turtle trapping work has not been published. They advocate discriminating more on what studies are done, thereby putting fewer turtles into scientists ' traps. Global warming represents an uncharacterized future threat.
collect these turtles. Turtles kept as pets usually soon become ill... The best way to enjoy our native turtles is to observe them in the wild... it would be better to take a picture
According to a trade data study, painted turtles were the second most popular pet turtles after red - eared sliders in the early 1990s. As of 2010, most U.S. states allow, but discourage, painted turtle pets, although Oregon forbids keeping them as pets, and Indiana prohibits their sale. U.S. federal law prohibits sale or transport of any turtle less than 10 cm (4 in), to limit human contact to salmonella. However, a loophole for scientific samples allows some small turtles to be sold, and illegal trafficking also occurs.
Painted turtle pet - keeping requirements are similar to those of the red - eared slider. Keepers are urged to provide them with adequate space and a basking site, and water that is regularly filtered and changed. According to Petco, the animals are described as being somewhat unsuitable for children as they do not enjoy being held. Hobbyists have kept turtles alive for decades.
The painted turtle is sometimes eaten but is not highly regarded as food, as even the largest subspecies, the western painted turtle, is inconveniently small and larger turtles are available. Schools frequently dissect painted turtles, which are sold by biological supply companies; specimens often come from the wild but may be captive - bred. In the Midwest, turtle racing is popular at summer fairs.
Commercial harvesting of painted turtles in the wild is controversial and, increasingly, restricted. Wisconsin formerly had virtually unrestricted trapping of painted turtles but based on qualitative observations forbade all commercial harvesting in 1997. Neighboring Minnesota, where trappers collected more than 300,000 painted turtles during the 1990s, commissioned a study of painted turtle harvesting. Scientists found that harvested lakes averaged half the painted turtle density of off - limit lakes, and population modeling suggested that unrestricted harvests could produce a large decline in turtle populations. In response, Minnesota forbade new harvesters in 2002 and limited trap numbers. Although harvesting continued, subsequent takes averaged half those of the 1990s. As of 2009, painted turtles faced virtually unlimited harvesting in Arkansas, Iowa, Missouri, Ohio, and Oklahoma; since then, Missouri has prohibited their harvesting.
Individuals who trap painted turtles typically do so to earn additional income, selling a few thousand a year at $1 -- 2 each. Many trappers have been involved in the trade for generations, and value it as a family activity. Some harvesters disagree with limiting the catch, saying the populations are not dropping.
Many U.S. state fish and game departments allow non-commercial taking of painted turtles under a creel limit, and require a fishing (sometimes hunting) license; others completely forbid the recreational capture of painted turtles. Trapping is not allowed in Oregon, where western painted turtle populations are in decline, and in Missouri, where there are populations of both southern and western subspecies. In Canada, Ontario protects both subspecies present, the midland and western, and British Columbia protects its dwindling western painted turtles.
Capture methods are also regulated by locality. Typically trappers use either floating "basking traps '' or partially submerged, baited "hoop traps ''. Trapper opinions, commercial records, and scientific studies show that basking traps are more effective for collecting painted turtles, while the hoop traps work better for collecting "meat turtles '' (snapping turtles and soft - shell turtles). Nets, hand capture, and fishing with set lines are generally legal, but shooting, chemicals, and explosives are forbidden.
Indian tribes were familiar with the painted turtle -- young braves were trained to recognize its splashing into water as an alarm -- and incorporated it in folklore. A Potawatomi myth describes how the talking turtles, "Painted Turtle '' and allies "Snapping Turtle '' and "Box Turtle '', outwit the village women. Painted Turtle is the star of the legend and uses his distinctive markings to trick a woman into holding him so he can bite her. An Illini myth recounts how Painted Turtle put his paint on to entice a chief 's daughter into the water.
As of 2010, four U.S. states designated the painted turtle as official reptile. Vermont honored the reptile in 1994, following the suggestion of Cornwall Elementary School students. In 1995, Michigan followed, based on the recommendation of Niles fifth graders, who discovered the state lacked an official reptile. Illinois citizens, in 2004, voted to select the painted turtle as their state reptile and the legislature made it official in 2005. Colorado chose the western painted turtle in 2008, following the efforts of two succeeding years of Jay Biachi 's fourth grade classes. In New York, the painted turtle narrowly lost (5,048 to 5,005, versus the common snapping turtle) a 2006 statewide student election for state reptile.
In the border town of Boissevain, Manitoba, a 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) western painted turtle, Tommy the Turtle, is a roadside attraction. The statue was built in 1974 to celebrate the Canadian Turtle Derby, a festival including turtle races that ran from 1972 -- 2001.
Another Canadian admirer of the painted turtle is Jon Montgomery, who won the 2010 Olympic gold medal in skeleton (a form of sled) racing, while wearing a painted turtle painting on the crown of his helmet, prominently visible when he slid downhill. Montgomery, who also iconically tattoed his chest with a maple - leaf, explained his visual promotion of the turtle, saying that he had assisted one to cross the road. BC Hydro referred to Montgomery 's action when describing its own sponsorship of conservation research for the turtle in British Columbia.
Several private entities use the painted turtle as a symbol. Wayne State University Press operates an imprint "named after the Michigan state reptile '' that "publishes books on regional topics of cultural and historical interest ''. In California, The Painted Turtle is a camp for ill children, founded by Paul Newman. Painted Turtle Winery of British Columbia trades on the "laid back and casual lifestyle '' of the turtle with a "job description to bask in the sun ''. Also, there is an Internet company in Michigan, a guesthouse in British Columbia, and a café in Maine that use the painted turtle commercially.
In children 's books, the painted turtle is a popular subject, with at least seven books published between 2000 and 2010. "Painted turtle: state reptile of Michigan '' is a short song for children.
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which of the following molecules is made in the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine | Phosphatidylcholine - wikipedia
Phosphatidylcholines (PC) are a class of phospholipids that incorporate choline as a headgroup. They are a major component of biological membranes and can be easily obtained from a variety of readily available sources, such as egg yolk or soybeans, from which they are mechanically or chemically extracted using hexane. They are also a member of the lecithin group of yellow - brownish fatty substances occurring in animal and plant tissues. Dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (a.k.a. lecithin) is a major component of pulmonary surfactant and is often used in the L / S ratio to calculate fetal lung maturity. While phosphatidylcholines are found in all plant and animal cells, they are absent in the membranes of most bacteria, including Escherichia coli. Purified phosphatidylcholine is produced commercially.
The name "lecithin '' was originally defined from the Greek lekithos (λεκιθος, egg yolk) by Theodore Nicolas Gobley, a French chemist and pharmacist of the mid-19th century, who applied it to the egg yolk phosphatidylcholine that he identified in 1847. Gobley eventually completely described his lecithin from chemical structural point of view, in 1874. Phosphatidylcholines are such a major component of lecithin that in some contexts the terms are sometimes used as synonyms. However, lecithin extracts consist of a mixture of phosphatidylcholine and other compounds. It is also used along with sodium taurocholate for simulating fed - and fasted - state biorelevant media in dissolution studies of highly lipophilic drugs.
Phosphatidylcholine is a major constituent of cell membranes and pulmonary surfactant, and is more commonly found in the exoplasmic or outer leaflet of a cell membrane. It is thought to be transported between membranes within the cell by phosphatidylcholine transfer protein (PCTP).
Phosphatidylcholine also plays a role in membrane - mediated cell signaling and PCTP activation of other enzymes.
This phospholipid is composed of a choline head group and glycerophosphoric acid, with a variety of fatty acids. Usually, one is a saturated fatty acid (in the given figure, this can be palmitic or hexadecanoic acid, H C - (CH) - COOH; margaric acid identified by Gobley in egg yolk, or heptadecanoic acid H C - (CH) - COOH, also belong to that class); and the other is an unsaturated fatty acid (here oleic acid, or 9Z - octadecenoic acid, as in Gobley 's original egg yolk lecithin). However, there are also examples of disaturated species. Animal lung phosphatidylcholine, for example, contains a high proportion of Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine.
Phospholipase D catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine to form phosphatidic acid (PA), releasing the soluble choline headgroup into the cytosol.
Phosphatidylcholine is a neutral lipid, but it carries an electric dipole moment of about 10 D. Vibrational dynamics of phosphatidylcholine and its hydration waters has been recently calculated from first principles.
Phosphatidylcholine is a vital substance found in every cell of the human body. Some researchers have used mutant mouse models with severe oxidative damage as a model of "accelerated aging '' to investigate the possible role of phosphatidylcholine supplementation as a way of slowing down aging - related processes and improving brain functioning and memory capacity in dementia. However, a 2009 systematic review of clinical trials in humans found that there was not enough evidence to support the use of lecithin or phosphatidylcholine supplementation for patients with dementia. The study found that a moderate benefit could not be ruled out until further large scale studies are performed.
Studies have examined potential benefits of phosphatidylcholine for liver repair. Results are mixed in animal models, and no clinical evidence shows a health benefit in humans. One study shows the healing effect of phosphatidylcholine in mice with hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C. The administration of phosphatidylcholine for chronic, active hepatitis resulted in significant reduction of disease activity in mice.
Some organizations promote the use of injected phosphatidylcholine, otherwise known as injection lipolysis, claiming the procedure can break down fat cells, and thus serve as an alternative to liposuction. While the procedure cites early experiments that showed lipolysis in cases of fat emboli, no peer - reviewed studies have shown any amount of lipolysis even remotely comparable to liposuction. Injection of phosphatidyl choline in small numbers of patients has been reported to reduce or completely resolve a majority of lipomas, although some actually increased in size. There were side - effects, which resolved without complication. Long - term studies are deemed necessary to judge efficacy. Dr. Patrick Treacy has used phosphatidylcholine and deoxcholate successfully in the treatment of infraorbital fat pads.
Phase IIa / b clinical trials performed at the Heidelberg University Hospital have shown that delayed release purified phosphatidylcholine is an anti-inflammatory agent, and a surface hydrophobicity increasing compound with promising therapeutic potential in the treatment of ulcerative colitis.
A report in 2011 has linked the microbial catabolites of phosphatidylcholine with increased atherosclerosis in mice through the production of choline, trimethylamine oxide, and betaine.
General structural formula of phosphatidylcholines
Membrane lipids
Choline metabolism
Phosphatidate
Choline
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how old do you have to be to drive a golf cart in pa | Golf cart - wikipedia
A golf cart (called golf car in ANSI standard Z130. 1, since "carts '' are not self - propelled) is a small vehicle designed originally to carry two golfers and their golf clubs around a golf course or on desert trails with less effort than walking.
Golf carts come in a wide range of formats and are more generally used to convey small numbers of passengers short distances at speeds less than 15 mph (24 km / h) per ANSI Standard z130. 1 as originally manufactured. They are generally around 4 feet (1.2 m) wide × 8 feet (2.4 m) long × 6 feet (1.8 m) high and weigh 900 pounds (410 kg) to 1,000 pounds (450 kg). Most are powered by 4 - stroke engines.
The price of a golf cart can range anywhere from under US $1,000 to well over US $20,000 per cart, depending on several factors. These factors may include whether or not a fleet of carts is being purchased for a golf course or a country club, for example, and whether the carts are new or used. Other factors may include options such as equipment requirements, and how many people the cart is meant to transport. With the rise in popularity of golf carts, many golf clubs or country clubs offer storage and energy options to golf cart owners. This has led to the modification of golf carts to suit use at the particular golf course. Typical modification includes windshields, ball cleaners, cooler trays, upgraded motor or speed controller (to increase speed and / or torque), and lift kits.
Originally golf carts were only electrically powered, but in time gasoline - powered variants started to occur. The electric variety is now used in many communities where their lack of pollutants, lack of noise, and safety for pedestrians and other carts (due to slow speeds) are beneficial. When purpose - built for general transportation these are called Neighborhood Electric Vehicles (NEVs), but with various operating limitations such as top speed and heavy regulation on which type of streets these types of carts are permitted to be used. These may resemble the golf carts shown above, although some are now being made with all - weather car - like bodies.
The minimum age to drive a golf cart is 13 in Georgia, Alabama, California, Kansas, Kentucky, Rhode Island, Vermont, and South Carolina. Other US states, such as Florida, have a minimum age of 14 -- 15 years.
Reportedly, the first use of a motorized cart on a golf course was by JK Wadley of Texarkana, Texas / Arkansas, who saw a three - wheeled electric cart being used in Los Angeles to transport senior citizens to the grocery store. Later, he purchased a cart and found that it worked poorly on a golf course. The first electric golf cart was custom - made in 1932, but did not gain widespread acceptance. In the 1930s until the 1950s the most widespread use of golf carts were for those with disabilities who could not walk far. By the mid 1950s the golf cart had gained wide acceptance with golfers, with several manufactures (e.g. including Victor Adding Machines and Sears and Roebuck) producing various models. Most were electric.
Merle Williams of Long Beach, California was an early innovator of the electric golf cart. He started with knowledge gained from production of electric cars due to World War II gasoline rationing. In 1951 his Marketeer Company began production of an electric golf cart in Redlands, California. E-Z - Go began producing golf cars in 1954, Cushman in 1955, Club Car in 1958, Taylor - Dunn in 1961, Harley - Davidson in 1963, Yamaha Golf Car in 1979 and CT&T in 2002.
Max Walker created the first gasoline - powered golf cart "The Walker Executive '' in 1957. This three - wheeled vehicle was shaped with a Vespa - style front end and, like any golf cart, carried two passengers and bags.
In 1963 the Harley Davidson Motor Company began producing golf cars. Over the years they manufactured and distributed thousands of three - and four - wheeled fuel - powered and electric vehicles that are still highly sought after. The iconic three - wheeled cart, with either a steering wheel or a tiller - based steering control, boasted a reversible two - stroke engine similar to one used today in some high - end snowmobiles. (The engine runs clockwise in forward mode.) In 1982 Harley Davidson sold the production of golf cars to the Columbia Car Company. Many of these gems survive today and are the prized possessions of proud owners, restorers, and collectors worldwide.
Today the prominent brands of golf cars are Club Car, E-Z - Go, Yamaha, EMC and Gem.
Peachtree City, Georgia has many miles of golf cart paths that link the city together. Golf cart travel is used by a great majority of the community, especially among high school students. McIntosh High School even has a student golf cart parking lot on campus.
On islands (such as Santa Catalina Island, California, Bald Head Island, North Captiva Island, North Carolina, and Hamilton Island), motor vehicles are sometimes restricted and residents use golf carts instead.
The Villages, Florida, a retirement community of over 70,000 people, has an extensive golf cart trail system (estimated at around 100 miles (160 km)) and also allows golf carts on many streets. It is the most popular form of transportation in this community.
On the tropical islands of Belize golf carts are a major form of road transport and can be rented by tourists.
The residential community of Discovery Bay, Hong Kong does not allow the use of private vehicles apart from a fleet of 520 golf carts (excluding the ones operating exclusively in the Golf or the Marina Clubs). The remainder of the 20,000 residents rely on a mixture of shuttle buses and hire cars to travel around the township.
The Palm Springs Area in California contains multiple golf cart communities including PGA West, The Madison Club, The Hideaway, and many other golf course / golf cart communities. The PGA Tour is held at PGA West every January.
Along with the rising popularity of golf carts, the number of golf cart - related injuries has increased significantly over the last decade. A study conducted by researchers in the Center for Injury Research and Policy of The Research Institute at the Nationwide Children 's Hospital found that the number of golf cart - related injuries rose 132 % during the 17 - year study period. According to the study, published in the July 2008 issue of the American Journal of Preventive Medicine, there were an estimated 148,000 golf cart - related injuries between 1990 and 2006, ranging from an estimated 5,770 cases in 1990 to approximately 13,411 cases in 2006. More than 30 % of golf cart - related injuries involved children under the age of 16.
The most common type of injury was soft tissue damage, usually just bruises, followed by fractures, constituting 22.3 % of the cases, and lacerations, accounting for 15.5 % of injuries. Other types of injuries include concussions, internal injuries, subdural hematoma, spinal cord injury, or acute respiratory compromise. While rare, a few cases had severe outcomes: 4 fatalities, 2 paraplegic, and 1 quadriplegic injuries have been documented.
Some of the main causes of injury related to golf cart accidents included cart overturn, falling / jumping from a moving golf cart, collision with another vehicle or stationary object, struck / run over by a cart, getting into or out of a cart. Out of all these, "falling or jumping from a golf cart '' was the most common cause of injury for both adults and children.
One contributing reason is that current golf cart safety features are insufficient to prevent passenger falls or ejection. Golf carts moving at speeds as low as 11 miles per hour (18 km / h) could readily eject a passenger during a turn. Furthermore, rear - facing golf cart seats are associated with high rates of passenger ejection, and most golf carts do not have brakes on all four wheels (typically brakes are only on the rear axle wheels, thus extremely limiting their braking power).
Golf cart injuries are also commonly found in desert areas (i.e. Johnson Valley). Driving golf carts on dirt trails, along drop off cliffs, down rocky trails that should only be traversed using 4 - wheel - drive vehicles, can all lead to injuries.
New technology such as the SoloRider, an adaptive golf cart designed for a single user, is allowing disabled persons access to the golf course and the game itself. The cart 's seat swivels around, extends to an upright position, and allows the golfer to stand upright, be supported, and swing using both hands.
Golf carts are now taking on an extreme nature, being highly modified from their original configuration to perform similar to the growing popularity of the Side by Side (UTV). Modifications as minor as suspension upgrades are commonplace whereas entire redesigns may comprise axles and an engine from a full size automobiles. Solar powered Golf carts are an alternative to gas or regular charged electric golf cart. While this technology is still new and not as efficient as gas or electric, it is becoming more and more popular. In 2014, citEcar built and tested a solar powered street legal golf cart that will travel 105 miles on a single charge.
One of the most recent developments in golf cart technology is the GolfBoard, a golf cart that is inspired by the skateboard. The GolfBoard is driven by front and back gear boxes providing power to all four wheels. The golfer controls the cart in a standing upright position as if riding skateboard, leaning left or right to make turns. The GolfBoard has been well received by the golfing community as it speeds up play and according to the manufacturers has up to 75 % less impact on turf than traditional golf carts. In 2014 the GolfBoard was voted the Best New Product at the PGA Show.
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the butcher the baker and the candlestick maker meaning | Rub - a-dub - dub - wikipedia
"Rub - A-Dub - Dub '' is an English language nursery rhyme first published at the end of the 18th century in volume two of Hook 's Christmas Box under the title "Dub a dub dub '' rather than "Rub a dub dub ''. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 3101.
This rhyme exists in many variations. Among those current today is:
The earliest versions of this rhyme published differ significantly in their wording. Dating back to the 14th century, the original rhyme makes reference to maids in a "tub '' -- a fairground attraction similar to a modern peep show. The rhyme is of a type calling out otherwise respectable people for disrespectable actions, in this case, ogling naked ladies -- the maids. The nonsense "Rub - a-dub - dub '' develops an phonetic association of social disapprobation, analogous to "tsk - tsk, '' albeit of a more lascivious variety. The nursery rhyme is a form of teaching such associations in folklore: for individuals raised with such social codes, the phrase "Rub - a-dub - dub '' alone could stand in for gossip or innuendo without communicating all of the details.
One early recorded version in Christmas Box, published in London in 1798, has wording similar to that in Mother Goose 's Quarto or Melodies Complete, published in Boston, Massachusetts around 1825. The latter ran:
Hey! rub - a-dub, ho! rub - a-dub, three maids in a tub, And who do you think were there? The butcher, the baker, the candlestick - maker, And all of them gone to the fair.
In the original version as it appeared both in England and in the USA (Boston) the song was talking about three maids instead of three men. Later research, according to The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (1951), suggests that the lyrics are illustrating a scene of three respectable townsfolk "watching a dubious sideshow at a local fair ''.
By around 1830 the reference to maids was being removed from the versions printed in nursery books. In 1842 James Orchard Halliwell collected the following version:
Rub a dub dub, Three fools in a tub, And who do you think they be? The butcher, the baker, The candlestick maker. Turn them out, knaves all three.
There are several variants of the following joke:
Some memoirs claim it was a real incident.
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how does the abo blood typing system work | ABO blood group system - wikipedia
The ABO blood group system is used to denote the presence of one, both, or neither of the A and B antigens on erythrocytes. In human blood transfusions it is the most important of the 35 different blood type (or group) classification systems currently recognized. A very rare (in modern medicine) mismatch in this, or any other serotype, can cause a serious, potentially fatal, adverse reaction after a transfusion, or a contra - indicated immune response to an organ transplant. The associated anti-A and anti-B antibodies are usually IgM antibodies, which are produced in the first years of life by sensitization to environmental substances, such as food, bacteria, and viruses. ABO blood types are also present in some other animals, for example rodents and apes, such as chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas.
The ABO blood group system is widely credited to have been discovered by the Austrian scientist Karl Landsteiner, who identified the O, A, and B blood types in 1900. Landsteiner originally described the O blood type as type "C '', and in parts of Europe it is rendered as "0 '' (zero), signifying the lack of A or B antigen. Landsteiner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930 for his work. Alfred von Decastello and Adriano Sturli discovered the fourth type, AB, in 1902.
It was subsequently found that the Czech serologist Jan Janský had independently pioneered the classification of human blood into four groups in 1907, but Landsteiner 's independent discovery had been accepted by the scientific world while Janský remained then in relative obscurity. However, in 1921 an American medical commission acknowledged Janský 's classification. Jan Janský is nowadays credited with the first classification of blood into the four types (I, II, III, IV).
Janský 's classification remains in use today. In Russia and states of the former USSR, blood types O, A, B, and AB are respectively designated I, II, III, and IV. The designation A and B with reference to blood groups was proposed by Ludwik Hirszfeld.
In America, W.L. Moss published his own (very similar) work in 1910.
Ludwik Hirszfeld and E. von Dungern discovered the heritability of ABO blood groups in 1910 -- 11. Felix Bernstein demonstrated the correct blood group inheritance pattern of multiple alleles at one locus in 1924. Watkins and Morgan, in England, discovered that the ABO epitopes were conferred by sugars, to be specific, N - acetylgalactosamine for the A-type and galactose for the B - type. After much published literature claiming that the ABH substances were all attached to glycosphingolipids, Finne et al. (1978) found that the human erythrocyte glycoproteins contain polylactosamine chains that contains ABH substances attached and represent the majority of the antigens. The main glycoproteins carrying the ABH antigens were identified to be the Band 3 and Band 4.5 proteins and glycophorin. Later, Yamamoto 's group showed the precise glycosyl transferase set that confers the A, B and O epitopes.
In April 2007, an international team of researchers announced in the journal Nature Biotechnology an inexpensive and efficient way to convert types A, B, and AB blood into type O. This is done by using glycosidase enzymes from specific bacteria to strip the blood group antigens from red blood cells. The removal of A and B antigens still does not address the problem of the Rh blood group antigen on the blood cells of Rh positive individuals, and so blood from Rh negative donors must be used. Patient trials will be conducted before the method can be relied on in live situations.
Another approach to the blood antigen problem is the manufacture of artificial blood, which could act as a substitute in emergencies.
Blood groups are inherited from both parents. The ABO blood type is controlled by a single gene (the ABO gene) with three types of alleles inferred from classical genetics: i, I, and I. The I designation stands for isoagglutinogen, another term for antigen. The gene encodes a glycosyltransferase -- that is, an enzyme that modifies the carbohydrate content of the red blood cell antigens. The gene is located on the long arm of the ninth chromosome (9q34).
The I allele gives type A, I gives type B, and i gives type O. As both I and I are dominant over i, only ii people have type O blood. Individuals with I I or I i have type A blood, and individuals with I I or I i have type B. I I people have both phenotypes, because A and B express a special dominance relationship: codominance, which means that type A and B parents can have an AB child. A couple with type A and type B can also have a type O child if they are both heterozygous (I i, I i) The cis - AB phenotype has a single enzyme that creates both A and B antigens. The resulting red blood cells do not usually express A or B antigen at the same level that would be expected on common group A or B red blood cells, which can help solve the problem of an apparently genetically impossible blood group.
The table above summarizes the various blood groups that children may inherit from their parents. Genotypes are shown in the second column and in small print for the offspring: AO and AA both test as type A; BO and BB test as type B. The four possibilities represent the combinations obtained when one allele is taken from each parent; each has a 25 % chance, but some occur more than once.
Historically, ABO blood tests were used in paternity testing, but in 1957 only 50 % of American men falsely accused were able to use them as evidence against paternity. Occasionally, the blood types of children are not consistent with expectations -- for example, a type O child can be born to an AB parent -- due to rare situations, such as Bombay phenotype and cis AB.
The A blood type contains about 20 subgroups, of which A1 and A2 are the most common (over 99 %). A1 makes up about 80 % of all A-type blood, with A2 making up almost all of the rest. These two subgroups are not always interchangeable as far as transfusion is concerned, as some A2 individuals produce antibodies against the A1 antigen. Complications can sometimes arise in rare cases when typing the blood.
With the development of DNA sequencing, it has been possible to identify a much larger number of alleles at the ABO locus, each of which can be categorized as A, B, or O in terms of the reaction to transfusion, but which can be distinguished by variations in the DNA sequence. There are six common alleles in white individuals of the ABO gene that produce one 's blood type:
The same study also identified 18 rare alleles, which generally have a weaker glycosylation activity. People with weak alleles of A can sometimes express anti-A antibodies, though these are usually not clinically significant as they do not stably interact with the antigen at body temperature.
Cis AB is another rare variant, in which A and B genes are transmitted together from a single parent.
The distribution of the blood groups A, B, O and AB varies across the world according to the population. There are also variations in blood type distribution within human subpopulations.
In the UK, the distribution of blood type frequencies through the population still shows some correlation to the distribution of placenames and to the successive invasions and migrations including Norsemen, Danes, Saxons, Celts, and Normans who contributed the morphemes to the placenames and the genes to the population.
The two common O alleles, O01 and O02, share their first 261 nucleotides with the group A allele A01. However, unlike the group A allele, a guanosine base is subsequently deleted. A premature stop codon results from this frame - shift mutation. This variant is found worldwide, and likely predates human migration from Africa. The O01 allele is considered to predate the O02 allele.
Some evolutionary biologists theorize that there are four main lineages of the ABO gene and that mutations creating type O have occurred at least three times in humans. From oldest to youngest, these lineages comprise the following alleles: A101 / A201 / O09, B101, O02 and O01. The continued presence of the O alleles is hypothesized to be the result of balancing selection. Both theories contradict the previously held theory that type O blood evolved first.
It is possible that food and environmental antigens (bacterial, viral, or plant antigens) have epitopes similar enough to A and B glycoprotein antigens. The antibodies created against these environmental antigens in the first years of life can cross-react with ABO - incompatible red blood cells that it comes in contact with during blood transfusion later in life. Anti-A antibodies are hypothesized to originate from immune response towards influenza virus, whose epitopes are similar enough to the α - D-N - galactosamine on the A glycoprotein to be able to elicit a cross-reaction. Anti-B antibodies are hypothesized to originate from antibodies produced against Gram - negative bacteria, such as E. coli, cross-reacting with the α - D - galactose on the B glycoprotein.
However, it is more likely that the force driving evolution of allele diversity is simply negative frequency - dependent selection; cells with rare variants of membrane antigens are more easily distinguished by the immune system from pathogens carrying antigens from other hosts. Thus, individuals possessing rare types are better equipped to detect pathogens. The high within - population diversity observed in human populations would, then, be a consequence of natural selection on individuals.
HIV can be neutralized in in vitro experiments using antibodies against blood group antigens specifically expressed on the HIV - producing cell lines.
The carbohydrate molecules on the surfaces of red blood cells have roles in cell membrane integrity, cell adhesion, membrane transportation of molecules, and acting as receptors for extracellular ligands, and enzymes. ABO antigens are found having similar roles on epithelial cells as well as red blood cells.
The ABO antigen is also expressed on the von Willebrand factor (vWF) glycoprotein, which participates in hemostasis (control of bleeding). In fact, having type O blood predisposes to bleeding, as 30 % of the total genetic variation observed in plasma vWF is explained by the effect of the ABO blood group, and individuals with group O blood normally have significantly lower plasma levels of vWF (and Factor VIII) than do non-O individuals. In addition, vWF is degraded more rapidly due to the higher prevalence of blood group O with the Cys1584 variant of vWF (an amino acid polymorphism in VWF): the gene for ADAMTS13 (vWF - cleaving protease) maps to the ninth chromosome (9q34), the same locus as ABO blood type. Higher levels of vWF are more common amongst people who have had ischemic stroke (from blood clotting) for the first time. The results of this study found that the occurrence was not affected by ADAMTS13 polymorphism, and the only significant genetic factor was the person 's blood group.
Compared to O group individuals, non-O group (A, AB, and B) individuals have a 14 % reduced risk of squamous cell carcinoma and 4 % reduced risk of basal cell carcinoma. Conversely, type O blood is associated with a reduced risk of pancreatic cancer. The B antigen links with increased risk of ovarian cancer. Gastric cancer has reported to be more common in blood group A and least in group O.
According to Glass, Holmgren, et al., those in the O blood group have an increased risk of infection with cholera, and those O - group individuals who are infected have more severe infections. The mechanisms behind this association with cholera are unclear in the literature.
ABO blood group incompatibilities between the mother and child does not usually cause hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) because antibodies to the ABO blood groups are usually of the IgM type, which do not cross the placenta. However, in an O - type mother, IgG ABO antibodies are produced and the baby can potentially develop ABO hemolytic disease of the newborn.
In human cells, the ABO alleles and their encoded glycosyltransferases have been described in several oncologic conditions. Using anti-GTA / GTB monoclonal antibodies, it was demonstrated that a loss of these enzymes was correlated to malignant bladder and oral epithelia. Furthermore, the expression of ABO blood group antigens in normal human tissues is dependent the type of differentiation of the epithelium. In most human carcinomas, including oral carcinoma, a significant event as part of the underlying mechanism is decreased expression of the A and B antigens. Several studies have observed that a relative down - regulation of GTA and GTB occurs in oral carcinomas in association with tumor development. More recently, a genome wide association study (GWAS) has identified variants in the ABO locus associated with susceptibility to pancreatic cancer.
A multi-locus genetic risk score study based on a combination of 27 loci, including the ABO gene, identified individuals at increased risk for both incident and recurrent coronary artery disease events, as well as an enhanced clinical benefit from statin therapy. The study was based on a community cohort study (the Malmo Diet and Cancer study) and four additional randomized controlled trials of primary prevention cohorts (JUPITER and ASCOT) and secondary prevention cohorts (CARE and PROVE IT - TIMI 22).
During the 1930s, connecting blood groups to personality types became popular in Japan and other areas of the world. Studies of this association have yet to confirm its existence definitively.
Other popular but unsupported ideas include the use of a blood type diet, claims that group A causes severe hangovers, group O is associated with perfect teeth, and those with blood group A2 have the highest IQs. Scientific evidence in support of these concepts is nonexistent.
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what did the original game of monopoly portray | History of the board game Monopoly - wikipedia
The history of the board game Monopoly can be traced back to the early 20th century. The earliest known version of Monopoly, known as The Landlord 's Game, was designed by an American, Elizabeth Magie, and first patented in 1904 but existed as early as 1902. Magie, a follower of Henry George, originally intended The Landlord 's Game to illustrate the economic consequences of Ricardo 's Law of Economic rent and the Georgist concepts of economic privilege and land value taxation. A series of board games were developed from 1906 through the 1930s that involved the buying and selling of land and the development of that land. By 1933, a board game had been created much like the version of Monopoly sold by Parker Brothers and its related companies through the rest of the 20th century, and into the 21st. Several people, mostly in the Midwestern United States and near the East Coast, contributed to the game 's design and evolution.
By the 1970s, the idea that the game had been created solely by Charles Darrow had become popular folklore; it was printed in the game 's instructions for many years, in a 1974 book devoted to Monopoly, and was cited in a general book about toys even as recently as 2007. Even a guide to family games published for Reader 's Digest in 2003 only gave credit to Darrow and Elizabeth Magie, erroneously stating that Magie 's original game was created in the 19th century, and not acknowledging any of the game 's development between Magie 's creation of the game, and the eventual publication by Parker Brothers.
Also in the 1970s, Professor Ralph Anspach, who had himself published a board game intended to illustrate the principles of both monopolies and trust busting, fought Parker Brothers and its then parent company, General Mills, over the copyright and trademarks of the Monopoly board game. Through the research of Anspach and others, much of the early history of the game was "rediscovered '' and entered into official United States court records. Because of the lengthy court process, including appeals, the legal status of Parker Brothers ' copyright and trademarks on the game was not settled until 1985. The game 's name remains a registered trademark of Parker Brothers, as do its specific design elements; other elements of the game are still protected under copyright law. At the conclusion of the court case, the game 's logo and graphic design elements became part of a larger Monopoly brand, licensed by Parker Brothers ' parent companies onto a variety of items through the present day. Despite the "rediscovery '' of the board game 's early history in the 1970s and 1980s, and several books and journal articles on the subject, Hasbro (Parker Brothers ' current parent company) did not acknowledge any of the game 's history before Charles Darrow on its official Monopoly website as recently as June 2012. Nor did Hasbro acknowledge anyone other than Darrow in materials published or sponsored by them, at least as recently as 2009.
International tournaments, first held in the early 1970s, continue to the present, although the last national tournaments and world championship were held in 2009. Starting in 1985, a new generation of spin - off board games and card games appeared on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. In 1989, the first of many video game and computer game editions was published. Since 1994, many official variants of the game, based on locations other than Atlantic City, New Jersey (the official U.S. setting) or London (the official Commonwealth setting, excepting Canada), have been published by Hasbro or its licensees. In 2008, Hasbro permanently changed the color scheme and some of the gameplay of the standard U.S. Edition of the game to match the UK Edition, although the U.S. standard edition maintains the Atlantic City property names. Hasbro also modified the official logo to give the "Mr. Monopoly '' character a 3 - D computer - generated look, which has since been adopted by licensees USAopoly, Winning Moves and Winning Solutions. And Hasbro has also been including the Speed Die, introduced in 2006 's Monopoly: The Mega Edition by Winning Moves Games, in versions produced directly by Hasbro (such as the 2009 Championship Edition).
In 1903, the Georgist Lizzie Magie applied for a patent on a game called The Landlord 's Game with the object of showing that rents enriched property owners and impoverished tenants. She knew that some people would find it hard to understand the logic behind the idea, and she thought that if the rent problem and the Georgist solution to it were put into the concrete form of a game, it might be easier to demonstrate. She was granted the patent for the game in January 1904. The Landlord 's Game became one of the first board games to use a "continuous path '', without clearly defined start and end spaces on its board. Another innovation in gameplay attributed to Magie is the concept of "ownership '' of a place on a game board, such that something would happen to the second (or later) player to land on the same space, without the first player 's piece still being present. A copy of Magie 's game that she had left at the Georgist community of Arden, Delaware and dating from 1903 -- 1904, was presented for the PBS series History Detectives. This copy featured property groups, organized by letters, later a major feature of Monopoly as published by Parker Brothers.
Although The Landlord 's Game was patented, and some hand - made boards were made, it was not actually manufactured and published until 1906. Magie and two other Georgists established the Economic Game Company of New York, which began publishing her game. Magie submitted an edition published by the Economic Game Company to Parker Brothers around 1910, which George Parker declined to publish. In the UK, it was published in 1913 by the Newbie Game Company under the title Brer Fox an ' Brer Rabbit. Shortly after the game 's formal publication, Scott Nearing, a professor in what was then known as the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce at the University of Pennsylvania, began using the game as a teaching tool in his classes. His students made their own boards, and taught the game to others. After Nearing was dismissed from the Wharton School, he began teaching at the University of Toledo. A former student of Nearing, Rexford Guy Tugwell, also taught The Landlord 's Game at Wharton, and took it with him to Columbia University. Apart from commercial distribution, it spread by word of mouth and was played in slightly variant homemade versions over the years by Quakers, Georgists, university students (including students at Smith College, Princeton, and MIT), and others who became aware of it.
A shortened version of Magie 's game, which eliminated the second round of play that used a Georgist concept of a single land value tax, had become common during the 1910s, and this variation on the game became known as Auction Monopoly. The auctioning part of the game came through a rule that auctioned any unowned property to all game players when it was first landed on. This rule was later dropped by the Quakers, and in the current game of Monopoly an auction takes place only when an unowned property is not purchased outright by the player that first lands on it. That same decade, the game became popular around the community of Reading, Pennsylvania. Another former student of Scott Nearing, Thomas Wilson, taught the game to his cousin, Charles Muhlenberg, around 1915 -- 1916. The original patent on The Landlord 's Game expired in 1921. By this time, the hand - made games became known simply as Monopoly. Charles Muhlenberg and his wife, Wilma, taught the game to Wilma 's brothers, Louis and Ferdinand "Fred '' Thun, in the early 1920s.
Simultaneous to these events, Magie moved back to Illinois, and married Andrew Phillips. She moved to the Washington, D.C. area with her husband by 1923, and re-patented a revised version of The Landlord 's Game in 1924 (under her married name, Elizabeth Magie Phillips). This version, unlike her first patent drawing, included named streets (though the versions published in 1910 based on her first patent also had named streets). Magie sought to regain control over the plethora of hand - made games. For her 1924 edition, a couple of streets on the board were named after Chicago streets and locations, notably "The Loop '' and "Lake Shore Drive. '' This revision also included a special "monopoly '' rule and card that allowed higher rents to be charged when all three railroads and utilities were owned, and included "chips '' to indicate improvements on properties. Magie again approached Parker Brothers about her game, and George Parker again declined, calling the game "too political ''. Parker is, however, credited with urging Magie to take out her 1924 patent.
After the Thuns learned the game, they began teaching its rules to their fraternity brothers at Williams College around 1926. Daniel W. Layman, in turn, learned the game from the Thun brothers (who later tried to sell copies of the game commercially, but were advised by an attorney that the game could not be patented, as they were not its inventors). Layman later returned to his hometown of Indianapolis, Indiana, and began playing the game with friends there, ultimately producing hand - made versions of the board based on streets of that city. Layman then commercially produced and sold the game, starting in 1932, with a friend in Indianapolis, who owned a company called Electronic Laboratories. This game was sold under the name The Fascinating Game of Finance (later shortened to Finance). Layman soon sold his rights to the game, which was then licensed, produced and marketed by Knapp Electric. The published board featured four railroads (one per side), Chance and Community Chest cards and spaces, and properties grouped by symbol, rather than color. Also in 1932, one edition of The Landlord 's Game was published by the Adgame Company with a new set of rules called Prosperity, also by Magie.
It was in Indianapolis that Ruth Hoskins learned the game, and took it back to Atlantic City. After she arrived, Hoskins made a new board with Atlantic City street names and railroads, and taught it to a group of local Quakers. It has been argued that their greatest contribution to the game was to reinstate the original Lizzie Magie rule of "buying properties at their listed price '' rather than auctioning them, as the Quakers did not believe in auctions. Another source states that the Quakers simply "did n't like the noise of the auctioneering. '' Among the group taught the game by Hoskins were Eugene Raiford and his wife, who took a copy of the game with Atlantic City street names to Philadelphia. Due to the Raifords ' unfamiliarity with streets and properties in Philadelphia, the Atlantic City - themed version was the one taught to Charles Todd, who in turn taught Esther Darrow, wife of Charles Darrow. After learning the game, Darrow then began to distribute the game himself as Monopoly and never spoke to the Todds again. Darrow initially made the sets of the Monopoly game by hand with the help of his first son, William Darrow, and his wife. Their new sets retained Charles Todd 's misspelling of "Marvin Gardens '' and the renaming of the Shore Fast Line the Short Line. Charles Darrow drew the designs with a drafting pen on round pieces of oilcloth, and then his son and his wife helped fill in the spaces with colors and make the title deed cards and the Chance cards and Community Chest cards. After the demand for the game increased, Darrow contacted a printing company, Patterson and White, which printed the designs of the property spaces on square carton boards. Darrow 's game board designs included elements later made famous in the version eventually produced by Parker Brothers, including black locomotives on the railroad spaces, the car on "Free Parking '', the red arrow for "Go '', the faucet on "Water Works '', the light bulb on "Electric Company '', and the question marks on the "Chance '' spaces, though many of the actual icons were created by a hired graphic artist. While Darrow received a copyright on his game in 1933, its specimens have disappeared from the files of the United States Copyright Office, though proof of its registration remains.
Darrow first took the game to Milton Bradley and attempted to sell it as his personal invention. They rejected it in a letter dated May 31, 1934. After Darrow sent the game to Parker Brothers later in 1934, they rejected the game as "too complicated, too technical, (and it) took too long to play. '' Darrow received a rejection letter from the firm dated October 19, 1934. During this time, the "52 design errors '' story was invented as a reason why Parker rejected Monopoly, but this has more recently been proven to be part of the Parker - invented "creation myth '' surrounding the game.
In early 1935, however, the company heard about the game 's excellent sales during the Christmas season of 1934 in Philadelphia and at F.A.O. Schwarz in New York City. Robert Barton, President of Parker Brothers, contacted Darrow and scheduled a new meeting in New York City. On March 18, Parker Brothers bought Darrow 's game, helped him take out a patent on it, and purchased his remaining inventory. By April, 1935, the company had learned that Darrow was not the sole inventor of the game, but sought out an affidavit by Darrow to repeat his statements to the contrary, and thus bolster their claim to the game. Parker Brothers subsequently decided to buy out Magie 's 1924 patent and the copyrights of other commercial variants of the game to claim that it had legitimate undisputed rights to the game.
Robert Barton, president of Parker Brothers, bought the rights to Finance from Knapp Electric later in 1935. Finance would be redeveloped, updated, and continued to be sold by Parker Brothers into the 1970s. Other board games based on a similar principle, such as a game called Inflation, designed by Rudy Copeland and published by the Thomas Sales Co., in Fort Worth, Texas, also came to the attention of Parker Brothers management in the 1930s, after they began sales of Monopoly. Copeland continued sales of the latter game after Parker Brothers attempted a patent lawsuit against him. Parker Brothers held the Magie and Darrow patents, but settled with Copeland rather than going to trial, since Copeland was prepared to have witnesses testify that they had played Monopoly before Darrow 's "invention '' of the game. The court settlement allowed Copeland to license Parker Brothers ' patents. Other agreements were reached on Big Business by Transogram, and Easy Money by Milton Bradley, based on Daniel Layman 's Finance. Another clone, called Fortune, was sold by Parker Brothers, and became combined with Finance in some editions.
Monopoly was first marketed on a broad scale by Parker Brothers in 1935. A Standard Edition, with a small black box and separate board, and a larger Deluxe Edition, with a box large enough to hold the board, were sold in the first year of Parker Brothers ' ownership. These were based on the two editions sold by Darrow. Parker Brothers sets were the first to include die - cast metal tokens for playing pieces, initially using a battleship, a cannon, a clothes iron, a shoe, a top hat, and a thimble. George Parker himself rewrote many of the game 's rules, insisting that "short game '' and "time limit '' rules be included. On the original Parker Brothers board (reprinted in 2002 by Winning Moves Games), there were no icons for the Community Chest spaces (the blue chest overflowing with gold coins came later) and no gold ring on the Luxury Tax space. Nor were there property values printed on spaces on the board. The Income Tax was slightly higher (being $300 or 10 %, instead of the later $200 or 10 %). Some of the designs known today were implemented at the behest of George Parker. The Chance cards and Community Chest cards were illustrated (though some prior editions consisted solely of text), but were without "Rich Uncle Pennybags '', who was introduced in 1936.
Late in 1935, after learning of The Landlord 's Game and Finance, Robert Barton held a second meeting with Charles Darrow in Boston. Darrow admitted that he had copied the game from a friend 's set, and he and Barton reached a revised royalty agreement, granting Parker Brothers worldwide rights and releasing Darrow from legal costs that would be incurred in defending the origin of the game.
In December 1935, Parker Brothers sent a copy of the game to Victor Watson, Sr. of Waddington Games. Watson and his son Norman tried the game over a weekend, and liked it so much that Waddington took the (then extraordinary) step of making a transatlantic "trunk call '' to Parker Brothers, the first such call made or received by either company. This impressed Parker Brothers sufficiently that Waddington was granted licensing rights for Europe and the then - British Commonwealth, excluding Canada. Waddingtons version, their first board game, with locations from London substituted for the original Atlantic City ones, was first produced in 1936.
The game was very successful in the United Kingdom and France, but the 1936 German edition, published by Schmidt Spiele disappeared from the market within three years. This edition, featuring locations from Berlin, was denounced, allegedly by Joseph Goebbels to the Hitler Youth due to the game 's "Jewish - speculative character. '' It is also alleged that the real reason behind the Nazi denouncement was due to the high - ranking members (i.e. Goebbels, again) who lived on those sections of the game board given the highest property values, and not wanting to be associated with a game. The game last appeared in a pre-World War II Schmidt Spiele catalog in 1938. A new German edition, with "generic '' street and train station names (i.e., not chosen from a single German city) would not appear until 1953. The 1936 German edition, with the original cards and Berlin locations, was reprinted in 1982 by Parker Brothers and again in 2003 (in a wooden box), and 2011 (in a red metal tin) by Hasbro.
Waddington licensed other editions from 1936 to 1938, and the game was exported from the UK and resold or reprinted in Switzerland, Belgium, Australia, Chile, The Netherlands, and Sweden. In Italy, under the fascists, the game was changed dramatically so that it would have an Italian name, locations in Milan, and major changes in the rules. This was for compliance under Italian law of the period. Italian publishers Editrice Giochi produced the game in Italy until 2009, having held a unique licensing agreement from Parker Brothers and their own copyright dating back to 1935 / 1936. As of 2009, Hasbro has taken over the publishing of the game in Italy, but have also, for now, kept the Milan - based properties.
In Austria, versions of the game first appeared as Business and Spekulation (Speculation), and eventually evolved to become Das Kaufmännische Talent (DKT) (The Businessman 's Talent). Versions of DKT have been sold in Austria since 1940. The game first appeared as Monopoly in Austria in about 1981. The Waddingtons edition was imported into The Netherlands starting in 1937, and a fully translated edition first appeared in 1941.
Waddingtons later produced special games during World War II which secretly contained files, a compass, a map printed on silk, and real currency hidden amongst the Monopoly money, to enable prisoners of war to escape from German camps. However, this story has come under recent scrutiny and is being disputed.
Collector Albert C. Veldhuis features a map on his "Monopoly Lexicon '' website showing which versions of the game were remade and distributed in other countries, with the Atlantic City, London, and Paris versions being the most influential. After World War II, homemade games would sometimes appear behind the Iron Curtain, despite the fact that the game was effectively banned. Monopoly is cited as the board game played most often and most duplicated via hand made copies in the former German Democratic Republic. One official version of the game was printed for the Soviet Union by Parker Brothers in 1988. After the Cold War ended, official editions have been published throughout eastern Europe by Parker, Tonka and Hasbro. Hungary was the first, in 1992, followed by the Czech Republic and Poland in 1993, Croatia in 1994, Slovenia in 1996, Romania and a new edition for Russia in 1997, and Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Slovakia, all in 2001.
In 1936, Parker Brothers published four further editions along with the original two: the Popular Edition, Fine Edition, Gold Edition, and Deluxe Edition, with prices ranging from US $2 to US $25 in 1930s money. After Parker Brothers began to release its first editions of the game, Elizabeth Magie Phillips was profiled in the Washington D.C. Evening Star newspaper, which discussed her two editions of The Landlord 's Game. In December 1936, wary of the Mah - Jongg and Ping - Pong fads that had left unsold inventory stuck in Parker Brothers ' warehouse, George Parker ordered a stop to Monopoly production as sales leveled off. However, during the Christmas season, sales picked up again, and continued a resurgence. In early 1937, as Parker Brothers was preparing to release the board game Bulls and Bears with Darrow 's photograph on the box lid (though he had no involvement with the game), a Time magazine article about the game made it seem as if Darrow himself was the sole inventor of both Bulls and Bears and Monopoly:
At the start of World War II, both Parker Brothers and Waddington stockpiled materials they could use for further game production. During the war, Monopoly was produced with wooden tokens in the U.S., and the game 's cellophane cover was eliminated. In the UK, metal tokens were also eliminated, and a special spinner was introduced to take the place of dice. The game remained in print for a time even in the Netherlands, as the printer there was able to maintain a supply of paper. Elizabeth Magie 's second patent on The Landlord 's Game expired in September, 1941, and it is believed that after the expiration, she was no longer promoted as an inventor of Monopoly. The game itself remained popular during the war, particularly in camps, and soldiers playing the game became part of the product 's advertising in 1944.
After the war, sales went from 800,000 a year to over one million. The French and German editions re-entered production, and new editions for Spain, Greece, Finland and Israel were first produced. By the late 1950s, Parker Brothers printed only game sets with board, pieces and materials housed in a single white box. Several copies of this edition were exhibited at the American National Exhibition in Moscow in 1959. All of them were stolen from the exhibit. In the early 1960s, "Monopoly happenings '' began to occur, mostly marathon game sessions, which were recognized by a Monopoly Marathon Records Documentation Committee in New York City. In addition to marathon sessions, games were played on large indoor and outdoor boards, within backyard pits, on the ceiling in a University of Michigan dormitory room, and underwater. In 1965, a 30th anniversary set was produced in a special plastic case.
Parker Brothers was acquired by General Mills in February 1968. The first Monopoly edition in Braille is published in 1973. Also in 1973, as the Atlantic City Commissioner of Public Works considered name changes for Baltic and Mediterranean Avenues, fans of the board game, with support from the president of Parker Brothers, successfully lobbied for the city to keep the names. After Parker Brothers was taken over by General Mills, the Monopoly license to Waddingtons was renegotiated (as was the Clue / Cluedo license to Parker Brothers / General Mills by Waddingtons). By 1974, Parker Brothers had sold 80 million sets of the game. In 1975, another anniversary edition was produced, but this edition came in a cardboard box looking much like a standard edition. Parker Brothers was under management by General Mills as the first six Monopoly Tournaments were held. See "The Monopoly Tournaments '' below.
Kenner was combined with Parker Brothers and spun off as Kenner Parker Toys in 1985. Regular and Deluxe 50th Anniversary editions of Monopoly were released that same year. The spinoff game Advance to Boardwalk was first published in 1985. Kenner Parker was acquired by Tonka in 1987. The 1987 / 1988 Monopoly Tournaments were held under Kenner Parker Tonka management.
In the United Kingdom, Monopoly publisher Waddingtons produced its first non-London edition in 1989, creating a Limited Edition based on Leeds as a charity fundraiser.
In 1990, Merv Griffin Enterprises turned Monopoly into a prime time game show, airing after Super Jeopardy! on Saturday nights on ABC. The program was hosted by Mike Reilly and announced by Charlie O'Donnell.
Monopoly Junior was first published in 1990. Kenner Parker Tonka was acquired by Hasbro in 1991. An all - Europe edition was published by Parker Brothers in 1991 for the nations of the then European Communities, using the Ecu (European Currency Unit). After acquisition by Hasbro, publication of Monopoly in the U.S. ceased at the Parker Brothers plant in Salem, Massachusetts in November 1991.
In 1994, the license to the company that would become USAopoly was issued, and they produced a San Diego, California edition as their first board. In 1995, a license for new game variations and reprints of Monopoly was granted to Winning Moves Games. See the Localizations, licenses, and spin - offs section below for details on further releases by both companies.
In 1995, a 60th Anniversary edition was released in a gold box. In late 1998, Hasbro announced a campaign to add an all - new token to U.S. standard edition sets of Monopoly. Voters were allowed to select from a biplane, a piggy bank, and a sack of money -- with votes being tallied through a special website, via a toll - free phone number, and at FAO Schwarz stores.
In March 1999, Hasbro announced that the winner was the sack of money (with 51 percent of the vote, compared to 29 percent for the biplane and 20 percent for the piggy bank). Thus, the sack of money became the first new token added to the game since the early 1950s. In 1999, Hasbro renamed the Rich Uncle Pennybags mascot "Mr. Monopoly '', and released Star Wars: Episode I, Pokémon and Millennium editions of Monopoly. A second European edition is released in 1999, this time using the Euro as currency, but incorrectly listing Geneva as the capital of Switzerland.
A 65th Anniversary Edition was released in a variation of the white box in 2000. In 2001, the European Edition is reissued, correcting the mistake of the 1999 printing, and correctly listing Bern as the capital of Switzerland. In 2005, a 70th Anniversary Edition was released in a silver - metallic tin with a plastic slip case. Also starting in 2005, various "Here & Now '' editions were released in multiple countries. The first release of this edition was for the UK market, and its success led to the selection of properties for a U.S. edition by online vote. The most popular properties were released on the U.S. "Here & Now '' edition board in 2006. This, in turn, led to a worldwide "Here & Now '' edition (released in 2008), along with other national editions (including a second UK "Here and Now '' edition) with properties selected by online vote. The main principle of the "Here & Now '' editions was "What if Monopoly had been invented today? ''
The first changes to the gameplay of the Monopoly game itself occurred with the publication of both the Monopoly Here & Now Electronic Banking Edition by Hasbro UK and Monopoly: The Mega Edition by Winning Moves Games in 2006. The Electronic Banking Edition uses VISA - branded debit cards and a debit card reader for monetary transactions, instead of paper bills. This edition is available in the UK, Germany, France, Australia and Ireland. A version was released in the U.S. in 2007, albeit without the co-branding by Visa. An electronic counter had been featured in the Stock Exchange editions released in Europe in the early 2000s (decade), and is also a feature of the Monopoly City board game released in 2009.
The Mega Edition has been expanded to include fifty - two spaces (with more street names taken from Atlantic City), skyscrapers (to be played after hotels), train depots, the 1000 denomination of play money, as well as "bus tickets '' and a speed die. Shortly after the release of Mega Monopoly in 2006, Hasbro adopted the same blue version of the speed die into a special "Speed Die Edition '' of the game. By 2008, the die, now red, became a permanent addition to the game, though its use remains optional there. In 2009 's "Championship Edition '', use of the speed die is mandatory, as it also became mandatory in most of 2009 's Monopoly tournaments.
In addition to permanently adding the speed die in 2008, Hasbro also instituted further changes to the United States standard edition of the board, including making Mediterranean and Baltic Avenues a brown color group, making the Income Tax space a flat $200 (removing the 10 % option), changing the colors on the GO space from red to black, increasing the Luxury Tax to $100 (from $75), and changing certain of the Community Chest and Chance cards. The changes in these four areas made the U.S. standard edition more uniform with the UK and modern European editions. In 2009, Winning Moves Games introduced "The Classic Edition '', with a pre-2008 game board and cards, re-inclusion of the "sack of money '' playing piece, and a plain MONOPOLY logo in the center of the board, with neither the 1985 or 2008 version of "Mr. Monopoly '' present. Also in 2009, Monopoly "theme packs '' entered the retail market, including the Dog Lovers and Sports Fans editions, which include customized money, replacements for houses and hotels, and custom tokens, but no board.
In early 2010, Hasbro began selling the Free Parking and Get out of Jail add - on games, which can be played alone or when a player lands on the respective Monopoly board spaces. If played during a Monopoly game, success at either game gets the winning player a "free taxi ride to any space on the board '' or "out of jail free '', respectively. A new, customizable edition called "U-Build '' is also released. Later in 2010, for the 75th anniversary of the game 's publication, Hasbro released Monopoly Revolution, giving the game a graphic redesign, as well as returning it to a round shape, which had not been seen since some of Darrow 's 1930s custom - made sets. The game includes "bank cards '' and keeps track of players ' assets electronically, as was introduced in the "Electronic Banking Edition '' earlier in the decade. The game also features clear plastic playing pieces for movers, and electronic sound effects, triggered by certain events (for instance, a "jail door slam '' sound effect when a player goes to jail). Monopoly Live was announced at the New York Toy Fair in February, 2011. The Monopoly Millionaire version of the game was released in 2012.
In early 2013, a board game version of the Monopoly Hotels online game was released. From January 8 to February 5, 2013, through the Monopoly page on Facebook in a campaign called "Save Your Token, '' Hasbro took votes from the public to make another permanent change in the lineup of game tokens. The token with the least number of "Save Your Token '' votes will be retired, and replaced with one of five other tokens, depending on which of the new candidates gets the most votes. The potential tokens were a robot, a helicopter, a cat, a guitar or a diamond ring. Neither the biplane nor the piggy bank from the 1998 vote are being considered this time. Early on February 6, it was announced that the iron would be retired for having received the least votes, and the cat would be replacing it, having received the most votes. Starting in February 2013, the U.S. discount chain Target began selling a "Golden Token '' set with the eight classic tokens and all five candidates. Special editions with the thirteen golden tokens have also been released in the UK and France. The first Monopoly game to have the new token lineup was released in June 2013. In 2015, the game celebrated its 80th anniversary with eight tokens from each decade in a special edition.
The first Monopoly tournaments were suggested by Victor Watson of Waddington after the World Chess Championship 1972. Such championships are also held for players of the board game Scrabble. The first European Championship was held in Reykjavík, Iceland, the same site as the 1972 World Chess Championship. Accounts differ as to the eventual winner: Philip Orbanes and Victor Watson name John Mair, representing Ireland and the eventual World Monopoly Champion of 1975, as also having won the European Championship. Gyles Brandreth, himself a later European Monopoly Champion, names Pierre Milet, representing France, as the European Champion. One of the reasons there may be differing accounts of the eventual winner is attributable to a minor controversy with the final game. According to Parker Brothers ' Randolph "Ranny '' P. Barton, an error was made by one of the participants and a protest was filed by an opponent. The judges (Barton, Watson, and a representative from Miro, the French publishers of Monopoly) weighed the options of starting the final game over and delaying the chartered plane that would take them home from Iceland vs allowing the game to stand with the error but allowing them to make their flight. In the end, the judges upheld the result of the game with the error uncorrected.
Victor Watson and Ranny Barton began holding tournaments in the UK and US, respectively. World Champions were declared in the United States in 1973 and 1974 (and are still considered official World Champions by Hasbro). While the 1973 tournament, the first, matched three United States regional champions against the UK champion and thus could be argued as the first international tournament, true multinational international tournaments were first held in 1975. Both authors (Orbanes and Brandreth) agree that John Mair was the first true World Champion, as decided in tournament play held in Washington, D.C. days after the conclusion of the European Championship (which Mair had also won), in November 1975.
By 1982, tournaments in the United States featured a competition between tournament winners in all 50 states, competing to become the United States Champion. National tournaments were held in the US and UK the year before World Championships through 2003 -- 2004 but during the same year as of 2009 (see table, below). The determination of the US champion was changed for the 2003 tournament: winners of an Internet - based quiz challenge were selected to compete, rather than one state champion for each of the 50 states. The tournaments are now typically held every six years. In the past, the US edition Monopoly board was used at the World championship level, while national variants are used at the national level. Since true international play began in 1975, no World champion has come from the US, still considered the board game 's "birthplace. '' However, Dana Terman, two - time US Champion, placed second at the 1980 World Championship, Richard Marinaccio, the 2009 US Champion, placed third at the 2009 World Championship, and Brian Valentine, the 2015 US Representative, placed third at the 2015 World Championship.
Nicolò Falcone of Italy defeated players from 27 countries plus the defending champion in the 2015 World Championship held at The Venetian resort in Macau.
The original hand made editions of the Monopoly game had been localized for the cities or areas in which it was played, and Parker Brothers has continued this practice. Their version of Monopoly has been produced for international markets, with the place names being localized for cities including London and Paris and for countries including the Netherlands and Germany, among others. By 1982, Parker Brothers stated that the game "has been translated into over 15 languages... '' In 2009, Hasbro reported that Monopoly is officially published in 27 languages, and has been licensed by them in 81 countries. As of January 2013, Hasbro states that the game is now available in 43 languages and 111 countries.
The game has also inspired official spin - offs, such as the board game Advance to Boardwalk from 1985. There have been six card games: Water Works from 1972, Free Parking from 1988, Express Monopoly from 1993, Monopoly: The Card Game from 1999, Monopoly Deal from 2008 and Monopoly Millionaire Deal from 2012. Finally, there have been two dice games: Do n't Go to Jail from 1991 and an update, Monopoly Express, (2006 -- 2007). A second product line of games and licenses exists in Monopoly Junior, first published in 1990. In the late 1980s, official editions of Monopoly appeared for the Sega Master System and the Commodore 64 and Commodore 128. A television game show, produced by King World Productions, was attempted in the summer of 1990, but lasted for only 12 episodes. In 1991 -- 1992, official versions appeared for the Apple Macintosh and Nintendo 's NES, SNES, and Game Boy. In 1995, as Hasbro (which had taken over Kenner Parker Tonka in 1991) was preparing to launch Hasbro Interactive as a new brand, they chose Monopoly and Trivial Pursuit to be their first two CD - ROM games. The Monopoly CD - ROM game also allowed for play over the Internet. CD - ROM versions of the officially licensed Star Wars and FIFA World Cup ' 98 editions also were released. Later CD - ROM exclusive spin - offs, Monopoly Casino and Monopoly Tycoon, were also produced under license.
Various manufacturers of the game have created dozens of officially licensed versions, in which the names of the properties and other elements of the game are replaced by others according to the game 's theme. The first such license was awarded in 1994, to the company that became USAopoly, starting with a San Diego edition of Monopoly and later including themes such as national parks, Star Trek, Star Wars, Nintendo, Disney characters, Pokémon, Peanuts, various particular cities (such as Las Vegas and New York City), states, colleges and universities, the World Cup, NASCAR, individual professional sports teams, and many others. USAopoly also sells special corporate editions of Monopoly. Official corporate editions have been produced for Best Buy, the Boy Scouts of America, FedEx, and UPS, among others. In 1995, a second license was awarded to Winning Moves Games in Massachusetts. Winning Moves has produced a new board game and card games based on Monopoly in the United States. Winning Moves also produces official localized editions of the game in the UK, France, Germany and Australia. The Doctor Who 50th Anniversary Edition Monopoly is a special case, having been originally produced by Winning Moves in the UK, and resold by USAopoly within the US. A third license was awarded in 2000 by Hasbro to Winning Solutions, Inc., which produces specialty deluxe editions mostly for sale by specialized retailers. Other licensed localized editions of the game are being published in Nigeria and The Netherlands, among other locations.
When creating some of the modern licensed editions, such as the Looney Tunes and The Powerpuff Girls editions of Monopoly, Hasbro included special variant rules to be played in the theme of the licensed property. Infogrames, which has published a CD - ROM edition of Monopoly, also includes the selection of "house rules '' as a possible variant of play. Electronic Arts, which publishes current electronic versions of the game, such as for the Nintendo Wii, also includes the selection of certain house rules.
Unofficial versions of the game, which share some of the same playing features, but also incorporate changes so as not to infringe on copyrights, have been created by firms such as Late for the Sky Production Company and Help on Board. These are done for smaller cities, sometimes as charity fundraisers, and some have been created for college and university campuses. Others have non-geographical themes such as Wine - opoly and Chocolate - opoly. There is also a version called Make Your Own - OPOLY, which allows you to customize all the game equipment and rules to your liking.
Before the creation of Hasbro Interactive, and after its later sale to Infogrames, official computer and video game versions have been made available on many platforms. In addition to the versions listed above, they have been produced for Amiga, BBC Micro, Game Boy Advance, Game Boy Color, GameCube, PC, Nintendo 64, PlayStation, PlayStation 2, Sega Genesis, Xbox, and mobile phones. A version for Windows CE was planned in 1999. A handheld electronic game was first released in 1998 that allowed for one human player against up to three player - selected or randomly chosen AI "personalities '' out of five. A Nintendo DS release (along with Battleship, Boggle, and Yahtzee) has been published (by Atari), as well as a stand - alone edition for the same console (by EA). In 2001, Stern Pinball, Inc. released a pinball machine version of Monopoly, designed by Pat Lawlor.
The official Parker Brothers rules and board remained largely unchanged from 1936 to 2008. Ralph Anspach argued against this during an on - air conversation with The Monopoly Book author Maxine Brady in 1975, calling it an end to "steady progress '' and an impediment to progress. Several authors who have written about the board game have noted many of the "house rules '' that have become common among players, although they do not appear in Parker Brothers ' rules sheets. Gyles Brandreth included a section titled "Monopoly Variations, '' Tim Moore notes several such rules used in his household in his Foreword, Phil Orbanes included his own section of variations, and Maxine Brady noted a few in her preface. Authors Noel Gunther and Richard Hutton published Beyond Boardwalk and Park Place in 1986, as a guide, per the cover, "to making Monopoly fun again '', by introducing new variations of rules and strategies. R. Wayne Schmittberger, a former editor of Games magazine, acknowledged the work of Gunther and Hutton in his own 1992 guide New Rules for Classic Games (which includes several pages of Monopoly variations and suggestions that vary from the standard rules of the game).
Starting in 1974, Parker Brothers and its then corporate parent, General Mills, attempted to suppress publication of a game called Anti-Monopoly, designed by San Francisco State University economics professor Ralph Anspach and first published the previous year. Anspach began to research the game 's history, and argued that the copyrights and trademarks held by Parker Brothers should be nullified, as the game came out of the public domain. Among other things, Anspach discovered the empty 1933 Charles B. Darrow file at the United States Copyright Office, testimony from the Inflation game case that was settled out of court, and letters from Knapp Electric challenging Parker Brothers over Monopoly. As the case went to trial in November 1976, Anspach produced testimony by many involved with the early development of the game, including Catherine and Willard Allphin, Dorothea Raiford and Charles Todd. Willard Allphin attempted to sell a version of the game to Milton Bradley in 1931, and published an article about the game 's early history in the UK in 1975. Raiford had helped Ruth Hoskins produce the early Atlantic City games. Even Daniel Layman was interviewed, and Darrow 's widow was deposed. The presiding judge, Spencer Williams, originally ruled for Parker Brothers / General Mills in 1977, allowing the Monopoly trademark to stand, and allowing the companies to destroy copies of Anspach 's Anti-Monopoly. Anspach appealed.
In December 1979, the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in favor of Professor Anspach, with an opinion that agreed with the facts about the game 's history and differed from Parker Brothers ' "official '' account. The court also upheld a "purchasing motivation '' test (described in the decision as a "Genericness Doctrine ''), a "test by which the trademark was valid only if consumers, when they asked for a Monopoly game, meant that they wanted Parker Brothers ' version... '' This had the effect of potentially nullifying the Monopoly trademark, and the court returned the case to Judge Williams. Williams heard the case again in 1980, and in 1981 he again held for Parker Brothers. Anspach appealed again, and in August 1982 the appeals court again reversed. The case was then appealed by General Mills / Parker Brothers to the United States Supreme Court, which decided not to hear the case in February 1983, and denied a petition for rehearing in April. This allowed the appeals court 's decision to stand and further allowed Anspach to resume publication of his game.
With the trademark nullified, the name "Monopoly '' entered the public domain, where the naming of games was concerned, and a profusion of non-Parker - Brothers variants were published. Parker Brothers and other firms lobbied the United States Congress and obtained a revision of the trademark laws. The case was finally settled in 1985, with Monopoly remaining a valid trademark of Parker Brothers, and Anspach assigning the Anti-Monopoly trademark to the company but retaining the ability to use it under license. Anspach received compensation for court costs and the destroyed copies of his game, as well as unspecified damages. He was allowed to resume publication with a legal disclaimer. Anspach later self - published a book about his research and legal fights with General Mills, Kenner Parker Toys, and Hasbro.
Parker Brothers / Hasbro now claims trademark rights to the name and its variants, and has asserted it against others such as the publishers of Ghettopoly. Professor Anspach assigned the Anti-Monopoly trademark back to Parker Brothers, and Hasbro now owns it. Anspach 's game remains in print. The previous publishers were a company called Talicor, but the game is currently distributed and sold by University Games worldwide.
Various patents have existed on the game of Monopoly and its predecessors, such as The Landlord 's Game, but all have now expired. The specific graphics of the game board, cards, and pieces are protected by copyright law and trademark law, as is the specific wording of the game 's rules.
