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the boat that rocked how about it then | The Boat that Rocked - Wikipedia
The Boat That Rocked (retitled Pirate Radio in North America, Good Morning England in France, Radio Rock Revolution in Germany) is a 2009 British comedy film written and directed by Richard Curtis, with pirate radio in the United Kingdom during the 1960s as its setting. The film has an ensemble cast featuring Philip Seymour Hoffman, Bill Nighy, Rhys Ifans, Nick Frost, and Kenneth Branagh. Set in 1966, it tells the story of the fictitious pirate radio station "Radio Rock '' and its crew of eclectic disc jockeys, who broadcast rock and pop music to the United Kingdom from a ship anchored in the North Sea while the British government endeavours to shut them down. It was produced by Working Title Films for Universal Pictures, and was filmed on the Isle of Portland and at Shepperton Studios.
After the world premiere in London 's Leicester Square on 29 March 2009, the film was released in United Kingdom and Ireland on 1 April 2009. It was a commercial failure at the British box office, making only US $10.1 million in its first three months, just a fifth of its US $50 million production cost. It received mixed reviews, with most criticism directed at its muddled storyline and 21⁄4 - hour length. For its North American release the film had its running time cut by 20 minutes, and was retitled Pirate Radio. Opening 13 November 2009, it was still commercially unsuccessful in the US, earning only US $8 million. When the worldwide theatrical run was finished in January 2010, the film had grossed US $36.3 million.
In 1966, numerous pirate radio stations broadcast to the United Kingdom from ships anchored in international waters, specialising in rock and pop music that is not played on BBC Radio. Seventeen - year - old Carl (Tom Sturridge), recently expelled from school, is sent to stay with his godfather Quentin (Bill Nighy), who runs the station "Radio Rock '' anchored in the North Sea. The eclectic crew of disc jockeys and staffers, led by the brash American DJ "The Count '' (Philip Seymour Hoffman), quickly accept Carl as one of their own.
At the start of the film Doctor Dave (Nick Frost) and Carl conspire to have Carl lose his virginity. Dave has his girlfriend get naked and lie in bed for him while he turns off the lights and goes into the bathroom, where Carl has hidden. Carl then gets naked and walks into the dark room in an attempt to deceive Dave 's girlfriend. However she turns the lights on and sees who was really about to have sex with her, and Carl gets embarrassed and leaves.
In London, government minister Sir Alistair Dormandy (Kenneth Branagh) resolves to shut down pirate radio stations due to their commercialism and low morals, instructing his subordinate Twatt (Jack Davenport) to find legal loopholes that will serve this end. (Threatening termination and blacklisting if he does n't.) They attempt to cut off the stations ' revenue by prohibiting British businesses from advertising on unlicensed radio stations. Quentin counters this by bringing massively popular DJ Gavin Kavanagh (Rhys Ifans) out of retirement and onto Radio Rock, enticing his advertisers to work around the law by paying their bills from abroad. Gavin 's popularity creates a rivalry between himself and The Count, who was initially brought to Radio Rock as Gavin 's replacement.
On his eighteenth birthday Carl is introduced to Quentin 's niece Marianne (Talulah Riley) and falls instantly in love with her, but is heartbroken when she is seduced by Doctor Dave (Nick Frost). Carl 's roommate "Thick '' Kevin (Tom Brooke) observes that the sex, drug, and alcohol - filled atmosphere of Radio Rock is clearly no place for Carl to get on the straight - and - narrow. He theorises that the real reason Carl 's mother sent him there is that his father -- whom Carl has never met -- is someone on the ship, with Quentin being the likeliest suspect.
DJ "Simple '' Simon Swafford (Chris O'Dowd) marries Elenore (January Jones) in an onboard ceremony, but soon learns that she only married him as a means to live on the ship and be with Gavin, with whom she is infatuated but refuses to marry her (or anyone). The Count challenges Gavin to a game of chicken in defence of Simon 's honour: The two climb one of the ship 's radio masts in a clash of egos, reconciling after they are both injured by jumping into the ocean below. Soon afterwards, Carl 's mother Charlotte (Emma Thompson) visits for Christmas, she denies his suspicion that Quentin is his father. As she departs, Carl passes on a cryptic message from reclusive late - night DJ "Smooth '' Bob Silver (Ralph Brown), leading to the unexpected revelation that Bob is actually his father. When Marianne returns to the ship and apologises to Carl for sleeping with Doctor Dave. She and Carl have sex that night. The following morning, The Count and the rest of the DJ 's announce the news of the event to millions of cheering fans all over Britain.
Meanwhile, Dormandy 's mission to ban pirate radio advances when Twatt comes across news of a fishing boat whose distress call was blocked by Radio Rock 's powerful signal. Twatt proposes the creation of the Marine Offences Act, which will make pirate radio stations illegal on the grounds that they endanger other vessels. Despite public opinion being heavily in support of the pirate stations, the Act passes unanimously through Parliament and takes effect at midnight on 1 January 1967. The Radio Rock crew choose to defy the law and continue to broadcast, firing up the ship 's engine so that they may avoid arrest by relocating. The aging vessel can not take the strain, causing the engine to explode and the ship to start sinking. The DJs broadcast their position in hope of aid, and Twatt appeals to Dormandy to send rescue boats, but Dormandy refuses. Carl rescues the oblivious Bob from his cabin, while The Count vows to continue broadcasting as long as possible.
With the lifeboats inoperable, all gather on the prow as the ship begins to go down. They are rescued by dozens of fans, who heard about their broadcast predicament, and have motored out in a fleet of small boats to save them; Carl himself is rescued by Marianne, Simon is rescued by a female fan who genuinely loves him, Dave being rescued by a throng of female fans, and Elenore rescuing Gavin. The Radio Rock ship disappears beneath the sea, with The Count emerging from the sinking vessel at the last moment. Though pirate radio in Britain comes to an end, the music lives on, with rock and pop becoming increasingly popular in subsequent decades, broadcast over hundreds of ' legal ' stations around the world.
Additional minor roles were played by Ian Mercer as the transfer boatman, Stephen Moore as the Prime Minister, Michael Thomas and Bohdan Poraj as Dormandy 's subordinates Sandford and Fredericks, Olegar Fedoro as the Radio Rock ship 's captain, Francesca Longrigg and Amanda Fairbank - Hynes as Dormandy 's wife and daughter, and Olivia Llewellyn as Marianne 's friend Margaret and Felicity 's love interest.
The film was written and directed by Richard Curtis and made by Working Title Films for Universal Studios. The producers for Working Title were Tim Bevan, Eric Fellner and Hilary Bevan Jones, with Curtis, Debra Hayward and Liza Chasin acting as executive producers. Principal photography started on 3 March and continued until June 2008. Filming took place on the former Dutch hospital ship Timor Challenger, previously De Hoop, moored in Portland Harbour, Dorset; the "North Sea '' scenes were shot off the coast of Dunbar, East Lothian. Boat interior shots were filmed inside a warehouse in Osprey Quay on the Isle of Portland and at Shepperton Studios. They also visited Squerryes Court in Kent to shoot the scenes of the home of government minister Alistair Dormandy (Kenneth Brannagh). The film 's production cost exceeded £ 30 million.
Following the film 's commercial failure at the British box office, Focus Features commissioned a re-edited version for release in North American release 13 November 2009. Retitled Pirate Radio, this version of the film deleted approximately twenty minutes of footage from the original version to address complaints from several critics that the film 's running time was excessive. Upon the release of Pirate Radio in the United States, Manohla Dargis wrote:
"Stuffed with playful character actors and carpeted with wall - to - wall tunes, the film makes for easy viewing and easier listening, even if Mr. Curtis, who wrote and directed, has nothing really to say about these rebels for whom rock ' n ' roll was both life 's rhyme and its reason. ''
Robert Wilonsky, reviewing Pirate Radio after having seen The Boat That Rocked and its UK home video release, said the U.S. theatrical release had had "most of its better bits excised ''; according to Wilonsky, "after watching the DVD, Pirate Radio feels so slight in its current incarnation. Shorn of the scenes that actually put meat on its characters ' frail bones, the resulting product is vaguely cute and wholly insubstantial, little more than a randomly assembled hodge - podge of scenes crammed in and yanked out that amount to yet another movie about rebellious young men sticking it to The Grumpy Old Man -- this time, with a tacked - on Titanic climax. '' The marketing campaign for the film 's North American release was notable for embellishing the nature of the movie, as well as the historical setting. Trailers had a prominent voice - over announcement stating that "in 1966 the British government banned rock ' n ' roll on the radio. Until one American DJ and a band of renegades launched a radio station on the high seas and raided the air waves. '' In the film, pirate radio transmissions were widespread before parliament passed the Marine Offences Act, including the station portrayed on the film.
The trailer in North America also featured dialog from a scene not in the release; chief among which were a British government minister was being told in a voiceover that the American deejay "The Count '' is "possibly the most famous broadcaster ever, '' which was n't borne by the actual plot. The trailer and commercials also displayed prominent text that stated "inspired by a true story, '' which was not claimed by either the production or writing staff.
The film received mixed reviews. Rotten Tomatoes gave it a score of 61 % based on 158 reviews. The Daily Telegraph credited the film with "some magical moments, '' but called it "muddled '' and criticised its length. Time Out was also critical of the length and said the film was "disappointing. '' The Hollywood Reporter ran the headline "Rock ' n ' roll movie Boat just barely stays afloat, '' declaring the film too long to sustain interest. Total Film also criticised the film 's length and comedic style. Andrew Neil, writing in The Observer, remarked that he was disappointed in the "contrived '' storyline and the "unnecessarily perverted '' history. Channel 4 said the film was "touching, '' "heartfelt '' and an "enjoyable journey '' but questioned its coherence.
The film 's British box office revenues in its first 12 weeks of release were £ 6.1 million, less than a quarter of its production cost.
In USA, the film earned less than US $3 million in its first weekend (in a mid-scale release of 882 screens as opposed to 3,404 screens for 2012 and 3,683 screens for A Christmas Carol) and suffered a 49.7 % drop - off on its second weekend -- earning only US $1.46 million. Pirate Radio took in only about US $8 million (approximately £ 5 million) in North America.
The official synopsis of The Boat That Rocked before release stated that it tells the fictional story about a group of DJs in 1966 who are at odds with a traditionalist British government that prefers to broadcast jazz. According to director Richard Curtis, the film, though inspired by real British pirate radio of the 1960s, is a work of historical fiction and does not depict a specific radio station of the period.
Scenes cut from the film but available in at least some of the film 's home media releases include:
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Columbia may refer to:
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chretien de troyes the story of the grail | Perceval, the story of the Grail - wikipedia
Perceval, the story of the Grail (French: Perceval, le Conte du Graal) is the unfinished fifth romance of Chrétien de Troyes. Probably written between 1135 and 1190, it is dedicated to Chrétien 's patron Philip, Count of Flanders.
Chrétien claimed to be working from a source given to him by Philip. The poem relates the adventures and growing pains of the young knight Perceval but the story breaks off. There follows an adventure of Gawain of similar length that also remains incomplete. There are some 9,000 lines in total, whereas Chrétien 's other romances seldom exceed 7,000 lines.
Later authors added 54,000 more lines in what are known collectively as the Four Continuations. Perceval is the earliest recorded account of what was to become the Quest for the Holy Grail but describes only a golden grail (a serving dish) in the central scene and does not call it "holy '' but treats a lance, appearing at the same time, as equally significant.
The poem opens with Perceval, whose mother has raised him apart from civilization in the forests of Wales. Since his father 's death, he continually encounters knights and realizes he wants to be one. Despite his mother 's objections, the boy heads to King Arthur 's court, where a young girl predicts greatness for him. He is taunted by Sir Kay, but amazes everyone by killing a knight who had been troubling King Arthur and taking his vermilion armor. He then sets out for adventure. He trains under the experienced Gornemant, then falls in love with and rescues Gornemant 's niece Blanchefleur. They agree to marry.
Returning home to visit his mother, he comes across the Fisher King, who invites him to stay at his castle. While there he witnesses a strange procession in which young men and women carry magnificent objects from one chamber to another. First comes a young man carrying a bleeding lance, then two boys carrying candelabra. Finally, a beautiful young girl emerges bearing an elaborately decorated graal, or "grail '', passing before him at each course of the meal. Perceval, who had been warned against talking too much, remains silent through all of this and wakes up the next morning alone. He finds his mother is dead, then Arthur asks him to return to court. But before long, a loathly lady enters the court and admonishes Perceval for failing to ask his host whom the grail served and why the lance bled, as the appropriate question would have healed the wounded king.
No more is heard of Perceval except a short later passage in which a hermit explains that the grail contains a single mass - wafer that miraculously sustains the Fisher King 's wounded father. The loathly lady announces other quests that the Knights of the Round Table proceed to take up and the remainder of the poem deals with Arthur 's nephew and best knight Gawain, who has been challenged to a duel by a knight who claims Gawain had slain his lord. Gawain offers a contrast and complement to Perceval 's naiveté as a courtly knight having to function in un-courtly settings. An important episode is Gawain 's liberation of a castle whose inhabitants include his long - lost mother and grandmother as well as his sister Clarissant, whose existence was unknown to him. This tale also breaks off unfinished.
Over the following 50 years four different poets took up the challenge left by Chrétien and continued the adventures of Perceval and Gawain.
The First Continuation added 9,500 to 19,600 lines (depending on the manuscripts) to the romance. It was once attributed to Wauchier de Denain, and is still sometimes called the Pseudo-Wauchier Continuation for that reason. It exists in a short, a mixed, and a long version; the short was the earliest and the most loosely linked to Chrétien 's work, while the mixed is considered to be the latest, drawing on both earlier versions. Roger Sherman Loomis believed that the short version, which was added to an existing Perceval manuscript ten or twenty years later, represents a version of the story that was originally independent of Chrétien 's.
The First Continuation picks up the narrative of Gawain 's adventures where Chrétien left off: his mother and grandmother are reunited with Arthur and Gawain 's sister Clarissant marries Guiromelant. In the long version, Gawain opposes the marriage and rides off in anger, reaching the Grail Castle. After further adventures he rejoins Arthur (and the long version rejoins the short) and helps him besiege a rebel 's castle.
The First Continuation is notable for its cavalier approach to the narrative agenda set by Chrétien. In particular it includes a seemingly independent romance, which in the long version spans over 6000 lines: The Livre de Caradoc, starring Arthur 's knight Caradoc, explains how the hero got his nickname "Briefbras '', or "Short Arm ''. All versions of the First Continuation describe Gawain 's visit to a Grail castle quite unlike Chrétien 's, a vividly imagined scene that introduces the motif of a broken sword that can only be mended by the hero destined to heal the Fisher King and his lands. Gawain is not this hero and he fails. The final episode recounts the misadventures of Gawain 's brother Guerrehet (Gaheris or Gareth) who is humiliated by a dwarf knight before avenging himself and a mysteriously murdered stranger. In the closing scene he returns to court asleep on a swan boat.
Shortly after the First Continuation was completed, another author added 13,000 lines to the total. This section was also attributed to Wauchier de Danain, and might actually represent his work. Making extensive use of motifs and themes drawn from Chrétien and the First Continuator, this continuation has Perceval returning to the Grail Castle and repairing the sword of Trebuchet, but a hairline fissure that remains in the blade symbolizes his still - flawed psyche -- and the narrative 's persisting potential for further development.
Gerbert 's Continuation added 17,000 lines. The author, usually considered to be Gerbert de Montreuil, composed his version independently of Manessier, and probably around the same time. He tries to tie up loose ends left by Chrétien and the others, and the influence of Robert de Boron 's work can be felt. Notably, Gerbert includes a complete Tristan episode into his narrative that exists nowhere else. Gerbert 's Continuation seems not to have enjoyed great popularity; it survives in only two manuscripts, one of which is heavily damaged, as an interpolation between the Second and Manessier Continuations. It is likely Gerbert wrote an ending for the story, but it has been excised from both surviving copies to facilitate its position between the two other continuations.
Manessier 's Continuation (also called the Third Continuation, because that is its place in the manuscripts that do not include Gerbert) added 10,000 lines and, at last, an ending. Manessier wrapped up many of the loose ends from the previous authors, and includes several episodes from other works, including the "Joie de la Cour '' adventure from Chrétien 's Erec and Enide and Calogrenant 's death as told in the Queste del Saint Graal section of the Lancelot - Grail cycle. The tale ends with the Fisher King 's death and Perceval 's ascension to his throne. After seven peaceful years, Perceval goes off to live as a hermit in the woods, where he dies shortly after. Manessier supposes he took the Grail, the Lance, and the silver plate with him to Heaven.
The Elucidation is an anonymous Old French poem of the early 13th century, which was written to serve as a prologue to Chrétien de Troyes ' Perceval, le Conte du Graal. (1) The poem counts 484 lines and cites one Master Blihis as a source for its contents.
Another prologue to Perceval consisted of 800 verses preserved in two thirteenth - century manuscripts. In the poem, Perceval 's father (who is left unnamed in Chretien 's original) is called Bliocadran.
Perlesvaus, also called Li Hauz Livres du Graal (The High History of the Holy Grail), is an Old French Arthurian romance dating to the first decade of the 13th century. It purports to be a continuation of Perceval, the Story of the Grail, but it has been called the least canonical Arthurian tale because of its striking differences from other versions. It survives in three manuscripts, two fragments, and two 16th - century printings.
Though Chrétien did not complete his romance, it had an enormous impact on the literary world of the Middle Ages. Perceval introduced an enthusiastic Europe to the grail and all versions of the story, including those that made the grail "Holy '', probably derive directly or indirectly from it. The grail in Perceval has the power to heal the Fisher King so it may have been seen as a mystical or holy object by readers. Wolfram von Eschenbach 's Parzival, one of the greatest works of medieval Germany, is based largely on Chrétien 's poem. When comparing Wolfram 's Parzival to Chretien 's Perceval some scholars not only suggest that the structure is different, but that Chretien focuses on knighthood with religious implications while Wolfram primarily focuses on knighthood. Another is the Welsh Peredur, son of Efrawg, one of the Three Welsh Romances associated with the Mabinogion, though in this case the connection to the French work is unclear. French filmmaker Éric Rohmer directed an eccentric adaptation titled Perceval le Gallois in 1978. T.S. Eliot cited the story of Percival, particularly the scene depicting his encounter with the Fisher King, as one of the primary symbolic backdrops in his poem The Waste Land.
It is said by some scholars that during the time Chrétien was writing Perceval, there was a political crisis taking place between the aristocracy, which included his patron, Philip of Flanders, and the monarchy, which may have influenced Chrétien 's work.
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when did ethanol start being added to gasoline | Ethanol fuel in the United States - wikipedia
The United States became the world 's largest producer of ethanol fuel in 2005. The U.S. produced 13.9 billion U.S. liquid gallons (52.6 billion liters) of ethanol fuel in 2011, an increase from 13.2 billion U.S. liquid gallons (49.2 billion liters) in 2010, and up from 1.63 billion gallons in 2000. Brazil and U.S. production accounted for 87.1 % of global production in 2011. In the U.S, ethanol fuel is mainly used as an oxygenate in gasoline in the form of low - level blends up to 10 percent, and to an increasing extent, as E85 fuel for flex - fuel vehicles.
The ethanol market share in the U.S. gasoline supply grew by volume from just over 1 percent in 2000 to more than 3 percent in 2006 to 10 percent in 2011. Domestic production capacity increased fifteen times after 1990, from 900 million US gallons to 1.63 billion US gal in 2000, to 13.5 billion US gallons in 2010. The Renewable Fuels Association reported 209 ethanol distilleries in operation located in 29 states in 2011, and 140 under construction or expansion as of December 2011, that upon completion, would bring U.S. total installed capacity to 15.0 billion US gallons. Most expansion projects are aimed to update the refinery 's technology to improve ethanol production, energy efficiency, and the quality of the livestock feed they produce.