Parker Brothers created a few accessories and licensed a few products shortly after it began publishing the game in 1935. These included a money pad and the first stock exchange add - on in 1936, a birthday card, and a song by Charles Tobias (lyrics) and John Jacob Loeb (music). At the conclusion of the Anti-Monopoly case, Kenner Parker Toys began to seek trademarks on the design elements of Monopoly. It was at this time that the game 's main logo was redesigned to feature "Rich Uncle Pennybags '' (now "Mr. Monopoly '') reaching out from the second "O '' in the word Monopoly. To commemorate the game 's 50th anniversary in 1985, the company commissioned artist Lou Brooks to redesign and illustrate the main logo as a red street sign - like banner, as well as the character Rich Uncle Pennybags reaching out of the "O. '' Brooks was also hired at the time to develop and illustrate the game 's special "Commemorative Edition '' embossed tin box packaging. The art was also carried over onto the more traditional cardboard game box which was revised for the anniversary.
All items stamped with the red MONOPOLY logo also feature the word "Brand '' in small print. In the mid-1980s, after the success of the first "collector 's tin anniversary edition '' (for the 50th anniversary), an edition of the game was produced by the Franklin Mint, the first edition to be published outside Parker Brothers. At about the same time, McDonald 's started its first Monopoly game promotions, considered the company 's most successful, which continue to the present. The twentieth such promotion was sponsored in 2012.
In recent years, the Monopoly brand has been licensed onto a line of slot machines built by WMS Gaming (first introduced in 1998, six models had been made by 2000, and over 20 by 2005). The slots were named "Most Innovative Gaming Product in 1999 and voted "most popular '' in 2001. The brand has also been licensed onto instant - win lottery tickets, and lines of 1: 64 scale model cars produced by Johnny Lightning, which also included collectible game tokens. Other licenses have been issued for clothing and accessories, including a line of bathroom accessories. Licensee Winning Moves Games also had a Monopoly Calculator that could be used as a standard calculator, or used to aid in transactions during a game.
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when do joey and rachel move in together | Friends (season 10) - wikipedia
The tenth and final season of Friends, an American sitcom created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman, premiered on NBC on September 25, 2003. Friends was produced by Bright / Kauffman / Crane Productions, in association with Warner Bros. Television. The season contains 18 episodes and concluded airing on May 6, 2004.
The season premiere opens in Barbados following on from the season 9 finale. Ross and Charlie, a fellow paleontologist and Joey 's ex-girlfriend, are kissing. Joey sees this and goes to Rachel 's room, where the two of them also kiss. However, they both decide to talk to Ross about the situation to make sure he is okay with it. After they return from Barbados, Ross finds them kissing. He tries to hide the fact that he is hurt, but they realize he is when he starts acting all weird around them. Joey eventually talks to Ross about the situation and Ross says that he will be okay with their relationship. After several obstacles that prevent Joey and Rachel from consummating their relationship, they decide to just remain friends. By the sixth episode of this season, Ross becomes single again after Charlie decides to get back together with her ex-boyfriend.
Mike proposes to Phoebe and they get married mid-season. Monica and Chandler decide to try to adopt a child after finding out that they are infertile. They are eventually selected by a woman named Erica. Following this, they decide that they want to move to a house in Westchester. Rachel is head - hunted for a job with Gucci, but in the restaurant where she is being interviewed, her boss (Mr. Zelner) is seated at the next table. She gets fired from Ralph Lauren and also does n't get the job with Gucci, which leaves her unemployed. While departing her old job, she runs into Mark, her old colleague from Bloomingdale 's in Season 3, who offers her a job with Louis Vuitton in Paris. Ross, still being secretly in love with her, does n't want her to leave and tries to make her get her old job at Ralph Lauren back by convincing her boss to increase her salary. Rachel decides she wants to go to Paris and says goodbyes to everyone personally except Ross. Ross reacts harshly and tells her that it 's not fair. When Rachel goes to Ross ' apartment to explain, they end up kissing and spending the night together. Ross expects Rachel to cancel her plans, but she still wants to go to Paris.
In the season 's (and series ') final episode, Erica delivers Monica 's and Chandler 's baby, although -- to their surprise -- she had twins, a boy and a girl. Phoebe and Ross go to the airport to try to convince Rachel to stay, but they end up going to the wrong airport. After Phoebe causes a delay in the departure, they meet Rachel at the gate before she boards, but even though Ross tells her how he feels, Rachel still boards. Ross goes back home only to find a message from Rachel saying she made a mistake. As she is hindered by a stewardess from getting off the plane, the connection breaks. Ross frantically tries to fix the machine, wondering if she got off the plane. Rachel enters Ross 's apartment and says "I got off the plane ''. They kiss and declare their love for each other. The last scene of the series is everyone putting their keys on the table in Monica 's apartment. When Rachel asks if they want to go for one last coffee, Chandler replies with the last sarcastic word of the show, "Where? ''. The camera then pans across the empty apartment, before landing on the door. The show then fades to black. The tag scene pans around New York.
Rachel and Joey decide to talk to Ross about their relationship, while Ross tries to talk to Joey about his relationship with Charlie. Ross confesses his relationship to Joey but Joey chickens out. Ross later walks in on Rachel and Joey kissing. Monica has her hair done in cornrows to get rid of her frizzy hair but Chandler absolutely hates it. Monica finally comes around to Chandler 's way of thinking when she gets her hair caught on the shower curtain. Phoebe finds out that Mike has been seeing a woman named Precious (Anne Dudek) for the past few months and now needs to break up with her. Phoebe waits for Mike to return from his break - up but finds herself breaking - up for him when Precious shows up at Mike 's apartment.
Rachel 's sister Amy (Christina Applegate) shows up at Ross 's looking for Rachel and Rachel quickly learns she plans to marry her ex-boyfriend's father. Rachel takes her in, much to Joey 's chagrin, and tries to help her get her life together. Amy offers to baby - sit Emma, who she calls Ella, but messes up by getting Emma 's ears pierced. Rachel is incredibly upset but eventually her and Amy come to an understanding when Rachel finds out her other sister, Jill, is now fat. Mike attempts to propose to Phoebe on the big screen but Phoebe tells him how lame that is when another couple gets engaged that way. Phoebe tries to fix it by proposing to him on the big screen but Mike gets laughed at. Mike finally proposes at a restaurant and Phoebe accepts. Monica and Chandler ask Rachel to write a letter of recommendation for them to their adoption agency but Joey feels left out. They ask Joey but he tries to write the letter using big words, only for Joey to use a thesaurus to a ridiculous degree (to the point that he refers to himself as a baby kangaroo). He finally re-drafts the letter but gives the handwritten letter to the agency before Monica and Chandler can approve it. The agency thinks a child has written the letter and love it.
Monica and Rachel throw Phoebe a bachelorette party but Phoebe is disappointed there is no stripper. Rachel and Monica hire a male stripper (Danny DeVito) at the last minute; but when he gets there, Phoebe insults him. He begins to cry. Ross and Chandler attend their college reunion and remember the girl they made a pact not to date. Ross makes his move but discovers Chandler used to make out with her all the time. Chandler informs Ross that he broke the pact as well but with a different girl (Kimberley Davies) at a party. At the same party, Monica and Rachel were visiting and Chandler made - out with Rachel to get back at Ross. Ross is upset because this is also the night of the first kiss between him and Rachel but later finds out he actually kissed Monica. Joey is a guest star on the television game show Pyramid and does horribly. Joey nearly redeems himself in the final round but messes up on the final question.
Phoebe 's wedding to Mike is nearly upon the gang, and wedding planner Monica is going overboard much to everyone 's irritation. Eventually it gets too much for Phoebe who fires her intending to do the job herself. Meanwhile Phoebe has also asked Joey to give her away, causing him to give Mike more than a few warnings about Phoebe 's welfare. Ross and Chandler also find they 're not part of the wedding party but compete when one of Mike 's groomsmen drops out and he offers to let one of them fill the position. A freak blizzard hits New York and it becomes obvious the wedding will have to be postponed, but Phoebe and Mike decide to get married outside with a still - ordained Joey acting as minister and Phoebe rehires Monica knowing she can pull it all off in time. Mike tells Ross and Chandler that he 's decided to allow his family dog to fill in the vacant groomsman position but still needs one of them to walk the dog down the aisle and Chandler 's fear of dogs allows Ross to fill the role only while Chandler fills in for Joey giving Phoebe away. In the end, everything works out and Phoebe has the wedding of her dreams in the snow - filled street outside Central Perk.
After having sex with Ross, Rachel says it was ' the perfect way to say goodbye ', and he realizes he is still in love with her. Phoebe and Joey pack Monica and Chandler 's belongings as the couple accompany Erica to the hospital. Ross and Phoebe race to the airport to tell Rachel of his feelings -- but she gets on the plane anyway. Meanwhile, Erica gives birth to twins which Chandler and Monica name Jack and Erica. Still on the plane, contemplating Ross ' plea, Rachel has a change of heart. She leaves the plane and goes to Ross ' apartment to tell him that she loves him. After years of separation, the two finally get back together for good, saying "this is it '', hinting they will marry after the series (which is revealed to be true in the spin - off, Joey). Back in Monica 's apartment, the friends turn in their keys and go out for their last cup of coffee together as a group. The series ends with the friends leaving and a camera panning the apartment and the city.
56th Primetime Emmy Awards
61st Golden Globe Awards
10th Screen Actors Guild Awards
20th TCA Awards
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world's largest octopus under the narrows bridge | Tacoma Narrows - Wikipedia
The Tacoma Narrows (or The Narrows), a strait, is part of Puget Sound in the U.S. state of Washington. A navigable maritime waterway between glacial landforms, the Narrows separates the Kitsap Peninsula from the city of Tacoma.
The Narrows is spanned by the twin Tacoma Narrows Bridges (State Route 16). An earlier bridge collapsed shortly after it opened. Some of the largest octopuses in the world, the Giant Pacific Octopus, live among the ruins of the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge.
In 1841 Charles Wilkes, during the United States Exploring Expedition, named the strait simply Narrows. Its name was formally set as The Narrows by Henry Kellett during the British Admiralty chart reorganization of 1847.
Coordinates: 47 ° 17 ′ N 122 ° 32 ′ W / 47.28 ° N 122.54 ° W / 47.28; - 122.54
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when was the last time a volcano erupted in oregon | 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens - wikipedia
On May 18, 1980, a major volcanic eruption occurred at Mount St. Helens, a volcano located in Skamania County, in the State of Washington. The eruption (a VEI 5 event) was the most significant volcanic eruption to occur in the contiguous 48 U.S. states since the much smaller 1915 eruption of Lassen Peak in California. It has often been declared as the most disastrous volcanic eruption in U.S. history. The eruption was preceded by a two - month series of earthquakes and steam - venting episodes, caused by an injection of magma at shallow depth below the volcano that created a large bulge and a fracture system on the mountain 's north slope.
An earthquake at 8: 32: 17 a.m. PDT (UTC − 7) on Sunday, May 18, 1980, caused the entire weakened north face to slide away, creating the largest landslide ever recorded. This allowed the partly molten, high - pressure gas - and steam - rich rock in the volcano to suddenly explode northwards toward Spirit Lake in a hot mix of lava and pulverized older rock, overtaking the avalanching face.
An eruption column rose 80,000 feet (24 km; 15 mi) into the atmosphere and deposited ash in 11 U.S. states. At the same time, snow, ice and several entire glaciers on the volcano melted, forming a series of large lahars (volcanic mudslides) that reached as far as the Columbia River, nearly 50 miles (80 km) to the southwest. Less severe outbursts continued into the next day, only to be followed by other large, but not as destructive, eruptions later that year. Thermal energy released during the eruption was equal to 26 megatons.
Approximately 57 people were killed directly, including innkeeper Harry R. Truman, photographers Reid Blackburn and Robert Landsburg, and geologist David A. Johnston. Hundreds of square miles were reduced to wasteland, causing over $1 billion in damage (equivalent to over $3 billion as of 2018), thousands of animals were killed, and Mount St. Helens was left with a crater on its north side. At the time of the eruption, the summit of the volcano was owned by the Burlington Northern Railroad, but afterward the land passed to the United States Forest Service. The area was later preserved, as it was, in the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument.
Mount St. Helens remained dormant from its last period of activity in the 1840s and 1850s until March 1980. Several small earthquakes, apparently beginning on March 15, indicated that magma may have begun moving below the volcano. On March 20, at 3: 45 p.m. Pacific Standard Time (all times will be in PST or PDT), a shallow magnitude 4.2 earthquake centered below the volcano 's north flank, signaled the volcano 's violent return from 123 years of hibernation. A gradually building earthquake swarm saturated area seismographs and started to climax at about noon on March 25, reaching peak levels in the next two days, including an earthquake registering 5.1 on the Richter scale. A total of 174 shocks of magnitude 2.6 or greater were recorded during those two days.
Shocks of magnitude 3.2 or greater occurred at a slightly increasing rate during April and May with five earthquakes of magnitude 4 or above per day in early April, and eight per day the week before May 18. Initially there was no direct sign of eruption, but small earthquake - induced avalanches of snow and ice were reported from aerial observations.
At 12: 36 p.m. on March 27, phreatic eruptions (explosions of steam caused by magma suddenly heating groundwater) ejected and smashed rock from within the old summit crater, excavating a new crater 250 feet (75 m) wide and sending an ash column about 7,000 feet (2.1 km) into the air. By this date a 16,000 - foot - long (3.0 mi; 4.9 km) eastward - trending fracture system had also developed across the summit area. This was followed by more earthquake swarms and a series of steam explosions that sent ash 10,000 to 11,000 feet (3,000 to 3,400 m) above their vent. Most of this ash fell between 3 and 12 miles (5 and 19 km) from its vent, but some was carried 150 miles (240 km) south to Bend, Oregon, or 285 miles (460 km) east to Spokane, Washington.
A second, new crater and a blue flame were observed on March 29. The flame was visibly emitted from both craters and was probably created by burning gases. Static electricity generated from ash clouds rolling down the volcano sent out lightning bolts that were up to 2 miles (3 km) long. Ninety - three separate outbursts were reported on March 30, and increasingly strong harmonic tremors were first detected on April 1, alarming geologists and prompting Governor Dixy Lee Ray to declare a state of emergency on April 3. Governor Ray issued an executive order on April 30 creating a "red zone '' around the volcano; anyone caught in this zone without a pass faced a $500 fine or six months in jail. This precluded many cabin owners from visiting their property.
By April 7, the combined crater was 1,700 by 1,200 feet (520 by 370 m) and 500 feet (150 m) deep. A USGS team determined in the last week of April that a 1.5 - mile - diameter (2.4 km) section of St. Helens ' north face was displaced outward by at least 270 feet (82 m). For the rest of April and early May this bulge grew by 5 to 6 feet (1.5 to 1.8 m) per day, and by mid-May it extended more than 400 feet (120 m) north. As the bulge moved northward, the summit area behind it progressively sank, forming a complex, down - dropped block called a graben. Geologists announced on April 30 that sliding of the bulge area was the greatest immediate danger and that such a landslide might spark an eruption. These changes in the volcano 's shape were related to the overall deformation that increased the volume of the volcano by 0.03 cubic miles (0.13 km) by mid-May. This volume increase presumably corresponded to the volume of magma that pushed into the volcano and deformed its surface. Because the intruded magma remained below ground and was not directly visible, it was called a cryptodome, in contrast to a true lava dome exposed at the surface.
On May 7, eruptions similar to those in March and April resumed, and over the next days the bulge approached its maximum size. All activity had been confined to the 350 - year - old summit dome and did not involve any new magma. A total of about 10,000 earthquakes were recorded prior to the May 18 event, with most concentrated in a small zone less than 1.6 miles (2.6 km) directly below the bulge. Visible eruptions ceased on May 16, reducing public interest and consequently the number of spectators in the area. Mounting public pressure then forced officials to allow 50 carloads of property owners to enter the danger zone on Saturday, May 17, to gather whatever property they could carry. Another trip was scheduled for 10 a.m. the next day, and because that was Sunday, more than 300 loggers were not working in the area. By the time of the climactic eruption, dacite magma intruding into the volcano had forced the north flank outward nearly 500 feet (150 m) and heated the volcano 's groundwater system, causing many steam - driven explosions (phreatic eruptions).
As May 18 dawned, Mount St. Helens ' activity did not show any change from the pattern of the preceding month. The rate of bulge movement, sulfur dioxide emission, and ground temperature readings did not reveal any changes indicating a catastrophic eruption. USGS volcanologist David A. Johnston was on duty at an observation post approximately 6 miles (10 km) north of the volcano: as of 6 a.m., Johnston 's measurements did not indicate any unusual activity.
Suddenly, at 8: 32 a.m., a magnitude 5.1 earthquake centered directly below the north slope triggered that part of the volcano to slide, approximately 7 -- 20 seconds after the shock. The landslide, the largest in recorded history, travelled at 110 to 155 miles per hour (177 to 249 km / h) and moved across Spirit Lake 's west arm. Part of it hit a 1,150 - foot - high (350 m) ridge about 6 miles (10 km) north. Some of the slide spilled over the ridge, but most of it moved 13 miles (21 km) down the North Fork Toutle River, filling its valley up to 600 feet (180 m) deep with avalanche debris. An area of about 24 square miles (62 km) was covered, and the total volume of the deposit was about 0.7 cubic miles (2.9 km).
Scientists were able to reconstruct the motion of the landslide from a series of rapid photographs by Gary Rosenquist, who was camping 11 miles (18 km) away from the blast. Rosenquist, his party and his photographs survived because the blast was deflected by local topography 1 mile (1.6 km) short of his location.
Most of St. Helens ' former north side became a rubble deposit 17 miles (27 km) long, averaging 150 feet (46 m) thick; the slide was thickest at 1 mile (1.6 km) below Spirit Lake and thinnest at its western margin. The landslide temporarily displaced the waters of Spirit lake to the ridge north of the lake, in a giant wave approximately 600 feet (180 m) high. This in turn created a 295 feet (90 m) avalanche of debris consisting of the returning waters and thousands of uprooted trees and stumps. Some of these remained intact with roots, but most had been sheared off at the stump seconds earlier by the blast of super-heated volcanic gas and ash that had immediately followed and overtook the initial landslide. The debris was transported along with the water as it returned to its basin, raising the surface level of Spirit Lake by about 200 feet. More than three decades after the eruption, floating log mats persist on Spirit Lake and nearby St. Helens Lake, changing position with the wind. The rest of the trees, especially those that were not completely detached from their roots, were turned upright by their own weight and became waterlogged, sinking into the muddy sediments at the bottom where they have become petrified in the anaerobic and mineral - rich waters. This provides insight into other sites with a similar fossil record.
The landslide exposed the dacite magma in St. Helens ' neck to much lower pressure, causing the gas - charged, partially molten rock and high - pressure steam above it to explode a few seconds after the landslide started. Explosions burst through the trailing part of the landslide, blasting rock debris northward. The resulting blast laterally directed the pyroclastic flow of very hot volcanic gases, ash and pumice formed from new lava, while the pulverized old rock hugged the ground, initially moving at 220 miles per hour (350 km / h) but quickly accelerating to 670 mph (1,080 km / h), and it might have briefly passed the speed of sound.
Pyroclastic flow material passed over the moving avalanche and spread outward, devastating a fan - shaped area 23 miles across by 19 miles long (37 km × 31 km). In total about 230 square miles (600 km) of forest was knocked down, and extreme heat killed trees miles beyond the blow - down zone. At its vent the lateral blast probably did not last longer than about 30 seconds, but the northward - radiating and expanding blast cloud continued for about another minute.
Superheated flow material flashed water in Spirit Lake and North Fork Toutle River to steam, creating a larger, secondary explosion that was heard as far away as British Columbia, Montana, Idaho, and Northern California. Yet many areas closer to the eruption (Portland, Oregon, for example) did not hear the blast. This so - called "quiet zone '' extended radially a few tens of miles from the volcano and was created by the complex response of the eruption 's sound waves to differences in temperature and air motion of the atmospheric layers and, to a lesser extent, local topography.
Later studies indicated that one - third of the 0.045 cubic miles (0.19 km) of material in the flow was new lava, and the rest was fragmented, older rock.
The huge ensuing ash cloud sent skyward from St. Helens ' northern foot was visible throughout the quiet zone. The near - supersonic lateral blast, loaded with volcanic debris, caused devastation as far as 19 miles (31 km) from the volcano. The area affected by the blast can be subdivided into three roughly concentric zones:
By the time this pyroclastic flow hit its first human victims, it was still as hot as 360 ° C (680 ° F) and filled with suffocating gas and flying debris. Most of the 57 people known to have died in that day 's eruption succumbed to asphyxiation while several died from burns. Lodge owner Harry R. Truman was buried under hundreds of feet of avalanche material. Volcanologist David A. Johnston was one of those killed, as was Reid Blackburn, a National Geographic photographer. Robert Landsburg, another photographer, was killed by the ash cloud. He was able to protect his film with his body, and the surviving photos provided geologists with valuable documentation of the historic eruption.
Subsequent outpourings of pyroclastic material from the breach left by the landslide consisted mainly of new magmatic debris rather than fragments of preexisting volcanic rocks. The resulting deposits formed a fan - like pattern of overlapping sheets, tongues and lobes. At least 17 separate pyroclastic flows occurred during the May 18 eruption, and their aggregate volume was about 0.05 cubic miles (0.21 km).
The flow deposits were still at about 300 to 420 ° C (570 to 790 ° F) two weeks after they erupted. Secondary steam - blast eruptions fed by this heat created pits on the northern margin of the pyroclastic - flow deposits, at the south shore of Spirit Lake, and along the upper part of the North Fork Toutle River. These steam - blast explosions continued sporadically for weeks or months after the emplacement of pyroclastic flows, and at least one occurred a year later, on May 16, 1981.
As the avalanche and initial pyroclastic flow were still advancing, a huge ash column grew to a height of 12 miles (19 km) above the expanding crater in less than 10 minutes and spread tephra into the stratosphere for 10 straight hours. Near the volcano, the swirling ash particles in the atmosphere generated lightning, which in turn started many forest fires. During this time, parts of the mushroom - shaped ash - cloud column collapsed, and fell back upon the earth. This fallout, mixed with magma, mud, and steam, sent additional pyroclastic flows speeding down St. Helens ' flanks. Later, slower flows came directly from the new north - facing crater and consisted of glowing pumice bombs and very hot pumiceous ash. Some of these hot flows covered ice or water which flashed to steam, creating craters up to 65 feet (20 m) in diameter and sending ash as much as 6,500 feet (2,000 m) into the air.
Strong high - altitude wind carried much of this material east - northeasterly from the volcano at an average speed of about 60 miles per hour (100 km / h). By 9: 45 a.m. it had reached Yakima, Washington, 90 miles (140 km) away, and by 11: 45 a.m. it was over Spokane, Washington. A total of 4 to 5 inches (100 to 130 mm) of ash fell on Yakima, and areas as far east as Spokane were plunged into darkness by noon where visibility was reduced to 10 feet (3.0 m) and 0.5 inches (13 mm) of ash fell. Continuing eastward, St. Helens ' ash fell in the western part of Yellowstone National Park by 10: 15 p.m. and was seen on the ground in Denver, Colorado, the next day. In time, ash fall from this eruption was reported as far away as Minnesota and Oklahoma, and some of the ash drifted around the globe within about 2 weeks.
During the nine hours of vigorous eruptive activity, about 540,000,000 tons (540 × 10 ^ short tons or 490 × 10 ^ t) of ash fell over an area of more than 22,000 square miles (57,000 km). The total volume of the ash before its compaction by rainfall was about 0.3 cubic miles (1.3 km). The volume of the uncompacted ash is equivalent to about 0.05 cubic miles (0.21 km) of solid rock, or about 7 % of the amount of material that slid off in the debris avalanche. By around 5: 30 p.m. on May 18, the vertical ash column declined in stature, but less severe outbursts continued through the next several days.
Generally, given that the way airborne ash is deposited after an eruption is strongly influenced by the meteorological conditions, a certain variation of the ash type will occur, as a function of distance to the volcano or time elapsed from eruption. The ash from Mount St. Helens is no exception, and hence the ash properties have large variations.
The bulk chemical composition of the ash has been found to be approximately 65 % silicon dioxide, 18 % aluminium oxide, 5 % ferric oxide, 4 % each calcium oxide and sodium oxide and 2 % magnesium oxide. Trace chemicals were also detected, their concentrations varying as shown: 0.05 -- 0.09 % chlorine, 0.02 -- 0.03 % fluorine, and 0.09 -- 0.3 % sulfur.
The index of refraction, a number used in physics to describe how light propagates through a particular substance, is an important property of volcanic ash. This number is complex having both real and imaginary parts, the real part indicating how light disperses and the imaginary part indicating how light is absorbed by the substance.
It is known that the silicate particles have a real index of refraction ranging between 1.5 and 1.6 for visible light. However, there is a spectrum of colors associated with samples of volcanic ash, from very light to dark gray. This makes for variations in the measured imaginary refractive index under visible light.
In the case of Mount St. Helens, the ash settled in three main layers on the ground:
For example, when comparing the imaginary part of the refractive index k of stratospheric ash from 15 km and 18 km from the volcano it has been discovered that they have similar values around 700 nm (around 0.009), while they differ significantly around 300 nm. Here, the 18 km (k was found to be around 0.009) sample was much more absorbent than the 15 km sample (k was found to be around 0.002).
The hot, exploding material also broke apart and melted nearly all of the mountain 's glaciers along with most of the overlying snow. As in many previous St. Helens ' eruptions, this created huge lahars (volcanic mudflows) and muddy floods that affected three of the four stream drainage systems on the mountain, and which started to move as early as 8: 50 a.m. Lahars travelled as fast as 90 miles per hour (140 km / h) while still high on the volcano but progressively slowed to about 3 miles per hour (4.8 km / h) on the flatter and wider parts of rivers. Mudflows from the southern and eastern flanks had the consistency of wet concrete as they raced down Muddy River, Pine Creek and Smith Creek to their confluence at the Lewis River. Bridges were taken out at the mouth of Pine Creek and the head of Swift Reservoir, which rose 2.6 feet (0.79 m) by noon to accommodate the nearly 18,000,000 cubic yards (14,000,000 m) of additional water, mud and debris.
Glacier and snow melt mixed with tephra on the volcano 's northeast slope to create much larger lahars. These mudflows traveled down the north and south forks of the Toutle River and joined at the confluence of the Toutle forks and the Cowlitz River near Castle Rock, Washington, at 1: 00 p.m. Ninety minutes after the eruption, the first mudflow had moved 27 miles (43 km) upstream where observers at Weyerhaeuser 's Camp Baker saw a 12 - foot - high (4 m) wall of muddy water and debris pass. Near the confluence of the Toutle 's north and south forks at Silver Lake, a record flood stage of 23.5 feet (7.2 m) was recorded.
A large but slower - moving mudflow with a mortar - like consistency was mobilized in early afternoon at the head of the Toutle River north fork. By 2: 30 p.m. the massive mudflow had destroyed Camp Baker, and in the following hours seven bridges were carried away. Part of the flow backed up for 2.5 miles (4.0 km) soon after entering the Cowlitz River, but most continued downstream. After traveling 17 miles (27 km) further, an estimated 3,900,000 cubic yards (3,000,000 m) of material were injected into the Columbia River, reducing the river 's depth by 25 feet (8 m) for a 4 - mile (6 km) stretch. The resulting 13 - foot (4.0 m) river depth temporarily closed the busy channel to ocean - going freighters, costing Portland, Oregon, an estimated five million US dollars. Ultimately more than 65 million cubic yards (50 million cubic metres) of sediment were dumped along the lower Cowlitz and Columbia Rivers.
The May 18, 1980, event was the most deadly and economically destructive volcanic eruption in the history of the contiguous United States. Approximately fifty - seven people were killed directly from the blast and 200 houses, 47 bridges, 15 miles (24 km) of railways and 185 miles (298 km) of highway were destroyed; two people were killed indirectly in accidents that resulted from poor visibility, and two more suffered fatal heart attacks from shoveling ash. U.S. President Jimmy Carter surveyed the damage and said it looked more desolate than a moonscape. A film crew was dropped by helicopter on Mount St. Helens on May 23 to document the destruction. However, their compasses spun in circles and they quickly became lost. A second eruption occurred the next day (see below), but the crew survived and were rescued two days after that. The eruption ejected more than 1 cubic mile (4.2 km) of material. A quarter of that volume was fresh lava in the form of ash, pumice and volcanic bombs while the rest was fragmented, older rock. The removal of the north side of the mountain (13 % of the cone 's volume) reduced Mount St. Helens ' height by about 1,280 feet (390 m) and left a crater 1 to 2 miles (2 to 3 km) wide and 2,100 feet (640 m) deep with its north end open in a huge breach.
More than 4,000,000,000 board feet (9,400,000 m) of timber was damaged or destroyed, mainly by the lateral blast. At least 25 % of the destroyed timber was salvaged after September 1980. Downwind of the volcano, in areas of thick ash accumulation, many agricultural crops, such as wheat, apples, potatoes and alfalfa, were destroyed. As many as 1,500 elk and 5,000 deer were killed, and an estimated 12 million Chinook and Coho salmon fingerlings died when their hatcheries were destroyed. Another estimated 40,000 young salmon were lost when they swam through turbine blades of hydroelectric generators after reservoir levels were lowered along the Lewis River to accommodate possible mudflows and flood waters.
In total Mount St. Helens released 24 megatons of thermal energy, 7 of which were a direct result of the blast. This is equivalent to 1,600 times the size of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima.
There is a minor controversy in regard to the exact death toll. The figure most commonly cited is fifty - seven. However, there are two points of dispute.
The first point regards two officially listed victims, Paul Hiatt and Dale Thayer. They were reported missing after the explosion. In the aftermath, investigators were able to locate individuals named Paul Hiatt and Dale Thayer who were alive and well. However, they were unable to determine who reported Hiatt missing, and the person who was listed as reporting Thayer missing claimed she was n't the one who had done so. Since the investigators could not thus verify that they were the same Hiatt and Thayer who were reported missing, the names remain listed among the presumed dead.
The second point regards three missing people who are not officially listed as victims: Robert Ruffle, Steven Whitsett and Mark Melanson. Cowlitz County Emergency Services Management lists them as "Possibly Missing -- Not on (the official) List ''. According to Melanson 's brother, in October 1983, Cowlitz County officials told his family that Melanson "is believed (...) a victim of the May 18, 1980, eruption '' and that after years of searching, the family eventually decided "he 's buried in the ash ''.
Taking these two points of dispute into consideration, the direct death toll could be as low as fifty - five or as high as sixty. When combined with the four indirect victims mentioned earlier, those numbers range from fifty - nine to sixty - four.
The ash fall created some temporary major problems with transportation, sewage disposal, and water treatment systems. Visibility was greatly decreased during the ash fall, closing many highways and roads. Interstate 90 from Seattle to Spokane was closed for a week and a half. Air travel was disrupted for between a few days and two weeks, as several airports in eastern Washington shut down because of ash accumulation and poor visibility. Over a thousand commercial flights were cancelled following airport closures. Fine - grained, gritty ash caused substantial problems for internal - combustion engines and other mechanical and electrical equipment. The ash contaminated oil systems and clogged air filters, and scratched moving surfaces. Fine ash caused short circuits in electrical transformers, which in turn caused power blackouts.
Removing and disposing of the ash was a monumental task for some Eastern Washington communities. State and federal agencies estimated that over 2,400,000 cubic yards (1,800,000 m) of ash, equivalent to about 900,000 tons in weight, were removed from highways and airports in Washington. The ash removal cost $2.2 million and took 10 weeks in Yakima. The need to remove ash quickly from transport routes and civil works dictated the selection of some disposal sites. Some cities used old quarries and existing sanitary landfills; others created dump sites wherever expedient. To minimize wind reworking of ash dumps, the surfaces of some disposal sites were covered with topsoil and seeded with grass. In Portland, Oregon, the mayor eventually threatened businesses with fines if they failed to remove the ash from their parking lots.
A refined estimate of $1.1 billion ($3.4 billion as of 2018) was determined in a study by the International Trade Commission at the request of the United States Congress. A supplemental appropriation of $951 million for disaster relief was voted by Congress, of which the largest share went to the Small Business Administration, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Federal Emergency Management Agency.
There were also indirect and intangible costs of the eruption. Unemployment in the immediate region of Mount St. Helens rose tenfold in the weeks immediately following the eruption, and then returned to near - normal levels once timber - salvaging and ash - cleanup operations were underway. Only a small percentage of residents left the region because of lost jobs owing to the eruption. Several months after May 18, a few residents reported suffering stress and emotional problems, even though they had coped successfully during the crisis. Counties in the region requested funding for mental health programs to assist such people.
Initial public reaction to the May 18 eruption dealt a nearly crippling blow to tourism, an important industry in Washington. Not only was tourism down in the Mount St. Helens -- Gifford Pinchot National Forest area, but conventions, meetings and social gatherings also were cancelled or postponed at cities and resorts elsewhere in Washington and neighboring Oregon not affected by the eruption. The adverse effect on tourism and conventioneering, however, proved only temporary. Mount St. Helens, perhaps because of its reawakening, has regained its appeal for tourists. The United States Forest Service and the State of Washington opened visitor centers and provided access for people to view the volcano 's devastation.
St. Helens produced an additional five explosive eruptions between May and October 1980. Through early 1990 at least 21 periods of eruptive activity had occurred. The volcano remains active, with smaller, dome - building eruptions continuing into 2008.
An eruption occurred on May 25, 1980, at 2: 30 a.m. that sent an ash column 9 miles (14 km) into the atmosphere. The eruption was preceded by a sudden increase in earthquake activity and occurred during a rainstorm. Erratic wind from the storm carried ash from the eruption to the south and west, lightly dusting large parts of western Washington and Oregon. Pyroclastic flows exited the northern breach and covered avalanche debris, lahars and other pyroclastic flows deposited by the May 18 eruption.
At 7: 05 p.m. on June 12, a plume of ash billowed 2.5 miles (4.0 km) above the volcano. At 9: 09 p.m. a much stronger explosion sent an ash column about 10 miles (16 km) skyward. This event caused the Portland area, previously spared by wind direction, to be thinly coated with ash in the middle of the annual Rose Festival. A dacite dome then oozed into existence on the crater floor, growing to a height of 200 feet (61 m) and a width of 1,200 feet (370 m) within a week.
A series of large explosions on July 22 broke more than a month of relative quiet. The July eruptive episode was preceded by several days of measurable expansion of the summit area, heightened earthquake activity, and changed emission rates of sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. The first hit at 5: 14 p.m. as an ash column shot 10 miles (16 km) and was followed by a faster blast at 6: 25 p.m. that pushed the ash column above its previous maximum height in just 7.5 minutes. The final explosion started at 7: 01 p.m. and continued for over two hours. When the relatively small amount of ash settled over eastern Washington, the dome built in June was gone.
Seismic activity and gas emission steadily increased in early August, and on August 7 at 4: 26 p.m., an ash cloud slowly expanded 8 miles (13 km) into the sky. Small pyroclastic flows came through the northern breach and a weaker outpouring of ash rose from the crater. This continued until 10: 32 p.m. when a second large blast sent ash high into the air, proceeding due north. A second dacite dome filled this vent a few days later.
Two months of repose were ended by an eruption lasting from October 16 to 18. This event obliterated the second dome, sent ash 10 miles (16 km) in the air and created small, red - hot pyroclastic flows. A third dome began to form within 30 minutes after the final explosion on October 18, and within a few days, it was about 900 feet (270 m) wide and 130 feet (40 m) high. In spite of the dome growth next to it, a new glacier formed rapidly inside the crater.
All of the post-1980 eruptions were quiet dome - building events, beginning with the December 27, 1980, to January 3, 1981, episode. By 1987 the third dome had grown to be more than 3,000 feet (910 m) wide and 800 feet (240 m) high.
Further eruptions occurred over a few months between 1989 and 1991.
The 2004 -- 08 volcanic activity of Mount St. Helens has been documented as a continuous eruption with a gradual extrusion of magma at the Mount St. Helens volcano. Starting in October 2004, there was a gradual building of a new lava dome. The new dome did not rise above the caldera created by the 1980 eruption. This activity lasted until January 2008.
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Geological Survey document: "Eruptions of Mount St. Helens: Past, Present, and Future ''. Retrieved December 5, 2010.
Coordinates: 46 ° 12 ′ 01 '' N 122 ° 11 ′ 12 '' W / 46.20028 ° N 122.18667 ° W / 46.20028; - 122.18667
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girl in bow wow let me hold you video | Let Me Hold You - wikipedia
"Let Me Hold You '' is a song by American rapper Bow Wow. It was the first single off his fourth album, Wanted (2005). Released on March 11, 2005, the song features American R&B singer Omarion (the first collaboration they did together). It was co-written and co-produced by frequent producer Jermaine Dupri and No I.D. and uses a sample of Luther Vandross ' 1985 version of Brenda Russell 's "If Only for One Night ''.
The song received positive reviews from critics. "Let Me Hold You '' peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100, making this the first top 10 hit for both Bow Wow and for Omarion as a solo artist. It also became a number - one hit for both artists on the Hot Rap Songs chart and stayed there for seven weeks. The song also peaked at numbers 2 and 10 on both the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs and Mainstream Top 40 charts respectively, and reached the top 40 in countries like Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and the UK. The song was certified Platinum by the RIAA for selling over 1,000,000 copies. A music video, directed by Bryan Barber, was made to promote the single and featured Bow Wow and Omarion hanging out at a house party.
Bow Wow had publicly announced his interpretation of the song 's meaning as he stated in an interview with MTV:
"Basically the song is me talking to a girl and telling her, ' These are the things I can do for you. Let me hold you down. This is what I want to do for you as a man. These are the things I 'm capable of doing for you if you get with me. Just hear me out. ' I 'm just really talking to the ladies. The song is really special to me, and I love that song. ''
The collaboration began when Bow Wow was talking with producer Jermaine Dupri about the song and how he suggested on getting Omarion to appear on the track. In a 2011 retrospective of his previous hits with Complex, producer No I.D. said that this was the first time he worked with Dupri and was asked by him to bring over his samples to pick one that would be used for a single to finish off the album. He played him the Luther Vandross sample and was hesitant about his initial reaction at first before thinking it over and seeing its potential as a smash hit.
"Let Me Hold You '' was co-written and co-produced by Jermaine Dupri and No ID. It features a sample of Luther Vandross ' version of "If Only for One Night '', written and originally performed by Brenda Russell. The song is in 4 / 4 time and in the key of E ♭ minor.
The song received positive reviews from music critics. David Jeffries of AllMusic put it alongside "Like You '' as the album 's highlights that work "on a more adult level. '' Steve ' Flash ' Juon of RapReviews praised the production by Dupri and No ID for their clever take on the sample, Bow Wow 's lyrics and Omarion 's guest vocal performance. Angie Romero of Vibe praised the sing - song hook for making the track "undeniably catchy. ''
"Let Me Hold You '' debuted at number 93 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week of May 21, 2005. Three weeks later, it moved twenty - two spots from number 73 to 51 for the week of June 11, 2005. It moved eleven spots from number 28 to 17 for the week of July 2, 2005. It moved four spots from number 15 to 11 for the week of July 16, 2005. It reached the top ten for the week of July 23, 2005 at number 8. It reached its peak at number 4, holding that spot for three weeks and spent a total of twenty - four weeks on the chart. With the release of "Let Me Hold You '', Bow Wow achieved his first top ten hit on the Billboard Hot 100, surpassing his 2003 hit "Let 's Get Down '' which peaked at number 14. The song was also Omarion 's first top ten hit as a solo artist, although he previously had a number - one hit with "Bump, Bump, Bump '' as a member of B2K.
Similar to its airplay success, sales peaked lower at number 24 on the Hot Digital Songs chart. Jermaine Dupri, with the inclusion of "Let Me Hold You '' in the Hot 100 Airplay chart, had production (or co-production) credit on the current top four songs on that chart ("Let Me Hold You '', along with Bow Wow 's next single, "Like You '', Mariah Carey 's "We Belong Together '' and "Shake It Off '' held positions 1 - 4). The song was also Bow Wow and Omarion 's first entry on the Pop 100, where it peaked at number 14, with an airplay position at number 9. On the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart and its component airplay (Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Airplay) the single peaked at number 2, being kept from the top spot by Mariah Carey 's "We Belong Together ''. The song also became a number - one hit for both artists on the Hot Rap Songs chart for seven weeks and the Rhythmic Top 40 chart for five weeks.
On May 14, 2006, the song was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling over 1,000,000 copies in the United States.
The song 's music video, directed by Bryan Barber, features Bow Wow attempting to woo a girl with mixed results. After surprising her at her house, the two attend a house party, but problems arise as she is less social than Bow Wow, who begins talking to other girls. After a brief reconciliation, the two argue again over the music at the party. Once again, the two are able to reconcile, but things remain awkward, and they do not communicate on their return home. The video appears to be an unresolved cliffhanger, but a "to be continued '' title is shown as the video ends. (The video 's story is continued in Bow Wow 's next video, "Like You ''.) The video features a cameo from the song 's co-producer, Jermaine Dupri.
"Let Me Hold You '' was a staple at concerts for Bow Wow 's 2005 summer tour Scream Tour IV. It was performed at the 2005 American Music Awards on November 22, 2005 as part of a medley with Bow Wow 's "Like You '' and Omarion 's "O ''.
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Wanted.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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st. mary's public school puthuppally kottayam puthuppally kerala | Puthuppally, Kottayam - wikipedia
Puthuppally is one among few very major centers and towns in the Kottayam district of Kerala, India as many areas can be reached only via Puthuppally. It is growing as a major town recently with major roads touching Puthuppally.
The village hosts the campus of Rubber Board, the biggest and the only major central govt organization in the district. It also has IHRD campus as well as MG University paramedical campuses.
As of Census 2011, Puthuppally has a population of 29,635 of which 14,304 are males and 15,331 are females. Average Sex Ratio is 1072 against the state average of 1084. The population of Children is 2291 which is 7.73 % of total population of the town. Child Sex Ratio is around 914 compared to state average of 964. Literacy rate of Puthuppally city is 98.02 % higher than state average of 94.00 %.
The Puthuppally Firing (Puthuppally Vediveyppu) during the Indian Freedom Struggle is one of the important historical events related to this place. One person got martyred in the Firing. In a late afternoon a youth named Maveli Kochu was on his way to the native ball playground unaware of the happenings. A stray bullet hit him in his navel and he died on the spot.
Puthupally is the stronghold of INC.
Puthuppally assembly constituency is part of Kottayam (Lok Sabha constituency). The Chief Minister of Kerala Oommen Chandy, is representing the Puthuppally Legislative Constituency since 1970
Kottayam railway station serves the town. The nearest railway station is Chingavanam. Kottayam - Pathanamthitta road intersects with Thiruvalla - Ettumanoor and Thiruvalla - Kidangoor - Muvattupuzha bypass making Puthuppally one of most congested junctions in district.
Puthuppally is known for the native ball play which happens every year. A ball which is made of leather is used. It is generally referred to as Naadan panthu kali or tukal panthu Kali. Kerala Native Ball Association 's office is located in Puthuppally. This traditional game is facing a slow death as the new generation not finding it very attractive. Usually, the game is played on levelled grounds and non-availability of play grounds also accounts for the so - called slow death. The playground opposite to the Gov. Boys School on the ' High School Road ' is one of the biggest grounds in Puthuppally. Games including Cricket, Football, Native ball play, etc. are being played here.
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what does drug resistance mean from a genetic standpoint | Antimicrobial resistance - Wikipedia
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is the ability of a microbe to resist the effects of medication previously used to treat them. The term includes the more specific "antibiotic resistance '', which applies only to bacteria becoming resistant to antibiotics. Resistant microbes are more difficult to treat, requiring alternative medications or higher doses, both of which may be more expensive or more toxic. Microbes resistant to multiple antimicrobials are called multidrug resistant (MDR); or sometimes "superbugs ''.
Resistance arises through one of three mechanisms: natural resistance in certain types of bacteria, genetic mutation, or by one species acquiring resistance from another. All classes of microbes can develop resistance: fungi develop antifungal resistance, viruses develop antiviral resistance, protozoa develop antiprotozoal resistance, and bacteria develop antibiotic resistance. Resistance can appear spontaneously because of random mutations.
Preventive measures include only using antibiotics when needed, thereby stopping misuse of antibiotics or antimicrobials. Narrow - spectrum antibiotics are preferred over broad - spectrum antibiotics when possible, as effectively and accurately targeting specific organisms is less likely to cause resistance. For people who take these medications at home, education about proper use is essential. Health care providers can minimize spread of resistant infections by use of proper sanitation and hygiene, including handwashing and disinfecting between patients, and should encourage the same of the patient, visitors, and family members.
Rising drug resistance is caused mainly by use of antimicrobials in humans and other animals, and spread of resistant strains between the two. Antibiotics increase selective pressure in bacterial populations, causing vulnerable bacteria to die; this increases the percentage of resistant bacteria which continue growing. With resistance to antibiotics becoming more common there is greater need for alternative treatments. Calls for new antibiotic therapies have been issued, but new drug development is becoming rarer.
Antimicrobial resistance is on the rise globally, predominantly due to greater access to drugs in low and middle income countries. Estimates are that 700,000 to several million deaths result per year. Each year in the United States, at least 2 million people become infected with bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics and at least 23,000 people die as a result. There are public calls for global collective action to address the threat include proposals for international treaties on antimicrobial resistance. Worldwide antibiotic resistance is not fully mapped, but poorer countries with weak healthcare systems are more affected.
The WHO defines antimicrobial resistance as a microorganism 's resistance to an antimicrobial drug that was once able to treat an infection by that microorganism. A person can not become resistant to antibiotics. Resistance is a property of the microbe, not a person or other organism infected by a microbe.
A World Health Organization (WHO) report released April 2014 stated, "this serious threat is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country. Antibiotic resistance -- when bacteria change so antibiotics no longer work in people who need them to treat infections -- is now a major threat to public health. ''
Bacteria with resistance to antibiotics predate medical use of antibiotics by humans. However, widespread antibiotic use has made more bacteria resistant through the process of evolutionary pressure.
Reasons for the widespread use of antibiotics in human medicine include:
Other causes include:
Increasing bacterial resistance is linked with the volume of antibiotic prescribed, as well as missing doses when taking antibiotics. Inappropriate prescribing of antibiotics has been attributed to a number of causes, including people insisting on antibiotics, physicians prescribing them as they feel they do not have time to explain why they are not necessary, and physicians not knowing when to prescribe antibiotics or being overly cautious for medical and / or legal reasons. Lower antibiotic concentration contributes to the increase of AMR by introducing more mutations that support bacterial growth in higher antibiotic concentration.
For example, sub-inhibitory concentration have induced genetic mutation in bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Bacteroides fragilis.
Up to half of antibiotics used in humans are unnecessary and inappropriate. For example, a third of people believe that antibiotics are effective for the common cold, and the common cold is the most common reason antibiotics are prescribed even though antibiotics are useless against viruses. A single regimen of antibiotics even in compliant individuals leads to a greater risk of resistant organisms to that antibiotic in the person for a month to possibly a year.
Antibiotic resistance increases with duration of treatment. Therefore, as long as an effective minimum is kept, shorter courses of antibiotics are likely to decrease rates of resistance, reduce cost, and have better outcomes with fewer complications. Short course regimens exist for community - acquired pneumonia spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, suspected lung infections in intense care wards, so - called acute abdomen, middle ear infections, sinusitis and throat infections, and penetrating gut injuries. In some situations a short course may not cure the infection as well as a long course. A BMJ editorial recommended that antibiotics can often be safely stopped 72 hours after symptoms resolve.
Because individuals may feel better before the infection is eradicated, doctors must provide instructions to them so they know when it is safe to stop taking a prescription. Some researchers advocate doctors ' using a very short course of antibiotics, reevaluating the patient after a few days, and stopping treatment if there are no clinical signs of infection.
Certain antibiotic classes result in resistance more than others. Increased rates of MRSA infections are seen when using glycopeptides, cephalosporins, and quinolone antibiotics. Cephalosporins, and particularly quinolones and clindamycin, are more likely to produce colonisation with Clostridium difficile.
Factors within the intensive care unit setting such as mechanical ventilation and multiple underlying diseases also appear to contribute to bacterial resistance. Poor hand hygiene by hospital staff has been associated with the spread of resistant organisms.
The World Health Organization concluded that inappropriate use of antibiotics in animal husbandry is an underlying contributor to the emergence and spread of antibiotic - resistant germs, and that the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in animal feeds should be restricted. The World Organisation for Animal Health has added to the Terrestrial Animal Health Code a series of guidelines with recommendations to its members for the creation and harmonization of national antimicrobial resistance surveillance and monitoring programs, monitoring of the quantities of antibiotics used in animal husbandry, and recommendations to ensure the proper and prudent use of antibiotic substances. Another guideline is to implement methodologies that help to establish associated risk factors and assess the risk of antibiotic resistance.
Naturally occurring antibiotic resistance is common. Genes for resistance to antibiotics, like antibiotics themselves, are ancient. The genes that confer resistance are known as the environmental resistome. These genes may be transferred from non-disease - causing bacteria to those that do cause disease, leading to clinically significant antibiotic resistance.
In 1952 it was shown that penicillin - resistant bacteria existed before penicillin treatment; and also preexistent bacterial resistance to streptomycin. In 1962, the presence of penicillinase was detected in dormant endospores of Bacillus licheniformis, revived from dried soil on the roots of plants, preserved since 1689 in the British Museum. Six strains of Clostridium, found in the bowels of William Braine and John Hartnell (members of the Franklin Expedition) showed resistance to cefoxitin and clindamycin.
Penicillinase may have emerged as a defense mechanism for bacteria in their habitats, such as the case of penicillinase - rich Staphylococcus aureus, living with penicillin - producing Trichophyton; however, this may be circumstantial. Search for a penicillinase ancestor has focused on the class of proteins that must be a priori capable of specific combination with penicillin. The resistance to cefoxitin and clindamycin in turn was attributed to Braine 's and Hartnell 's contact with microorganisms that naturally produce them or random mutation in the chromosomes of Clostridium strains.
There is evidence that heavy metals and other pollutants may select for antibiotic - resistant bacteria, generating a constant source of them in small numbers.
Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem among humans and wildlife in terrestrial or aquatic environments. In this respect, the spread and contamination of the environment, especially through "hot spots '' such as hospital wastewater and untreated urban wastewater, is a growing and serious public health problem. Antibiotics have been polluting the environment since their introduction through human waste (medication, farming), animals, and the pharmaceutical industry. Along with antibiotic waste, resistant bacteria follow, thus introducing antibiotic - resistant bacteria into the environment. Already in 2011, mapping of sewage and water supply samples in New Delhi showed widespread and uncontrolled infection as indicated by the presence of NDM - 1 - positive enteric bacteria.
While 70 to 80 percent of diarrhea is caused by viral pathogens, for which antibiotics are not effective, around 40 percent of these cases are nevertheless attempted to be treated with antibiotics. In some areas even over 80 percent of cases are attempted to be treated with antibiotics.
As bacteria replicate quickly, the resistant bacteria that enter the environment replicate their resistance genes as they continue to divide. In addition, bacteria carrying resistance genes have the ability to spread those genes to other species via horizontal gene transfer. Therefore, even if the specific antibiotic is no longer introduced into the environment, antibiotic - resistance genes will persist through the bacteria that have since replicated without continuous exposure. Antibiotic resistance is widespread in marine vertebrates, and they may be important reservoirs of antibiotic - resistant bacteria in the marine environment.
There have been increasing public calls for global collective action to address the threat, including a proposal for international treaty on antimicrobial resistance. Further detail and attention is still needed in order to recognize and measure trends in resistance on the international level; the idea of a global tracking system has been suggested but implementation has yet to occur. A system of this nature would provide insight to areas of high resistance as well as information necessary for evaluation of programs and other changes made to fight or reverse antibiotic resistance.
Five important strategies needed for minimising antibiotic resistance are as follows:
Antibiotic treatment duration should be based on the infection and other health problems a person may have. For many infections once a person has improved there is little evidence that stopping treatment causes more resistance. Some therefore feel that stopping early may be reasonable in some cases. Other infections, however, do require long courses regardless of whether a person feels better.
There are multiple national and international monitoring programs for drug - resistant threats, including methicillin - resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin - resistant S. aureus (VRSA), extended spectrum beta - lactamase (ESBL), vancomycin - resistant Enterococcus (VRE), multidrug - resistant A. baumannii (MRAB).
ResistanceOpen is an online global map of antimicrobial resistance developed by HealthMap which displays aggregated data on antimicrobial resistance from publicly available and user submitted data. The website can display data for a 25 - mile radius from a location. Users may submit data from antibiograms for individual hospitals or laboratories. European data is from the EARS - Net (European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Network), part of the ECDC.
ResistanceMap is a website by the Center for Disease Dynamics, Economics & Policy and provides data on antimicrobial resistance on a global level.
Antibiotic stewardship programmes appear useful in reducing rates of antibiotic resistance.
Excessive antibiotic use has become one of the top contributors to the development of antibiotic resistance. Since the beginning of the antibiotic era, antibiotics have been used to treat a wide range of disease. Overuse of antibiotics has become the primary cause of rising levels of antibiotic resistance. The main problem is that doctors are willing to prescribe antibiotics to ill - informed individuals who believe that antibiotics can cure nearly all illnesses, including viral infections like the common cold. In an analysis of drug prescriptions, 36 % of individuals with a cold or an upper respiratory infection (both viral in origin) were given prescriptions for antibiotics. These prescriptions accomplished nothing other than increasing the risk of further evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria.
Antimicrobial stewardship teams in hospitals are encouraging optimal use of antimicrobials. The goals of antimicrobial stewardship are to help practitioners pick the right drug at the right dose and duration of therapy while preventing misuse and minimizing the development of resistance. Stewardship may reduce the length of stay by an average of slightly over 1 day while not increasing the risk of death.
Given the volume of care provided in primary care (General Practice), recent strategies have focused on reducing unnecessary antibiotic prescribing in this setting. Simple interventions, such as written information explaining the futility of antibiotics for common infections such as upper respiratory tract infections, have been shown to reduce antibiotic prescribing.
The prescriber should closely adhere to the five rights of drug administration: the right patient, the right drug, the right dose, the right route, and the right time.
Cultures should be taken before treatment when indicated and treatment potentially changed based on the susceptibility report.
About a third of antibiotic prescriptions written in outpatient settings in the United States were not appropriate in 2010 and 2011. Doctors in the U.S. wrote 506 annual antibiotic scripts for every 1,000 people, with 353 being medically necessary.
Health workers and pharmacists can help tackle resistance by: enhancing infection prevention and control; only prescribing and dispensing antibiotics when they are truly needed; prescribing and dispensing the right antibiotic (s) to treat the illness.
People can help tackle resistance by using antibiotics only when prescribed by a doctor; completing the full prescription, even if they feel better; never sharing antibiotics with others or using leftover prescriptions.
Infectious disease control through improved water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) infrastructure needs to be placed at the center of the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) agenda. The spread of infectious diseases caused by inadequate WASH standards is a major driver of antibiotic demand in developing countries. Growing usage of antibiotics together with persistent infectious disease levels have led to a dangerous cycle in which reliance on antimicrobials increases while the efficacy of drugs diminishes. The proper use of infrastructure for water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) can result in a 47 -- 72 percent decrease of diarrhea cases treated with antibiotics depending on the type of intervention and its effectiveness. A reduction of the diarrhea disease burden through improved infrastructure would result in large decreases in the number of diarrhea cases treated with antibiotics. This was estimated as ranging from 5 million in Brazil to up to 590 million in India by the year 2030. The strong link between increased consumption and resistance indicates that this will directly mitigate the accelerating spread of AMR. Sanitation and water for all by 2030 is Goal Number 6 of the Sustainable Development Goals.
An increase in hand washing compliance by hospital staff results in decreased rates of resistant organisms.
In 1997, European Union health ministers voted to ban avoparcin and four additional antibiotics used to promote animal growth in 1999. In 2006 a ban on the use of antibiotics in European feed, with the exception of two antibiotics in poultry feeds, became effective. In Scandinavia, there is evidence that the ban has led to a lower prevalence of antibiotic resistance in (nonhazardous) animal bacterial populations. As of 2004, several European countries established a decline of antimicrobial resistance in humans through limiting the usage antimicrobials in agriculture and food industries without jeopardizing animal health or economic cost.
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) collect data on antibiotic use in humans and in a more limited fashion in animals. The FDA first determined in 1977 that there is evidence of emergence of antibiotic - resistant bacterial strains in livestock. The long - established practice of permitting OTC sales of antibiotics (including penicillin and other drugs) to lay animal owners for administration to their own animals nonetheless continued in all states. In 2000, the FDA announced their intention to revoke approval of fluoroquinolone use in poultry production because of substantial evidence linking it to the emergence of fluoroquinolone - resistant Campylobacter infections in humans. Legal challenges from the food animal and pharmaceutical industries delayed the final decision to do so until 2006. Fluroquinolones have been banned from extra-label use in food animals in the USA since 2007. However, they remain widely used in companion and exotic animals.
A global action plan to tackle the growing problem of resistance to antibiotics and other antimicrobial medicines was endorsed at the Sixty - eighth World Health Assembly in May 2015. One of the key objectives of the plan is to improve awareness and understanding of antimicrobial resistance through effective communication, education and training. React based in Sweden has produced informative material on AMR for the general public.
Videos are being produced for the general public to generate interest and awareness.
The World Health Organization has promoted the first World Antibiotic Awareness Week running from 16 -- 22 November 2015. The aim of the week is to increase global awareness of antibiotic resistance. It also wants to promote the correct usage of antibiotics across all fields in order to prevent further instances of antibiotic resistance.
World Antibiotic Awareness Week has been held every November since 2015. For 2017, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) are together calling for responsible use of antibiotics in humans and animals to reduce the emergence of antibiotic resistance.
The four main mechanisms by which microorganisms exhibit resistance to antimicrobials are:
Antibiotic resistance can be a result of horizontal gene transfer, and also of unlinked point mutations in the pathogen genome at a rate of about 1 in 10 per chromosomal replication. Mutations are rare but the fact that bacteria reproduce at such a high rate allows for the effect to be significant. A mutation may produce a change in the binding site of the antibiotic, which may allow the site to continue proper functioning in the presence of the antibiotic or prevent the binding of the antibiotic to the site altogether.
Antibiotic action against a pathogen can be seen as an environmental pressure. Those bacteria with a mutation that allows them to survive will reproduce, pass the trait to their offspring, which leads to the microevolution of a fully resistant colony. Chromosomal mutations providing antibiotic resistance benefit the bacteria but also confer a cost of fitness. For example, a ribosomal mutation may protect a bacterial cell by changing the binding site of an antibiotic but will also slow protein synthesis. manifesting, in slower growth rate.
In Gram - negative bacteria, plasmid - mediated resistance genes produce proteins that can bind to DNA gyrase, protecting it from the action of quinolones. Finally, mutations at key sites in DNA gyrase or topoisomerase IV can decrease their binding affinity to quinolones, decreasing the drug 's effectiveness.
Bacteria can develop antibiotic resistance. Recent findings show no necessity of large populations of bacteria for the appearance of antibiotic resistance. Small populations of E. coli in an antibiotic gradient can become resistant. Any heterogeneous environment with respect to nutrient and antibiotic gradients may facilitate antibiotic resistance in small bacterial populations. Researchers hypothesize that the mechanism of resistance development is based on four SNP mutations in the genome of E. coli produced by the gradient of antibiotic.
Antibiotic resistance can be introduced artificially into a microorganism through laboratory protocols, sometimes used as a selectable marker to examine the mechanisms of gene transfer or to identify individuals that absorbed a piece of DNA that included the resistance gene and another gene of interest.
New Delhi metallo - beta - lactamase 1 (NDM - 1) is an enzyme that makes bacteria resistant to a broad range of beta - lactam antibiotics. The most common bacteria that make this enzyme are gram - negative such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae, but the gene for NDM - 1 can spread from one strain of bacteria to another by horizontal gene transfer.
Specific antiviral drugs are used to treat some viral infections. These drugs prevent viruses from reproducing by inhibiting essential stages of the virus 's replication cycle in infected cells. Antivirals are used to treat HIV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, influenza, herpes viruses including varicella zoster virus, cytomegalovirus and Epstein - Barr virus. With each virus, some strains have become resistant to the administered drugs.
Resistance to HIV antivirals is problematic, and even multi-drug resistant strains have evolved. Resistant strains of the HIV virus emerge rapidly if only one antiviral drug is used. Using three or more drugs together has helped to control this problem, but new drugs are needed because of the continuing emergence of drug - resistant HIV strains.
Infections by fungi are a cause of high morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised persons, such as those with HIV / AIDS, tuberculosis or receiving chemotherapy. The fungi candida, Cryptococcus neoformans and Aspergillus fumigatus cause most of these infections and antifungal resistance occurs in all of them. Multidrug resistance in fungi is increasing because of the widespread use of antifungal drugs to treat infections in immunocompromised individuals.
Of particular note, Fluconazole - resistant Candida species have been highlighted as a growing problem by the CDC. More than 20 Candida species of Candida can cause Candidiasis infection, the most common of which is Candida albicans. Candida yeasts normally inhabit the skin and mucous membranes without causing infection. However, overgrowth of Candida can lead to Candidiasis. Some Candida strains are becoming resistant to first - line and second - line antifungal agents such as azoles and echinocandins.
The protozoan parasites that cause the diseases malaria, trypanosomiasis, toxoplasmosis, cryptosporidiosis and leishmaniasis are important human pathogens.
Malarial parasites that are resistant to the drugs that are currently available to infections are common and this has led to increased efforts to develop new drugs. Resistance to recently developed drugs such as artemisinin has also been reported. The problem of drug resistance in malaria has driven efforts to develop vaccines.
Trypanosomes are parasitic protozoa that cause African trypanosomiasis and Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis). There are no vaccines to prevent these infections so drugs such as pentamidine and suramin, benznidazole and nifurtimox and used to treat infections. These drugs are effective but infections caused by resistant parasites have been reported.
Leishmaniasis is caused by protozoa and is an important public health problem worldwide, especially in sub-tropical and tropical countries. Drug resistance has "become a major concern ''.
The phenomenon of antimicrobial resistance caused by overuse of antibiotics was predicted already by Alexander Fleming who said "The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily under - dose himself and by exposing his microbes to nonlethal quantities of the drug make them resistant. ''
For the fiscal year 2016 budget, President Obama has suggested to nearly double the amount of federal funding to "combat and prevent '' antibiotic resistance to more than $1.2 billion. Many international funding agencies like USAID, DFID, SIDA and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation has pledged money for developing strategies to counter antimicrobial resistance.
Since the mid-1980s pharmaceutical companies have invested in medications for cancer or chronic disease that have greater potential to make money and have "de-emphasized or dropped development of antibiotics ''. On January 20, 2016 at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, more than "80 pharmaceutical and diagnostic companies '' from around the world called for ' transformational commercial models ' at a global level to spur research and development on antibiotics and on the "enhanced use of diagnostic tests that can rapidly identify the infecting organism ''.
Some global health scholars have argued that a global, legal framework is needed to prevent and control antimicrobial resistance. For instance, binding global policies could be used to create antimicrobial use standards, regulate antibiotic marketing, and strengthen global surveillance systems. Ensuring compliance of involved parties is a challenge. Global antimicrobial resistance policies could take lessons from the environmental sector by adopting strategies that have made international environmental agreements successful in the past such as: sanctions for non-compliance, assistance for implementation, majority vote decision - making rules, an independent scientific panel, and specific commitments.
On March 27, 2015, the White House released a comprehensive plan to address the increasing need for agencies to combat the rise of antibiotic - resistant bacteria. The Task Force for Combating Antibiotic - Resistant Bacteria developed The National Action Plan for Combating Antibiotic - Resistant Bacteria with the intent of providing a roadmap to guide the US in the antibiotic resistance challenge and with hopes of saving many lives. This plan outlines steps taken by the Federal government over the next five years needed in order to prevent and contain outbreaks of antibiotic - resistant infections; maintain the efficacy of antibiotics already on the market; and to help to develop future diagnostics, antibiotics, and vaccines.
The Action Plan was developed around five goals with focuses on strengthening health care, public health veterinary medicine, agriculture, food safety and research, and manufacturing. These goals, as listed by the White House, are as follows:
The following are goals set to meet by 2020:
According to WHO policymakers can help tackle resistance by strengthening resistance tracking and laboratory capacity; regulating and promoting appropriate use of medicines. Policymakers and industry can help tackle resistance by: fostering innovation and research and development of new tools; promoting cooperation and information sharing among all stakeholders.
It is unclear if rapid viral testing affects antibiotic use in children.
Microorganisms do not develop resistance to vaccines because a vaccine enhances the body 's immune system, whereas an antibiotic operates separately from the body 's normal defenses. Furthermore, if the use of vaccines increase, there is evidence that antibiotic resistant strains of pathogens will decrease; the need for antibiotics will naturally decrease as vaccines prevent infection before it occurs. However, new strains that escape immunity induced by vaccines may evolve; for example, an updated influenza vaccine is needed each year.
While theoretically promising, antistaphylococcal vaccines have shown limited efficacy, because of immunological variation between Staphylococcus species, and the limited duration of effectiveness of the antibodies produced. Development and testing of more effective vaccines is underway.
Alternating therapy is a proposed method in which two or three antibiotics are taken in a rotation versus taking just one antibiotic such that bacteria resistant to one antibiotic are killed when the next antibiotic is taken. Studies have found that this method reduces the rate at which antibiotic resistant bacteria emerge in vitro relative to a single drug for the entire duration.
Studies have found that bacteria that evolve antibiotic resistance towards one group of antibiotic may become more sensitive others. This phenomona can be utilized to select against resistant bacteria using an approach termed collateral sensitivity cycling, which has recently been found to be relevant in developing treatment strategies for chronic infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Since the discovery of antibiotics, research and development (R&D) efforts have provided new drugs in time to treat bacteria that became resistant to older antibiotics, but in the 2000s there has been concern that development has slowed enough that seriously ill people may run out of treatment options. Another concern is that doctors may become reluctant to perform routine surgeries because of the increased risk of harmful infection. Backup treatments can have serious side - effects; for example, treatment of multi-drug - resistant tuberculosis can cause deafness or psychological disability. The potential crisis at hand is the result of a marked decrease in industry R&D. Poor financial investment in antibiotic research has exacerbated the situation. The pharmaceutical industry has little incentive to invest in antibiotics because of the high risk and because the potential financial returns are less likely to cover the cost of development than for other pharmaceuticals. In 2011, Pfizer, one of the last major pharmaceutical companies developing new antibiotics, shut down its primary research effort, citing poor shareholder returns relative to drugs for chronic illnesses. However, small and medium - sized pharmaceutical companies are still active in antibiotic drug research.
In the United States, drug companies and the administration of President Barack Obama have been proposing changing the standards by which the FDA approves antibiotics targeted at resistant organisms. On 12 December 2013, the Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment (ADAPT) Act of 2013 was introduced in the U.S. Congress. The ADAPT Act aims to fast - track the drug development in order to combat the growing public health threat of ' superbugs '. Under this Act, the FDA can approve antibiotics and antifungals needed for life - threatening infections based on data from smaller clinical trials. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) will reinforce the monitoring of the use of antibiotics that treat serious and life - threatening infections and the emerging resistance, and make the data publicly available. The FDA antibiotics labeling process, ' Susceptibility Test Interpretive Criteria for Microbial Organisms ' or ' breakpoints ' is also streamlined to allow the most up - to - date and cutting - edge data available to healthcare professionals under the new Act.
On 18 September 2014 Obama signed an executive order to implement the recommendations proposed in a report by the President 's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) which outlines strategies to stream - line clinical trials and speed up the R&D of new antibiotics. Among the proposals:
The executive order also included a $20 million prize to encourage the development of diagnostic tests to identify highly resistant bacterial infections.