By 2011 most cars on U.S. roads could run on blends of up to 10 % ethanol (E10), and manufacturers had begun producing vehicles designed for much higher percentages. However, the fuel systems of cars, trucks, and motorcycles sold before the ethanol mandate may suffer substantial damage from the use of 10 % ethanol blends. Flexible - fuel cars, trucks, and minivans use gasoline / ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85 % ethanol (E85). By early 2013 there were around 11 million E85 - capable vehicles on U.S. roads. Regular use of E85 is low due to lack of fueling infrastructure, but is common in the Midwest. In January 2011 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) granted a waiver to allow up to 15 % of ethanol blended with gasoline (E15) to be sold only for cars and light pickup trucks with a model year of 2001 or later. The EPA waiver authorizes, but does not require stations to offer E15. Like the limitations suffered by sales of E85, commercialization of E15 is constrained by the lack of infrastructure as most fuel stations do not have enough pumps to offer the new E15 blend, few existing pumps are certified to dispense E15, and no dedicated tanks are readily available to store E15.
Ethanol production was expected to continue to grow over the next several years, since the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 required 36 billion US gallons of renewable fuel use by 2022. The target for ethanol production from cellulosic feedstocks was 16 billion US gallons a year. The corn ethanol target was 15 billion US gallons by 2015. Ethanol industries provided jobs in agriculture, construction, operations and maintenance, mostly in rural communities.
In early 2009 the industry experienced financial stress due to the effects of the economic crisis of 2008. Motorists drove less, gasoline prices dropped sharply, capacity rose and less financing was available.
Historically most U.S. ethanol has come from corn and the required electricity for many distilleries came mainly from coal. Debate ensued about ethanol 's sustainability. The primary issues related to the large amount of arable land required for crops and ethanol production 's impact on grain supply, indirect land use change (ILUC) effects, as well as issues regarding its energy balance and carbon intensity considering its full life cycle. Recent developments with cellulosic ethanol production and commercialization may allay some of these concerns.
In 1826 Samuel Morey experimented with an internal combustion chemical mixture that used ethanol (combined with turpentine and ambient air then vaporized) as fuel. At the time, his discovery was overlooked, mostly due to the success of steam power. Ethanol fuel received little attention until 1860 when Nicholas Otto began experimenting with internal combustion engines. In 1859, oil was found in Pennsylvania, which decades later provided a new kind of fuel. A popular fuel in the U.S. before petroleum was a blend of alcohol and turpentine called "camphene '', also known as "burning fluid. '' The discovery of a ready supply of oil and unfavorable taxation on burning fluid made kerosene a more popular fuel.
In 1896, Henry Ford designed his first car, the "Quadricycle '' to run on pure ethanol. In 1908, the revolutionary Ford Model T was capable of running on gasoline, ethanol or a combination. Ford continued to advocate for ethanol fuel even during the prohibition, but lower prices caused gasoline to prevail.
Gasoline containing up to 10 % ethanol began a decades - long growth in the United States in the late 1970s. The demand for ethanol produced from field corn was spurred by the discovery that methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) was contaminating groundwater. MTBE 's use as an oxygenate additive was widespread due to mandates in the Clean Air Act amendments of 1992 to reduce carbon monoxide emissions. MTBE in gasoline had been banned in almost 20 states by 2006. Suppliers were concerned about potential litigation and a 2005 court decision denying legal protection for MTBE. MTBE 's fall from grace opened a new market for ethanol, its primary substitute. Corn prices at the time were around US $ 2 a bushel. Farmers saw a new market and increased production. This demand shift took place at a time when oil prices were rising.
The steep growth in twenty - first century ethanol consumption was driven by federal legislation aimed to reduce oil consumption and enhance energy security. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 required use of 7.5 × 10 ^ US gal (28 × 10 ^ m) of renewable fuel by 2012, and the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 raised the standard, to 36 × 10 ^ US gal (140 × 10 ^ m) of annual renewable fuel use by 2022. Of this requirement, 21 × 10 ^ US gal (79 × 10 ^ m) had to be advanced biofuels, defined as renewable fuels that reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 50 %.
The world 's top ethanol fuel producer in 2010 was the United States with 13.2 billion U.S. gallons (49.95 billion liters) representing 57.5 % of global production, followed by Brazil with 6.92 billion U.S. gallons (26.19 billion liters), and together both countries accounted for 88 % of the world production of 22.95 billion U.S. gallons (86.85 billion liters). By December 2010 the U.S. ethanol production industry consisted of 204 plants operating in 29 states, and 9 plants under construction or expansion, adding 560 million gallons of new capacity and bringing total U.S. installed capacity to 14.6 billion U.S. gallons (55.25 billion liters). At the end of 2010 over 90 percent of all gasoline sold in the U.S. was blended with ethanol.
Beginning in late 2008 and early 2009, the industry came under financial stress due to that year 's economic crisis. Motorists drove less and gasoline prices dropped sharply, while bank financing shrank. As a result, some plants operated below capacity, several firms closed plants, others laid off staff, some firms went bankrupt, plant projects were suspended and market prices declined. The Energy Information Administration raised concerns that the industry would not meet the legislated targets.
As of 2011, most of the U.S. car fleet was able to run on blends of up to 10 % ethanol, and motor vehicle manufacturers produced vehicles designed to run on more concentrated blends. As of 2015, seven states -- Missouri, Minnesota, Louisiana, Montana, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Washington -- required ethanol to be blended with gasoline in motor fuels. These states, particularly Minnesota, had more ethanol usage, and according to a source at Washington University, these states accumulated substantial environmental and economic benefits as a result. Florida required ethanol blends as of the end of 2010, but has since repealed it. Many cities had separate ethanol requirements due to non-attainment of federal air quality standards. In 2007, Portland, Oregon, became the first U.S. city to require all gasoline sold within city limits to contain at least 10 % ethanol. Chicago has proposed the idea of mandating E15 in the city limits, while some area gas stations have already begun offering it.
Expanding ethanol (and biodiesel) industries provided jobs in plant construction, operations, and maintenance, mostly in rural communities. According to RFA the ethanol industry created almost 154,000 U.S. jobs in 2005, boosting household income by $5.7 billion. It also contributed about $3.5 billion in federal, state and local tax revenues.
Ford, Chrysler, and GM are among many automobile companies that sell flexible - fuel vehicles that can run blends ranging from pure gasoline to 85 % ethanol (E85), and beginning in 2008 almost any type of automobile and light duty vehicle was available with the flex - fuel option, including sedans, vans, SUVs and pickup trucks. By early 2013, about 11 million E85 flex - fuel cars and light trucks were in operation, though actual use of E85 fuel was limited, because the ethanol fueling infrastructure was limited.
As of 2005, 68 % of American flex - fuel car owners were not aware they owned an E85 flex. Flex and non-flex vehicles looked the same. There was no price difference. American automakers did not label these vehicles. In contrast, all Brazilian automakers clearly labeled FFVs with text that was some variant of the word Flex. Beginning in 2007 many new FFV models in the US featured a yellow gas cap to remind drivers of the E85 capabilities. As of 2008, GM badged its vehicles with the text "Flexfuel / E85 Ethanol ''. Nevertheless, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) estimated that in 2009 only 504,297 flex - fuel vehicles were regularly fueled with E85, and these were primarily fleet - operated vehicles. As a result, only 712 million gallons were used for E85, representing just 1 % of that year 's ethanol consumption.
During the decade following 2000, E85 vehicles became increasingly common in the Midwest, where corn was a major crop.
Fueling infrastructure has been a major restriction hampering E85 sales. As of March 2013, there were 3,028 fueling stations selling E85 in the U.S. Most stations were in the Corn Belt states. As of 2008 the leading state was Minnesota with 353 stations, followed by Illinois with 181, and Wisconsin with 114. About another 200 stations that dispensed ethanol were restricted to city, state and federal government vehicles.
E85 flexfuel Chevrolet Impala LT 2009.
E85 flexfuel Chevrolet HHR
E85 flexfuel Ford E-250.
E85 flexfuel Ford Escape
In March 2009 Growth Energy, a lobbying group for the ethanol industry, formally requested the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to allow the ethanol content in gasoline to be increased to 15 %, from 10 %. In October 2010, the EPA granted a waiver to allow up to 15 % blends to be sold for cars and trucks with a model year of 2007 or later, representing about 15 % of vehicles on the roads. In January 2011 the waiver was expanded to authorize use of E15 to include model year 2001 through 2006 passenger vehicles. The EPA also decided not to grant any waiver for E15 use in any motorcycles, heavy - duty vehicles, or non-road engines because current testing data does not support such a waiver. According to the Renewable Fuels Association the E15 waivers now cover 62 % of vehicles on the road in the country. In December 2010 several groups, including the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers, the American Petroleum Institute, the Association of International Automobile Manufacturers, the National Marine Manufacturers Association, the Outdoor Power Equipment Institute, and the Grocery Manufacturers Association, filed suit against the EPA in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. In August 2012 the federal appeals court rejected the suit against the EPA ruling that the groups did not have legal standing to challenge EPA 's decision to issue the waiver for E15. In June 2013 the U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal from industry groups opposed to the EPA ruling about E15, and let the 2012 federal appeals court ruling stand.
According to a survey conducted by the American Automobile Association (AAA) in 2012, only about 12 million out of the more than 240 million light - duty vehicles on the U.S. roads in 2012 are approved by manufacturers are fully compliant with E15 gasoline. According with the Association, BMW, Chrysler, Nissan, Toyota, and Volkswagen warned that their warranties will not cover E15 - related damage. Despite the controversy, in order to adjust to EPA regulations, 2012 and 2013 model year vehicles manufactured by General Motors can use fuel containing up to 15 percent ethanol, as indicated in the vehicle owners ' manuals. However, the carmaker warned that for model year 2011 or earlier vehicles, they "strongly recommend that GM customers refer to their owners manuals for the proper fuel designation for their vehicles. '' Ford Motor Company also is manufacturing all of its 2013 vehicles E15 compatible, including hybrid electrics and vehicles with Ecoboost engines. Also Porsches built since 2001 are approved by its manufacturer to use E15. Volkswagen announced that for the 2014 model year, its entire lineup will be E15 capable. Fiat Chrysler Automobiles announced in August 2015 that all 2016 model year Chrysler / Fiat, Jeep, Dodge and Ram vehicles will be E15 compatible.
Despite EPA 's waiver, there is a practical barrier to the commercialization of the higher blend due to the lack of infrastructure, similar to the limitations suffered by sales of E85, as most fuel stations do not have enough pumps to offer the new blend, few existing pumps are certified to dispense E15, and there are no dedicated tanks readily available to store E15. In July 2012 a fueling station in Lawrence, Kansas became the first in the U.S. to sell the E15 blend. The fuel is sold through a blender pump that allows customers to choose between E10, E15, E30 or E85, with the latter blends sold only to flexible - fuel vehicles. This station was followed by a Marathon fueling station in East Lansing, Michigan. As of June 2013, there are about 24 fueling stations selling E15 out of 180,000 stations operating across the U.S.
As of November 2012, sales of E15 are not authorized in California, and according to the California Air Resources Board (CARB), the blend is still awaiting approval, and in a public statement the agency said that "it would take several years to complete the vehicle testing and rule development necessary to introduce a new transportation fuel into California 's market. ''
The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, directed DOE to assess the feasibility of using intermediate ethanol blends in the existing vehicle fleet. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) evaluated the potential impacts on legacy vehicles and other engines. In a preliminary report released in October 2008, NREL described the effects of E10, E15 and E20 on tailpipe and evaporative emissions, catalyst and engine durability, vehicle driveability, engine operability, and vehicle and engine materials. This preliminary report found that none of the vehicles displayed a malfunction indicator light; no fuel filter plugging symptoms were observed; no cold start problems were observed at 24 ° C (75 ° F) and 10 ° C (50 ° F) under laboratory conditions; and all test vehicles exhibited a loss in fuel economy proportional to ethanol 's lower energy density. For example, E20 reduced average fuel economy by 7.7 % when compared to gas - only (E0) test vehicles.
The Obama Administration set the goal of installing 10,000 blender pumps nationwide by 2015. These pumps can dispense multiple blends including E85, E50, E30 and E20 that can be used by E85 vehicles. The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) issued a rule in May 2011 to include flexible fuel pumps in the Rural Energy for America Program (REAP). This ruling provided financial assistance, via grants and loan guarantees, to fuel station owners to install E85 and blender pumps.
In May 2011 the Open Fuel Standard Act (OFS) was introduced to Congress with bipartisan support. The bill required that 50 percent of automobiles made in 2014, 80 percent in 2016, and 95 percent in 2017, be manufactured and warrantied to operate on non-petroleum - based fuels, which included existing technologies such as flex - fuel, natural gas, hydrogen, biodiesel, plug - in electric and fuel cell. Considering the rapid adoption of flexible - fuel vehicles in Brazil and the fact that the cost of making flex - fuel vehicles was approximately $100 per car, the bill 's primary objective was to promote a massive adoption of flex - fuel vehicles capable of running on ethanol or methanol fuel.
In November 2013, the Environmental Protection Agency opened for public comment its proposal to reduce the amount of ethanol required in the US gasoline supply as mandated by the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007. The agency cited problems with increasing the blend of ethanol above 10 %. This limit, known as the "blend wall, '' refers to the practical difficulty in incorporating increasing amounts of ethanol into the transportation fuel supply at volumes exceeding those achieved by the sale of nearly all gasoline as E10.
Gasoline distribution contracts in the United States generally have provisions that make offering E15 and E85 difficult, expensive, or even impossible. Such provisions include requirements that no E85 be sold under the gas station canopy, labeling requirements, minimum sales volumes, and exclusivity provisions. Penalties for breach are severe and often allow immediate termination of the agreement, cutting off supplies to retailers. Repayment of franchise royalties and other incentives is often required.
One rationale for ethanol production in the U.S. is increased energy security, from shifting supply from oil imports to domestic sources. Ethanol production requires significant energy, and current U.S. production derives most of that energy from domestic coal, natural gas and other non-oil sources. Because in 2006, 66 % of U.S. oil consumption was imported, compared to a net surplus of coal and just 16 % of natural gas (2006 figures), the displacement of oil - based fuels to ethanol produced a net shift from foreign to domestic U.S. energy sources.
The effect of ethanol use on gasoline prices is the source of conflicting opinion from economic studies, further complicated by the non-market forces of tax credits, met and unmet government quotas, and the dramatic recent increase in domestic oil production. According to a 2012 Massachusetts Institute of Technology analysis, ethanol, and biofuel in general, does not materially influence the price of gasoline, while a runup in the price of government mandated Renewable Identification Number credits has driven up the price of gasoline. These in contrast to a May, 2012, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development study which showed a $0.29 to $1.09 reduction in per gallon gasoline price from ethanol use.
The U.S. consumed 138.2 × 10 ^ US gal (523 × 10 ^ m) of gasoline in 2008, blended with about 9.6 × 10 ^ US gal (36 × 10 ^ m) of ethanol, representing a market share of almost 7 % of supply by volume. Given its lower energy content, ethanol fuel displaced about 6.4 × 10 ^ US gal (24 × 10 ^ m) of gasoline, representing 4.6 percent in equivalent energy units.
The EPA announced in November, 2013, a reduction in mandated U.S. 2014 ethanol production, due to "market conditions. ''
Since the 1980s until 2011, domestic ethanol producers were protected by a 54 - cent per gallon import tariff, mainly intended to curb Brazilian sugarcane ethanol imports. Beginning in 2004 blenders of transportation fuel received a tax credit for each gallon of ethanol they mix with gasoline. Historically, the tariff was intended to offset the federal tax credit that applied to ethanol regardless of country of origin. Several countries in the Caribbean Basin imported and reprocessed Brazilian ethanol, usually converting hydrated ethanol into anhydrous ethanol, for re-export to the United States. They avoided the 2.5 % duty and the tariff, thanks to the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI) and free trade agreements. This process was limited to 7 % of U.S. ethanol consumption.
As of 2011, blenders received a US $0.45 per gallon tax credit, regardless of feedstock; small producers received an additional US $0.10 on the first 15 million US gallons; and producers of cellulosic ethanol received credits up to US $1.01. Tax credits to promote the production and consumption of biofuels date to the 1970s. For 2011, credits were based on the Energy Policy Act of 2005, the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008, and the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008.
A 2010 study by the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) found that in fiscal year 2009, biofuel tax credits reduced federal revenues by around US $6 billion, of which corn and cellulosic ethanol accounted for US $5.16 billion and US $50 million, respectively. A 2010 study by the Environmental Working Group estimated that the cumulative ethanol subsidies between 2005 and 2009 were US $17 billion. The same study estimated the future cost to taxpayers at US $53.59 billion if these tax credits were extended until 2015, yielding 15 billion US gallons (56.8 billion liters).
In 2010, CBO estimated that taxpayer costs to reduce gasoline consumption by one gallon were $1.78 for corn ethanol and $3.00 for cellulosic ethanol. In a similar way, and without considering potential indirect land use effects, the costs to taxpayers of reducing greenhouse gas emissions through tax credits were about $750 per metric ton of CO2 - equivalent for ethanol and around $275 per metric ton for cellulosic ethanol.
On June 16, 2011, the U.S. Congress approved an amendment to an economic development bill to repeal both the tax credit and the tariff, but this bill did not move forward. Nevertheless, the U.S. Congress did not extend the tariff and the tax credit, allowing both to end on December 31, 2011. Since 1980 the ethanol industry was awarded an estimated US $45 billion in subsidies.
Corn is the main feedstock used for producing ethanol fuel in the United States. Most of the controversies surrounding U.S. ethanol fuel production and use is related to corn ethanol 's energy balance and its social and environmental impacts.
Cellulosic sources have the potential to produce a renewable, cleaner - burning, and carbon - neutral alternative to gasoline. In his State of the Union Address on January 31, 2006, President George W. Bush stated, "We 'll also fund additional research in cutting - edge methods of producing ethanol, not just from corn, but from wood chips and stalks or switchgrass. Our goal is to make this new kind of ethanol practical and competitive within six years. ''
On July 7, 2006, DOE announced a new research agenda for cellulosic ethanol. The 200 - page scientific roadmap cited recent advances in biotechnology that could aid use of cellulosic sources. The report outlined a detailed research plan for additional technologies to improve production efficiency. The roadmap acknowledged the need for substantial federal loan guarantees for biorefineries.
The 2007 federal budget earmarked $150 million for the research effort -- more than doubling the 2006 budget. DOE invested in enzymatic, thermochemical, acid hydrolysis, hybrid hydrolysis / enzymatic, and other research approaches targeting more efficient and lower -- cost conversion of cellulose to ethanol.
The first materials considered for cellulosic biofuel included plant matter from agricultural waste, yard waste, sawdust and paper. Professors R. Malcolm Brown Jr. and David Nobles, Jr. of the University of Texas at Austin developed cyanobacteria that had the potential to produce cellulose, glucose and sucrose, the latter two easily converted into ethanol. This offers the potential to create ethanol without plant matter.
Producing ethanol from sugar is simpler than converting corn into ethanol. Converting sugar requires only a yeast fermentation process. Converting corn requires additional cooking and the application of enzymes. The energy requirement for sugar conversion is about half that for corn. Sugarcane produces more than enough energy to do the conversion with energy left over. A 2006 U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) report found that at market prices for ethanol, converting sugarcane, sugar beets and molasses to ethanol would be profitable. As of 2008 researchers were attempting to breed new varieties adapted to U.S. soil and weather conditions, as well as to take advantage of cellulosic ethanol technologies to also convert sugarcane bagasse.
U.S. sugarcane production occurs in Florida, Louisiana, Hawaii, and Texas. The first three plants to produce sugarcane - based ethanol were expected to go online in Louisiana by mid-2009. Sugar mills in Lacassine, St. James and Bunkie were converted to sugarcane ethanol production using Colombian technology to enable profitable ethanol production. These three plants planned to produce 100 × 10 ^ US gal (380 × 10 ^ m) of ethanol per year within five years.
By 2009 two other sugarcane ethanol production projects were being developed in Kauai, Hawaii and Imperial Valley, California. The Hawaiian plant was projected to have a capacity of between 12 -- 15 million US gallons (45 × 10 ^ -- 57 × 10 ^ m) a year and to supply local markets only, as shipping costs made competing in the continental US impractical. This plant was expected to go on line by 2010. The California plant was expected to produce 60 × 10 ^ US gal (230 × 10 ^ m) a year and it was expected in 2011.
In March 2007, "ethanol diplomacy '' was the focus of President George W. Bush 's Latin American tour, in which he and Brazil 's president, Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, promoted the production and use of sugarcane ethanol throughout the Caribbean Basin. The two countries agreed to share technology and set international biofuel standards. Brazilian sugarcane technology transfer was intended to permit various Central American, such as Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama, several Caribbean countries, and various Andean Countries tariff - free trade with the U.S., thanks to existing trade agreements. The expectation was that such countries would export to the United States in the short - term using Brazilian technology.
In 2007, combined exports from Jamaica, El Salvador, Trinidad & Tobago and Costa Rica to the U.S. reached a total of 230.5 × 10 ^ US gal (873 × 10 ^ m) of sugarcane ethanol, representing 54.1 % of imports. Brazil began exporting ethanol to the U.S. in 2004 and exported 188.8 × 10 ^ US gal (715 × 10 ^ m) representing 44.3 % of U.S. ethanol imports in 2007. The remaining imports that year came from Canada and China.
Cheese whey, barley, potato waste, beverage waste, and brewery and beer waste have been used as feedstocks for ethanol fuel, but at a far smaller scale than corn and sugarcane ethanol, as plants using these feedstocks have the capacity to produce only 3 to 5 million US gallons (11 × 10 ^ to 19 × 10 ^ m) per year.
Sugarcane ethanol has an energy balance 7 times greater than corn ethanol. As of 2007, Brazilian distiller production costs were 22 cents per liter, compared with 30 cents per liter for corn - based ethanol. Corn - derived ethanol costs 30 % more because the corn starch must first be converted to sugar before distillation into alcohol. However, corn - derived ethanol offers the ability to return 1 / 3 of the feedstock to the market as a replacement for the corn used in the form of Distillers Dried Grain. Sugarcane ethanol production is seasonal: unlike corn, sugarcane must be processed into ethanol almost immediately after harvest.
Until 2008, several full life cycle ("Well to Wheels '' or WTW) studies had found that corn ethanol reduces greenhouse gas emissions as compared to gasoline. In 2007 a team led by Farrel from the University of California, Berkeley evaluated six previous studies and concluded corn ethanol reduces greenhouse gas emissions by only 13 percent. However, a more commonly cited figure is 20 to 30 percent, and an 85 to 85 percent reduction for cellulosic ethanol. Both figures were estimated by Wang from Argonne National Laboratory, based on a comprehensive review of 22 studies conducted between 1979 and 2005, and simulations with Argonne 's GREET model. All of these studies included direct land use changes.
The reduction estimates on carbon intensity for a given biofuel depend on the assumptions regarding several variables, including crop productivity, agricultural practices, and distillery power source and energy efficiency. None of these studies considered the effects of indirect land - use changes, and though their impact was recognized, its estimation was considered too complex and more difficult to model than direct land use changes.
Two 2008 studies, both published in the same issue of Scienceexpress, questioned the previous assessments. A team led by Searchinger from Princeton University concluded that once direct and indirect effect of land use changes (ILUC) are considered, both corn and cellulosic ethanol increased carbon emissions as compared to gasoline by 93 and 50 percent respectively. The study limited the analysis to a 30 - year time horizon, assuming that land conversion emitted 25 percent of the carbon stored in soils and all carbon in plants cleared for cultivation. Brazil, China and India were considered among the overseas locations where land use change would occur as a result of diverting U.S. corn cropland, and it was assumed that new cropland in each of these regions correspond to different types of forest, savanna or grassland based on the historical proportion of each natural land converted to cultivation in these countries during the 1990s.
A team led by Fargione from The Nature Conservancy found that clearing natural lands for use as agricultural land to produce biofuel feedstock creates a carbon debt. Therefore, this carbon debt applies to both direct and indirect land use changes. The study examined six scenarios of wilderness conversion, Brazilian Amazon to soybean biodiesel, Brazilian Cerrado to soybean biodiesel, Brazilian Cerrado to sugarcane ethanol, Indonesian or Malaysian lowland tropical rainforest to palm biodiesel, Indonesian or Malaysian peatland tropical rainforest to oil palm forest, and U.S. Central grassland to corn ethanol.
On April 23, 2009, the California Air Resources Board approved specific rules and carbon intensity reference values for the California Low - Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS) that was to go into effect on January 1, 2011. The consultation process produced controversy regarding the inclusion and modeling of indirect land use change effects. After the CARB 's ruling, among other criticisms, representatives of the ethanol industry complained that the standard overstated the negative environmental effects of corn ethanol, and also criticized the inclusion of indirect effects of land - use changes as an unfair penalty to home - made corn ethanol because deforestation in the developing world had been tied to US ethanol production. The emissions standard for 2011 for LCFS meant that Midwest corn ethanol would not meet the California standard unless current carbon intensity is reduced.
A similar controversy arose after the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published on May 5, 2009, its notice of proposed rulemaking for the new Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS). EPA 's proposal included the carbon footprint from indirect land - use changes. On the same day, President Barack Obama signed a Presidential Directive with the aim to advance biofuel research and commercialization. The Directive asked a new Biofuels Interagency Working Group comprising the Department of Agriculture, EPA, and DOE, to develop a plan to increase flexible fuel vehicle use, assist in retail marketing and to coordinate infrastructure policies.
The group also was tasked to develop policy ideas for increasing investment in next - generation fuels, and for reducing biofuels ' environmental footprint.
In December 2009 two lobbying groups, the Renewable Fuels Association (RFA) and Growth Energy, filed a lawsuit challenging LCFS ' constitutionality. The two organizations argued that LCFS violates both the Supremacy Clause and the Commerce Clause of the US Constitution, and "jeopardizes the nationwide market for ethanol. '' In a press release the associations announced that "If the United States is going to have a low carbon fuel standard, it must be based on sound science and it must be consistent with the U.S. Constitution... ''
On February 3, 2010, EPA finalized the Renewable Fuel Standard Program (RFS2) for 2010 and beyond. EPA incorporated direct emissions and significant indirect emissions such as emissions from land use changes along with comments and data from new studies. Adopting a 30 - year time horizon and a 0 % discount rate EPA declared that ethanol produced from corn starch at a new (or expanded capacity from an existing) natural gas - fired facility using approved technologies would be considered to comply with the 20 % GHG emission reduction threshold. Given average production conditions it expected for 2022, EPA estimated that corn ethanol would reduce GHGs an average of 21 % compared to the 2005 gasoline baseline. A 95 % confidence interval spans a 7 - 32 % range reflecting uncertainty in the land use change assumptions.
The following table summarizes the mean GHG emissions for ethanol using different feedstocks estimated by EPA modelling and the range of variations considering that the main source of uncertainty in the life cycle analysis is the GHG emissions related to international land use change.
Water - related concerns relate to water supply and quality, and include availability and potential overuse, pollution, and possible contamination by fertilizers and pesticides. Several studies concluded that increased ethanol production was likely to result in a substantial increase in water pollution by fertilizers and pesticides, with the potential to exacerbate eutrophication and hypoxia, particularly in the Chesapeake Bay and the Gulf of Mexico.
Growing feedstocks consumes most of the water associated with ethanol production. Corn consumes from 500 -- 2,000 litres (110 -- 440 imp gal; 130 -- 530 US gal) of water per liter of ethanol, mostly for evapotranspiration. In general terms, both corn and switchgrass require less irrigation than other fuel crops. Corn is grown mainly in regions with adequate rainfall. However, corn usually needs to be irrigated in the drier climates of Nebraska and eastern Colorado. Further, corn production for ethanol is increasingly taking place in areas requiring irrigation. A 2008 study by the National Research Council concluded that "in the longer term, the likely expansion of cellulosic biofuel production has the potential to further increase the demand for water resources in many parts of the United States. Biofuels expansion beyond current irrigated agriculture, especially in dry western areas, has the potential to greatly increase pressure on water resources in some areas. ''
A 2009 study estimated that irrigated corn ethanol implied water consumption at between 50 US gal / mi (120 L / km) and 100 US gal / mi (240 L / km) for U.S. vehicles. This figure increased to 90 US gal / mi (210 L / km) for sorghum ethanol from Nebraska, and 115 US gal / mi (270 L / km) for Texas sorghum. By contrast, an average U.S. car effectively consumes between 0.2 US gal / mi (0.47 L / km) to 0.5 US gal / mi (1.2 L / km) running on gasoline, including extraction and refining.
In 2010 RFA argued that more efficient water technologies and pre-treated water could reduce consumption. It further claimed that non-conventional oil "sources, such as tar sands and oil shale, require far more water than conventional petroleum extraction and refining. ''
U.S. standard agricultural practices for most crops employ fertilizers that provide nitrogen and phosphorus along with herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, and other pesticides.
Some part of these chemicals leaves the field. Nitrogen in forms such as nitrate (NO3) is highly soluble, and along with some pesticides infiltrates downwards toward the water table, where it can migrate to water wells, rivers and streams. A 2008 National Research Council study found that regionally the highest stream concentrations occur where the rates of application were highest, and that these rates were highest in the Corn Belt. These flows mainly stem from corn, which as of 2010 was the major source of total nitrogen loading to the Mississippi River.
Several studies found that corn ethanol production contributed to the worsening of the Gulf of Mexico dead zone. The nitrogen leached into the Mississippi River and out into the Gulf, where it fed giant algae blooms. As the algae died, it settled to the ocean floor and decayed, consuming oxygen and suffocating marine life, causing hypoxia. This oxygen depletion killed shrimp, crabs, worms and anything else that could not escape, and affected important shrimp fishing grounds.
Some environmentalists, such as George Monbiot, expressed fears that the marketplace would convert crops to fuel for the rich, while the poor starved and biofuels caused environmental problems. The food vs fuel debate grew in 2008 as a result of the international community 's concerns regarding the steep increase in food prices. On April 2008, Jean Ziegler, back then United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, repeated his claim that biofuels were a "crime against humanity '', echoing his October 2007 call for a 5 - year ban for the conversion of land for the production of biofuels. Also in April 2008, World Bank President Robert Zoellick stated that "While many worry about filling their gas tanks, many others around the world are struggling to fill their stomachs. And it 's getting more and more difficult every day. ''
A July 2008 World Bank report found that from June 2002 to June 2008 "biofuels and the related consequences of low grain stocks, large land use shifts, speculative activity and export bans '' accounted for 70 -- 75 % of total price rises. The study found that higher oil prices and a weak dollar explain 25 -- 30 % of total price rise. The study said that "... large increases in biofuels production in the United States and Europe are the main reason behind the steep rise in global food prices. '' The report argued that increased production of biofuels in these developed regions was supported by subsidies and tariffs, and claimed that without such policies, food price increases worldwide would have been smaller. It also concluded that Brazil 's sugarcane ethanol had not raised sugar prices significantly, and recommended that both the U.S. and E.U. remove tariffs, including on many African countries.
An RFA rebuttal said that the World Bank analysis was highly subjective and that the author considered only "the impact of global food prices from the weak dollar and the direct and indirect effect of high petroleum prices and attribute (d) everything else to biofuels. ''
A 2010 World Bank study concluded that its previous study may have overestimated the impact, as "the effect of biofuels on food prices has not been as large as originally thought, but that the use of commodities by financial investors (the so - called '' financialization of commodities '') may have been partly responsible for the 2007 / 08 spike. ''
A July 2008 OECD economic assessment agreed about the negative effects of subsidies and trade restrictions, but found that the impact of biofuels on food prices was much smaller. The OECD study found that existing biofuel support policies would reduce greenhouse gas emissions by no more than 0.8 percent by 2015. It called for more open markets in biofuels and feedstocks to improve efficiency and lower costs. The OECD study concluded that "... current biofuel support measures alone are estimated to increase average wheat prices by about 5 percent, maize by around 7 percent and vegetable oil by about 19 percent over the next 10 years. ''
The 2008 financial crisis illustrated corn ethanol 's limited impact on corn prices, which fell 50 % from their July 2008 high by October 2008, in tandem with other commodities, including oil, while corn ethanol production continued unabated. "Analysts, including some in the ethanol sector, say ethanol demand adds about 75 cents to $1.00 per bushel to the price of corn, as a rule of thumb. Other analysts say it adds around 20 percent, or just under 80 cents per bushel at current prices. Those estimates hint that $4 per bushel corn might be priced at only $3 without demand for ethanol fuel. ''.
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who is associated with the beginnings of church music | Church music - wikipedia
Church music is music written for performance in church, or any musical setting of ecclesiastical liturgy, or music set to words expressing propositions of a sacred nature, such as a hymn.
Christianity began as a small, persecuted Jewish sect. At first there was no break with the Jewish faith; Christians still attended synagogues and the Second Temple in Jerusalem just as Jesus Christ had done, and presumably still carried on the same musical traditions in their separate Christian meetings. The only record of communal song in the Gospels is the last meeting of the disciples before the Crucifixion. Outside the Gospels, there is a reference to St. Paul encouraging the Ephesians and Colossians to use psalms, hymns and spiritual songs.
Later, there is a reference in Pliny the Younger who writes to the emperor Trajan (61 -- 113) asking for advice about how to prosecute the Christians in Bithynia, and describing their practice of gathering before sunrise and repeating antiphonally "a hymn to Christ, as to God ''. Antiphonal psalmody is the singing or musical playing of psalms by alternating groups of performers. The peculiar mirror structure of the Hebrew psalms makes it likely that the antiphonal method originated in the services of the ancient Israelites. According to the historian Socrates of Constantinople, its introduction into Christian worship was due to Ignatius of Antioch (died 107), who in a vision had seen the angels singing in alternate choirs.
The use of instruments in early Christian music seems to have been frowned upon. In the late 4th or early 5th century St. Jerome wrote that a Christian maiden ought not even to know what a lyre or flute is like, or to what use it is put. The introduction of church organ music is traditionally believed to date from the time of the papacy of Pope Vitalian in the 7th century.
Gregorian chant is the main tradition of Western plainchant, a form of monophonic liturgical chant of Western Christianity that accompanied the celebration of Mass and other ritual services. This musical form originated in Monastic life, in which singing the ' Divine Service ' nine times a day at the proper hours was upheld according to the Rule of Saint Benedict. Singing psalms made up a large part of the life in a monastic community, while a smaller group and soloists sang the chants.
In its long history Gregorian Chant has been subjected to many gradual changes and some reforms. It was organized, codified, and notated mainly in the Frankish lands of western and central Europe during the 12th and 13th centuries, with later additions and redactions, but the texts and many of the melodies have antecedents going back several centuries earlier. Although popular belief credits Pope Gregory the Great with having personally invented Gregorian chant, scholars now believe that the chant bearing his name arose from a later Carolingian synthesis of Roman and Gallican chant
During the following centuries the Chant tradition was still at the heart of Church music, where it changed and acquired various accretions. Even the polyphonic music that arose from the venerable old chants in the Organa by Léonin and Pérotin in Paris (1160 -- 1240) ended in monophonic chant and in later traditions new composition styles were practised in juxtaposition (or co-habitation) with monophonic chant. This practice continued into the lifetime of François Couperin, whose Organ Masses were meant to be performed with alternating homophonic Chant. Although it had mostly fallen into disuse after the Baroque period, Chant experienced a revival in the 19th century in the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglo - Catholic wing of the Anglican Communion.
The mass is a form of music that sets out the parts of the Eucharistic liturgy (chiefly belong to the Roman Catholic Church, the Churches of the Anglican Communion, and also the Lutheran Church) to music. Most Masses are settings of the liturgy in Latin, the traditional language of the Roman Catholic Church, but there are a significant number written in the languages of non-Catholic countries where vernacular worship has long been the norm. For example, there are many Masses (often called "Communion Services '') written in English for the Church of England.
Music is an integral part of mass, it accompanies various rituals acts and contributes to the totality of worship service. Music in mass is an activity that participants share with others in the celebration of Jesus Christ.
Masses can be a cappella, for the human voice alone, or they can be accompanied by instrumental obbligatos up to and including a full orchestra. Many Masses, especially later ones, were never intended to be performed during the celebration of an actual mass.
Generally, for a composition to be a full Mass, it must contain the following invariable five sections, which together constitute the Ordinary of the Mass.
The Requiem Mass is a modified version of the ordinary mass. Musical settings of the Requiem mass have a long tradition in Western music. There are many notable works in this tradition, including those by Ockeghem, Pierre de la Rue, Brumel, Jean Richafort, Pedro de Escobar, Antoine de Févin, Morales, Palestrina, Tomás Luis de Victoria, Mozart, Gossec, Cherubini, Berlioz, Brahms, Bruckner, Dvořák, Frederick Delius, Maurice Duruflé, Fauré, Liszt, Verdi, Herbert Howells, Stravinsky, Britten, György Ligeti, Penderecki, Henze, and Andrew Lloyd Webber.
In a liturgical Mass, there are variable other sections that may be sung, often in Gregorian chant. These sections, the "Proper '' of the Mass, change with the day and season according to the Church calendar, or according to the special circumstances of the mass. The Proper of the Mass is usually not set to music in a Mass itself, except in the case of a Requiem Mass, but may be the subject of motets or other musical compositions. The sections of the Proper of the Mass include the Introit, Gradual, Alleluia or Tract (depending on the time of year), Offertory and Communion.
A carol is a festive song, generally religious but not necessarily connected with church worship, often having a popular character. Today the carol is represented almost exclusively by the Christmas carol, the Advent carol, and to a much lesser extent by the Easter carol.
The tradition of Christmas carols goes back as far as the 13th century, although carols were originally communal songs sung during celebrations like harvest tide as well as Christmas. It was only in the late 18th and 19th centuries that carols began to be sung in church, and to be specifically associated with Christmas. Traditionally, carols have often been based on medieval chord progressions, and it is this that gives them their characteristic sound. Some carols like "Personent hodie '' and "Angels from the Realms of Glory '' can be traced directly back to the Middle Ages, and are among the oldest musical compositions still regularly sung.
Carols suffered a decline in popularity after the Reformation in the countries where Protestant churches gained prominence (although well - known Reformers like Martin Luther authored carols and encouraged their use in worship), but survived in rural communities until the revival of interest in carols in the 19th century. The first appearance in print of "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen '', "The First Noel '', "I Saw Three Ships '' and "Hark the Herald Angels Sing '' was in Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833) by William Sandys. Composers like Arthur Sullivan helped to repopularize the carol, and it is this period that gave rise to such favorites as "Good King Wenceslas '' and "It Came Upon the Midnight Clear '', a New England carol written by Edmund H. Sears and Richard S. Willis.
Thomas Aquinas, in the introduction to his commentary on the Psalms, defined the Christian hymn thus: "Hymnus est laus Dei cum cantico; canticum autem exultatio mentis de aeternis habita, prorumpens in vocem. '' ("A hymn is the praise of God with song; a song is the exultation of the mind dwelling on eternal things, bursting forth in the voice. '') The earliest Christian hymns are mentioned round about the year 64 by Saint Paul in his letters. The Greek hymn, Hail gladdening light was mentioned by Saint Basil around 370. Latin hymns appear at around the same time, influenced by Saint Ambrose of Milan. Early Christian hymns are known as canticles and are often based on Biblical passages other than the psalms; they are still used in Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican and Methodist liturgy, examples are Te Deum and Benedicite. Prudentius, a Spanish poet of the late 4th century was one of the most prolific hymn writers of the time. Early Celtic hymns, associated with Saint Patrick and Saint Columba, including the still extant, Saint Patrick 's Breastplate, can be traced to the 6th and 7th centuries. Catholic hymnody in the Western church introduced four - part vocal harmony as the norm, adopting major and minor keys, and came to be led by organ and choir.