The U.S. National Institutes of Health plans to fund a new research network on the issue up to $62 million from 2013 to 2019. Using authority created by the Pandemic and All Hazards Preparedness Act of 2006, the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services announced that it will spend between $40 million and $200 million in funding for R&D on new antibiotic drugs under development by GlaxoSmithKline.
One major cause of antibiotic resistance is the increased pumping activity of microbial ABC transporters, which diminishes the effective drug concentration inside the microbial cell. ABC transporter inhibitors that can be used in combination with current antimicrobials are being tested in clinical trials and are available for therapeutic regimens.
Phage therapy is the therapeutic use of bacteriophages to treat pathogenic bacterial infections. Phage therapy has many potential applications in human medicine as well as dentistry, veterinary science, and agriculture.
Bacteriophages are much more specific than antibiotics. They are typically harmless not only to the host organism, but also to other beneficial bacteria, such as the gut flora, reducing the chances of opportunistic infections.
Bacteriophages are used against antibiotic resistant bacteria in Georgia (George Eliava Institute) and in one institute in Wrocław, Poland.
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who won the prime minister election in uk | United Kingdom General election, 2017 - wikipedia
Theresa May Conservative
Theresa May Conservative
The United Kingdom general election of 2017 took place on Thursday 8 June. Each of the 650 constituencies elected one Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons. Under the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 an election had not been due until 7 May 2020, but a call by Prime Minister Theresa May for a snap election was ratified by the necessary supermajority in a 522 - 13 vote in the House of Commons on 19 April 2017.
The Conservative Party (which had governed as a senior coalition partner from 2010 and as a majority government from 2015) was defending a working majority of 17 seats against the Labour Party, the official opposition led by Jeremy Corbyn. May had said that she hoped to secure a larger majority for the Conservative Party in order to "strengthen (her) hand in (the forthcoming Brexit) negotiations ''.
Opinion polls had shown consistent leads for the Conservatives over Labour. From a 20 - point lead, the Conservatives ' lead began to diminish in the final weeks of the campaign. In a surprising result, the Conservatives made a net loss of 13 seats with 42.3 % of the vote (its highest share since 1983), while Labour made a net gain of 30 seats with 40.0 % (its highest since 2001). In terms of vote share for the two main parties, this was the closest result since February 1974 and the highest combined share since 1970. The Scottish National Party and the Liberal Democrats, the third - and fourth - largest parties, both lost vote share; media coverage characterised the election as a return to two - party politics. The SNP, which won 56 of the 59 Scottish seats at the previous general election in 2015, lost 21 seats. The Liberal Democrats made a net gain of four seats. UKIP, the third - largest party in 2015 by number of votes, saw its share reduced from 12.6 % to 1.8 %. Plaid Cymru gained one seat, giving it four seats. The Green Party retained its single seat, but saw its share of the vote reduced. In Northern Ireland, the DUP won 10 seats, Sinn Féin won seven, and independent unionist Sylvia Hermon retained her seat. The SDLP and UUP lost all their seats. The Conservatives remained in power as a minority government, having secured a confidence and supply deal with the DUP.
Negotiation positions following the UK 's invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union in March 2017 to leave the EU were expected to feature significantly in the campaign, but did not. The campaign was interrupted by two major terrorist attacks in Manchester and London, with national security becoming a prominent issue in the final weeks of campaigning.
Each parliamentary constituency of the United Kingdom elects one MP to the House of Commons using the "first past the post '' system. If one party obtains a majority of seats, then that party is entitled to form the Government, with its leader as Prime Minister. If the election results in no single party having a majority, then there is a hung parliament. In this case, the options for forming the Government are either a minority government or a coalition.
The Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies is not due to report until 2018, and therefore this general election took place under existing boundaries, enabling direct comparisons with the results by constituency in 2015.
To vote in the general election, one had to be:
Individuals had to be registered to vote by midnight twelve working days before polling day (22 May). Anyone who qualified as an anonymous elector had until midnight on 31 May to register. A person who has two homes (such as a university student who has a term - time address and lives at home during holidays) may be registered to vote at both addresses, as long as they are not in the same electoral area, but can vote in only one constituency at the general election.
On 18 May, The Independent reported that more than 1.1 million people between 18 and 35 had registered to vote since the election was announced on 18 April. Of those, 591,730 were under the age of 25.
The Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 introduced fixed - term Parliaments to the United Kingdom, with elections scheduled every five years following the general election on 7 May 2015. This removed the power of the Prime Minister, using the royal prerogative, to dissolve Parliament before its five - year maximum length. The Act permits early dissolution if the House of Commons votes by a supermajority of two - thirds of the entire membership of the House.
On 18 April 2017, the Prime Minister Theresa May announced she would seek an election on 8 June, despite previously ruling out an early election. A House of Commons motion to allow this was passed on 19 April, with 522 votes for and 13 against, a majority of 509, meeting the required two - thirds majority. The motion was supported by the Conservatives, Labour, the Liberal Democrats and the Greens, while the SNP abstained. Nine Labour MPs, one SDLP MP and three independents (Sylvia Hermon and two former SNP MPs, Natalie McGarry and Michelle Thomson) voted against the motion.
Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn supported the early election, as did Liberal Democrat leader Tim Farron and the Green Party. The SNP stated that it was in favour of fixed - term parliaments, and would abstain in the House of Commons vote. UKIP leader Paul Nuttall and First Minister of Wales Carwyn Jones criticised May for being opportunistic in the timing of the election, motivated by the then strong position of the Conservative Party in the opinion polls.
On 25 April, the election date was confirmed as 8 June, with dissolution on 3 May. The government announced that it intended for the next parliament to assemble on 13 June, with the state opening on 19 June.
The key dates are listed below (all times are BST):
The cost to the taxpayer of organising the election was £ 140 million -- slightly less than the EU referendum.
Most candidates were representatives of a political party registered with the Electoral Commission. Candidates not belonging to a registered party could use an "independent '' label, or no label at all.
The leader of the party commanding a majority of support in the House of Commons is the person who is called on by the monarch to form a government as Prime Minister, while the leader of the largest party not in government becomes the Leader of the Opposition. Other parties also form shadow ministerial teams. The leaders of the SNP, Plaid Cymru and the DUP are not MPs; hence, they appoint separate leaders in the House of Commons.
The Conservative Party and the Labour Party have been the two biggest parties since 1922, and have supplied all Prime Ministers since 1935. Both parties changed their leader after the 2015 election. David Cameron, who had been the leader of the Conservative Party since 2005 and Prime Minister since 2010, was replaced in July 2016 by Theresa May following the referendum on the United Kingdom 's membership of the European Union. Jeremy Corbyn replaced Ed Miliband as Leader of the Labour Party and Leader of the Opposition in September 2015, and was re-elected leader in September 2016.
While the Liberal Democrats and their predecessors had long been the third - largest party in British politics, they returned only 8 MPs in 2015 -- 49 fewer than at the previous election. Tim Farron became the Liberal Democrat leader in July 2015, following the resignation of Nick Clegg. Led by First Minister of Scotland Nicola Sturgeon, the SNP stands only in Scotland; it won 56 of 59 Scottish seats in 2015. UKIP, then led by Nigel Farage, who was later replaced by Diane James and then by Paul Nuttall in 2016, won 12.7 % of the vote in 2015 but gained only one MP, Douglas Carswell, who left the party in March 2017 to sit as an independent. After securing 3.8 % of the vote and one MP in the previous general election, Green Party leader Natalie Bennett was succeeded by joint leaders Caroline Lucas and Jonathan Bartley in September 2016. Smaller parties that contested the 2015 election and chose not to stand candidates in 2017 included Mebyon Kernow, the Communist Party of Britain, the Scottish Socialist Party and the National Front.
In Northern Ireland, the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), Sinn Féin, the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP), the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP), and the Alliance Party contested the 2017 election. Sinn Féin maintained its abstentionist policy. The DUP, Sinn Féin, SDLP, UUP and APNI were all led by new party leaders, changed since the 2015 election. The Conservatives, Greens and four other minor parties also stood. Despite contesting 10 seats last time, UKIP did not stand in Northern Ireland.
3,304 candidates stood for election, down from 3,631 in the previous general election. The Conservatives stood in 637 seats, Labour in 631 (including jointly with the Co-operative Party in 50) and the Liberal Democrats in 629. UKIP stood in 377 constituencies, down from 624 in 2015, while the Greens stood in 468, down from 573. The SNP contested all 59 Scottish seats and Plaid Cymru stood in all 40 Welsh seats. In Great Britain, 183 candidates stood as independents; minor parties included the Christian Peoples Alliance which contested 31 seats, the Yorkshire Party which stood in 21, the Official Monster Raving Loony Party in 12, the British National Party in 10, the Pirate Party in 10, the English Democrats in 7, the Women 's Equality Party in 7, the Social Democratic Party in 6, the National Health Action Party in 5 and the Workers Revolutionary Party in 5, while an additional 79 candidates stood for 46 other registered political parties.
In Wales, 213 candidates stood for election. Labour, Conservatives, Plaid Cymru, and Liberal Democrats contested all forty seats and there were 32 UKIP and 10 Green candidates. In Scotland the SNP, the Conservatives, Labour and the Liberal Democrats stood in all 59 seats while UKIP contested 10 seats and the Greens only 3.
Of the 109 candidates in Northern Ireland, Sinn Féin, the SDLP and the Alliance contested all 18 seats; the DUP stood in 17, the UUP in 14 and the Conservatives and Greens stood in 7 each. People Before Profit and the Workers ' Party contested two seats while Traditional Unionist Voice and the new Citizens Independent Social Thought Alliance stood in one each; four independents including incumbent Sylvia Hermon also stood.
Unlike in previous elections, the timetable of the snap election required parties to select candidates in just under three weeks, to meet the 11 May deadline.
For the Conservatives, local associations in target seats were offered a choice of three candidates by the party 's headquarters from an existing list of candidates, without inviting applications; candidates in non-target seats were to be appointed directly; and MPs were to be confirmed by a meeting of their local parties. Labour required sitting MPs to express their intention to stand, automatically re-selecting those that did. Labour advertised for applications from party members for all remaining seats by 23 April. Having devolved selections to its Scottish and Welsh parties, Labour 's National Executive Committee endorsed all parliamentary candidates on 3 May except for Rochdale, the seat of suspended MP Simon Danczuk. On 7 May Steve Rotheram announced he was standing down as MP for Liverpool Walton following his election as Liverpool City Region mayor, leaving five days to appoint a candidate by close of nominations.
The SNP confirmed on 22 April that its 54 sitting MPs would be re-selected and that its suspended members Natalie McGarry and Michelle Thomson would not be nominated as SNP candidates; the party subsequently selected candidates for McGarry 's and Thomson 's former seats, as well as for the three Scottish constituencies it did not win in 2015. The Liberal Democrats had already selected 326 candidates in 2016 and over 70 in 2017 before the election was called. Meetings of local party members from UKIP, the Greens and Plaid Cymru selected their candidates. Parties in Northern Ireland were not believed to have already selected candidates due to the Assembly elections in March.
Ken Clarke, the Father of the House of Commons, had said he would retire in 2020, but opted to stand again in the 2017 election. Former Conservative employment minister Esther McVey was selected to contest Tatton and Zac Goldsmith was adopted as the Conservative candidate for Richmond Park, having lost the 2016 by - election as an independent after previously serving as the constituency 's Conservative MP since 2010.
After coming second in the Stoke - on - Trent Central by - election earlier in the year, UKIP leader Paul Nuttall announced he would contest Boston and Skegness. Tony Lloyd, a former Labour MP for Manchester Central who served as Greater Manchester Police and Crime Commissioner from 2012 and interim Mayor of Greater Manchester since 2015, was selected to contest Rochdale. The former Labour MP Simon Danczuk stood as an independent candidate, after being banned from standing as a Labour candidate and then leaving the party.
A number of former Liberal Democrat ministers who were defeated in 2015 stood for election in their former seats, including Vince Cable in Twickenham, Ed Davey in Kingston and Surbiton, Jo Swinson in East Dunbartonshire, and Simon Hughes in Bermondsey and Old Southwark. After David Ward, the former MP for Bradford East, was dropped as a candidate by the Liberal Democrats for anti-semitism, he ran as an independent in his former seat.
Ahead of the general election, crowdfunding groups such as More United and Open Britain were formed to promote candidates of similar views standing for election, and a "progressive alliance '' was proposed. Former UKIP donor Arron Banks suggested a "patriotic alliance '' movement. Tactical voting to keep the Conservatives out of government was suggested on social media. Gina Miller, who took the government to court over Article 50, set out plans to tour marginal constituencies in support of pro-EU candidates.
Within a few days of the election being announced, the Green Party and the SNP each proposed to collaborate with Labour and the Liberal Democrats to prevent a Conservative majority government. Lib Dem leader Tim Farron quickly reaffirmed his party 's opposition to an electoral pact or coalition with Labour, citing "electorally toxic '' Corbyn and concerns over Labour 's position on Brexit. On 22 April the Liberal Democrats also ruled out a coalition deal with the Conservatives and SNP. Labour ruled out an electoral pact with the SNP, Liberal Democrats and Greens.
Notwithstanding national arrangements, the Liberal Democrats, the Greens and UKIP indicated they might not stand in every constituency. The Green Party chose not to contest 22 seats in England and Wales explicitly "to increase the chance of a progressive candidate beating the Conservatives '', including in South West Surrey, the seat of Health Secretary Jeremy Hunt, in favour of the National Health Action Party candidate. The Scottish Greens contested just three constituencies. The Liberal Democrats agreed to stand down in Brighton Pavilion. After indicating they may not nominate candidates in seats held by strongly pro-Brexit Conservative MPs, UKIP nominated 377 candidates; it was suggested this would help the Conservatives in marginal seats.
In Northern Ireland, there were talks between the DUP and UUP. Rather than engaging in a formal pact, the DUP agreed not to contest Fermanagh and South Tyrone, while the UUP chose not to stand in four constituencies. Talks took place between Sinn Féin, the SDLP and the Greens about an anti-Brexit agreement (the Alliance Party were approached but declined to be involved) but no agreement was reached; the Greens said there was "too much distance '' between the parties, Sinn Féin 's abstentionist policy was criticised, and the SDLP admitted an agreement was unlikely. On 8 May the SDLP rejected Sinn Féin 's call for them to stand aside in some seats.
Prior to the calling of the general election, the Liberal Democrats gained Richmond Park from the Conservatives in a by - election, a seat characterised by its high remain vote in the 2016 EU referendum. The Conservatives held the safe seat of Sleaford and North Hykeham in December 2016. In by - elections on 23 February 2017, Labour held Stoke - on - Trent Central but lost Copeland to the Conservatives, the first time a governing party had gained a seat in a by - election since 1982.
The general election came soon after the Northern Ireland Assembly election on 2 March. Talks on power - sharing between the DUP and Sinn Féin had failed to reach a conclusion, with Northern Ireland thus facing either another Assembly election, or the imposition of direct rule. The deadline was subsequently extended to 29 June.
Local elections in England, Scotland and Wales took place on 4 May. These saw large gains by the Conservatives, and large losses by Labour and UKIP. Notably, the Conservatives won metro mayor elections in Tees Valley and the West Midlands, areas traditionally seen as Labour heartlands. Initially scheduled for 4 May, a by - election in Manchester Gorton was cancelled; the seat was contested on 8 June along with all the other seats.
On 6 May, a letter from Church of England Archbishops Justin Welby and John Sentamu stressed the importance of education, housing, communities and health.
All parties suspended campaigning for a time in the wake of the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing on 22 May. The SNP had been scheduled to release their manifesto for the election but this was delayed. Campaigning resumed on 25 May.
Major political parties also suspended campaigning for a second time on 4 June, following the June 2017 London Bridge attack. UKIP chose to continue campaigning. There were unsuccessful calls for polling day to be postponed.
The UK 's withdrawal from the European Union was expected to be a key issue in the campaign, but featured less than expected. May said she called the snap election to secure a majority for her Brexit negotiations. UKIP support a "clean, quick and efficient Brexit '' and, launching his party 's election campaign, Nuttall stated that Brexit is a "job half done '' and UKIP MPs are needed to "see this through to the end ''.
Labour had supported Brexit in the previous parliament, but proposed different priorities for negotiations. The Liberal Democrats and Greens called for a deal to keep the UK in the single market and a second referendum on any deal proposed between the EU and the UK.
The Conservative manifesto committed the party to leaving the single market and customs union, but sought a "deep and special partnership '' through a comprehensive free trade and customs agreement. It proposed seeking to remain part of some EU programmes where it would "be reasonable that we make a contribution '', staying as a signatory of the European Convention on Human Rights over the next parliament, and maintaining the Human Rights Act during Brexit negotiations. Parliament would be able to amend or repeal EU legislation once converted into UK law, and have a vote on the final agreement.
Two major terrorist attacks took place during the election campaign, with parties arguing about the best way to prevent such events. May, after the second attack, focused on global co-operation to tackle Islamist ideology and tackling the use of the internet by terrorist groups. After the first attack, Labour criticised cuts in police numbers under the Conservative government. Corbyn also linked the Manchester attack to British foreign policy. The Conservatives stated that spending on counter-terrorism for both the police and other agencies had risen.
Former Conservative strategist Steve Hilton said Theresa May should be "resigning not seeking re-election '', because her police cuts and security failures had led to the attacks. Corbyn backed calls for May to resign, but said she should be removed by voters. May said that police budgets for counter-terrorism had been maintained and that Corbyn had voted against counter-terrorism legislation.
The Conservative manifesto proposed more government control and regulation of the internet, including forcing internet companies to restrict access to extremist and adult content. After the London attack, Theresa May called for international agreements to regulate the internet. The Conservative stance on regulation of the internet and social media was criticised by Farron and the Open Rights Group.
On 6 June, May promised longer prison sentences for people convicted of terrorism and restrictions on the freedom of movement or deportation of militant suspects when it is thought they present a threat but there is not enough evidence to prosecute them, stating that she would change human right laws to do so if necessary.
The UK 's nuclear weapons, including the renewal of the Trident system, also featured in the campaign. The Conservatives and Liberal Democrats favoured Trident renewal. Labour 's manifesto committed to Trident renewal; Corbyn confirmed renewal would took place under Labour but declined to explicitly speak in favour. He also declined to answer whether as prime minister he would use nuclear weapons if the UK was under imminent nuclear threat.
Social care became a major election issue after the Conservative Party 's manifesto included new proposals, which were subsequently altered after criticism. The previous coalition government had commissioned a review by Andrew Dilnot into how to fund social care. Measures that were seen to disadvantage pensioners were also in the Conservative manifesto: eliminating the pension triple lock and Winter Fuel Payments for all pensioners.
The question of a proposed Scottish independence referendum was also thought likely to influence the campaign in Scotland. On 28 March 2017, the Scottish Parliament approved a motion requesting that Westminster pass a Section 30 order giving the Parliament the authority to hold a second independence referendum, suggesting that there had been a "material change '' in the terms of the failed independence referendum in 2014 as a result of Britain 's vote to leave the EU. The SNP hopes to hold a second independence referendum once the Brexit terms are clear but before Britain leaves the EU; May has said her government would not approve an independence referendum before Brexit negotiations have finished.
Labour was thought to have attracted a significant number of student voters with its pledge to abolish tuition fees, which stands at £ 9,000 a year in England, and bring back student grants.
Although Labour and the Liberal Democrats both rejected election pacts with each other and with the Greens and the SNP, and although the Liberal Democrats ruled out a coalition deal with the Conservatives, the Conservatives campaigned on this theme, using the phrase "coalition of chaos ''. Similar messages against a potential Lib - Lab pact were credited with securing a Conservative win in the 1992 and 2015 elections. On 19 April, May warned against a Labour - SNP - Lib Dem pact that would "divide our country ''. After the hung result led the Conservatives to seek DUP support for a minority government, this rhetoric was mocked by opponents.
May launched the Conservative campaign with a focus on Brexit, lower domestic taxes and avoiding a Labour - Lib Dem - SNP "coalition of chaos '', but she refused to commit not to raise taxes. On 30 April, May stated that it was her intention to lower taxes if the Conservatives won the general election, but only explicitly ruled out raising VAT. May reiterated her commitment to spending 0.7 % of GNI on foreign aid.
Theresa May hired Lynton Crosby, the campaign manager for the Conservatives in the 2015 general election, as well as Barack Obama 's 2012 campaign manager, Jim Messina. The Conservative campaign was noted for the use of targeted adverts on social media, in particular attacking Corbyn. The repeated use of the phrase "strong and stable '' in the Conservatives ' campaigning attracted attention and criticism. Some expressed concern that the party may have restricted media access to the prime minister. While some speculated that an investigation into campaign spending by the Conservatives in the 2015 general election was a factor behind the snap election, on 10 May the Crown Prosecution Service said that despite evidence of inaccurate spending returns, no further action was required.
On 7 May the Conservatives promised to replace the 1983 Mental Health Act, to employ an additional 10,000 NHS mental health workers by 2020 and to tackle discrimination against those with mental health problems. May indicated that the Conservatives would maintain their net immigration target, and promised to implement a cap on "rip - off energy prices '', a policy that appeared in Labour 's 2015 manifesto. May indicated she would permit a free vote among Conservative MPs on repealing the ban on fox hunting in England and Wales. On 11 May the Conservatives promised above - inflation increases in defence spending alongside its NATO commitment to spend at least 2 % of GDP on defence.
In a speech in Tynemouth the next day, May said Labour had "deserted '' working - class voters, criticised Labour 's policy proposals and said Britain 's future depended on making a success of Brexit. On 14 May the Conservatives proposed a "new generation '' of social housing, paid from the existing capital budget, offering funding to local authorities and changing compulsory purchase rules. The following day May promised "a new deal for workers '' that would maintain workers ' rights currently protected by the EU after Brexit, put worker representation on company boards, introduce a statutory right to unpaid leave to care for a relative and increase the National Living Wage in line with average earnings until 2022. The proposals were characterised as an "unabashed pitch for Labour voters ''; however Labour and the GMB trade union criticised the government 's past record on workers ' rights.
Unveiling the Conservative manifesto in Halifax on 18 May, May promised a "mainstream government that would deliver for mainstream Britain ''. It proposed to balance the budget by 2025, raise spending on the NHS by £ 8bn per year and on schools by £ 4bn per year by 2022, remove the ban on grammar schools, means - test the winter fuel allowance, replace the state pension "triple lock '' with a "double lock '' and require executive pay to be approved by a vote of shareholders. It dropped the 2015 pledge to not raise income tax or national insurance contributions but maintained a commitment to freeze VAT. New sovereign wealth funds for infrastructure, rules to prevent foreign takeovers of "critical national infrastructure '' and institutes of technology were also proposed. The manifesto was noted for its intervention in industry, lack of tax cuts and increased spending commitments on public services. On Brexit it committed to leaving the single market and customs union while seeking a "deep and special partnership '' and promised a vote in parliament on the final agreement. The manifesto was noted for containing similar policies to those found in Labour 's 2015 general election manifesto.
The manifesto also proposed reforms to social care in England that would raise the threshold for free care from £ 23,250 to £ 100,000, while including property in the means test and permitting deferred payment after death. After attracting substantial media attention, four days after the manifesto launch, May stated that the proposed social care reforms would now include an "absolute limit '' on costs in contrast to the rejection of a cap in the manifesto. She criticised the "fake '' portrayal of the policy in recent days by Labour and other critics, who had termed it a "dementia tax ''. Evening Standard editor and former Conservative Chancellor George Osborne called the policy change a "U-turn ''.
Corbyn launched the Labour campaign focusing on public spending, and argued that services were being underfunded, particularly education. Labour 's shadow Brexit secretary Sir Keir Starmer stated that the party would replace the existing Brexit white paper with new negotiating priorities that emphasise the benefits of the single market and customs union, that the residence rights of EU nationals would be guaranteed and that the principle of free movement would have to end. Corbyn emphasised Labour 's support for a "jobs - first Brexit '' that "safeguards the future of Britain 's vital industries ''.
Labour proposed the creation of four new bank holidays, marking the feast days of the patron saints of the United Kingdom 's constituent nations. On 27 April the party pledged to build 1 million new homes over five years. Labour 's proposal to employ 10,000 new police officers was overshadowed when Shadow Home Secretary Diane Abbott cited incorrect figures in an LBC interview on how it would be funded. Labour later confirmed that the £ 300 million cost would be funded by reversing cuts to capital gains taxes, although it was noted that the party had also pledged some of those savings towards other expenditure plans.
On 7 May, Shadow Chancellor John McDonnell ruled out rises in VAT, and in income tax and employee national insurance contributions for those with earnings below £ 80,000 per year. The following day Labour outlined plans to ban junk food TV adverts and parking charges at NHS hospitals. Labour promised an additional £ 4.8 billion for education, funded by raising corporation tax from 19 % to 26 %.
A draft copy of Labour 's manifesto was leaked to the Daily Mirror and The Daily Telegraph on 10 May. It included pledges to renationalise the National Grid, the railways and the Royal Mail, and create publicly owned energy companies. The draft was noted for including commitments on workers ' rights, a ban on fracking, and the abolition of university tuition fees in England. The draft manifesto included a commitment to the Trident nuclear deterrent, but suggested a future government would be "extremely cautious '' about using it. The next day Labour 's Clause V meeting endorsed the manifesto after amendments from shadow cabinet members and trade unions present.
In a speech at Chatham House on 12 May, Corbyn set out his foreign policy, saying he would reshape Britain 's foreign relations, avoid the use of nuclear weapons, and while Labour supported Trident renewal he would initiate a defence review in government. Corbyn stated that he would halt all weapons sales from the UK to Saudi Arabia citing the violations of human rights in the Saudi Arabian - led intervention in Yemen. After the June 2017 London Bridge attack, Corbyn said that a conversation should take place "with Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states that have funded and fuelled extremist ideology ''.
On 14 May, Labour revealed plans to extend stamp duty by introducing a financial transactions tax, which McDonnell claimed would raise up to £ 5.6 bn per year. The next day Corbyn set out plans to spend £ 37bn on the NHS in England over a five - year parliament, including £ 10bn on IT upgrades and building repairs.
Launching its manifesto on 16 May, Labour revealed it would nationalise the water industry, provide 30 hours per week of free childcare for two to four - year - olds, charge companies a levy on annual earnings above £ 330,000, lower the 45p income tax rate threshold to £ 80,000 per year, and reintroduce the 50p tax rate for those earning more than £ 123,000 per year. Labour said it would raise an additional £ 48.6 bn in tax revenue per year and insisted its policies were fully costed, though it was noted no costings were provided for its nationalisation pledges. Compared to the leaked draft, the manifesto was noted for toughening Labour 's position on defence and Trident, confirming that outside the EU free movement would have to end, qualifying support for airport expansion, and clarifying the party 's stance on Israel - Palestine, as well as other changes. After initial confusion, Labour clarified it would not reverse the government 's freeze on most working - age benefits.
In an interview following the manifesto launch, Unite general secretary Len McCluskey said victory for Labour in the general election would be "extraordinary '' and that winning just 200 seats (compared to 229 seats held at the time) would be a "successful '' result; the following morning he clarified he was now "optimistic '' about Labour 's chances.
The SNP, keen to maintain its position as the third - largest party in the House of Commons, made the need to protect Scotland 's interests in the Brexit negotiations a central part of its campaign. The SNP manifesto called for a vote on independence to be held "at the end of the Brexit process '', set out "anti-austerity '' plans to invest £ 118bn in UK public services over the next five years, pledged to increase the minimum wage to £ 10 an hour and called for Scotland to have control over immigration and to remain in the EU single market after Brexit. With the polls closing, Nicola Sturgeon told the Today programme that the SNP could support a Labour government "on an issue - by - issue basis '' in the event of a hung parliament and she would be open to forming a "progressive alternative to a Conservative government ''.
Central themes of the Liberal Democrat campaign were an offer of a second referendum on any eventual Brexit deal and a desire for the UK to stay in the single market. The party reportedly targeted seats which had voted to remain in the EU, such as Twickenham, Oxford West and Abingdon, and Vauxhall. Bob Marshall - Andrews, a Labour MP from 1997 to 2010, announced he would support the Liberal Democrats.
The party reported a surge in membership after the election was called, passing 100,000 on 24 April, having grown by 12,500 in the preceding week. The party also reported raising £ 500,000 in donations in the first 48 hours after May 's announcement of an early election.
An early issue raised in the campaign was Tim Farron 's views, as a Christian, regarding gay sex and LGBT rights. After declining to state whether he thought gay sex was a sin, Farron affirmed that he believed neither being gay nor having gay sex are sinful.
The party proposed raising income tax by 1p to fund the NHS, and maintaining the triple - lock on the state pension. The Liberal Democrats also promised an additional £ 7 billion to protect per - pupil funding in education; they said it would be partly funded by remaining in the EU single market. The party pledged on 11 May to accept 50,000 refugees from Syria over five years, with Farron saying that the £ 4.3 billion costs would over time be repaid in taxes by those refugees that settle in Britain.
On 12 May the party revealed plans to legalise cannabis and extend paid paternity leave. Farron proposed financial incentives for graduates joining the armed forces and committed to Nato 's 2 % of GDP defence spending target. The next day the Liberal Democrats promised to end the cap on public - sector pay increases and repeal the Investigatory Powers Act. On 16 May the Liberal Democrats proposed an entrepreneurs ' allowance, to review business rates and to increase access to credit.
Policies emphasised during their manifesto launch on 17 May included a second referendum on a Brexit deal with the option to remain a member of the EU, discounted bus passes for 16 - to 21 - year - olds, the reinstatement of housing benefit for 18 - to 21 - year - olds, a £ 3bn plan to build 300,000 new houses a year by 2022 and support for renters to build up equity in their rented properties.
Paul Nuttall announced that UKIP 's manifesto would seek to ban the burqa, outlaw sharia law, impose a temporary moratorium on new Islamic schools and require annual checks against female genital mutilation (FGM) for high - risk girls. In response to the proposed burqa ban UKIP 's foreign affairs spokesperson James Carver resigned, labelling the policy "misguided ''.
Despite losing all 145 of the seats it was defending in the 2017 local elections (but gaining one from Labour in Burnley), Nuttall insisted voters would return to UKIP in the general election. On 8 May UKIP proposed a net migration target of zero within five years.
Within hours of the election being announced, Corbyn, Farron and Sturgeon called for televised debates. The Prime Minister 's office initially opposed the idea. On 19 April the BBC and ITV announced they planned to host leaders ' debates, as they had done in the 2010 and 2015 elections, whether or not May took part. Labour subsequently ruled out Corbyn taking part in television debates without May.
Broadcaster Andrew Neil separately interviewed the party leaders in The Andrew Neil Interviews on BBC One, starting on 22 May with Theresa May. The 2017 Manchester Arena bombing led to interviews with Nuttall, Farron, Sturgeon and Corbyn to be rescheduled. ITV Tonight also ran a series of programmes with the major party leaders.
Sky News and Channel 4 hosted an election programme on 29 May where May and Corbyn were individually interviewed by Jeremy Paxman after taking questions from a studio audience. The BBC held two debates to which all seven main party leaders were invited, on 31 May in Cambridge and 6 June in Manchester; both May and Corbyn stated they would not attend the 31 May debate. May said that she had already debated Corbyn many times in parliament, and that she would be meeting the public instead. Corbyn announced on the day that he would attend the debate in Cambridge, calling on May to do the same. Instead Amber Rudd appeared for the Conservatives.
The BBC hosted separate debates for the English regions, and for both Scotland and Wales, and also a Question Time special with May and Corbyn separately answering questions from voters on 2 June, chaired by David Dimbleby. Sturgeon and Farron were expected to do the same on 4 June, but after the June 2017 London Bridge attack it was rescheduled to 5 June and instead presented by Nick Robinson. The BBC also hosted two back - to - back episodes of a special election programme titled Election Questions on 4 June, first in Bristol with Green Party co-leader Jonathan Bartley followed by Nuttall, and second in Swansea with Plaid Cymru leader Leanne Wood. The party leaders were individually questioned by a studio audience.
STV planned to host a live TV debate in Glasgow with four Scottish party leaders on 24 May, but it was postponed, owing to the Manchester Arena bombing. The debate was rescheduled for Tuesday 6 June.
Newspapers, organisations and individuals have endorsed parties or individual candidates for the election.
Former UKIP leader Nigel Farage announced that he would not stand, saying he could be more effective as an MEP. UKIP major donor Arron Banks, who had earlier indicated his intention to stand in Clacton to defeat Douglas Carswell, withdrew in favour of the UKIP candidate after Carswell announced he would be standing down.
Plaid Cymru leader Leanne Wood chose not to contest a Westminster seat, nor did former Labour MP and shadow chancellor Ed Balls.
In the 2015 general election, polling companies underestimated the Conservative Party vote and overestimated the Labour Party vote and so failed to predict the result accurately. Afterwards they started making changes to polling practices; recommendations from a review by the British Polling Council are likely to result in further changes.
The first - past - the - post system used in UK general elections means that the number of seats won is not directly related to vote share. Thus, several approaches are used to convert polling data and other information into seat predictions. The table below lists some of the predictions.
The UK 's first - past - the - post electoral system means that national shares of the vote do not give an exact indicator of how the various parties will be represented in Parliament. Different commentators and pollsters currently provide a number of predictions, based on polls and other data, as to how the parties will be represented in Parliament:
An exit poll, conducted by GfK and Ipsos MORI on behalf of the BBC, ITV and Sky News, was published at the end of voting at 10 pm, predicting the number of seats for each party, with the Conservatives being the largest party, but short of an overall majority: Actual results were close to the prediction.
Results for all constituencies except Kensington were reported by the morning after the election. The Conservatives remained the largest single party in terms of seats and votes, but were short of a parliamentary majority. The Conservatives won 317 seats with 42.3 % of the vote while the Labour Party won 262 seats with 40.0 % of the vote. The election resulted in the third hung parliament since the Second World War, with elections in February 1974 and 2010 resulting in hung parliaments. YouGov correctly estimated the result after employing "controversial '' methodology.
In England, Labour made a net gain of 21 seats, taking 25 constituencies from the Conservatives and two from the Liberal Democrats. Their gains were predominantly in London and university towns and cities, most notably achieving victories in Battersea, Canterbury, Kensington and Ipswich from the Conservatives by narrow margins; they also lost five seats to the Conservatives, largely in the Midlands, and were unable to regain Copeland which had been lost in a February by - election. The Conservatives experienced a net loss of 22 seats, the first time since 1997 that the party suffered a net loss of seats. They gained Clacton from UKIP and Southport from the Liberal Democrats in addition to the six gains from Labour. The Liberal Democrats took five seats from the Conservatives, including Twickenham, won back by Vince Cable, and Kingston and Surbiton, won by Ed Davey, but lost two seats to Labour: Leeds North West and Sheffield Hallam, the seat of former party leader Nick Clegg. Richmond Park, which the Liberal Democrats had won in a 2016 by - election, was narrowly lost to the Conservatives. Caroline Lucas remained the sole Green Party MP, retaining Brighton Pavilion.
In Scotland, the Conservatives, Labour and the Liberal Democrats all gained seats from the SNP, whose losses were attributed to opposition to a second Scottish independence referendum, contributing to tactical voting for unionist parties. The Conservatives placed second in Scotland for the first time since 1992, won their largest number of seats in Scotland since 1983 and recorded their highest share of the vote there since 1979. With thirteen seats, the Scottish Conservatives became the largest unionist party in Scotland for the first time since 1955. Labour gained six seats from the SNP while the Liberal Democrats gained three. Having won 56 of 59 Scottish seats at the last general election, the SNP lost a total of 21 seats, and majorities in their remaining seats were greatly reduced. High - profile losses included SNP Commons leader Angus Robertson in Moray and former party leader and First Minister Alex Salmond in Gordon.
In Wales, Labour held 25 seats and gained Cardiff North, Gower and Vale of Clwyd from the Conservatives, leaving the Welsh Tories with eight seats. Plaid Cymru retained their three existing seats and gained Ceredigion, the Lib Dems ' only seat in Wales.
In Northern Ireland the SDLP lost its three seats (Foyle and South Down to Sinn Féin and Belfast South to the DUP) while the UUP lost its two seats (Fermanagh and South Tyrone to Sinn Féin and South Antrim to the DUP). With the Alliance Party failing to win any seats or regain Belfast East, this left the DUP with ten seats (up from eight), Sinn Féin with seven (up from four), and independent unionist Sylvia Hermon held North Down. Recording their best result since partition, Sinn Féin confirmed it would continue its abstentionist policy, leaving no nationalist representation in the House of Commons.
UKIP failed to win any seats, with its vote share falling from 12.9 % at the previous general election to just 1.8 %; party leader Paul Nuttall came third in Boston and Skegness. The Greens ' vote share dropped from 3.8 % to 1.6 %.
The result was noted for increased vote shares for Labour (up 9.6 percentage points) and the Conservatives (up 5.5 percentage points), with a combined 82.3 % share of the vote, up from 67.2 % in 2015. This was the highest combined share of the vote for the two main parties since 1970. It was suggested this indicated a return to two - party politics. The election was characterised by higher turnout, possibly among younger voters, which may have contributed to Labour 's increased vote share. Research company Ipsos Mori considered age to be one of the most significant factors behind the result; compared to the 2015 general election under - 45s tended to opt more for Labour and over-54s for the Conservatives. It found 60 % of those aged 18 - 24 voted Labour while 61 % of over-64s voted Conservative. The swing to Labour was high in those seats with large numbers of young people.
In terms of social grade, Labour increased its share of middle - class voters (defined as ABC1) by 12 percentage points compared to the previous election while the Conservatives increased their share of working - class voters (C2DE) by 12 percentage points. Political scientist John Curtice found that the Conservatives tended to experience a greater increase in vote share in seats with a higher proportion of working - class voters, particularly those that voted for Leave in the EU referendum. Many of Labour 's most successful results occurred in seats that voted Remain by a large margin in 2016.
Compared to previous elections, turnout for private renters increased (from 51 % in 2010 to 65 %) and favoured Labour to a greater degree, with the party achieving a 23 - point lead over the Conservatives among private renters; the Conservatives maintained a 14 - point lead among homeowners. In terms of education, YouGov found a one - point lead for the Conservatives among university graduates in 2015 had flipped to a 17 - point lead for Labour in 2017. For those with low educational qualifications, the Conservatives led by 22 points, up from 8 points in 2015.
It was suggested that UKIP 's decline boosted both main parties, but tended to help Labour retain seats in the North of England and the Midlands against the Conservatives, though it may have also benefited the Conservatives in predominantly working - class seats. Ipsos Mori found that UKIP 's collapse was consistent across all age groups.
Published in August 2017, the British Election Study (BES), which surveyed 30,000 voters, found that despite a relatively low profile in the campaign, Brexit was considered to be the single most important issue facing the country by over a third of respondents. It found more than half of UKIP voters in 2015 went to the Conservatives, while 18 % went to Labour. Remain voters tended to favour Labour, with the party particularly gaining among Remain voters who previously supported other parties, despite perceived uncertainty over its position on the single market. There was a strong correlation between those who prioritised controlling immigration and the Conservatives, while the same was true for supporting single market access and those who opted for Labour or the Liberal Democrats.
The BES study indicated the importance of the campaign period. A pre-election survey found 41 % for the Conservatives and 27 % for Labour, but by the election 19 % of voters had switched party. Unlike the previous election where both main parties achieved similar shares of late - switchers, Labour won 54 % while the Conservatives won 19 %. Likeability of party leaders also narrowed over the course of the campaign.
After all 650 constituencies had been declared, the results were:
Seats, of total, by party
Votes, of total, by party
Newly elected MPs included Britain 's first turbaned Sikh MP, Tan Dhesi, the first woman Sikh MP, Preet Gill, and the first MP of Palestinian descent, Layla Moran.
A record number of woman and LGBTQ MPs were elected. 208 woman MPs were elected to Parliament; the first time more than 200 MPs were women and beating the previous high of 196 woman MPs in the last Parliament. For the first time, a majority of MPs were educated at state comprehensive schools. More MPs who are known to be disabled were elected in 2017 than in 2015.
Corbyn and Farron called on May to resign. On 9 June, May apologised to candidates who lost their seats and confirmed she would continue as party leader and prime minister, with the intention of forming a minority government with support from the Democratic Unionist Party in order to ensure "certainty ''. May 's joint chiefs of staff Nick Timothy and Fiona Hill resigned, replaced by Gavin Barwell, who had lost his seat in the election.
On 10 June, a survey of 1,500 ConservativeHome readers found that almost two thirds of Conservative Party members wanted Theresa May to resign. A YouGov poll of 1,720 adults for the Sunday Times had 48 % saying Theresa May should resign, with 38 % against. A Survation poll of 1,036 adults online for the Mail on Sunday had 49 % of people wanting her resignation, with 38 % against. On 11 June George Osborne, former Chancellor of the Exchequer, described May as a "dead woman walking ''.
In a post-election reshuffle carried out on 11 June, May promoted her close ally Damian Green to become First Secretary of State and brought Michael Gove into the cabinet as environment secretary, making Andrea Leadsom Leader of the House of Commons. Liz Truss, David Lidington and David Gauke changed roles, while eleven cabinet members including key figures such as Boris Johnson, Amber Rudd, Michael Fallon, Philip Hammond and David Davis remained in post.
Negotiations between the Conservatives and DUP started on 9 June. On 12 June it was reported that the State Opening of Parliament, scheduled for 19 June, could be delayed. DUP sources informed the BBC that the Grenfell Tower fire on 14 June would delay finalisation of an agreement. On 15 June it was announced that the Queen 's Speech would occur on 21 June. A confidence and supply deal was reached on 26 June, with the DUP backing the Conservatives in key votes in the House of Commons over the course of the parliament. The agreement included additional funding of £ 1 billion for Northern Ireland, highlighted mutual support for Brexit and national security, expressed commitment to the Good Friday Agreement, and indicated that policies such as the state pension triple lock and winter fuel payments would be maintained.
After achieving just 1.8 % of the popular vote, down from 12.7 % in 2015, and failing to win any seats, Paul Nuttall resigned as UKIP leader on 9 June. A leadership election followed.
Ian Blackford became the new SNP leader in Westminster on 14 June following Angus Robertson 's defeat.
On 14 June Brian Paddick resigned as home affairs spokesperson for the Liberal Democrats over concerns about Farron 's "views on various issues '' during the campaign. Later that day, Farron announced his resignation as leader of the Liberal Democrats, citing conflict between his Christian faith and serving as leader. He remained as leader until Sir Vince Cable was elected unopposed on 20 July.
The Conservative Party campaign was widely criticised by those within and outwith the party. Points of criticism included the initial decision to call the election (against which Lynton Crosby had advised); the control of the campaign by a small team of May 's joint chiefs of staff Nick Timothy and Fiona Hill, who were more experienced with policy work than campaigning; the presidential style of the campaign focusing on the figure of Theresa May, while most of the Cabinet were sidelined (particularly the exclusion of Chancellor of the Exchequer Hammond, with reports that May would sack him after the election); and a poorly designed manifesto that offered little hope and the contents of which were not shared with Cabinet members until shortly before its release. In July, Prime Minister Theresa May admitted she had "shed a tear '' upon seeing the election exit poll, and suggested the manifesto 's lack of appeal to younger voters had played a part in Conservative shortcomings.
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how do i get a amex black card | Centurion card - wikipedia
The American Express Centurion Card, known informally as the Amex Black Card, is an invitation - only charge card issued by American Express to platinum card holders after they meet certain criteria. Cardholders are among the wealthiest individuals. There are three different issues of the Centurion Card: personal, business, and corporate.
In 1999, American Express introduced the Centurion Card to cater to the very wealthy. The card was initially available only to selected users of the company 's Platinum Card. To become a Centurion cardholder, one must meet American Express eligibility criteria. Cardholders are required to pay an annual fee, and in some countries also an initiation fee. (In the United States, the initiation fee is $7,500 in addition to the $2,500 annual fee from each cardholder). In addition to a variety of exclusive benefits, the card itself is made of anodized titanium with the information and numbers laser etched into the metal. (It should be noted that in some markets the plastic version of the card is still issued, with or without the titanium card.) The plastic card and 2014 and earlier Centurion cards include embossed information on the card. The Centurion 2015 Card introduced laser etching. In some locations, such as Israel, EMV "chip '' plastic cards which also include the ExpressPay contactless payment technology are issued. American Express created the card line amid rumors and urban legends in the 1980s that it produced an ultra-exclusive black card for elite users who could purchase anything with it.
The Centurion Card is invitation - only after appropriate net worth, credit, and spending criteria are met. American Express does not publicly disclose the requirements necessary for getting or keeping a card, except that the cardholder needs to have a substantial net worth, as well as having been a Platinum card holder.
While the eligibility criteria are subject to speculation, most reliable sources agree that Centurion Card holders have historically spent US $250,000 or more per year on lower - level American Express cards, and have annual household incomes of around US $1.3 million and net worths of at least US $16 million.
The card, available for personal and business use, offers services such as a dedicated concierge and travel agent; complimentary companion airline tickets on international flights on selected airlines with the purchase of a full - fare ticket; personal shoppers at retailers such as Dot & Vic 's, Gucci, Escada, and Saks Fifth Avenue; access to airport clubs; first - class flight upgrades; membership in Sony 's Cierge personal shopping program and dozens of other elite club memberships.
Hotel benefits include one free night, when at least one paid night is booked during the same stay, in every Mandarin Oriental hotel worldwide once a year (except for the New York City property), and privileges at hotel chains like Ritz - Carlton, Leading Hotels of the World, and Amanresorts. All of the benefits mentioned above are for United States - issued cards. American Express Centurion Cards issued in other countries may include different benefits. The card has amenities, including Delta SkyMiles Platinum Medallion status.
The card also features complimentary enrollment in Easirent Car Hire Platinum Service and the Avis Rent a Car President 's Club.
Initially it came with an extensive travel insurance all year round no matter how the trip was paid for but since 2012 this insurance is limited to trips which are paid with the card only. (In Australia, the insurance covers all trips, even if paid with another method or frequent flyer miles).
The titanium - crafted "Centurion '' card was first issued as an upgrade for all plastic U.S. "Centurion '' cards in the first half of 2006, with the titanium version being rolled out to certain other countries as well.
Some Centurion customers have purchased automobiles using the card or made purchases exceeding € 1 million (US $1.36 million). The card has no preset limit in theory. In practice the authorization is decided upon past payment and spending patterns; the largest purchase ever made on one was US $170 million for Amedeo Modigliani 's "Nu couché '' painting purchased at a Christie 's auction house by Liu Yiqian. It was suggested that the reason for funding the purchase through the credit card was to circumvent Chinese money laws that restrict the transfer of money by citizens out of the country to just $50,000.
The benefits offered to Centurion cardmembers are vast, but they appear to be based on the benefits offered to American Express Platinum cardholders, but with many enhancements.
Centurion Card members, like Platinum Card members, get complimentary access to the American Express Centurion Lounges at several US airports. They also get unlimited access to Priority Pass lounges around the world. However, at busy times, Centurion members have access to areas reserved for them. There are also drink options at the bar that are exclusive to Centurion members. As of 2015, they have a Champagne option of Veuve Clicquot and a single malt scotch by Balvenie.
Several original Centurion program benefits have been discontinued, including:
Since the inception of the card, members have received a copy of Departures, which is also sent to all Platinum Card cardholders. In 2004, American Express Centurion members in the US began receiving an exclusive "no name '' magazine, which was not available by any other means. Starting with the Spring 2007 edition, this magazine was officially titled Black Ink. The magazine is available only to individual Centurion cardholders, not to the business - edition customers.
European, Asian, and Australian Centurion members receive quarterly the Centurion magazine published by Journal International GmbH (Munich, Germany). In June 2011, the Centurion magazine website was launched, offering daily updates for Centurion Card members. According to Journal International, the average age of a Centurion reader from Europe or the Middle East is 49 years. Centurion has been published since 2001 and has a circulation in Europe and the Middle East of 44,100, in Asia of 13,900, and in Australia of 6,000.
The Centurion Card is part of an elite credit card segment created for a very small and exclusive range of clients around the world. Other such cards include:
Black Card LLC successfully registered "Black Card '' as a U.S. trademark in 2009. However, American Express contended its Centurion Card was widely known as "the Black Card '' before the launch of the Black Card (then Visa card), despite never seeking to trademark that name itself. American Express filed suit against Black Card LLC in February 2010, claiming that the trademark was obtained improperly and sought injunctive relief. This suit was concluded in November 2011, with the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York ruling that Black Card, LLC 's trademark of the name "Black Card '' should be canceled on grounds that it was merely descriptive. (See also American Express Marketing and Development Corp, et al. v. Black Card, LLC, 2011 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 133151 (S.D.N.Y. November 17, 2011.)
Today, Black Card LLC uses the registered trademark under license as a MasterCard issued by Barclays Bank Delaware. It has similar features, such as the members - only Luxury Magazine in print and digital form.
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who did elaine benes work for on seinfeld | Elaine Benes - wikipedia
Elaine Marie Benes / ˈbɛnɪs / is a fictional character on the American television sitcom Seinfeld (1989 -- 1998), played by Julia Louis - Dreyfus. Elaine 's best friend is her ex-boyfriend Jerry Seinfeld, and she is also good friends with George Costanza and Cosmo Kramer. Julia Louis - Dreyfus received critical acclaim for her performance as Elaine, winning an Emmy, a Golden Globe and five SAG Awards. Julia Louis - Dreyfus reprised the role during season 41 of Saturday Night Live.
Unlike her three close friends, Elaine is absent from the pilot episode. Previously the female role was supposed to be Claire, the waitress at Pete 's Luncheonette played by Lee Garlington, but Monk 's Cafe replaced the luncheonette and Garlington was dropped from the role. Elaine first appears in "The Stake Out, '' but in production order she appears in a final scene eating M&Ms in "Male Unbonding. '' NBC executives felt the show was too male - centric, and demanded that Jerry Seinfeld and Larry David add a woman to the cast as a condition for commissioning the show, as revealed in the commentary on the Season 1 and 2 DVD. In addition to the first episode, Elaine does n't appear in "The Trip '' and therefore appears in fewer episodes than George and Jerry.
After it was discovered that Jerry Seinfeld once dated writer and comedian Carol Leifer, speculation grew that Elaine was based on Leifer, though that was later largely denied. Leifer, who wrote or cowrote a number of episodes for the show, has said only some elements of the backstory of the character -- that she and Seinfeld had dated and have remained good friends since the relationship ended -- relate to her. She says some elements of the character of Elaine, especially her assertiveness, intelligence and sense of humor, are drawn from the off - screen personality of Julia Louis - Dreyfus herself. According to Seinfeld 's biography (written by Jerry Oppenheimer), Elaine was based in part on Susan McNabb (who was dating Seinfeld when the character was created), though eventually named after friend and fellow comic Elayne Boosler. Also, the character was partially based on Monica Yates, daughter of novelist Richard Yates, whom Larry David once dated, and they remained good friends after they broke up.
Elaine is normally intelligent and assertive, but also quite superficial. She 's ' one of the boys ', and despite the troubles they go through as a group, she remains the closest female friend to the main male cast throughout the series. Her traits are usually edgy and neurotic and she has a tendency to easily get angry with almost everybody. She 's ruined her friends ' ambitions, like throwing George 's wig out the window after trying to explain the irony behind it in "The Beard '' or revealing what Jerry said in "The Cheever Letters '' about the "panties her mother laid out for her ''.
Elaine is a serial dater, a trait lampooned in "The Sponge '', where she 's desperate to buy a cache of discontinued contraceptive sponges before they 're all bought up. She coins the word "spongeworthy '' debating her then - boyfriend 's prospects of intimacy at the expense of her inventory. Her neuroses often interfere with her relationships, leading to the premature end of a blossoming relationship. For example, in "The Stall '', Elaine is dating Tony, a very good - looking athletic type. After a rock climbing accident mangles Tony 's face, Elaine admits to Jerry that she ca n't date somebody who 's unattractive and wonders how long she 's obligated to stay with him post-accident. Later, in "The Couch '' after proclaiming her love for new boyfriend Carl, she immediately ends the relationship upon learning that he does n't share her opinions on abortion. Elaine also is attracted to men with lucrative jobs, especially doctors.
Generally, her hair was long with curls or waves, but underwent changes since Season 5. In early seasons, she had long, curly, brown hair and usually wore her hair half - up, framing her forehead with a slight bouffant. By Season 7, her hair darkened and her hairstyle matured resulting in a more modern look for the rest of the series, even wearing it straight in "The Wait Out '' and "The Invitations ''. After cutting it short in "The Soul Mate '' and growing it out in "The Bizarro Jerry '', it was shoulder length again by "The Little Kicks '', and straightened once more from "The Summer of George '' to "The Betrayal ''. There are a few episodes where her hair is discussed in relation to the plot. In "The Strike '', it 's damaged when affected by steam. In "The Smelly Car '' a valet makes Jerry 's car and Elaine 's hair smell like body odor. In "The Movie '' George describes Elaine as having "a big wall o ' hair ''.
Her clothes are normally quite conservative. In the first three seasons, she often wears floral, collared, mid-calf length, button down dresses with white ankle socks and oxfords. She also often wears high - waisted, tapered black jeans or pants and a bright blazer. For work, she dresses more formally. Peter Mehlman reveals on audio commentary in "The Sponge '' and "The Betrayal '' that female fans favor the brown leather jacket that she wears from Season 7 onward. Occasionally, she 's entirely out of her usual attire, as in "The Betrayal '' (when she wears an Indian outfit and hairstyle) and "The Millennium '' (where she dons Mayan dress). Elaine also wears glasses at times, usually during work hours.
Although she 's friends with George, Elaine tends to be combative with him. Still, Elaine sees him as a good friend: in "The Wife '', he argues with Elaine over her love interest, who 's threatening to throw him out of the health club. The portrayal of Elaine as smarter and more successful than George is occasionally reversed for comic effect: In "The Opposite '', George finds success and happiness doing the opposite of whatever his instincts tell him, while normally successful Elaine falls on hard times. In "The Abstinence '', George becomes smarter while not having sex, but Elaine gets dumber. In a few episodes George and Elaine work together, most notably in "The Revenge '' and "The Cadillac ''.
She sometimes goes to Kramer for help. She asks him and Newman to help her get rid of a neighbor 's dog in "The Engagement ''. In "The Slicer '', she asks him first to lose power at her neighbors ' house and also feed the cat with meat. In "The Watch '' she asks him to pose as her boyfriend so she can dump Dr. Reston, her controlling psychiatrist boyfriend. In "The Soup Nazi '', she asks him to watch an armoire for her on the street until she can move it in the following day. The only conflict is in "The 7 '' over a girl 's bicycle where Newman is the judge over the dispute.
Elaine is the only main character not to own a car. In "The Busboy '' (off camera) and "The Pothole '' she borrows Jerry 's, and in "The Wait Out '' her friend Elise 's car. In "The Burning '' she borrows then - boyfriend David Puddy 's. Also, it 's revealed that she 's a horrible driver who slams on the brakes and wildly steers the car.
Elaine also has a very refined taste in film, citing many movies, plays and characters throughout the series. She has a particular affection for A Streetcar Named Desire. In "The Pen '', Elaine shows her love for the movie when she becomes unintentionally high on muscle relaxers and repeatedly screams "Stella '' at a fancy awards dinner for Morty Seinfeld in Florida. In "The Fusilli Jerry '' Elaine describes David Puddy, her new on and off again boyfriend, as a man who comes home "dripping with animal sexuality '' after Jerry says that dating his mechanic is "such a huge turn off. '' In "The Comeback '' Elaine rents Vincent picks that she likes compared to Kramer who likes Gene picks. Later in the same episode, she tries Weekend at Bernie 's II which is a Gene pick recommended by Kramer and which she hates. In "The English Patient '', Elaine expresses her utter dislike for the film which won nine Oscars including Best Picture and prefers a comedy called "Sack Lunch. '' Later in the episode, a theater outburst gets her temporarily fired until she agrees to travel to Tunisia and live in a cave in order to save her job.
In "The Boyfriend '', Elaine reveals her disgust for smokers, which helps lead to a breakup with Keith Hernandez. Her dislike of smoking also leads to an argument with a fortune - teller in "The Suicide ''. However, in "The Calzone '' and "The Foundation '' she 's seen smoking with a Cuban cigar. She 's also seen smoking a cigar in "The Blood '', but only to make herself look bad in front of the mom of the child she 's babysitting.
In "The Maid '', Elaine has a phone serviceman in her apartment to change the apartment 's phone number (in response to receiving numerous attempted faxes meant for Kramer). While the serviceman is at work kneeling beside the phone, and holding a large candlestick, she speculates (heard via voice - over) whether it 'd be discovered if she killed the serviceman (credited as "Phone Guy # 1 '' Sam Whipple). Upon learning that the new phone number will have the 646 area code instead of Manhattan 's traditional 212, she tells the man: "You know, I could have killed you and no one would have known, '' to which the serviceman repeats those exact words back to her.
Elaine is the only main character whose mom never appears. Her dad, a gruff novelist named Alton Benes (Lawrence Tierney), a character based on novelist Richard Yates, was featured in "The Jacket ''. He 's an alcoholic veteran and very well respected in the literary community. In the same episode, Alton asks how her mom is; later, in "The Wait Out '', Elaine reveals to David Lookner that Alton left her and the rest of her family when she was 9 years old.
Elaine has a sister, Gail, and nephew who are first mentioned in "The Pick ''. In "The Wait Out '', it 's revealed that Gail lives in Saint Louis. She also makes reference to a brother - in - law in "The Phone Message ''.
Elaine has a cousin, Holly, who appears in "The Wink '', where reference is made to Elaine 's Grandma Mema, whom Holly inherited a set of cloth napkins from.
In "The Stock Tip '', Elaine mentions she has an Uncle Pete. In "The Secret Code '', she mentions another uncle who worked in the Texas School Book Depository with Lee Harvey Oswald.
Unlike George, Jerry and Kramer, Elaine is not a native of New York City, having grown up in the affluent Baltimore suburb of Towson, Maryland, and is shown to be a fan of the Baltimore Orioles. She attended finishing school and completed her undergraduate education at Tufts University, revealed to be her safety school in "The Puerto Rican Day '', as a French Literature major. In "The Dog '', she tells George she moved to New York in 1986, which, by coincidence, is the year Jerry moved into his apartment across the hall from Kramer. She started dating Jerry later that year. In "The Doodle '' it is stated by George that Elaine takes a drawing class at The New School with his girlfriend Paula.
Elaine 's religious beliefs are never confirmed, and she appears to have no interest in religion. She expresses shock when Puddy is revealed as a devout Christian. She views saying "God bless you '' as a "silly superstition '' in "The Good Samaritan ''. On the other hand, she 's seen making the sign of the cross before entering Jerry 's apartment to retrieve a manuscript while it 's being fumigated in "The Doodle '', and crosses herself again in "The Betrayal '' after turning her back on a Hindu altar. This might suggest that Elaine was raised Catholic. In multiple episodes, including "The Strong Box '' and "The Wizard '', she can be seen wearing a crucifix. In "The Pick '', Elaine is horrified when she realizes she sent a Christmas card which features her nipple to "Sister Mary Catherine '' and "Father Chelios ''.
In "The Chinese Woman '', Elaine asks Jerry about the ethnicity of Donna Chang, whose surname was shortened from Changstein, a move not unusual for Jewish immigrants. Jerry responds to Elaine that Donna is "like you ''. However, Elaine is confirmed to be a gentile in "The Postponement '', when she talked to a rabbi about not being herself after finding out George got engaged before her. She tells him she 's not of his Jewish faith. Elaine also states that she 's not Jewish in "The Fatigues. '' Though her ethnicity is never made clear, the name Beneš is a common Czech surname. Her ethnicity is incorrectly assumed to be Hispanic in "The Wizard ''. In "The Wink '', her cousin Holly repeatedly mentions a "Grandma Memma '' who apparently shared a mutual dislike with Elaine 's side of the family. Elaine claims to have an IQ of 145 (although her scores range from 85 to 151).
Early in the series, Elaine lives with a roommate Tina. Later on, she lives on her own at 16 W. 75th St., Apt. 2G and 78 W. 86th St., Apt. 3E.
Elaine works several steady jobs throughout the show 's entire run, mostly as a writer or editor.
Elaine has a string of boyfriends, most of whom appeared for only an episode or two.
Elaine 's quick temper makes her several enemies and gets her into several confrontations over the years:
Elaine 's charm and confidence contribute to her ability to influence others, often with disastrous consequences.
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who was proclaimed the first emperor of mexico | Emperor of Mexico - wikipedia
The Emperor of Mexico (Spanish: Emperador de México) was the head of state and ruler of Mexico on two non-consecutive occasions in the 19th century.
With the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire from Spain in 1821, Mexico became an independent monarchy -- the First Mexican Empire (1822 -- 1823). The monarchy was soon replaced by the First Republic of Mexico. Mexico briefly reverted into a monarchy in the 1860s, during the Second Mexican Empire (1864 -- 1867).
In both instances of Empire, the reigning Emperor was forcibly deposed and then executed.
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who wrote the song dirt on my boots | Dirt on My Boots - wikipedia
"Dirt on My Boots '' is a song recorded by American country music artist Jon Pardi. It was released to radio on September 19, 2016 as the second single to his second studio album, California Sunrise. The song was written by Rhett Akins, Jesse Frasure and Ashley Gorley.
"Dirt on My Boots '' is Pardi 's second number - one single, following "Head Over Boots '' in taking the top spot on the Country Airplay chart. It also peaked at numbers 2 and 37 on both the Hot Country Songs and Hot 100 charts respectively. The song was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and has sold 695,000 copies in the United States as of September 2017. It achieved similar success in Canada, reaching number one on the Country chart and number 58 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart. The song garnered a Gold certification from Music Canada, denoting sales of 40,000 units in that country.
The music video for the single was shot entirely in black - and - white and features Pardi practicing for a show while his girlfriend watches him.
The song was written by Rhett Akins, Jesse Frasure and Ashley Gorley, and it is one of the songs on the album that Pardi did not have a hand in writing. Pardi was interested in creating more modern - sounding tracks, and he described the demo of the song as "super-hip - hop ''. But as he liked the lyrics and thought the content of the song country, they decided to make the song more country.
The song debuted on the Country Airplay chart at number 49 on the chart date of October 8, 2016 after it was released to radio. It quickly gained traction on the chart, eventually reaching number one for chart dated March 25, 2017, making this his second number - one on the Airplay chart. It was certified Gold by the RIAA on February 22, 2017, and has sold 742,000 copies in the United States as of February 2018.
The music video for the song was released on February 23, 2017 and features Pardi performing on stage at a show. It is entirely in black - and - white. It shows Pardi preparing for the show, and with a girlfriend watching while he is performing, and the two then leave together after the song has finished.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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when will the final game of thrones book be released | The Winds of Winter - wikipedia
The Winds of Winter is the planned sixth novel in the epic fantasy series A Song of Ice and Fire by George R.R. Martin.
Martin believes the last two volumes of the series will be books of 1,500 + manuscript pages each. They will take readers farther north than any of the previous books, and the Others will appear in The Winds of Winter.
Martin has refrained from making hard estimates for The Winds of Winter 's final release date. In 2014, estimates based on extrapolation of Martin 's writing pace predicted the release date sometime between 2015 and 2018. In April 2018, Martin revealed that the book would not be published in 2018.
The Winds of Winter will take readers farther north than any of the previous books, and the Others will appear in the book. The previous installment, A Dance with Dragons, covered less story than Martin intended, excluding at least one planned large battle sequence and leaving several character threads ending in cliffhangers. Martin intends to resolve these storylines "very early '' in The Winds of Winter, saying "I 'm going to open with the two big battles that I was building up to, the battle in the ice and the battle at Meereen -- the battle of Slaver 's Bay. And then take it from there. '' A Victarion Greyjoy chapter will begin five minutes after the end of A Dance with Dragons, taking place on the eve of the Iron Born 's arrival in Slaver 's Bay. Arianne Martell sample chapters that Martin released on his website showed her heading for Griffin 's Roost to see the young man who is calling himself Aegon. At Guadalajara International Book Fair 2016, Martin gave some clues about the dark nature of The Winds of Winter:... "I 've been telling you for 20 years that winter was coming. Winter is the time when things die, and cold and ice and darkness fill the world, so this is not going to be the happy feel - good that people may be hoping for. Some of the characters (are) in very dark places... Things get worse before they get better, so things are getting worse for a lot of people. ''
Martin has confirmed that the following characters have point - of - view chapters in The Winds of Winter:
Martin confirmed that there are no new viewpoint characters intended for The Winds of Winter. Martin confirmed that Areo Hotah and Melisandre will return as viewpoints but did not state which novel their chapters will appear in, and that Bran Stark will appear in the novel, but did not elaborate if as a viewpoint. In addition, he teased at the 2014 San Diego Comic - Con that Jeyne Westerling, Robb Stark 's widow, will appear in the prologue chapter, but did not reveal who will be the POV character.
The Winds of Winter was originally intended, in the very early stages of the series, to be the final installment of A Song of Ice and Fire (then conceived as a trilogy). Following his expansion of the series, Martin eventually concluded it would be succeeded by one final novel, A Dream of Spring. By June 2010, Martin had finished four chapters for The Winds of Winter from the viewpoints of Sansa Stark, Arya Stark, and Arianne Martell. In July 2010, he added an Aeron Greyjoy chapter that had been moved from A Dance with Dragons to The Winds of Winter, accumulating around 100 completed manuscript pages. Following the publication of A Dance with Dragons in the summer of 2011, Martin announced his return to writing the series in January 2012, having spent the intervening time on his U.S. and overseas book publicity tours and attending various conventions. He continued to work, with his two co-authors Elio Garcia and Linda Antonsson, on the illustrated series companion guide The World of Ice & Fire concordance and Westeros history, which at one time he wanted to have completed by the end of 2011. He also worked on a Westeros story, the fourth Tales of Dunk and Egg novella.
In December 2011, Martin posted a Theon Greyjoy viewpoint chapter from The Winds of Winter; he also announced that another sample chapter would be included at the end of the North American paperback version of A Dance with Dragons, which was originally expected to be released in summer 2012, but was released on October 29, 2013. (International paperback editions of A Dance with Dragons published a year earlier did not include a new, as yet unpublished sample chapter.) In the first quarter of 2012, Martin read new chapters of other characters at public events, including the chapters of Victarion Greyjoy and Tyrion Lannister. Martin continued work editing anthologies and completing a large, highly detailed series atlas The Lands of Ice and Fire, which was published in October 2012. Martin published another sample chapter from Arianne Martell 's POV on his website in January 2013. On March 27, ten days before the Game of Thrones season four premiere, Martin posted a chapter on his website, titled Mercy. Martin said the new chapter is actually an old one, though never published nor publicly read. In April 2015, Martin posted a Sansa Stark viewpoint chapter from The Winds of Winter titled Alayne. In May 2016, Martin replaced this chapter with an Arianne Martell chapter he had read from at Mysticon, and an Aeron Greyjoy chapter that was removed from A Dance with Dragons was read at Balticon.
As of June 2016, a total of 11 chapters from The Winds of Winter have been either read publicly or published as a sample chapter. The point of view characters with released material are Victarion, Aeron, Tyrion, Barristan, Arianne, Theon, Mercy (Arya), and Alayne (Sansa). Several websites, including Goodreads, have dedicated entire discussion panels to any material that has been released from The Winds of Winter, including plot twists, theories, and speculations. In 2018, Martin indicated he wo n't release any more sample chapters.
Martin believes the last two volumes of the series will be massive works of 1,500 + manuscript pages each. He does not intend to separate characters by geography again, as he was forced to do because of the unpublishable length of A Feast for Crows ' original manuscript. But, as Martin stated in a 2011 interview, "Three years from now when I 'm sitting on 1,800 pages of manuscript with no end in sight, who the hell knows ''. In 2018, he revealed that some of his publishers had suggested splitting The Winds of Winter into two books but that he was against it.