The Protestant Reformation resulted in two conflicting attitudes to hymns. One approach, the regulative principle of worship, favoured by many Zwinglians, Calvinists and other radical reformers, considered anything that was not directly authorised by the Bible to be a novel and Catholic introduction to worship, which was to be rejected. All hymns that were not direct quotations from the bible fell into this category. Such hymns were banned, along with any form of instrumental musical accompaniment, and organs were ripped out of churches. Instead of hymns, biblical psalms were chanted, most often without accompaniment. This was known as exclusive psalmody. Examples of this may still be found in various places, including the "free churches '' of western Scotland.
The other Reformation approach, favoured by Martin Luther, produced a burst of hymn writing and congregational singing. Luther and his followers often used their hymns, or chorales, to teach tenets of the faith to worshipers. The earlier English writers tended to paraphrase biblical text, particularly Psalms; Isaac Watts followed this tradition, but is also credited as having written the first English hymn which was not a direct paraphrase of Scripture. Later writers took even more freedom, some even including allegory and metaphor in their texts.
Charles Wesley 's hymns spread Methodist theology, not only within Methodism, but in most Protestant churches. He developed a new focus: expressing one 's personal feelings in the relationship with God as well as the simple worship seen in older hymns. The Methodist Revival of the 18th century created an explosion of hymn writing in Welsh, which continued into the first half of the 19th century.
African - Americans developed a rich hymnody out of the spirituals sung during times of slavery. During the Second Great Awakening in the United States, this led to the emergence of a new popular style. Fanny Crosby, Ira D. Sankey, and others produced testimonial music for evangelistic crusades. These are often designated "gospel songs '' as distinct from hymns, since they generally include a refrain (or chorus) and usually (though not always) a faster tempo than the hymns. As examples of the distinction, "Amazing Grace '' is a hymn (no refrain), but "How Great Thou Art '' is a gospel song. During the 19th century the gospel - song genre spread rapidly in Protestantism and, to a lesser but still definite extent, in Roman Catholicism. The gospel - song genre is unknown in the worship per se by Eastern Orthodox churches, which rely exclusively on traditional chants, and disallow instrumental accompaniment.
Along with the more classical sacred music of composers ranging from Mozart to Monteverdi, the Roman Catholic Church continued to produce many popular hymns such as Lead, Kindly Light, Silent Night, O Sacrament Divine and Faith of our Fathers.
Many churches today use contemporary worship music which includes a range of styles often influenced by popular music. This style began in the late 1960s and became very popular during the 1970s. A distinctive form is the modern, lively black gospel style.
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where did the garter removal tradition come from | Garter (stockings) - wikipedia
Garters are articles of clothing: narrow bands of fabric fastened about the leg, used to keep up stockings, and sometimes socks. In the eighteenth to twentieth centuries, they were tied just below the knee, where the leg is most slender, to keep the stocking from slipping. The advent of elastic has made them less necessary from this functional standpoint, although they are still often worn for fashion. Garters have been widely worn by men and women, depending on fashion trends.
Garters were popular in the 1930s and 1940s, and were a convenient way for ladies to carry small valuables, in place of a small purse.
In Elizabethan fashions, men wore garters with their hose, and colorful garters were an object of display. In Shakespeare 's Twelfth Night, "cross braced '' garters are an object of some derision.
In male fashion, a type of garter for holding up socks has continued as a part of male dress up to the present, although its use may be considered somewhat stodgy.
There is a Western wedding tradition for a bride to wear a garter to her wedding, to be removed towards the end of the reception by the groom. This garter is not normally used to support stockings. This practice is often interpreted as symbolic of deflowering, though some sources attribute its origin to a superstition that taking an article of the bride 's clothing will bring good luck. In the Middle Ages, the groomsmen would rush at the new bride to take her garters as a prize.
Today, the practice of removing the bride 's garter is traditionally reserved to the groom, who will then toss the garter to the unmarried male guests. This is performed after the tossing of the bouquet, in which the bride tosses her bouquet over her shoulder to be caught by the unwed female guests. According to superstition, the lady who catches the bouquet and the man who catches the garter will be the next man and woman among those in attendance to be married (though perhaps not to each other). The ceremony often continues with the man who catches the garter obliged to place it on the leg of the lady who caught the bouquet. Traditionally, the pair are obliged to share the next dance.
Prom garters were common in the 1960s and 1970s and often conferred on the date as a souvenir. If the date received the garter, it was typically hung from his rear - view mirror.
Beginning in the mid-2000s, it has become common in US culture for young women attending a high school prom to wear a garter, usually designed to match the style and color of the young woman 's dress. The prom garter may be worn throughout the evening and is sometimes given to the young woman 's date as a souvenir. A young woman may also choose to keep the garter rather than give it away, as a token of her prom night. In some cases, young people may participate in a "garter and tie '' dance (often hosted by the high school as part of the prom), during or after which either the young woman herself or the young woman 's date removes the garter and exchanges it for the date 's tie. When the garter is given early in the evening, the young woman 's date may wear it on his arm for the remainder of the evening. In areas where prom garters are common, it has become a tradition for young women to pose for a picture with other female friends before the prom in which they pull up the skirts of their dresses to display their prom garters, which are generally worn a few inches above the right knee. The giving or taking of the prom garter may or may not have the same sexual implications that are associated with wedding garters; however, the giving of the prom garter is often interpreted as publicly designating the pair as a romantic couple.
Suspenders or suspender belts, also known as "garter belts '' in the USA, are an undergarment consisting of an elasticated material strip usually at least 2 to 3 inches (5.1 to 7.6 cm) in width; it can be wider. Two or three elastic suspender slings are attached on each side, where the material is shaped to the contours of the body. The suspenders are typically clipped to stockings with metal clips into which a rubber disc is inserted through the stocking material effectively ' locking ' the stocking in place. These are normally attached to a length of elastic allowing for adjustment. These clips, also known as suspender slings, are best attached to stockings with a simple welt that do not have lace, or ' hold - ups ' with a silicon rubber lining.
Suspender (garter) belts are usually worn at the waist or just slightly below to prevent the belt sliding down as it is pulled downward by the stockings. Some undergarments such as corselettes or girdles may come with suspender slings attached.
By the late 20th century and into the 21st, pantyhose or tights were more widely worn than stockings. And some stockings, referred to as Hold - ups, have a band of latex rubber molded to the stocking top to keep them up without suspenders. But suspenders continue to be used by people who prefer stockings to tights, and doctors may advise patients with a history of thrush or cystitis to avoid tights; the trapped heat and moisture can exacerbate any infection present. People with a latex allergy must avoid hold - ups.
While most commonly used for regular stockings, uspender belts can also be used for medical support hosiery worn due to varicose veins or poor circulation.
Stockings are often considered to be sensual or erotic, both in person and in photographs, and some people enjoy dressing up for special occasions in attractive suspender belts or basques.
Ice hockey players use suspenders for holding up hockey socks. As these socks are essentially woollen tubes, they need to be kept from rolling onto ankles. The socks can be held up by either hockey tape or hockey suspenders, which function like stocking suspenders.
Garters in the 18th century could be elaborately decorated and were sometimes embroidered with names, dates, mottoes or humorous phrases. Prior to the invention of elastic, they were fastened by buckles, or threaded with spiral springs to grip the wearer 's leg.
Some women wore stockings with a plain elastic garter or narrow material tied tightly, not suspenders, or by simply rolling the top of the stocking, because it seemed more practical or they could not afford classic corsetry, thus creating a kind of predecessor of the modern hold ups. This was particularly common among servants and housemaid, particularly until the mid 1920s when the more modern suspender became readily available
During the world 's first long distance journey by automobile in 1888 Bertha Benz, the wife of the inventor of the automobile Dr Carl Benz, used a garter to insulate a broken wire of the Benz Patent - Motorwagen Nr. 3. In remembrance of this historic road trip today 's official German scenic byway Bertha Benz Memorial Route follows the tracks of Bertha Benz from Mannheim via Heidelberg to Pforzheim (Black Forest) and back. Stockings have also been used as an emergency replacement for a car 's fanbelt '
During World War II, WAAFs were issued inexpensive suspenders.
From the 1940s to ' 60s, suspenders became a common, popular alternative to the girdle, especially among teens and young women. Amid concerns girdles might cause abdominal flabbiness, suspender belts offered a simpler, more practical, and more comfortable choice when used simply to hold up their stockings.
Since the early 1960s, many men 's magazines featured images of women in underwear, with models in suspenders and stocking, often with slips, petticoats, corsets or a bra and knickers or panties in erotic pose. These images may have an erotic element and are sometimes presented as fetish fashion and also in pornography.
Suspender belts continue to be worn for their original purpose of holding up stockings. Suspenders today are available in a variety of styles, most commonly in white, ' fleshtone ' beige - pink, or black with a satin finish. These are often now made from a mixture of nylon and spandex / lycra, being more readily available in retail stores. Variations of the suspender or garter belt include knickers with suspender attachments reminiscent of images of the 1960s, and corsets or girdles with small loops inside the bottom edge for attaching suspenders. Knickers are normally worn on top of the suspender belt as this makes it easier to remove them to use the lavatory / bathroom. If worn underneath the belt, undressing may be rather complicated if using a public facility.
A famous "garter '' in English is the Order of the Garter, which traces its history to the Middle English poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. In the poem, Gawain accepts a girdle (very similar in function and connotation to a garter) from the wife of his host (while resisting her pretend carnal temptations) to save his life and then wears it as a mark of shame for his moral failure and cowardice. King Arthur and his men proclaim it no shame and begin, themselves, to wear the girdle to indicate their shared fate. At that point, however, the garter was a larger garment that was used as a foundation.
The Order, which is the oldest and highest British Order of Chivalry, was founded in 1348 by Edward III. The Order consists of Her Majesty The Queen who is Sovereign of the Order, His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales and 24 Knights Companions.
The origin of the symbol of the Most Noble Order of the Garter, a blue ' garter ' with the motto Honi Soit Qui Mal Y Pense, will probably never be known for certain as the earliest records of the order were destroyed by fire; however, the story goes that at a ball possibly held at Calais, Joan Countess of Salisbury dropped her garter and King Edward, seeing her embarrassment, picked it up and bound it about his own leg saying in French, "Evil (or shamed) be he that thinks evil of it. '' This story is almost certainly a later fiction. This fable appears to have originated in France and was, perhaps, invented to discredit the Order. There is a natural unwillingness to believe that the world 's foremost Order of Chivalry had so frivolous a beginning.
It is thought more likely that as the garter was a small strap used as a device to attach pieces of armour, it might have been thought appropriate to use the garter as a symbol of binding together in common brotherhood, whilst the motto probably refers to the leading political topic of the 1340s, Edward 's claim to the throne of France. The patron saint of the Order is St. George, the patron saint of soldiers and also of England, and the chapel of the order is St. George 's Chapel in Windsor Castle.
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who plays the little boy in concrete angel | Luke Benward - wikipedia
Luke Aaron Benward (born May 12, 1995) is an American actor and singer. He is known for his first starring role as Billy Forrester in How to Eat Fried Worms (2006), and as Charlie Tuttle in Minutemen (2008). He played the role of Dillon in Ravenswood and also played the role of Will Cloud in the film Cloud 9 (2014). He recurred as Teddy 's boyfriend, Beau, on the final season of the Disney Channel series Good Luck Charlie.
Benward was born in Franklin, Tennessee, the son of Kenda (née Wilkerson) and Aaron Benward. His father is in the country duo Blue County, his mother is a part - time actress, model, and acting coach, and his grandfather is Contemporary Christian music artist Jeoffrey Benward. He has two younger sisters.
Benward 's acting career started when he landed a role in the film We Were Soldiers as David Moore in 2002. His success grew in 2006, when he played Billy Forrester in the movie How to Eat Fried Worms, which he won a Young Artist Award for in the category of Best Young Ensemble in a Feature Film.
He also played 14 - year - old Charlie Tuttle in the movie from Disney Channel Minutemen, the 14 - year - old Alan in Dear John, and the little boy who helps the abused girl in the music video "Concrete Angel '' by Martina McBride. Benward 's first album, Let Your Love Out, came out on January 5, 2009, and contained five songs. He also toured with the Christian group iShine LIVE for a short time, where he would sing his music in concert. The record label that signed him is called In Crowd Productions, whose collective credits include Hilary Duff, India. Arie, the Backstreet Boys, Mat Kearney, Death Cab for Cutie, and the Jonas Brothers.
He has also been in various commercials, including Nintendo, McDonald 's, Willy Wonka, American Express, and Hamburger Helper. He also played the role of "Nicky '' in Mostly Ghostly and played Stevie Dewberry in the film Because of Winn - Dixie. He also played in the Disney Channel Original Movie Girl vs. Monster as Ryan Dean, the love interest of Skylar Lewis (Olivia Holt).
Benward also had a recurring role as Matthew Pearson, the ex-boyfriend of Emily Hobbs (Ryan Newman) on See Dad Run. He was in the movie Cloud 9 from Disney Channel with Liv and Maddie star Dove Cameron and appeared as Beau, Teddy 's love interest, on six back to back episodes of Good Luck Charlie, reuniting him with his Minutemen co star Jason Dolley. He appeared as Thor in the third - season premiere of the Disney Channel series Girl Meets World.
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what was the significance of the pax romana | Pax Romana - wikipedia
Pax Romana (Latin for the "(Peace in Rome) '') was the long period of relative peacefulness and minimal expansion by the Roman military force experienced by the Roman Empire after the end of the Final War of the Roman Republic and before the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century. During this time, the Roman empire reached its peak land mass area and its population grew up to 70 million people. Since it was established by Augustus, it is sometimes called Pax Augusta. Its span was approximately 206 years (27 BC to AD 180), from the time of Augustus becoming emperor to the death of Emperor Marcus Aurelius.
The Pax Romana is said to have been a "miracle '' because prior to it there had never been peace for so many centuries in a given period of history. However, Walter Goffart wrote: "The volume of the Cambridge Ancient History for the years A.D. 70 -- 192 is called ' The Imperial Peace ', but peace is not what one finds in its pages ''. Arthur M. Eckstein writes that the period must be seen in contrast to the much more frequent warfare in the Roman Republic in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. Eckstein also notes that the incipient Pax Romana appeared during the Republic, and that its temporal span varied with geographical region as well: "Although the standard textbook dates for the Pax Romana, the famous "Roman Peace '' in the Mediterranean, are 31 BC to AD 250, the fact is that the Roman Peace was emerging in large regions of the Mediterranean at a much earlier date: Sicily after 210 (BC); peninsular Italy after 200 (BC); the Po Valley after 190 (BC); most of Spain after 133 (BC); North Africa after 100 (BC); and for ever longer stretches of time in the Greek East. ''
The first known record of the term Pax Romana appears in a writing by Seneca the Younger in 55 AD. The concept was highly influential, and the subject of theories and attempts to copy it in subsequent ages. Arnaldo Momigliano noted that "Pax Romana is a simple formula for propaganda, but a difficult subject for research. '' In fact, the "Pax Romana '' was broken by the First Jewish -- Roman War, the Kitos War (also in Judea, 115 -- 117), the Bar Kokhba Revolt (also known as the Third Jewish -- Roman War), the Roman -- Parthian War of 58 -- 63, Trajan 's Roman -- Parthian War of 113, the Dacian Wars, various battles with Germanic tribes, including the Teutoburg Forest, and Boudica 's war in Britain in AD 60 or 61.
The Pax Romana began when Octavian (Augustus) defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in the Battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BC and became the Roman emperor. He became princeps, or first citizen. Lacking a good precedent of successful one - man rule, Augustus created a junta of the greatest military magnates and stood as the front man. By binding together these leading magnates in a coalition, he eliminated the prospect of civil war. The Pax Romana was not immediate, despite the end of the civil wars, because fighting continued in Hispania and in the Alps. Nevertheless, Augustus closed the Gates of Janus (a ceremony indicating that Rome was at peace) three times, first in 29 BC and again in 25 BC. The third closure is undocumented, but Inez Scott Ryberg (1949) and Gaius Stern (2006) have persuasively dated the third closure to 13 BC with the commissioning of the Ara Pacis. At the time of the Ludi Saeculares in 17 BC the concept of Peace was publicized, and in 13 BC was proclaimed when Augustus and Agrippa jointly returned from pacifying the provinces. The order to construct the Ara Pacis was no doubt part of this announcement.
Augustus faced a problem making peace an acceptable mode of life for the Romans, who had been at war with one power or another continuously for 200 years. Romans regarded peace not as an absence of war, but the rare situation which existed when all opponents had been beaten down and lost the ability to resist. Augustus ' challenge was to persuade Romans that the prosperity they could achieve in the absence of warfare was better for the Empire than the potential wealth and honor acquired when fighting a risky war. Augustus succeeded by means of skillful propaganda. Subsequent emperors followed his lead, sometimes producing lavish ceremonies to close the Gates of Janus, issuing coins with Pax on the reverse, and patronizing literature extolling the benefits of the Pax Romana.
After Augustus died in 14 AD many other Roman emperors ruled during this time. The last five emperors of the Pax Romana were considered the "Five Good Emperors ''.
Roman trade in the Mediterranean increased during the Pax Romana. Romans sailed East to acquire silks, gems, onyx and spices. Romans benefited from large profits and incomes in the Roman empire were raised due to trade in the Mediterranean.
The prominence of the concept of the Pax Romana led to historians coining variants of the term to describe other systems of relative peace that have been established, attempted, or argued to have existed. Some variants include:
More generically, the concept has been referred to as pax imperia, (sometimes spelled as pax imperium) meaning imperial peace, or -- less literally -- hegemonic peace. Raymond Aron notes that imperial peace -- peace achieved through hegemony -- sometimes, but not always -- can become civil peace. As an example, the German Empire 's imperial peace of 1871 (over its internal components like Saxony) slowly evolved into the later German state. As a counter-example, the imperial peace of Alexander the Great 's empire dissolved because the Greek city states maintained their political identity and more importantly, embryos of their own armed forces. Aron notes that during the Pax Romana, the Jewish war was a reminder that the overlapping of the imperial institutions over the local ones did not erase them and the overlap was a source of tension and flare - ups. Aron summarizes that, "In other words, imperial peace becomes civil peace insofar as the memory of the previously independent political units are effaced, insofar as individuals within a pacified zone feel themselves less united to the traditional or local community and more to the conquering state. ''
The concept of Pax Romana was highly influential, and attempts to imitate it occurred in the Byzantine Empire, and in the Christian West, where it morphed into the Peace and Truce of God (pax Dei and treuga Dei). A theoretician of the imperial peace during the Middle Ages was Dante Aligheri. Dante 's works on the topic were analyzed at the beginning of the 20th century by William Mitchell Ramsay in the book The Imperial Peace; An Ideal in European History (1913).
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when is the new jurassic world fallen kingdom coming out | Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom - wikipedia
Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom is a 2018 American science fiction adventure film directed by J.A. Bayona. The film is the sequel to Jurassic World (2015) and is the fifth installment of the Jurassic Park film series, as well as the second installment of a planned Jurassic World trilogy. The film features Derek Connolly and Jurassic World director Colin Trevorrow both returning as writers, with Trevorrow and original Jurassic Park director Steven Spielberg acting as executive producers. The film is set on the fictional island of Isla Nublar, off Central America 's pacific coast. Chris Pratt, Bryce Dallas Howard, B.D. Wong, and Jeff Goldblum reprise their roles from previous films in the series, with Ted Levine, Rafe Spall, Toby Jones, Justice Smith, James Cromwell, and Geraldine Chaplin joining the cast.
Filming took place from February to July 2017 in the United Kingdom and Hawaii. Fallen Kingdom premiered in Madrid, Spain on May 21, 2018, and is scheduled to be released in the United States on June 22, 2018, by Universal Pictures. An untitled sequel is set to be released on June 11, 2021.
After the demise of the Jurassic World theme park on Isla Nublar off Central America 's pacific coast, the dinosaurs roam freely on the island for three years until an impending volcanic eruption threatens their existence. Former Jurassic World manager Claire Dearing creates a dinosaur rescue organization called the Dinosaur Protection Group and teams up with Benjamin Lockwood, the former partner of John Hammond, to bring the creatures to a sanctuary in America. Claire 's boyfriend Owen Grady, a former dinosaur trainer at the park, joins the mission to locate Blue, the last of the Velociraptors that he trained. However, after Isla Nublar is destroyed by the eruption, Claire and Owen are betrayed and learn about a greater scheme that emerges when the creatures are being auctioned away at Lockwood 's estate, and disaster strikes when an incredibly dangerous and intelligent hybrid dinosaur, the Indoraptor, escapes and begins a reign of terror across the estate.
During early conversations on the 2015 film Jurassic World, executive producer Steven Spielberg told director Colin Trevorrow that he was interested in having several more films made. In April 2014, Trevorrow announced that sequels had been discussed: "We wanted to create something that would be a little bit less arbitrary and episodic, and something that could potentially arc into a series that would feel like a complete story. '' Trevorrow hinted that Chris Pratt and Omar Sy could reprise their roles for the next few films and said he would direct the film if asked. Trevorrow later told Spielberg that he would only focus on directing one film in the series. In May 2015, Trevorrow announced that he would not direct another film in the series: "I would be involved in some way, but not as director. '' Trevorrow felt that different directors could bring different qualities to future films. Pratt is signed on for future films in the series, as is Ty Simpkins, who portrayed Gray in Jurassic World.
On June 3, 2015, Trevorrow stated that Jurassic World left many story possibilities open for the sequel 's director that could potentially allow the film to take place in a different location, rather than on an island like previous films. Trevorrow hinted that the next film could involve dinosaurs being used by other companies for non-entertainment purposes, possibly in agriculture, medicine, and war: "I really like the idea that this group of geneticists are n't the only people who can make a dinosaur (...) when you think of the differences between Apple and PC -- the minute something goes open - source, there are all kinds of entities and interests that may be able to utilize that technology. ''
On June 8, 2015, Jurassic World producer Frank Marshall met with Trevorrow and Universal Studios to discuss a sequel. Later that month, Trevorrow did not deny that the film could involve "dinosaur soldiers '' and said the series is "not always gon na be about a Jurassic Park '', saying he felt that future films could explore the idea of dinosaurs and humans co-existing together. Trevorrow also hinted that the next film may not involve the Jurassic World theme park and said he would be interested in seeing a Jurassic Park film made by one of several Spanish horror film directors, whose names he did not mention.
On July 23, 2015, Universal announced that a fifth film is scheduled for a June 22, 2018, release date. It was also announced that Trevorrow would write the script with his writing partner Derek Connolly, as they did for Jurassic World; that the film would be produced by Frank Marshall; and that Spielberg and Trevorrow would act as executive producers. Universal also said that Chris Pratt and Bryce Dallas Howard would reprise their roles from the previous film. At the time of the film 's announcement, Trevorrow said the series "is n't always going to be limited to theme parks '' and confirmed that the film would not involve "a bunch of dinosaurs chasing people on an island. That 'll get old real fast. '' Trevorrow also spoke of the film 's possible open - source storyline: "It 's almost like InGen is Mac, but what if PC gets their hands on it? What if there are 15 different entities around the world who can make a dinosaur? ''
In August 2015, Howard said that the script was being written, and it was announced that the film would be released in the UK two weeks early, on June 7, 2018. Later that year, B.D. Wong said he "would be happy to return '' as Dr. Henry Wu, while Howard announced that filming would begin in 2017. Howard also said she would be interested in seeing characters from earlier Jurassic Park films return for the fifth film, saying, "I could see versions of the film where a lot of the characters come back. '' By October 2015, director J.A. Bayona was being considered to direct the film, although he chose instead to direct the World War Z sequel, a project to which he had already signed on. In January 2016, it was reported that Bayona could be a candidate to direct the film after he left the World War Z sequel.
In March 2016, London was being scouted as a possible filming location and setting for the film, and it was subsequently announced that filming would take place at a UK studio. On April 14, 2016, actor Jeff Goldblum said he had no plans to appear in the film as his character Ian Malcolm, although he said he was open to the possibility. On April 18, 2016, Bayona was announced as the film 's director, with Belén Atienza and Patrick Crowley joining Marshall as producers. Spielberg, Marshall, and Kathleen Kennedy had been impressed by Bayona 's 2012 film, The Impossible, and initially considered having him direct Jurassic World, but he declined as he felt there was not enough time for production. Trevorrow wanted Bayona to direct the film after seeing his 2007 horror film, The Orphanage. After Bayona was hired, Trevorrow said about the film, "We 're moving it into new territory. J.A. Bayona is an incredible director and I know he 'll push the boundaries of what a ' Jurassic ' movie is. I think it 's important that we take risks. A franchise must evolve or perish. '' In June 2016, actor Sam Neill was asked if he would return to the series as Dr. Alan Grant and responded, "You never say never, but I think it 's moved on. It 's different times. ''
The film, under the working title of Ancient Futures, was in full pre-production as of July 2016, with storyboards being designed. Production was scheduled to begin in Hawaii in February 2017. Wales was also confirmed as a filming location, including Brecon Beacons and Penbryn. Trevorrow stated that Hawaii would be used as a primary filming location, while U.K. shooting would be limited to studios, without the story taking place there. Trevorrow also said that the film would feature many dinosaurs that were not seen in previous films and denied that the film 's story would involve militarized dinosaurs, which would only be mentioned in the film.
For the film 's second half in which dinosaurs are transported by boats to the mainland, Ecuador and Peru had both been scouted as possible filming locations and settings, while Marshall thought that Cabo San Lucas would be ideal, but such locations ultimately did not work for the film 's story. Although the film would be partially shot in England, Spielberg felt that the country was too far from the fictional Isla Nublar to be used as the in - film setting during the second half, as he and the producers did not want the film to focus too much time on a boat. Crowley stated, "Rather than making it a movie about traveling on a boat, which is not very exciting, you needed to get to the place. ''
In September 2016, Bayona confirmed that the film would be the second chapter in a planned Jurassic World trilogy. Later that year, Marshall said that Wong was "probably going to come back, '' while Jurassic World composer Michael Giacchino confirmed that he would return to compose the fifth film. Óscar Faura was announced as the film 's cinematographer at the end of the year.
Trevorrow and Connolly began work on the script and devised the basic story during a road trip that they took in June 2015, immediately after the release of Jurassic World. Having directed Jurassic World, Trevorrow became familiar with how animatronics worked and wrote scenes into the sequel in a way that would allow for their use, as animatronics are incapable of certain actions such as running. In September 2015, Trevorrow said the film 's story was inspired by a quote from Dr. Alan Grant in the first film: "Dinosaurs and man, two species separated by 65 million years of evolution, have suddenly been thrown back into the mix together. How can we possibly have the slightest idea of what to expect? '' In his initial film treatment, Trevorrow had included story elements that Marshall and Crowley considered excessive for a single film, as the producers felt it was also important to include details about Owen and Claire 's lives after the events of Jurassic World.
After Bayona was hired, he began reading all of Michael Crichton 's novels -- including Jurassic Park and its sequel, The Lost World -- for inspiration and "to try to immerse myself in Crichton 's mind. '' Trevorrow and Connolly began working with Bayona in July 2016, to perfect the script to the director 's liking. Trevorrow stated that the film would be more "suspenseful and scary '' than its predecessor: "It 's just the way it 's designed; it 's the way the story plays out. I knew I wanted Bayona to direct it long before anyone ever heard that it was a possibility, so the whole thing was just built around his skillset. '' Trevorrow later described the film as "The Impossible meets The Orphanage with dinosaurs. ''
Bayona stated that with the first half of the film set on an island, "you have what you expect from a Jurassic movie, '' while the second half "moves to a totally different environment that feels more suspenseful, darker, claustrophobic, and even has this kind of gothic element, which I love. '' Bayona 's concept of gothic suspense for the film was influenced by Alfred Hitchcock films as well as the 1979 film Dracula. Bayona compared the film to The Empire Strikes Back and Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, which were both considered darker than their predecessors. Trevorrow said the film 's dinosaurs would be "a parable of the treatment animals receive today: the abuse, medical experimentation, pets, having wild animals in zoos like prisons, the use the military has made of them, animals as weapons. '' Trevorrow later said that with the film 's dinosaur auction, "The worst instincts of mankind are revealed. The first film was very clearly about corporate greed. This is just about human greed. ''
Marshall said that Bayona had incorporated his own ideas into the film 's script, but stated that it is essentially the same original story devised by Trevorrow and Connolly. In September 2016, Trevorrow said that the film would be based on concepts from the novels and would include dialogue from the first novel. Trevorrow also stated that the story would be heavily inspired by the idea that, "A mistake made a long time ago just ca n't be undone. '' Among Trevorrow 's ideas was to include Jeff Goldblum 's character of Ian Malcolm, who appeared in the franchise 's earlier films. Goldblum had dialogue from the novel version of his character added into the film 's script. Marshall stated that Trevorrow wrote Malcolm as "the ' Uh oh, danger, I told you so ' kind of character, '' and Trevorrow said about the character, "I saw him as kind of Al Gore. He 's got a beard now, and he 's like, ' I told all of you this was going to be a disaster, and sure enough it is. ' ''
In October 2016, casting was underway for the role of a nine - year - old girl. The following month, Toby Jones and Rafe Spall were in discussions about joining the cast. By that time, Tom Holland -- who previously starred in The Impossible -- had discussed having a possible role in the film, but he did not believe he would be available for filming because of scheduling conflicts. Jones and Spall were cast at the end of the year, along with Justice Smith.
Daniella Pineda, Ted Levine and James Cromwell were cast in early 2017, while Wong confirmed his return as Dr. Henry Wu. To maintain secrecy, the Ancient Futures title was used in the casting phase. During auditions, references to dinosaurs were replaced with animals such as lions and grizzly bears. To convince the studio that Pineda was right for the role of Zia, Bayona had her demonstrate that she could perform comedy and drama scenes, as well as improvisation. Pineda auditioned a total of seven times before receiving the role. She auditioned for Bayona, Atienza, and Crowley, and did not meet the cast until she arrived in England for filming.
In March 2017, Bayona announced that Geraldine Chaplin, who had roles in each of his previous films, had joined the cast. The next month, it was announced that Jeff Goldblum would be reprising his role as Dr. Ian Malcolm from the first two films. Bayona considered Malcolm a "great character! '' while Marshall said, "The world has changed a lot since Ian Malcolm went to Jurassic Park and we need his point of view now more than ever. He told us about chaos theory, he was right. ''
Filming began at Langley Business Centre in Slough, England, on February 23, 2017. A majority of filming in England took place at Pinewood Studios. Because of its large sound stages, Pinewood Studios was considered perfect for the film 's many interior scenes. After filming concluded in England, production moved to Hawaii, which was used as a primary filming location. Scenes shot in Hawaii were set on Isla Nublar, the fictional island featured in the first and fourth films. Scenes were also expected to be shot at Brecon Beacons National Park in Wales. The film was shot in CinemaScope, and is the first entry in the Jurassic Park series presented in 2.40: 1 aspect ratio. The film crew made use of Arri Alexa 65 cameras during the course of filming. Spielberg was shown scenes from the film during production and he offered his opinions to Bayona. During filming and in between takes, Bayona used an iPod to play different types of music on set to inspire the actors during certain scenes, as he had done for his previous films. Bayona also played sound effects from previous films in the series, including a T. rex roar that he sometimes used to get a natural reaction from the actors, who agreed to be scared by Bayona during certain takes to increase authenticity. In particular, Bayona played unexpected sounds and loud music to scare Smith for certain scenes, as his character is portrayed as easily frightened.
In April 2017, scenes were filmed at East Berkshire College in Berkshire, England. Later that month, filming took place at Hartland Park -- formerly the Pyestock jet engine test site -- in Fleet, Hampshire, England. Scenes were scheduled to be filmed on sets at Hawley Common, also in Hampshire. On May 10, 2017, it was reported that scenes were being filmed at Rock Barracks military base, near Woodbridge, Suffolk. Goldblum began filming his scenes on the same day. By that time, a leak had stated that the film would center around Blue, the last surviving raptor from Jurassic World, and Owen stopping her from being used for violence. On May 24, 2017, scenes were shot at Hampshire 's Blackbushe Airport, which stood in as an American airfield. Filming in the United Kingdom concluded on June 9, 2017. Up to that point, Trevorrow was present as an on - set writer for each day of production so he could aid Bayona with any possible script changes. Goldblum shot his scenes at Pinewood Studios, and concluded his shoot on the last day of filming in the United Kingdom.
Filming in Hawaii was underway as of June 13, 2017. On June 21, 2017, filming began at Heʻeia Kea Small Boat Harbor in Heʻeia, Hawaii. More than half of the harbor was closed for filming, which required the use of smoke machines. Scenes were scheduled to be shot at the harbor throughout the end of the month. On June 22, 2017, the film 's official title was announced as Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom. At the time, filming was underway at Kualoa Ranch on the Hawaiian island of Oahu. In Hawaii, scenes in which characters are running were filmed with the use of the Edge Arm, a stabilized camera that was attached to a crane, which was mounted to a truck that drove alongside the actors. The specialized camera allowed for scenes to be shot steadily despite the truck driving over rough terrain.
The film includes a scene on Isla Nublar in which Claire and Franklin are riding in a ball - shaped Jurassic World Gyrosphere ride to evade dinosaurs. The scene was shot in Hawaii and England, and Bayona described it as one of the film 's biggest challenges. In Hawaii, the Edge Arm was used to film the actors riding in the Gyrosphere as it was hauled on a trailer to simulate its movement. In England, an outdoor roller coaster track with a drop was constructed for the Gyrosphere, which Howard and Smith rode in to shoot a scene in which the ride plummets off a cliff and into the water surrounding Isla Nublar. The final portion of the scene was shot at Pinewood Studios, where a large indoor tank was constructed and filled with water to depict the submerged ride. Pratt was aided by a diving instructor for the scene, which also involved Howard and Smith underwater. Filming in the tank lasted approximately one week and required 85 crew members.
On July 7, 2017, filming took place at Oahu 's Hālona Blowhole, where Pratt and Howard shot scenes on a beach. Filming concluded on July 8, 2017. Bayona said that making the film was the biggest challenge of his life.
Animatronics were used to depict many of the film 's dinosaurs. The film features more dinosaurs than any previous film in the series, as Bayona wanted to include several new dinosaurs not previously seen in earlier films, in addition to the fictional Indoraptor. The film also features more animatronic dinosaurs than any previous sequel. The animatronics used in the film were more technologically advanced than in the previous films. Special - effects artist Neal Scanlan served as the film 's creature effects creative supervisor and worked on the animatronic dinosaurs, while David Vickery of Industrial Light & Magic created versions of the dinosaurs through computer - generated imagery (CGI). Scanlan worked closely with Bayona and Vickery to create the creatures. Bayona stated that animatronics "are very helpful on set, especially for the actors so they have something to perform against. There 's an extra excitement if they can act in front of something real. ''
Among the animatronics used was a life - sized Tyrannosaurus rex, built by Scanlan 's team. The animatronic was controlled through joysticks, with the ability to breathe and move its head. Within the film 's story, the T. rex is portrayed as the same individual previously featured in Jurassic Park and Jurassic World. Scanlan 's team also created functional animatronic models of the Indoraptor and Blue. The movements of the Blue animatronic required the work of 15 puppeteers, who were hidden beneath it during filming. The Blue animatronic 's movements were rehearsed in advance of each scene. Scanlan 's team also made puppeteering aids, rod puppets, and several prop dinosaurs, all created in coordination with Vickery to ensure a consistent result between the practical effects and CGI. After reading fan thoughts on dinosaurs and speaking with children, Bayona realized that dinosaur textures and colors were frequently brought up, and stated, "I thought that was the area where I could play with. They feel somehow a little bit more exotic and richer in this movie. ''
For advice on veterinary procedures and animatronic movements, the filmmakers sought a veterinary surgeon who had experience with African wildlife. Jonathan Cranston, a Gloucestershire veterinary surgeon, was recommended for the position because of his experience with wildlife in South Africa. Cranston advised Bayona and the producers on how to choreograph several scenes to accurately depict complex veterinarian procedures that involved the dinosaurs. Cranston also worked closely with Pratt, Howard, Pineda and Smith to teach them how to perform such procedures. Additionally, Cranston advised the puppeteers on creating subtle and authentic animal movements, and also worked with Bayona on two scenes. Cranston was on set for 12 days, primarily at Pinewood Studios.
Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom had its premiere at the WiZink Center in Madrid, Spain on May 21, 2018. The film 's worldwide theatrical release is scheduled to begin on June 6, 2018, when the film is expected to be released in the United Kingdom. The film is scheduled for release in the United States on June 22, 2018.
A six - second clip from the film was released on November 22, 2017. The first trailer was teased for release on November 30, 2017, but this was later confirmed to be incorrect. Several teaser trailers and a behind - the - scenes featurette of the film were released in early December 2017, prior to the release of a full - length trailer on December 7. That month, Universal launched a website for the Dinosaur Protection Group that ultimately included miscellaneous information about the group and its effort to save the island 's dinosaurs, as well as a video featuring Howard, Pineda and Smith as their characters. A second trailer aired during Super Bowl LII on February 4, 2018. A 30 - second teaser trailer was released on April 13, 2018, announcing the release of a third full trailer on April 18.
Universal spent $185 million on partners for a global marketing campaign, more than double the cost of the previous film 's partner program. The campaign included nine partners which aired television commercials and sold products to promote the film. The partners included Dairy Queen, Doritos, Dr Pepper, Ferrero SpA, Jeep, Juicy Fruit, Kellogg 's, M&M 's, and Skittles. The global marketing campaign consisted of 1.3 billion items to promote the film, including 100 million boxes of Kellogg 's products and 15 million packages of Kinder Joy candy by Ferrero. Dairy Queen, a returning partner from the previous film, sold "Jurassic Chomp '' ice cream desserts in collectable cups, while Doritos marketed bags of chips that featured the film 's dinosaurs. Dr Pepper marketed soda cans that featured images of the film 's dinosaurs. For Super Bowl LII, Trevorrow directed a Jeep commercial starring Goldblum and featuring a T. rex. Within 24 hours of its release, the commercial received 39.7 million online views, which was more than any film trailer that was watched online following its Super Bowl LII television debut.
Licensing partners included Mattel, Lego, and Funko, all of which created toys based on the film. Mattel produced a variety of toys, including dinosaurs and action figures, as well as Barbie dolls featuring the likeness of Pratt and Howard as their characters. A mobile app titled Jurassic World Facts was released as a tie - in to Mattel 's dinosaur toys, which included symbols that could be scanned to collect facts about each creature. Lego is expected to release 13 Lego sets based on the film. A video game, Jurassic World Evolution, is scheduled to be released simultaneously with the film. A two - part virtual reality miniseries titled Jurassic World: Blue was released for Oculus VR headsets as a film tie - in. It was created by Felix & Paul Studios and Industrial Light and Magic, and features Blue on Isla Nublar at the time of the volcanic eruption.
In December 2017, a survey from Fandango indicated that Fallen Kingdom was one of the most anticipated films of 2018. In April 2018, BoxOffice Magazine projected the film to gross between $130 -- 150 million in its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, and a total of $325 -- 380 million for its final gross.
An untitled sequel, known as Jurassic World 3, is scheduled for release on June 11, 2021. Trevorrow will direct the film, and will write the screenplay with Emily Carmichael, based on a story by him and Connolly. Trevorrow and Spielberg will serve as executive producers for the film, with Marshall and Crowley as producers. Pratt and Howard will reprise their roles for the film.