In April 2011, shortly before the publication of A Dance with Dragons which took him six years to write, Martin hoped that "the last two books will go a little quicker than this one has '' and estimated that it would take "three years to finish the next one at a good pace ''. By October 2012, 400 pages of the sixth novel had been written, although Martin considered only the first 200 as "really finished '', the rest still needing revisions. In April 2013, Martin estimated that he had a quarter of the book. In the past, Martin has angered some of his fan base for repeatedly estimating his publication dates too optimistically; therefore, he has refrained from making hard estimates for The Winds of Winter 's final release date. Ultimately the book "will be done when it 's done ''. In 2012, Martin had acknowledged his concerns about the final novel, A Dream of Spring, not being completed by the time the TV series Game of Thrones catches up in its storyline to the novels.
In January 2014, Martin 's UK publisher, Jane Johnson, declared on Twitter that the book would "certainly '' not be published before 2015. In September 2014 Johnson stated that the book was "not a 2015 release ''. In April 2015, Martin commented on his blog that The Winds of Winter will not be eligible for the 2016 Hugo Award which is awarded for science fiction or fantasy works of the previous year but he also said he would like to have it published before the sixth season of the HBO series Game of Thrones (which would cover material from the book) aired in 2016. In Autumn 2015, statements made by the Spanish editor and the Polish translator of the novel indicated that it was expected to be published in 2016.
In early January 2016, Martin confirmed on his Live Journal that he had not met an end - of - year deadline that he had established with his publisher for release of the book before the sixth season of the HBO show. He added that there was "a lot still left to write '' and that completion of the book was "months away still... if the writing goes well ''. Martin also revealed there had been a previous deadline of October 2015 that he had considered achievable in May 2015, and that in September 2015 he had still considered the end - of - year deadline achievable. He further confirmed that some of the plot of the book might be revealed in the upcoming season of Game of Thrones but one of the showrunners, David Benioff, claimed that while certain key elements would be the same, the show would diverge from the book in many respects. In February 2016, Martin stated that he had dropped all his editing projects except for Wild Cards, and that he would not be writing any teleplays, screenplays, short stories, introductions or forewords before delivering The Winds of Winter.
In September 2014, Walt Hickey of FiveThirtyEight and Christopher Ingraham of the Washington Post estimated the release date sometime between 2015 and 2018, based on extrapolation of Martin 's writing pace. In 2017, Goodreads advertised its expected publication in 2020.
On January 10, 2017, Martin announced on his blog in a response to a comment that he believed that The Winds of Winter will be released "this year '', referring to 2017. However, he also noted that he had believed the same thing would occur the previous year. He confirmed on his blog that he was still working on The Winds of Winter as of July 22, 2017, being "still months away '' from finishing the book. He also indicated that it may not be published until 2018 or later, with Fire and Blood, the book on the history of House Targaryen, possibly preceding it. In April 2018, Martin confirmed on his blog that Fire and Blood would be published November 20, 2018, and The Winds of Winter would not be published in 2018.
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who is the best coach for indian cricket team | List of India national cricket coaches - Wikipedia
This is a list of all cricketers who have coached Indian national cricket team at the international level. India became a full member of the Imperial Cricket Conference (now the International Cricket Council) on 31 May 1926. On 25 June 1932 it became the Test nation after England, Australia, South Africa, the West Indies and New Zealand when they took on England at Lord 's. They played only seven tests, which were all against England, before the Second World War, losing five matches and drawing twice. Their first game against other opposition came in 1947 -- 49 when they played Australia.
The Indian team 's greatest successes came in 1983, when they won the Cricket World Cup under the captaincy of Kapil Dev, and 2011, when they won the world cup again under M.S. Dhoni. Also, they won the Under - 19 World Cup three times under the captaincy of Mohammad Kaif in 2000, 2008 under Virat Kohli and in 2012 under Unmukt Chand. Also, under the captaincy of Mahendra Singh Dhoni, India won the inaugural ICC T20 World Cup. India came runner - up in World Cup 2003 under Saurav Ganguly who has the record of most number of Indian test wins (21) under his leadership. Mithali Raj led India to its best result in Women 's ODI cricket when the team advanced to the finals of the 2005 Women 's Cricket World Cup. Raj is also one of the three women 's captains who have led their side to a victory in women 's Test cricket, the others being Shantha Rangaswamy and Mamatha Maben.
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flags of the world with green yellow and red | List of flags by color combination - wikipedia
This is a list of flags of states, territories, and other entities sorted by their combinations of dominant colors. Flags emblazoned with seals, coats of arms, and other multicolored emblems are sorted only by their color fields. The color of text is similarly ignored.
Colors related to the two metals of European heraldry (gold and white) are sorted first. The five major "stains '' of European heraldry (black, red, blue, green, and purple) are sorted next. Miscellaneous colors (murrey, tan, grey, and pink) are sorted last.
Similar colors are grouped together to make navigation of this list practical. As such, the dark greens prevalent in the Middle East are sorted together with the brighter greens prevalent in Western Europe. Significantly: yellows, golds, and oranges are grouped together as "gold '' due to the lack of discrete divisions within this spectrum and the differing standards of interpretation of "gold '', which appears in the legally codified specifications of many flags. Some flags, including a number from South Asia, include both a distinct yellow and a distinct orange; these have been noted accordingly.
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what kind of cases go to district court | United States District court - wikipedia
The United States district courts are the general trial courts of the United States federal court system. Both civil and criminal cases are filed in the district court, which is a court of law, equity, and admiralty. There is a United States bankruptcy court associated with each United States district court. Each federal judicial district has at least one courthouse, and many districts have more than one. The formal name of a district court is "the United States District Court for '' the name of the district -- for example, the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri.
In contrast to the Supreme Court, which was established by Article III of the Constitution, the district courts were established by Congress. There is no constitutional requirement that district courts exist at all. Indeed, after the ratification of the Constitution, some opponents of a strong federal judiciary urged that, outside jurisdictions under direct federal control like Washington, D.C. and the territories, the federal court system be limited to the Supreme Court, which would hear appeals from state courts. This view did not prevail, however, and the first Congress created the district court system that is still in place today.
There is at least one judicial district for each state, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. District courts in three insular areas -- the United States Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands -- exercise the same jurisdiction as Article III U.S. district courts. Despite their name, these courts are technically not "District Courts of the United States ''. Judges on these Article IV territorial courts do not enjoy the protections of Article Three of the Constitution, and serve terms of ten years rather than for life.
There are 89 districts in the 50 states, with a total of 94 districts including territories.
There are other federal trial courts that have nationwide jurisdiction over certain types of cases, but the district court also has concurrent jurisdiction over many of those cases, and the district court is the only one with jurisdiction over civilian criminal cases. The United States Court of International Trade addresses cases involving international trade and customs issues. The United States Court of Federal Claims has exclusive jurisdiction over most claims for money damages against the United States, including disputes over federal contracts, unlawful takings of private property by the federal government, and suits for injury on federal property or by a federal employee. The United States Tax Court has jurisdiction over contested pre-assessment determinations of taxes.
A judge of a United States district court is officially titled a "United States District Judge ''. Other federal judges, including circuit judges and Supreme Court Justices, can also sit in a district court upon assignment by the chief judge of the circuit or by the Chief Justice of the United States. The number of judges in each district court (and the structure of the judicial system generally) is set by Congress in the United States Code. The President appoints the federal judges for terms of good behavior (subject to the advice and consent of the Senate), so the nominees often share at least some of his or her convictions. In states represented by a senator of the President 's party, the senator (or the more senior of them if both senators are of the president 's party) has substantial input into the nominating process, and through a tradition known as senatorial courtesy can exercise an unofficial veto over a nominee unacceptable to the senator.
With the exception of the territorial courts (Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the Virgin Islands), federal district judges are Article III judges appointed for life, and can be removed involuntarily only when they violate the standard of "good behavior ''. The sole method of involuntary removal of a judge is through impeachment by the United States House of Representatives followed by a trial in the United States Senate and a conviction by a two - thirds vote. Otherwise, a judge, even if convicted of a felony criminal offense by a jury, is entitled to hold office until retirement or death. In the history of the United States, only twelve judges have been impeached by the House, and only seven have been removed following conviction in the Senate. (For a table that includes the twelve impeached judges, see Impeachment in the United States.)
A judge who has reached the age of 65 (or has become disabled) may retire or elect to go on senior status and keep working. Such senior judges are not counted in the quota of active judges for the district and do only whatever work they are assigned by the chief judge of the district, but they keep their offices (called "chambers '') and staff, and many of them work full - time. A federal judge is addressed in writing as "The Honorable John / Jane Doe '' or "Hon. John / Jane Doe '' and in speech as "Judge '' or "Judge Doe '' or, when presiding in court, "Your Honor ''.
District judges usually concentrate on managing their court 's overall caseload, supervising trials, and writing opinions in response to important motions like the motion for summary judgment. Since the 1960s, routine tasks like resolving discovery disputes can, in the district judge 's discretion, be referred to magistrate judges. Magistrate judges can also be requested to prepare reports and recommendations on contested matters for the district judge 's consideration or, with the consent of all parties, to assume complete jurisdiction over a case including conducting the trial.
Federal magistrate judges are appointed by each district court pursuant to statute. They are appointed for an eight - year term and may be reappointed for additional eight - year terms. A magistrate judge may be removed "for incompetency, misconduct, neglect of duty, or physical or mental disability ''. A magistrate judgeship may be a stepping stone to a district judgeship nomination.
As of 2010, there were 678 authorized district court judgeships. A study put forth by Brennan Center for Justice at New York University of Law found that under the Obama administration and especially in the year 2009 there have been a "uniquely high '' number of vacancies in Federal Court, averaging 60 or more from the years 2009 to 2013. The Obama administration has blamed Senate Republicans for opposing (and therefore, not confirming) presidential nominations, while the Republicans say Obama has been slow to nominate.
Unlike some state courts, the power of federal courts to hear cases and controversies is strictly limited. Federal courts may not decide every case that happens to come before them. In order for a district court to entertain a lawsuit, Congress must first grant the court subject matter jurisdiction over the type of dispute in question.
The district courts exercise original jurisdiction over -- that is, they are empowered to conduct trials in -- the following types of cases:
For most of these cases, the jurisdiction of the federal district courts is concurrent with that of the state courts. In other words, a plaintiff can choose to bring these cases in either a federal district court or a state court. Congress has established a procedure whereby a party, typically the defendant, can "remove '' a case from state court to federal court, provided that the federal court also has original jurisdiction over the matter (meaning that the case could have been filed in federal court initially). If the party that initially filed the case in state court believes that removal was improper, that party can ask the district court to "remand '' the case to the state court system. For certain matters, such as patent and copyright infringement disputes and prosecutions for federal crimes, the jurisdiction of the district courts is exclusive of that of the state courts, meaning that only federal courts can hear those cases.
In addition to their original jurisdiction, the district courts have appellate jurisdiction over a very limited class of judgments, orders, and decrees.
In order to represent a party in a case in a district court, a person must be an attorney at law and generally must be admitted to the bar of that particular court. The United States usually does not have a separate bar examination for federal practice (except with respect to patent practice before the United States Patent and Trademark Office). Admission to the bar of a district court is generally available to any attorney who is admitted to practice law in the state where the district court sits.
56 districts (around 60 % of all district courts) require an attorney to be admitted to practice in the state where the district court sits. The other 39 districts (around 40 % of all district courts) extend admission to certain lawyers admitted in other states, although conditions vary from court to court. For example, the district courts in New York City (Southern District of New York and Eastern District of New York) extend admission to attorneys admitted to the bar in Connecticut or Vermont and to the district court in that state, but otherwise require attorneys to be admitted to the New York bar. Only 13 districts extend admission to attorneys admitted to any U.S. state bar.
The attorney generally submits an application with a fee and takes the oath of admission. Local practice varies as to whether the oath is given in writing or in open court before a judge of the district. A "sponsor '' admitted to the court 's bar is often required. Several district courts require attorneys seeking admission to their bars to take an additional bar examination on federal law, including the following: the Southern District of Ohio, the Northern District of Florida, and the District of Puerto Rico.
Pro hac vice admission is also available in most federal district courts on a case - by - case basis. Most district courts require pro hac vice attorneys to associate with an attorney admitted to practice before the court.
Generally, a final ruling by a district court in either a civil or a criminal case can be appealed to the United States court of appeals in the federal judicial circuit in which the district court is located, except that some district court rulings involving patents and certain other specialized matters must be appealed instead to the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, and in a very few cases the appeal may be taken directly to the United States Supreme Court.
The Central District of California is the largest federal district by population; it includes all five counties that make up the Greater Los Angeles Area. By contrast, New York City and the surrounding metropolitan area are divided between the Southern District of New York (which includes Manhattan, The Bronx and Westchester County) and the Eastern District of New York (which includes Brooklyn, Queens, Staten Island, Nassau County and Suffolk County). New York suburbs in Connecticut and New Jersey are covered by the District of Connecticut and District of New Jersey, respectively.
The Southern District of New York and the Central District of California are the largest federal districts by number of judges, with 28 and 27, respectively.
In 2007, the busiest district courts in terms of criminal federal felony filings were the District of New Mexico, Western District of Texas, Southern District of Texas, and the District of Arizona. These four districts all share the border with Mexico. A crackdown on illegal immigration resulted in 75 percent of the criminal cases filed in the 94 district courts in 2007 being filed in these four districts and the other district that borders Mexico, the Southern District of California. The busiest patent litigation court is the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas, with the most patent lawsuits filed there nearly every year.
Most extinct district courts have disappeared by being divided into smaller districts. The following courts were subdivided out of existence: Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin.
On rare occasions, an extinct district court was extinguished by merging it with other district courts. In every case except one, this has restored a district court that had been subdivided:
There are a few additional extinct district courts that fall into neither of the above two patterns.
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where does the water come from for yosemite falls | Waterfall - wikipedia
A waterfall is a place where water flows over a vertical drop or a series of steep drops in the course of a stream or river. Waterfalls also occur where meltwater drops over the edge of a tabular iceberg or ice shelf.
Waterfalls are commonly formed in the upper course of a river in steep mountains. Because of their landscape position, many waterfalls occur over bedrock fed by little contributing area, so they are ephemeral and only occur during rainstorms. The further downstream, the more perennial a waterfall can be. It is even possible for waterfalls to occur far downstream due to transient discontinuities in a river 's longitudinal profile caused by climatic changes and anthropogenic activities. Waterfalls can have a wide range of widths and depths, and this diversity is part of what makes them such a charismatic and interesting natural phenomenon. Research into the diversity of natural waterfalls systematics has been carried out in recent years.
When the river courses over resistant bedrock, erosion happens slowly and is dominated by impacts of water - borne sediment on the rock, while downstream the erosion occurs more rapidly. As the watercourse increases its velocity at the edge of the waterfall, it may pluck material from the riverbed, if the bed is fractured or otherwise more erodable. Hydraulic jets and hydraulic jumps at the toe of a falls can generate large forces to erode the bed, especially when forces are amplified by water - borne sediment. Horseshoe - shaped falls focus the erosion to a central point, also enhancing riverbed change below a waterfalls. A process known as "potholing '' involves local erosion of a potentially deep hole in bedrock due to turbulent whirlpools spinning stones around on the bed, drilling it out. Sand and stones carried by the watercourse therefore increase erosion capacity. This causes the waterfall to carve deeper into the bed and to recede upstream. Often over time, the waterfall will recede back to form a canyon or gorge downstream as it recedes upstream, and it will carve deeper into the ridge above it. The rate of retreat for a waterfall can be as high as one and half meters per year.
Often, the rock stratum just below the more resistant shelf will be of a softer type, meaning that undercutting due to splashback will occur here to form a shallow cave - like formation known as a rock shelter under and behind the waterfall. Eventually, the outcropping, more resistant cap rock will collapse under pressure to add blocks of rock to the base of the waterfall. These blocks of rock are then broken down into smaller boulders by attrition as they collide with each other, and they also erode the base of the waterfall by abrasion, creating a deep plunge pool in the gorge downstream.
Streams can become wider and shallower just above waterfalls due to flowing over the rock shelf, and there is usually a deep area just below the waterfall because of the kinetic energy of the water hitting the bottom. However, a study of waterfalls systematics reported that waterfalls can be wider or narrower above or below a falls, so almost anything is possible given the right geological and hydrological setting. Waterfalls normally form in a rocky area due to erosion. After a long period of being fully formed, the water falling off the ledge will retreat, causing a horizontal pit parallel to the waterfall wall. Eventually, as the pit grows deeper, the waterfall collapses to be replaced by a steeply sloping stretch of river bed. In addition to gradual processes such as erosion, earth movement caused by earthquakes or landslides or volcanoes can cause a differential in land heights which interfere with the natural course of a water flow, and result in waterfalls.
A river sometimes flows over a large step in the rocks that may have been formed by a fault line. Waterfalls can occur along the edge of a glacial trough, where a stream or river flowing into a glacier continues to flow into a valley after the glacier has receded or melted. The large waterfalls in Yosemite Valley are examples of this phenomenon, which is referred to as a hanging valley. Another reason hanging valleys may form is where two rivers join and one is flowing faster than the other. Waterfalls can be grouped into ten broad classes based on the average volume of water present on the fall (which depends on both the waterfall 's average flow and its height) using a logarithmic scale. Class 10 waterfalls include Niagara Falls, Paulo Afonso Falls and Khone Falls.
Classes of other well - known waterfalls include Victoria Falls and Kaieteur Falls (Class 9); Rhine Falls and Gullfoss (Class 8); Angel Falls and Dettifoss (Class 7); Yosemite Falls, Lower Yellowstone Falls and Umphang Thee Lor Sue Waterfall (Class 6); Sutherland Falls (Class 5).
Alexander von Humboldt (1820 's) "Father of Modern Geography '' Humboldt was mostly marking waterfalls on maps for river navigation purposes
Oscar von Engeln (1930 's) Published "Geomorphology: systematic and regional '', this book had a whole chapter devoted to waterfalls, and is one of the earliest examples of published works on waterfalls.
R.W. Young (1980 's) Wrote "Waterfalls: form and process '' this work made waterfalls a much more serious topic for research for modern Geoscientists.
Significant waterfalls, listed alphabetically:
Huangguoshu Waterfall in Guizhou province, China, is a block - type waterfall and a cataract.
Song Khon Waterfall in Loei Province, Thailand is an example of a cascade waterfall.
Gullfoss, an iconic waterfall of Iceland.
In Pamukkale, Turkey is an example of travertine terraces built by flowing water.
Powerscourt Waterfall, near Enniskerry, Wicklow County, Ireland, is an example of a horsetail waterfall.
First fall of Elephant Falls in Shillong, India, is an example of a horsetail - punchbowl waterfall.
Wallaman Falls in Queensland, Australia, is an example of a plunge waterfall.
Sempervirens Falls in California, USA, is an example of a plunge - punchbowl waterfall.
Several of the scores of waterfalls of various types at Plitvice Lakes, Croatia
Saint Anthony Falls in Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, is a natural waterfall modified with spillway, dams, and locks to allow commercial navigation on the river.
Waterfall Cairns, Australia
Ruby Falls is an underground waterfall within a cave in Tennessee, USA.
Alamere Falls is a tidefall -- a waterfall flowing directly into the ocean -- in California, USA.
Waterfall in Australia
Seljalandsfoss, Suðurland, Iceland
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who gave the idea of gst in india | Goods and services tax (India) - Wikipedia
Goods and Services Tax (GST) is an indirect tax which was introduced in India on 1 July 2017 and was applicable throughout India which replaced multiple cascading taxes levied by the central and state governments. It was introduced as The Constitution (One Hundred and First Amendment) Act 2017, following the passage of Constitution 122nd Amendment Bill. The GST is governed by a GST Council and its Chairman is the Finance Minister of India. Under GST, goods and services are taxed at the following rates, 0 %, 5 %, 12 %, 18 % and 28 %. There is a special rate of 0.25 % on rough precious and semi-precious stones and 3 % on gold. In addition a cess of 15 % or other rates on top of 28 % GST applies on few items like aerated drinks, luxury cars and tobacco products. GST was initially proposed to replace a slew of indirect taxes with a unified tax and was therefore set to dramatically reshape the country 's 2 trillion dollar economy. It is to be noted that France was the first country to implement GST.
The reform process of India 's indirect tax regime was started in 1986 by Vishwanath Pratap Singh, Finance Minister in Rajiv Gandhi 's government, with the introduction of the Modified Value Added Tax (MODVAT). Subsequently, Manmohan Singh, then Finance Minister under of PV Narasimha Rao, initiated early discussions on a Value Added Tax at the state level. A single common "Goods and Services Tax (GST) '' was proposed and given a go - ahead in 1999 during a meeting between then Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee and his economic advisory panel, which included three former RBI governors IG Patel, Bimal Jalan and C Rangarajan. Vajpayee set up a committee headed by the then finance minister of West Bengal, Asim Dasgupta to design a GST model.
The Ravi Dasgupta committee was also tasked with putting in place the backend technology and logistics (later came to be known as the GST Network, or GSTN, in 2017) for rolling out a uniform taxation regime in the country. In 2002, the Vajpayee government formed a task force under Vijay Kelkar to recommend tax reforms. In 2005, the Kelkar committee recommended rolling out GST as suggested by the 12th Finance Commission.
After the fall of the BJP - led NDA government in 2004, and the election of a Congress - led UPA government, the new Finance Minister P Chidambaram in February 2006 continued work on the same and proposed a GST rollout by 1 April 2010. However in 2010, with the Trinamool Congress routing CPI (M) out of power in West Bengal, Asim Dasgupta resigned as the head of the GST committee. Dasgupta admitted in an interview that 80 % of the task had been done.
In 2014, the NDA government was re-elected into power, this time under the leadership of Narendra Modi. With the consequential dissolution of the 15th Lok Sabha, the GST Bill -- approved by the standing committee for reintroduction -- lapsed. Seven months after the formation of the Modi government, the new Finance Minister Arun Jaitley introduced the GST Bill in the Lok Sabha, where the BJP had a majority. In February 2015, Jaitley set another deadline of 1 April 2016 to implement GST. In May 2016, the Lok Sabha passed the Constitution Amendment Bill, paving way for GST. However, the Opposition, led by the Congress demanded that the GST Bill be again sent back to the Select Committee of the Rajya Sabha due to disagreements on several statements in the Bill relating to taxation. Finally in August 2016, the Amendment Bill was passed. Over the next 15 to 20 days, 18 states ratified the GST Bill and the President Pranab Mukherjee gave his assent to it.
A 21 - members select committee was formed to look into the proposed GST laws. State and Union Territory GST laws were passed by all the states and Union Territories of India except Jammu & Kashmir, paving the way for smooth rollout of the tax from 1 July 2017. There was to be no GST on the sale and purchase of securities. That continues to be governed by Securities Transaction Tax (STT).
The Goods and Services Tax was launched at midnight on 1 July 2017 by the President of India, Pranab Mukherjee, and Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi. The launch was marked by a historic midnight (1 July -- 2 July) session of both the houses of parliament convened at the Central Hall of the Parliament. Though the session was attended by high - profile guests from the business and the entertainment industry including Ratan Tata, it was boycotted by the opposition due to the predicted problems that it was bound to lead to for the middle and lower class Indians. It is one of the few midnight sessions that have been held by the parliament - the others being the declaration of India 's independence on 15 August 1947, and the silver and golden jubilees of that occasion.
Members of the Congress boycotted the GST launch altogether. They were joined by members of the Trinamool Congress, Communist Parties of India and the DMK. The parties reported that they found virtually no difference between the GST and the existing taxation system, claiming that the government was trying to merely rebrand the current taxation system. They also argued that the GST would increase existing rates on common daily goods while reducing rates on luxury items, and affect many Indians adversely, especially the middle, lower middle and poorer classes.
The single GST replaced several former taxes and levies which included: central excise duty, services tax, additional customs duty, surcharges, state - level value added tax and Octroi. Other levies which were applicable on inter-state transportation of goods have also been done away with in GST regime. GST is levied on all transactions such as sale, transfer, purchase, barter, lease, or import of goods and / or services. India adopted a dual GST model, meaning that taxation is administered by both the Union and State Governments. Transactions made within a single state are levied with Central GST (CGST) by the Central Government and State GST (SGST) by the State governments. For inter-state transactions and imported goods or services, an Integrated GST (IGST) is levied by the Central Government. GST is a consumption - based tax, therefore, taxes are paid to the state where the goods or services are consumed not the state in which they were produced. IGST complicates tax collection for State Governments by disabling them from collecting the tax owed to them directly from the Central Government. Under the previous system, a state would only have to deal with a single government in order to collect tax revenue.
HSN (Harmonized System of Nomenclature) is a 6 - digit code for identifying the applicable rate of GST on different products as per CGST rules. If a company has turnover up to RS. 1.5 Crore in preceding financial year then they need not to mention HSN code while supplying goods on invoices, if a company has turnover more than 1.5 Cr but up to 5 Cr then they need to mention 2 digit HSN code while supplying goods on invoices and if turnover cross 5 Cr then they shall mention 4 digit HSN code on invoices.
The GST is imposed at different rates on different items. The rate of GST is 18 % for soaps and 28 % on washing detergents. GST on movie tickets is based on slabs, with 18 % GST for tickets that cost less than Rs. 100 and 28 % GST on tickets costing more than Rs. 100. The rate on under - construction property booking is 12 %. Some industries and products were exempted by the government and remain untaxed under GST, such as dairy products, products of milling industries, fresh vegetables & fruits, meat products, and other groceries and necessities.
Checkposts across the country were abolished ensuring free and fast movement of goods.
The Central Government had proposed to insulate the revenues of the States from the impact of GST, with the expectation that in due course, GST will be levied on petroleum and petroleum products. The central government had assured states of compensation for any revenue loss incurred by them from the date of GST for a period of five years. However, no concrete laws have yet been made to support such action. GST council adopted concept paper discouraging tinkering with rates.
As per the government website on GST, "Goods and Services Tax '' Network (GSTN) is a nonprofit organisation proposed to be formed for creating a website / platform for all the concerned parties related to the GST, namely stakeholders, government and taxpayers to collaborate on a single portal. When up and running, the portal is supposed to be accessible to the central government which allows it to track down every transaction on its end while taxpayers are advertised to have the ability of connecting this to their tax returns. However its efficacy and efficiency is yet to be tested. The IT network was touted to be developed by unnamed private firms. The known authorised capital of GSTN is ₹ 10 crore (US $1.6 million) in which Central Government holds 24.5 percent of shares while the state government holds 24.5 percent and rest with private banking firms for smooth running of the transactions.
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which important resource used today is found in the southern part of the fertile crescent | Fertile Crescent - wikipedia
The Fertile Crescent (also known as the cradle of civilization) is a crescent - shaped region containing the comparatively moist and fertile areas of what is an otherwise arid and semi-arid Western Asia, the Nile Valley and Nile Delta. It was created by the inundations of the surrounding Nile, Euphrates, and Tigris rivers. Having originated in the study of ancient history, the concept soon developed and today retains meanings in international geopolitics and diplomatic relations.
The Fertile Crescent includes Mesopotamia, the land in and around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers; and the Levant, the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The modern - day countries with significant territory within the Fertile Crescent are Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Cyprus, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, as well as the southeastern fringe of Turkey and the western fringes of Iran.
The region saw the development of some of the earliest human civilizations, which flourished thanks to the water supplies and agricultural resources available in the Fertile Crescent. Technological advances made in the region include the development of writing, glass, the wheel, agriculture, and the use of irrigation.
The term "Fertile Crescent '' was popularized by University of Chicago archaeologist James Henry Breasted, beginning with his high school textbooks Outlines of European History in 1914 and Ancient Times, A History of the Early World in 1916. Breasted 's 1916 textbook description of the Fertile Crescent:
The westernmost extension of Asia is an irregular region roughly included within the circuit of waters marked out by the Caspian and Black seas on the north, by the Mediterranean and Red seas on the west, and by the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf on the south and east. It is a region consisting chiefly of mountains in the north and desert in the south. The earliest home of men in this great arena of Western Asia is a borderland between the desert and the mountains, a kind of cultivable fringe of the desert, a fertile crescent having the mountains on one side and the desert on the other. This fertile crescent is approximately a semicircle, with the open side toward the south, having the west end at the southeast corner of the Mediterranean, the center directly north of Arabia, and the east end at the north end of the Persian Gulf (see map, p. 100). It lies like an army facing south, with one wing stretching along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean and the other reaching out to the Persian Gulf, while the center has its back against the northern mountains. The end of the western wing is Palestine; Assyria makes up a large part of the center; while the end of the eastern wing is Babylonia. This great semicircle, for lack of a name, may be called the Fertile Crescent. It may also be likened to the shores of a desert - bay, upon which the mountains behind look down -- a bay not of water but of sandy waste, some eight hundred kilometres across, forming a northern extension of the Arabian desert and sweeping as far north as the latitude of the northeast corner of the Mediterranean. This desert - bay is a limestone plateau of some height -- too high indeed to be watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, which have cut cañons obliquely across it. Nevertheless, after the meager winter rains, wide tracts of the northern desert - bay are clothed with scanty grass, and spring thus turns the region for a short time into grasslands. The history of Western Asia may be described as an age - long struggle between the mountain peoples of the north and the desert wanderers of these grasslands -- a struggle which is still going on -- for the possession of the Fertile Crescent, the shores of the desert - bay. There is no name, either geographical or political, which includes all of this great semicircle (see map, p. 100). Hence we are obliged to coin a term and call it the Fertile Crescent.
In current usage, the Fertile Crescent includes Iraq, Kuwait, and surrounding portions of Iran and Turkey, as well as the rest of the Levantine coast of the Mediterranean Sea, Syria, Jordan, Israel, and Lebanon. Water sources include the Jordan River. The inner boundary is delimited by the dry climate of the Syrian Desert to the south. Around the outer boundary are the Anatolian highlands to the north and the Sahara Desert to the west.
As crucial as rivers and marshlands were to the rise of civilization in the Fertile Crescent, they were not the only factor in the area 's precocity. The area is important as the "bridge '' between Africa and Eurasia. This "bridging role '' has allowed the Fertile Crescent to retain a greater amount of biodiversity than either Europe or North Africa, where climate changes during the Ice Age led to repeated extinction events when ecosystems became squeezed against the waters of the Mediterranean Sea. Coupled with the Saharan pump theory, this Middle Eastern land - bridge is of extreme importance to the modern distribution of Old World flora and fauna, including the spread of humanity.
The area has borne the brunt of the tectonic divergence between the African and Arabian plates and the converging Arabian and Eurasian plates, which has made the region a very diverse zone of high snow - covered mountains.
The Fertile Crescent had many diverse climates, and major climatic changes encouraged the evolution of many "r '' type annual plants, which produce more edible seeds than "K '' type perennial plants. The region 's dramatic variety of elevation gave rise to many species of edible plants for early experiments in cultivation. Most importantly, the Fertile Crescent was home to the eight Neolithic founder crops important in early agriculture (i.e. wild progenitors to emmer wheat, einkorn, barley, flax, chick pea, pea, lentil, bitter vetch), and four of the five most important species of domesticated animals -- cows, goats, sheep, and pigs -- and the fifth species, the horse, lived nearby. The Fertile Crescent flora comprises a high percentage of plants that can self - pollinate, but may also be cross-pollinated. These plants, called "selfers '', were one of the geographical advantages of the area because they did not need to be dependent on other plants for their own multiplication.
Fertile Crescent Mesopotamia
Egypt
Persia
Anatolia
The Levant
The Fertile Crescent has an impressive record of past human activity. As well as possessing many sites with the skeletal and cultural remains of both pre-modern and early modern humans (e.g. at Tabun and Es Skhul caves in Israel), later Pleistocene hunter - gatherers and Epipalaeolithic semi-sedentary hunter - gatherers (the Natufians), this area is most famous for its sites related to the origins of agriculture. The western zone around the Jordan and upper Euphrates rivers gave rise to the first known Neolithic farming settlements (referred to as Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)), which date to around 9,000 BCE (and includes sites such as Göbekli Tepe and Jericho).
This region, alongside Mesopotamia (which lies to the east of the Fertile Crescent, between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates), also saw the emergence of early complex societies during the succeeding Bronze Age. There is also early evidence from the region for writing and the formation of hierarchical statelevel societies. This has earned the region the nickname "The cradle of civilization. ''
It is in this region where the first libraries appeared, some 5,000 years ago. The oldest known library was found in northern Syria, in the ruins of Ebla -- a major commercial center that was destroyed around 1650 BCE.
Both the Tigris and Euphrates start in the Taurus Mountains of what is today Turkey. Farmers in southern Mesopotamia had to protect their fields from flooding each year, except northern Mesopotamia which had just enough rain to make some farming possible. To protect against flooding, they made levees.
Since the Bronze Age, the region 's natural fertility has been greatly extended by irrigation works, upon which much of its agricultural production continues to depend. The last two millennia have seen repeated cycles of decline and recovery as past works have fallen into disrepair through the replacement of states, to be replaced under their successors. Another ongoing problem has been salination -- gradual concentration of salt and other minerals in soils with a long history of irrigation.
Prehistoric seedless figs were discovered at Gilgal I in the Jordan Valley, suggesting that fig trees were being planted some 11,400 years ago. Cereals were already grown in Syria as long as 9,000 years ago. Small cats (Felis silvestris) also were domesticated in this region.
Linguistically, the Fertile Crescent was a region of great diversity. Historically, Semitic languages generally prevailed in the lowlands, whilst in the mountainous areas to the east and north a number of generally unrelated languages were found including Elamite, Kassite, and Hurro - Urartian. The precise affiliation of these, and their date of arrival, remain topics of scholarly discussion. However, given lack of textual evidence for the earliest era of prehistory, this debate is unlikely to be resolved in the near future.
The evidence which does exist suggests that by the third millennium BCE and into the second, several language groups already existed in the region. These included:
Links between Hurro - Urartian and Hattic and the indigenous languages of the Caucasus have frequently been suggested, but are not generally accepted.
Coordinates: 36 ° N 40 ° E / 36 ° N 40 ° E / 36; 40
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who sang lead on when i'm 64 | When I 'm Sixty - Four - wikipedia
"When I 'm Sixty - Four '' is a song by the Beatles, written by Paul McCartney (credited to Lennon -- McCartney) and released in 1967 on their album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band.
The song is sung by a young man to his lover, and is about his plans of their growing old together. Although the theme is ageing, it was one of the first songs McCartney wrote, when he was 16. It was in the Beatles ' setlist in their early days as a song to perform when their amplifiers broke down or the electricity went off. Both George Martin and Mark Lewisohn speculated that McCartney may have thought of the song when recording began for Sgt. Pepper in December 1966 because his father turned 64 earlier that year.
Lennon said of the song, "Paul wrote it in the Cavern days. We just stuck a few more words on it like ' grandchildren on your knee ' and ' Vera, Chuck and Dave '... this was just one that was quite a hit with us. '' In his 1980 interview for Playboy he said, "I would never even dream of writing a song like that. ''
A clarinet trio (two B ♭ clarinets and a bass clarinet) is featured prominently in the song. Scored by Martin, he said they were added at McCartney 's request to "get around the lurking schmaltz factor '' by using the clarinets "in a classical way. '' In the song 's final verse, the clarinet is played in harmony with McCartney 's vocal. Supporting instruments include the piano, bass, drum set, tubular bells, and electric guitar.
The song was recorded on 6 December 1966, during one of the first sessions for the as - yet - unnamed album that became Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band. There were multiple overdub sessions, including the lead vocal by McCartney on 8 December and backing vocals by McCartney, Lennon, and George Harrison on 20 December. The clarinets were recorded on 21 December.
The song is in the key of D ♭ major. Recorded in C major, the master take was sped up to raise the key by one semitone at the insistence of McCartney. Martin remembers that McCartney suggested this change to make his voice sound younger. McCartney says, "I wanted to appear younger, but that was just to make it more rooty - tooty; just lift the key because it was starting to sound turgid. ''
The song was nearly released on a single as the B - side of either "Strawberry Fields Forever '' or "Penny Lane ''. It was instead held over to be included as an album track for Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band.
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the big bang theory season 9 episode guide | The Big Bang Theory (season 9) - wikipedia
The ninth season of the American sitcom The Big Bang Theory started airing on CBS on Monday, September 21, 2015. It returned to its regular Thursday time slot on November 5, 2015 for the season 's seventh episode. It concluded on May 12, 2016. On March 12, 2014, The Big Bang Theory was renewed for an additional three years, extending it through the 2016 -- 17 season for a total of ten seasons. Laura Spencer was upgraded to the main cast during the season as Dr. Emily Sweeney, after being a recurring cast member for two seasons.
Like the previous season, the first six episodes of the ninth season aired on a different night due to CBS acquiring the rights to Thursday Night Football games. In May 2015, CBS announced at its annual upfront presentation, that the series would begin its ninth season on Mondays, before returning to the Thursday slot once the football games ended.
Filming for the ninth season began on August 5, 2015, according to posts on Twitter by several of the cast members including Melissa Rauch and Kunal Nayyar.
Laurie Metcalf reprised her role as Sheldon 's mother Mary in episodes 1 and 24, and Keith Carradine returned as Penny 's father Wyatt in episode 3.
Sheldon 's maternal grandmother Constance who he calls "Meemaw '' made her first long - awaited appearance in episode 14 and was portrayed by June Squibb and Leonard 's father Alfred also made his first long - awaited appearance in episode 24 and was played by Judd Hirsch.
This was the first season to feature every main cast member of the show, including former main cast member Sara Gilbert, who made a guest appearance in the 200th episode.
Leonard and Penny elope in Las Vegas, live streaming the ceremony for friends at home. Leonard wrote a touching cosmology - based wedding vow while Penny recites "You 've Got a Friend in Me ''. When they kiss after he carries her over the threshold, Penny is still bothered that Leonard kissed Mandy two years ago and is outraged to hear they work together. When Leonard and Penny return home, she goes to her apartment alone. Sheldon, confused and hurt by Amy 's indecision about their relationship, insults her before all their friends watching the wedding at Howard and Bernadette 's house. Amy openly breaks with him, upon which all leave except for Howard and Stuart, who actually see the wedding to the end. Sheldon calls his mother to return his great - grandmother 's ring which he had intended for Amy, but Mary tells him to wait. Sheldon briefly considers dating Mandy to hurt Amy. He is angered that Penny knew Amy was unhappy and did not defend him. A dejected Leonard can not believe he is spending his wedding night with Sheldon, though Sheldon always expected this.
After having a nightmare of Sheldon and Penny passionately kissing, Leonard considers marriage counseling but finds it too expensive. Howard and Bernadette have long known of Leonard and Mandy 's kiss. Howard kept it from Raj, as did Bernadette from Penny. Bernadette points out to Penny that the now confident Leonard is with her because he loves her, not out of desperation. During a chat with Mandy Chao, who is not attracted to Leonard and neither remembers nor cares that she kissed him, he realizes part of himself may be trying to sabotage his marriage as he thinks he is not good enough for Penny. Penny admits fearing he will leave her for someone smarter. Both agree to abandon their fears and embrace their happiness. Sheldon surprises them with a trip to San Francisco, only to say he is going too, as he bought the tickets for himself and Amy. Sheldon returns Amy 's belongings, failing to make her jealous by "accidentally '' putting one of Penny 's bras in the box. He records a "Fun With Flags '' episode alone, angrily using countries that separated as metaphors for Amy dumping him. Amy, furious, demands he remove the video, for Sheldon a sign she still wants him.
Raj and Howard plan to kidnap Leonard for a belated bachelor party weekend and forcefully take Sheldon, who is impressed that the van they are driving once belonged to physicist Richard Feynman, and that they plan to stay at his vacation house in Mexico. When the van has a flat tire, a stuck lug nut prevents the men from fixing it. Several scientific methods all fail to remove it, but ultimately inadvertently set the van on fire. Meanwhile, the women have a small bachelorette party at Penny 's apartment. Amy reveals she has not told her family about her breakup with Sheldon, relating how her mother had her sit in a "sin closet ''. Penny pierces Amy 's ears for her, and mentions she has not told her family she married Leonard. She reluctantly calls her father Wyatt, who is simply happy for her, though he upsets Penny on confessing he accidentally killed her pet pig a year ago. The women have Amy call her mother, but when Amy finds it difficult to tell her about the breakup, Penny tells her about Amy 's breakup, her penis cookies, and her pierced ears. Then Amy 's mother has her sit in Penny 's closet.
Leonard and Penny finally tell Sheldon they have moved in together now that they are married. Sheldon is upset, but Bernadette says he should try to find another roommate, though Stuart firmly rejects her idea that he move in with Sheldon. Sheldon rejects everyone he meets and Amy refuses to live with him, as they have just broken up. Sheldon tries to pretend that it is 2003, before he met Leonard, Penny and Amy, and before he developed emotional connections to other people, fearing that Leonard and Penny, too, will eventually abandon him. For his sake, Leonard and Penny agree to split their time between apartments to be with Sheldon who begins to modify The Roommate Agreement for this purpose. Meanwhile, Stuart wants a band to play music in his comic book store for free. Raj and Howard write a filk song about Thor fighting Indiana Jones, though Emily suggests it would be better if people could dance to the music. Raj and Howard momentarily break up the band but quickly make up, playing the song at the store only to have Stuart say they should play music people could dance to.
Howard builds a machine to add mileage to the Fitbit Bernadette bought for him to track his exercise. Leonard, however, decides that the group should become more active and they take up the sport of fencing, attending a class taught by Barry Kripke. After learning that Amy is single, Kripke wants to ask her out, which upsets Sheldon. The men go to a sports bar and encourage Sheldon to move on. Sheldon randomly asks two women out and is rejected. Stuart asks Penny, Bernadette, and Amy for advice on how to attract more female customers to his comic book store and they conclude that his creepy behavior is the problem. Amy sympathizes with him for being lonely, but turns him down when he hits on her. She also rejects Kripke after he sends her a photograph of him nude. When Leonard and Sheldon return home from the bar, they run into Amy and Bernadette, leading to a chat between Sheldon and Amy, who awkwardly exchange anecdotes on their attempts to move on.
Swedish physicists are about to prove Sheldon and Leonard 's super-fluid hypothesis about the universe and the men need liquid helium to conduct their experiment first. Kripke refuses to let them use any of the university 's helium. Howard connects them to Kenny, a black market dealer, though Sheldon 's mistrust of him almost ends the deal. At the lab, Leonard and Sheldon panic about using stolen property and pay Kenny to take it back. Kripke offers to give them some of his helium if they share scientific credit with him. Instead, they pay Kenny for helium a third time and watch Ernest Goes to Jail with him because he gets along with them. Meanwhile, Stuart tells the rest of the group he has been on two dates thanks to an app on his phone. They download it on Amy 's phone much to her discomfort and make fun of the suggested men. To their surprise, a man named Dave texts Amy his thanks for the date they had last night. Amy reveals she has been on three coffee dates with men and is starting to like Dave.
Wil Wheaton arranges for Sheldon to be interviewed for a documentary about Spock, "For the Love of Spock '' and Leonard Nimoy by his son Adam. Sheldon explains he admired the character of Spock from childhood for being unemotional and tried to imitate him. He brings up the autographed napkin from Nimoy from "The Bath Item Gift Hypothesis '' that he keeps with his valuables, including the engagement ring he meant for Amy. His aborted proposal to Amy shocks Leonard and Penny who push Sheldon to admit he is feeling hurt. Sheldon lashes out, but decides to propose to Amy anyway for closure. From a distance, he sees her kiss another man, Dave, goodbye outside her apartment building. Sheldon leaves dejected. At home, he is upset Spock 's way of life is a lie, and Leonard tells him to start focusing on the real people in his life. Meanwhile, Bernadette wants to start renovating the house, though Howard protests against changing his childhood home. Calling in her father Mike, he asks why Howard does not want children. Howard reveals Bernadette to be the one resisting parenthood. Raj theorizes she fears it because Howard acts so childish. Howard says he always dreamed of being a responsible father to make up for his own abandonment in childhood. Bernadette promises to think about it.
Amy has another date with Dave, so Bernadette and Penny decide to spy on her, dragging Leonard along. During the date, Dave reveals he is a huge fan of Sheldon 's scientific work. He asks her about Sheldon the entire time, greatly annoying her. As they leave, Bernadette hits Dave 's car. Initially outraged about the accident, Dave meets Leonard and is instantly starstruck. Amy ends it with Dave, who is happy to have kissed and been rejected by the same woman as Dr. Sheldon Cooper. Meanwhile, Sheldon struggles to move on without Amy, so he asks Howard and Raj to set him up with another woman since they introduced him to Amy. They post an ad on Craigslist that is filled with scientific and science - fiction brain teasers to solve for Sheldon 's contact information that night. Fifteen seconds after the deadline, a woman named Vanessa shows up, sharing many of Sheldon 's interests including physics, flags, and obscure languages. He does like her, but shuts the door on her for exceeding the time limit.
Sheldon and Amy want to be friends and spend Thanksgiving day at the aquarium. Despite initial awkwardness, Amy honestly answers Sheldon 's questions about her dating life, and each wants the other to be happy. They fall back into their old relationship as friends. Later, Amy asks Sheldon to be his girlfriend again. Sheldon declines, since getting over her was too difficult, but wishes to remain friends. Amy hides her hurt feelings. Bernadette, Raj and Emily drag Howard to a soup kitchen to volunteer for the day. Howard hates washing dishes, but is delighted to meet Elon Musk, the founder of SpaceX. They bond over space travel. Meanwhile, Leonard and Penny prepare Thanksgiving dinner. When he realizes she does not know his birthday, he proceeds to list personal things he knows about her, but accidentally reveals knowing she hates some orange lingerie he bought her, which she only disclosed in her journal. To apologize for reading it without permission, Leonard dances in the lingerie, asking Penny to post an image on her social media as punishment. Penny refuses, but Howard, Raj, Bernadette, and Emily barge into the scene in his apartment.
Sheldon is humming the melody to a song he does not know the name of, which is especially unusual since he has an eidetic memory. He spends two days obsessing over the tune and recording a log while he is still mentally sound, fearing he might be turning into a mad genius, thus annoying Leonard and Penny. Sheldon finally realizes the song is "Darlin ' '' by the Beach Boys and that the lyrics relate to how Amy made him a better man, and rushes to her apartment. Although she is on a date with Dave, Amy realizes Sheldon loves her and they get back together. Meanwhile, Howard and Raj 's fan page for their filk band is liked by a person named Trent. They stalk Trent online and think he is very cool, deciding to go meet him in a café. However, they see him pick his nose and eat his own booger, causing them to run out.
After an iconic Star Wars - like opening credit crawl, the men are overjoyed to get opening night tickets to the Star Wars: The Force Awakens movie, which premieres on Amy 's birthday. Sheldon still wants to see it, despite Penny saying he should be with Amy. Sheldon has a dream / visitation where Arthur Jeffries ' ghost talks with him while dressed as a Jedi master, and convinces him Amy is more important. Talking over birthday gift ideas with Penny and Bernadette, he shocks them by saying he is going to have coitus with Amy to show her how much she means to him. On Amy 's birthday, Sheldon and Amy are nervous about having sex, but enjoy the experience more than they expected. Sheldon wants to do it again on her next birthday, which is fine with Amy. Arthur later appears to Sheldon again, asking for details about the sex, but Sheldon replies by discussing the movie, oblivious to Arthur 's real question. Meanwhile, the rest of the men go to the movie with Wil Wheaton, who arrives dressed as Spock in a Star Trek uniform. After the movie, the men lie back in the afterglow, much like Sheldon and Amy did.
Penny can not find a way to make a sales call on psychiatrist Dr. Gallo. She has Leonard pose as a patient to get her in the door. Dr. Gallo disagrees with the way Leonard 's mother approaches psychology. Leonard feels great talking with her. When Penny meets her, Dr. Gallo has her question why she often acts like a mother to Leonard, along with her other anxieties, such as Sheldon. She also makes Penny feels better after their talk. Dr. Gallo gives her a prescription, but not the one Penny was supposed to sell. While Amy is at a conference, Sheldon spends the day at the astronomy lab with Raj. After they discover a medium - sized asteroid, they argue about what to name it; Leonard suggests they name it after their girlfriends. Sheldon gets Raj to name it after Amy in exchange for any children Sheldon and Amy have being named Rajesh, even their daughters. Howard and Bernadette want to start remodeling the house and are excited when Stuart moves out, but are surprised when they find they miss him. Stuart sneaks back at night to watch them sleep.
While Amy is still away, Sheldon has recovered from the flu, but though his friends attempt to help him, his rude behavior during his illness offends them. They decide to rent a party bus to Las Vegas to get away from him. Amy admits she, too, extended her trip to avoid him, and teaches Sheldon about empathy. After Sheldon realizes what he did was wrong, he apologizes to each of his friends in turn, but his apology to Emily goes wrong when he says dermatologists are not real doctors. When Raj tries to defend Sheldon, it leads to a fight between him and Emily. Sheldon decides not to go to Las Vegas with the group as a gesture of his regret, but sneaks onto the bus with Stuart to make amends with Emily and fix things between her and Raj. Sheldon and Stuart then leave, but the others decide to let Sheldon and Stuart go with them after all.
Sheldon 's grandmother "Meemaw '' visits Pasadena to check out Amy. Meemaw distrusts Amy due to their breakup and lets slip that Sheldon had planned to propose. Both Sheldon and Amy tell Meemaw how they make each other a better person, so Meemaw tells them that she wo n't stand in their way. Meanwhile, Raj has a debate about Frozen with Howard, attracting the attention of Claire, a bartender working on a science - fiction screenplay for a children 's film. She asks Raj to meet her for a scientific perspective on her plot. Raj wants to do this, but Howard and Bernadette warn him it could upset Emily. Raj is unsure where things are going with her, but eventually tells Claire he has a girlfriend. Claire says they can still meet as two platonic adults. However, at the meeting, Raj fantasizes about having a family with Claire.
Leonard and Penny go out to eat for Valentine 's Day and realize that they are getting older after Penny is addressed as "Ma'am ''. Howard and Bernadette plan on using their new hot tub and find a rabbit floating in it. After nursing it back to health and naming it Valentino, the rabbit bites Howard, who heads off to the ER for a rabies shot. Bernadette decides for the moment not to tell him that she is pregnant. Raj finally decides to break up with Emily and then calls Claire, who has just gotten back together with her old boyfriend. Emily does not take him back, sending Raj into a depression. Sheldon and Amy host their first live episode of "Fun with Flags ''. Taking live phone calls, wherein Amy ends up speaking with Raj and Barry Kripke about their love lives, thoroughly depresses Sheldon. Amy does get Sheldon to admit their own breakup has made them a stronger couple. They are interrupted by Penny and Leonard, who barge in dressed as Cupids, throwing confetti in an effort to feel young again.
Bernadette tells Howard she is pregnant. While he is excited at first, he begins panicking that he will be a bad parent. When Howard talks things over with the men, Sheldon is upset that a baby will change their social group. The others try to calm him down at a karaoke bar and come up with a possible way for him to make more money by expanding on Sheldon and Leonard 's research and patenting the idea. A drunk Sheldon says that, because he and Howard both grew up without fathers, Howard will know how important he is to his own child. Meanwhile, Bernadette meets with the women to tell them, though Leonard texts Penny beforehand. She is worried by Howard 's reaction, but Amy and Penny tell her life will be better with a child. Bernadette shocks them by admitting the baby was conceived on Sheldon 's bed. After their ideas for fun all turn out to be impossible to do because Bernadette is pregnant, the men invite them to sing karaoke with them. Howard and Bernadette soothe each other 's fears. Everyone takes turns singing about babies to Bernadette, while Sheldon is shocked to learn what happened in his bedroom.
When Amy plans a birthday party for Sheldon because he made her birthday so special, he is reluctant on account of a traumatic childhood experience in which his sister 's friends lied to him that Batman was coming to his sixth birthday, thereby ruining all his birthdays thereafter. Nonetheless, he relents, and the friends hire TV 's Batman, Adam West, to attend as their present. When Sheldon arrives, he is initially happy, but quickly panics and runs into the bathroom. Penny tries to talk to him and they open up to one another. He emerges to apologize to everyone, after which Amy and all assembled share a toast in Sheldon 's honor. Sheldon is delighted to hear all the nice things said about him. They then receive a video call from Professor Stephen Hawking, who joins them in singing "Happy Birthday to You ''.
Sheldon, Leonard, and Howard move forward with patenting their gyroscope idea, but are shocked to learn that, as Caltech employees, they are only entitled to 25 % of any profits, and that Howard, as a NASA employee, is not legally entitled to any profits. They reluctantly agree to sign, allowing Sheldon to write their own contract to share the money from the remaining 25 % with Howard. Bernadette is against this, as Sheldon belittles Howard every time they try to work together. When confronted about this, Sheldon agrees to make it part of the contract that he be respectful of Howard for the purposes of the patent. Sheldon also shows his generosity by stipulating that 1 / 4 of his profits will go to a scholarship fund for the Wolowitzs ' baby. Meanwhile, Emily sends Raj a belated Valentine 's gift and wants to see him again. Raj turns to the women for advice, but decides to go through with seeing her after they say he should n't. On his way there, Claire calls him to say she is now single and he should see her instead, since Emily is just manipulating him. Raj drives back and forth while talking to both women, unsure of whom he should see, before choosing Emily and ultimately sleeping with her.
While Leonard and Howard work in Howard 's lab, their wives join them and help with their project. After leaving to pick up more solder, the two men are invited to see a preview of Suicide Squad and decide to lie to their wives and attend. Howard spitefully texts Raj, unaware that he is in the lab with the women. Raj is ready to help the women out their husbands ' lie, but the men show up with flowers and apologize. Sheldon 's old laptop finally dies, so Amy buys him a new one. He does not want to dispose of the broken one and takes Amy to a storage facility, where he reveals that he has never thrown anything away, including clothes, broken electronics, and toothbrushes. Amy now feels closer to him. Sheldon sends her home so that he can skype with her on his new high - resolution laptop.
Amy persuades Sheldon to join her, Leonard and Penny for a weekend at a cabin in the woods. Sheldon is phobic to everything in the outdoors. After their hike is rained out, they play the game "Never Have I Ever '', where Sheldon exposes Leonard 's extra bank account that he keeps secret from Penny. Penny gets mad, but reluctantly understands. She admits she is unhappy in pharmaceutical sales, but also does not want to go back to acting or waitressing. She resolves to stick to her job in order to be adult and pay off her credit card debt. Sheldon admits he was once arrested in a jaywalking incident, and Amy once pushed all the buttons in an elevator. Raj gets too involved in Bernadette 's pregnancy by suggesting specialists and buying a huge Costco teddy bear. Howard tells him to back off, until Bernadette gets upset and wants both him and the bear back. He returns, and the three listen to the baby 's heartbeat, though Raj gets a little too close again.
As the group prepares to watch Game of Thrones at the apartment, Leonard refuses to go to Sheldon 's quarterly roommate agreement meeting and is further annoyed when Penny takes Sheldon 's side. Amy arrives and agrees with Leonard, stating her dislike of meetings regarding the relationship agreement. On the way there, Raj constantly brags about dating both Emily and Claire, annoying Howard. Stuart shows up in costume because Howard tricked him into wearing it. The group splits up, with Sheldon, Penny, Raj, and Stuart in one apartment and Leonard, Amy, and Howard across the hall. Leonard is further upset to learn Penny goes behind his back to Sheldon to get what she wants in the roommate agreement. Amy only took Leonard 's side because she is jealous of how close Sheldon and Penny are. Howard accidentally eats pistachios and has to go to the hospital after an allergic reaction. He is alright. The group compare all their scheming to the characters on the Game of Thrones series. The men later make fun of Stuart riding home on a bike while still in costume.
Penny wins a wine - tasting trip at work, so everyone but Sheldon and a pregnant Bernadette joins her. Raj is still dating both Emily and Claire, but is not exclusive with either and decides to bring Claire, asking his friends not to bring up their relationship status. They meet Penny 's old boyfriend Zack, who raises the potential military applications of Leonard and Howard 's gyroscope system. This worries them, but Howard decides he still needs the money for his baby, so they move forward. Zack also flirts with Claire and questions why Raj is not more committed to her. Claire tricks Raj into admitting he is seeing someone else too. At home, Sheldon bores Bernadette with his love of trains and different types of toast, but she does enjoy a version of Dungeons & Dragons, in which her character is not pregnant and can enjoy alcohol, sushi, and hot tubs. She thanks him for a fun break from her pregnancy.
To avoid his mother Beverly and join the guys at a special Avengers screening and Q&A session, Leonard has Penny collect her from the airport. Penny tries to bond with her but is countered with condescending or psychoanalytical remarks. Beverly offers to interview Amy, Bernadette and partners for a new book on high - achieving couples, but when Bernadette suggests she interview Penny too and Beverly retorts "About what? '', Penny finally explodes and expresses her feelings at the insults. Beverly admits reacting to the insult of neither being invited to her son 's wedding nor even being informed of it. Penny suggests holding a new ceremony for Beverly, and they at last bond. Sheldon hires Stuart to shop with Amy instead of him so he can keep his place in line for the Q&A event. Amy, annoyed, pays Stuart to yell at Sheldon, and rejects Sheldon 's flowers and apology delivered by Stuart. Stuart holds Sheldon 's place in line so he can apologize to Amy in person. Sheldon 's experience is finally ruined when only he is upset about a man joining friends in the line ahead of Sheldon.
When Leonard and Penny announce their second wedding ceremony, conflict arises between Leonard 's parents Beverly and Alfred. Sheldon has also invited his mother Mary. Beverly and Mary are distant with each other, while Beverly and Alfred bicker. While the Hofstadters snipe at each other during dinner, Mary and Alfred bond over their dislike of Beverly and leave early, since they are staying at the same hotel. Sheldon and Leonard are later worried when neither parent will answer their phones that night, though Penny is amused at the thought that their parents are becoming closer. When Howard gets an e-mail from the U.S. Air Force about his gyroscope patent, he fears that the government is after him, due to negative portrayals of them in the media. Bernadette tries to convince him that he is paranoid, but Howard 's fears increase when he sees a car following them to dinner, unaware that it is Leonard and Penny. His attempt to evade them causes him to drive recklessly, and he is pulled over by a policeman for a sobriety test.
The ninth season received mixed reviews. John Doyle of The Globe and Mail criticized the humor, writing that "The show is n't funny any more. The same tired jokes go around in circles. It 's dated and stale '', while Tom Eames of Digital Spy criticized the relationship between characters Leonard and Penny, writing that they "certainly do n't have some passionate, Ross and Rachel - style ' will they / wo n't they ' romance, with fans dying to see them together. Even now they 're married, it 's a weirdly anti-climactic payoff - and it does n't quite feel right that they 're together. '' Ashley Bissette Sumerel of TV Fanatic wrote that "For a rather serious season premiere, "The Matrimonial Momentum '' is still a lot of fun ".
General references
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this lowered tariff rates for the first time since the civil war | Tariffs in United States History - wikipedia
The tariff history of the United States spans from colonial times to present. The first tariff law passed by the U.S. Congress, acting under the then recently ratified Constitution, was the Tariff of 1789. Its purpose was to generate revenue for the federal government (to run the government and to pay the interest on its debt), and also to act as a protective barrier around domestic industries. An Import tax was collected by treasury agents before goods could be landed at U.S. ports.
Tariffs have historically served a key role in the nation 's foreign trade policy. They were the greatest (approaching 95 % at times) source of federal revenue until the Federal income tax began after 1913. For well over a century the federal government was largely financed by tariffs averaging about 20 % on foreign imports. There are no tariffs for imports or shipments from one state to another. Since the 1940s, foreign trade policies have focused more on reciprocal tariffs and low tariff rates rather than using tariffs as a significant source of Federal tax revenue.
Tariffs were the main source of revenue for the federal government from 1789 to 1914. During this period, there was vigorous debate between the various political parties over the setting of tariff rates. In general Democrats favored a tariff that would pay the cost of government, but no higher. Whigs and Republicans favored higher tariffs to protect and encourage American industry and industrial workers. Since the early 20th century, however, U.S. tariffs have been very low and have been much less a matter of partisan debate.
Prior to the American Civil War tariffs were generally low, but rose during its duration. At the end of the end of the war in 1865 about 63 % of federal revenue was generated by excise taxes, which exceeded the 25.4 % generated by tariffs. In 1915 during World War I tariffs generated only 30.1 % of revenues. Since 1935 tariff income has continued to be a declining percentage of Federal revenues.
According to Michael Lind, protectionism was America 's de facto policy from the passage of the Tariff of 1816 to World War II, "switching to free trade only in 1945, when most of its industrial competitors had been wiped out '' by the war.. It has been argued that one of the underlying motivations for the American Revolution itself was a desire to industrialize, and reverse the trade deficit with Britain, which had grown by a factor of ten in the space of a few decades, from £ 67,000 (1721 -- 30) to £ 739,000 (1761 -- 70).
According to Paul Bairoch, since the end of the 18th century, the United States has been "the homeland and bastion of modern protectionism ''. In fact, the United States never adhered to free trade until 1945. A very protectionist policy was adopted as soon as the presidency of George Washington by Alexander Hamilton, the first US Secretary of the Treasury from 1789 to 1795 and author of the text Report on Manufactures which called for customs barriers to allow American industrial development and to help protect infant industries, including bounties (subsidies) derived in part from those tariffs. This text was one of the references of the German economist Friedrich List (1789 -- 1846). The United States has become the main opposition to free trade and this policy remained throughout the 19th century: the overall level of tariffs was very high (close to 50 % in 1830). The victory of the protectionist states of the North over the free trade southern states at the end of the Civil War (1861 -- 1865) perpetuated this trend, even during periods of free trade in Europe (1860 -- 1880).
Hamilton explained that despite an initial "increase of price '' caused by regulations that control foreign competition, once a "domestic manufacture has attained to perfection... it invariably becomes cheaper. '' George Washington signed the Tariff Act of 1789, making it the Republic 's second ever piece of legislation. Increasing the domestic supply of manufactured goods, particularly war materials, was seen as an issue of national security. Washington and Hamilton believed that political independence was predicated upon economic independence.
In the 19th century, statesmen such as Senator Henry Clay continued Hamilton 's themes within the Whig Party under the name "American System. '' The fledgling Republican Party led by Abraham Lincoln, who called himself a "Henry Clay tariff Whig '', strongly opposed free trade, and implemented a 44 - percent tariff during the Civil War -- in part to pay for railroad subsidies and for the war effort, and to protect favored industries.
From 1871 to 1913, "the average U.S. tariff on dutiable imports never fell below 38 percent (and) gross national product (GNP) grew 4.3 percent annually, twice the pace in free trade Britain and well above the U.S. average in the 20th century, '' notes Alfred Eckes Jr., chairman of the U.S. International Trade Commission under President Reagan.
In 1896, the GOP platform pledged to "renew and emphasize our allegiance to the policy of protection, as the bulwark of American industrial independence, and the foundation of development and prosperity. This true American policy taxes foreign products and encourages home industry. It puts the burden of revenue on foreign goods; it secures the American market for the American producer. It upholds the American standard of wages for the American workingman. ''
"I use no porter or cheese in my family, but such as is made in America, '' the inaugural President George Washington wrote, boasting that these domestic products are "of an excellent quality. ''
One of the first acts of Congress Washington signed was a tariff among whose stated purpose was "the encouragement and protection of manufactures. ''
In his 1790 State of the Union Address, Washington justified his tariff policy for national security reasons:
A free people ought not only to be armed, but disciplined; to which end a uniform and well - digested plan is requisite; and their safety and interest require that they should promote such manufactories as tend to render them independent of others for essential, particularly military, supplies
As President Thomas Jefferson wrote in explaining why his views had evolved to favor more protectionist policies: "In so complicated a science as political economy, no one axiom can be laid down as wise and expedient for all times and circumstances, and for their contraries. ''
After the War of 1812, Jefferson 's position began to resemble that of Washington, some level of protection was necessary to secure the nation 's political independence. He said:
experience has taught me that manufactures are now as necessary to our independence as to our comfort: and if those who quote me as of a different opinion will keep pace with me in purchasing nothing foreign where an equivalent of domestic fabric can be obtained, without regard to difference of price
In 1832, then the United States Senator from Kentucky, Henry Clay said about his disdain for "free traders '' (9) that "it is not free trade that they are recommending to our acceptance. It is in effect, the British colonial system that we are invited to adopt; and, if their policy prevail, it will lead substantially to the re-colonization of these States, under the commercial dominion of Great Britain. ''
Clay said:
When gentlemen have succeeded in their design of an immediate or gradual destruction of the American System, what is their substitute? Free trade! Free trade! The call for free trade is as unavailing as the cry of a spoiled child, in its nurse 's arms, for the moon, or the stars that glitter in the firmament of heaven. It never has existed; it never will exist. Trade implies, at least two parties. To be free, it should be fair, equal and reciprocal.
Clay explained that "equal and reciprocal '' free trade "never has existed; (and) it never will exist. '' He warned against practicing "romantic trade philanthropy... which invokes us to continue to purchase the produce of foreign industry, without regard to the state or prosperity of our own. '' Clay made clear that he was "utterly and irreconcilably opposed '' to trade which would "throw wide open our ports to foreign productions '' without reciprocation.
Henry Clay 's longtime rival and political opponent, President Andrew Jackson, in explaining his support for a tariff, wrote:
We have been too long subject to the policy of the British merchants. It is time we should become a little more Americanized, and, instead of feeding the paupers and laborers of Europe, feed our own, or else, in a short time, by continuing our present policy, we shall all be paupers ourselves.
In 1822, President James Monroe observed that "whatever may be the abstract doctrine in favor of unrestricted commerce, '' the conditions necessary for its success -- reciprocity and international peace -- "has never occurred and can not be expected. '' Monroe said, "strong reasons... impose on us the obligation to cherish and sustain our manufactures. ''
President Abraham Lincoln declared, "Give us a protective tariff and we will have the greatest nation on earth. '' Lincoln warned that "the abandonment of the protective policy by the American Government... must produce want and ruin among our people. ''
Lincoln similarly said that, "if a duty amount to full protection be levied upon an article '' that could be produced domestically, "at no distant day, in consequence of such duty, '' the domestic article "will be sold to our people cheaper than before. ''
Additionally, Lincoln argued that based on economies of scale, any temporary increase in costs resulting from a tariff would eventually decrease as the domestic manufacturer produced more.
Lincoln did not see a tariff as a tax on low - income Americans because it would only burden the consumer according to the amount the consumer consumed. By the tariff system, the whole revenue is paid by the consumers of foreign goods... the burthen of revenue falls almost entirely on the wealthy and luxurious few, while the substantial and laboring many who live at home, and upon home products, go entirely free.
Lincoln argued that a tariff system was less intrusive than domestic taxation: The tariff is the cheaper system, because the duties, being collected in large parcels at a few commercial points, will require comparatively few officers in their collection; while by the direct tax system, the land must be literally covered with assessors and collectors, going forth like swarms of Egyptian locusts, devouring every blade of grass and other green thing.
President William McKinley stated the United States ' stance under the Republican Party as:
Under free trade the trader is the master and the producer the slave. Protection is but the law of nature, the law of self - preservation, of self - development, of securing the highest and best destiny of the race of man. (It is said) that protection is immoral... Why, if protection builds up and elevates 63,000,000 (the U.S. population) of people, the influence of those 63,000,000 of people elevates the rest of the world. We can not take a step in the pathway of progress without benefiting mankind everywhere. Well, they say, ' Buy where you can buy the cheapest '... Of course, that applies to labor as to everything else. Let me give you a maxim that is a thousand times better than that, and it is the protection maxim: ' Buy where you can pay the easiest. ' And that spot of earth is where labor wins its highest rewards.
(Free trade) destroys the dignity and independence of American labor... It will take away from the people of this country who work for a living -- and the majority of them live by the sweat of their faces -- it will take from them heart and home and hope. It will be self - destruction.
He also rejected the "cheaper is better '' argument outright:
They (free traders) say, ' Buy where you can buy the cheapest. ' That is one of their maxims... Of course, that applies to labor as to everything else. Let me give you a maxim that is a thousand times better than that, and it is the protection maxim: ' Buy where you can pay the easiest. ' And that spot of earth is where labor wins its highest rewards.
They say, if you had not the Protective Tariff things would be a little cheaper. Well, whether a thing is cheap or whether it is dear depends on what we can earn by our daily labor. Free trade cheapens the product by cheapening the producer. Protection cheapens the product by elevating the producer.
The protective tariff policy of the Republicans... has made the lives of the masses of our countrymen sweeter and brighter, and has entered the homes of America carrying comfort and cheer and courage. It gives a premium to human energy, and awakens the noblest aspiration in the breasts of men. Our own experience shows that it is the best for our citizenship and our civilization and that it opens up a higher and better destiny for our people.
President Theodore Roosevelt believed that America 's economic growth was due to the protective tariffs, which helped her industrialize. He acknowledged this in his State of the Union address from 1902:
The country has acquiesced in the wisdom of the protective - tariff principle. It is exceedingly undesirable that this system should be destroyed or that there should be violent and radical changes therein. Our past experience shows that great prosperity in this country has always come under a protective tariff.
In the colonial era, before 1775, nearly every colony levied its own tariffs, usually with lower rates for British products. There were taxes on ships (on a tonnage basis), import taxes on slaves, export taxes on tobacco, and import taxes on alcoholic beverages. The London government insisted on a policy of mercantilism whereby only British ships could trade in the colonies. In defiance, some American merchants engaged in smuggling.
During the Revolution, the British blockade from 1775 to 1783 largely ended foreign trade. In the 1783 -- 89 period, each state set up its own trade rules, often imposing tariffs or restrictions on neighboring states. The new Constitution, which went into effect in 1789, banned interstate tariffs or trade restrictions, as well as state taxes on exports.
The framers of the United States Constitution gave the federal government authority to tax, stating that Congress has the power to "... lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States. '' and also "To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes. '' Tariffs between states is prohibited by the U.S. Constitution, and all domestically made products can be imported or shipped to another state tax - free.
Responding to an urgent need for revenue and a trade imbalance with England that was fast destroying the infant American industries and draining the nation of its currency, the First United States Congress passed, and President George Washington signed, the Hamilton Tariff of 1789, which authorized the collection of duties on imported goods. Customs duties as set by tariff rates up to 1860 were usually about 80 -- 95 % of all federal revenue. Having just fought a war over taxation (among other things) the U.S. Congress wanted a reliable source of income that was relatively unobtrusive and easy to collect. It also sought to protect the infant industries that had developed during the war but which were now threatened by cheaper imports, especially from England. Tariffs and excise taxes were authorized by the United States Constitution and recommended by the first United States Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton in 1789 to tax foreign imports and set up low excise taxes on whiskey and a few other products to provide the Federal Government with enough money to pay its operating expenses and to redeem at full value U.S. Federal debts and the debts the states had accumulated during the Revolutionary War. The Congress set low excise taxes on only a few goods, such as, whiskey, rum, tobacco, snuff and refined sugar. The tax on whiskey was highly controversial and set of massive protests by Western Farmers in the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794, which was suppressed by General Washington at the head of an army. The whiskey excise tax collected so little and was so despised it was abolished by President Thomas Jefferson in 1802.
All tariffs were on a long list of goods (dutiable goods) with different customs rates and some goods on a "free '' list. Congress spent enormous amounts of time figuring out these tariff import tax schedules.
With tariffs providing the basic federal revenue, an embargo on trade, or an enemy blockade, would threaten havoc. This happened in connection with the American economic warfare against Britain in the 1807 -- 15 period. In 1807 imports dropped by more than half and some products became much more expensive or unobtainable. Congress passed the Embargo Act of 1807 and the Non-Intercourse Act (1809) to punish British and French governments for their actions; unfortunately their main effect was to reduce imports even more. The War of 1812 brought a similar set of problems as U.S. trade was again restricted by British naval blockades. The fiscal crisis was made much worse by the abolition of the First Bank of the U.S., which was the national bank. It was reestablished right after the war.
The lack of imported goods relatively quickly gave very strong incentives to start building several U.S. industries in the Northeast. Textiles and machinery especially grew. Many new industries were set up and run profitably during the wars and about half of them failed after hostilities ceased and normal imports resumed. Industry in the U.S. was advancing up the skill set, innovation knowledge and organization curve.
The Tariff Act of 1789 imposed the first national source of revenue for the newly formed United States. The new U.S. Constitution ratified in 1789, allowed only the federal government to levy uniform tariffs. Only the federal government could set tariff rates (customs), so the old system of separate state rates disappeared. The new law taxed all imports at rates from 5 to 15 percent. These rates were primarily designed to generate revenue to pay the annual expenses of the federal government and the national debt and the debts the states had accumulated during the American War of Independence and to also promote manufactures and independence from foreign nations, especially for defense needs. Hamilton believed that all Revolutionary War debt should be paid in full to establish and keep U.S. financial credibility. In addition to income in his Report on Manufactures Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton proposed a far - reaching plan to use protective tariffs as a lever for rapid industrialization. In the late 18th century the industrial age was just starting and the United States had little or no textile industry -- the heart of the early Industrial Revolution. The British government having just lost the Revolutionary War tried to maintain their near monopoly on cheap and efficient textile manufacturing by prohibiting the export of textile machines, machine models or the emigration of people familiar with these machines. Clothing in the early United States was nearly all hand made by a very time consuming and expensive process -- just like it had been made for centuries before. The new textile manufacturing techniques in Britain were often over thirty times cheaper as well as being easier to use, more efficient and productive. Hamilton believed that a stiff tariff on imports would not only raise income but "protect '' and help subsidize early efforts at setting up manufacturing facilities that could compete with British products.
Samuel Slater in 1789 emigrated (illegally since he was familiar with textile manufacturing) from Britain. Looking for opportunities he heard of the failing attempts at making cotton mills in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Contacting the owners he promised to see if he could fix their mills -- they offered him a full partnership if he succeeded. Declaring their early attempts unworkable he proceeded from January 1790 to December 1790 to build the first operational textile manufacturing facility in the United States. The Industrial Revolution was off and running in the United States. Initially the cost of their textiles was slightly higher than the cost of equivalent British goods but the tariff helped protect their early start - up industry.
The high protectionism tariffs Hamilton originally called for were not adopted until after the War of 1812, when nationalists such as Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun saw the need for more federal income and more industry. In wartime, they declared, having a home industry was a necessity to avoid shortages. Likewise owners of the small new factories that were springing up in the northeast to mass - produce boots, hats, nails and other common items wanted higher tariffs that would significantly protect them for a time from more efficient British producers. A 10 % discount on the customs tax was offered on items imported in American ships, so that the American merchant marine would be supported.
Once industrialization and mass production started, the demand for higher and higher tariffs came from manufacturers and factory workers. They believed that their businesses should be protected from the lower wages and more efficient factories of Britain and the rest of Europe. Nearly every northern Congressman was eager to logroll a higher tariff rate for his local industry. Senator Daniel Webster, formerly a spokesperson for Boston 's merchants who imported goods (and wanted low tariffs), switched dramatically to represent the manufacturing interests in the Tariff of 1824. Rates were especially high for bolts of cloth and for bar iron, of which Britain was a low - cost producer. The culmination came in the Tariff of 1828, ridiculed by free traders as the "Tariff of Abominations '', with import custom duties averaging over 25 percent. Intense political opposition to higher tariffs came from Southern Democrats and plantation owners in South Carolina who had little manufacturing industry and imported some products with high tariffs. They would have to pay more for imports. They claimed their economic interest was being unfairly injured. They attempted to "nullify '' the federal tariff and spoke of secession from the Union (see the Nullification Crisis). President Andrew Jackson let it be known he would use the U.S. Army to enforce the law, and no state supported the South Carolina call for nullification. A compromise ended the crisis included a lowering of the average tariff rate over ten years to a rate of 15 % to 20 %.
Tariffs soon became a major political issue as the Whigs (1832 -- 1852) and (after 1854) the Republicans wanted to protect their mostly northern industries and constituents by voting for higher tariffs and the Southern Democrats, which had very little industry but imported many goods voted for lower tariffs. Each party as it came into power voted to raise or lower tariffs under the constraints that the Federal Government always needed a certain level of revenues. The United States public debt was paid off in 1834 and President Andrew Jackson, a strong Southern Democrat, oversaw the cutting of the tariff rates roughly in half and eliminating nearly all federal excise taxes in about 1835.
Henry Clay and his Whig Party, envisioning a rapid modernization based on highly productive factories, sought a high tariff. Their key argument was that startup factories, or "infant industries '', would at first be less efficient than European (British) producers. Furthermore, American factory workers were paid higher wages than their European competitors. The arguments proved highly persuasive in industrial districts. Clay 's position was adopted in the 1828 and 1832 Tariff Acts. The Nullification Crisis forced a partial abandonment of the Whig position. When the Whigs won victories in the 1840 and 1842 elections, taking control of Congress, they re-instituted higher tariffs with the Tariff of 1842. In examining these debates Moore finds that they were not precursors to Civil War. Instead they looked backward and continued the old debate whether foreign trade policy should embrace free trade or protectionism.
The Democrats won in 1845, electing James K. Polk as president. Polk succeeded in passing the Walker tariff of 1846 by uniting the rural and agricultural factions of the entire country for lower tariffs. They sought a level of a "tariff for revenue only '' that would pay the cost of government but not show favoritism to one section or economic sector at the expense of another. The Walker Tariff actually increased trade with Britain and others and brought in more revenue to the federal treasury than the higher tariff. The average tariff on the Walker Tariff was about 25 %. While protectionists in Pennsylvania and neighboring states were angered, the South achieved its goal of setting low tariff rates before the Civil War.
The Walker Tariff remained in place until 1857, when a nonpartisan coalition lowered them again with the Tariff of 1857 to 18 %. This was in response to the British repeal of their protectionist "Corn Laws ''.
The Democrats in Congress, dominated by Southern Democrats, wrote and passed the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates, so that the 1857 rates were down to about 15 %, a move that boosted trade so overwhelmingly that revenues actually increased, from just over $20 million in 1840 ($0.5 billion in 2016 dollars), to more than $80 million by 1856 ($1.7 billion). The South had almost no complaints but the low rates angered many Northern industrialists and factory workers, especially in Pennsylvania, who demanded protection for their growing iron industry. The Republican Party replaced the Whigs in 1854 and also favored high tariffs to stimulate industrial growth; it was part of the 1860 Republican platform.
The Morrill Tariff significantly raising tariff rates became possible only after the Southern Senators walked out of Congress when their states left the Union, leaving a Republican majority. It was signed by Democratic President James Buchanan in early March 1861 shortly before President Abraham Lincoln took office. Pennsylvania iron mills and New England woolen mills mobilized businessmen and workers to call for high tariffs, but Republican merchants wanted low tariffs. The high tariff advocates lost in 1857, but stepped up their campaign by blaming the economic recession of 1857 on the lower rates. Economist Henry Charles Carey of Philadelphia was the most outspoken advocate, along with Horace Greeley and his influential newspaper, the New York Tribune. Increases were finally enacted in February 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress on the eve of the Civil War.
Some historians in recent decades have minimized the tariff issue as a cause of the war, noting that few people in 1860 -- 61 said it was of central importance to them. Compromises were proposed in 1860 -- 61 to save the Union, but they did not involve the tariff. Arguably, the effects of a tariff enacted in March 1861 could have made little impact upon any delegation which met prior to its signing. It is indicative of the Northern industrial supported and anti-agrarian position of that 1861 Republican controlled congress. Some secessionist documents do mention a tariff issue, though not nearly as often as the preservation of the impactful economic institution of slavery. However, a few libertarian economists place more importance on the tariff issue.
During the war far more revenue was needed, so the rates were raised again and again, along with many other taxes such as excise taxes on luxuries and income taxes on the rich. By far most of the wartime government revenue came from bonds and loans ($2.6 billion), not taxes ($357 million) or tariffs ($305 million).
The Morrill Tariff took effect a few weeks before the war began on April 12, 1861, and was not collected in the South. The Confederate States of America (CSA) passed its own tariff of about 15 % on most items, including many items that previously were duty - free from the North. Previously tariffs between states were prohibited. The Confederates believed that they could finance their government by tariffs. The anticipated tariff revenue never appeared as the Union Navy blockaded their ports and the Union army restricted their trade with the Northern states. The Confederacy collected a mere $3.5 million in tariff revenue from the Civil War start to end and had to resort to inflation and confiscation instead for revenue.
Historian Howard K. Beale argued that high tariffs were needed during the Civil War, but were retained after the war for the benefit of Northern industrialists, who would otherwise lose markets and profits. To keep political control of Congress, Beale argued, Northern Industrialists worked through the Republican Party and supported Reconstruction policies that kept low - tariff Southern whites out of power. The Beale thesis was widely disseminated by the influential survey of Charles A. Beard, The Rise of American Civilization (1927).
In the late 1950s historians rejected the Beale - Beard thesis by showing that Northern businessmen were evenly divided on the tariff, and were not using Reconstruction policies to support it.
The iron and steel industry, and the wool industry, were the well - organized interests groups that demanded (and usually obtained) high tariffs through support of the Republican Party. Industrial workers had much higher wages than their European counterparts, and they creditied it to the tariff and voted Republican.
Democrats were divided on the issue, in large part because of pro-tariff elements in the Pennsylvania party who wanted to protect the growing iron industry, as well as pockets of high tariff support in nearby industrializing states. However President Grover Cleveland made low tariffs the centerpiece of Democratic Party policies in the late 1880s. His argument is that high tariffs were an unnecessary and unfair tax on consumers. The South and West generally supported low tariffs, and the industrial East high tariffs. Republican William McKinley was the outstanding spokesman for high tariffs, promising it would bring prosperity for all groups.
After the Civil War, high tariffs remained as the Republican Party remained in office and the Southern Democrats were restricted from office. Advocates insisted that tariffs brought prosperity to the nation as a whole and no one was really injured. As industrialization proceeded apace throughout the Northeast, some Democrats, especially Pennsylvanians, became high tariff advocates.
The Republican high tariff advocates appealed to farmers with the theme that high - wage factory workers would pay premium prices for foodstuffs. This was the "home market '' idea, and it won over most farmers in the Northeast, but it had little relevance to the southern and western farmers who exported most of their cotton, tobacco and wheat. In the late 1860s the wool manufacturers (based near Boston and Philadelphia) formed the first national lobby, and cut deals with wool - growing farmers in several states. Their challenge was that fastidious wool producers in Britain and Australia marketed a higher quality fleece than the careless Americans, and that British manufacturers had costs as low as the American mills. The result was a wool tariff that helped the farmers by a high rate on imported wool -- a tariff the American manufacturers had to pay -- together with a high tariff on finished woolens and worsted goods.
Apart from wool and woolens, American industry and agriculture -- and industrial workers -- had become the most efficient in the world by the 1880s as they took the lead in the worldwide Industrial Revolution. They were not at risk from cheap imports. No other country had the industrial capacity, large market, the high efficiency and low costs, or the complex distribution system needed to compete in the vast American market. Indeed, it was the British who watched in stunned horror as cheaper American products flooded their home islands. Wailed the London Daily Mail in 1900,
"We have lost to the American manufacturer electrical machinery, locomotives, steel rails, sugar - producing and agricultural machinery, and latterly even stationary engines, the pride and backbone of the British engineering industry. ''
Nevertheless, some American manufacturers and union workers demanded the high tariff be maintained. The tariff represented a complex balance of forces. Railroads, for example, consumed vast quantities of steel. To the extent tariffs raised steel prices, they paid much more making possible the U.S steel industry 's massive investment to expand capacity and switch to the Bessemer process and later to the open hearth furnace. Between 1867 and 1900 U.S. steel production increased more than 500 times from 22,000 tons to 11,400,000 tons and Bessemer steel rails, first made in the U.S that would last 18 years under heavy traffic, would come to replace the old wrought iron rail that could only endure two years under light service. Taussig says that in 1881, British steel rails sold for $31 a ton, and if Americans imported them they paid a $28 / ton tariff, giving $59 / ton for an imported ton of rails. American mills charged $61 a ton -- and made a huge profit, which was then reinvested into increased capacity, higher quality steels and more efficient production. By 1897 the American steel rail price had dropped to $19.60 per ton compared to the British price at $21.00 -- not including the $7.84 duty charge -- demonstrating that the tariff had performed its purpose of giving the industry time to become competitive. Then the U.S. steel industry became an exporter of steel rail to England selling below the British price and during WW I would become the largest supplier of steel to the allies. From 1915 through 1918, the largest American steel company, U.S. Steel, alone delivered more steel each year than Germany and Austria - Hungary combined, totalling 99,700,000 tons during WW I. The Republicans became masters of negotiating exceedingly complex arrangements so that inside each of their congressional districts there were more satisfied "winners '' than disgruntled "losers ''. The tariff after 1880 was an ideological relic with no longer any economic rationale.
Democratic President Grover Cleveland redefined the issue in 1887, with his stunning attack on the tariff as inherently corrupt, opposed to true republicanism, and inefficient to boot: "When we consider that the theory of our institutions guarantees to every citizen the full enjoyment of all the fruits of his industry and enterprise... it is plain that the exaction of more than (minimal taxes) is indefensible extortion and a culpable betrayal of American fairness and justice. '' The election of 1888 was fought primarily over the tariff issue, and Cleveland lost. Republican Congressman William McKinley argued,
"Free foreign trade gives our money, our manufactures, and our markets to other nations to the injury of our labor, our tradespeople, and our farmers. Protection keeps money, markets, and manufactures at home for the benefit of our own people. ''
Democrats campaigned energetically against the high McKinley tariff of 1890, and scored sweeping gains that year; they restored Cleveland to the White House in 1892. The severe depression that started in 1893 ripped apart the Democratic party. Cleveland and the pro-business Bourbon Democrats insisted on a much lower tariff. His problem was that Democratic electoral successes had brought in Democratic congressmen from industrial districts who were willing to raise rates to benefit their constituents. The Wilson - Gorman Tariff Act of 1894 did lower overall rates from 50 percent to 42 percent, but contained so many concessions to protectionism that Cleveland refused to sign it (it became law anyway).
McKinley campaigned heavily in 1896 on the high tariff as a positive solution to depression. Promising protection and prosperity to every economic sector, he won a smashing victory. The Republicans rushed through the Dingley tariff in 1897, boosting rates back to the 50 percent level. Democrats responded that the high rates created government sponsored "trusts '' (monopolies) and led to higher consumer prices. McKinley won reelection by an even bigger landslide and started talking about a post-tariff era of reciprocal trade agreements. Reciprocity went nowhere; McKinley 's vision was a half century too early. The Republicans split bitterly on the Payne - Aldrich Tariff of 1909. Republican President Theodore Roosevelt (1901 -- 1909) saw the tariff issue was ripping his party apart, so he postponed any consideration of it. The delicate balance flew apart on under Republican William Howard Taft. He campaigned for president in 1908 for tariff "reform '', which everyone assumed meant lower rates. The House lowered rates with the Payne Bill, then sent it to the Senate where Nelson Wilmarth Aldrich mobilized high - rate Senators. Aldrich was a New England businessman and a master of the complexities of the tariff, the Midwestern Republican insurgents were rhetoricians and lawyers who distrusted the special interests and assumed the tariff was "sheer robbery '' at the expense of the ordinary consumer. Rural America believed that its superior morality deserved special protection, while the dastardly immorality of the trusts -- and cities generally -- merited financial punishment. Aldrich baited them. Did the insurgents want lower tariffs? His wickedly clever Payne - Aldrich Tariff Act of 1909 lowered the protection on Midwestern farm products, while raising rates favorable to his Northeast.
By 1913 with the new income tax generating revenue, the Democrats in Congress were able to reduce rates with the Underwood Tariff. The outbreak of war in 1914 made the impact of tariffs of much less importance compared to war contracts. When the Republicans returned to power the returned the rates to a high level in the Fordney -- McCumber Tariff of 1922. The next raise came with the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act of 1930 at the start of the Great Depression.
The Canadian - American Reciprocity Treaty increased trade between 1855 and its ending in 1866. When it ended Canada turned to tariffs. The National Policy was a Canadian economic program introduced by John A. Macdonald 's Conservative Party in 1879 after it returned to power. It had been an official policy, however, since 1876. It was based on high tariffs to protect Canada 's manufacturing industry. Macdonald campaigned on the policy in the 1878 election, and handily beat the Liberal Party, which supported free trade.
Efforts to restore free trade with Canada collapsed when Canada rejected a proposed reciprocity treaty in fear of American imperialism in the 1911 federal election. Taft negotiated a reciprocity agreement with Canada, that had the effect of sharply lowering tariffs. Democrats supported the plan but Midwestern Republicans bitterly opposed it. Barnstorming the country for his agreement, Taft undiplomatically pointed to the inevitable integration of the North American economy, and suggested that Canada should come to a "parting of the ways '' with Britain. Canada 's Conservative Party, under the leadership of Robert Borden, now had an issue to regain power from the low - tariff Liberals; after a surge of pro-imperial anti-Americanism, the Conservatives won. Ottawa rejected reciprocity, reasserted the National Policy and went to London first for new financial and trade deals. The Payne Aldrich Tariff of 1909 actually changed little and had slight economic impact one way or the other, but the political impact was enormous. The insurgents felt tricked and defeated and swore vengeance against Wall Street and its minions Taft and Aldrich. The insurgency led to a fatal split down the middle in 1912 as the GOP lost its balance wheel.
Historically, high tariffs have led to high rates of smuggling. The United States Revenue Cutter Service was established by Secretary Hamilton in 1790 as an armed maritime law and custom enforcement service. Today it remains the primary maritime law enforcement force in the United States.
The U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) is a federal law enforcement agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security charged with regulating and facilitating international trade, collecting customs (import duties or tariffs approved by the U.S. Congress), and enforcing U.S. regulations, including trade, customs and immigration. They man most border crossing stations and ports. When shipments of goods arrive at a border crossing or port, customs officers inspect the contents and charge a tax according to the tariff formula for that product. Usually the goods can not continue on their way until the custom duty is paid. Custom duties are one the easiest taxes to collect, and the cost of collection is small.
Woodrow Wilson made a drastic lowering of tariff rates a major priority for his presidency. The 1913 Underwood Tariff cut rates, but the coming of World War I in 1914 radically revised trade patterns. Reduced trade and, especially, the new revenues generated by the federal income tax (bolstered by the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment in 1913) made tariffs much less important in terms of economic impact and political rhetoric.
The Wilson administration desired a ' revamping ' of the current banking system, "... so that the banks may be the instruments, not the masters, of business and of individual enterprise and initiative. ''. President Wilson achieved this in the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. Working with the bullish Senator Aldrich and former presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan, he perfected a way to centralize the banking system to allow Congress to closely allocate paper money production. The Federal Reserve Act, with the Sixteenth Amendment of the Constitution, would create a trend of new forms of government funding.
When the Republicans regained power after the war they restored the usual high rates, with the Fordney - McCumber Tariff of 1922. When the Great Depression hit, international trade shrank drastically. The crisis baffled the GOP, and it tried to raise tariffs again with the Smoot - Hawley Tariff Act of 1930. This time it backfired, as Canada, Britain, Germany, France and other industrial countries retaliated with their own tariffs and special, bilateral trade deals. American imports and exports both went into a tailspin. Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Dealers made promises about lowering tariffs on a reciprocal country - by - country basis (which they did), hoping this would expand foreign trade (which it did not.) Frustrated, they gave much more attention to domestic remedies for the depression; by 1936 the tariff issue had faded from politics, and the revenue it raised was small. In World War II both tariffs and reciprocity were insignificant compared to trade channeled through Lend Lease.
Many economists hold the opinion that the tariff act did not greatly worsen the great depression:
Milton Friedman also held the opinion that the Smoot - Hawley tariff of 1930 did not cause the Great Depression. Douglas A. Irwin writes: "most economists, both liberal and conservative, doubt that Smoot Hawley played much of a role in the subsequent contraction. ''
William Bernstein writes "most economic historians now believe that only a minuscule part of that huge loss of both world GDP and the United States ' GDP can be ascribed to the tariff wars "because trade was only nine percent of global output, not enough to account for the seventeen percent drop in GDP following the Crash. He thinks the damage done could not possibly have exceeded 2 percent of world GDP and tariff "did n't even significantly deepen the Great Depression. '' (A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World)
Peter Temin, explains a tariff is an expansionary policy, like a devaluation as it diverts demand from foreign to home producers. He notes that exports were 7 percent of GNP in 1929, they fell by 1.5 percent of 1929 GNP in the next two years and the fall was offset by the increase in domestic demand from tariff. He concludes that contrary the popular argument, contractionary effect of the tariff was small. (Temin, P. 1989. Lessons from the Great Depression, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass)
Nobel laureate Maurice Allais, thinks that tariff was rather helpful in the face of deregulation of competition in the global labor market and excessively loose credit prior to the Crash which, according to him, caused the crisis Financial and banking sectors. He notes higher trade barriers were partly a means to protect domestic demand from deflation and external disturbances. He obserses domestic production in the major industrialized countries fell faster than international trade contracted; if contraction of foreign trade had been the cause of the Depression, he argues, the opposite should have occurred. So, the decline in trade between 1929 and 1933 was a consequence of the Depression, not a cause. Most of the trade contraction took place between January 1930 and July 1932, before the introduction of the majority of protectionist measures, excepting limited American measures applied in the summer of 1930. It was the collapse of international liquidity that caused of the contraction of trade.
Tariffs up to the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act of 1930, were set by Congress after many months of testimony and negotiations. In 1934, the U.S. Congress, in a rare delegation of authority, passed the Reciprocal Tariff Act of 1934, which authorized the executive branch to negotiate bilateral tariff reduction agreements with other countries. The prevailing view then was that trade liberalization may help stimulate economic growth. However, no one country was willing to liberalize unilaterally. Between 1934 and 1945, the executive branch negotiated over 32 bilateral trade liberalization agreements with other countries. The belief that low tariffs led to a more prosperous country are now the predominant belief with some exceptions. Multilateralism is embodied in the seven tariff reduction rounds that occurred between 1948 and 1994. In each of these "rounds '', all General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) members came together to negotiate mutually agreeable trade liberalization packages and reciprocal tariff rates. In the Uruguay round in 1994, the World Trade Organization (WTO) was established to help establish uniform tariff rates.
Presently only about 30 % of all import goods are subject to tariffs in the United States, the rest are on the free list. The "average '' tariffs now charged by the United States are at a historic low. The list of negotiated tariffs are listed on the Harmonized Tariff Schedule as put out by the United States International Trade Commission.
After the war the U.S. promoted the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) established in 1947, to minimize tariffs and other restrictions, and to liberalize trade among all capitalist countries. In 1995 GATT became the World Trade Organization (WTO); with the collapse of Communism its open markets / low tariff ideology became dominant worldwide in the 1990s.
American industry and labor prospered after World War II, but hard times set in after 1970. For the first time there was stiff competition from low - cost producers around the globe. Many rust belt industries faded or collapsed, especially the manufacture of steel, TV sets, shoes, toys, textiles and clothing. Toyota and Nissan threatened the giant domestic auto industry. In the late 1970s Detroit and the auto workers union combined to fight for protection. They obtained not high tariffs, but a voluntary restriction of imports from the Japanese government. Quotas were two - country diplomatic agreements that had the same protective effect as high tariffs, but did not invite retaliation from third countries. By limiting the number of Japanese automobiles that could be imported, quotas inadvertently helped Japanese companies push into larger, and more expensive market segments. The Japanese producers, limited by the number of cars they could export to America, opted to increase the value of their exports to maintain revenue growth. This action threatened the American producers ' historical hold on the mid - and large - size car markets.
The Chicken tax was a 1964 response by President Lyndon B. Johnson to tariffs placed by Germany (then West Germany) on importation of US chicken. Beginning in 1962, during the President Kennedy administration, the US accused Europe of unfairly restricting imports of American poultry at the request of West German chicken farmers. Diplomacy failed, and in January 1964, two months after taking office, President Johnson retaliated by imposing a 25 percent tax on all imported light trucks. This directly affected the German built Volkswagen vans. Officially it was explained that the light trucks tax would offset the dollar amount of imports of Volkswagen vans from West Germany with the lost American sales of chickens to Europe. But audio tapes from the Johnson White House reveal that in January 1964, President Johnson was attempting to convince United Auto Workers 's president Walter Reuther, not to initiate a strike just prior the 1964 election and to support the president 's civil rights platform. Reuther in turn wanted Johnson to respond to Volkswagen 's increased shipments to the United States.
During the Reagan and George H.W. Bush administrations Republicans abandoned protectionist policies, and came out against quotas and in favor of the GATT / WTO policy of minimal economic barriers to global trade. Free trade with Canada came about as a result of the Canada - U.S. Free Trade Agreement of 1987, which led in 1994 to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). It was based on Reagan 's plan to enlarge the scope of the market for American firms to include Canada and Mexico. President Bill Clinton, with strong Republican support in 1993, pushed NAFTA through Congress over the vehement objection of labor unions.
Likewise, in 2000 Clinton worked with Republicans to give China entry into WTO and "most favored nation '' trading status (i.e., the same low tariffs promised to any other WTO member). NAFTA and WTO advocates promoted an optimistic vision of the future, with prosperity to be based on intellectuals skills and managerial know - how more than on routine hand labor. They promised that free trade meant lower prices for consumers. Opposition to liberalized trade came increasingly from labor unions, who argued that this system also meant lower wages and fewer jobs for American workers who could not compete against wages of less than a dollar an hour. The shrinking size and diminished political clout of these unions repeatedly left them on the losing side.
Despite overall decreases in international tariffs, some tariffs have been more resistant to change. For example, due partially to tariff pressure from the European Common Agricultural Policy, US agricultural subsidies have seen little decrease over the past few decades, even in the face of recent pressure from the WTO during the latest Doha talks.
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where is the element beryllium found in nature | Beryllium - wikipedia
Beryllium is a chemical element with symbol Be and atomic number 4. It is a relatively rare element in the universe, usually occurring as a product of the spallation of larger atomic nuclei that have collided with cosmic rays. Within the cores of stars beryllium is depleted as it is fused and creates larger elements. It is a divalent element which occurs naturally only in combination with other elements in minerals. Notable gemstones which contain beryllium include beryl (aquamarine, emerald) and chrysoberyl. As a free element it is a steel - gray, strong, lightweight and brittle alkaline earth metal.
Beryllium improves many physical properties when added as an alloying element to aluminium, copper (notably the alloy beryllium copper), iron and nickel. Beryllium does not form oxides until it reaches very high temperatures. Tools made of beryllium copper alloys are strong and hard and do not create sparks when they strike a steel surface. In structural applications, the combination of high flexural rigidity, thermal stability, thermal conductivity and low density (1.85 times that of water) make beryllium metal a desirable aerospace material for aircraft components, missiles, spacecraft, and satellites. Because of its low density and atomic mass, beryllium is relatively transparent to X-rays and other forms of ionizing radiation; therefore, it is the most common window material for X-ray equipment and components of particle detectors. The high thermal conductivities of beryllium and beryllium oxide have led to their use in thermal management applications.
The commercial use of beryllium requires the use of appropriate dust control equipment and industrial controls at all times because of the toxicity of inhaled beryllium - containing dusts that can cause a chronic life - threatening allergic disease in some people called berylliosis.
Beryllium is a steel gray and hard metal that is brittle at room temperature and has a close - packed hexagonal crystal structure. It has exceptional stiffness (Young 's modulus 287 GPa) and a reasonably high melting point. The modulus of elasticity of beryllium is approximately 50 % greater than that of steel. The combination of this modulus and a relatively low density results in an unusually fast sound conduction speed in beryllium -- about 12.9 km / s at ambient conditions. Other significant properties are high specific heat (1925 J kg K) and thermal conductivity (216 W m K), which make beryllium the metal with the best heat dissipation characteristics per unit weight. In combination with the relatively low coefficient of linear thermal expansion (11.4 × 10 K), these characteristics result in a unique stability under conditions of thermal loading.
Naturally occurring beryllium, save for slight contamination by the cosmogenic radioisotopes, is isotopically pure beryllium - 9, which has a nuclear spin of 3 / 2. Beryllium has a large scattering cross section for high - energy neutrons, about 6 barns for energies above approximately 10 keV. Therefore, it works as a neutron reflector and neutron moderator, effectively slowing the neutrons to the thermal energy range of below 0.03 eV, where the total cross section is at least an order of magnitude lower -- exact value strongly depends on the purity and size of the crystallites in the material.
The single primordial beryllium isotope Be also undergoes a (n, 2n) neutron reaction with neutron energies over about 1.9 MeV, to produce Be, which almost immediately breaks into two alpha particles. Thus, for high - energy neutrons, beryllium is a neutron multiplier, releasing more neutrons than it absorbs. This nuclear reaction is:
Neutrons are liberated when beryllium nuclei are struck by energetic alpha particles producing the nuclear reaction
Beryllium also releases neutrons under bombardment by gamma rays. Thus, natural beryllium bombarded either by alphas or gammas from a suitable radioisotope is a key component of most radioisotope - powered nuclear reaction neutron sources for the laboratory production of free neutrons.
Small amounts of tritium are liberated when 9 4Be nuclei absorb low energy neutrons in the three - step nuclear reaction
Note that 6 2He has a half - life of only 0.8 seconds, β is an electron, and 6 3Li has a high neutron absorption cross-section. Tritium is a radioisotope of concern in nuclear reactor waste streams.
As a metal, beryllium is transparent to most wavelengths of X-rays and gamma rays, making it useful for the output windows of X-ray tubes and other such apparatus.
Both stable and unstable isotopes of beryllium are created in stars, but the radioisotopes do not last long. It is believed that most of the stable beryllium in the universe was originally created in the interstellar medium when cosmic rays induced fission in heavier elements found in interstellar gas and dust. Primordial beryllium contains only one stable isotope, Be, and therefore beryllium is a monoisotopic element.
Radioactive cosmogenic Be is produced in the atmosphere of the Earth by the cosmic ray spallation of oxygen. Be accumulates at the soil surface, where its relatively long half - life (1.36 million years) permits a long residence time before decaying to boron - 10. Thus, Be and its daughter products are used to examine natural soil erosion, soil formation and the development of lateritic soils, and as a proxy for measurement of the variations in solar activity and the age of ice cores. The production of Be is inversely proportional to solar activity, because increased solar wind during periods of high solar activity decreases the flux of galactic cosmic rays that reach the Earth. Nuclear explosions also form Be by the reaction of fast neutrons with C in the carbon dioxide in air. This is one of the indicators of past activity at nuclear weapon test sites. The isotope Be (half - life 53 days) is also cosmogenic, and shows an atmospheric abundance linked to sunspots, much like Be.
Be has a very short half - life of about 7 × 10 s that contributes to its significant cosmological role, as elements heavier than beryllium could not have been produced by nuclear fusion in the Big Bang. This is due to the lack of sufficient time during the Big Bang 's nucleosynthesis phase to produce carbon by the fusion of He nuclei and the very low concentrations of available beryllium - 8. The British astronomer Sir Fred Hoyle first showed that the energy levels of Be and C allow carbon production by the so - called triple - alpha process in helium - fueled stars where more nucleosynthesis time is available. This process allows carbon to be produced in stars, but not in the Big Bang. Star - created carbon (the basis of carbon - based life) is thus a component in the elements in the gas and dust ejected by AGB stars and supernovae (see also Big Bang nucleosynthesis), as well as the creation of all other elements with atomic numbers larger than that of carbon.
The 2s electrons of beryllium may contribute to chemical bonding. Therefore, when Be decays by L - electron capture, it does so by taking electrons from its atomic orbitals that may be participating in bonding. This makes its decay rate dependent to a measurable degree upon its chemical surroundings -- a rare occurrence in nuclear decay.
The shortest - lived known isotope of beryllium is Be which decays through neutron emission. It has a half - life of 2.7 × 10 s. Be is also very short - lived with a half - life of 5.0 × 10 s. The exotic isotopes Be and Be are known to exhibit a nuclear halo. This phenomenon can be understood as the nuclei of Be and Be have, respectively, 1 and 4 neutrons orbiting substantially outside the classical Fermi ' waterdrop ' model of the nucleus.
The Sun has a concentration of 0.1 parts per billion (ppb) of beryllium. Beryllium has a concentration of 2 to 6 parts per million (ppm) in the Earth 's crust. It is most concentrated in the soils, 6 ppm. Trace amounts of Be are found in the Earth 's atmosphere. The concentration of beryllium in sea water is 0.2 -- 0.6 parts per trillion. In stream water, however, beryllium is more abundant with a concentration of 0.1 ppb.
Beryllium is found in over 100 minerals, but most are uncommon to rare. The more common beryllium containing minerals include: bertrandite (Be Si O (OH)), beryl (Al Be Si O), chrysoberyl (Al BeO) and phenakite (Be SiO). Precious forms of beryl are aquamarine, red beryl and emerald. The green color in gem - quality forms of beryl comes from varying amounts of chromium (about 2 % for emerald).
The two main ores of beryllium, beryl and bertrandite, are found in Argentina, Brazil, India, Madagascar, Russia and the United States. Total world reserves of beryllium ore are greater than 400,000 tonnes.
The extraction of beryllium from its compounds is a difficult process due to its high affinity for oxygen at elevated temperatures, and its ability to reduce water when its oxide film is removed. The United States, China and Kazakhstan are the only three countries involved in the industrial - scale extraction of beryllium. Beryllium production technology is in early stages of development in Russia after a 20 - year hiatus.
Beryllium is most commonly extracted from the mineral beryl, which is either sintered using an extraction agent or melted into a soluble mixture. The sintering process involves mixing beryl with sodium fluorosilicate and soda at 770 ° C (1,420 ° F) to form sodium fluoroberyllate, aluminium oxide and silicon dioxide. Beryllium hydroxide is precipitated from a solution of sodium fluoroberyllate and sodium hydroxide in water. Extraction of beryllium using the melt method involves grinding beryl into a powder and heating it to 1,650 ° C (3,000 ° F). The melt is quickly cooled with water and then reheated 250 to 300 ° C (482 to 572 ° F) in concentrated sulfuric acid, mostly yielding beryllium sulfate and aluminium sulfate. Aqueous ammonia is then used to remove the aluminium and sulfur, leaving beryllium hydroxide.
Beryllium hydroxide created using either the sinter or melt method is then converted into beryllium fluoride or beryllium chloride. To form the fluoride, aqueous ammonium hydrogen fluoride is added to beryllium hydroxide to yield a precipitate of ammonium tetrafluoroberyllate, which is heated to 1,000 ° C (1,830 ° F) to form beryllium fluoride. Heating the fluoride to 900 ° C (1,650 ° F) with magnesium forms finely divided beryllium, and additional heating to 1,300 ° C (2,370 ° F) creates the compact metal. Heating beryllium hydroxide forms the oxide, which becomes beryllium chloride when combined with carbon and chlorine. Electrolysis of molten beryllium chloride is then used to obtain the metal.
Beryllium 's chemical behavior is largely a result of its small atomic and ionic radii. It thus has very high ionization potentials and strong polarization while bonded to other atoms, which is why all of its compounds are covalent. It is more chemically similar to aluminium than its close neighbors in the periodic table due to having a similar charge - to - radius ratio. An oxide layer forms around beryllium that prevents further reactions with air unless heated above 1000 ° C. Once ignited, beryllium burns brilliantly forming a mixture of beryllium oxide and beryllium nitride. Beryllium dissolves readily in non-oxidizing acids, such as HCl and diluted H SO, but not in nitric acid or water as this forms the oxide. This behavior is similar to that of aluminium metal. Beryllium also dissolves in alkali solutions.
The beryllium atom has the electronic configuration (He) 2s. The two valence electrons give beryllium a + 2 oxidation state and thus the ability to form two covalent bonds; the only evidence of lower valence of beryllium is in the solubility of the metal in BeCl, and in two neutral beryllium bis (carbene) compounds in which the Be center bears a formal oxidation state of zero. Due to the octet rule, atoms tend to seek a valence of 8 in order to resemble a noble gas. Beryllium tries to achieve a coordination number of 4 because its two covalent bonds fill half of this octet. Tetracoordination allows beryllium compounds, such as the fluoride or chloride, to form polymers.
This characteristic is employed in analytical techniques using EDTA as a ligand. EDTA preferentially forms octahedral complexes -- thus absorbing other cations such as Al which might interfere -- for example, in the solvent extraction of a complex formed between Be and acetylacetone. Beryllium (II) readily forms complexes with strong donating ligands such as phosphine oxides and arsine oxides. There have been extensive studies of these complexes which show the stability of the O - Be bond.
Solutions of beryllium salts, e.g. beryllium sulfate and beryllium nitrate, are acidic because of hydrolysis of the (Be (H O)) ion.
Other products of hydrolysis include the trimeric ion (Be (OH) (H O)). Beryllium hydroxide, Be (OH), is insoluble even in acidic solutions with pH less than 6, that is at biological pH. It is amphoteric and dissolves in strongly alkaline solutions.
Beryllium forms binary compounds with many non-metals. Anhydrous halides are known for F, Cl, Br and I. BeF has a silica - like structure with corner - shared BeF tetrahedra. BeCl and BeBr have chain structures with edge - shared tetrahedra. All beryllium halides have a linear monomeric molecular structure in the gas phase.
Beryllium difluoride, BeF, is different than the other difluorides. In general, beryllium has a tendency to bond covalently, much more so than the other alkaline earths and its fluoride is partially covalent (although still more ionic than its other halides). BeF has many similarities to SiO (quartz) a mostly covalently bonded network solid. BeF has tetrahedrally coordinated metal and forms glasses (is difficult to crystallize). When crystalline, beryllium fluoride has the same room temperature crystal structure as quartz and shares many higher temperature structures also. Beryllium difluoride is very soluble in water, unlike the other alkaline earth difluorides. (Although they are strongly ionic, they do not dissolve because of the especially strong lattice energy of the fluorite structure.) However, BeF has much lower electrical conductivity when in solution or when molten than would be expected if it were fully ionic.
Beryllium oxide, BeO, is a white refractory solid, which has the wurtzite crystal structure and a thermal conductivity as high as in some metals. BeO is amphoteric. Salts of beryllium can be produced by treating Be (OH) with acid. Beryllium sulfide, selenide and telluride are known, all having the zincblende structure.
Beryllium nitride, Be N is a high - melting - point compound which is readily hydrolyzed. Beryllium azide, BeN is known and beryllium phosphide, Be P has a similar structure to Be N. Basic beryllium nitrate and basic beryllium acetate have similar tetrahedral structures with four beryllium atoms coordinated to a central oxide ion. A number of beryllium borides are known, such as Be B, Be B, Be B, BeB, BeB and BeB. Beryllium carbide, Be C, is a refractory brick - red compound that reacts with water to give methane. No beryllium silicide has been identified.
The mineral beryl, which contains beryllium, has been used at least since the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. In the first century CE, Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder mentioned in his encyclopedia Natural History that beryl and emerald ("smaragdus '') were similar. The Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis, written in the third or fourth century CE, contains notes on how to prepare artificial emerald and beryl.
Early analyses of emeralds and beryls by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, Torbern Olof Bergman, Franz Karl Achard, and Johann Jakob Bindheim always yielded similar elements, leading to the fallacious conclusion that both substances are aluminium silicates. Mineralogist René Just Haüy discovered that both crystals are geometrically identical, and he asked chemist Louis - Nicolas Vauquelin for a chemical analysis.
In a 1798 paper read before the Institut de France, Vauquelin reported that he found a new "earth '' by dissolving aluminium hydroxide from emerald and beryl in an additional alkali. The editors of the journal Annales de Chimie et de Physique named the new earth "glucine '' for the sweet taste of some of its compounds. Klaproth preferred the name "beryllina '' due to the fact that yttria also formed sweet salts. The name "beryllium '' was first used by Wöhler in 1828.
Friedrich Wöhler and Antoine Bussy independently isolated beryllium in 1828 by the chemical reaction of metallic potassium with beryllium chloride, as follows:
Using an alcohol lamp, Wöhler heated alternating layers of beryllium chloride and potassium in a wired - shut platinum crucible. The above reaction immediately took place and caused the crucible to become white hot. Upon cooling and washing the resulting gray - black powder he saw that it was made of fine particles with a dark metallic luster. The highly reactive potassium had been produced by the electrolysis of its compounds, a process discovered 21 years before. The chemical method using potassium yielded only small grains of beryllium from which no ingot of metal could be cast or hammered.
The direct electrolysis of a molten mixture of beryllium fluoride and sodium fluoride by Paul Lebeau in 1898 resulted in the first pure (99.5 to 99.8 %) samples of beryllium. The first commercially successful process for producing beryllium was developed in 1932 by Alfred Stock and Hans Goldschmidt. Their process involves the electrolysis of a mixture of beryllium fluorides and barium, which causes molten beryllium to collect on a water - cooled iron cathode.
A sample of beryllium was bombarded with alpha rays from the decay of radium in a 1932 experiment by James Chadwick that uncovered the existence of the neutron. This same method is used in one class of radioisotope - based laboratory neutron sources that produce 30 neutrons for every million α particles.
Beryllium production saw a rapid increase during World War II, due to the rising demand for hard beryllium - copper alloys and phosphors for fluorescent lights. Most early fluorescent lamps used zinc orthosilicate with varying content of beryllium to emit greenish light. Small additions of magnesium tungstate improved the blue part of the spectrum to yield an acceptable white light. Halophosphate - based phosphors replaced beryllium - based phosphors after beryllium was found to be toxic.
Electrolysis of a mixture of beryllium fluoride and sodium fluoride was used to isolate beryllium during the 19th century. The metal 's high melting point makes this process more energy - consuming than corresponding processes used for the alkali metals. Early in the 20th century, the production of beryllium by the thermal decomposition of beryllium iodide was investigated following the success of a similar process for the production of zirconium, but this process proved to be uneconomical for volume production.
Pure beryllium metal did not become readily available until 1957, even though it had been used as an alloying metal to harden and toughen copper much earlier. Beryllium could be produced by reducing beryllium compounds such as beryllium chloride with metallic potassium or sodium. Currently most beryllium is produced by reducing beryllium fluoride with purified magnesium. The price on the American market for vacuum - cast beryllium ingots was about $338 per pound ($745 per kilogram) in 2001.
Between 1998 and 2008, the world 's production of beryllium had decreased from 343 to about 200 tonnes, of which 176 tonnes (88 %) came from the United States.
Early precursors of the word beryllium can be traced to many languages, including Latin Beryllus; French Béry; Greek βήρυλλος, bērullos, beryl; Prakrit veruliya (वॆरुलिय); Pāli veḷuriya (वेलुरिय), veḷiru (भेलिरु) or viḷar (भिलर्) -- "to become pale '', in reference to the pale semiprecious gemstone beryl. The original source is probably the Sanskrit word वैडूर्य (vaidurya), which is of South Indian origin and could be related to the name of the modern city of Belur. For about 160 years, beryllium was also known as glucinum or glucinium (with the accompanying chemical symbol "Gl '', or "G ''), the name coming from the Greek word for sweet: γλυκυς, due to the sweet taste of beryllium salts.
Because of its low atomic number and very low absorption for X-rays, the oldest and still one of the most important applications of beryllium is in radiation windows for X-ray tubes. Extreme demands are placed on purity and cleanliness of beryllium to avoid artifacts in the X-ray images. Thin beryllium foils are used as radiation windows for X-ray detectors, and the extremely low absorption minimizes the heating effects caused by high intensity, low energy X-rays typical of synchrotron radiation. Vacuum - tight windows and beam - tubes for radiation experiments on synchrotrons are manufactured exclusively from beryllium. In scientific setups for various X-ray emission studies (e.g., energy - dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) the sample holder is usually made of beryllium because its emitted X-rays have much lower energies (~ 100 eV) than X-rays from most studied materials.
Low atomic number also makes beryllium relatively transparent to energetic particles. Therefore, it is used to build the beam pipe around the collision region in particle physics setups, such as all four main detector experiments at the Large Hadron Collider (ALICE, ATLAS, CMS, LHCb), the Tevatron and the SLAC. The low density of beryllium allows collision products to reach the surrounding detectors without significant interaction, its stiffness allows a powerful vacuum to be produced within the pipe to minimize interaction with gases, its thermal stability allows it to function correctly at temperatures of only a few degrees above absolute zero, and its diamagnetic nature keeps it from interfering with the complex multipole magnet systems used to steer and focus the particle beams.
Because of its stiffness, light weight and dimensional stability over a wide temperature range, beryllium metal is used for lightweight structural components in the defense and aerospace industries in high - speed aircraft, guided missiles, spacecraft, and satellites. Several liquid - fuel rockets have used rocket nozzles made of pure beryllium. Beryllium powder was itself studied as a rocket fuel, but this use has never materialized. A small number of extreme high - end bicycle frames have been built with beryllium. From 1998 to 2000, the McLaren Formula One team used Mercedes - Benz engines with beryllium - aluminium - alloy pistons. The use of beryllium engine components was banned following a protest by Scuderia Ferrari.
Mixing about 2.0 % beryllium into copper forms an alloy called beryllium copper that is six times stronger than copper alone. Beryllium alloys are used in many applications because of their combination of elasticity, high electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity, high strength and hardness, nonmagnetic properties, as well as good corrosion and fatigue resistance. These applications include non-sparking tools that are used near flammable gases (beryllium nickel), in springs and membranes (beryllium nickel and beryllium iron) used in surgical instruments and high temperature devices. As little as 50 parts per million of beryllium alloyed with liquid magnesium leads to a significant increase in oxidation resistance and decrease in flammability.
The high elastic stiffness of beryllium has led to its extensive use in precision instrumentation, e.g. in inertial guidance systems and in the support mechanisms for optical systems. Beryllium - copper alloys were also applied as a hardening agent in "Jason pistols '', which were used to strip the paint from the hulls of ships.
Beryllium was also used for cantilevers in high performance phonograph cartridge styli, where its extreme stiffness and low density allowed for tracking weights to be reduced to 1 gram, yet still track high frequency passages with minimal distortion.
An earlier major application of beryllium was in brakes for military airplanes because of its hardness, high melting point, and exceptional ability to dissipate heat. Environmental considerations have led to substitution by other materials.
To reduce costs, beryllium can be alloyed with significant amounts of aluminium, resulting in the AlBeMet alloy (a trade name). This blend is cheaper than pure beryllium, while still retaining many desirable properties.
Beryllium mirrors are of particular interest. Large - area mirrors, frequently with a honeycomb support structure, are used, for example, in meteorological satellites where low weight and long - term dimensional stability are critical. Smaller beryllium mirrors are used in optical guidance systems and in fire - control systems, e.g. in the German - made Leopard 1 and Leopard 2 main battle tanks. In these systems, very rapid movement of the mirror is required which again dictates low mass and high rigidity. Usually the beryllium mirror is coated with hard electroless nickel plating which can be more easily polished to a finer optical finish than beryllium. In some applications, though, the beryllium blank is polished without any coating. This is particularly applicable to cryogenic operation where thermal expansion mismatch can cause the coating to buckle.
The James Webb Space Telescope will have 18 hexagonal beryllium sections for its mirrors. Because JWST will face a temperature of 33 K, the mirror is made of gold - plated beryllium, capable of handling extreme cold better than glass. Beryllium contracts and deforms less than glass -- and remains more uniform -- in such temperatures. For the same reason, the optics of the Spitzer Space Telescope are entirely built of beryllium metal.
Beryllium is non-magnetic. Therefore, tools fabricated out of beryllium - based materials are used by naval or military explosive ordnance disposal teams for work on or near naval mines, since these mines commonly have magnetic fuzes. They are also found in maintenance and construction materials near magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines because of the high magnetic fields generated. In the fields of radio communications and powerful (usually military) radars, hand tools made of beryllium are used to tune the highly magnetic klystrons, magnetrons, traveling wave tubes, etc., that are used for generating high levels of microwave power in the transmitters.
Thin plates or foils of beryllium are sometimes used in nuclear weapon designs as the very outer layer of the plutonium pits in the primary stages of thermonuclear bombs, placed to surround the fissile material. These layers of beryllium are good "pushers '' for the implosion of the plutonium - 239, and they are good neutron reflectors, just as in beryllium - moderated nuclear reactors.
Beryllium is also commonly used in some neutron sources in laboratory devices in which relatively few neutrons are needed (rather than having to use a nuclear reactor, or a particle accelerator - powered neutron generator). For this purpose, a target of beryllium - 9 is bombarded with energetic alpha particles from a radioisotope such as polonium - 210, radium - 226, plutonium - 238, or americium - 241. In the nuclear reaction that occurs, a beryllium nucleus is transmuted into carbon - 12, and one free neutron is emitted, traveling in about the same direction as the alpha particle was heading. Such alpha decay driven beryllium neutron sources, named "urchin '' neutron initiators, were used in some early atomic bombs. Neutron sources in which beryllium is bombarded with gamma rays from a gamma decay radioisotope, are also used to produce laboratory neutrons.
Beryllium is also used in fuel fabrication for CANDU reactors. The fuel elements have small appendages that are resistance brazed to the fuel cladding using an induction brazing process with Be as the braze filler material. Bearing pads are brazed in place to prevent fuel bundle to pressure tube contact, and inter-element spacer pads are brazed on to prevent element to element contact.
Beryllium is also used at the Joint European Torus nuclear - fusion research laboratory, and it will be used in the more advanced ITER to condition the components which face the plasma. Beryllium has also been proposed as a cladding material for nuclear fuel rods, because of its good combination of mechanical, chemical, and nuclear properties. Beryllium fluoride is one of the constituent salts of the eutectic salt mixture FLiBe, which is used as a solvent, moderator and coolant in many hypothetical molten salt reactor designs, including the liquid fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR).
The low weight and high rigidity of beryllium make it useful as a material for high - frequency speaker drivers. Because beryllium is expensive (many times more than titanium), hard to shape due to its brittleness, and toxic if mishandled, beryllium tweeters are limited to high - end home, pro audio, and public address applications. Some high - fidelity products have been fraudulently claimed to be made of the material.
Some high - end phonograph cartridges used beryllium cantilevers to improve tracking by reducing mass.
Beryllium is a p - type dopant in III - V compound semiconductors. It is widely used in materials such as GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs and InAlAs grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). Cross-rolled beryllium sheet is an excellent structural support for printed circuit boards in surface - mount technology. In critical electronic applications, beryllium is both a structural support and heat sink. The application also requires a coefficient of thermal expansion that is well matched to the alumina and polyimide - glass substrates. The beryllium - beryllium oxide composite "E-Materials '' have been specially designed for these electronic applications and have the additional advantage that the thermal expansion coefficient can be tailored to match diverse substrate materials.
Beryllium oxide is useful for many applications that require the combined properties of an electrical insulator and an excellent heat conductor, with high strength and hardness, and a very high melting point. Beryllium oxide is frequently used as an insulator base plate in high - power transistors in radio frequency transmitters for telecommunications. Beryllium oxide is also being studied for use in increasing the thermal conductivity of uranium dioxide nuclear fuel pellets. Beryllium compounds were used in fluorescent lighting tubes, but this use was discontinued because of the disease berylliosis which developed in the workers who were making the tubes.
Beryllium is a component of several dental alloys.
Beryllium is a health and safety issue for workers. Exposure to beryllium in the workplace can lead to a sensitization immune response and can over time develop chronic beryllium disease (CBD). The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in the United States researches these effects in collaboration with a major manufacturer of beryllium products. The goal of this research is to prevent sensitization and CBD by developing a better understanding of the work processes and exposures that may present a potential risk for workers, and to develop effective interventions that will reduce the risk for adverse health effects. NIOSH also conducts genetic research on sensitization and CBD, independently of this collaboration. The NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods contains methods for measuring occupational exposures to beryllium.
Approximately 35 micrograms of beryllium is found in the average human body, an amount not considered harmful. Beryllium is chemically similar to magnesium and therefore can displace it from enzymes, which causes them to malfunction. Because Be is a highly charged and small ion, it can easily get into many tissues and cells, where it specifically targets cell nuclei, inhibiting many enzymes, including those used for synthesizing DNA. Its toxicity is exacerbated by the fact that the body has no means to control beryllium levels, and once inside the body the beryllium can not be removed. Chronic berylliosis is a pulmonary and systemic granulomatous disease caused by inhalation of dust or fumes contaminated with beryllium; either large amounts over a short time or small amounts over a long time can lead to this ailment. Symptoms of the disease can take up to five years to develop; about a third of patients with it die and the survivors are left disabled. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) lists beryllium and beryllium compounds as Category 1 carcinogens. In the US, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has designated a permissible exposure limit (PEL) in the workplace with a time - weighted average (TWA) 0.002 mg / m and a constant exposure limit of 0.005 mg / m over 30 minutes, with a maximum peak limit of 0.025 mg / m. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of constant 0.0005 mg / m. The IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) value is 4 mg / m.
The toxicity of finely divided beryllium (dust or powder, mainly encountered in industrial settings where beryllium is produced or machined) is very well - documented. Solid beryllium metal does not carry the same hazards as airborne inhaled dust, but any hazard associated with physical contact is poorly documented. Workers handling finished beryllium pieces are routinely advised to handle them with gloves, both as a precaution and because many if not most applications of beryllium can not tolerate residue of skin contact such as fingerprints.
Acute beryllium disease in the form of chemical pneumonitis was first reported in Europe in 1933 and in the United States in 1943. A survey found that about 5 % of workers in plants manufacturing fluorescent lamps in 1949 in the United States had beryllium - related lung diseases. Chronic berylliosis resembles sarcoidosis in many respects, and the differential diagnosis is often difficult. It killed some early workers in nuclear weapons design, such as Herbert L. Anderson.
Beryllium may be found in coal slag. When the slag is formulated into an abrasive agent for blasting paint and rust from hard surfaces, the beryllium can become airborne and become a source of exposure.
Early researchers tasted beryllium and its various compounds for sweetness in order to verify its presence. Modern diagnostic equipment no longer necessitates this highly risky procedure and no attempt should be made to ingest this highly toxic substance. Beryllium and its compounds should be handled with great care and special precautions must be taken when carrying out any activity which could result in the release of beryllium dust (lung cancer is a possible result of prolonged exposure to beryllium - laden dust). Although the use of beryllium compounds in fluorescent lighting tubes was discontinued in 1949, potential for exposure to beryllium exists in the nuclear and aerospace industries and in the refining of beryllium metal and melting of beryllium - containing alloys, the manufacturing of electronic devices, and the handling of other beryllium - containing material.
A successful test for beryllium in air and on surfaces has been recently developed and published as an international voluntary consensus standard ASTM D7202. The procedure uses dilute ammonium bifluoride for dissolution and fluorescence detection with beryllium bound to sulfonated hydroxybenzoquinoline, allowing up to 100 times more sensitive detection than the recommended limit for beryllium concentration in the workplace. Fluorescence increases with increasing beryllium concentration. The new procedure has been successfully tested on a variety of surfaces and is effective for the dissolution and ultratrace detection of refractory beryllium oxide and siliceous beryllium (ASTM D7458).
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who does lesean mccoy play for in the nfl | LeSean McCoy - wikipedia
LeSean Kamel McCoy (born July 12, 1988), also known as "Shady '' is an American football running back for the Buffalo Bills of the National Football League (NFL). He was drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles in the second round of the 2009 NFL Draft. He played college football at Pittsburgh.
McCoy attended Bishop McDevitt High School in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, from 2002 to 2006. In his senior year of high school, McCoy suffered a major ankle injury, which threatened his career. In his first year at Pittsburgh in 2007, McCoy rushed for over 1,300 yards and recorded 14 touchdowns. In 2008, McCoy was selected as a second - team All - American. His 21 rushing touchdowns were third in the nation, only one behind the two leaders. McCoy made his NFL debut on September 13, 2009, against the Carolina Panthers. He rushed for 637 yards that year.
In 2010, McCoy took over as the starting running back for the Eagles, and broke the 1,000 yard rushing barrier. In 2011, McCoy was named First team All - Pro by the Associated Press. In 2012, McCoy suffered a concussion that limited him to only twelve games. In 2013, McCoy led the NFL in rushing yards with 1,607, shattering the team 's individual single - season rushing yards record that stood for 34 years. McCoy went on to become the all - time leading rusher for the Eagles after the 2014 season, breaking the record previously held by Wilbert Montgomery. In the 2015 offseason, he was traded to the Bills for linebacker Kiko Alonso. After the trade, he signed a new five - year contract worth $40 million.
McCoy was born in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. His nickname is "Shady '' and was given to him by his mother because of his mood swings where he would one second be happy and laughing and the next second be upset and crying. He attended Bishop McDevitt High School in Harrisburg, the same high school attended by NFL running back Ricky Watters.
As a sophomore, he once rushed for 406 yards in a game. As a junior, he ran for 2,828 yards, scored 35 touchdowns, and earned Associated Press Class AAAA player of the year, Offensive MVP of the Mid-Penn Commonwealth Conference, 1st team Associated Press All - State. As a high school senior, he earned first team Class AAAA Associated Press All - State; During his senior season, McCoy had committed to Miami. However, academic issues and a broken ankle led McCoy to attend prep school at Milford Academy in New Berlin, New York for the 2006 -- 07 school year. He had been invited to play in the Big 33 Football Classic and the U.S. Army All - American Bowl that year, but ultimately did not participate in those games as he was still recovering from his injury. Following a coaching change at Miami, McCoy committed to the University of Pittsburgh on February 16, 2007.
At the 2004 State College NIKE Training Camp, McCoy recorded a 4.23 forty yard dash, the fastest forty time of the event.
McCoy was "rated the nation 's number 11 high school prospect '' by recruiting analyst Tom Lemming. A 2006 ESPN evaluation described him as "lightning in a bottle every time he touches the ball. ''
In 2012, McCoy 's high school number (20) was retired at Bishop McDevitt. The only other McDevitt player whose number has been retired is Ricky Watters.
McCoy entered Pittsburgh as a transfer from Milford Academy. He started the season as a backup to Larod Stephens - Howling who was the starting running back in 2006 and rushed for over 890 yards the previous season. In August 2007, Dave Grdnic wrote for Panthers Digest, "After just one week, LeSean McCoy has been as amazing as advertised. He 's been dynamic on the field and off, banging up the middle on runs as hard as he bolts around end and talking just as good a game to the media.
As a freshman, McCoy was the point - man for the "Wildcat offense '' which the Pittsburgh Panthers unveiled in a September 2007 game against the Michigan State Spartans. In the Wildcat offense, McCoy lined up as quarterback in a shotgun formation and took direct snaps from center, A Sporting News article credited him for having one of the "best starts by a freshman running back at Pittsburgh since Tony Dorsett '', while the Wildcat offense was criticized. "McCoy might need to be a combination of both Dorsett and Dan Marino for the Panthers to start producing some offense other than through his running. '' On October 2, 2007, ESPN writer Pat Forde featured McCoy under the "instant impact '' section of his column. Forde had this to say, "Pittsburgh. When starting running back LaRod Stephens - Howling got hurt, McCoy stepped in and Wally Pipped him. McCoy has 503 rushing yards and six touchdowns, averaging six yards a carry. '' McCoy had a streak of four consecutive games, from October 10 to November 3, where he rushed for at least 120 yards. He rushed for a season high 172 yards against Michigan State on September 15, just his third game at Pittsburgh. McCoy finished his freshman year 3rd in the Big East Conference and 25th in the NCAA Division I FBS (formerly I-A) in rushing yards with 1,328. McCoy was named to the Freshman All - American team by Rivals.com and was also a first team All - Big East selection by Rivals.com. In his final game of his freshman year, McCoy ran for 148 yards against rival West Virginia in the 100th Backyard Brawl to help the 28 - point underdog Panthers knock off the then # 2 Mountaineers. That win also knocked West Virginia from a probable spot in the BCS National Championship Game.
McCoy entered his sophomore year as one of the top running backs in college football. In an article written by Paul Zeise of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette in late July 2008, McCoy 's coach Dave Wannstedt had this to say about McCoy 's his approach in the off - season, "He 's been very mature, he 's taken the right approach, '' Wannstedt said. "I like to see a talented young guy who takes the initiative to want to be the best he can be and he clearly is doing his part. '' In mid August 2008, Pro Football Hall of Famer, Tony Dorsett told the Associated Press that "He (McCoy) reminded me of me. That looked a lot like No. 33 (Dorsett).
Pittsburgh started the 2008 season inside the top 25 for the first time in 5 years. The Panthers faced Bowling Green at home to start the season, but fell to the Falcons 27 - 17. McCoy had one rushing touchdown and 71 rushing yards in a losing effort. This was McCoy 's second lowest rushing total of the season. McCoy and the Panthers proceeded to win 7 out of their next 8 games. He had a streak of 5 games from September 27 to November 1 where he recorded over 140 rushing yards per game. During that 5 game streak he had 762 rushing yards and 10 rushing touchdowns. McCoy 's best game was still ahead of him. After suffering a loss on the road to Cincinnati, a game in which McCoy led Pittsburgh in both rushing and receiving yards, Pittsburgh got a win at home against the Cincinnati Bearcats and McCoy rushed for 183 yards that day, setting a career - high which was previously 172, set during his freshman year. He also added 2 touchdowns that day, both coming in the fourth quarter. McCoy closed out the regular season with 95 rushing yards a touchdown in a winning effort 34 - 10 against the Connecticut Huskies. The Panthers were ranked # 18 in the AP Poll following the win against the Huskies. McCoy 's final college football game of his career was the 2008 Sun Bowl played on New Year 's Eve in El Paso, Texas. He rushed for 85 yards, and the Panthers fell in a defensive battle, 3 - 0.
McCoy had said in November 2008 and in January 2009 that he was coming back to Pittsburgh for his junior year. On January 7, 2009, McCoy notified Wannstedt of his decision to go pro. However, he delayed the decision until January 14, when he officially announced he was leaving for the NFL. Talking to Larry Fitzgerald of the Arizona Cardinals, who also left after two years, helped sway McCoy. The team 's performance in the Sun Bowl, did not have any influence though. On January 14, 2009, the University of Pittsburgh announced that McCoy declared himself eligible for the NFL Draft, forgoing his final two years of eligibility. The serious injury he sustained his senior year at Bishop McDevitt was a factor in his decision to enter the draft early. "As a result of a season - ending injury my senior year, I learned a humbling lesson, '' McCoy said. "Nothing is promised to us and it can all be taken away in a moment. ''
McCoy was drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles in the second round (53rd overall) of the 2009 NFL Draft. He was the fourth running back to be selected that year. He signed a four - year contract for $3.47 million, including $1.72 million guaranteed, with the team on June 29, 2009.
McCoy was pressed into service as a starter in Week 3 against the Kansas City Chiefs on September 27, 2009, when the Eagles deactivated starter Brian Westbrook due to an ankle injury. He scored his first touchdown in the first quarter of the game on a five - yard rush. McCoy started against the New York Giants on November 1, 2009. He carried the ball eleven times for 82 yards and a touchdown and caught two passes for ten yards. McCoy made his third start for a NBC Sunday Night Football game against the Dallas Cowboys. McCoy rushed 13 times for 54 yards and caught five passes for 61 yards in a 20 -- 16 losing effort. Westbrook sustained a concussion against San Diego and McCoy was called on again to be the starter in a road game against the Chicago Bears on NBC Sunday Night Football. He rushed 20 times for 99 yards and a touchdown, as the Eagles won the game 24 -- 20.
On December 20, 2009, against the San Francisco 49ers, McCoy broke the all - time Eagles rookie rushing record with 606 yards on the year. The record was previously set by Correll Buckhalter with 586 yards in 2001. Also in December, the New York Daily News wrote about the top ten rookies in 2009. McCoy was listed fourth on the list and this was what writer Ralph Vacchiano had to say, "The fact that the Eagles are rolling without Brian Westbrook is, in part, a testament to how good this rookie is. '' Overall, in the 2009 season, he finished with 637 rushing yards, four rushing touchdowns, and 308 receiving yards.