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what lead to the han dynasties fall in ancient china | End of the Han dynasty - wikipedia
The end of the Han dynasty refers to the period of Chinese history from 189 to 220 AD, which roughly coincides with the tumultuous reign of the Han dynasty 's last ruler, Emperor Xian. During this period, the country was thrown into turmoil by the Yellow Turban Rebellion (184 -- 205). Meanwhile, the Han Empire 's institutions were destroyed by the warlord Dong Zhuo, and fractured into regional regimes ruled by various warlords, some of whom were nobles and officials of the Han imperial court. Eventually, one of those warlords, Cao Cao, was able to gradually reunify the empire, ostensibly under Emperor Xian 's rule, but the empire was actually controlled by Cao Cao himself. Cao Cao 's efforts to completely reunite the Han empire were rebuffed at the Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 / 209, when his armies were defeated by the allied forces of Sun Quan and Liu Bei. The Han dynasty formally ended in 220 when Cao Cao 's son and heir, Cao Pi, pressured Emperor Xian into abdicating in his favour. Cao Pi became the emperor of a new state, Cao Wei. A year later, in response to Cao Pi 's usurpation of the Han throne, Liu Bei declared himself emperor of Shu Han; and in 229, Sun Quan followed suit, declaring himself emperor of Eastern Wu. The period from Emperor Xian 's abdication in 220 to the partial reunification of China under the Jin dynasty in 265 was known as the Three Kingdoms era in Chinese history.
Towards the end of the reign of Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168 -- 189), many officials in the imperial court foresaw chaos in the political scene as soon as Emperor Ling died. One of those officials, Liu Yan, suggested to Emperor Ling in 188 that the root of the agrarian revolts during that time, including the most serious Yellow Turban Rebellion of 184, was that Inspectors (刺史) lacked substantial administrative powers. Emperor Ling, convinced by Liu Yan, changed the Inspectors ' titles to "Governor '' (牧) and granted them the authority to levy taxes and command armed forces within the borders. Liu Yan was commissioned as the Governor of Yi Province (益 州; covering the Sichuan Basin), while several other important officials also became Governors, including Liu Yu, who was appointed Governor of You Province (幽 州; covering present - day northern Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin and Liaoning). The increased influence of these provincial governors formed the basis on which later warlords would control large regions of the Han empire.
Emperor Ling died in 189 and was succeeded by his 13 - year - old son, Liu Bian (born to Empress He), who became known as Emperor Shao. Empress He, now empress dowager, became regent to the young emperor, while her older brother, General - in - Chief He Jin, became the most powerful official in the imperial court. He Jin and Yuan Shao plotted to exterminate all the Ten Attendants, a group of ten influential eunuch officials in the court, but Empress Dowager He disapproved of their plan. In a fateful move, He Jin summoned Dong Zhuo, a warlord controlling the battle - tested Liang Province (涼 州; covering present - day Gansu), to march on the capital Luoyang to threaten Empress Dowager He into eliminating the Ten Attendants. After the eunuchs discovered He Jin 's plot, they lured him into the palace and murdered him. In response, Yuan Shao led the imperial guards on an indiscriminate massacre of the palace eunuchs. The surviving eunuchs kidnapped Emperor Shao and his younger brother, the eight - year - old Prince of Chenliu (raised by his grandmother Empress Dowager Dong), and fled north towards the Yellow River, but were finally forced to commit suicide by throwing themselves into the river.
Dong Zhuo arrived on the scene and found Emperor Shao and the Prince of Chenliu. The young emperor appeared nervous and fearful, while the prince remained calm and composed, and gave orders to Dong Zhuo to escort them back to the palace. Dong Zhuo used the opportunity to seize control of state power and bring his army into the capital. Not long later, Dong Zhuo deposed Emperor Shao and replaced him with the Prince of Chenliu, who became known as Emperor Xian. Dong Zhuo dominated the imperial court and named himself "Chancellor of State '' (相 國), a title not held by anyone since the Western Han dynasty statesman Xiao He; Dong Zhuo also granted himself the privilege of attending court without needing to disarm himself or remove his shoes.
In the spring of 190, several provincial officials and warlords formed a coalition against Dong Zhuo, claiming that he was set on usurping the throne and had effectively kidnapped Emperor Xian. Yuan Shao, Administrator of Bohai (渤海; covering present - day Cangzhou, Hebei), was nominated to be the leader of the coalition. The coalition armies was stationed at Henei (河內; in present - day Jiaozuo, Henan) and appeared to be ready to move on the capital Luoyang. However, the coalition was actually rather disorganized, and Yuan Shao did not have effective command over the entire alliance. Besides, the coalition members were also hesitant to directly confront Dong Zhuo and his strong Liang Province military. Still, Dong Zhuo was anxious and chose to move the capital to Chang'an in the west to avoid the coalition. About a month later, Dong Zhuo forced Emperor Xian and the imperial court to move to Chang'an, along with Luoyang 's residents, and in the process, he ordered the former capital to be destroyed by fire. During the move, Dong Zhuo remained near Luoyang, ready to resist any coalition attacks on him. In 191, the coalition tried to further de-legitimize Dong Zhuo 's position by offering to enthrone Liu Yu, who was eligible to be Emperor since he was a member of the royal clan. Liu Yu remained faithful to Emperor Xian and firmly declined to take the throne. As the coalition members continued to bicker over battle plans, a minor general under Yuan Shu, Sun Jian, took a calculated risk and attacked Dong Zhuo directly near Luoyang. After scoring a number of victories over Dong Zhuo 's forces, Sun Jian eventually forced Dong to retreat to Chang'an, and Luoyang came under the coalition 's control.
For the following months until the end of 191, the coalition ceased to take further action against Dong Zhuo, and eventually disbanded and the members returned to their respective bases. Soon, a number of officials started having thoughts of controlling and ruling over their own territories like kings. The most prominent warlords who emerged at that time included:
However, in addition to these greater warlords, in time the entire Han empire virtually fractured into small blocs, each controlled by a local warlord.
After Dong Zhuo withdrew to Chang'an, he maintained an even tighter grip on the government and cruelly dealt with all dissent against him. Interior Minister Wang Yun and a few other officials, including Huang Wan (黃 琬), Shisun Rui (士 孫 瑞), and Yang Zan (楊 瓚), plotted to eliminate Dong Zhuo. They eventually persuaded Dong Zhuo 's foster son, Lü Bu, to join them. Lü Bu bore a grudge against Dong Zhuo because the latter almost killed him once during a fit of anger, and also because he was afraid that his secret affair with one of Dong Zhuo 's maids might be exposed. In May 192, the conspirators, led by Lü Bu and Wang Yun, assassinated Dong Zhuo and slaughtered his clan.
After Dong Zhuo 's death, it was believed that the chaos caused by Dong Zhuo 's "reign of terror '' would subside, and the central government would be restored to its original state. However, although Wang Yun was regarded as a capable minister, he gradually became arrogant and made several key mistakes that would cause his downfall. He failed to maintain good relations with Lü Bu, and strongly refused to grant amnesty to the surviving followers of Dong Zhuo and ordered them to be disbanded. This caused Dong Zhuo 's men to fear that they might be massacred. Dong Zhuo 's son - in - law, Niu Fu, took control of Dong 's forces in Liang Province and resisted Wang Yun, but later died in a friendly fire incident. Niu Fu 's subordinates, Li Jue, Guo Si and Fan Chou, wanted to submit to the imperial court, but as they had previously resisted Wang Yun, Wang now rejected their request for amnesty. Li Jue, Guo Si and Fan Chou led their armies to attack Chang'an and took control of the government. Wang Yun was captured and executed along with his family, while Lü Bu was defeated and driven away.
After taking control over the imperial court in Chang'an, Li Jue, Guo Si and Fan Chou did as they pleased without showing any regard for the welfare of the state. Concurrently, provincial warlords all over China battled each other to expand their territories or further their personal interests. Some of those warlords were friendly with Li Jue 's forces, while others remained hostile to them, even though all of them nominally acknowledged Emperor Xian as the sovereign ruler of China.
In 193, armed conflict broke out between the northern warlords Liu Yu and Gongsun Zan. Liu Yu strongly opposed warfare while Gongsun Zan continuously waged war against Yuan Shao. Liu Yu and Gongsun Zan made accusations against each other in their respective memorials to Emperor Xian. Eventually, Liu Yu was unable to tolerate Gongsun Zan and attacked the latter, but was defeated and killed.
In 195, turmoil ensued in Chang'an when Li Jue and Guo Si killed Fan Chou together, and later turned against each other. Li Jue held Emperor Xian hostage while Guo Si kidnapped the imperial officials, and both sides engaged in battle. Later that year, Li Jue and Guo Si made peace and agreed to allow Emperor Xian to return to the old capital, Luoyang, but later regretted their decision and pursued him. While Li Jue and Guo Si were never able to capture Emperor Xian again, the imperial court was rendered poor and unable to fend for itself. As Luoyang had been previously devastated by fire during Dong Zhuo 's time, the city lacked the basic essentials of life and many officials starved to death or resorted to cannibalism. Around this time, Ju Shou suggested to Yuan Shao to welcome Emperor Xian to his province so that he could take effective control of the government. However, Guo Tu and Chunyu Qiong opposed Ju Shou 's view, claiming that if Yuan Shao brought Emperor Xian to his territory, he would need to yield to the emperor on key decisions and follow proper court protocol. Yuan Shao remained hesitant and did not come to a conclusion on whether to receive the emperor or not.
While Yuan Shao was still indecisive on whether to welcome Emperor Xian or not, Cao Cao took advantage of the situation to bring the emperor to his territory. At that time, Cao Cao was still a relatively minor warlord, with only Yan Province (兗州; covering present - day western Shandong and eastern Henan) under his control. In 196, Cao Cao led his army towards Luoyang. He encountered Dong Cheng and Yang Feng (who were shielding Emperor Xian from Li Jue and Guo Si), convinced them of his loyalty, and was allowed to meet the emperor. In name, Cao Cao was sharing power with the other officials and nobles, but actually he was in control, but yet he ensured that the officials and nobles were treated with due respect, hence he faced minimal opposition in the imperial court. Later, Cao Cao escorted the emperor back to his base in Xu (許; present - day Xuchang, Henan), establishing the new capital there.
From then on, although Cao Cao was a subject of Emperor Xian in name, he actually wielded state power and controlled the imperial court. Despite so, Cao Cao never showed disrespect to Emperor Xian, and instead, honoured the emperor according to formal imperial protocol. Cao Cao also issued imperial edicts in Emperor Xian 's name to other warlords, ordering them to submit to imperial authority when in fact they were actually submitting to him. When Cao Cao sent Yuan Shao an edict in the emperor 's name, only then did Yuan realize that he had lost an opportunity to make use of the emperor to control other warlords.
Even after moving to the new capital at Xu, the central government still lacked funds and food supplies. As suggested by Zao Zhi (棗 祇), Cao Cao implemented a new tuntian policy to promote agricultural production, in which soldiers were sent to grow crops, and the harvest would be shared between the military and civilian population. The policy yielded commendable results as the area around Xu developed into highly productive farmland and the problem of shortage of food was resolved.
At this time, the most prominent warlords in China were:
There were still many other minor warlords, and Cao Cao particularly sought to get them to submit to him. In 197, Zhang Xiu surrendered Wancheng to Cao Cao. However, Cao Cao later had an affair with Zhang Xiu 's widowed aunt, angering Zhang, who rebelled and launched a surprise attack on Cao Cao at Wancheng. In this battle, Cao Cao 's eldest son Cao Ang, nephew Cao Anmin, and bodyguard Dian Wei were killed, and Cao Cao himself narrowly escaped from death. On the advice of Jia Xu, Zhang Xiu eventually surrendered to Cao Cao in the winter of 199 -- 200. In addition, in 197, Cao Cao was able to persuade Ma Teng and Han Sui, who controlled Yong and Liang provinces (covering most of present - day Shaanxi and Gansu), to submit to him.
That year, Yuan Shu declared himself "Son of Heaven '' in Shouchun (壽春; present - day Shou County, Anhui), an act perceived as treason against the Han dynasty government, prompting other warlords to use that as an excuse to attack him (see Campaign against Yuan Shu). Sun Ce, son of Sun Jian, who had conquered several territories in Jiangdong between 194 and 199, ended his alliance with Yuan Shu and became an independent warlord. Lü Bu, who was also previously Yuan Shu 's ally, broke ties with Yuan and dealt him a major defeat near Shouchun. Cao Cao also attacked Yuan Shu and defeated him. Yuan Shu attempted to flee north to join Yuan Shao but his way was blocked and he would die of illness on his return to Shouchun in 199.
In 198, Yuan Shao tried to persuade Cao Cao to move the capital to Juancheng (鄄 城; in present - day Heze, Shandong), which was nearer to his own territory, in an attempt to wrestle Emperor Xian away from Cao, but Cao refused. Later that year, Cao Cao joined forces with Liu Bei to attack Lü Bu, defeating him at the Battle of Xiapi. Lü Bu was captured and executed on Cao Cao 's order, and Xu Province came under Cao 's control.
In 199, Gongsun Zan was defeated by Yuan Shao at the Battle of Yijing and he committed suicide by setting himself on fire. Gongsun Zan 's territories, which extended to the northern boundaries of the Han dynasty 's empire, were completely annexed by Yuan Shao. Yuan Shao then turned his attention south towards Cao Cao, who was an emerging power in central China. Yuan formed an alliance with Liu Biao and was intent on attacking Cao Cao.
Against the advice of Ju Shou and Tian Feng, who reasoned that their troops were exhausted after the battles against Gongsun Zan and needed rest, Yuan Shao prepared for a campaign against Cao Cao, confident that his much larger army could easily crush Cao Cao 's. While Cao Cao readied himself for battle, he discovered that Dong Cheng, Liu Bei and a few other officials were conspiring against him. In early 200, Liu Bei used an opportunity to break away from Cao Cao and seize control of Xu Province, after killing Cao Cao 's appointed governor of the province, Che Zhou (車 冑). On the other hand, Dong Cheng and the others were making plans to assassinate Cao Cao. However, the plot was exposed and all the conspirators in the capital were massacred along with their families. Cao Cao then took a risk by attacking Liu Bei in Xu Province, leaving his flank open to attacks from Yuan Shao. However, Cao Cao made a right choice because Yuan Shao did not heed Tian Feng 's urging to seize the chance to attack him. Liu Bei was defeated and he fled north to join Yuan Shao. Liu Bei 's general Guan Yu surrendered to Cao Cao and temporarily served under Cao.
Only after Liu Bei 's defeat did Yuan Shao start implementing his plan to attack Cao Cao, but this time Tian Feng opposed his decision, saying that their opportunity had passed. Yuan Shao became annoyed with Tian Feng and had Tian imprisoned, after which he led his army south to attack Cao Cao. At the Battle of Boma, Yuan Shao 's general Yan Liang was slain by Guan Yu while another of Yuan 's generals, Wen Chou, was killed in action against Cao Cao 's forces. The morale of Yuan Shao 's army was greatly affected by the loss of the two generals.
By late 200, the armies of Yuan Shao and Cao Cao finally clashed at Guandu (官渡; in present - day Zhengzhou, Henan), south of the Yellow River. Yuan Shao had two advantages over Cao Cao - numerical superiority and greater amount of supplies, but Cao Cao 's troops were better trained than his. After some minor skirmishes, both sides became locked in a stalemate, until Cao Cao personally led a small detachment on a surprise attack on Yuan Shao 's supply depot at Wuchao, which was defended by Chunyu Qiong. Instead of sending reinforcements to Wuchao, Yuan Shao sent Zhang He and Gao Lan (高 覽) to attack Cao Cao 's camp, but was unsuccessful. The fall of Wuchao dealt a major blow to the morale of Yuan Shao 's army, which was subsequently routed by Cao Cao 's forces. Yuan Shao fled north of the Yellow River while most of his troops were either killed or surrendered to Cao Cao. From that point on, although Yuan Shao continued to remain as a major power player, he could no longer challenge Cao Cao 's growing supremacy.
After Yuan Shao died of illness in 202, a struggle of succession developed between his oldest son Yuan Tan and third son Yuan Shang. Several years before Yuan Shao 's death, based on the traditional order of succession, Yuan Tan should have been designated as the heir apparent, but as Yuan Shao 's wife Lady Liu favoured Yuan Shang, so Yuan Shao had Yuan Tan posthumously adopted by the latter 's uncle, Yuan Cheng (袁 成). Yuan Shao then divided his territories between his sons and nephew Gao Gan, ostensibly so that he could determine their abilities. His base of Ji Province was given to Yuan Shang, Yuan Tan controlled Qing Province, while Yuan Xi governed You Province, and Gao Gan ruled Bing Province. On his deathbed, Yuan Shao did not leave any explicit instruction as to who should succeed him. Of Yuan Shao 's followers, Pang Ji and Shen Pei supported Yuan Shang, while Xin Ping and Guo Tu favoured Yuan Tan. After Yuan Shao 's death, most of his subordinates initially wanted Yuan Tan to be their new lord, since he was the oldest son. However, Shen Pei and Pang Ji forged a will, naming Yuan Shang as the successor. Yuan Tan was furious and mobilized his forces under the pretext of attacking Cao Cao, drawing Cao 's attention, and Cao preemptively retaliated. Yuan Shang came to his oldest brother 's aid, and they fought inconclusively against Cao Cao in the Battle of Liyang.
In 203, Cao Cao scored a major victory over the Yuans, who retreated back to Ji Province 's capital, Ye (鄴). Cao Cao then planned to besiege Ye, but later withdrew his forces after heeding Guo Jia 's advice. Guo Jia reasoned that if Cao Cao pressured the Yuans, they might unite against a common enemy; however, if Cao Cao retreated, the disgruntled Yuan brothers would start fighting among themselves. Guo Jia 's prediction came true later when Yuan Tan, still bearing a grudge against Yuan Shang for receiving a larger inheritance, attacked Yuan Shang, but his forces in Qing Province defected to Yuan Shang. Yuan Tan fled to Pingyuan (平原; in present - day Dezhou, Shandong) and was besieged by Yuan Shang there. Yuan Tan sought help from Cao Cao, and Cao advanced north to attack Ye, forcing Yuan Shang to lift the siege on Pingyuan. In early 204, Yuan Shang incorrectly believed that Cao Cao had withdrawn, so he attacked his brother again at Pingyuan. Cao Cao attacked Ye once more and Yuan Shang headed back to defend his base, but was defeated by Cao Cao. Yuan Shang then fled north to Zhongshan (中山; in present - day Shijiazhuang, Hebei), and Ye fell to Cao Cao. Gao Gan also surrendered Bing Province to Cao Cao.
During Cao Cao 's siege on Ye, Yuan Tan did not help attack Ye but sought to take Yuan Shang 's territories, defeating Yuan Shang in Zhongshan. Yuan Shang fled further north to join Yuan Xi in You Province. Cao Cao now accused Yuan Tan of breaching the trust in the alliance so he turned east to attack him, capturing Yuan Tan 's last stronghold at Nanpi (南 皮; in present - day Cangzhou, Hebei) and killing Yuan. Meanwhile, in You Province, Yuan Xi 's subordinate Jiao Chu (焦 觸) revolted and surrendered to Cao Cao, forcing Yuan Xi and Yuan Shang to flee further north to join the Wuhuan tribes under chief Tadun. Around this time, Gao Gan also rebelled against Cao Cao, but was defeated by 206 and killed while attempting to flee south to join Liu Biao.
In 207, Cao Cao 's army headed north to attack the Wuhuan, defeating them at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain. Tadun was killed in battle while Yuan Xi and Yuan Shang sought refuge under Gongsun Kang, a warlord who controlled most of present - day Liaoning. Gongsun Kang feared that the Yuans might turn against him and seize his territory, so he had them executed and sent their heads to Cao Cao. By this time, the Yuan clan had been completely eliminated and much of northern China had been reunified under Cao Cao 's control.
In the years after his reunification of northern China, Cao Cao did not conduct any major campaigns while awaiting an opportunity to act against the remaining three most prominent warlords: Sun Quan, who had succeeded his older brother Sun Ce after the latter was assassinated in 200; Liu Biao; Liu Zhang. During that time, Sun Quan was also developing his territories in Jiangdong, which he inherited from Sun Ce, and strengthening his military forces. In 208, Sun Quan defeated and killed Liu Biao 's vassal Huang Zu at the Battle of Xiakou, seizing most of Huang 's territory at Jiangxia (江夏; present - day Xinzhou District, Wuhan, Hubei).