During McCoy 's rookie season, he wore the number 29. On March 18, 2010, McCoy changed to number 25, which he had worn at the University of Pittsburgh. Number 25 was previously worn by Lorenzo Booker. Coach Reid had this to say in August, "... He wants it every carry. He 's been running very hard. He 's in great shape, and I think he is ready to roll. '' McCoy took over the starting running back duties in 2010 after previous starter Brian Westbrook was released in the off - season.
McCoy carried the ball seven times for 35 yards in an early season loss against the Green Bay Packers. He followed this game up with a three - touchdown performance against the Detroit Lions the following week in a winning effort. Head coach Andy Reid had this to say about McCoy after his game against the Lions, "He added more strength in the off - season, really bought into the off - season program, worked his tail off and it 's showing up now. He 's going out and he 's running more physical, he 's more deliberate and accurate with his cuts, seeing the daylight and getting North and South, which you have to do in this league... '' During a game against the San Francisco 49ers on October 10, McCoy broke a rib and continued to play through the injury, rushing for 92 yards and catching 5 passes for 47 yards, and helping lead his team to a victory. McCoy failed to break the 100 rushing yard barrier again until Sunday November 21 playing the New York Giants. Both the Eagles and Giants headed into this Sunday night contest at Lincoln Financial Field with a 6 - 3 win - loss record. McCoy ran for 111 yards and scored a touchdown, and caught 5 passes for 29 yards in the 27 - 17 win. After only receiving 22 carries in the next 2 games combined, McCoy ran for 149 yards on 16 carries, for an average of 9.3 yards per carry (YPC) against the Dallas Cowboys. Overall, in the 2010 season, McCoy finished with 1,080 rushing yards, seven rushing touchdowns, 592 receiving yards, and two receiving touchdowns. The Eagles finished the season 10 - 6 and won the NFC East Division. In the playoffs the Eagles faced the Green Bay Packers at Lincoln Financial Field. They lost to the Green Bay Packers 21 - 16 after failing to score a touchdown in the first half. McCoy had 46 rushing yards in his second appearance in the NFL playoffs.
ESPN Stats and Information did a special feature on ESPN where they handed out "Next Level Awards '' to recognize outstanding play in the 2010 season. McCoy won an award in the "Locked and Loaded '' category, which recognized the "best RB facing a loaded box ''. This is what was said about McCoy, "LeSean McCoy, literally, ran away with this award thanks to some hard - nosed running -- an aspect of his game that often is overlooked ''... "Fourteen running backs had at least 30 attempts against a loaded box this season. McCoy finished in the top four in rushing yards (207), touchdowns (three) and attempts per first down (2.8), despite having the fewest carries of those 14 backs (36). ''
The 2011 season started off with McCoy scoring 4 touchdowns and rushing for 345 yards in his first 3 games. In addition to that, he also caught 9 passes and had 1 receiving touchdown, for a total of 4. After only getting the ball 20 times on the ground in the next 2 games, and the Eagles dropping their fourth game in a row to the Buffalo Bills, starting the season off 1 - 4, the Eagles faced two divisional opponents. On the road at FedExField, against the Washington Redskins, McCoy rushed for 126 yards and a touchdown in a 20 - 13 win. Coming off a bye week, the Eagles faced the Dallas Cowboys on October 30, McCoy scored two touchdowns and rushed for 184 yards; the Eagles won 34 - 7. McCoy had a rough second half compared to the first. He rushed for over 100 yards twice in the next 8 games. He failed to reach the 50 yard mark three times. McCoy saw inconsistency in the run game, some games getting the ball 15 or fewer times. McCoy missed the Eagles final game with a sprained ankle. When McCoy rushed for over 100 yards, the Eagles were 5 - 1. His 17 rushing touchdowns tied him for third all - time in rushing touchdowns in a single season by a running back aged 23 or younger. The only two running backs ahead of him are Hall of Famers Eric Dickerson and Emmitt Smith. McCoy finished the 2011 season as the league 's fourth leading rusher, after sitting out the last game with an ankle injury. During the December 18, 2011 game against the New York Jets, McCoy broke the Eagles ' single season touchdown and rushing touchdown records previously set by Steve Van Buren in 1945. As of December 2013, McCoy holds the records with 17 rushing and 20 total touchdowns. He was also voted into the Pro Bowl for his season 's performance. McCoy won the FedEx Ground Player of the Year Award, and was also voted Associated Press All - Pro First Team running back. McCoy is one of only three running backs 23 years or younger to be named to the Associated Press All - Pro team since 1995. The other two are Edgerrin James (1999) and Adrian Peterson (2008). McCoy finished the 2011 season with 1,309 rushing yards, including six games of over 100 rushing yards. In 15 games played, he recorded a rushing touchdown in 12 of them, and scored a touchdown in 13 out 15. He finished first in the National Football League in rushing touchdowns, with 17, and lead the entire league in total touchdowns with 20.
On May 17, 2012, it was announced that McCoy had signed a five - year contract extension with the Philadelphia Eagles. The contract is worth $45 million with $20.765 million guaranteed.
On September 9, 2012, the Philadelphia Eagles traveled to Cleveland, Ohio to face the Cleveland Browns. McCoy rushed for 110 yards on 20 carries for an average of 5.5 yards per carry in the season opener. He outrushed the whole Browns team 110 - 99 and the Eagles won 17 - 16. Coming back home to Philadelphia, McCoy scored his first touchdown of the young season, a one - yard run in the first quarter. The Eagles went on to win 24 - 23. In Week 4 against NFC East foe New York Giants, McCoy broke the 100 rushing yard barrier for the second time in four games with 123 yards on the ground. In the next five games, McCoy rushed for 321 yards for an average of 64.2 rushing yards per game. All five of those games were losses for the Eagles. On November 18, 2012, playing against the Washington Redskins, McCoy ran for 82 yards and had 20 receiving yards, but suffered a concussion in the fourth quarter of the game. He was injured with less than two minutes remaining in the game. McCoy did not return until December 23 against the Redskins. In his last two games he had 23 carries for 90 yards. He was used more in the passing offense though, catching 14 passes for a total of 138 receiving yards. He ended up missing four games on the year, playing in a total of 12. Overall, in the 2012 season, he finished with 840 rushing yards, two rushing touchdowns, 373 receiving yards, and three receiving touchdowns.
McCoy took the field for Monday Night Football on September 9, 2013, and rushed for 184 yards on 31 carries and scored a touchdown. At the time, this was McCoy 's second highest single game rushing total of his career. The Philadelphia Eagles took the win over divisional foe Washington Redskins. His performance was good enough to earn him FedEx Ground Player of the Week honors. McCoy was only handed the ball 11 times in Week two, resulting in 53 yards. But he contributed as a wide receiver and caught five passes for 114 yards. 114 yards currently stands as McCoy 's top receiving yards in a game. The Eagles then faced former head coach Andy Reid and the Kansas City Chiefs in Week 3, on Thursday Night Football. McCoy rushed for 158 yards on 20 attempts, for 7.9 yards per carry. Though the Eagles lost this game and fell to 1 - 2, McCoy surpassed 150 yards from scrimmage in each of his first three games of the season. Over the course of the next six games McCoy saw somewhat limited action with varied results. He received more than 20 carries once in a game and broke 100 yards rushing only once. The Eagles dropped back to back games to divisional foes but beat Oakland on November 3, to bring their record to 4 - 5. McCoy rushed for 155 yards against the Green Bay Packers. This was his third game surpassing 150 yards rushing.
On December 8, 2013, Philadelphia had their first major snowfall of the year, with over 8.5 inches of snow falling. With snow covering the entire field, and with it falling the entire first half, offense was hard to come by. The halftime score was 8 - 0 in favor of the Detroit Lions. Several minutes into the second half the Lions scored their second touchdown of the game, and subsequently took the lead 14 - 0. The second half was a breakout half for McCoy, who finished the game with 217 rushing yards on 29 carries. McCoy 's 217 rushing broke a franchise record of 207 rushing yards that was previously held by Steve Van Buren. He also scored two touchdowns to help propel the Eagles to victory over the Lions 34 - 20. McCoy also earned for the second time in 2013, FedEx ground player of the week, in Week 14.
In Week 15, the Eagles traveled to Minnesota. McCoy only carried the ball 8 times, as the Eagles elected to pass for much of the game. He did though have 68 receiving yards, which put him over the 100 yards from scrimmage mark. The Eagles fell to the Minnesota Vikings 48 - 30. As of Week 16, McCoy leads the NFL in rushing with 1,476 yards and is tied for first in rushing first downs. In Week 16 facing the Chicago Bears, McCoy rushed for 133 yards and scored two touchdowns. This moved him up to second on the Philadelphia Eagles single season rushing yards list. In Week 17 against the Dallas Cowboys, he broke Wilbert Montgomery 's Eagles regular season rushing record (1,512 in 1979) and Brian Westbrook 's record of most yards from scrimmage (2104 in 2007). McCoy rushed for 131 yards on 27 carries, finishing out the last drive of the game with 23 yards on 6 rushes. The Eagles won 24 - 22 and earned a playoff spot - the third seed in the NFC at 10 - 6. McCoy rushed for 77 yards and one touchdown in the Eagles ' game against the 11 - 5 New Orleans Saints, but the team lost 26 - 24 after a last - second field goal.
For the 2013 season, McCoy was able to rush for an outstanding 1,607 yards and was also the all - purpose yards leader at 2,146.
McCoy followed up his 2013 season by rushing for 1,319 yards, which finished third after DeMarco Murray and Le'Veon Bell for the league lead. However, he only totaled five touchdowns, all on the ground. This was in part due to the Eagles signing veteran Darren Sproles, who scored six rushing touchdowns, and Chris Polk being used more for goal line situations, resulting in four rushing touchdowns for him. His most impressive game was in Week 13 in the 33 -- 10 blowout against the Eagles ' divisional rival, the Dallas Cowboys, where he ran for 159 yards and a touchdown.
McCoy 's most notable accomplishment was becoming the Eagles ' all - time leading rusher, finishing with 6,792 yards. Wilbert Montgomery, the previous record holder (as well as second and third place Brian Westbrook and Steve Van Buren), had taken eight seasons to compile the yards he had, while McCoy only took six.
On March 10, 2015, the Eagles traded McCoy to the Buffalo Bills in exchange for the linebacker Kiko Alonso. He then signed a new five - year contract worth $40 million. McCoy 's offseason was filled with many comments on his former coach, such as how Eagles coach and general manager Chip Kelly "got rid of all the good black players '' or that he "does n't like or respect stars ''. McCoy 's season started slow, although this could be attributed to a nagging hamstring injury. Although McCoy rushed for 89 yards on 15 carries against the New England Patriots in Week 2, he had a yards per carry average less than 2.5 in games against the Indianapolis Colts and Miami Dolphins (although he did grab a receiving touchdown against the Dolphins). After missing two games with a hamstring injury, McCoy returned to his elite form, rushing for 90 yards on 17 carries against the Cincinnati Bengals, gaining his first rushing touchdown of the season. This game started a streak where McCoy gained over 100 yards from scrimmage for seven consecutive weeks, which was ended with a season ending MCL sprain against the Washington Redskins, his longtime divisional rival while he was with the Eagles. In December, as the Bills prepared to face the Eagles in Philadelphia, McCoy said he would not shake Chip Kelly 's hand, his former coach and the man who traded him. Although he kissed the Eagles logo on Lincoln Financial Field and hugged owner Jeffrey Lurie, he did not participate in postgame ceremonies when the Bills lost. He was ranked 69th on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2016.
On September 11, 2016, in the season opener, McCoy ran for 58 yards on 16 carries and scored one touchdown as the Bills lost to the Baltimore Ravens by a score of 13 -- 7. On September 25, he carried the ball 17 times for 110 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns. During a Week 5 victory over the Los Angeles Rams, he carried the ball 18 times for 150 yards, marking the most he had in a single game since joining the Bills. On October 16, 2016, McCoy had 19 carries for 140 rushing yards and tied his single game career - high of three rushing touchdowns as the Bills defeated the San Francisco 49ers and McCoy 's former head coach Chip Kelly by a score of 45 -- 16. McCoy was named to his fifth career Pro Bowl on December 20, 2016. He finished the 2016 season with 1,267 rushing yards on 234 carries and scored 13 rushing touchdowns. He was ranked 27th by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2017. Along with quarterback Tyrod Taylor and backup running back Mike Gillislee, McCoy helped Buffalo lead the NFL in rushing yards for the second consecutive year.
On September 10, 2017, McCoy had 159 yards (110 rushing and 49 receiving) from scrimmage in a 21 -- 12 season opening win against the New York Jets. In this game, McCoy eclipsed 12,000 scrimmage yards for his career. He became the sixth active player to reach the mark and one of 60 players to ever reach 12,000 yards from scrimmage. Despite struggling early in the season in Rick Dennison 's offense, McCoy had strong games against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Oakland Raiders, and the Los Angeles Chargers. During Week 14 against the Indianapolis Colts in blizzard - like conditions, McCoy rushed for 156 yards and the game - winning touchdown in overtime, allowing the Bills to win 13 -- 7. The performance against the Colts put McCoy over 1,000 rushing yards for the season.
On December 17, 2017 in a game against the Miami Dolphins he became the 30th NFL player to exceed 10,000 rushing yards. On the play that took him over the 10,000 yard mark he was tackled by Kiko Alonso, who was the player in the 1 - for - 1 trade that brought McCoy to the Bills. On December 19, 2017, McCoy was named to his sixth Pro Bowl. The Bills finished the regular season with a 9 -- 7 record and made the playoffs as the # 6 - seed. In the Wild Card Round against the Jacksonville Jaguars, he finished with 75 rushing yards and 44 receiving yards as the Bills lost by a score of 10 -- 3.
Despite a chaotic offseason, the Bills named McCoy a team captain for the 2018 season.
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McCoy 's brother, LeRon McCoy, is a former wide receiver who played for the Arizona Cardinals. McCoy has one son, LeSean Jr.
In August 2012, McCoy became a partner and investor in premium sports drink BodyArmor SuperDrink.
On November 28, 2012, McCoy was featured in an episode of E: 60 titled "The Real McCoy ''. The interview was done by ESPN reporter Lisa Salters. It details the story of McCoy 's high school career and his ankle injury.
In May 2013, McCoy was sued for his alleged actions towards a woman using the alias "Mary Roe '' aboard a party bus on the New Jersey Turnpike. Roe testified that McCoy humiliated her and 15 other women by spraying them with a beverage before ejecting Roe from the vehicle. McCoy 's attorney Andrew Smith Esq. responded, "There are no criminal charges pending and no probable cause was ever found, '' stating that the accuser was simply attempting to collect money from McCoy. Roe sued for over $50,000 in damages for assault and battery, intentional infliction of emotional distress, false imprisonment and negligence.
In September 2014, McCoy received criticism for leaving a $0.20 tip at the PYT burger restaurant in Philadelphia. McCoy claimed the low tip was due to "bad service. '' The owner responded on September 9, 2014, saying that McCoy had been "verbally abusive '' and made "derogatory comments about women. ''
McCoy has been a resident of the Marlton section of Evesham Township, New Jersey.
McCoy opined that Colin Kaepernick, known for starting the 2016 U.S. national anthem protests, "was not worth the distraction '' when asked why the latter was not on an NFL roster as of 2017. However, in light of President Donald Trump 's comments that NFL players who kneel during the anthem "should be fired '', McCoy took part in the protests, even continuing to stretch during the anthem before a September 24 game against the Denver Broncos. McCoy defended the participation of his teammates and himself in the protests, saying that while the national anthem and flag "meant a lot '' to himself and his teammates, he could not "stand and support something when the leader of this country is acting like a jerk. '' The Bills as a whole had met together before the game to discuss how they would respond to President Trump 's statement.
On July 10, 2018, a post on Instagram alleged that McCoy battered a woman, along with accusations that McCoy beat his son, his pet dog, and that he also used illegal steroids. The post was soon deleted and McCoy denied all of the allegations made in a statement stating he had "not had any direct contact with any of the people involved in months. '' In response, the Buffalo Bills issued a statement via Twitter stating, "We have spoken to LeSean McCoy and have been in contact with the National Football League. We will continue to gather information. '' The woman in question was McCoy 's former girlfriend Delicia Cordon, with whom he had a tumultuous relationship according to police records. Court documents show that McCoy had been trying to evict Cordon from a house he owned in Milton, Georgia for some time and was concerned that Cordon would falsely accuse him of domestic violence. Cordon was robbed and assaulted at the home by a masked assailant on July 10, which coincidentally was the same day as a previously postponed court date for the eviction hearing. The assailant stole jewelry that Cordon claimed McCoy gifted her.
Italics denotes active player
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when was the los angeles lds temple built | Los Angeles California temple - wikipedia
Coordinates: 34 ° 3 ′ 10.1 '' N 118 ° 26 ′ 2.1 '' W / 34.052806 ° N 118.433917 ° W / 34.052806; - 118.433917
The Los Angeles California Temple (formerly the Los Angeles Temple), the tenth operating and the second - largest temple operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church), is on Santa Monica Boulevard in the Westwood district of Los Angeles, California, United States. When it was dedicated in 1956, it was the largest of the church 's temples, though it has since been surpassed by the Salt Lake Temple due to later expansions. The temple serves 39 stakes in Los Angeles, Ventura, Kern, Santa Barbara, and San Luis Obispo counties. The grounds include a visitors ' center, which was renovated in 2010, the Los Angeles Regional Family History Center, both of which are open to the public, and the headquarters of the church 's California Los Angeles Mission.
The Los Angeles Temple was announced on March 23, 1937 by church president Heber J. Grant, when the church purchased 24.23 acres (98,000 m2) from the Harold Lloyd Motion Picture Company. Construction was to begin soon thereafter, but financial difficulties relating to the Great Depression and World War II delayed the groundbreaking until 1951.
The temple plans were revised at this time to include a priesthood assembly room, an unusual feature in temples built after the Salt Lake Temple. It was also expanded to accommodate an unprecedented 300 patrons per session.
This was the first temple with an angel Moroni statue since the Salt Lake Temple. When the statue was installed it faced southeast, as the temple does. It was later turned to face due east at the request of church president David O. McKay.
This was the last temple designed to use live actors instead of a film to present the endowment. The motion - picture presentation soon replaced the live actor presentation, and the progressive presentation (in which patrons moved from one room to another) was replaced with stationary ordinance rooms (i.e., patrons remained in a single room for the entire ceremony). In 2003, the temple reverted to a progressive - style presentation of the endowment (but still using a film) and completely renovated the Terrestrial room.
The Los Angeles California Temple was closed for renovations in late November 2005, with reopening originally scheduled for May 2006, but eventually delayed until July 11, 2006. The renovation also included a seismic overhaul and a complete redesign and reconstruction of the baptistry, which had long been plagued by mold due to poor ventilation.
Located at 10777 W. Santa Monica Boulevard in the Westwood district of Los Angeles, the temple sits atop a small hill above the intersection of Overland Avenue and Santa Monica Boulevard.
The well manicured grounds are open to the public and are filled with various plants, including Canary Island Pine trees, several varieties of palm trees, Bird of Paradise trees, olive trees, and rare Chinese Ginkgo trees. At the left and right of the temple are two fountains, and at the front is a large reflection pool. Several family - themed statues further beautify the grounds. In December, the temple grounds are decorated with thousands of multi-colored lights in celebration of Christmas.
While not as regionally prominent as the temples in Oakland, San Diego, and Washington D.C., the temple is still a distinctive feature of the westside of Los Angeles.
Numerous church facilities are on its grounds including a meetinghouse, a baseball field, the headquarters of the church 's California Los Angeles Mission, and apartments (used by missionaries, temple workers, temple patrons, and visiting church officials).
The remaining land, along Manning Avenue, was subdivided for residential lots, the sale of which considerably offset the expense of constructing the temple. Along with the Bern Switzerland Temple, dedicated a few months before, these were the church 's first temples built outside of an LDS - dominated area. The Los Angeles Temple was the first temple explicitly designed for automobile accessibility: with its parking facilities being larger than those of any temple built previously and with no direct pedestrian connection between the front doors and Santa Monica Boulevard.
The temple 's architecture is generally Modernist, an aesthetic that extends to the choice of exterior cladding: 146,000 square feet (14,000 m2) of Mo - Sai pre-cast concrete facing, a mixture of crushed quartz and white Portland cement quarried in Utah and Nevada. The very light brown pigmentation of the Mo - Sai blend has the advantage of concealing the thin layer of soot that accumulates on most buildings in Los Angeles. The temple is 369 feet (112 m) long, 269 feet (82 m) wide and has an overall height of 257 feet (78 m). Atop the temple stands a 15 - foot (5 m) tall statue of the angel Moroni. The building 's architect, Edward O. Anderson, patterned it after Mayan architecture.
The rooms include a baptistry, celestial room, four ordinance rooms, ten sealing rooms, and an assembly room that stretches the entire length of the temple. The Los Angeles Temple features murals on the walls of its progressive - style ordinance rooms, including the celestial room. The only other temple with celestial room murals is the Idaho Falls Idaho Temple.
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where is the district of columbia located (2 points) | Geography of Washington, D.C. - Wikipedia
Washington, D.C., in the United States, is located at 38 ° 53 ′ 42 '' N 77 ° 02 ′ 11 '' W / 38.89500 ° N 77.03639 ° W / 38.89500; - 77.03639 (the coordinates of the Zero Milestone, on The Ellipse). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a geographical area of 68.3 square miles (176.9 km), 61.4 square miles (159.0 km) of which is land, and the remaining 6.9 square miles (17.9 km) (10.16 %) of which is water.
Washington is surrounded by the states of Virginia (on its southwest side) and Maryland (on its southeast, northeast, and northwest sides); it interrupts those states ' common border, which is the south shore of the Potomac River both upstream and downstream from the District. The portion of the Potomac River that passes Washington is virtually entirely within the District 's border, as the District extends to the south bank. The city contains the historic "federal city '', the territory of which was formerly part of those two adjacent states before they respectively ceded it for the national capital. The land ceded from Virginia was returned by Congress in 1847, so what remains of the modern District was all once part of Maryland.
The topography of the District of Columbia is very similar to the physical geography of much of Maryland. The District has three major natural flowing bodies of water: the Potomac River and two tributaries, the Anacostia River and Rock Creek. The confluence of the Potomac and Anacostia forms the historic peninsula known as Arsenal Point. The District also includes the Washington Channel, which flows into the junction of the Anacostia and Potomac rivers. There are also three man - made reservoirs: Dalecarlia Reservoir, which crosses over the northwest border of the District from Maryland, McMillan Reservoir near Howard University, and Georgetown Reservoir upstream of Georgetown. A fourth, minor reservoir is at Fort Reno in Tenleytown.
The highest point in the District of Columbia is 410 feet (125 m) above sea level at Reno Reservoir in Tenleytown. The lowest point is sea level, which occurs along all of the Anacostia shore and all of the Potomac shore except the uppermost mile (the Little Falls - Chain Bridge area). The sea level Tidal Basin rose eleven feet during Hurricane Isabel on September 18, 2003. The geographic center of the District of Columbia is located near 4th Street NW, L Street NW, and New York Avenue NW, not under the Capitol dome as is sometimes stated. (The Capitol does mark the intersection of the District 's four administrative quadrants.)
Other prominent geographical features of Washington, D.C., include Theodore Roosevelt Island, Columbia Island, the Three Sisters, and Hains Point.
Some areas, especially around the National Mall and parts of Foggy Bottom, were marshes or parts of the river that have been filled in.
During the 18th century, significant portions of the region were forested, with species including rabbits, turkey, pheasants, woodcocks, turtles, and quail, as well as numerous bird species including mockingbirds, bluebirds, hummingbirds, and orioles. Other indigenous species include black snake, garter snake, rattle snake, copperhead, bullfrog and other types of frogs, ground squirrels, flying squirrels, skunks, opossums, raccoons, foxes, beavers, deer, wolves, and bears. Snipes and various types of ducks inhabited swampy areas, as well as soruses.
Native tree species include willow, birch, cedar, and oak. Other plant species found along the Potomac during the early 19th century include yellow jessamine, prickly pear cactus, white horehound, sweet fennel, wild cherries, and wild strawberries. The large percentage of parkland contributes to a high urban tree canopy coverage of 35 %.
In 1965, President Lyndon Johnson called the Potomac River a "national disgrace '' and used the river to illustrate the need for the Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966. The river is now home to a vibrant warm - water fishery and naturally reproducing bald eagles have returned to its banks. Despite its intensely urbanized landscape, the District of Columbia is a center for research on urban wildlife management, invasive species management, urban stream restoration, and the aquatic ecology of urban streams. The National Park Service 's Center For Urban Ecology is a regional source of expertise and applied science for the region.
Earthquake activity in the District of Columbia is low. No earthquakes have been centered within the District, nor are there any faults. However it has felt earthquakes centered in Virginia, Maryland and other surrounding states, and also large earthquakes in Canada and New England.
The District felt the 1811 - 1812 New Madrid earthquakes, and according to old records, residents were "badly frightened ''. In March 1828, President John Quincy Adams felt a "violent '' earthquake in the White House and wrote it in his journal. The 1886 Charleston earthquake (magnitude 6.6 to 7.3) was felt in DC. The strongest earthquake in Virginia happened in 1897 and was felt in the District. An earthquake in 1925 in Canada, estimated about magnitude 7, was felt over an area of 2 million square miles. Another 6.2 earthquake in 1935 caused damage in New York and shook residents from Maine to Wisconsin.
The 2011 Virginia earthquake was felt in Washington and caused damage to landmarks and monuments such as the Washington Monument and the Washington National Cathedral.
Washington, DC is located in the humid subtropical climate zone (Köppen climate classification: Cfa), exhibiting four distinct seasons. Its climate is typical of the South. The District is located in USDA plant hardiness zone 8a near downtown, and zone 7b elsewhere in the city, indicating a temperate climate. As implied in the previous sentence, the downtown area exhibits an urban heat island (UHI) build - up that can especially exacerbate the sultriness of summer nights.
The highest recorded temperature was 106 ° F (41 ° C) on July 20, 1930, and August 6, 1918, while the lowest recorded temperature was − 15 ° F (− 26 ° C) on February 11, 1899, right before the Great Blizzard of 1899. The extreme low daily high temperature was 4 ° F (− 16 ° C), occurring one day before the all - time minimum, while the extreme high daily low temperature was 84 ° F (29 ° C) on July 23 -- 24, 2011 and July 16, 1983. Monthly mean temperatures have ranged from 23.7 ° F (− 4.6 ° C) in January 1918 to 84.5 ° F (29.2 ° C) in July 2011, while the corresponding range for the annual mean is 52.2 ° F (11.2 ° C) in 1904 to 61.5 ° F (16.4 ° C) in 2012.
Washington, D.C., was created to serve as the national capital from its inception. The Residence Act of 1790 required that the capital 's territory would be located along the Potomac River within an area that Maryland and Virginia would cede to the federal government, but permitted the nation 's first president, George Washington, to select the territory 's precise location. President Washington then chose for the territory a square whose sides were 10 miles (16 km) in length and whose corners were directly north, east, south and west of its center. The area of the square contained the existing towns of Georgetown and Alexandria, as well as two small villages, Hamburgh in the Foggy Bottom area and Carrollsburg near the confluence of the Potomac and Anacostia rivers.
The Residence Act had granted the president the authority to locate the federal capital 's territory only as far south and east as the mouth of the Anacostia River in Maryland. However, President Washington wanted to expand the territory 's area southward so that its boundaries could encompass the town of Alexandria. In 1791, Congress amended the Residence Act to approve President Washington 's selected site, which included the portion of the territory that Virginia would cede.
The location of the capital had many natural advantages: the Potomac was navigable up to the territory, allowing for boat traffic; the established ports at Alexandria and Georgetown could provide an important economic base for a major city; and the territory 's inland location was close to the Northwest Territory. During 1791 -- 1792, Andrew Ellicott and several assistants, including Benjamin Banneker, surveyed the boundary between the federal territory and the states of Virginia and Maryland, placing marker stones at every mile point (see Boundary Stones (District of Columbia)). Many of the stones are still standing.
A new federal city, named in 1791 as the "City of Washington '' in the "Territory of Columbia '', was then laid out in a largely undeveloped area at the center of the 100 square mile federal territory. This city, which Pierre (Peter) L'Enfant designed, was bounded to the north by Boundary Street (now Florida Avenue) at the base of the escarpment of the Atlantic Seaboard Fall Line, to the southeast by the Anacostia River, to the southwest by the Potomac River and to the west by Rock Creek. Although L'Enfant designed the city 's original layout in 1791, surveyor Andrew Ellicott revised it in 1792 (see Streets and highways of Washington, D.C.). The remainder of the territory was designated as Washington County (on the Maryland side of the Potomac) and Alexandria County (on the Virginia side).
The land from the state of Virginia was eventually returned to the state in 1846, effective 1847. This land in Virginia makes up the modern area of Arlington County and the old part of Alexandria, Virginia, both of which are considered suburbs of Washington. In fact, the Arlington National Cemetery and the Pentagon complex are both located in Arlington but are largely tied to the federal government in Washington. Between 1790 and 1846, Alexandria was referred to as "Alexandria, D.C. ''
Georgetown was originally part of Maryland and was the only significant population in the area that would become the District of Columbia. Georgetown became part of the District when the Federal City was first created, but remained an independent city, referred to as "Georgetown, D.C., '' until 1871, when it was merged with Washington City and Washington County, completing the process of Washington and the District of Columbia occupying the same geographic borders.
The monumental core of the city consists of the National Mall and many key federal buildings, monuments, and museums, including the Washington Monument, Lincoln Memorial, and the National Air and Space Museum. Its layout is based on that proposed by the McMillan Commission report in 1901.
To preserve the grandeur of the National Mall, the White House, the Capitol, and various other key locations, the entire city is subject to strict building height limits. This limitation was placed in effect just prior to the 20th century when government officials realized that structural steel "skyscrapers '' could overwhelm the city. In 1899, Congress enacted a height limit for the District prohibiting private buildings from rising more than 130 feet. Contrary to popular belief, no law has ever restricted buildings to the height of the United States Capitol or Washington Monument.
A revised height law in 1910 did away with that fixed maximum. The newer legislation, still in effect today, states that no new building may be more than 20 feet taller than the width of the street in front of it. The current law is codified as D.C. CODE ANN. § 6 - 601.05. Thus, Washington has a relatively modest skyline in comparison to the majority of American cities. However the District is ringed by high - rise buildings in many nearby suburbs like Arlington, Silver Spring, and Bethesda.
The District of Columbia is divided into eight wards and 37 Advisory Neighborhood Commissions (ANCs) within these wards. The total number of named neighborhoods is 127. The ANCs serve to advise the D.C. Council on neighborhood matters. The Council is required by law to give their opinions "great weight, '' though what that means is up to the Council to decide.
Since 2000 the demographics of many neighborhoods have changed markedly.
The District of Columbia is bordered by various cities, towns, villages, and unincorporated CDPs in the states of Maryland and Virginia. Following is a list of those adjacent communities.
In addition to the above named places, there are other small unincorporated parts of Prince George 's County, Maryland, which also border the District.
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grease lightning you're the one that i want lyrics | You 're the One That I Want - wikipedia
"You 're the One That I Want '' is a song written by John Farrar for the 1978 film version of the musical Grease. It was performed by John Travolta and Olivia Newton - John. It is one of the best - selling singles of all time, having sold over 6 million copies among the United States, the United Kingdom, and France alone, with estimates of more than 15 million copies sold overall.
"You 're the One That I Want '' was one of the two singles Farrar wrote specifically for Newton - John 's appearance in the film that had not been in the original stage musical, the other being "Hopelessly Devoted to You. '' Randal Kleiser, the film 's director, was not fond of this song because he felt that it did not mesh well with the rest of the Warren Casey - Jim Jacobs score.
Upon its release in conjunction with the film (and its status as a potential blockbuster worldwide), the single became a huge international hit, reaching number 1 in several countries.
In the U.S. the single reached # 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 and on July 18 was certified Platinum for shipments exceeding 2 million copies. (It was already Gold by April 12.)
It also topped the UK Singles Chart for nine weeks in the summer of 1978, some months before the film had even been released in that country.
As of 2013, it is still the fifth best - selling single of all time in the U.K., where it has sold 2 million copies.
A re-released dance version of the single by Almighty Records reached # 4 in the UK and # 27 in Australia in 1998, the twentieth anniversary of the film 's debut.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
In 2013, a synthpop cover version by Lo - Fang reached no. 38 in France & no. 194 in the UK. It also reached no. 12 on the UK Indie chart.
Lo - Fang 's version was created for the Chanel No. 5 commercial featuring Brazilian supermodel Gisele Bundchen.
In 1984, Kids Incorporated covered "You 're the One That I Want '' in the Season 1 episode "Civic Day Parade ''. Kids Incorporated covered "You 're the One That I Want '' again in 1985 in the Season 2 episode "Decade of Hits ''.
In 1993, Epic Records released the London cast recording, Grease - Original London Cast Recording, and "You 're the One That I Want '' was issued as the lead single by Craig McLachlan and Deborah Gibson (Epic UK 659 522, released July 1993). It peaked at number thirteen in the UK.
British comedians Arthur Mullard and Hylda Baker also released a version of the song in 1978. Their version reached No. 22 in the UK.
In 1978, the German comedians Dieter Hallervorden and Helga Feddersen released a parody version under the title Du, die Wanne ist voll. The song reached position number four in the German charts.
The song serves as the source of the title of the American reality TV show Grease: You 're the One that I Want!.
In 2012, a cover version by Angus & Julia Stone was used in commercials for Sky (UK and Ireland).
In 2013, a synthpop cover version by Lo - Fang reached no. 38 in France & no. 194 in the UK.
The song was covered for the video game Just Dance 2016, as the song appears in - game.
In 2017, a cover version by Stephanie Tarling was used in commercials for the Microsoft Surface Laptop.
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who is the lone ranger based off of | Bass Reeves - wikipedia
Bass Reeves (July 1838 -- 12 January 1910) was the first black deputy U.S. marshal west of the Mississippi River. He worked mostly in Arkansas and the Oklahoma Territory. During his long career, he was credited with arresting more than 3,000 felons. He shot and killed 14 outlaws in self - defense.
Bass Reeves was born into slavery in Crawford County, Arkansas, in 1838. He was named after his grandfather, Basse Washington. Reeves and his family were slaves of Arkansas state legislator William Steele Reeves. When Bass was eight (about 1846), William Reeves moved to Grayson County, Texas, near Sherman in the Peters Colony. Bass Reeves may have served William Steele Reeves ' son, Colonel George R. Reeves, who was a sheriff and legislator in Texas, and a one - time Speaker of the Texas House of Representatives until his death from rabies in 1882.
During the American Civil War, Bass parted company with George Reeves, perhaps "because Bass beat up George after a dispute in a card game. '' Bass fled north into the Indian Territory. There he lived with the Cherokee, Seminole, and Creek Indians, learning their languages, until he was freed by the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery, in 1865.
As a freedman, Reeves moved to Arkansas and farmed near Van Buren. He married Nellie Jennie from Texas, with whom he had 11 children.
Reeves and his family farmed until 1875, when Isaac Parker was appointed federal judge for the Indian Territory. Parker appointed James F. Fagan as U.S. marshal, directing him to hire 200 deputy U.S. marshals. Fagan had heard about Reeves, who knew the Indian Territory and could speak several Indian languages. He recruited him as a deputy; Reeves was the first black deputy to serve west of the Mississippi River. Reeves was initially assigned as a deputy U.S. marshal for the Western District of Arkansas, which had responsibility also for the Indian Territory. He served there until 1893. That year he transferred to the Eastern District of Texas in Paris, Texas, for a short while. In 1897, he was transferred again, serving at the Muskogee Federal Court in the Indian Territory.
Reeves worked for 32 years as a federal peace officer in the Indian Territory, and became one of Judge Parker 's most valued deputies. Reeves brought in some of the most dangerous criminals of the time, but was never wounded, despite having his hat and belt shot off on separate occasions. Once, he had to arrest his own son for murder.
In addition to being a marksman with a rifle and pistol, Reeves developed superior detective skills during his long career. When he retired in 1907, Reeves claimed to have arrested over 3,000 felons. He is said to have shot and killed 14 outlaws to defend his own life.
One of his sons, Bennie Reeves, was charged with the murder of his wife. Deputy Marshal Reeves was disturbed and shaken by the incident, but allegedly demanded the responsibility of bringing Bennie to justice. Bennie was eventually tracked and captured, tried, and convicted. He served his time in Fort Leavenworth in Kansas before being released, and reportedly lived the rest of his life as a responsible and model citizen.
When Oklahoma became a state in 1907, Bass Reeves, then 68, became an officer of the Muskogee Police Department. He served for two years before he became ill and had to retire.
Reeves was himself once charged with murdering a posse cook. At his trial before Judge Parker, Reeves was represented by former United States Attorney W.H.H. Clayton, who was a colleague and friend. Reeves was acquitted.
Reeves ' health began to fail, and he died of Bright 's disease (nephritis) in 1910. He was a great - uncle of Paul L. Brady, who became the first black man appointed as a federal administrative law judge in 1972.
' The Black Badge: Deputy United States Marshal Bass Reeves from Slave to Heroic Lawman ' By Bass Reeves great - nephew, retired federal Judge Paul L. Brady.
Black Gun, Silver Star: The Life and Legend of Frontier Marshal Bass Reeves by historian Art T. Burton, published in 2006, is the only scholarly account of Reeves ' life to date.
A children 's biography by Vaunda Micheaux Nelson, Bad News for Outlaws: The Remarkable Life of Bass Reeves, Deputy U.S. Marshal, won the 2010 Coretta Scott King Award.
Illustrator and historian Joel Christian Gill published a graphic novel in 2014 called Tales of the Talented Tenth, Volume 1, which featured Reeves ' life.
Authors Ken Farmer and Buck Stienke have written five novels inspired by the exploits of Reeves: The Nations, Haunted Falls (winner of the Laramie Award for best action Western, 2013), Hell Hole, Across the Red, and Bass and the Lady.
Author Elizabeth Bear depicted Reeves in her 2015 wild west / steampunk novel Karen Memory.
Reeves "guest - stars '' in the ninth volume of the Atomic Robo comic book series, "Atomic Robo and the Knights of the Golden Circle ''. The story, which takes place in 1884, features Robo, Reeves, and Doc Holliday teaming up to fight a mad scientist.
"Bass Reeves: The Real Lone Ranger '' is the title and subject of Legends and Lies: The Real West (2015).
"Bass Reeves - The Real Lone Ranger '' is also the title and subject of Gunslingers (2015). Reeves is portrayed by Joseph Callender.
Popular speculation that Reeves was an inspiration for the fictional Lone Ranger may have originated from the 2006 Reeves biography. Burton wrote, "Bass Reeves is the closest real person to resemble the Lone Ranger ''. Reeves was never a Texas Ranger, however. Records of the creation of the Lone Ranger radio and television series show no evidence that Reeves was an influence.
Reeves figures prominently in an episode of How It 's Made, in which a Bass Reeves limited - edition collectors ' figurine is shown in various stages of the production process.
In "The Murder of Jesse James '', a fictional episode of the television series Timeless (season one, episode 12), Bass Reeves is portrayed by Colman Domingo.
Reeves was a featured subject of the Drunk History episode "Oklahoma '' in which he was portrayed by Jaleel White.
In the television series Wynonna Earp, Reeves ' character appears in a season two episode titled "Everybody Knows '' in which he was portrayed by Adrian Holmes.
Bass Reeves figures into the plot of "The Royal Family '' episode of "Greenleaf '' (2nd season)
Bass Reeves, a 2010 fictionalized account of Reeves ' life and career, stars James A. House in the titular role.
A miniseries, based on Burton 's 2006 biography and co-produced by Morgan Freeman, is reportedly under development by HBO.
Bass Reeves is a character in the miniature wargame "Wild West Exodus ''.
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where are the icbms in the us located | LGM - 30 Minuteman - wikipedia
The LGM - 30 Minuteman is a U.S. land - based intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), in service with the Air Force Global Strike Command. As of 2017, the LGM - 30G Minuteman III version is the only land - based ICBM in service in the United States.
Development of the Minuteman began in the mid-1950s as the outgrowth of basic research into solid fuel rocket motors which indicated an ICBM based on solids was possible. Such a missile could stand ready for extended periods of time with little maintenance, and then launch on command. In comparison, existing U.S. missile designs using liquid rocket propellant required a lengthy fueling process immediately before launch, which left them open to the possibility of surprise attack. This potential for immediate launch gave the missile its name; like the Revolutionary War 's Minutemen, the Minuteman was designed to be launched on a moment 's notice.
Minuteman entered service in 1962 as a weapon tasked primarily with the deterrence role, threatening Soviet cities with a second strike countervalue counterattack if the U.S. was attacked. However, the development of the U.S. Navy 's Polaris missile, which addressed the same role, allowed the Air Force to modify Minuteman into a weapon with much greater accuracy with the specific intent of allowing it to attack hardened military targets, including Soviet missile silos. The Minuteman - II entered service in 1965 with a host of upgrades to improve its accuracy and survivability in the face of an anti-ballistic missile (ABM) system the Soviets were known to be developing. Minuteman - III followed in 1970, using three smaller warheads instead of one large one, which made it difficult to attack because the ABMs would have to hit all three widely separated warheads to be effective. Minuteman - III was the first multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV) ICBM to be deployed. Each missile can carry up to three thermonuclear weapons, which have a yield in the range of 300 to 500 kilotons.
Peaking at 1,000 missiles in the 1970s, the current U.S. force consists of 440 Minuteman - III missiles in missile silos around Malmstrom AFB, Montana; Minot AFB, North Dakota; and F.E. Warren AFB, Wyoming. By February 2018 this will be reduced to 400 armed missiles, with 50 unarmed missiles in reserve, and four non-deployed test launchers to comply with the New START treaty. The Air Force plans to keep the missile in service until at least 2030. It is one component of the U.S. nuclear triad -- the other two parts of the triad being the Trident submarine - launched ballistic missile (SLBM), and nuclear weapons carried by long - range strategic bombers.
Minuteman owes its existence largely to the efforts of then Air Force Colonel Edward N. Hall. In 1956, Hall was put in charge of the solid fuel propulsion division of General Schriever 's Western Development Division, which had originally been formed to lead development of the Atlas and Titan ICBMs. Solid fuels were already commonly used in rockets, but strictly for short - range uses. Hall 's superiors were interested in short and medium range missiles with solids, especially for use in Europe where the fast reaction time was an advantage for a system that might be attacked by Soviet aircraft. But Hall was convinced that they could be used for a true ICBM with 5,500 nautical miles (10,200 km; 6,300 mi) range.
To achieve the required energy, that year Hall began funding research at Boeing and Thiokol into the use of ammonium perchlorate composite propellant. Adapting a concept developed in the UK, they cast the fuel into large cylinders with a star - shaped hole running along the inner axis. This allowed the fuel to burn along the entire length of the cylinder, rather than just the end as in earlier designs. The increased burn rate meant increased thrust. This also meant the heat was spread across the entire motor, instead of the end, and because it burned from the inside out it did not reach the wall of the missile fuselage until the fuel was finished burning. In comparison, older designs burned primarily from one end to the other, meaning that at any instant one small section of the fuselage was being subject to extreme loads and temperatures.
Guidance of an ICBM is based not only on the direction the missile is travelling, but the precise instant that thrust is cut off. Too much thrust and the warhead will overshoot its target, too little and it will fall short. Solids are normally very hard to predict in terms of burning time and their instantaneous thrust during the burn, which made them questionable for the sort of accuracy required to hit a target at intercontinental range. This appeared at first to be an insurmountable problem, but in the end was solved in almost trivial fashion. A series of ports were added inside the rocket nozzle that were opened when the guidance systems called for engine cut - off. The reduction in pressure was so abrupt that the last burning fuel ejected itself and the flame was snuffed out.
The first to make use of these developments was not the Air Force, but the Navy. They had been involved in a joint program with the US Army to develop the liquid - fueled Jupiter missile, but had always been skeptical of the system. They felt that liquid fuels were too dangerous to use onboard ships, and especially submarines. Rapid success in the solids development program, combined with Edward Teller 's promise of much lighter nuclear warheads during Project Nobska, led the Navy to abandon Jupiter and begin development of a solid fuel missile of their own. Aerojet 's work with Hall would be adapted for their Polaris missile starting in December 1956.
The Air Force, however, saw no pressing need for a solid fuel ICBM. SM - 65 Atlas and SM - 68 Titan ICBMs were progressing, and "storable '' liquids were being developed that would allow the missiles to be left in a ready - to - shoot form for extended periods. But Hall saw solid fuels not only as a way to improve launch times or safety, but part of a radical plan to greatly reduce the cost of ICBMs so that thousands could be built. He was aware that new computerized assembly lines would allow continual production, and that similar equipment would allow a small team to oversee operations for dozens or hundreds of missiles. A solid fuel design would be much simpler to build, and easier to maintain in service.
Hall 's ultimate plan was to build a number of integrated missile "farms '' that included factories, missile silos, transport and even recycling. Each farm would support between 1,000 and 1,500 missiles being produced in a continual low rate cycle. Systems in the missiles would detect failures, at which point it would be removed and recycled, while a newly built missile was put into the silo. The missile design itself was based purely on lowest possible cost, reducing its size and complexity because "the basis of the weapon 's merit was its low cost per completed mission; all other factors -- accuracy, vulnerability and reliability -- were secondary. ''
Hall 's plan did not go unopposed, especially by the more established names in the ICBM field. Ramo - Wooldridge pressed for a system with higher accuracy, but Hall countered that the missile 's role was to attack Soviet cities, and that "a force which provides numerical superiority over the enemy will provide a much stronger deterrent than a numerically inferior force of greater accuracy. '' Hall was known for his "friction with others '' and in 1958 Schriever removed him from the Minuteman project and sent him to the UK to oversee deployment of the Thor ICBM. On his return to the US in 1959, Hall retired from the Air Force, but received his second Legion of Merit in 1960 for his work on solid fuels.
Although he was removed from the Minuteman project, Hall 's work on cost reduction had already produced a new design of 71 inches (1.8 m) diameter, much smaller than the Atlas and Titan at 120 inches (3.0 m), which would mean much smaller and cheaper silos. Hall 's goal of dramatic cost reduction was a success, although many of the other concepts of his missile farm were abandoned.
Previous long - range missiles used liquid fuels that could only be loaded just prior to firing. The loading process took from 30 to 60 minutes in typical designs. Although lengthy, this was not considered to be a problem at the time, because it took about the same amount of time to spin up the inertial guidance system, set the initial position, and program in the target coordinates.
Minuteman was designed from the outset to be launched in minutes. While solid fuel eliminated the fueling delays, the delays in starting and aligning the guidance system remained. For quick launch, the guidance system would have to be kept running and aligned at all times, which was a serious problem for the mechanical systems, especially the gyroscopes which used ball bearings.
Autonetics had an experimental design using air bearings that they claimed had been running continually from 1952 to 1957. Autonetics further advanced the state of the art by building the platform in the form of a ball which could rotate in two directions. Conventional solutions used a shaft with ball bearings at either end that allowed it to rotate around a single axis only. This meant that only two gyros would be needed for the inertial platform, instead of the typical three.
The last major advance was to use a general purpose digital computer in place of the analog or custom designed digital computers. Previous missile designs normally used two single - purpose computers; one ran the autopilot that kept the missile flying along a programmed course, and the second compared the information from the inertial platform to the target coordinates and sent any needed corrections to the autopilot. To reduce the total number of parts used in Minuteman, a single faster computer was used, running separate routines for these functions.
Since the guidance computer would be inactive while the missile sat in the silo, the same computer was also used to run a program that monitored the various sensors and test equipment. With older designs this had been handled by external systems, requiring miles of extra wiring and many connectors. In order to store multiple programs, the computer, the D - 17B, was built in the form of a drum machine but used a hard disk in place of the drum.
Building a computer with the required performance, size and weight demanded the use of transistors, which were at that time very expensive and not very reliable. Earlier efforts to use transistorized computers for guidance, BINAC and the system on the SM - 64 Navaho, had failed and were abandoned. The Air Force and Autonetics spent millions on a program to improve transistor and component reliability 100 times, leading to the "Minuteman high - rel parts '' specifications. The techniques developed during this program were equally useful for improving all transistor construction, and greatly reduced the failure rate of transistor production lines in general. This improved yield, which had the effect of greatly lowering production costs, and had enormous spin - off effects in the electronics industry.
Using a general purpose computer also had long - lasting effects on the Minuteman program, and the US 's nuclear stance in general. With Minuteman, the targeting could be easily changed by loading new trajectory information into the computer 's hard drive, a task that could be completed in a few hours. Earlier ICBMs ' custom wired computers could attack a single target, whose precise trajectory information was hard - coded directly in the system 's logic.
In 1957 a series of intelligence reports suggested the Soviets were far ahead in the missile race and would be able to overwhelm the US by the early 1960s. It was later demonstrated that this "missile gap '' was just as fictional as the "bomber gap '' of a few years earlier, but through the late 1950s it was a serious concern. If the Soviets were building missiles in the numbers being predicted by the CIA and others within the defense establishment, by as early as 1961 they would have enough to attack all SAC and ICBM bases in the US in a single first strike.
The Air Force responded by beginning research into survivable strategic missiles. starting the WS - 199 program. Initially this focused on air - launched ballistic missiles, which would be carried aboard aircraft flying far from the Soviet Union, and thus impossible to attack by either ICBM or long - range interceptor aircraft. In the shorter term, looking to rapidly increase the number of missiles in its force, Minuteman was given crash development status starting in September 1958. Advanced surveying of the potential silo sites had already begun in late 1957.
Adding to their concerns was a Soviet anti-ballistic missile system which was known to be under development at Sary Shagan. WS - 199 was expanded to develop a maneuvering reentry vehicle (MARV), which greatly complicated the problem of shooting down a warhead. Two designs were tested in 1957, Alpha Draco and the Boost Glide Reentry Vehicle. These used long and skinny arrow - like shapes that provided aerodynamic lift in the high atmosphere, and could be fitted to existing missiles like Minuteman.
The shape of these reentry vehicles required more room on the front of the missile than a traditional design. To address this, the Minuteman silos were revised to be built 13 feet (4.0 m) deeper. Although Minuteman would not deploy a boost - glide warhead, the extra space proved invaluable in the future, as it allowed the missile to be extended and carry more fuel and payload.
During Minuteman 's early development, the Air Force maintained the policy that the manned strategic bomber was the primary weapon of nuclear war. Blind bombing accuracy on the order of 1,500 feet (0.46 km) was expected, and the weapons were sized to ensure even the hardest targets would be destroyed as long as the weapon fell within this range. The USAF had enough bombers to attack every military and industrial target in the USSR and was confident that its bombers would survive in great enough numbers that such a strike would utterly destroy the country.
Soviet ICBMs upset this equation to a degree. Their accuracy was known to be low, on the order of 4 nautical miles (7.4 km; 4.6 mi), but they carried large warheads that would be useful against Strategic Air Command 's bombers, which parked in the open. Since there was no system to detect the ICBMs being launched, the possibility was raised that the Soviets could launch a sneak attack with a few dozen missiles that would take out a significant portion of SACs bomber fleet.
In this environment, the Air Force saw their own ICBMs not as a primary weapon of war, but as a way to ensure that the Soviets would not risk a sneak attack. ICBMs, especially newer models that were housed in silos, could be expected to survive an attack by a single Soviet missile. In any conceivable scenario where both sides had similar numbers of ICBMs, the US force would survive a sneak attack in sufficient numbers to ensure destruction of all major Soviet cities in return. The Soviets would not risk an attack under these conditions.
Considering this countervalue attack concept, strategic planners calculated that an attack of "400 equivalent megatons '' aimed at the largest Soviet cities would promptly kill 30 % of their population and destroy 50 % of their industry. Larger attacks raised these numbers only slightly, as all of the larger targets would have already been hit. This suggested that there was a "finite deterrent '' level around 400 megatons that would be enough to prevent a Soviet attack no matter how many missiles they had of their own. All that had to be ensured was that the US missiles survived, which seemed likely given the low accuracy of the Soviet weapons. Reversing the problem, the addition of ICBMs to the US force did not eliminate the need, or desire, to attack Soviet military targets, and the Air Force maintained that bombers were the only suitable platform in that role.
This presented a serious problem for the Air Force. While still pressing for development of newer bombers, like the supersonic B - 70, it appeared the countervalue role was served by the Navy 's UGM - 27 Polaris. Polaris had enough range that the submarines could roam open areas of the ocean, and would be essentially invulnerable to attack no matter how many missiles the Soviets had, or how accurate they were. Based on the same 400 equivalent megatons calculation, they set about building a fleet of 41 submarines carrying 16 missiles each, giving the Navy a finite deterrent that was unassailable.
A February 1960 memo by RAND, entitled "The Puzzle of Polaris '', was passed around among high - ranking Air Force officials. It suggested that Polaris negated any need for Air Force ICBMs if they were also being aimed at Soviet cities; if the role of the missile was to present an unassailable threat to the Soviet population, Polaris was a far better solution than Minuteman. The document would have long - lasting effects on the future of the Minuteman program, which, by 1961, was firmly evolving towards a counterforce capability.
Minuteman 's final tests coincided with John F. Kennedy entering the White House. His new Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara, was tasked with producing the world 's best defense while limiting spending. McNamara began to apply cost / benefit analysis, and Minuteman 's low production cost made its selection a foregone conclusion. Atlas and Titan were soon scrapped, and the storable liquid fueled Titan II deployment was severely curtailed. McNamara also cancelled the B - 70 bomber project.
Minuteman 's low cost had spin - off effects on non-ICBM programs. The Army 's Nike Zeus, an interceptor missile capable of shooting down Soviet warheads, provided another way to prevent a sneak attack. This had initially been proposed as a way to defend the SAC bomber fleet. The Army argued that upgraded Soviet missiles might be able to attack US missiles in their silos, and Zeus would be able to blunt such an attack. Zeus was expensive and the Air Force said it was more cost - effective to build another Minuteman missile. Given the large size and complexity of the Soviet liquid - fueled missiles, an ICBM building race was one the Soviets could not afford. Zeus was cancelled in 1963.
Minuteman 's selection as the primary Air Force ICBM was initially based on the same logic as their earlier missiles: that the weapon was primarily one designed to ride out any potential Soviet attack and ensure they would be hit in return. But Minuteman had a combination of features that led to its rapid evolution into the US 's primary weapon of nuclear war.
Chief among these qualities was its digital computer. This could be updated in the field with new targets and better information about the flight paths with relative ease, gaining accuracy for little cost. One of the unavoidable effects on the warhead 's trajectory was the mass of the Earth, which is not even, and contains many mass concentrations that pull on the warhead. Through the 1960s, the Defense Mapping Agency (now part of National Geospatial - Intelligence Agency) mapped these with increasing accuracy, feeding that information back into the Minuteman fleet. The Minuteman was deployed with a circular error probable (CEP) of about 1.1 nautical miles (2.0 km; 1.3 mi), but this had improved to about 0.6 nautical miles (1.1 km; 0.69 mi) by 1965. This was accomplished without any mechanical changes to the missile or its navigation system.
At those levels, the ICBM begins to approach the manned bomber in terms of accuracy; a small upgrade, roughly doubling the accuracy of the INS, would give it the same 1,500 feet (460 m) CEP as the manned bomber. Autonetics began such development even before the original Minuteman entered fleet service, and the Minuteman - II had a CEP of 0.26 nautical miles (0.48 km; 0.30 mi). Additionally, the computers were upgraded with more memory, allowing them to store information for eight targets, which the missile crews could select among almost instantly, greatly increasing their flexibility. From that point, Minuteman became the US 's primary deterrent weapon, until its performance was matched by the Navy 's Trident missile of the 1980s.
Questions about the need for the manned bomber were quickly raised. The Air Force began to offer a number of reasons why the bomber offered value, in spite of costing more money to buy and being much more expensive to operate and maintain. Newer bombers with better survivability, like the B - 70, cost many times more than the Minuteman, and, in spite of great efforts through the 1960s, became increasingly vulnerable to surface - to - air missiles. The B - 1 of the early 1970s eventually emerged with a price tag around $200 million ($581 million today) while the Minuteman - IIIs built during the 1970s cost only $7 million ($26 million today).
The Air Force countered that having a variety of platforms complicated the defense; if the Soviets built an effective anti-ballistic missile system of some sort, the ICBM and SLBM fleet might be rendered useless, while the bombers would remain. This became the nuclear triad concept, which survives into the present. Although this argument was successful, the number of manned bombers has been repeatedly cut and the deterrent role increasingly passed to missiles.
The LGM - 30A Minuteman - I was first test - fired on 1 February 1961, and entered into the Strategic Air Command 's arsenal in 1962, at Malmstrom Air Force Base, Montana; the "improved '' LGM - 30B became operational at Ellsworth Air Force Base, South Dakota, Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota, F.E. Warren Air Force Base, Wyoming, and Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri in 1963. All 800 Minuteman - I missiles were delivered by June 1965. Each of the bases had 150 missiles emplaced. F.E. Warren AFB had 200 of the Minuteman - IB missiles. Malmstrom AFB had 150 of the Minuteman - I and about five years later added 50 of the Minuteman - II similar to those installed at Grand Forks AFB, ND.
The Minuteman - I Autonetics D - 17 flight computer used a rotating air bearing magnetic disk holding 2,560 "cold - stored '' words in 20 tracks (write heads disabled after program fill) of 24 bits each and one alterable track of 128 words. The time for a D - 17 disk revolution was 10 ms. The D - 17 also used a number of short loops for faster access of intermediate results storage. The D - 17 computational minor cycle was three disk revolutions or 30 ms. During that time all recurring computations were performed. For ground operations the inertial platform was aligned and gyro correction rates updated. During flight, filtered command outputs were sent by each minor cycle to the engine nozzles. Unlike modern computers, which use descendants of that technology for secondary storage on hard disk, the disk was the active computer memory. The disk storage was considered hardened to radiation from nearby nuclear explosions, making it an ideal storage medium. To improve computational speed, the D - 17 borrowed an instruction look - ahead feature from the Autonetics - built Field Artillery Data Computer (M18 FADAC) that permitted simple instruction execution every word time.
The D - 37C guidance and control computers were used in Minuteman - II missiles and contained components from Texas Instruments. The Minuteman - III missiles used D - 37D computers and completed the 1,000 missile deployment of this system. The initial cost of these computers ranged from about $139,000 (D - 37C) to $250,000 (D - 17B).
The LGM - 30F Minuteman - II was an improved version of the Minuteman - I missile. Development on the Minuteman - II began in 1962 as the Minuteman - I entered the Strategic Air Command 's nuclear force. Minuteman - II production and deployment began in 1965 and completed in 1967. It had an increased range, greater throw weight and guidance system with better azimuthal coverage, providing military planners with better accuracy and a wider range of targets. Some missiles also carried penetration aids, allowing higher probability of kill against Moscow 's anti-ballistic missile system. The payload consisted of a single Mk - 11C reentry vehicle containing a W56 nuclear warhead with a yield of 1.2 megatons of TNT (5 PJ).
The major new features provided by Minuteman - II were:
System modernization was concentrated on launch facilities and command and control facilities. This provided decreased reaction time and increased survivability when under nuclear attack. Final changes to the system were performed to increase compatibility with the expected LGM - 118A Peacekeeper. These newer missiles were later deployed into modified Minuteman silos.
The Minuteman - II program was the first mass - produced system to use a computer constructed from integrated circuits (the Autonetics D - 37C). The Minuteman - II integrated circuits were diode -- transistor logic and diode logic made by Texas Instruments. The other major customer of early integrated circuits was the Apollo Guidance Computer, which had similar weight and ruggedness constraints. The Apollo integrated circuits were resistor -- transistor logic made by Fairchild Semiconductor. The Minuteman - II flight computer continued to use rotating magnetic disks for primary storage. The Minuteman - II included diodes by Microsemiconductor.
The LGM - 30G Minuteman - III program started in 1966, and included several improvements over the previous versions. It was first deployed in 1970. Most modifications related to the final stage and reentry system (RS). The final (third) stage was improved with a new fluid - injected motor, giving finer control than the previous four - nozzle system. Performance improvements realized in Minuteman - III include increased flexibility in reentry vehicle (RV) and penetration aids deployment, increased survivability after a nuclear attack, and increased payload capacity. The missile retains a gimballed inertial guidance system.
Minuteman - III originally contained the following distinguishing features:
The existing Minuteman - III missiles have been further improved over the decades in service, with more than $7 billion spent in the last decade to upgrade the 450 missiles.
In December 1979 the higher - yield W78 warhead began replacing a number of the W62s deployed on the Minuteman - IIIs. These were delivered in the Mark 12A reentry vehicle. A small, unknown number of the previous Mark 12 RVs were retained operationally, however, to maintain a capability to attack more - distant targets in the south central Asian republics of the USSR (the Mark 12 RV weighed slightly less than the Mark 12A).
The Guidance Replacement Program (GRP) replaces the NS20A Missile Guidance Set with the NS50A Missile Guidance Set. The newer system extends the service life of the Minuteman missile beyond the year 2030 by replacing aging parts and assemblies with current, high reliability technology while maintaining the current accuracy performance. The replacement program was completed 25 February 2008.
Beginning in 1998 and continuing through 2009, the Propulsion Replacement Program extends the life and maintains the performance by replacing the old solid propellant boosters (downstages).
The Single Reentry Vehicle (SRV) modification enabled the United States ICBM force to abide by the now - vacated START II treaty requirements by reconfiguring Minuteman - III missiles from three reentry vehicles down to one. Though it was eventually ratified by both parties, START II never entered into force and was essentially superseded by follow - on agreements such as SORT and New START, which do not limit MIRV capability.
Beginning in 2005, Mk - 21 / W87 RVs from the deactivated Peacekeeper missile will be placed on the Minuteman - III force under the Safety Enhanced Reentry Vehicle (SERV) program. The older W78 does not have many of the safety features of the newer W87, such as insensitive high explosive, as well as more advanced safety devices. In addition to implementing these safety features in at least a portion of the future Minuteman - III force, the decision to transfer W87s onto the missile is based on two features that will improve the targeting capabilities of the weapon: more fuzing options which will allow for greater targeting flexibility and the most accurate reentry vehicle available which provides a greater probability of damage to the designated targets.
The Airborne Launch Control System (ALCS) is an integral part of the Minuteman ICBM command and control system and provides a survivable launch capability for the Minuteman ICBM force if ground based Launch Control Centers are destroyed.
When the Minuteman ICBM was first placed on alert, the Soviet Union did not have the number of weapons, accuracy, nor significant nuclear yield to completely destroy the Minuteman ICBM force during an attack. However, starting in the mid-1960s, the Soviets began to gain parity with the US and now had the potential capability to target and successfully attack the Minuteman force with an increased number of ICBMs that had greater yields and accuracy than were previously available. Studying the problem even more, SAC realized that in order to prevent the US from launching all 1000 Minuteman ICBMs, the Soviets did not have to target all 1000 Minuteman missile silos. The Soviets only needed to launch a disarming decapitation strike against the 100 Minuteman LCCs -- the command and control sites -- in order to prevent the launch of all Minuteman ICBMs. Even though the Minuteman ICBMs would have been left unscathed in their missile silos following an LCC decapitation strike, the Minuteman missiles could not be launched without a command and control capability. In other words, the Soviets only needed 100 warheads to fully eliminate command and control of the Minuteman ICBMs. Even if the Soviets chose to expend two to three warheads per LCC for assured damage expectancy, the Soviets would only have had to expend up to 300 warheads to disable the Minuteman ICBM force -- far less than the total number of Minuteman silos. The Soviets could have then used the remaining warheads to strike other targets they chose.
Faced with only a few Minuteman LCC targets, the Soviets could have concluded that the odds of being successful in a Minuteman LCC decapitation strike were higher with less risk than it would have been having to face the almost insurmountable task of successfully attacking and destroying 1000 Minuteman silos and 100 Minuteman LCCs to ensure Minuteman was disabled. This theory motivated SAC to design a survivable means to launch Minuteman, even if all the ground - based command and control sites were destroyed.
After thorough testing and modification of EC - 135 command post aircraft, the ALCS demonstrated its capability on 17 April 1967 by launching an ERCS configured Minuteman II out of Vandenberg AFB, CA. Afterwards, ALCS achieved Initial Operational Capability (IOC) on 31 May 1967. From that point on, airborne missileers stood alert with ALCS - capable EC - 135 aircraft for several decades. All Minuteman ICBM Launch Facilities were modified and built to have the capability to receive commands from ALCS. With ALCS now standing alert around - the - clock, the Soviets could no longer successfully launch a Minuteman LCC decapitation strike. Even if the Soviets attempted to do so, EC - 135s equipped with the ALCS could fly overhead and launch the remaining Minuteman ICBMs in retaliation. Now that ALCS was on alert, this complicated Soviet war planning by forcing the Soviets to not only target the 100 LCCs, but also the 1000 silos with more than one warhead in order to guarantee destruction. This would have required upwards of 3000 warheads to complete such an attack. The odds of being successful in such an attack on the Minuteman ICBM force would have been extremely low.
Today, the ALCS is operated by airborne missileers from Air Force Global Strike Command 's (AFGSC) 625th Strategic Operations Squadron (STOS) and United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM). The weapon system is now located on board the United States Navy 's E-6B Mercury. The ALCS crew is integrated into the battle staff of the USSTRATCOM "Looking Glass '' Airborne Command Post (ABNCP) and is on alert around - the - clock. Although the Minuteman ICBM force has been reduced since the end of the Cold War, the ALCS continues to act as a force multiplier by ensuring that an adversary can not launch a successful Minuteman LCC decapitation strike.
The Minuteman - III missile entered service in 1970, with weapon systems upgrades included during the production run from 1970 to 1978 to increase accuracy and payload capacity. As of 2016, the USAF plans to operate it until 2030.
The LGM - 118A Peacekeeper (MX) ICBM, which was to have replaced the Minuteman, was retired in 2005 as part of START II.
A total of 450 LGM - 30G missiles are emplaced at F.E. Warren Air Force Base, Wyoming (90th Missile Wing), Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota (91st Missile Wing), and Malmstrom Air Force Base, Montana (341st Missile Wing). All Minuteman I and Minuteman II missiles have been retired. The United States prefers to keep its MIRV deterrents on submarine - launched Trident Nuclear Missiles. Fifty of these will be put into "warm '' unarmed status, taking up half of the 100 slots in America 's allowable nuclear reserve.
Minuteman - III missiles are regularly tested with launches from Vandenberg Air Force Base in order to validate the effectiveness, readiness, and accuracy of the weapon system, as well as to support the system 's primary purpose, nuclear deterrence. The safety features installed on the Minuteman - III for each test launch allow the flight controllers to terminate the flight at any time if the systems indicate that its course may take it unsafely over inhabited areas. Since these flights are for test purposes only, even terminated flights can send back valuable information to correct a potential problem with the system.
The 576th Flight Test Squadron is responsible for planning, preparing, conducting, and assessing all ICBM ground and flight tests.
The Minuteman Missile National Historic Site in South Dakota preserves a Launch Control Facility (D - 01) and a launch facility (D - 09) under the control of the National Park Service. The North Dakota State Historical Society maintains the Ronald Reagan Minuteman Missile Site, preserving a Missile Alert Facility, Launch Control Center and Launch Facility in the WS - 133B "Deuce '' configuration, near Cooperstown, North Dakota.
Mobile Minuteman was a program for rail - based ICBMs to help increase survivability and for which the USAF released details on 12 October 1959. The Operation Big Star performance test was from 20 June to 27 August 1960 at Hill Air Force Base, and the 4062nd Strategic Missile Wing (Mobile) was organized 1 December 1960 for 3 planned missile train squadrons, each with 10 trains carrying 3 missiles per train. During the Kennedy / McNamara cutbacks, the DoD announced "that it has abandoned the plan for a mobile Minuteman ICBM. The concept called for 600 to be placed in service -- 450 in silos and 150 on special trains, each train carrying 5 missiles. '' After Kennedy announced on 18 March 1961, that the 3 squadrons were to be replaced with "fixed - base squadrons '', Strategic Air Command discontinued the 4062nd Strategic Missile Wing on 20 February 1962.