While Cao Cao was attacking the Yuan clan in northern China, Liu Bei fled south to join Liu Biao and became a vassal under the latter. In 208, Cao Cao launched a southern campaign to conquer Liu Biao 's Jing Province. Liu Biao was ill and dying, when a succession struggle broke out between his sons Liu Qi and Liu Cong. After Huang Zu 's defeat, Liu Qi was appointed by Liu Biao as Administrator of Jiangxia, which was previously governed by Huang. Liu Cong, who was favoured by Liu Biao 's second wife Lady Cai (because he married her niece), remained in Jing Province 's capital, Xiangyang. Liu Cong became the new Governor of Jing Province after his father 's death. Fearing that he might be caught in a war on two fronts (Cao Cao in the north and Liu Qi in the southeast), Liu Cong surrendered to Cao Cao, and most of Jing Province came under Cao Cao 's control. Liu Bei was unwilling to submit to Cao Cao and fled south. Along the way, one of Cao Cao 's light cavalry units caught up with Liu Bei 's retreating forces (which included civilians) and defeated them at the Battle of Changban. Liu Bei escaped with his life and fled to Dangyang (當 陽; in present - day Yichang, Hubei).
In Jiangdong, Sun Quan felt threatened by Cao Cao 's approaching army and sent Lu Su to discuss forming an alliance with Liu Bei and Liu Qi against Cao Cao. Cao Cao wrote Sun Quan a letter, intended to intimidate the latter into submitting. Cao Cao 's army was estimated to be 220,000 men strong, although Cao himself claimed that he had 800,000 troops. Sun Quan had 30,000 men at most while Liu Bei and Liu Qi 's combined forces totaled about 10,000. In view of Cao Cao 's overwhelming forces, many of Sun Quan 's followers, including Zhang Zhao, strongly advocated surrender. However, Sun Quan refused as he agreed with Zhou Yu and Lu Su 's view that Cao Cao might not let him off even if he submitted. By late 208, with help from Zhou Yu and Lu Su (and Zhuge Liang, who represented Liu Bei in the diplomatic exchange), an alliance was formed between Sun Quan and Liu Bei against Cao Cao.
Sun Quan put Zhou Yu in command of his 30,000 troops, largely stationed on naval vessels. Zhou Yu set up a defensive position in conjunction with Liu Bei, whose army garrisoned on land. Around this time, a spreading plague significantly weakened Cao Cao 's forces. Zhou Yu 's subordinate Huang Gai pretended to defect to Cao Cao 's side and was accepted by the latter. Huang Gai brought with him a small group of men and they sailed towards Cao Cao 's base on boats. As the boats approached Cao Cao 's fleet, Huang Gai ordered his men to set the boats on fire, and the burning boats crashed into Cao Cao 's larger ships. The fire spread out of control and completely destroyed Cao Cao 's entire naval fleet. Cao Cao 's land forces at Wulin (烏 林; in present - day Honghu, Hubei) were also attacked and driven back by Sun Quan and Liu Bei 's armies. Cao Cao suffered a drastic defeat at the Battle of Red Cliffs and was forced to retreat north back to Jiangling (江陵, located in present - day Jingjiang 荆江, not to be confused with present - day Jiangling County, Hubei).
Immediately after the Battle of Red Cliffs, Sun Quan 's forces under Zhou Yu 's command pressed on another attack on Cao Cao, leading to the Battle of Jiangling. On the other hand, Liu Bei used the opportunity to attack the four commanderies of Wuling, Changsha, Lingling and Guiyang in southern Jing Province and bring them under his control. By early 209, Cao Cao had lost most of Jing Province to the allies.
As Liu Bei had become relatively more powerful after his conquests of the four commanderies, Sun Quan became apprehensive of him and decided to strengthen their alliance by arranging for a marriage between his younger sister, Lady Sun, and Liu Bei. Zhou Yu was suspicious of Liu Bei 's intentions and suggested to Sun Quan to capture Liu Bei, put him under house arrest, and then take control over Liu 's forces. However, Sun Quan rejected Zhou Yu 's idea as he believed that Liu Bei 's forces would rebel against him even if the plan succeeded. Sun Quan did agree with Zhou Yu 's suggestion to consider attacking the warlords Liu Zhang and Zhang Lu, who controlled parts of western China, including present - day southern Shaanxi and the Sichuan Basin. The plan was not set into motion and eventually aborted when Zhou Yu died in 210. Even though Sun Quan did not expand his borders west, he managed to persuade several local leaders in present - day Guangdong, Guangxi and northern Vietnam to submit to him, and these territories became part of his domain. Sun Quan then agreed to "lend '' northern Jing Province to Liu Bei as well when the latter complained that the south lacked resources to sustain his military.
Cao Cao, after resting his forces for several years in light of his defeat at the Battle of Red Cliffs, made a major advance again in 211, this time to ostensibly to attack Zhang Lu of Hanzhong. Warlords Han Sui and Ma Chao, who controlled Liang and Yong provinces, suspected that Cao Cao had designs on them and launched attacks in retaliation. A coalition of forces from west of Hangu Pass, led by Ma Chao and Han Sui, were defeated by Cao Cao at the Battle of Tong Pass in 211, and their territories were annexed by Cao over the next few years.
Liu Zhang of Yi Province became worried of possible attacks from Zhang Lu and Cao Cao, so he sent Fa Zheng to invite Liu Bei into his domain to help him defend against Zhang Lu and Cao Cao. Fa Zheng was unimpressed with Liu Zhang 's governorship and wanted Liu Bei to replace his lord, so he urged Liu Bei to use the opportunity to take control of Yi Province. Liu Bei heeded Fa Zheng 's suggestion and led his army into Yi Province, where he received a warm welcome from Liu Zhang. Liu Zhang sent Liu Bei to station at Jiameng Pass in northern Yi Province to resist Zhang Lu.
In 212, Liu Bei and Liu Zhang turned hostile towards each other and waged war. Zhuge Liang led a detachment of Liu Bei 's forces left in Jing Province to join his lord in attacking Liu Zhang. Guan Yu remained behind to defend Jing Province. In 215, Liu Bei had defeated much of Liu Zhang 's forces and besieged him in his capital of Chengdu. Liu Zhang surrendered and yielded Yi Province to Liu Bei. The province became Liu Bei 's new base, and he used the mountainous surroundings as natural defenses against Cao Cao in the north.
In the same year Liu Bei took over Yi Province, diplomatic relations between him and Sun Quan deteriorated when he refused to return Jing Province, which he "borrowed '' from Sun Quan five years ago. Sun Quan launched an initial attack on Guan Yu and much of eastern Jing Province quickly submitted. However, after negotiations between Guan Yu and Lu Su, Liu Bei agreed to give up the three commanderies of Changsha, Jiangxia and Guiyang to Sun Quan, renewing their alliance and dividing Jing Province between them along the Xiang River.
In 215, Cao Cao attacked Zhang Lu and defeated him at the Battle of Yangping. Zhang Lu surrendered and his domain in Hanzhong came under Cao Cao 's control. Against the advice of his followers to move south and attack Liu Bei in Yi Province, Cao Cao withdrew his armies and left Xiahou Yuan in command of a small force to defend Hanzhong. The following year, Cao Cao pressured Emperor Xian into granting him a title of nobility, "King of Wei ''. Over the next few years, Cao Cao 's style of living became more like the emperor 's, and he also received greater honours.
In 217, Liu Bei started a campaign to seize Hanzhong from Cao Cao. After Xiahou Yuan was defeated and killed at the Battle of Mount Dingjun in 219, Cao Cao became alarmed and quickly arrived with reinforcements to resist Liu Bei. Both sides became locked in a stalemate, except for a clash at the Battle of Han River, before Cao Cao eventually decided to withdraw his forces, giving up Hanzhong to Liu Bei. Liu Bei subsequently declared himself "King of Hanzhong '' after his victory.
Around the time when Liu Bei was attacking Hanzhong, Guan Yu also advanced north from Jing Province to attack Cao Cao 's city of Fancheng (樊城; present - day Fancheng District, Xiangyang, Hubei), which was defended by Cao Ren. While Cao Ren managed to hold on to his position firmly, Guan Yu besieged the city, and the situation was serious enough that Cao Cao even considered moving the capital away from Xu.
At the same time, Sun Quan became increasingly resentful of Guan Yu because the latter had previously shown hostility towards him in three incidents: Guan Yu drove away the officials Sun Quan sent to the three commanderies that Liu Bei had promised to give up to Sun; Guan Yu forcefully seized food supplies from one of Sun Quan 's bases for use in his Fancheng campaign; Guan Yu ridiculed Sun Quan when the latter proposed a marriage between his son and Guan 's daughter. When Guan Yu was away attacking Fancheng, Sun Quan sent his general Lü Meng to launch an assault on Jing Province from the east, swiftly conquering the province within weeks. The morale of Guan Yu 's forces fell sharply and his soldiers gradually deserted him until he was left with only about 300 men. Guan Yu was isolated and besieged by Sun Quan 's forces in Maicheng, and he attempted to break out but fell into an ambush and was captured. Guan Yu refused to surrender and was eventually executed on Sun Quan 's order. This marked the end of the alliance between Sun Quan and Liu Bei. Sun Quan nominally submitted to Cao Cao and was granted the title of "Marquis of Wu ''. Sun Quan also urged Cao Cao to take the emperor 's throne but Cao declined.
Cao Cao died in March 220 and his son Cao Pi inherited the title of "King of Wei '' without waiting for formal authorization from Emperor Xian. In the winter of 220, Emperor Xian sent the Imperial Seal to Cao Pi and issued an edict announcing that he was abdicating in favour of Cao Pi. Cao Pi formally declined to accept the throne thrice but obliged eventually. The Han dynasty officially ended at that point and Cao Pi established the state of Cao Wei in its place, moving the capital from Xu back to Luoyang. The dethroned Emperor Xian was granted a title of "Duke of Shanyang ''.
In 221, Liu Bei declared himself emperor in Chengdu and established the state of Shu Han. Sun Quan continued to remain as a nominal subject of Cao Pi until 222, when he declared himself king of a separate state, Wu (better known as Eastern Wu in history). In 229, Sun Quan formally became emperor of Wu.
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who wrote the song nobody knows it but me | Nobody Knows (Tony Rich song) - wikipedia
"Nobody Knows '' is a song by R&B artist Tony Rich from his 1996 debut album Words. Released as his debut single, the song peaked at # 11 on the soul singles chart. Elsewhere, "Nobody Knows '' went to # 2 on both the Billboard Hot 100 (only behind Celine Dion 's "Because You Loved Me '') and Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks charts. Rich received a nomination for the 1997 Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance; he lost to Eric Clapton 's "Change the World ''.
- US CD Single (73008 - 24116 - 2)
shipments figures based on certification alone
American country music artist Kevin Sharp recorded a cover version of the song on his 1996 debut album Measure of a Man. It was released in September 1996 as his debut single. It became Sharp 's only number - one single on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks charts, spending four weeks at the top of the chart.
Deborah Evans Price, of Billboard magazine reviewed the song favorably, saying that his "smooth, melodic voice and sensitive interpretation of the lyric signal show promise for this talented new artist. '' ''
The music video was directed by Jeffrey Phillips and premiered in late 1996.
"Nobody Knows '' debuted at number 75 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of September 28, 1996.
In 1997, saxophonist Richard Elliot covered the song from his album "Jumpin ' Off. '' Eli Mattson delivered a piano / vocal cover on the third season of America 's Got Talent in 2008. British boyband JLS also recorded a cover of the song; it was leaked onto the internet in June 2010 and has now appeared as the B - Side to their single She Makes Me Wanna. British pop singer Shayne Ward included a cover on his third album, Obsession. The song is featured on the Boyzone album, BZ20, released in November 2013.
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how far is inkster mi from detroit mi | Inkster, Michigan - wikipedia
Inkster is a city in Wayne County, Michigan, United States. At the 2010 census, the city population was 25,369. It is one of the few Metro Detroit suburbs whose population is majority African American.
The area was originally inhabited by Native Americans, but was settled by non-indigenous people in 1825. A post office named "Moulin Rouge '' was established there in December 1857. Robert Inkster, a Scotsman born March 27, 1828, in Lerwick, Shetland, operated a steam sawmill on present - day Inkster Road near Michigan Avenue in the early 1860s.
The post office was renamed Inkster in July 1863. The village had a station on the Michigan Central Railroad by 1878. It incorporated as a village in 1926 from parts of Nankin Township and Dearborn Township. After much legal wrangling by the city of Dearborn, Dearborn Township, and the village of Inkster to sort out final borders for these communities, Inkster was incorporated as a city in 1964.
In the 1920s and 1930s, African - Americans working in Henry Ford 's factories settled in Inkster because they did n't want to commute from Detroit and they were n't allowed to live in Dearborn.
As a result of the police beating of Floyd Dent in January, 2015, which was caught on a police vehicle 's dash cam and released to the public, the victim was awarded $1.4 million. A special assessment of Inkster residents will pay for the settlement, on their July 1, 2015 property tax bill.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 6.25 square miles (16.19 km), all land.
As of the census of 2010, there were 25,369 people, 9,821 households, and 6,175 families residing in the city. The population density was 4,059.0 inhabitants per square mile (1,567.2 / km). There were 11,647 housing units at an average density of 1,863.5 per square mile (719.5 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 73.2 % African American, 20.5 % White, 0.3 % Native American, 1.6 % Asian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 0.7 % from other races, and 3.6 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.6 % of the population.
There were 9,821 households of which 35.5 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 25.7 % were married couples living together, 30.0 % had a female householder with no husband present, 7.1 % had a male householder with no wife present, and 37.1 % were non-families. 31.6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9.1 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 3.24.
The median age in the city was 34.2 years. 27.9 % of residents were under the age of 18; 10.6 % were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.4 % were from 25 to 44; 24.8 % were from 45 to 64; and 11.3 % were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46.8 % male and 53.2 % female.
At the 2000 census, there were 30,115 people, 11,169 households and 7,460 families residing in the city. The population density was 4,808.1 per square mile (1,857.4 / km2). There were 12,013 housing units at an average density of 1,918.0 per square mile (740.9 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 67.51 % African American, 28.7 % White, 0.41 % Native American, 3.42 % Asian, 0.01 % Pacific Islander, 0.74 % from other races, and 2.76 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.60 % of the population.
There were 11,169 households, of which 33.1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.0 % were married couples living together, 26.8 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.2 % were non-families. 27.9 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9.2 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.26.
Age distribution was 29.8 % under the age of 18, 9.2 % from 18 to 24, 30.3 % from 25 to 44, 19.8 % from 45 to 64, and 10.8 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.2 males.
The median household income was $35,950, and the median family income was $41,176. Males had a median income of $37,986 versus $26,567 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,711. About 15.2 % of families and 19.5 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 28.8 % of those under age 18 and 13.4 % of those age 65 or over.
The city had 63 police officers in 2010. In 2013 it had 25 police officers. Inkster Justice Center, which is to house the Inkster Police Department and the 22nd District Court, was scheduled to be opened in Spring 2014. Financed with bond funds, it had a cost of $7.7 million and had a shortfall of about $400,000 in the construction fund.
Portions of Inkster are within the Wayne - Westland Community Schools, Westwood Community Schools, Taylor School District, and the Romulus School District.
Westwood operates the Daly Elementary School and the Tomlinson Middle School in Inkster. Robichaud High School in Dearborn Heights is the district high school.
Wayne - Westland operates David Hicks Elementary School in Inkster. The portions of Inkster that are located in the Wayne - Westland district are zoned to Hicks. One portion of the Hicks zone is assigned to Marshall Upper Elementary School, Stevenson Middle School in Westland, John Glenn High School, all in Westland. Another portion of the Hicks zone is assigned to Adams Upper Elementary School in Westland, Franklin Middle School in Wayne, and Wayne Memorial High School in Wayne.
Portions of Inkster that had been in the Taylor School District prior to the dissolution of the Inkster School District are assigned to Taylor Parks Elementary School, Hoover Middle School, and Harry S. Truman High School in Taylor.
Romulus Senior High School is the Romulus district 's secondary school.
Burger Baylor School for Students with Autism of the Garden City Public Schools is located in Inkster, in the former Baylor - Woodson Elementary School.
Previously most of Inkster was within the Inkster Public Schools district. As of summer 2013, the Inkster Public Schools District was entirely dissolved. The remaining students were split up among the Taylor, Romulus, Wayne - Westland and Westwood districts. Inkster High School, the high school of the Inkster district, closed in 2013. Areas were given to the new districts by quadrants. Students north of Michigan Avenue and west of Middlebelt were rezoned to Wayne - Westland. Students north of Michigan Avenue and east of Middlebelt were rezoned to Westwood. Students south of Michigan Avenue and west of Middlebelt were rezoned to Romulus. Students south of Michigan and east of Middlebelt were rezoned to Taylor.
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where is agatha christie ordeal by innocence filmed | Ordeal by Innocence (TV series) - wikipedia
Ordeal by Innocence is a three part BBC drama that was first broadcast during April 2018. It is based on the Agatha Christie novel of the same name and is the third English language filmed version to be broadcast. The drama stars Morven Christie, Bill Nighy, Anna Chancellor, Alice Eve and Eleanor Tomlinson amongst others.
The show was originally intended to be broadcast as part of the BBC Christmas programming but was held back due to original cast member Ed Westwick being accused of sexual assault. His scenes were later reshot with Christian Cooke taking his place.
The series attracted positive reviews despite some backlash over the changes made to the plot. The direction and styling were afforded particular praise.
Set in 1956, the programme opens with the death of Rachel Argyll, a wealthy heiress who, with her husband, Leo Argyll, has adopted five children as they can not have their own. Initially, son Jack Argyll is accused and awaits trial in prison before he himself is killed at the hands of another prisoner. Eighteen months later and the family is gearing up for a wedding; Leo Argyll is due to marry the Argyll family 's former secretary, Gwenda Vaughn, when a mysterious stranger arrives at the door claiming to have an alibi for Jack for the night of the murder. The stranger, Dr Calgary, is unaware that Jack is dead and has come back to help get Jack released from jail. Because the family has received many visits from fraudsters claiming to be Jack 's alibi, Dr Calgary 's testimony is coldly received, and he is told in no uncertain terms to leave the family alone.
Dr Calgary is then threatened by the other son, Mickey Argyll, but is approached by Philip Durrant, the disabled husband of Mary who sees Dr Calgary as a cash cow. Dr Calgary is disgusted, but telephones Leo Argyll and tells him that his wife 's murderer is still on the loose.
Just like many other novels and stories by Agatha Christie, Ordeal by Innocence is set in the West Country of England. This production shifted the location to Scotland and it was filmed in and around Inverkip.
The family name in the book is Argyle, whereas it is spelt Argyll in the programme (although the pronunciation is the same). The main suspect character, Jack, is called Jacko in the book, and he dies in prison from pneumonia, not by being beaten to death.
With regard to characters, Kirsten Lindstrom, the family 's housekeeper, is a middle - aged Nordic woman in the novel -- a detail that plays a key role in the book 's solution; in the miniseries, she is turned into a Scottish woman in her thirties, who is one of Rachel 's foundlings. Dr Calgary is portrayed as mentally disturbed in this version, putting his testimony into doubt, whereas in the book his testimony is seen as reliable from the very beginning. Other characters, such as Gwenda Vaughan, Mary Durrant, and Hester Argyll, are portrayed much more negatively than they were in the novel: Gwenda is bossy and smug, Mary is deeply embittered, and Hester is a secret alcoholic.