Air Launched ICBM was a STRAT - X proposal in which SAMSO (Space & Missile Systems Organization) successfully conducted an Air Mobile Feasibility Test that airdropped a Minuteman 1b from a C - 5A Galaxy aircraft from 20,000 ft (6,100 m) over the Pacific Ocean. The missile fired at 8,000 ft (2,400 m), and the 10 - second engine burn carried the missile to 20,000 feet again before it dropped into the ocean. Operational deployment was discarded due to engineering and security difficulties, and the capability was a negotiating point in the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks.
An additional part of the National Command Authority communication relay system was called the Emergency Rocket Communication System (ERCS). Specially designed rockets called BLUE SCOUT carried radio - transmitting payloads high above the continental United States, to relay messages to units within line - of - sight. In the event of a nuclear attack, ERCS payloads would relay pre-programmed messages giving the "go - order '' to SAC units. BLUE SCOUT launch sites were located at Wisner, West Point and Tekamah, Nebraska. These locations were vital for ERCS effectiveness due to their centralized position in the US, within range of all missile complexes. Later ERCS configurations were placed on the top of modified Minuteman - II ICBMs (LGM - 30Fs) under the control of the 510th Strategic Missile Squadron located at Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri.
The Minuteman ERCS may have been assigned the designation LEM - 70A.
The U.S. Air Force has considered using some decommissioned Minuteman missiles in a satellite launching role. These missiles would be stored in silos, for launch upon short notice. The payload would be variable, and would have the ability to be replaced quickly. This would allow a surge capability in times of emergency.
During the 1980s, surplus Minuteman missiles were used to power the Conestoga rocket produced by Space Services Inc. of America. It was the first privately developed rocket, but only saw three flights and was discontinued due to a lack of business. More recently, converted Minuteman missiles have been used to power the Minotaur line of rockets produced by Orbital Sciences.
L - 3 Communications is currently using SR - 19 SRBs, Minuteman - II Second Stage Solid Rocket Boosters, as delivery vehicles for a range of different re-entry vehicles as targets for the THAAD and ASIP interceptor missile programs as well as radar testing.
United States: The United States Air Force has been the only operator of the Minuteman ICBM weapons system, currently with three operational wings and one test squadron operating the LGM - 30G. The active inventory in FY 2009 is 450 missiles and 45 Missile Alert Facilities (MAF).
The basic tactical unit of a Minuteman wing is the squadron, consisting of five flights. Each flight consists of ten unmanned launch facilities (LFs) which are remotely controlled by a manned launch control center (LCC). The five flights are interconnected and status from any LF may be monitored by any of the five LCCs. Each LF is located at least three nautical miles (5.6 km) from any LCC. Control does not extend outside the squadron (thus the 319th Missile Squadron 's five LCCs can not control the 320th Missile Squadron 's 50 LFs even though they are part of the same Missile Wing). Each Minuteman wing is assisted logistically by a nearby Missile Support Base (MSB). If the ground based LCCs are destroyed or incapacitated, the Minuteman ICBMs can be launched by airborne missileers utilizing the Airborne Launch Control System.
A request for proposal for development and maintenance of a Ground Based Strategic Deterrent next - generation nuclear ICBM, was made by the US Air Force Nuclear Weapons Center, ICBM Systems Directorate, GBSD Division on 29 July 2016. The GBSD would become the land based portion of the US Nuclear Triad. The new missile to be phased in over a decade from the late 2020s are estimated over a fifty - year life cycle to cost around $86 billion. Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman are competing for the contract. On 21 August 2017 the US Air Force awarded 3 - year development contracts to Boeing and Northrop Grumman, for $349 million and $329 million, respectively. One of these companies will be selected to produce this ground - based nuclear ICBM in 2020. In 2027 the GBSD program is expected to enter service and remain active until 2075.
^ i All available descriptions of GIGANTIC CHARGE use the identical language shown here, so it 's not clear whether the "strategic '' was instead supposed to be "single '' to match the normal meaning of the SIOP acronym (Single Integrated Operational Plan), or whether this was intentionally referring to a separate plan. Without any further context, the phrasing does n't give enough detail to distinguish.
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what was the reason for the tiananmen square protest | Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 - Wikipedia
hardliners
moderates
student leaders
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218 civilians; 10 PLA soldiers; 13 Peoples ' Armed Police (official government figures)
The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, commonly known in mainland China as the June Fourth Incident (六 四 事件), were student - led demonstrations in Beijing, the capital of the People 's Republic of China, in 1989. More broadly, it refers to the popular national movement inspired by the Beijing protests during that period, sometimes called the ' 89 Democracy Movement (八 九 民运). The protests were forcibly suppressed after the government declared martial law. In what became known in the West as the Tiananmen Square Massacre, troops with automatic rifles and tanks killed at least several hundred demonstrators trying to block the military 's advance towards Tiananmen Square. The number of civilian deaths has been estimated variously from 180 to 10,454.
Set against a backdrop of rapid economic development and social changes in post-Mao China, the protests reflected anxieties about the country 's future in the popular consciousness and among the political elite. The reforms of the 1980s had led to a nascent market economy which benefitted some people but seriously disaffected others; the one - party political system also faced a challenge of legitimacy. Common grievances at the time included inflation, limited preparedness of graduates for the new economy, and restrictions on political participation. The students called for democracy, greater accountability, freedom of the press, and freedom of speech, though they were loosely organized and their goals varied. At the height of the protests, about a million people assembled in the Square.
As the protests developed, the authorities veered back and forth between conciliatory and hardline tactics, exposing deep divisions within the party leadership. By May, a student - led hunger strike galvanized support for the demonstrators around the country and the protests spread to some 400 cities. Ultimately, China 's paramount leader Deng Xiaoping and other Communist Party elders believed the protests to be a political threat, and resolved to use force. Communist Party authorities declared martial law on May 20, and mobilized as many as 300,000 troops to Beijing. The troops ruthlessly suppressed the protests by firing at demonstrators with automatic weapons, killing hundreds of protesters and leading to mass civil unrest in the days following.
The Chinese government was internationally denounced for the violent military response to the protests. Western countries imposed severe economic sanctions and arms embargoes on Chinese entities and officials. In response, the Chinese government verbally attacked the protestors and denounced Western nations who had imposed sanctions on China by accusing them of interference in China 's internal affairs, which elicited heavier condemnation by the West. It made widespread arrests of protesters and their supporters, suppressed other protests around China, expelled foreign journalists, strictly controlled coverage of the events in the domestic press, strengthened the police and internal security forces, and demoted or purged officials it deemed sympathetic to the protests. More broadly, the suppression temporarily halted the policies of liberalization in the 1980s. Considered a watershed event, the protests also set the limits on political expression in China well into the 21st century. Its memory is widely associated with questioning the legitimacy of Communist Party rule, and remains one of the most sensitive and most widely censored political topics in mainland China.
Lyòu - Sz̀ Shr̀jyàn
In the Chinese language, the incident is most commonly known as the June Fourth Incident. Events named by date in Chinese are conventionally named by the number of the month and the date, followed by the type of event. Thus, the common Chinese name for the crackdown on the 1989 massacre, is "六 四 事件 '' (June Fourth Incident), literally "Six '' "Four '' "Incident '' ("六 '' means "six '', "四 '' means "four '', "事件 '' means "incident ''). The nomenclature of the former is consistent with the customary names of the other two great protests that occurred in Tiananmen Square: the May Fourth Movement of 1919, and the April Fifth Movement of 1976. "June Fourth '' refers to the day on which the People 's Liberation Army cleared Tiananmen Square of protesters, although actual operations began on the evening of June 3. Names such as June Fourth Movement (Chinese: 六 四 运动; pinyin: Liù - Sì Yùndòng) and ' 89 Democracy Movement (Chinese: 八 九 民运; pinyin: Bā - Jiǔ Mínyùn) are used to describe the event in its entirety.
Outside mainland China, and among circles critical of the crackdown within mainland China, it is commonly referred to in Chinese as June Fourth Massacre (Chinese: 六 四 屠杀; pinyin: Liù - Sì Túshā) and June Fourth Crackdown (Chinese: 六 四 镇压; pinyin: Liù - Sì Zhènyā). To bypass internet censorship in China, which uniformly considers all the above - mentioned names too ' Sensitive ' for search engines and public forums, alternative names have sprung up to describe the events on the Internet, such as May 35th, VIIV (Roman numerals for 6 and 4) and "Eight Squared '' (i.e., 8 = 64).
The government of the People 's Republic of China have used numerous names for the event since 1989, gradually reducing the intensity of terminology applied. As the events were unfolding, it was labelled a "counterrevolutionary riot '', which was later changed to simply "riot '', followed by "political storm '', and finally the leadership settled on the more neutralized phrase "political turmoil between the Spring and Summer of 1989 '', which it uses to this day.
In English, the terms Tiananmen Square Massacre, Tiananmen Square Protests or Tiananmen Square Crackdown are often used to describe the series of events. However, much of the violence did not actually happen in Tiananmen, but outside the square in the city of Beijing near the Muxidi area. The term also gives a misleading impression that demonstrations only happened in Beijing, when in fact they occurred in many cities throughout China. (Examples include Chengdu from the account of Louisa Lim 's The People 's Republic of Amnesia).
The Cultural Revolution ended with chairman Mao Zedong 's death in 1976. The movement, spearheaded by Mao, caused severe damage to the country 's economic and social fabric. The country was mired in poverty as economic production slowed or came to a halt. Political ideology was paramount in the lives of ordinary people as well as the inner workings of the Communist Party itself. At the Third Plenum of the 11th Central Committee in December 1978, Deng Xiaoping emerged as China 's de facto leader. Deng launched a comprehensive program to reform the Chinese economy. Within several years, the country 's direction entirely changed. The focus on ideological purity was replaced by a full - on drive to achieve material prosperity.
To run his reform agenda, Deng promoted his allies to top government and party posts. Hu Yaobang was appointed the General Secretary of the Communist Party in February 1980, and Zhao Ziyang was named as Premier of the People 's Republic of China in September.
The reforms aimed to decrease the role of the state in the economy and gradually introduced private forms of production in agriculture and industry. By 1981, roughly 73 % of rural farms had de-collectivized and 80 % of state owned enterprises were permitted to retain profits. Within a few years, production increased by leaps and bounds, and poverty was reduced substantially.
While the reforms were generally well received by the public, concerns grew over a series of social problems that the changes brought about, including corruption and nepotism by elite party bureaucrats. The state - mandated pricing system, in place since the 1950s, had long kept prices stable at low levels. The initial reforms created a two - tier system where some prices were fixed while others were allowed to fluctuate. In a market with chronic shortages, this allowed people with powerful connections to buy goods at low prices and sell at market prices. In addition, the money supply had expanded too fast. At least a third of factories were unprofitable. The government tightened the money supply in 1988, leaving much of the economy without loans.
Following the 1988 Beidaihe meeting, the party leadership under Deng agreed to a transition to a market - based pricing system. News of the relaxation of price controls triggered waves of cash withdrawals, buying and hoarding all over China. The government panicked and rescinded the price reforms in less than two weeks, but its impact was pronounced for much longer. Inflation soared. Official indices report that the Consumer Price Index increased 30 % in Beijing between 1987 and 1988, leading to panic among salaried workers that they could no longer afford staple goods. Moreover, in the new market economy, unprofitable state - owned enterprises were pressured to cut costs. This threatened a vast proportion of the population which relied on the "iron rice bowl '', i.e. a host of social benefits such as job security, medical care and subsidized housing.
Reformist leaders envisioned in 1978 that intellectuals would play a leading role in guiding the country through reforms, but this did not happen as planned. Despite the opening of new universities and increased enrollment, the state - directed education system did not produce enough graduates to meet increased market demand in the areas of agriculture, light industry, services, and foreign investment. The job market was especially limited for students specializing in social sciences and the humanities. Moreover, private companies no longer needed to accept students assigned to them by the state, and many high - paying jobs were offered on the basis of nepotism and favoritism. Gaining a good state - assigned placement meant navigating a highly inefficient bureaucracy that gave power to officials who had little expertise in their area of jurisdiction. Facing a dismal job market and limited chances of going abroad, intellectuals and students had a greater vested interest in political issues. Small study groups, such as the "Democracy Salon '' and the "Lawn Salon '' (Caodi Shalong), began appearing on Beijing university campuses. These organizations motivated the students to get involved politically.
At the same time, the party 's nominally socialist ideology faced a legitimacy crisis as it gradually adopted capitalist practices. Private enterprise gave rise to profiteers who took advantage of lax regulations, and who often flaunted their wealth in front of those who were less well off. Popular discontent was brewing over unfair wealth distribution. Greed, not skill, appeared to be the most crucial factor of success. There was widespread public disillusionment over the country 's future. People wanted change, yet the power to define ' the correct path ' continued to rest solely in the hands of the unelected government.
The comprehensive and wide - ranging reforms created political differences over the pace of marketization and the control over the ideology that came with it, opening a deep chasm within the central leadership. The reformers ("the right '', led by Hu Yaobang) favoured political liberalization and a plurality of ideas as a channel to voice popular discontent, and pressed for further reforms. The conservatives ("the left '', led by Chen Yun) said that the reforms had gone too far, and advocated a return to greater state control to ensure social stability and to better align with the party 's socialist ideology. Both sides needed the backing of paramount leader Deng Xiaoping to carry out important policy decisions.
In mid-1986, astrophysics professor Fang Lizhi, who had returned from a position at Princeton University, began a personal tour around universities in China, speaking about liberty, human rights, and separation of powers. Fang was part of a wider undercurrent within the elite intellectual community that thought China 's poverty and underdevelopment and the disaster of the Cultural Revolution were a direct result of the authoritarian political system and the rigid planned economy. The view that political reform was the only answer to China 's on - going problems gained widespread appeal among students, as Fang 's recorded speeches became widely circulated all over the country. In response, Deng Xiaoping warned that Fang was blindly worshipping Western lifestyles, capitalism, and multi-party systems, while undermining China 's socialist ideology, traditional values, and the party 's leadership.
Inspired by Fang and other ' people - power ' movements around the world, in December 1986, student demonstrators staged protests against the slow pace of reform. The issues were wide - ranging, and included demands for economic liberalization, democracy, and rule of law. While the protests were initially contained in Hefei, where Fang lived, they quickly spread to Shanghai, Beijing and other major cities. This alarmed the central leadership, who accused the students of instigating Cultural Revolution - style turmoil.
General secretary Hu Yaobang was blamed for taking a soft attitude and mishandling the protests, thus undermining social stability. He was denounced thoroughly by conservatives. Hu was forced to resign as general secretary on January 16, 1987. Then the party began the "Anti-bourgeois liberalization Campaign '', taking aim at Hu, political liberalization and Western - inspired ideas in general. The Campaign stopped student protests and tightened the political environment, but Hu remained popular among progressives in the party, intellectuals, and students.
When Hu Yaobang suddenly died of a heart attack on April 15, 1989, students reacted strongly, most of them believing that his death was related to his forced resignation. Hu 's death provided the initial impetus for students to gather in large numbers. In university campuses, many posters appeared eulogizing Hu, calling for a revival of Hu 's legacy. Within days, most posters were writing about broader political issues, such as freedom of the press, democracy, and corruption. Small spontaneous gatherings to mourn Hu began on April 15 around Monument to the People 's Heroes at Tiananmen Square. On the same day, many students at Peking University (PKU) and Tsinghua University erected shrines, and joined the gathering in Tiananmen Square in a piecemeal fashion. Organized student gatherings also began on a small scale in Xi'an and Shanghai on April 16. On April 17, students at the China University of Political Science and Law (CUPL) made a large wreath to commemorate Hu Yaobang. Its laying - party was on April 17 and a larger - than - expected crowd assembled. At 5 pm, 500 CUPL students reached the eastern gate of the Great Hall of the People, near Tiananmen Square, to mourn Hu. The gathering featured speakers from various backgrounds giving public orations commemorating Hu and discussing social problems. However, it was soon deemed obstructive to the operation of the Great Hall, so police tried to persuade the students to disperse.
Starting on the night of April 17, three thousand PKU students marched from the campus towards Tiananmen Square, and soon nearly a thousand students from Tsinghua joined. Upon arrival, they soon joined forces with those already gathered at the Square. As its size grew, the gathering gradually evolved into a protest, as students began to draft a list of pleas and suggestions (Seven Demands) for the government:
On the morning of April 18, students remained in the Square. Some gathered around the Monument to the People 's Heroes singing patriotic songs and listening to impromptu speeches by student organizers, others gathered at the Great Hall. Meanwhile, a few thousand students gathered at Xinhua Gate, the entrance to Zhongnanhai, the seat of the party leadership, where they demanded dialogue with the leadership. Police restrained the students from entering the compound. Students then staged a sit - in.
On April 20, most students had been persuaded to leave Xinhua Gate. To disperse about 200 students that remained, police used batons; minor clashes were reported. Many students felt abused by the police, and rumours about police brutality spread quickly. This incident angered students on campus, where those who were not politically active decided to join the protests. Also on this date, a group of workers calling themselves the "Beijing Workers ' Autonomous Federation '' issued two handbills challenging the central leadership.
Hu 's state funeral took place on April 22. On the evening of April 21, some 100,000 students marched on Tiananmen Square, ignoring orders from Beijing municipal authorities that the Square was to be closed off for the funeral. The funeral, which took place inside the Great Hall and attended by the leadership, was broadcast live to the students. General secretary Zhao Ziyang delivered the eulogy. The funeral seemed rushed, and only lasted 40 minutes, as emotions ran high in the Square. Students wept.
Security cordoned off the east entrance to the Great Hall, but several students pressed forward. Three of these students knelt on the steps of the Great Hall to present a petition and demanded to see Premier Li Peng. However, no leaders emerged from the Great Hall, leaving the students disappointed and angry; some called for a class boycott.
From April 21 to 23, students began organizing under the banners of formal organizations. On April 23, the "Beijing Students ' Autonomous Federation '' (also known as "the Union '') was formed. It elected CUPL student Zhou Yongjun as chair; Wang Dan and Wu'erkaixi also emerged as leaders. From this vantage point, the Union called for a general class boycott at all Beijing universities. Such an independent organization operating outside of party jurisdiction alarmed the leadership.
On April 22, near dusk, serious rioting broke out in Changsha and Xi'an. In Xi'an, arson from rioters destroyed cars and houses, and looting occurred in shops near the city 's Xihua Gate. In Changsha, 38 stores were ransacked by looters. Over 350 people were arrested in both cities. In Wuhan, university students organized protests against the provincial government. As the situation became more volatile nationally, Zhao Ziyang called numerous meetings of the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC). Zhao stressed three points: discourage students from further protests and ask them to go back to class, use all measures necessary to combat rioting, and open forms of dialogue with students at different levels of government. Premier Li Peng called upon Zhao to condemn protestors and recognize the need to take more serious action. Zhao dismissed Li 's views. Despite calls for him to remain in Beijing, Zhao left for a scheduled state visit to North Korea on April 23.
Zhao 's departure to North Korea left Li Peng as the acting executive authority in Beijing. On April 24, Li Peng and the PSC met with Beijing Party Secretary Li Ximing and mayor Chen Xitong to gauge the situation at the Square. The municipal officials wanted a quick resolution to the crisis, and framed the protests as a conspiracy to overthrow China 's political system and major party leaders, including Deng Xiaoping. In Zhao 's absence, the PSC agreed that firm action against protesters must be taken. On the morning of April 25, President Yang Shangkun and Premier Li Peng met with Deng at the latter 's residence. Deng endorsed a hardline stance and said an appropriate ' warning ' must be disseminated via mass media to curb further demonstrations. The meeting firmly established the first official evaluation of the protests from the leadership, and highlighted Deng 's having ' final say ' on important issues. Li Peng subsequently ordered Deng 's views to be drafted as a communique and issued to all high - level Communist Party officials in an effort to mobilize the party apparatus against protesters.
On April 26, the party 's official newspaper People 's Daily issued a front - page editorial titled "It is necessary to take a clear - cut stand against disturbances. '' The language in the editorial effectively branded the student movement to be an anti-party, anti-government revolt. The article enraged students, who interpreted it as a direct indictment on the protests and its cause. The editorial backfired. Instead of scaring students into submission, it squarely antagonized the students against the government. The polarizing nature of the editorial made it a major sticking point for the remainder of the protests. The editorial evoked memories of the Cultural Revolution, using similar rhetoric as that used during the 1976 Tiananmen Incident -- an event that was initially branded an anti-government conspiracy but was later rehabilitated as "patriotic '' under Deng 's leadership.
Organized by the Union, on April 27 some 50,000 -- 100,000 students from all Beijing universities marched through the streets of the capital to Tiananmen Square, breaking through lines set up by police, and receiving widespread public support along the way, particularly from factory workers. The student leaders, eager to show the patriotic nature of the movement, also toned down anti-Communist slogans, choosing to present a message of "anti-corruption, anti-cronyism '' but "pro-party ''. In a twist of irony, student factions who genuinely called for the overthrow of the Communist Party gained traction as the result of an April 26 editorial.
The stunning success of the March forced the government into making concessions and meeting with student representatives. On April 29, State Council spokesman Yuan Mu (袁 木) met with appointed representatives of government - sanctioned student associations. While the talks discussed a wide range of issues, including the editorial, the Xinhua Gate incident, and freedom of the press, they achieved few substantive results. Independent student leaders such as Wuer Kaixi refused to attend.
The government 's tone grew increasingly conciliatory as Zhao Ziyang returned from Pyongyang on April 30 and resumed his executive authority. In Zhao 's view, the hardliner approach was not working, and concession was the only alternative. Zhao asked that the press be opened to report the movement positively, and delivered two sympathetic speeches on 3 -- 4 May. In the speeches, Zhao said that the student 's concerns about corruption were legitimate, and that the student movement was patriotic in nature. The speeches essentially negated the message presented by April 26 Editorial. While some 100,000 students marched on the streets of Beijing on 4 May to commemorate the May Fourth Movement and repeat demands from earlier marches, many students were satisfied with the government 's concessions. On 4 May, all Beijing universities except PKU and BNU announced the end of the class boycott. Subsequently, the majority of students began to lose interest in the movement.
The leadership was divided on how to respond to the movement as early as mid-April. After Zhao Ziyang 's return from North Korea, factional tensions, between the progressive camp and the conservative camp, intensified. Those who supported continued dialogue and a soft approach with students rallied behind Zhao Ziyang, while hardliner conservatives who opposed the movement rallied behind Premier Li Peng. Zhao and Li clashed at a PSC meeting on 1 May. Li maintained that the need for stability overrides all else, while Zhao said that the party should show support for increased democracy and transparency. Zhao pushed the case for further dialogue.
In preparation for dialogue, the Autonomous Student Union elected representatives to a formal Dialogue Delegation. However, the Union leaders were reluctant to let the Delegation unilaterally take control of the movement. Facing internal discord and declining engagement from the student body at large, a group of charismatic leaders, including Wang Dan and Wu'erkaixi, called for more radical measures to regain momentum. They believed that the government 's ' dialogue ' was merely a way to trick the students into submission. They began mobilizing students for a hunger strike on 11 May.
Students began the hunger strike on 13 May, two days before the highly publicized state visit by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Knowing that the welcoming ceremony for Gorbachev was scheduled to be held on the Square, student leaders wanted to use the hunger strike there to force the government into meeting their demands. Moreover, the hunger strike gained widespread sympathy from the population at large and earned the student movement the moral high ground that it sought. By the afternoon of 13 May, some 300,000 were gathered at the Square.
Inspired by the course of events in Beijing, protests and strikes began at universities in other cities, with many students traveling to Beijing to join the demonstration. Generally, the demonstration at Tiananmen Square was well - ordered, with daily marches of students from various Beijing - area colleges displaying their solidarity with the class boycott and with the demands of the protest. The students sang The Internationale, the world socialist anthem, on their way to, and at, the square.
Afraid that the movement would spin out of control, Deng Xiaoping asked that the Square be cleared for Gorbachev 's visit. Executing Deng 's request, Zhao again used a soft approach, and directed his subordinates to coordinate negotiations with students immediately. Zhao believed he could appeal to the students ' patriotism, and that the students understood signs of internal turmoil during the Sino - Soviet summit would embarrass the nation (not just the government). On the morning of 13 May, Yan Mingfu, head of the Communist Party 's United Front, called an emergency meeting, gathering prominent student leaders and intellectuals, including Liu Xiaobo, Chen Ziming and Wang Juntao. Yan said the government was prepared to hold immediate dialogue with student representatives, but that the Tiananmen welcoming ceremony for Gorbachev would be cancelled whether the students withdraw or not -- in effect removing the bargaining power the students thought they possessed. The announcement sent the student leadership into disarray.
Press restrictions were loosened significantly during early to mid May. State media began broadcasting footage sympathetic to protesters and the movement, including the hunger strikers. On 14 May, intellectuals led by Dai Qing gained permission from Hu Qili to bypass government censorship and air the progressive views of the nation 's intellectuals on Guangming Daily. The intellectuals then issued an urgent appeal for the students to leave the Square in an attempt to deescalate the conflict. However, many students believed that the intellectuals were speaking for the government, and refused to move. That evening, formal negotiations took place between government representatives led by Yan Mingfu and student representatives led by Shen Tong and Xiang Xiaoji. Yan affirmed the patriotic nature of the student movement and pleaded for the students to withdraw from the Square. While Yan 's apparent sincerity for compromise satisfied some students, the meeting grew increasingly chaotic as competing student factions relayed uncoordinated and incoherent demands to the leadership. Shortly after student leaders learned that the event had not been broadcast nationally as initially promised by the government, the meeting fell apart. Yan then personally went to the Square to appeal to the students, even offering himself to be held hostage. Yan also took the student 's pleas to Li Peng the next day, asking Li to consider formally retracting the April 26 editorial and re-branding the movement as "patriotic and democratic ''; Li refused.
The students remained in the Square during the Gorbachev visit; his welcoming ceremony was held at the airport. The Sino - Soviet summit, the first of its kind in some 30 years, marked the normalization of Sino - Soviet relations, and was seen as a breakthrough of tremendous historical significance for China 's leaders. However, its smooth proceedings was derailed by the student movement; according to one scholar, this embarrassed the leadership on the global stage, and drove many moderates in government onto a more ' hardliner ' path. The summit between Deng and Gorbachev took place at the Great Hall of the People amid the backdrop of commotion and protest in the Square. When Gorbachev met with Zhao on 16 May, Zhao told him, and by extension the international press, that Deng was still the ' paramount authority ' in China. Deng felt that this remark was Zhao 's attempt to shift blame for mishandling the movement to him. The statement marked a decisive split between the country 's two most senior leaders.
The hunger strike galvanized support for the students and aroused sympathy across the country. Around a million Beijing residents from all walks of life demonstrated in solidarity from May 17 - 18. These included PLA personnel, police officers, and lower party officials. Many grassroots Party and Youth League organizations, as well as government - sponsored labour unions, encouraged their membership to demonstrate. In addition, several of China 's non-Communist parties sent a letter to Li Peng in support of students. The Chinese Red Cross issued a special notice and sent in a large number of personnel to provide medical services to the hunger strikers on the Square. After the departure of Mikhail Gorbachev, many foreign journalists remained in the Chinese capital to cover the protests, giving the movement international spotlight. Western governments urged Beijing to exercise restraint.
The movement, on the wane at the end of April, now regained significant momentum. By 17 May, as students from across the country poured into the capital to join the movement, protests of varying sizes were occurring in some 400 Chinese cities. Students demonstrated at provincial party headquarters in Fujian, Hubei, and Xinjiang. Without a clearly articulated official position from the Beijing leadership, local authorities did not know how to respond. Because the demonstrations now included a wide array of social groups, each carrying its own set of grievances, it became increasingly unclear with whom the government should negotiate, and what the demands were. The government, still split on how to deal with the movement, saw its authority and legitimacy gradually erode as the hunger strikers took the limelight and gained widespread sympathy. These combined circumstances put immense pressure on the authorities to act, and martial law was discussed as a viable response.
The situation seemed intractable, so the weight of taking decisive action fell on paramount leader Deng Xiaoping. On 17 May, a PSC meeting was called at Deng 's residence. At the meeting, Zhao Ziyang 's concessions - based strategy, which called for the retraction of the April 26 Editorial, was thoroughly criticized. Li Peng and Deng asserted that by making a conciliatory speech on 4 May, Zhao exposed divisions within the top leadership and emboldened the students. Deng warned that if Beijing was not pacified quickly, the country risked civil war and another Cultural Revolution; his views were echoed by the party elders. Deng then moved to declare martial law as a show of the government 's no - tolerance stance. To justify martial law, the demonstrators were described as tools of "bourgeois liberalism '' advocates who were pulling the strings behind the scenes, as well as tools of elements within the party who wished to further their personal ambitions.
On the evening of 17 May, the PSC met at Zhongnanhai to finalize plans for martial law. At the meeting, Zhao announced that he was ready to "take leave '', citing he could not bring himself to carry out martial law. The elders in attendance at the meeting, Bo Yibo and Yang Shangkun, urged the PSC to follow Deng 's orders. Zhao did not consider the inconclusive PSC vote to have legally binding implications on martial law; Yang Shangkun, in his capacity as Vice-Chairman of the Central Military Commission, went on to mobilize the military to move into the capital.
-- Zhao Ziyang at Tiananmen Square. 19 May 1989.
Li Peng met with students for the first time on 18 May in an attempt to placate public concern over the hunger strike. During the talks, student leaders again demanded that the government rescind the April 26 editorial and affirm the student movement as "patriotic ''. Li Peng said the government 's main concern was sending hunger strikers to hospital. The discussions yielded little substantive results, but gained student leaders prominent airtime on national television.
In the early morning of 19 May, Zhao Ziyang went to Tiananmen in what became his political swan song (final effort). He was accompanied by Wen Jiabao. Li Peng also went to the Square, but left shortly thereafter. At 4: 50 am Zhao made a speech with a bullhorn to a crowd of students, urging the students to end the hunger strike. He told the students that they were still young and urged them to stay healthy and not to sacrifice themselves without due concern for their futures. Zhao 's emotional speech was applauded by some students. It would be his last public appearance.
On 19 May, the PSC met with military leaders and party elders. Deng presided over the meeting and said that martial law was the only option. At the meeting Deng declared that he was ' mistaken ' in choosing Hu Yaobang and Zhao Ziyang as his successors, and resolved to remove Zhao from his position as general secretary. Deng also vowed to deal resolutely with Zhao 's supporters and begin propaganda work.
University students in Shanghai also took to the streets to commemorate the death of Hu Yaobang and protest against certain policies of the government. In many cases, these were supported by the universities ' Party committees. Jiang Zemin, then - Municipal Party Secretary, addressed the student protesters in a bandage and ' expressed his understanding ', as he was a former student agitator before 1949. At the same time, he moved swiftly to send in police forces to control the streets and to purge Communist Party leaders who had supported the students.
On April 19, the editors of the World Economic Herald, a magazine close to reformists, decided to publish a commemorative section on Hu. Inside was an article by Yan Jiaqi, which commented favourably on the Beijing student protests, and called for a reassessment of Hu 's 1987 purge. Sensing the conservative political trends in Beijing, Jiang Zemin demanded that the article be censored. Many newspapers were printed with a blank page. Jiang then suspended Qin Benli. His decisive action earned accolades from party elders, who praised Jiang 's loyalty.
In Hong Kong, on 27 May, over 300,000 people gathered at Happy Valley Racecourse for a gathering called "Democratic songs dedicated for China '' (民主 歌聲 獻 中華). Many Hong Kong celebrities sang songs and expressed their support for the students in Beijing. The following day, a procession of 1.5 million people, one fourth of Hong Kong 's population, led by Martin Lee, Szeto Wah and other organization leaders, paraded through Hong Kong Island. Across the world, especially where ethnic - Chinese lived, people gathered and protested. Many governments, including those of the United States and Japan, issued travel warnings to China.
The Chinese government declared martial law on 20 May, and mobilized at least 30 divisions from five of the country 's seven military regions. At least 14 of PLA 's 24 army corps contributed troops. As many as 250,000 troops were eventually sent to the capital, some arriving by air and others by rail. Guangzhou 's civil aviation authorities put regular airline tickets on hold to prepare for transporting military units.
The army 's entry into the city was blocked at its suburbs by throngs of protesters. Tens of thousands of demonstrators surrounded military vehicles, preventing them from either advancing or retreating. Protesters lectured soldiers and appealed to them to join their cause; they also provided soldiers with food, water, and shelter. Seeing no way forward, the authorities ordered the army to withdraw on 24 May. All government forces retreated to bases outside the city. While the Army 's withdrawal was initially seen as ' turning the tide ' in favour of protesters, in reality mobilization took place across the country for a final assault.
At the same time, internal divisions intensified within the student movement itself. By late May, the students became increasingly disorganized with no clear leadership or unified course of action. Moreover, Tiananmen Square was overcrowded and facing serious hygiene problems. Hou Dejian suggested an open election of the student leadership to speak for the movement, but was met with opposition. Meanwhile, Wang Dan moderated his position, ostensibly sensing the impending military action and consequences, and advocated for a temporary withdrawal from Tiananmen Square to re-group on campus, but this was opposed by ' hardliner ' student factions who wanted to hold the Square. The increasing internal friction would lead to struggles for control of the loudspeakers in the middle of the square in a series of ' mini-coups ': whoever controlled the loudspeakers was ' in charge ' of the movement. Some students would wait at the train station to greet arrivals of students from other parts of the country in an attempt to enlist factional support. Student groups began accusing each other of ulterior motives such as collusion with the government and trying to gain personal fame from the movement. Some students even tried to oust Chai Ling and Feng Congde from their leadership positions in an attempted kidnapping, an action Chai called a "well - organized and pre-meditated plot. ''
On June 1, Li Peng issued a report titled "On the True Nature of the Turmoil '', which was circulated to every member of the Politburo. The report aimed to persuade the Politburo of the necessity and legality of clearing Tiananmen Square by referring to the protestors as terrorists and counterrevolutionaries. The report stated that turmoil was continuing to grow, the students had no plans to leave, and they were gaining popular support. Further justification for martial law came in the form of a report submitted by the Ministry of State Security (MSS) to the party leadership, which emphasized the infiltration of bourgeois liberalism into China and the negative effect that the West -- particularly the United States -- had on the students. The MSS expressed its belief that American forces had intervened in the student movement in hopes of overthrowing the Communist Party. The report created a sense of urgency within the party, and provided justification for military action. In conjunction with the plan to clear the Square by force, the Politburo received word from the martial law troops headquarters stating that the troops were ready to help stabilize the capital, and that they understood the necessity and legality of martial law to overcome the turmoil.
On June 2, the movement saw an increase in action and protest, solidifying the CPC 's decision that it was time to act. Protests broke out as newspapers published articles that called for the students to leave Tiananmen Square and end the movement. Many of the students in the Square were not willing to leave and were outraged by the articles. They were also outraged by Beijing Daily 's June 1 article "Tiananmen, I Cry for You '', written by a fellow student who had become disillusioned with the movement, as he thought it was chaotic and disorganized. In response to the articles, thousands of students lined the streets of Beijing to protest against leaving the Square.
Three intellectuals, Liu Xiaobo, Zhou Duo, Gao Xin, and a Taiwanese singer Hou Dejian declared a second hunger strike because they wanted to revive the pro-democracy movement. After weeks of occupying the Square, the students were tired, and internal rifts opened between moderate and hardliner student groups. In their declaration speech, the hunger strikers openly criticized the government 's suppression of the movement to remind the students that their cause was worth fighting for, and pushed them to continue their occupation of the Square.
On June 2, Deng Xiaoping and several party elders met with the three remaining politburo standing committee members, Li Peng, Qiao Shi and Yao Yilin, after Zhao Ziyang and Hu Qili had been ousted, and they agreed to clear the Square so "the riot can be halted and order be restored to the Capital. '' They also agreed that the Square needed to be cleared as peacefully as possible, but if protesters did not cooperate, the troops were authorized to use force to complete the job. That day, state - run newspapers reported that troops were positioned in ten key areas in the city. Units of the 27th, 65th and the 24th Armies were secretly moved into the Great Hall of the People on the west side of the Square and the Ministry of Public Security compound east of the Square.
On the evening of June 2, reports that an army trencher ran into four civilians, killing three sparked fear that the army and the police were trying to advance into Tiananmen Square. Student leaders issued emergency orders to set up roadblocks at major intersections to prevent the entry of troops into the center of the city.
On the morning of June 3, students and residents discovered troops dressed in plainclothes trying to smuggle weapons into the city. The students seized and handed the weapons to Beijing Police. The students protested outside the Xinhua Gate of the Zhongnanhai leadership compound and the police fired tear gas. Unarmed troops emerged from the Great Hall of the People and were quickly met with crowds of protesters. Several protesters tried to injure the troops as they collided outside the Great Hall of the People, forcing soldiers to retreat, but only for a short while.
At 4: 30 pm on June 3, the three politburo standing committee members met with military leaders, Beijing Party Secretary Li Ximing, mayor Chen Xitong, and State Council secretariat Luo Gan, and finalized the order for the enforcement of martial law:
The order did not explicitly contain a shoot - to - kill directive but permission to "use any means '' was understood by some units as authorization to use lethal force. That evening, the leaders monitored the operation from the Great Hall of the People and Zhongnanhai.
On the evening of June 3, state - run television warned residents to stay indoors but crowds of people took to the streets, as they had two weeks before, to block the incoming army. PLA units advanced on Beijing from every direction -- the 38th, 63rd and 28th Armies from the west, the 15th Airborne Corps, 20th, 26th and 54th Armies from the south, the 39th Army and the 1st Armored Division from the east and the 40th and 64th Armies from the north.
At about 10 pm, the 38th Army opened fire on protesters at the Wukesong intersection on Chang'an Avenue, about 10 km west of Square. The crowds were stunned that the army was using live ammunition and reacted by hurling insults and projectiles. Song Xiaoming, a 32 - year - old aerospace technician, killed at Wukesong, was the first confirmed fatality of the night. The troops used expanding bullets, prohibited by international law for use in warfare, which expand upon entering the body and create larger wounds.
At about 10: 30 pm, the advance of the army was briefly halted at Muxidi, about 5 km west of the Square, where articulated trolleybuses were placed across a bridge and set on fire. Crowds of residents from nearby apartment blocks tried to surround the military convoy and halt its advance. The 38th Army again opened fire, inflicting heavy casualties. According to the tabulation of victims by Tiananmen Mothers, 36 people died at Muxidi, including Wang Weiping, a doctor tending to the wounded. Several were killed in the apartments of high - ranking party officials overlooking the boulevard. Soldiers raked the apartment buildings with gunfire, and some people inside or on their balconies were shot. The 38th Army also used armored personnel carriers (APCs) to ram through the buses. They continued to fight off demonstrators, who hastily erected barricades and tried to form human chains. As the army advanced, fatalities were recorded all along Chang'an Avenue, at Nanlishilu, Fuxingmen, Xidan, Liubukou and Tiananmen. Among those killed was Duan Changlong, a Tsinghua University graduate student, who was shot in the chest as he tried to negotiate with soldiers at Xidan. To the south, paratroopers of the 15th Airborne Corps also used live ammunition, and civilians deaths were recorded at Hufangqiao, Zhushikou, Tianqiao, and Qianmen.
The killings infuriated city residents, some of whom attacked soldiers with sticks, rocks and molotov cocktails, setting fire to military vehicles. The Chinese government and its supporters have tried to argue that the troops acted in self - defense and seized upon troop casualties to justify the use of force. Lethal attacks on troops occurred after the military had opened fire at 10 pm on June 3 and the number of military fatalities caused by protesters is relatively few -- seven, according to Wu Renhua 's study, compared to hundreds of civilian deaths.
At 8: 30 pm, army helicopters appeared above the Square and students called for campuses to send reinforcements. At 10 pm, the founding ceremony of the Tiananmen Democracy University was held as scheduled at the base of the Goddess of Democracy. At 10: 16 pm, the loudspeakers controlled by the government warned that troops may take "any measures '' to enforce martial law. By 10: 30 pm, news of bloodshed to the west and south of the city began trickling into the Square, often told by witnesses drenched in blood. At midnight, the students ' loudspeaker announced news that a student had been killed on West Chang'an Avenue, near the Military Museum and a somber mood settled on the Square. Li Lu, the deputy commander of the student headquarters, urged students to remain united in defending the Square through non-violent means. At 12: 30 am, Wu'erkaixi fainted after learning that a female student at Beijing Normal University, who had left campus with him earlier in the evening, had just been killed. Wuerkaixi was taken away by ambulance. By then, there were still 70,000 -- 80,000 people in the Square.
At about 12: 15 am, a flare lit up the sky and the first armored personnel vehicle appeared on the Square from the west. At 12: 30 am, two more APCs arrived from the South. The students threw chunks of cement at the vehicles. One APC stalled, perhaps by metal poles jammed into its wheels, and the demonstrators covered it with gasoline - doused blankets and set it on fire. The intense heat forced out the three occupants, who were swarmed by demonstrators. The APCs had reportedly run over tents and many in the crowd wanted to beat the soldiers. But students formed a protective cordon and escorted the three men to the medic station by the History Museum on the east side of the Square.
Pressure mounted on the student leadership to abandon non-violence and retaliate against the killings. At one point, Chai Ling picked up the megaphone and called on fellow students to prepare to "defend themselves '' against the "shameless government. '' But she and Li Lu agreed to adhere to peaceful means and had the students ' sticks, rocks and glass bottles confiscated.
At about 1: 30 am, the vanguard of the 38th Army and paratroopers from the 15th Airborne Corps arrived at the north and south ends of the Square, respectively. They began to seal off the Square from reinforcements of students and residents, killing more demonstrators who were trying to enter the Square. Meanwhile, the 27th and 65th Armies poured out of the Great Hall of the People to the west and the 24th Army emerged from behind the History Museum to the east. The remaining students, numbering several thousand, were completely surrounded at the Monument of the People 's Heroes in the center of the Square. At 2 am, the troops fired shots over the heads of the students at the Monument. The students broadcast pleadings back toward the troops: "We entreat you in peace, for democracy and freedom of the motherland, for strength and prosperity of the Chinese nation, please comply with the will of the people and refrain from using force against peaceful student demonstrators. ''
At about 2: 30 am, several workers near the Monument emerged with a machine gun they had captured from the troops and vowed to take revenge. They were persuaded to give up the weapon by Hou Dejian. The workers also handed over an assault rifle without ammunition, which Liu Xiaobo smashed against the marble railings of the Monument. Shao Jiang, a student who had witnessed the killings at Muxidi, pleaded with the older intellectuals to retreat, saying too many lives had been lost. Initially, Liu Xiaobo was reluctant, but eventually joined Zhou Tuo, Gao Xin and Hou Dejian in making the case to the student leaders for a withdrawal. Chai Ling, Li Lu and Feng Congde initially rejected the idea of withdrawal. At 3: 30 am, at the suggestion of two doctors in the Red Cross camp, Hou Dejian and Zhuo Tuo agreed to try to negotiate with the soldiers. They rode in an ambulance to the northeast corner of the Square and spoke with Ji Xinguo, the political commissar of the 38th Army 's 336th Regiment, who relayed the request to command headquarters, which agreed to grant safe passage for the students to the southeast. The commissar told Hou, "it would be a tremendous accomplishment, if you can persuade the students to leave the Square.
At 4 am, the lights on the Square suddenly turned off, and the government 's loudspeaker announced: "Clearance of the Square begins now. We agree with the students ' request to clear the Square. '' The students sang The Internationale and braced for a last stand. Hou returned and informed student leaders of his agreement with the troops. At 4: 30 am, the lights relit and the troops began to advance on the Monument from all sides. At about 4: 32 am, Hou Dejian took the student 's loudspeaker and recounted his meeting with the military. Many students, who learned of the talks for the first time, reacted angrily and accused him of cowardice.
The soldiers initially stopped about 10 meters from the students. The first row of troops took aim with machine guns in the prone position. Behind them soldiers squatted and stood with assault rifles. Mixed among them were anti-riot police with clubs. Further back were tanks and APCs. Feng Congde took to the loudspeaker and explained that there was no time left to hold a meeting. Instead, a voice vote would decide the collective action of the group. Although the "stays '' were louder than "gos '', Feng said the "gos '' had prevailed. Just at that time, at about 4: 40 am, a squad of soldiers in camouflaged uniform charged up the Monument and shot out the students ' loudspeaker. Other troops beat and kicked dozens of students at the Monument, seizing and smashing their cameras and recording equipment. An officer with a loudspeaker called out "you better leave or this wo n't end well. ''
Some of the students and professors persuaded others still sitting on the lower tiers of the Monument to get up and leave, while soldiers beat them with clubs and gunbutts and prodded them with bayonets. Witnesses heard bursts of gunfire. At about 5: 10 am, the students began to leave the Monument. They linked hands and marched through a corridor to the southeast, though some departed through the north. Those who refused to leave were beaten by soldiers and ordered to join the departing procession. Having removed the students from the square, soldiers were ordered to relinquish their ammunition, after which they were allowed a short reprieve from 7 am to 9 am. The soldiers were then ordered to clear the square of all debris left over from the student occupation. The debris was either piled and burnt on the square, or placed in large plastic bags that were airlifted away by military helicopters. After the cleanup, the troops stationed at The Great Hall of the People remained confined within for the next nine days. During this time, the soldiers were left to sleep on the floors and fed a single packet of instant noodles split between three men daily. Officers apparently suffered no such deprivation, and were served regular meals apart from their troops.
Just past 6 am on June 4, as a convoy of students who had vacated the Square were walking westward in the bicycle lane along Chang'an Avenue back to campus, three tanks pursued them from the Square, firing tear gas and one drove through the crowd, killing 11 students, injuring scores.
Later in the morning, thousands of civilians tried to re-enter the Square from the northeast on East Chang'an Avenue, which was blocked by rows of infantry. Many in the crowd were parents of the demonstrators who had been in the Square. As the crowd approached the troops, an officer sounded a warning, and the troops opened fire. The crowd scurried back down the avenue in view of journalists in the Beijing Hotel. Dozens of civilians were shot in the back as they fled. Later, the crowds surged back toward the troops, who opened fire again. The people fled in panic. An ambulance that was arriving was also caught in the gunfire. The crowd tried several more times but could not enter the Square, which remained closed to the public for two weeks.
On June 5, suppression of the protest was immortalized in Western media by the famous video footage and photographs of a lone man standing in front of a column of tanks driving out of Tiananmen Square. The iconic photo that would eventually make its way around the world was taken on June 5 on Chang'an Avenue. As the tank driver tried to go around him, the "Tank Man '' moved into the tank 's path. He continued to stand defiantly in front of the tanks for some time, then climbed up onto the turret of the lead tank to speak to the soldiers inside. After returning to his position in front of the tanks, the man was pulled aside by a group of people.
A stopped convoy of 37 APCs on Changan Boulevard at Muxidi was forced to abandon their vehicles after becoming stuck among an assortment of burned out buses and military vehicles. In addition to occasional incidents of soldiers opening fire on civilians in Beijing, Western news outlets reported clashes between Units of the PLA. Late in the afternoon 26 tanks, three armored personnel carriers and supporting infantry took up defensive positions facing East at Jianguomen and Fuxingmen overpasses. Shellfire was heard throughout the night and the next morning a U.S. Marine in the Eastern part of the city reported spotting a damaged armored vehicle that had been disabled by an armor - piercing shell. The ongoing turmoil in the capital disrupted the flow of everyday life. No editions of the People 's Daily were available in Beijing on June 5 despite assurances that they had been printed. Many shops, offices, and factories were not able to open as workers remained in their homes, and public transit services were limited to Subway and suburban bus routes.
By and large, the government regained control in the week following the military 's seizure of the Square. A political purge followed in which officials responsible for organizing or condoning the protests were removed, and protest leaders jailed.
After order was restored in Beijing on June 4, protests of varying scales continued in some 80 other Chinese cities, outside of the spotlight the international press. In the British colony of Hong Kong, people again took to wearing black in solidarity with the demonstrators in Beijing. There were also protests in other countries, many adopting the use of black armbands as well.
In Shanghai, students marched on the streets on June 5, and erected roadblocks on major thoroughfares. Factory workers went on a general strike and took to the streets as well; railway traffic was also blocked. Public transport was also suspended and prevented people from getting to work. On June 6, the municipal government tried to clear the rail blockade, but was met with fierce resistance from the crowds. Several people were killed by being run over by the train. On June 7, students from major Shanghai universities stormed various campus facilities to erect biers in commemoration of the dead in Beijing. The situation gradually came under control without use of deadly force. The municipal government gained recognition from the top leadership in Beijing for averting a major upheaval.
In the interior cities of Xi'an, Wuhan, Nanjing, and Chengdu, many students continued protests after June 4, often erecting roadblocks. In Xi'an, students stopped workers from entering factories. In Wuhan, students blocked the Yangtze River Railway bridge, and another 4,000 gathered at the railway station. About one thousand students staged a railroad ' sit - in '. Rail traffic on the Beijing - Guangzhou and Wuhan - Dalian lines was interrupted. The students also urged employees of major state - owned enterprises to go on strike. In Wuhan the situation was so tense that residents reportedly began a bank run and resorted to panic - buying.
Similar scenes unfolded in Nanjing. On June 7, hundreds of students staged a blockade at the Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge as well as the Zhongyangmen Railway Bridge; they were persuaded to evacuate without incident later that day, though returned the next day to occupy the main railway station and the bridges.
The atmosphere in Chengdu was more violent. On the morning of June 4, police forcibly broke up the student demonstration taking place in Chengdu 's main square. The resulting violence killed eight people, and injured hundreds. The most brutal attacks occurred on June 5 and 6. Witnesses estimate that 30 to 100 bodies were thrown onto a truck after a crowd broke into the Jinjiang Hotel. According to Amnesty International, at least 300 people were killed in Chengdu on June 5. Troops in Chengdu used concussion grenades, truncheons, knives and electric cattle prods against civilians. Hospitals were ordered to not accept students and on the second night the ambulance service was stopped by police.
At a news conference on June 6, State Council spokesperson Yuan Mu announced that based on "preliminary statistics '', "nearly 300 people died... includ (ing) soldiers '', 23 students, "bad elements who deserve (d) this because of their crimes, and people who were killed by mistake. '' The wounded, he said, included "5,000 (police) officers and (soldiers) '' and over "2,000 civilians, including the handful of lawless ruffians and the onlooking masses who do understand the situation. '' Military spokesperson Zhang Gong stated that no one was killed in Tiananmen Square and no one was run over by tanks in the Square.
On June 9, Deng Xiaoping, appearing in public for the first time since the protests began, delivered a speech praising the "martyrs '' (PLA soldiers who had died). Deng stated that the goal of the movement was to overthrow the Party and the state. "Their goal is to establish a totally Western - dependent bourgeois republic '', Deng said of the protesters. Deng argued that protesters had complained about corruption to cover their real motive, which was to replace the socialist system. He said that "the entire imperialist Western world plans to make all socialist countries discard the socialist road and then bring them under the monopoly of international capital and onto the capitalist road ''.
The civilians killed in the city of Beijing, according to the city police, "included university professors, technical people, officials, workers, owners of small private enterprises, retired workers, high school students and grade school students, of whom the youngest was nine years old. '' The number of deaths and the extent of bloodshed in the Square itself have been in dispute since the events. As the Chinese authorities actively suppress discussion of the events as well as research of the subject, it is difficult to verify exact figures. As a result, large discrepancies exist among various casualty estimates.
Official Chinese government announcements put the number of dead between zero and 300. At the State Council press conference on June 6, spokesman Yuan Mu said that "preliminary tallies '' by the government showed that about 300 civilians and soldiers died, including 23 students from universities in Beijing, along with a number of people he described as "ruffians ''. Yuan also said some 5,000 soldiers and police along with 2,000 civilians were wounded. On June 19, Beijing Party Secretary Li Ximing reported to the Politburo that the government 's confirmed death toll was 241, including 218 civilians (of which 36 were students), 10 PLA soldiers and 13 People 's Armed Police, along with 7,000 wounded. On 28 July 1989, at an official Chinese Ministry of Defence briefing to foreign military attachés, 38th Army Political Chief Li Zhiyun claimed that no one had been killed at Tiananmen.
US Government files declassified in 2014 estimated there had been 10,454 deaths and 40,000 injured. This figure was from internal Chinese government files obtained from the Chinese government headquarters in Zhongnanhai. In British government files declassified and made public in December 2017, it was revealed that Alan Ewen Donald, who served as the UK 's ambassador to China from 1988 to 1991, had reported in 1989 that a member of the State Council of the People 's Republic of China had estimated the civilian death toll at 10,000.
Other estimates of the death toll have been higher than the figures announced by the government. Nicholas D. Kristof, then Beijing bureau chief for The New York Times, wrote on June 21 that "it seems plausible that about a dozen soldiers and policemen were killed, along with 400 to 800 civilians. '' US ambassador James Lilley said that, based on visits to hospitals around Beijing, a minimum of several hundred had been killed. In a 1990 article addressing the question, Time magazine said that the Chinese Red Cross had given a figure of 2,600 deaths on the morning of June 4, though later this figure was retracted. A declassified US National Security Agency cable filed on the same day estimated 180 -- 500 deaths up to the morning of June 4. Amnesty International 's estimates puts the number of deaths at between several hundred and close to 1,000, while a Western diplomat who compiled estimates put the number at 300 to 1,000.
The Tiananmen Mothers, a victims ' advocacy group co-founded by Ding Zilin and Zhang Xianling, whose children were killed during the crackdown, have identified 202 victims as of August 2011. The group has worked painstakingly, in the face of government interference, to locate victims ' families and collect information about the victims. Their tally has grown from 155 in 1999 to 202 in 2011. The list includes four individuals who committed suicide on or after June 4, for reasons that related to their involvement in the demonstrations.
Wu Renhua of the Chinese Alliance for Democracy, an overseas group agitating for democratic reform in China, said that he was only able to verify and identify 15 military deaths. Wu asserts that if deaths from events unrelated to demonstrators were removed from the count, only seven deaths among military personnel may be counted as those "killed in action '' by rioters.
Chinese government officials have long asserted that no one died in the Square itself in the early morning hours of June 4, during the ' hold - out ' of the last batch of students in the south of the Square. Initially foreign media reports of a "massacre '' on the Square were prevalent, though subsequently journalists have acknowledged that most of the deaths occurred outside of the Square in western Beijing. Several people who were situated around the square that night, including Jay Mathews, former Beijing bureau chief of the Washington Post, and Richard Roth, CBS correspondent, reported that while they had heard sporadic gunfire, they could not find enough evidence to suggest that a massacre took place on the Square itself. Records by the Tiananmen Mothers suggest that three students died in the Square the night of the Army 's push into the Square. Democracy activist Wu Renhua asserted that the government 's discussion of the issue was a red herring intended to absolve itself of responsibility and showcase its benevolence. Wu said that it was irrelevant whether the shooting occurred inside or outside of the Square itself, as it was still a reprehensible massacre of unarmed civilians.
The authorities carried out mass arrests. Many workers were summarily tried and executed. In contrast, the students -- many of whom came from relatively affluent backgrounds and were well - connected -- received much lighter sentences. Wang Dan, the student leader who topped the most wanted list, spent seven years in prison. Many of the students and university staff implicated were permanently politically stigmatized, some never to be employed again. Some student leaders such as Chai Ling and Wuer Kaixi were able to escape to the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and other Western nations under Operation Yellowbird that was organized from Hong Kong, a British territory at the time.
Smaller protest actions continued in other cities for a few days. Some university staff and students who had witnessed the killings in Beijing organized or spurred commemorative events upon their return to school. At Shanghai 's prestigious Jiaotong University, for example, the party secretary organized a public commemoration event, with engineering students producing a large metal wreath.
According to the Dui Hua Foundation, citing a provincial government, 1,602 individuals were imprisoned for protest - related activities in the early 1989. As of May 2012, at least two remain incarcerated in Beijing and five others remain unaccounted for. In June 2014 it was reported that Miao Deshun was believed to be the last known prisoner incarcerated for their participation in the protests; he was last heard from a decade ago. All are reported to be suffering from mental illness.
The Party leadership expelled Zhao Ziyang from the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC). Hu Qili, another PSC member who opposed the martial law but abstained from voting, was also removed from the committee. He was, however, able to retain his party membership, and after "changing his opinion '', was reassigned as deputy minister in the Ministry for Machinery and Electronics Industry. Another reform - minded Chinese leader, Wan Li, was also put under house arrest immediately after he stepped out of his plane at Beijing Capital Airport upon returning from his shortened trip abroad; the authorities declared his detention to be on health grounds. When Wan Li was released from his house arrest after he finally "changed his opinion '' he, like Qiao Shi, was transferred to a different position with equal rank but a mostly ceremonial role. Several Chinese ambassadors abroad claimed political asylum.
Jiang Zemin, then Party Secretary of Shanghai, was promoted to General Secretary of the Communist Party. Jiang 's decisive actions in Shanghai involving the World Economic Herald and his having prevented deadly violence in the city won him support from party elders in Beijing. Having put the new leadership team in place and recognising his weakened position, Deng Xiaoping himself also bowed out of the party leadership -- at least officially -- by resigning his last leadership position as Chairman of the Central Military Commission later that year. He kept a low profile until 1992. According to diplomatic cables de-classified by Canada, the Swiss ambassador informed Canadian diplomats in confidence that over several months following the massacre, "every member of the Politburo Standing Committee has approached him about transferring very significant amounts of money to Swiss bank accounts ''.
Bao Tong, Zhao Ziyang 's aide, was the highest - ranking official to be formally charged with a crime in connection with 1989 demonstrations. He was convicted in 1992 of "revealing state secrets and counter-revolutionary propagandizing '' and served seven years in prison. To purge sympathizers of Tiananmen demonstrators among the party 's rank - and - file, the party leadership initiated a one - and - a-half - year - long rectification program to "deal strictly with those inside the party with serious tendencies toward bourgeois liberalization ''. Four million people were reportedly investigated for their role in the protests. More than 30,000 communist officers were deployed to assess ' political reliability ' of more than one million government officials. The authorities arrested tens if not hundreds of thousands of people across the country. Some were seized in broad daylight while they walked in the street; others were arrested at night. Many were jailed or sent to labor camps. They were often denied access to see their families and often put in cells so crowded that not everyone had space to sleep. Dissidents shared cells with murderers and rapists, and torture was not uncommon.
An article that compiles all the important editorials released by the People 's Daily can be found at the following page, People 's Daily during the 1989 Student Protest.
The suppression on June 4 marked the end of a period of relative press freedom in China, and media workers -- both foreign and domestic -- faced heightened restrictions and punishment in the aftermath of the crackdown. State media reports in the immediate aftermath were sympathetic to the students. As a result, those responsible were all later removed from their posts. Two news anchors Xue Fei and Du Xian, who reported this event on June 4 in the daily Xinwen Lianbo broadcast on China Central Television were fired because they displayed sad emotions. Wu Xiaoyong, the son of former foreign minister Wu Xueqian was removed from the English Program Department of Chinese Radio International, ostensibly for his sympathies towards protesters. Editors and other staff at People 's Daily, including director Qian Liren and Editor - in - Chief Tan Wenrui, were also sacked because of reports in the paper which were sympathetic towards the protesters. Several editors were arrested.
With the imposition of martial law, the Chinese government cut off the satellite transmissions of foreign broadcasters such as CNN and CBS. Broadcasters tried to defy these orders by reporting via telephone. Footage was quickly smuggled out of the country. The only network which was able to record shots during the night of June 4 was Televisión Española of Spain (TVE). During the military action, some foreign journalists faced harassment from authorities. CBS correspondent Richard Roth and his cameraman were taken into custody while filing a report from the Square via mobile phone.
Several foreign journalists who had covered the crackdown were expelled in the weeks that followed, while others were harassed by authorities or blacklisted from reentering the country. In Shanghai, foreign consulates were told that the safety of journalists who failed to heed newly enacted reporting guidelines could not be guaranteed.
The USC U.S. - China Institute 's Assignment: China series includes a segment on American media coverage of the protests and their suppression. Tiananmen Square features interviews with correspondents for the Associated Press and United Press International, the New York Times, the Washington Post, the Wall Street Journal, Time Magazine, the Voice of America, ABC, CBS, and CNN.
The Chinese government 's response was widely denounced, particularly by Western governments and media. Criticism came from both Western and Eastern Europe, North America, Australia and some west Asian and Latin American countries. Many Asian countries remained silent throughout the protests; the government of India responded to the massacre by ordering the state television to pare down the coverage to the barest minimum, so as not to jeopardize a thawing in relations with China, and to offer political empathy for the events. Cuba, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany, among others, supported the Chinese government and denounced the protests. Overseas Chinese students demonstrated in many cities in Europe, America, the Middle East and Asia.
On June 13, 1989 the Beijing Public Security Bureau released an order for the arrest of 21 student leaders of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. These 21 most wanted student leaders were part of the Beijing Students Autonomous Federation which had been an instrumental student organization in the Tiananmen Square protests. Prominent leaders such as Wang Dan, Wu'er Kaixi and Chai Ling topped the list. Immediately after the release of the list, only 7 out of the 21 Most Wanted escaped China, with assistance from the Hong - Kong based organization, Operation Yellowbird. Though decades have passed the Most Wanted list has never been retracted by the Chinese government.
The Beijing Public Security Bureau issued the 21 Most Wanted list with the following description:
"The illegal organization "Beijing Students Autonomous Federation '' instigated and organized the counter-revolutionary rebellion in Beijing. It is now decided to pursue 21 of its head and key members, including Wang Dan. After receiving this order, please immediately arrange investigation work. If found, immediate arrest the targets and inform the Beijing Public Security Bureau. ''
Photographs with biographical descriptions of the 21 Most Wanted followed in this order on the poster:
The 21 most wanted student leaders faces and descriptions were broadcast on television as well and were constantly looped. Arrests were also broadcast, such as that of Most Wanted # 21, Xiong Yan.
Each of the 21 students faced diverse experiences after their arrests or escapes, while some remain abroad with no intent to return, others have chosen to stay indefinitely such as Zhang Ming. Only 7 of the 21 were able to escape, the remainder of the 21 student leaders were apprehended and incarcerated. Zhou Fengsuo was turned in by his own sister and arrested on June 13, 1989 in Xi'an. He was imprisoned for one year before being released in 1990 due to international pressures, along with 97 other political prisoners. Some served longer sentences than others, such as Wang Dan, one of the most visible leaders during the protests topping the most wanted list. Wan Dang continued his activist efforts after his parole release and was subsequently sentenced to 11 years for subversion. Liu Gang, who was arrested in Baoding in mid June, attempted to organize his fellow prisoners in defiance, by conducting a hunger strike. He had his arms lashed behind his back in a harsh position for several days while in prison. Many of those who initially escaped from the most wanted list were assisted by Operation Yellowbird and fled to the West. Those who escaped remain in exile today and have opened up about their experiences. Zhang Boli, number 17 on the list wrote a book titled "Escape From China '' that details his experience during the protests and his escape. Those who escaped, whether it was in 1989 or after, generally have had difficulty re-entering China, even up to this day. The Chinese government prefers to leave the dissidents in exile. Those who attempt to re-enter, such as Wu'er Kaixi, have been simply sent back, but not arrested. In 2009, Xiong Yan, number 21 on the list, returned to China with a visit to Hong Kong, a special administrative region of China, in order to mark the 20th anniversary the Tiananmen protests. Xiong Yan spent 19 months in jail, after his release he fled to the United States where he keeps in touch with Tiananmen activists and participates in pro-democracy events. Xiong was invited the southern Chinese enclave by the Hong Kong Alliance, which has been holding annual candlelight vigils on the June 4 anniversary Tiananmen protests. Many of the 21 who are in exile have joined human rights organizations or are now engaging in private business.
Not all of the 21 most wanted are as well known as Chai Ling or Wang Dan. Others such Zhang Zhiqing have essentially disappeared. After his initial arrest in January 1991 and subsequent release, nothing further is known about his situation and where he lives now. Zhang Zhiqing 's role and reason for being listed on the list of 21 most wanted is generally unknown, this is the case for many others on the list such Wang Chaohua. Other dissenents that are not as well known to the public include Zhou Fengsuo and Wang Zhengyun. Zhou Fengsuo was a physics student at Tsinghua University and a member of the Standing Committee of the Beijing Students Autonomous Federation during the protests. Fengsuo was turned in by his sister and arrested on June 13, 1989 in Xi'an. He was imprisoned for one year before being released in 1990 due to international pressures, along with 97 other political prisoners. Leaving China for the United States, he attended the University of Chicago. Steady in his activist roots he co-founded Humanitarian China, an organization that promotes rule of law in China and also raises money for Chinese political prisoners. Wang Zhengyun was a student of the Central University for Nationalities and was the only member of the Kucon ethnicity minority group to be studying at a university. Zhengyun was arrested on July 1989 and released two years later. He was sent back to his village in the Yunnan countryside. In December 1998, Wang was one of 19 dissidents, including Zhai Weimin, who staged a hunger strike to protest the oppression of CDP members and other dissidents.
Ma Shaofang and Yang Tao are another pair of dissendents that lack public attention despite their constant activist efforts. Ma Shaofang was a student of the Beijing Film Academy during the protests and turned himself in on June 13, 1989. In October 1990 he was sentenced to three years in prison for counterrevolutionary incitement. In May 1994 he participated with Wang Dan and other dissidents in a petition to the National People 's Congress calling for a reassessment of June 4th. He has had issues in attempting to open a business and has had a series of short lived jobs ever since and is living in Shenzen. Yang Tao, who was at one time the head of Beijing University 's Autonomous Student Federation, remains in China today. He was initially charged as being an instigator of the counterrevolutionary rebellion and imprisoned for one year on June 16, 1989. In 1998, he wrote an open letter asking for the release of Wang Youcai His continued efforts landed him in prison in 1999 after lobbying for the government to reverse the labeling of the protest as a "counterrevolutionary rebellion ''. He was originally arrested on charges of "incitement to overthrow state political power. '' However, due to lack of evidence he was indicted on amended charges of tax evasion on December 23, and on January 5, 2003 was sentenced to four years in prison. He was released in May 2003. Yang too, has had trouble earning a living.
Among the student leaders, Wang Dan and Zhao Changqing were arrested. As a lesser figure in the demonstrations, Zhao was released after six months in prison. However, he was once again incarcerated for continuing to petition for political reform in China. Wang Dan was sent to prison, then allowed to emigrate to the United States in 1998 on the grounds of medical parole. He eventually received a PhD from Harvard University and went on to teach modern Chinese history at National Tsing Hua University in Hsinchu, Taiwan. Wu'erkaixi fled to Taiwan and has since become a political commentator on Taiwanese national radio. Chai Ling fled to France, and then went on to the United States to study at Princeton and Harvard. She then founded an IT start - up company and a non-profit organization called "All Girls Allowed '', which addresses issues such as women 's rights and female infanticide in China. Li Lu became an investment banker and venture capitalist on Wall Street, started his own hedge fund and became a business partner to Charlie Munger of Berkshire Hathaway, partly through human rights contacts he was acquainted with as a result of his involvement at Tiananmen Square.
Chen Ziming and Wang Juntao were arrested in late 1989 for their involvement in the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. Chinese authorities alleged they were the "black hands '' behind the movement. Both Chen and Wang rejected the allegations made against them. They were put on trial in 1990 and sentenced to 13 years in prison.
The protests led to a strengthened role for the state. In its aftermath, many of the freedoms introduced during the 1980s were rescinded, as the party returned to a conventional Leninist mold and re-established firm control over the press, publishing, and mass media. The protests were also a blow to the ' separation of powers ' model established by the 1982 Constitution and by convention, whereby the President was a symbolic position (figurehead), and the real centres of power of the General Secretary of the Communist Party, the Premier of the State Council and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission were intended to be different people, to prevent the excesses of Mao - style personal rule.
However, when President Yang Shangkun asserted his reserve powers with his post of Vice chairman of the Central Military Commission and openly split with general secretary Zhao Ziyang over the use of force to side with Premier Li Peng and Central Military Commission chairman Deng Xiaoping, official policy became inconsistent and incoherent, significantly impeding the exercise of power. In 1993, the positions of General Secretary, Central Military Commission Chairman and President were all consolidated into the same office, reverting to the previous Maoist distribution of power that had previously existed since 1972.
In 1989, neither the Chinese military nor the Beijing police had sufficient anti-riot gear, such as rubber bullets and tear gas. After the Tiananmen Square protests, riot police in Chinese cities were equipped with non-lethal equipment for riot control. The protests led to increased spending on internal security and expanded the role of the People 's Armed Police in suppressing urban protests.
The aftermath of the protests saw the resurgence of conservative attitudes towards reform among policymakers, intended to slow the rapid changes that were said to have contributed to the causes of the protest. Deng Xiaoping, the "architect '' of the reform policy, saw his influence significantly reduced following the protests, forcing him into making concessions with socialist hardliners. In dismissing Zhao Ziyang, who shared Deng 's vision for economic reform but disagreed with him over politics, Deng had lost the foremost champion of his own economic vision. Facing pressure from the conservative camp, Deng distanced himself from state affairs.
This slow pace of reform was met with stiff resistance from provincial governors and broke down completely in the early 1990s as a result of the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Deng 's Southern Tour of 1992, designed by the ailing but influential leader as a means to reinstate his economic reform agenda. On the tour, Deng criticized the leftist hardliners that had gained power following the protests, and praised entrepreneurship and other market - driven policies. Initially ignored by Beijing, the Chinese Politburo eventually sided with Deng and economic reforms again gained prominence.
In Hong Kong, the Tiananmen square protests led to fears that the PRC would renege on its commitments under one country, two systems following the impending handover of Hong Kong from Great Britain in 1997. In response, Governor Chris Patten tried to expand the franchise for the Legislative Council of Hong Kong, which led to friction with Beijing. For many Hong Kongers, Tiananmen served as a turning point for when they lost trust in the Beijing government. The event, coupled with general uncertainty about the status of Hong Kong after the transfer of sovereignty, led to a sizeable exodus of Hong Kongers to Western countries such as Canada and Australia prior to 1997.
There have been large candlelight vigils attended by tens of thousands in Hong Kong every year since 1989 even after the transfer of power to the PRC in 1997. The June 4th Museum closed in July 2016, after only two years in its location. The group that runs the museum, the Hong Kong Alliance, has started to crowdfund money to open the museum in a new location.
The Chinese government drew widespread condemnation for its suppression of the protests. In its immediate aftermath, China seemed to be becoming a pariah state, increasingly isolated internationally. This was a significant setback for the leadership, who had courted international investment for much of the 1980s as the country emerged from the chaos of the Cultural Revolution. However, Deng Xiaoping and the core leadership vowed to continue economic liberalization policies after 1989. From there on, China would work domestically as well as internationally to reshape its national image from that of a repressive regime to a benign global economic and military partner.
During the early 1990s, officials such as Yang Shangkun, Li Peng and others sought to return to a planned economy. Deng Xiaoping largely stayed out of politics until his groundbreaking 1992 "southern tour '', which was intended to re-instate policies of economic liberalization. Along with the liberalization came the loosening of state control in many areas of daily life. Privately run print media flourished. Private newspapers increased from 250 in the 1980s to over 7,000 by 2003. Provincially run satellite TV stations sprung up all over the country and challenged the market share of state - run CCTV. The leadership also stepped away from promoting communism as an all - encompassing belief system. State - approved religious organizations increased their membership significantly, and traditional beliefs suppressed during the Mao era re-appeared. This state - sanctioned plurality also created the environment for unsanctioned forms of spirituality and worship to grow. In order to reduce the need for controversial methods of state control, while Protestants, Buddhists, and Taoists were largely left alone, the state often used these ' approved ' denominations to "fight against cults '' such as Falun Gong -- playing sects off each other.
As the party departed from the orthodox communism it was founded upon, much of its attention was focused on the cultivation of nationalism as an alternative ideology. This policy largely succeeded in tying the party 's legitimacy to China 's "national pride '', turning public opinions in its favour. This is perhaps most prominently seen in May 1999, when the US bombed the Chinese embassy in Belgrade. The bombings saw an outpouring of nationalist sentiment and increased support for the party as the foremost advocate of China 's national interest.
Facing global condemnation for their handling of the protests in 1989, China has endeavored to demonstrate its willingness to participate in international economic and defense institutions in order to secure investment for continued economic reforms. Before the end of 1991, China normalized ties with the Russian government 's newly elected president, Boris Yeltsin. The PRC also welcomed Taiwanese business as a replacement for Western investment. Further, China expedited negotiations with the World Trade Organization as well as established relations with Indonesia, Israel, South Korea, and others in 1992. Regarding defense alignments, the government signed The Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1992, The Convention on Chemical Weapons in 1993, and The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996. Whereas China had been a member of just 30 international organizations in 1986, this membership increased to over 50 by 1997. Finally, while China was a net recipient of aid throughout the 1980s, its growing economic and military role transformed it into a provider of aid, with $100 million given to Thailand in 1997 alone.
Furthermore, the government has successfully promoted China as an attractive destination for investment by emphasizing the country 's skilled workers, comparatively lower wages, established infrastructure, and sizeable consumer base. Increased foreign investment in the country led many world leaders to believe that by constructively engaging China in the global marketplace, political reforms would inevitably follow. At the same time, the explosion of commercial interest in the country opened the way for multinational corporations to turn a blind eye to politics and human rights in favour of "doing business. '' Since then, Western leaders who were previously critical of China have generally paid lip service to the legacy of Tiananmen, but the substance of bilateral relationships focus on business and trade interests.
In Hong Kong, the events of Tiananmen in 1989 -- perhaps more than anywhere else outside mainland China -- have become permanently etched in the public consciousness. The events continue to have a strong impact on perceptions of China, its government, attitudes towards democracy, and the extent to which Hong Kongers should identify as "Chinese ''. The events of June 4 are seen as emblematic of the Chinese ' brand ' of authoritarianism and is prominently discussed in Hong Kong 's political circles, often in relation to democratic reform in Hong Kong and the territory 's relationship with Beijing. Academic studies indicate that those who supported the rehabilitation of the Tiananmen Square movement had a tendency to support democratization in the territory as well as the election of pro-democracy parties.
There was a significant impact on the Chinese economy after the incident. The ramifications of the Tiananmen Square protests led to changes in China 's economic direction, and these reverberated not only internationally, but also domestically from within the Chinese government themselves. These events led to the Chinese government concentrating power, especially over the direction of the economy. While there was a slowdown immediately after the massacre, the economy quickly rebounded during the 1990s. After the Tiananmen Square protests, many analysts downgraded their outlook of China 's economic future. The Chinese Communist Party 's response to the protests was one of the factors that led to a delay in China 's acceptance to the World Trade Organization, and China did not become a member until fifteen years later on December 11, 2001. Furthermore, bilateral aid to China decreased from $3.4 billion in 1988 to $1.5 billion in 1989, and to $0.7 billion in 1990. Loans to China were suspended by the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, and foreign governments; tourism revenue decreased from US $2.2 billion to US $1.8 billion; foreign direct investment commitments were cancelled and there was a rise in defense spending from 8.6 % in 1986, to 15.5 % in 1990, reversing a previous 10 year decline.
Although the Bush administration had wanted to normalize and improve relations with China, the violent crackdown of the protests on June 4, 1989, led to his administration banning all sales of weapons to China on June 5. Similar to the Bush administrations initiatives, other countries imposed their own sanctions in response to Tiananmen. By July 1989, the G7 had halted $10 billion in foreign aid, loans from Japan, as well as $780 million in bank loans by the World Bank for the end of June. These coordinated actions hurt the Chinese economy, leading to a decline in international investment, a reduction in the number of tourists, as well as a decline in China 's credit rating. However, most of these sanctions were eased and lifted by the early 1990s, and China 's economy rebounded.
Because of the mainly negative world reaction to China 's Tiananmen response, as well as internal conflict regarding whether China should continue on a path of economic liberalization, leadership in China pursued a self - imposed enforcement of party discipline. Although political liberals were purged from the Chinese Communist Party, many of those who were economically liberal remained. This led to a restructuring within the Chinese Communist Party. Even though more reformed - minded leaders such as Zhao Ziyang were purged from the Communist Party ranks by leaders like Deng Xiaoping, the economically liberal side prevailed, as it helped the Chinese economy regain and later surpass the slowdown it had experienced after the Tiananmen Square protests. Deng was of the main forces behind China 's economic reform.
Chinese Premier Li Peng visited the United Nations Security Council on January 31, 1992, and argued that the economic and arms embargoes on China were a violation of national sovereignty.
The European Union and United States embargo on armament sales to the PRC, put in place as a result of the violent suppression of the Tiananmen Square protests, remains in place today. The PRC has been calling for a lift of the ban for years and has had a varying amount of support from EU members. Since 2004, China has portrayed the ban as "outdated '', and damaging to China - EU relations. In early 2004, French President Jacques Chirac spearheaded a movement within the EU to lift the ban, which was supported by German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder. However, the passing of the Anti-Secession Law of the People 's Republic of China in March 2005 increased tensions between mainland China and Taiwan, damaging attempts to lift the ban, and several EU Council members retracted their support for a lift of the ban. Moreover, Schröder 's successor Angela Merkel opposed lifting the ban. Members of the U.S. Congress had also proposed restrictions on the transfer of military technology to the EU if the latter lifted the ban. The UK also opposed the lifting of the embargo when it took charge of the EU presidency in July 2005.
In addition, the European Parliament has consistently opposed the lifting of the arms embargo to the PRC. Though its agreement is not necessary for lifting the ban, many argue it reflects the will of the European people better as it is the only directly elected European body. The arms embargo has limited China 's options from where it may seek military hardware. Among the sources that were sought included the former Soviet bloc that it had a strained relationship with as a result of the Sino - Soviet split. Other willing suppliers have previously included Israel and South Africa, but American pressure has restricted this co-operation.
The Communist Party of China (CPC) forbids discussion of the Tiananmen Square protests, and has taken measures to block or censor related information. Textbooks have little, if any, information about the protests. After the protests, officials banned controversial films and books, and shut down many newspapers. Within a year, 12 % of all newspapers, 8 % of publishing companies, 13 % of social science periodicals and more than 150 films were banned or shut down. The government also announced it had seized 32 million contraband books and 2.4 million video and audio cassettes. Access to media and Internet resources on the subject are restricted or blocked by censors. Banned literature and films include Summer Palace, Forbidden City, Collection of June Fourth Poems, The Critical Moment: Li Peng diaries, and any writings of Zhao Ziyang or his aide Bao Tong, including Zhao 's memoirs. However, contraband and Internet copies of these publications can be found.
The party 's official stance towards the incident is that the use of force was necessary in order to control a ' political disturbance ' and that it ensured the stability necessary for economic prosperity. Chinese leaders, including former paramount leaders Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao, reiterate this line when questioned by foreign press.
Public memory of the Tiananmen Square protests has been suppressed by the authorities since 1989. Print media containing reference to the protests must be consistent with the government 's version of events. Currently, many Chinese citizens are reluctant to speak about the protests because of potential repercussions. Rob Gifford held that many young people born after 1980 are unfamiliar with the events and are apathetic about politics. Youth in China are generally unaware of the events, of the symbols such as tank man, or of the significance of the date June 4 itself. Some older intellectuals no longer aspire for political change and instead focus on economic issues.
While public discussion of the events has become a social taboo, private discussions continue to take place despite frequent interference and harassment from the authorities. Nobel Peace Prize laureate Liu Xiaobo remained in China to speak out about Tiananmen in the 1990s despite offers of asylum; he faced constant surveillance. Zhang Xianling and Ding Zilin, mothers of victims who lost their lives in 1989, founded the Tiananmen Mothers organization and were particularly outspoken on the humanitarian aspects of the subject. The authorities mobilize security forces, including members of the People 's Armed Police, every year on June 4 to prevent public displays of remembrance, with especially heavy security for major anniversaries such as the 20th anniversary in 2009 and the 25th anniversary in 2014. Journalists have been frequently denied entry to the Square on anniversaries. In addition, the authorities are known to have detained foreign journalists and increase surveillance on prominent human rights activists during this time of year.
Internet searches of ' June 4 ' or ' Tiananmen Square ' made within China return censored results or result in temporarily severed server connections. Specific web pages with select keywords are censored, while other websites, such as those of overseas Chinese democracy movements, are blocked wholesale. The censorship, however, has been inconsistent -- with many sites being blocked, unblocked, and re-blocked over the years, including YouTube, Wikipedia, and Flickr. In addition, the policy is much more stringent with Chinese - language sites than foreign - language ones. Social media censorship is more stringent during anniversaries; even oblique references to the protests are usually deleted within hours. In January 2006, Google agreed to censor their mainland China site to remove information about Tiananmen and other subjects considered ' sensitive ' by the authorities. Google withdrew its cooperation on censorship in January 2010.
Over the years some Chinese citizens have called for a reassessment of the protests and compensation from the government to victims ' families. One group in particular, Tiananmen Mothers, seeks compensation, vindication for victims and the right to receive donations from within the mainland and abroad. Zhang Shijun, a former soldier who was involved in the military crackdown, had published an open letter to President Hu Jintao seeking to have the government reevaluate its position on the protests. He was subsequently arrested and taken from his home.
Although the Chinese government never officially acknowledged relevant accusations when it came to the incident, in April 2006 a payment was made to the mother of one of the victims, the first publicized case of the government offering redress to a Tiananmen - related victim 's family. The payment was termed a "hardship assistance '', given to Tang Deying (唐德英) whose son, Zhou Guocong (simplified Chinese: 周国聪; traditional Chinese: 周國聰) died at age 15 years while in police custody in Chengdu on June 6, 1989, two days after the Chinese Army dispersed the Tiananmen protesters. She was reportedly paid CNY70, 000 (approximately US $10,250). This has been welcomed by various Chinese activists, but was regarded by some as a measure to maintain social stability and not believed to herald a changing of the Party 's official position.
Before his death in 1998, Yang Shangkun told army doctor Jiang Yanyong that "June 4 '' was the most serious mistake committed by the Communist Party in its history, a mistake that Yang himself could not correct but one that certainly will eventually be corrected. Zhao Ziyang remained under house arrest until his death in 2005. Zhao 's aide Bao Tong has repeatedly called on the government to reverse the verdict for the demonstrations. Chen Xitong, the mayor of Beijing, who read the martial law order and was later disgraced by a political scandal, expressed regret for the death of innocent civilians in 2012, a year before his death. Premier Wen Jiabao reportedly suggested reversing the government 's position on Tiananmen in party meetings prior to his departure from politics in 2013, only to be rebuffed by his colleagues.
The Committee Against Torture met for its 41st session from November 3 -- 21, 2008 to consider reports submitted by member states under article 19 of the Convention. The Committee found that China 's response to the 1989 Democracy movement was worrying. The Committee was concerned that despite the multiple requests by relatives of people "killed, arrested or disappeared on or following the 4 June 1989 Beijing suppression '', there was a lack of investigations into these matters. It was also concerned with the failure of the Chinese government to inform families of the fate of relatives involved, and it regretted that those responsible for the use of excessive force have not "faced any sanction, administrative or criminal. '' The Committee recommended that:
The State party should conduct a full and impartial investigation into the suppression of the Democracy Movement in Beijing in June 1989, provide information on the persons who are still detained from that period, inform the family members of their findings, offer apologies and reparation as appropriate and prosecute those found responsible for excessive use of force, torture and other illtreatment.
In December 2009, the Chinese government responded to the Committee 's recommendations by saying that the government had closed the case concerning the "political turmoil in the spring and summer of 1989. '' It also stated that the "practice of the past 20 years has made it clear that the timely and decisive measures taken by the Chinese Government at the time were necessary and correct. '' It claimed that the labelling of the "incident as ' the Democracy Movement ' '' is a "distortion in the nature of the incident. '' According to the Chinese Government these observations were "inconsistent with the Committee 's responsibilities. ''
In 1995, Richard Gordon and Carma Hinton produced The Gate of Heavenly Peace an award - winning three - hour documentary film about the Tiananmen Square protests. The film contains interviews with Liu Xiaobo, Wang Dan, Wu'erkaixi, Han Dongfang, Ding Zilin, Chai Ling, Dai Qing, Feng Congde, and Hou Dejian.
The same year saw the release of Moving the Mountain a feature documentary directed by Michael Apted and produced by Trudie Styler, with cinematography by Maryse Alberti. The film takes its title from the memoir by Li Lu, one of the student leaders of the Tiananmen Square protests. Though Li Lu is a central figure in the finished film, the project set out to provide a comprehensive understanding of the events leading up to and following the protests, and features many other interviews.
A primetime special hosted by Tom Brokaw honored both the Tiananmen Square pro-democracy demonstrations in Beijing and the fall of the Berlin Wall in that momentous year for human rights around the world, 1989.
In April 2006, the PBS series Frontline produced an episode titled The Tank Man, which examined his role in the 1989 Tiananmen Square Protests and the change that has overtaken the PRC economically and politically since.
On June 3, 2009, the BBC aired the documentary Kate Adie returns to Tiananmen, in which documented reporter Kate Adie 's return to China, where she recalls the events she witnessed in 1989.
In May 1998, an Indonesian general threatened a "Tiananmen Square massacre '' in Jakarta to suppress student - led demonstrations against President Suharto.
CNN news anchor Kyra Phillips drew criticism in March 2006 when she compared the 2006 youth protests in France, in which it was later determined that no one was killed, to the Tiananmen Square protests, saying "Sort of brings back memories of Tiananmen Square, when you saw these activists in front of tanks. ''
In February 2011, Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, in response to an uprising in Benghazi against his rule, held up China 's 1989 military assault on Tiananmen Square as an example of how to deal with popular unrest. Chinese media censored Gaddafi 's reference to Tiananmen Square.
Since Tiananmen, the iconic "tank man '' image has become a worldwide symbol for civil disobedience. What happened to the "Tank Man '' following the demonstration is not known. Some say he was pulled away and went into hiding, others say he was executed by the authorities. Time Magazine dubbed him The Unknown Rebel and later named him one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century. In an interview with U.S. media, then Chinese paramount leader Jiang Zemin said he did not think the man was killed.
A few people may have been killed by random shooting on streets near the square, but all verified eyewitness accounts say that the students who remained in the square when troops arrived were allowed to leave peacefully. Hundreds of people, most of them workers and passersby, did die that night, but in a different place and under different circumstances.
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when does michonne die in the walking dead comics | Michonne - wikipedia
Michonne (/ mɪˈʃɔːn / mi - SHOHN) is a fictional character from the comic book series The Walking Dead. The character also appears in media adaptations of the series, most notably the television series of the same name, in which she is portrayed by Danai Gurira. Armed with a katana and harboring a mysterious past, Michonne is introduced clothed under a hood and pulling the shackles of two reanimated corpses for protection and camouflage. The two walkers are subsequently revealed to be her zombified boyfriend and his best friend. In both the comic and TV series, she has a prominent role in the conflict between the town of Woodbury led by The Governor, and the Prison group.
The direction of the character is contrasted between the two mediums (though in both mediums, Michonne is introduced as an outsider who quickly proves to be a valuable asset). In the comic, Michonne is a former lawyer as well as a divorcée with two missing daughters. She forms a casual relationship with Tyreese while he is already in a relationship with Carol. Her conflict with The Governor is much more violent in the comics, enduring sexual assault before mutilating him in revenge. Michonne 's mental state deteriorates after many losses, bringing her closer to Rick Grimes who shares similar trauma. Despite finding temporary peace with Ezekiel at The Kingdom, Michonne runs away to Oceanside before making a return. Her absence was explored in a 3 - episode mini-series by Telltale Games, exploring her departure and living life at sea.
Michonne 's backstory is slightly altered in the television series, having a three - year - old son named André Anthony, while the fate of her boyfriend and friend remain the same. In the television series, Michonne 's trauma and guarded nature gradually diminishes as she slowly recovers and finds herself opening up and investing in a community of Rick 's core group. Her conflict with The Governor is motivated by his attempt to kill her after leaving the town under suspicion that he is dangerous and trying to protect her friend, Andrea. In addition, her relationship with the Grimes family is explored in more depth as she pushes her group to strive for a sanctuary in Washington, DC. She also develops a romance with protagonist Rick Grimes. In both media, she becomes a constable at the Alexandria Safe - Zone.
The character has been critically praised, often regarded as a fan - favorite in both mediums. Michonne was voted # 86 on IGN 's Top 100 Comic Book Heroes and Gurira 's performance has been well received.
Michonne is introduced as a mysterious woman armed with a katana. She first appears towing two armless, jawless zombies in shackles and causes no small consternation among the group. She saves Otis from zombies and follows him to the abandoned prison where the group is based. She immediately bonds with Tyreese, recognizing him from his days in the NFL, and shares his passion for weightlifting. They sleep together, precipitating Tyreese 's breakup with Carol Peletier; Michonne and Tyreese then become a couple.
Michonne reveals some details of her life before the apocalypse. She was a lawyer who had recently ended her marriage and lost custody of her children. At first, she appears to have suffered some kind of trauma or mental illness, often carrying on conversations with herself or with her deceased boyfriend, as Andrea first notices in the prison. Michonne later admits to Rick Grimes that she has imaginary conversations with her dead boyfriend to keep herself from breaking down, and as a coping mechanism to deal with the real world 's horrors. In return, Rick shows her a rotary telephone he used to "call '' his late wife, Lori.
Michonne is among the small group sent out to investigate a helicopter crash, and they stumble upon the town of Woodbury. Woodbury 's Governor betrays and captures them, and violently rapes and tortures Michonne. He soon realizes she must be dealt with more aggressively when she kills all the participants in a gladiator - style tournament. The group escapes, but Michonne remains behind, saying "she has to take care of some things ''. She mutilates the Governor before making her way back to the prison with the rest of the group. When the Governor retaliates, Michonne and Tyreese go on the offensive, attempting guerrilla warfare in order to buy the prison time to prepare for the next attack. Instead Michonne is forced to flee after nearly being captured, and Tyreese is captured and used as a bargaining tool to get into the prison. When this fails, the Governor kills Tyreese with Michonne 's katana. Moments later, she returns and reclaims her sword, disappearing into the woods nearby.
After the events at the prison, she returns to look for the RV survivors and puts Tyreese 's reanimated remains to peace. When she finds only footprints, she begins to follow them and stumbles upon Rick and his son, Carl. She saves Carl from a roamer and joins up with Rick and Carl. Michonne protects Carl as a mother would, and goes to great lengths to protect Rick out of respect for him. She bonds with them and keeps Rick 's self - conversations secret. They rejoin other surviving members of the group at Hershel 's farm. Michonne travels with the survivors in search of safety, and inquires about Morgan Jones ' whereabouts. When Rick asks if she finds Morgan attractive, Michonne admits that she does, but is still grieving over Tyreese 's death.
When the survivors locate the town of Alexandria, a safe haven from the undead, and think they have finally been given an opportunity to rest, Michonne has a difficult time relinquishing her sword, as seen with her confrontation with Alexandria resident Douglas. Another resident, Olivia, persuades Douglas to allow Michonne to keep her weapon. Michonne settles into her new "home '' and even hangs her sword above the mantle. She recalls all of the horrific ways she has used it to survive, and finally proclaims, "I am through with you. ''
Michonne begins to let her guard down, and Rick asks Douglas if there is a job for her in the community. Since there is no need for lawyers, Douglas recommends making her a constable to uphold the law in Alexandria. Michonne attends a welcome party held by Douglas in honor of Alexandria 's new residents, but is quiet and reserved during the festivities. When one of Alexandria 's residents, Barbara, tries playing matchmaker between Michonne and a young man named Heath, Michonne wearies of the conversation among the partygoers and attempts to leave. Barbara makes a well - intentioned attempt to dissuade her, but becomes insistent about what Michonne would care to eat and says she 'd hate to cook a meal Michonne did not enjoy. Michonne snaps and asks if that 's all she truly concerns herself about. The guests grow silent. Michonne, uncomfortable, leaves.
She finds Morgan, who confesses to having left the party earlier, and they commiserate about not caring for chipper people. Michonne admits their conversation made her feel even more alone. She lets her guard down and rests her head on Morgan 's shoulder. They end up having sex that night, but Michonne is annoyed and turned off by Morgan 's refusal to let go of the fact that his wife is dead and gone.
Michonne ends up falling for Morgan. The two ultimately get a chance to make up afterwards, with her agreeing to take things slow and get to know each other better. She 's devastated when he gets bitten, amputating his arm in an attempt to save his life. Michonne later apologizes to a seemingly - unconscious Morgan. She says she does n't mean to be an insensitive person and asks for his forgiveness, only to realize he has already died.
The group successfully fends off an attack when Alexandria is swarmed by walkers, later holding funerals for Morgan and other fallen friends. Rick finds Michonne sitting at Morgan 's grave, and she says she would have lived with Morgan for the rest of her life. Michonne asks Rick if this is funny, to which he replies everyone wants a relationship, and Michonne says she does n't think she will ever be happy. Michonne helps in clearing up the last of the zombie horde in Alexandria and Rick approaches her, asking how she feels. Michonne replies that she is getting by, and thinks it 's nice someone cares about her.
Michonne and Abraham are clearing roamers away from the Alexandria Safe - Zone perimeter when they are surprised by an unknown man, later revealed to be named Paul Monroe and nicknamed "Jesus ''. Paul reveals he has traveled from a community nearby and wishes to establish an alliance between them all. Rick lashes out at Paul, knocking him unconscious, and Michonne helps in tying him up. Rick, Michonne, and Abraham set out to scout the area for an impending threat, but realize Paul was telling the truth, and Rick decides to work with him. Rick, Michonne, Paul, Glenn, Carl and Andrea travel to Paul 's community, the "Hilltop ''. Along the way, Paul helps the group defeat walkers even with his hands tied, proving his trustworthiness.
Once inside Hilltop, the group learns that Hilltop 's leader, Gregory, has established a deal with Negan, the brutal leader of a group of bandits known as "The Saviors ''. The Saviors keep the area clear of the dead in exchange for half of everything the Hilltop survivors manage to gather. However, the Saviors have been abusing members of the Hilltop Colony and Rick volunteers to help deal with Negan, a decision Michonne seems angry about. The group is attacked by a group of Saviors on their way back to Alexandria, but Rick 's group emerges victorious and kills all but one of them. Rick spares him so he can deliver a message to Negan, saying they are protecting Hilltop now and want half of Negan 's supplies.
Abraham is killed by the Saviors and Eugene is captured, sparking a conflict between Alexandria and the Saviors. Michonne travels with Rick, Carl, Glenn, Maggie and Sophia to Hilltop, but they are captured by Negan along the way. Negan savagely bashes Glenn 's head in with a baseball bat and leaves the other survivors, saying they will be back to collect half of Alexandria 's supplies. Michonne and the others return to Alexandria, to find a battle has taken place between the Safe Zone and the Saviors, resulting in Rick 's group capturing one of Negan 's men. Rick lets the man go free, but Carl disappears sometime later, and Michonne joins Rick, Andrea, and Jesus on a trip to Negan 's community, suspecting the Saviors have kidnapped Carl. After a brief scuffle between Negan and Rick, it is revealed Carl is safe and they return to Alexandria.
Michonne tries unsuccessfully to seduce Heath, who reveals Maggie told him about what happened between Michonne and Tyreese. She leaves and asks Heath to pretend as if the moment had never happened. Michonne and Carl are later seen fighting a group of walkers, and Carl is surprised by one of them, which falls on top of him. Carl says he is useless with only one eye, but Michonne assures him Rick is fine with only one hand. Michonne later tells Andrea that she feels as if she can not talk normally to anyone anymore, including Heath.
Michonne, Rick and several others travel to a community known as "The Kingdom '' where Rick plans to get help from Ezekiel to defeat Negan. She and Ezekiel become romantically involved, despite starting off on the wrong foot. Michonne participates in the war against Negan and the Saviors, which ends in Rick 's group emerging victorious and imprisoning Negan.
After the war, there is a time - skip. Michonne is not seen for a long period of time. Rick states that he still misses her "even after all this time. '' Michonne 's disappearance is explained in the video game.
Michonne is first revealed stepping off of a sailboat. She immediately shows her negative feelings toward Ezekiel by asking herself, "Seriously, there was no one else he (Rick) could have sent? '' As Rick asks many questions as to why Michonne had left Ezekiel and the Kingdom, she reveals that she abandoned her daughters during the outbreak and that she would never be able to start a new life with all of her regret. The conversation ends with Rick telling her to "get her shit together '' and to "go back home. ''
Rick and Michonne discover the decapitated heads of Ezekiel and Rosita on pikes, and Michonne is devastated by her lover 's death. They later find out that someone helped Negan escape from his cell. Michonne initially desires to go back to sailing with Pete, but Rick encourages her to become the Kingdom 's new leader, since Eziekiel was killed. Despite having defeated Negan, Rick 's group becomes involved in another war with a group known as the "Whisperers ''. Michonne and her allies eventually come out on top, but Alexandria is swarmed by an incredibly large herd of walkers. The survivors are able to drive the walkers from Alexandria, but Andrea is bitten on the neck and dies. Michonne and Maggie are seen taking her body away, as the group mourns their losses and rebuild. Rick decides to form a careful alliance with Negan, as he appears to have changed his ways.
Michonne eventually ends up at a seemingly - utopian community known as the Commonwealth, where she is reunited with one of her daughters, Elodie, who she thought had died long ago. Given an offer to join the community and go back to her old job as a lawyer, Michonne gives Eugene her sword and sends him back to Rick as a way of saying she is ready for a new way of life.
Michonne makes her first appearance as a hooded figure near the end of the second - season finale, "Beside the Dying Fire '' (though at the time Danai Gurira had not been cast for this role), wherein she saves Andrea from a walker by decapitating it with her katana, which features a triquetra on the inner crossguard.
As in the comics, she is accompanied by two chained walkers, side - by - side with their arms and lower jaws removed to prevent them from attacking. In removing their ability to eat, Michonne effectively tamed these walkers. Michonne has demonstrated economic uses for her pet walkers, such as using them as human pack mules by loading supplies onto their backs as well as a camouflage / repellent, as their presence and scent fools other walkers into thinking those accompanying them are also walkers. Michonne later decapitates the walkers shortly before she and Andrea are discovered by Merle.
In the episode "Walk with Me '', Michonne and Andrea are taken by a group led by Merle Dixon (Michael Rooker) from a nearby town called Woodbury, run by the Governor (David Morrissey). Andrea, having been severely ill after spending eight months on the road, embraces the town 's sense of community which Michonne resists, suspicious of The Governor and his leadership. In the episode "Say the Word '', Michonne ultimately decides to leave alone after failing to convince Andrea to leave. In the episode "Hounded '', Michonne 's suspicions of The Governor 's true nature prove to be true as Merle and his men go after her under the orders of killing her. However, Michonne kills two of Merle 's men and escapes. She then spies Maggie (Lauren Cohan) and Glenn (Steven Yeun) on a supply run in a nearby town and overhears directions to the prison where they are staying, but Michonne is not able to make contact with them as they are ambushed and kidnapped by Merle. A wounded and weakened Michonne soon arrives at the prison with Maggie and Glenn 's basket of infant supplies. In the episode "When the Dead Come Knocking '', Michonne is brought into the prison, albeit cautiously, by Carl (Chandler Riggs) and Rick (Andrew Lincoln), who directs Hershel (Scott Wilson) to tend to her wounds. Michonne informs them of Glenn and Maggie 's abduction by Merle, of the Governor, and of Woodbury. In the mid-season finale "Made to Suffer '', she accompanies Rick, Daryl (Norman Reedus), unaware he is Merle 's brother, and Oscar (Vincent M. Ward) to rescue Glenn and Maggie from Woodbury. In the process, Daryl is kidnapped. After Glenn and Maggie are rescued, Michonne breaks off from the larger group and proceeds to discover the Governor 's zombie - head aquaria and reanimated daughter, Penny, whom she kills despite his pleas not to. She and the Governor get into a hand - to - hand fight, which she wins, stabbing him in the eye during the scuffle. Andrea 's arrival and intervention at gunpoint prevents Michonne from killing the Governor, and Michonne instead withdraws. When Michonne returns to Rick 's group, they question her reliability after her disappearance, but she counters that they need her due to the loss of Daryl.
In the mid-season premiere "The Suicide King '', Rick continues to show distrust toward Michonne, and tells her that she will be sent away when she is fully recovered. In the episode "Home '', Michonne observes Rick as he hallucinates an encounter with his recently deceased wife, Lori (Sarah Wayne Callies). When the Governor and his men attack the prison, Michonne helps defend it. In the episode "I Ai n't a Judas '', when Andrea comes to the prison to start a negotiation with them, Michonne tells her The Governor sent Merle to kill her, demonstrating that he wo n't allow anyone to leave (or live) who is n't under his control. In the episode "Clear '', Rick has her join him and Carl on a weapons run to Rick 's hometown, where she bonds with the two and eventually earns their trust (Rick confirms to her that she is "one of us ''). She confides in him about his hallucinations and tells him she used to speak to her dead boyfriend. In the episode "This Sorrowful Life '', Rick reveals to Merle that the Governor claimed he would leave the prison group alone if they handed over Michonne. Merle takes it upon himself to capture her and deliver her to the Governor, but as they talk in the car he has second thoughts and releases her; he instead ambushes the Governor 's group alone and kills a number of them before the Governor finds him and kills him. In the season finale "Welcome to the Tombs '', following another attack on the prison Rick, accompanied by Michonne and Daryl, sets out to locate the Governor. However, they come across the scene where the Governor slaughtered his own troops. One survivor (Karen) (Melissa Ponzio) leads the group back to Woodbury to locate Andrea, as they fear the worst for her safety after learning she had fled Woodbury for the prison, but never arrived there. They manage to find Andrea but not before she has been bitten by the reanimated Milton (Dallas Roberts), whom she managed to kill. Michonne offers to stay with her in her last minutes before killing herself to prevent reanimation, using a pistol borrowed from Rick. While Michonne is with Andrea in the room, the others outside the room hear a gunshot offscreen. Michonne is seen with Woodbury 's remaining citizens and the rest of the group returning to the prison, as they also bring Andrea 's corpse back to bury it.
In the season premiere "30 Days Without an Accident '', Michonne comes back to the prison from her tireless search for the Governor which have proved unsuccessful. In the episode "Infected '', Michonne is about to head back out on her search, but tries to get back in when a walker attack is announced and she injures her ankle. Beth (Emily Kinney) tends to her wounds, and asks her to watch Rick 's baby Judith; when Beth leaves the room, Michonne breaks down crying as she cradles the baby. In the episode "Isolation '', she volunteers to go with Bob (Lawrence Gilliard Jr.) and Daryl to get antibiotics from a veterinary college to treat a deadly illness that has broken out among the prison population, and Tyreese (Chad Coleman) joins them before they leave. On the car radio they hear a message offering sanctuary at a place called Terminus before the car is swarmed by walkers and they are forced to flee on foot. In the episode "Indifference '', they obtain the needed medicine from the college. Daryl and Tyreese argue with Michonne that the Governor wo n't be found, and that she is more needed at the prison, and she ultimately agrees to give up her search. In the episode "Internment '', they return to the prison with the medicine after Rick and Carl have defended the prison from a walker herd. Michonne takes the bodies to be burnt offsite and Hershel decides to go with her. In the episode "Dead Weight '', Michonne and Hershel are seen chatting and laughing in the distance as they prepare the bodies for disposal, unaware they are being watched by The Governor who aims his gun at them. In the mid-season finale "Too Far Gone '', the Governor kidnaps Hershel and Michonne and convinces his new group to use them as hostages to take over the prison. At the prison, the Governor takes a well - armed caravan with a tank and demands that Rick order his group to leave the prison, using Hershel and Michonne as leverage. Rick tries to reason with the Governor with the offer of living together peacefully but The Governor declares him a liar and decapitates Hershel with Michonne 's katana. Rick 's group opens fire, and Michonne rolls away and unties herself. The Governor orders his group to kill everyone at the prison, and they attack, breaking down the fences with their vehicles. When the Governor is punching Rick in the face, Michonne impales him through the chest with her katana and escapes as the prison is overwhelmed by walkers drawn by the noise.
In the mid-season premiere "After '', Michonne returns to the prison, where she discovers Hershel 's reanimated head. After putting her katana through his head as a mercy kill, she takes two new walker pets and travels through the woods. While sleeping, she has a nightmare about her former life. The nightmare reveals that Michonne lived a comfortable life with her boyfriend Mike and her young son Andre before the apocalypse. While walking through the forest, she encounters a walker that looks disturbingly similar to her. Realizing the walkers will not attack her because they think she is already dead, Michonne chooses to embrace life instead and cuts down the entire herd of walkers. Following this, she has an emotional breakdown and has a brief monologue addressing Mike. Later in the episode she investigates footprints belonging to Rick and Carl and follows them to a house that they have taken shelter in, crying when she sees them. In the episode "Claimed '', Michonne joins Carl on a run for more supplies in the neighborhood and reveals more about her past in an effort to cheer him up. She reveals she had a three - year - old son named Andre Anthony who died shortly after the outbreak began. Rick, Carl and Michonne are forced to travel in the direction of a camp known as Terminus because a group of men intrude on their house. In the episode "Us '', Michonne, Rick, and Carl are following a set of train tracks, and it is revealed that the group of men have been tracking them. In the season finale "A '', Michonne, Rick and Carl are nearing Terminus. In the night they are ambushed by the group of marauders and held at gunpoint. Daryl, who is travelling with the marauders, attempts to reason with the leader -- Joe (Jeff Kober), to no avail. Joe orders his gang to beat Daryl to death, before telling Rick his group will rape Michonne and Carl before assassinating him. Enraged when Dan (Keith Brooks) tries to rape Carl, Rick snaps and brutally kills Joe by biting out a chunk of his throat. In the following confusion, Michonne manages to get hold of a gun and kill two marauders. With the marauders dead, the reunited gang continue to Terminus. On the outskirts of Terminus, Michonne confesses to Carl the details of Andre 's death and the reasoning behind keeping two walker pets. Upon entering Terminus and realizing it is a trap, Michonne along with Rick, Carl and Daryl flee across the grounds, to eventually become captured. Forced into a container, the group are reunited with Glenn, Maggie, Bob and Sasha, as well as meeting Sergeant Abraham Ford, Dr. Eugene Porter, Rosita Espinosa and Tara Chambler. Michonne is present as the season closes with Rick uttering the words: "... they 're screwing with the wrong people. ''
In the season five premiere "No Sanctuary '' Michonne and the others are able to escape Terminus and are reunited with Carol, Tyreese and Judith. In the episode "Strangers '', as the group continues travelling Michonne offers to take out a nearby walker only to realize her sword was left behind in Terminus and kills it with a gun instead. As they travel they encounter Fr. Gabriel Stokes (Seth Gilliam) whom they distrust but he gives them shelter in his church. Abraham tries to insist they travel to Washington D.C. where they can cure the outbreak, but Michonne insists to him they find supplies first. Later Gabriel leads Rick, Michonne, Bob and Sasha to a store to find supplies where Michonne reveals the sword was not hers to begin with but she found it and confesses to missing Andrea and Hershel but not the sword. In the episode "Four Walls and a Roof '', the group takes shelter in the church while being hunted by the last of the cannabalistic members of Terminus. Rick 's group gains the upper hand and Michonne helps in killing Gareth and the others. She discovers the Terminus group has been keeping her katana, which she takes back. In the episode "Crossed '', the group learns Beth is still alive and being held captive in a hospital in Atlanta, so Rick leads a team to rescue her, leaving Michonne, Carl and Judith at the church. In the mid-season finale "Coda '', Michonne helps defend against a herd of walkers that attack but the church is quickly overrun. They are saved by the timely arrival of Glenn, Maggie, Abraham and the others, and decide to help Rick in Atlanta. Upon arrival at the hospital, Michonne and the others witness Daryl carrying Beth 's corpse out of the building.
In the midseason premiere "What Happened and What 's Going On '', Michonne pushes the idea of going to Washington, D.C. despite Noah 's (Tyler James Williams) community being overrun in Richmond, Virginia. Later, Tyreese is bitten and Michonne is forced to amputate his arm, but he dies of blood loss anyway. In the episode "Them '', Michonne shows concern for Sasha telling her not to give in to anger like Tyreese over her recent losses, but Sasha then breaks formation in silently pushing away walkers by attacking them. Sasha walks off irritated. The group trudge on sixty miles to DC, as they face a tornado in the process. In the episode "The Distance '', Maggie and Sasha introduce Aaron (Ross Marquand) to the group, who reveals himself as a recruiter for a safe haven, Alexandria, and takes them there despite going a dangerous route because of their previous mistrusting of communities like Terminus and Woodbury.), they are hesitant to trust him because of what happened in Woodbury and Terminus. Rick initially decides not to take the risk, prompting Michonne to step in and challenge his decision. She argues that the group should give Aaron a chance for the sake of survival, successfully convincing Rick to change his mind. The group arrives at the gates of Alexandria the next day. Rick hears children laughing inside the community 's walls, and Michonne smiles, knowing they have made the right decision.
In the episode "Remember '', Rick 's group has difficulty assimilating into the daily routines of the Alexandria residents. The people of Alexandria, led by politician Deanna Monroe (Tovah Feldshuh), have been shielded from many of the dangers and tribulations that the new world holds, which causes Rick 's group to believe they are weak. Deanna asks Rick and Michonne to become the town constables, and they both accept their new roles. In the episode "Forget '', Michonne has traded in her usual clothes for a police uniform. Deanna explains to Rick and Michonne that their basic roles as constables are to keep the peace and establish a sense of civilization inside the walls of Alexandria. Deanna invites the entire group to a welcoming party at her house, and Michonne reluctantly attends. Abraham finds her outside by herself, and the two have a discussion about adjusting to their new lives. Michonne is later seen hanging her sword on the fireplace mantle of one of Alexandria 's houses, though she does n't appear happy about doing so.
In the episode "Try '', Rosita tells Michonne that Sasha has gone missing from her post in the tower. Worried, they venture outside the walls to look for her. They find several dead walkers and realize Sasha is actively hunting them. They track her down and help her eliminate a large pack of walkers, which leads to an outburst from Sasha. Later, when Rick and Pete fight in the street, Rick begins ranting to the gathered crowd and pointing a gun at them, and Michonne eventually silences him by knocking him unconscious. In the season finale "Conquer '', Rick admits to Michonne that he and Carol stole guns from the armory and tries to return the gun, though Michonne says she would not have stopped him, and that she knocked out Rick to protect him, not Alexandria. She also tells Rick she is confident that they can find a way to integrate with Alexandria, but she will still follow him even if they can not. At the town forum, Michonne is one of the people who speak in Rick 's defense then witnesses Rick arrive with a dead walker, who got in because Gabriel left the gate open, and addresses Alexandria itself and how they are n't ready to survive but they have to be and he 'll show them how. Pete arrives, drunk and angered, during the meeting with Michonne 's katana, bent on assassinating Rick, and Michonne witnesses him killing Reg, Rick killing Pete and Morgan 's arrival. Michonne is later seen contemplating mounting her katana back on the wall, but ultimately decides to carry it.
Season 6 finds Rick, Michonne and the others struggling to keep the Alexandria members safe while also teaching them how to survive. In the season premiere "First Time Again '', the group discovers an enormous herd of roamers trapped inside a quarry not far from Alexandria. They decide to use the herd as a learning opportunity and also eliminate the threat before it becomes a problem later. While trying to draw the herd away from the walls, Michonne, Rick, Morgan and a few others hear a horn sounding from Alexandria. The noise draws the attention of the walkers and the herd begins heading toward the walls. Morgan is sent ahead of the others to find out what is causing the noise. Rick decides to split up to draw more walkers in another direction, giving Michonne and Glenn the task of ensuring they get the others back to Alexandria and find out what is going on. In the episode "Thank You '', Michonne, Glenn, and Heath struggle to stay ahead of the herd and keep the others alive. Glenn gets separated from the group and only Michonne and Heath return to Alexandria alive. In the episode "Now '', Michonne informs Maggie she is n't sure what happened to Glenn, but that he would send up a signal if he was alive. Rick returns to Alexandria as well, but has been followed by the herd, and barely makes it back inside Alexandria 's walls as Michonne helps close the gates. With walkers gathered outside the walls, the group must decide how to address the problem while waiting for Glenn, Daryl, Sasha and Abraham to return. Rick and Michonne learn more about what happened when the Wolves attacked, and Carol informs them that Morgan allowed several of the Wolves to escape (later killed by Rick). In the episode "Heads Up '', Morgan maintains his belief that "all life is precious '', and Michonne argues that life is not as simple as four words anymore.
In the mid-season finale episode "Start to Finish '', the herd finally breaks through Alexandra 's walls after knocking over the guard tower. Michonne, Rick, and Deanna flee towards the houses, but Deanna gets knocked over and falls onto a saw blade, causing a mortal wound to her side. Rick, Michonne, Deanna, Gabriel, Jessie, Carl, and others manage to get inside a house and struggle to keep the walkers from breaking in. Michonne tends to Deanna 's wound, only to discover a walker bite on her side. Realizing her end is near, Deanna and Michonne bond while waiting out the herd. Michonne affirms her belief that the new plans Deanna drew up for Alexandria can still work, and Deanna encourages Michonne to find her own answer for what survival means for her. Michonne admits she is n't sure, but later promises she will figure it out. The walkers eventually break into the house and the group is forced to move quickly and leave the dying Deanna. Michonne spends a few last minutes with her, offering to put her down before she turns, but Deanna insists on ending her own life with a gun. Deanna tells her to "give them hell '' and Michonne leaves. Rick devises a plan for the group to cover themselves in guts from two walkers they have killed, which allows them to move outside the house undetected by the dead. However, Jessie 's son, frightened by the situation, begins calling out to his mother as the group joins hands and moves through the herd.
In the midseason premiere, Jessie and her sons are devoured by the walkers. Michonne is forced to stab Ron, who shoots Carl in the eye. Rick and Michonne get Carl to the infirmary and help the surviving residents drive the herd out of Alexandria. Two months later, Alexandria is being rebuilt and things have more or less returned to normal. After sharing a sincere moment with Carl, Michonne realizes what she desires in her life. That night, she and Rick kiss and have sex, beginning a romantic relationship. However, Rick 's group soon becomes involved in a conflict with Negan, who captures most of the survivors and kills one of them with "Lucille '' a bat wrapped in barbed wire.
In the season premiere, "The Day Will Come When You Wo n't Be '', Michonne witnesses the deaths of group members Abraham and Glenn. She is later held at gunpoint, along with the rest of the group, as Negan commands Rick to chop off Carl 's left arm to remove the last of Rick 's disobedience. Michonne tells Negan that they now understand, but Negan tells her that its Rick who does n't understand. Thankfully, Negan stops Rick as it was all a test to break his will, which is successful. Sasha then helps get Maggie to the doctor at the Hilltop after Negan and his people leave. Michonne goes with Rick and the others in the RV. In Service, Michonne is shown walking outside Alexandria with a rifle she concealed in the house before the Saviors arrive. She is shown practicing her marksmanship by shooting at a walker with the rifle to prepare for the fight she feels is coming. When she returns, Rick states he needs the rifle as the Saviors want all their guns. Michonne does n't want her community to surrender their guns, but eventually hands it over. Rick later tells her about his old partner and friend being Judith 's real father, and that he had to accept it in order to raise her and keep her alive as his own daughter. Stating that this is their life now and he had to accept it as she does. Michonne later reappears in Sing Me a Song, where she is shown walking along whistling to lure walkers. She then kills them and drags their bodies over to a pile. This causes a female Savior to stop driving and observe the pile, allowing Michonne to take her hostage and demand that she take her to Negan. The following episode, "Hearts Still Beating '', shows Michonne attempting to talk to the Savior, who remains silent. They arrive outside the Sanctuary and Michonne realizes the power and scope of the Saviors. She later returns to find the Saviors killed Spencer and Olivia and took Eugene hostage. She finds Rick in the jail cell Morgan built and attempts to convince him that they 're fighters and that, despite Negan 's power, they can find a way to win. Rick agrees, having seen the costs of subjugation and the two reunite with Maggie and Daryl at the Hilltop (along with Carl, Rosita, and Tara) as the group walks off to plan their next move. In "Rock in the Road '', Michonne is part of the group that sets out with Rick and Jesus to the Kingdom to enlist their help. When this fails, they come across wired explosives, placed by the Saviors, to deter walker herds. Michonne aids Rick in stealing them and tells him that they can win, just to put a smile on his face. The episode ends with the group being captured by an unknown group of survivors which results in Rick smiling at the discovery of a potential ally. In "New Best Friends '', Michonne is part of the group that meets with the this new group. When Rick is tested by being pitted against an armored walker, Michonne helps advise him on how to kill it. He later thanks her by gifting her a metal cat sculpture he found. In "Say Yes '', Michonne goes out scavenging with Rick to find the guns they need. They enjoy their time together and are eventually able to discover a carnival wrought with reanimated soldiers. They stumble upon a large amount of packaged food and discuss their future after the Saviors have been dealt with. The next day, their plans go awry and they are quickly swarmed by walkers. At one point, Rick is seemingly killed and Michonne goes into a catatonic state, nearly allowing herself to be killed before Rick is revealed to be okay and they manage to win. Michonne later confides to Rick that she ca n't bear the thought of losing him, but agrees that she 'll take charge if he dies in the upcoming fight. In the season finale "The First Day of the Rest of Your Life '', Rick and his group are betrayed by Jadis and the Scavengers, and it is revealed that Sasha has died. Michonne participates in the ensuing battle, but she is badly hurt and nearly dies. She is later seen resting in bed, with Rick by her side.
The eighth season of the series focuses on the ongoing war against Negan and the Saviors, with both sides suffering several losses. Having been injured previously, Michonne does not make many appearances initially, but becomes more involved in the second half of the season. In the midseason premiere, "Honor '', she and Rick deal with the aftermath of Carl being bitten by a walker. Michonne is forced to say a tearful goodbye as Carl, close to turning, shoots himself to prevent reanimation.
Her first appearance in the season finale of Season 2 of the TV series was just a cameo and she was played by a stand - in.
Producer Frank Darabont stated in an interview with Fearnet in 2011 that Michonne would appear in the third season of the show. After Darabont was fired, there was speculation that those plans might have changed. However, in an interview with The Watercooler in late January 2012, Gale Anne Hurd confirmed that Michonne would appear in future seasons.
Danai Gurira was officially announced, during an episode of Talking Dead, to have been cast as Michonne. During an interview with The Hollywood Reporter, Kirkman was quoted saying "there 's a lot to that role, and Danai, more than any other actress, showed us that she could exhibit that strength and show what an intense character she could be and, at the same time, have that emotional core and be able to show a vulnerability to a certain extent that we do n't see much of but is definitely there. '' He added, "She really was the whole package, and I think she 's going to do a really good job ''. Danai later commented on implementing her comic counterpart 's traits:
"I was trying to really investigate a character and allow her to have as much dimension as possible and crack it open even more. What you see through the writing and vision of the creator, you add to it by bringing your full humanity and by really delving into the character 's background and their motives and fears; all those things can make a multidimensional character come to life. That 's how I 've been trained from the beginning and how I 've created characters in the past on the stage or through my playwriting. I plan to bring all of that to the table to allow Michonne to be as rich and complex as possible. I 'm excited to bring her to life as someone who really has a lot of life and a lot of complexity. ''
Michonne was voted # 86 on IGN 's Top 100 Comic Book Heroes. Regarding the television portrayal of the character, her scowling expression, reserved nature, and "Magical Negro '' qualities have been much - discussed by reviewers. Michonne 's uniquely independent nature has been praised, with one website commenting, "A case could be made that no character is as independently strong as Michonne. '' However, others have criticized Michonne 's lack of development on the show, writing that she "was quickly sinking into the "strong black woman '' trope. She is constantly assaulted and manhandled with seemingly very little concern shown for her wellbeing. ''
Noel Murray of Rolling Stone ranked Michonne 1st in a list of 30 best Walking Dead characters, saying, "She survived on her own for months, figuring out how to thrive in the wilderness under the harshest of circumstances. Yet she 's also adapted well to living in a group, and has even started to draw on her pre-apocalypse past as a mother and an academic to start thinking about how best to rebuild society. Savage when she has to be, tender and affectionate with her friends and lovers, both nurturing and deadly as they come, this character (courtesy of Danai Gurira 's continually extraordinary performance) represents this series at its best. Michonne has n't lost touch with her humanity. And she 's a thrill to watch on a killing spree. ''
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where does the last name corbett come from | Corbett (surname) - wikipedia
Corbett is an English - language surname. It is derived from the Anglo - Norman French, Middle English, and Old French corbet, which is a diminutive of corb, meaning "raven ''. The surname probably originated from a nickname referring to someone with dark hair or a dark complexion like a raven 's. The surname was brought to England from Normandy, and spread to (cotland in the 12th century, and into northern Ireland in the 17th century. Early instances of the name are Corbet in Shropshire, recorded in Domesday Book in 1086; Corbet in Shropshire, recorded in the Assize Rolls of Worcestershire in 1158; and le Corbet in Oxfordshire, recorded in the Eynsham Cartulary in 1323. Variations of the surname include: Corbet, and Corbitt. Corbett is sometimes an Anglicised form of the Irish surnames Ó Corbáin and Ó Coirbín, which mean "descendant of Corbán '' and "descendant of Coirbín '', respectively.
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who dies in dance hall of the dead | Dance Hall of the Dead - wikipedia
Dance Hall Of The Dead is the second crime fiction novel in the Joe Leaphorn / Jim Chee Navajo Tribal Police series by Tony Hillerman, first published in 1973. It features police Lieutenant Joe Leaphorn. It is set primarily in Ramah Reservation (part of the Navajo Reservation) and the Zuni village in New Mexico, both in the American Southwest.
Two boys are missing from the Zuni school. One boy is a Navajo, so Lieutenant Joe Leaphorn is called in to find him while the Zuni police seek the other boy. The Zuni boy 's body is found, brutally murdered. Tracks of the other boy are found at the scene. This Navajo boy is a well - trained hunter who has to skip school some days to hunt to feed himself, his father and his brother. He seeks spiritual guidance, as well, being the only Navajo boy in his class at school. He is a challenge for Leaphorn, the most skilled tracker, to find, especially once he realizes who the killer is, and the search moves to a major Zuni ceremony.
The story contrasts Zuni and Navajo beliefs through the two boys and the two policemen. The Zuni believe in something like heaven after death, where the Navajo encourage the people to do their best on earth, as their chindi, the worst of a person, will be a ghost left behind after death. The two tribes reside in the same area for hundreds of years, yet use the land differently, Zunis preferring a town while Navajos spread out over the land, and have sharply contrasted beliefs as to the after life. This is played out in the bellagana culture, with ambitious anthropologists, the drug trade, the FBI, and narcotics officers.
Ernesto Cata is in training to play his role as Shulawitsi the Fire God in an upcoming Zuni religious ceremony. He sees a kachina that can be seen by the initiated, which he is not, or by those about to die. The next day, his friend George Bowlegs leaves school early, after learning Ernesto is not there. Lt. Joe Leaphorn works with the Zuni police chief Pasquaanti, who seeks Ernesto, while Leaphorn will seek George, a Navajo boy. A patch of blood - soaked soil is found at the meeting place where George was returning Ernesto 's bicycle. That is the starting point in the search for the two boys.
Near the home of the Bowlegs, Leaphorn is approached by George 's younger brother Cecil, who tells him that George is running away from the kachina, the one that got Ernesto. Cecil says that Ernesto had stolen some flints from the dig site. Next, Leaphorn talks with Ted Isaacs, who is about a mile from where the blood was found, at an anthropological dig site under the aegis of Professor Reynolds. Reynolds is ambitious to prove that Folsom Man culture continued longer than the accepted notions of its duration. Isaacs tells Leaphorn of the success in the field work. Reynolds bars Isaacs from having his girlfriend Susanne with him, and barred Ernesto and George from the site a few days earlier. When questioned, Reynolds denies any thefts from the site. Checking out Jason 's Fleece, Leaphorn sees a Zuni kachina, rather unexpected next to the abandoned Navajo death hogan now housing the commune. He meets Susanne, who confirms that George was afraid of something and asking questions about absolution in the Zuni religion. Leaphorn learns that Ernesto 's body has been found.
Pasquaanti and Ernesto 's family dig up the boy 's body, while Leaphorn examines the area to learn how the bike and the boy were brought there. After the funeral, Leaphorn visits the hogan of the Bowlegs, in time to see the murderer of Shorty slip away. Cecil returns by horse after getting the sheep in. Leaphorn gathers what Cecil needs, as their family home becomes a death hogan. One item can not be found, a note from George to Cecil. Leaphorn leaves Cecil at the Franciscan mission. Speaking again with Susanne, Leaphorn picks up the phrase ' dance hall ' as where George means to go, which Father Ingles explains in terms of Zuni practices. Father Ingles tells Leaphorn how George was searching for a religion, a place to belong. Leaphorn shares with the priest how Ernesto died, by beheading.
Leaphorn finds Susanne hitchhiking. She joins him in the search for George, at a lake in Arizona. They find his horse 's tracks, and then a deer killed for a meal, but not George. At every site there are moccasin prints, but Leaphorn has not found the man who wears moccasins. Then he recalls the stolen note, and knows for certain that the killer of Ernesto is at this same place. Leaphorn gets caught in a trap designed to tranquilize a deer but meant for George. Before he is taken over by the drugs he tells Susanne how to use his pistol, and while he is incapacitated by the drugs, she uses it. It is dawn before the drugs have left Leaphorn 's system and he can walk about. They leave the site without finding George. Leaphorn meets with two of the six law enforcement agencies now involved in this case, three local and three federal; the FBI has the lead and is certain that the murders are tied to illegal drug movements.
Leaphorn knows who the killer is now and shares his information with Pasquaanti. He seeks George in the Shalako ceremonial at the Zuni village in the falling snow. Leaphorn sees George in the crowds but is one step behind the man who kills George. The killer is pulled into a doorway, having interfered with sacred Zuni ceremonies, and is never seen again. The next day, Leaphorn explains to Ted Isaacs that Reynolds had been "salting '' the dig sites, so the field results would support his theory, and Reynolds is dead. Ernesto had taken some items from Reynolds ' box and shared them with George; this meant the secret will come out. Reynolds ' choice was to kill all in his way, the boys and Shorty Bowlegs. The FBI seeks sellers of illegal drugs and does not care about the dead boys or the old flints; the professor will soon be a missing - persons case, having been dealt his justice by Zuni law. It is left to Isaacs to decide how important his career is to him now, compared to his girl, last seen at the Zuni police station being questioned by the FBI. Leaphorn did find George, but not in time to save his life. Young Cecil will settle with relatives of his father.
Themes of the book include the Zuni religion, the long history between the Navajo and the Zuni, contrasts between Zuni and Navajo culture and origin stories, and the contrast between white man 's ways and the Navajo way.
The title is a loose translation of a Zuni concept, Kothluwalawa. Dancing is what one does when there is no work to do, or a concept of heaven, a celestial space, or of life after death. Young George was seeking that as a place, not a concept, where he might learn more. His Navajo upbringing offered no notion of heaven, so his language offered no word for this Zuni concept.
Kirkus Reviews finds that Hillerman portrays Indians with affection and dignity:
Navajo Lt. Joe Leaphorn of The Blessing Way who walks and talks softly is back again trying to find out why a youngster, George Bowlegs, also a Navajo, is missing while his friend from the adjacent Zuni reservation has been killed. George, a strung out, lonely kid with mystical inclinations, has been most recently attracted to the Zuni kachinas and there are more earthly things to consider -- an archaeological dig and a commune - narcotics drop. Not too seriously -- the story 's not the thing -- it 's Hillerman 's anything but wooden Indians and the way in which he informs their way of life with affection and dignity.
The novel is the subject of an article by Brewster Fitz, where he remarks that Hillerman 's "Navajo policemen, Jim Chee and Joe Leaphorn, are, however, probably the only non-Anglo or non-European detectives to date whose educations include academic degrees in anthropology. (2) Hillerman has explained that this formal study of anthropology, in which his detectives engaged before joining the Navajo Tribal Police, provides them with a credible knowledge of the technicalities of Native American culture and religion about which the average Navajo would not be able to talk. One of Hillerman 's goals in including this detailed cultural information in a popular literary form is to instruct his readers, amusing them while helping them understand that the Native American peoples of the Southwest, far from being "primitive savages, '' have a sophisticated and admirable cultural heritage. (3) In other words, in his novels Hillerman seeks to fight the ethnocentrism and ignorance that have dominated in the majority view of Native American cultures. ''
Dance Hall Of The Dead received the 1973 Edgar Award for Best Novel.
The author includes a note about how to view what Joe Leaphorn learns about the Zuni religion and Shalako ceremonies, in the course of the novel.
In this book, the setting is genuine. The Village of Zuñí and the landscape of the Zuñí reservation and the adjoining Ramah Navajo reservation are accurately depicted to the best of my ability. The characters are purely fictional. The view the reader receives of the Shalako religion is as it might be seen by a Navajo with an interest in ethnology. It does not pretend to be more than that.
In the course of the story, much of the Navajo origin myths and specific cultural practices (e.g., death hogans abandoned if the dead person lay there a while before being buried) are described, and often aspects are contrasted to what Leaphorn or Father Ingles understands of Zuni practices (e.g., the role of the kachinas (meaning kachina dancers not dolls) and kachina masks in Zuni culture, the presence or absence of a notion of life after death).
The story reflects the newly emerging drug culture of the US and the phenomenon of hippie communes for younger people wanting to test new ways of living. It contrasts Susanne, a young white woman tossed out of home by her father with George and Cecil, Navajo boys whose mother was not present and whose father was alcoholic, leaving George to support the family while going to school.
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who is buried in hollywood cemetery richmond va | Hollywood Cemetery (Richmond, Virginia) - wikipedia
Hollywood Cemetery is a large, sprawling cemetery located next to Richmond, Virginia 's Oregon Hill neighborhood at 412 South Cherry Street. Characterized by rolling hills and winding paths overlooking the James River, it is the resting place of two United States Presidents, James Monroe and John Tyler, as well as the only Confederate States President, Jefferson Davis. It is also the resting place of 28 Confederate generals, more than any other cemetery in the country; these include George Pickett and J.E.B. Stuart.
The land that Hollywood Cemetery currently stands on was once part of William Byrd III 's estate. Later, it was owned by the Harvie family and was known as "Harvie 's Woods. '' William H. Haxall was one of the original founders of Hollywood Cemetery. In the spring of 1847, two citizens of Richmond, Joshua J. Fry and William H. Haxall, while on a visit to Boston, visited Mount Auburn, a beautiful cemetery near that city. They were impressed by the solemn grandeur of the place and resolved that they would, on their return to Richmond, propose the establishment of a rural cemetery near the city. It was through their original efforts and the subsequent cooperation of local citizens that Hollywood Cemetery was created. On June 3, 1847, Haxall, Fry, William Mitchell Jr., and Isaac Davenport Sr. purchased from Lewis E. Harvie, who sold under a deed of trust from Jacqueline B. Harvie for the sum of $4,075, a certain portion of the lots or parcels of land in the town of Sydney, in the County of Henrico, together with "the privileges and appurtenances to the belonging, which said portion is adjoining to Clarkes Spring and contains by survey forty - two acres, three roods, but of which one rood, known as Harvie 's rood, or graveyard, with free ingress and egress to the said graveyard is reserved. '' This purchase was made with the design of establishing a rural cemetery.,
In the late 1840s, William Haxall, William Mitchell Jr. and Joshua Fry hired John Notman (architect of Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia) to design the cemetery in the rural garden style. Its name, "Hollywood, '' came from the holly trees dotting the hills of the property. Oliver P. Baldwin delivered the dedication address in 1849.
James Monroe was reinterred from New York City to the "President 's Circle '' section of Hollywood cemetery on July 4, 1858 due to the efforts of Governor Henry A. Wise.
In 1869, a 90 - foot (27 m) high granite pyramid was built as a memorial to the more than 18,000 enlisted men of the Confederate Army buried in the cemetery.
In 1890, a chapel was constructed next to the entrance of the cemetery. This chapel now serves as the cemetery office. In 1915, the original entrance was closed and the present one was opened to better facilitate cars.
Hollywood Cemetery is one of Richmond 's major tourist attractions. There are many local legends surrounding certain tombs and grave sites in the cemetery, including one about a little girl and the black iron statue of a dog standing watch over her grave. Other notable legends rely on ghosts haunting the many mausoleums. One of the most well - known of these is the legend of the Richmond Vampire.
A place rich in history, legend, and gothic landscape, Hollywood Cemetery is also frequented by many of the local students attending Virginia Commonwealth University.
There are two very good histories of Hollywood Cemetery:
John O. Peters, Richmond 's Hollywood Cemetery (2010). Mary H. Mitchell, Hollywood Cemetery (1999).
(Note: This is a partial list.)
Use the following alphabetical links to find someone.
The cemetery caretaker 's house (now apartments)
The chapel at the entrance of Hollywood Cemetery
Fitzhugh Lee 's grave
J.E.B. Stuart 's grave
Matthew Fontaine Maury 's grave in Hollywood Cemetery
George Pickett 's grave
The Sauer family Mausoleam in Hollywood Cemetery
William Wortham Pool 's grave in Hollywood Cemetery
Louis Otto Wendenburg 's grave marker
Brig Gen William Edwin Starke 's grave marker
Maj Gen Samuel Jones grave marker
Peachy Ridgway Grattan 's marker in the family plot
Media related to Hollywood Cemetery (Richmond, Virginia) at Wikimedia Commons
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whos the all time leading scorer in nba | List of National Basketball Association career 3 - point scoring leaders - wikipedia
This article provides two lists:
This is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular - season three - point field goals made.
. 400
This is a progressive list of 3 - point scoring leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.
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who won 2018 indian super cup football tournament | 2018 Indian Super Cup - Wikipedia
The 2018 Indian Super Cup is the inaugural edition of the Super Cup, the main club knockout football competition in India. The competition is sponsored by Hero MotoCorp and is officially known as the Hero Super Cup. The competition began with the qualifiers on 15 March 2018 and concluded with the final on 20 April 2018. The entire tournament is taking place in one stadium, the Kalinga Stadium in Bhubaneswar.
The competition features teams from both the I - League and Indian Super League, both considered the joint top divisions for professional football in India. Both leagues containing 10 teams each, the top six teams from both qualified for the tournament automatically while the bottom four sides contested in the qualifiers. The Super Cup replaces the Federation Cup, which was considered the top knockout competition before this tournament.
A total of 16 teams are participating in the competition proper. The top six teams from both the I - League and Indian Super League qualified for the Super Cup automatically while the bottom four sides have participated in the qualifiers.
On 12 March 2018, the All India Football Federation announced the schedule and full format of the tournament. Due to the participation of Aizawl and Bengaluru in the AFC Cup, the schedule for the quarter - finals shall be decided at a later date.
After the conclusion of the I - League and Indian Super League seasons, the All India Football Federation announced the draw for the qualification round of the Super Cup.
The All India Football Federation announced the draw for the round of 16 of the competition on 12 March 2018.
The dates for the quarter - final matches were scheduled to be announced at a later date to accommodate AFC Cup commitments of Aizawl and Bengaluru. After Aizawl and Bengaluru advanced to the quarter - finals, the following fixtures were confirmed for the quarter - finals. During the game between Jamshedpur FC and FC Goa, six players (three each from both the teams) were sent off at the half - time for violent conduct. In the games against NEROCA F.C., Sunil Chhetri scored the first hat - trick of the tournament.
The semi-finals were played on 16 April and 17 April 2018 at the Kalinga Stadium.
The final was played on 20 April 2018 at the Kalinga Stadium and Bengaluru won the inaugural Super Cup by defeating East Bengal in the final.
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