The solution has also been radically altered. In the book, Kirsten is seduced by Jack, who instructs her to murder Rachel and steal her money so that he can pay off his debts; he, in the meantime, establishes an alibi for himself by hitchhiking into town. His plan backfires when Dr Calgary does not come forward to corroborate his version of events, and Kirsten learns that he is already married. In the programme, it is Leo who murders Rachel after she catches him with Gwenda and demands a divorce. He kills her using an Egyptian statuette, and blames Jack for the crime when his fingerprints are found on Rachel 's whisky decanter. Jack is revealed to be completely innocent, and his hitchhiking to town unpremeditated. In this version, Kirsten is not his lover, but his mother. It transpires that Leo impregnated her as a teenager, and allowed her to remain on as the family 's housekeeper while Jack was raised with the other children. Jack learns of his parentage shortly before Rachel 's murder; while in custody, he correctly guesses that Leo is the murderer and threatens retaliation. In turn, Leo has his corrupt police acquaintance, Bellamy Gould, beat Jack to death while in prison (as Jack had publicly accused Gould of paedophilia and was having an affair with his wife, Lydia). Like Kirsten in the novel, Leo later murders Philip when he begins nosing around too much (only Philip dies by being injected with a morphine overdose; in the novel, he is stabbed in the back of the head). Tina is also stabbed in the novel, though she survives; in the programme, this attack on her life does not occur.
The ending is also darker than Christie 's original. After uncovering the truth, Kirsten tells the other children, who confront Leo with the real murder weapon. They then stage Leo 's suicide so that Gwenda believes that he is dead, while in reality, they lock Leo up in the house 's nuclear bunker -- presumably for the rest of his life. Also, before he is confronted, Leo has Dr Calgary institutionalized again, but the children are later seen visiting him at the asylum, with the implication that they will attempt to have him released.
Changes in cast
The mystery drama was adapted for the screen by Sarah Phelps who was behind the previous two Christie adaptations for the BBC over the Christmas period (And Then There Were None and The Witness for the Prosecution). Phelps has admitted to changing some elements of the story, particularly the ending, and when asked about what the purists might think, she responded "I do n't give a bollocks about people saying it has to be pure. No, it does n't. If you want a pure adaptation, go and get someone else to do it. '' However, the BBC and Phelps have come under criticism for changing the plot with many online users stating that Agatha Christie knew what she was writing about. One user said, "Why does n't (Phelps) write her own books if she thinks she can do better than someone who 's sold millions of books. '' (sic) (recte?)
The three - parter was filmed in, and around, the town of Inverkip in the Inverclyde district west of Glasgow. Ardgowan House was used as the Argyll family home of Sunny Point.
The series was originally supposed to have been broadcast over the Christmas and New Year holidays of 2017 / 2018, but was cancelled due to the sexual assault allegations against Westwick. Its broadcast over the Eastertide of 2018 has split the series into three episodes across three weeks which has lead to some dubbing it "ordeal by iPlayer ''.
After the drama had completed filming, the actor playing the part of Mickey Argyll (Ed Westwick) was accused of sexual assault by two women. In the wake of other sexual assault scandals in 2017, the BBC decided to delay the broadcast pending an investigation into the allegations against Westwick.
When two more women came forward to allege impropriety by Westwick, the BBC auditioned a new actor and re-shot Westwick 's part with Christian Cooke. The BBC explained that as Ridley Scott had already done something similar with All the Money in the World, they decided to re-shoot too as, as they described it, "hundreds and hundreds of hours of people 's hard earned work would have been lost ''. Westwick has strenuously denied the allegations and had stated that nothing had been proven.
Forty - five minutes of footage from 35 scenes was shot over 12 days with Christian Cooke. The other actors in the production were drafted in and whilst most made the time, (one production personality described them all as very busy actors), not all of them were on set together at the same time. Alice Eve, who played Gwenda Vaughn, could not make it back from America and had to be split - screened into the new footage. The actor Christian Cooke, praised the production staff in getting things organised so quickly and apart from one scene where Cooke 's character has icy breath (in what was supposedly mid-summer), most critics agreed that the re-shoot went very well and that the production was "seamless ''.
Lucy Mangan, writing in The Guardian, gave the first episode a maximum of five stars saying "The latest adaptation, rich, dark, adult and drawing on a backdrop of postwar grief and instability, are a far cry from the sunny -- still murderous, but sunny -- uplands scattered with millet seed for Joan Hickson to peck at as Miss Marple ''.
Michael Hogan, writing in The Sunday Telegraph, gave the episode four stars out of a possible five saying that "initially, it was ponderous and confusing, with time - hops and a wide cast of characters '', but that later "the pace steadily picked up (and) by the end of the hour, this whodunit had its hooks into me ''. Also in The Sunday Telegraph, Ed Cumming described the series as "taut writing '' but questioned the necessity for three episodes. He also noted that "everyone was so unlikeable ''.
The Times gave the first episode four stars out of five and noted that in spite of the production having to have 35 scenes re-shot with new actor Christian Cooke, the production was seamless. Similarly, the second episode was awarded four stars out of five. The reviewer lamented that the series had been "eked out over three weeks instead of a fortnight '' but had described the episode as "rattling along rather nicely ''. Special mention was made of Matthew Goode who "... did n't just steal every scene he was in, he convinced us that the scene belonged to him in the first place ''. The third episode also garnered four stars out of five from The Times. Carol Midgley said the ending where Leo Argyll ended up being locked away in the bunker by Kirsten, "unexpected ''. She also said that the plot was "overboiled '' and did not show whether the "Argyll children were in on it, or did they think he 'd drowned? ''. Midgley liked it overall and said that "apart from those final shark - jumping moments, I relished every other dark, delicious thing that the writer Sarah Phelps did to the story ''.
The Radio Times reported that viewer feedback was positive although some had commented that the programme was confusing due to its forwards and backwards time jumps. Others criticised its soundtrack music and accused the male characters of looking too similar to each other.
Ordeal by Innocence on IMDb
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the magical mystery tour is waiting to take you away lyrics | Magical Mystery Tour (song) - wikipedia
"Magical Mystery Tour '' is a song by the Beatles, the opening track and theme song for the album, double EP and TV film of the same name. Unlike the theme songs for their other film projects, it was not released as a single.
"Magical Mystery Tour '' is credited to Lennon -- McCartney, though written primarily by Paul McCartney. McCartney said it was co-written. John Lennon said, "Paul 's song. Maybe I did part of it, but it was his concept. '' In 1972, Lennon said, "Paul wrote it. I helped with some of the lyric. '' The remaining lyrics explain in a general way the premise of the film: a mystery tour of the type that was popular in Britain when the Beatles were young. Lennon and McCartney expanded the tour to make it magical, which allowed it to be "a little more surreal than the real ones. ''
There are also other interpretations of the song as an explicit reference to drugs, since the Beatles were experimenting with acid in those years. Paul McCartney himself said about the song:
"Because those were psychedelic times it had to become a magical mystery tour, a little bit more surreal than the real ones to give us a license to do it. But it employs all the circus and fairground barkers, ' Roll up! Roll up! ', which was also a reference to rolling up a joint. We were always sticking those little things in that we knew our friends would get; veiled references to drugs and to trips. ' Magical Mystery Tour is waiting to take you away, ' so that 's a kind of drug, ' it 's dying to take you away ' so that 's a Tibetan Book of the Dead reference. (...) Magical Mystery Tour was the equivalent of a drug trip and we made the film based on that. ''
Recording began on 25 April 1967, less than a week after the final sessions for Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band. The song was not complete when the session began and much of the evening was spent in rehearsals, but by the end of the evening the basic rhythm track was complete. Bass guitar and vocal overdubs were added by the Beatles on 26 and 27 April. On 3 May, the brass fanfare and other parts were added in a disorganised session where the trumpet players began the evening without a score. According to Philip Jones, a friend of one of the players who was present, one of those players, Elgar Howarth, eventually took matters into his own hands and wrote a score out for them.
Also added to the final mix is the sound of the Bedford VAL 14 / Plaxton Coach (URO 913E), owned by Fox of Hayes and hired by The Beatles for the film. The sound of tyres screeching was taken from a recording of Ringo Starr driving the Bedford VAL around RAF West Malling at a high speed.
"Magical Mystery Tour '' was released as the title track to a six - song double EP in the United Kingdom on 8 December 1967. In the United States, the double EP was stretched to an LP by adding five songs previously released as singles. During the CD era, the LP version was issued on CD in both countries.
Writing in the May 1968 issue of Esquire, Robert Christgau dismissed "Magical Mystery Tour '' as "disappointing '' and "perfunctory ''. In his book Revolution in the Head, Ian MacDonald wrote of the song: "While energetic, the result is manufactured, its thin invention undisguised by a distorted production tricked out with unconvincing time and tempo changes. '' Writing for Rough Guides, Chris Ingham describes it as "the bare bones of a song accompanied by faintly tired brassy parping ''.
Musicologist Walter Everett writes: "I agree with those who call ' Magical Mystery Tour ' a warmed - over ' Sgt. Pepper ' - type fanfare / invitation to what 's to follow... The transcendent modulation is not accompanied by compelling enough lyrics or sufficient melodic interest... to rise to greatness. '' Richie Unterberger of AllMusic calls it "a pleasant, get - up - and - go tune, but not one of the Beatles ' very best songs ''.
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has the us ever won the mens world cup | United States men 's national Soccer team - Wikipedia
The United States men 's national soccer team is controlled by the United States Soccer Federation and competes in the Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football. The team has appeared in ten FIFA World Cups, including the first in 1930, where they reached the semi-finals. The U.S. participated in the 1934 and 1950 World Cups, winning 1 -- 0 against England in the latter. After 1950, the U.S. did not qualify for the World Cup until 1990. The U.S. hosted the 1994 World Cup, where they lost to Brazil in the round of sixteen. They qualified for five more consecutive World Cups after 1990 (for a total of seven straight appearances, a feat shared with only seven other nations), becoming one of the tournament 's regular competitors and often advancing to the knockout stage. The U.S. reached the quarter - finals of the 2002 World Cup, where they lost to Germany. In the 2009 Confederations Cup, they eliminated top - ranked Spain in the semi-finals before losing to Brazil in the final, their only appearance in a final. The team failed to qualify for the 2018 World Cup, having been eliminated in continental qualifying, ending the streak of consecutive World Cups at seven.
The U.S. also competes in continental tournaments, including the CONCACAF Gold Cup and Copa América. The U.S. has hosted fourteen editions of the Gold Cup, winning six, and has achieved a fourth - place finish in two Copa Américas, including the 2016 edition that they hosted. The team 's head coaching position was vacated with Bruce Arena 's resignation in October 2017, after which Dave Sarachan became the team 's interim head coach. Earnie Stewart is the team 's General Manager since August 1, 2018.
The first U.S. national soccer team was constituted in 1885, when it played Canada in the first international match held outside the United Kingdom. Canada defeated the U.S. 1 -- 0 in Newark, New Jersey. The U.S. had its revenge the following year when it beat Canada 1 -- 0, also in Newark, although neither match was officially recognized. The U.S. earned both silver and bronze medals in men 's soccer at the 1904 St. Louis Summer Olympics through Christian Brothers College and St. Rose Parish, though the tournament is declared official only by the IOC (FIFA does n't endorse tournaments held before 1908). The U.S. played its first official international match under the auspices of U.S. Soccer on August 20, 1916, against Sweden in Stockholm, where the U.S. won 3 -- 2.
The U.S. fielded a team in the 1930 World Cup in Uruguay, the first ever World Cup to be played. The U.S. began group play by beating Belgium 3 -- 0. The U.S. then earned a 3 -- 0 victory over Paraguay, with FIFA crediting Bert Patenaude with two of the goals. In November 2006, FIFA announced that it had accepted evidence that Patenaude scored all three goals against Paraguay, and was thus the first person to score a hat trick in a World Cup. In the semifinals, the U.S. lost to Argentina 6 -- 1. There was no third place game. However, using the overall tournament records in 1986, FIFA credited the U.S. with a third - place finish ahead of fellow semi-finalist Yugoslavia. This remains the U.S. team 's best World Cup result, and is the highest finish of any team from outside of South America and Europe.
The U.S. qualified for the 1934 World Cup by defeating Mexico 4 -- 2 in Italy a few days before the finals started. In a straight knock - out format, the team first played host Italy and lost 7 -- 1, eliminating the U.S. from the tournament. At the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin, the U.S. again lost to Italy in the first round and were eliminated, although this time with a score of 1 - 0.
The 1950 World Cup in Brazil was the next World Cup appearance for the U.S. as it withdrew in 1938 and the tournament was n't held again until 1950. The U.S. lost its first match 3 -- 1 against Spain, but then won 1 -- 0 against England at Independência Stadium in Belo Horizonte. Striker Joe Gaetjens was the goal scorer. Called "The Miracle on Grass '', the result is considered one of the greatest upsets in the history of the World Cup. Months before the World Cup, England had beaten an all - star "rest of Europe '' side 6 -- 1 in an exhibition match. In their third game of the tournament, a 5 - 2 defeat by Chile saw the U.S. eliminated from the tournament. It would be four decades before the U.S. would make another appearance in the World Cup finals.
The national team spent the mid-to - late 20th century in near complete irrelevance in both the international game and the domestic sporting scene. There was only one World Cup berth for CONCACAF during this period until 1982. The emergence of the North American Soccer League in the 1960s and 1970s raised hopes that the U.S. national team would soon improve and become a global force. However such hopes were not realized and by the 1980s the U.S. Soccer Federation found itself in serious financial struggles, with the national team playing only two matches from 1981 to 1983. U.S. Soccer targeted the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles and the 1986 World Cup as means of rebuilding the national team and its fan base. The International Olympic Committee declared that teams from outside Europe and South America could field full senior teams, including professionals (until then, the amateur - only rule had heavily favored socialist countries from Eastern Europe whose players were professionals in all but name). The U.S. had a very strong showing at the tournament, beating Costa Rica, tying Egypt, losing only to favorite Italy and finishing 1 -- 1 -- 1 but did n't make the second round, losing to Egypt on a tiebreaker (both had three points).
To provide a more stable national team program and renew interest in the NASL, U.S. Soccer entered the national team into the NASL league schedule for the 1983 season as Team America. This team lacked the continuity and regularity of training that conventional clubs enjoy, and many players were unwilling to play for the national team instead of their own clubs when conflicts arose. Team America finished the season at the bottom of the league, with U.S. Soccer canceling the experiment and withdrawing the national team from the NASL after one season. By the end of 1984, the NASL had folded, leaving the U.S. without a single professional - level outdoor soccer league.
The U.S. bid to host the 1986 World Cup after Colombia withdrew from contention due to economic concerns, but FIFA selected Mexico to host the tournament. In the last game of CONCACAF qualifying for the 1986 World Cup, the U.S. needed only a tie against Costa Rica to reach the final qualification group against Honduras and Canada. U.S. Soccer scheduled the game to be played in Torrance, California, an area with many Costa Rican expatriates, and marketed the game almost exclusively to the Costa Rican community. Costa Rica won the match 1 -- 0, and kept the U.S. from reaching its fourth World Cup finals.
In 1988, U.S. Soccer attempted to re-implement its national - team - as - club concept, offering contracts to players to train with the national program full - time while occasionally loaning them to club teams as a revenue source for the federation. This brought many key veterans back into the program and allowed the team to begin playing more matches which, combined with an influx of talent from new youth clubs and leagues established across the nation in the wake of the NASL 's popularity, allowed the national team to end the 1980s with optimism and higher hopes of qualifying for the 1990 World Cup than had existed for previous tournaments.
In 1988, FIFA named the U.S. as the host of the 1994 World Cup (success of the 1984 Summer Olympics played the major role), but it did so under significant international criticism because of the perceived weakness of the national team and the lack of a professional outdoor league. This criticism diminished somewhat when a 1 -- 0 win against Trinidad and Tobago, the U.S. 's first road win in nearly two years, in the last match of the 1989 CONCACAF Championship, earned the U.S. its first World Cup appearance in 40 years.
The team was managed by Bob Gansler in preparation for the 1990 World Cup in Italy, with two of the team 's more experienced players, Rick Davis and Hugo Perez, recovering from serious injuries and unavailable for selection. Rather than fill out his team with veteran professionals from American indoor soccer leagues as suggested by some, Gansler and his assistant Stejem Mark chose to select many younger players with better conditioning for the outdoor game, including some amateurs playing for college teams. The U.S. entered the tournament as massive underdogs and suffered defeats in all three of its group games to Czechoslovakia, Italy, and Austria.
In a historic match, in 1993 U.S. Cup, U.S. beat England by 2 -- 0.
After qualifying automatically as the host of the 1994 World Cup under Bora Milutinović, the U.S. opened its tournament schedule with a 1 -- 1 tie against Switzerland in the Pontiac Silverdome in the suburbs of Detroit, the first World Cup game played indoors. In its second game, the U.S. faced Colombia, then ranked fourth in the world, at the Rose Bowl. Aided by an own goal from Andrés Escobar, the U.S. won 2 -- 1. Escobar was later murdered in his home country, possibly in retaliation for this mistake. Despite a 1 -- 0 loss to Romania in its final group game, the U.S. made it past the initial round for the first time since 1930. In the round of 16, the U.S. lost 1 -- 0 to the eventual champion Brazil. Despite this success, the team fired Bora in 1995, reportedly because he was not interested in administrative duties.
In a 1995 friendly, the U.S. came back from 3 -- 0 to win 4 -- 3 against Saudi Arabia, the biggest comeback in the team 's history.
In the 1998 World Cup in France, the team lost all three group matches, 2 -- 0 to Germany, 2 -- 1 to Iran, and 1 -- 0 to Yugoslavia, finishing dead last in the field of 32. Head coach Steve Sampson received much of the blame for the performance as a result of abruptly cutting team captain John Harkes, whom Sampson had named "Captain for Life '' shortly before, as well as several other players who were instrumental to the qualifying effort, from the squad. Thomas Dooley became the Captain at that point. It emerged in February 2010 that Sampson removed Harkes from the team due to Harkes allegedly having an affair with teammate Eric Wynalda 's wife.
In the 2002 World Cup under Bruce Arena, the U.S. reached the quarterfinals, its best finish in a World Cup since 1930. The team advanced in the group stage with a 1 -- 1 -- 1 record. The team started with a 3 -- 2 upset win over Portugal, followed by a 1 -- 1 tie with co-host and eventual semi-finalist, South Korea. The third and final match was lost 1 -- 3 to Poland, but the team still got to the round of 16 when South Korea defeated Portugal. This set the stage for a face - off with continental rivals Mexico, the first time they met in a World Cup. The U.S. won the game 2 -- 0. Brian McBride opened the scoring, and Landon Donovan scored the second goal. That victory advanced the team to the quarterfinals, where it met Germany. The team lost 1 -- 0 after being denied a penalty when Torsten Frings handled the ball to prevent a Gregg Berhalter goal. All of the U.S. games in the 2002 World Cup were played in South Korea and all their victories came wearing the white kit while their only defeats came while wearing the blue kit.
In the 2006 World Cup, after finishing top of the CONCACAF qualification tournament, the U.S. was drawn into Group E along with the Czech Republic, Italy, and Ghana. The United States opened its tournament with a 3 -- 0 loss to the Czech Republic. The team then tied 1 -- 1 against Italy, who went on to win the World Cup. The U.S. was then knocked out of the tournament when beaten 2 -- 1 by Ghana in its final group match, with Clint Dempsey scoring the U.S. 's only goal in the tournament -- the goal against Italy had been an own goal by Italian defender Cristian Zaccardo. Following the tournament, Arena 's contract was not renewed. After the national team remained dormant for the rest of 2006 while negotiating with various coaches, the federation hired former Chicago Fire, MetroStars and Chivas USA manager Bob Bradley in early 2007.
Bradley began his competitive career with the national team with the 2007 Gold Cup. In the final, the United States beat Mexico 2 -- 1, which qualified it for the 2009 Confederations Cup.
The U.S. had a notable performance at the 2009 Confederations Cup. In the semifinals, the U.S. defeated Spain 2 -- 0. At the time, Spain was atop the FIFA World Rankings and was on a run of 35 games undefeated. With the win, the United States advanced to its first - ever final in a men 's FIFA tournament. The team lost 3 -- 2 to Brazil after leading 2 -- 0 at half time.
The United States then hosted the 2009 Gold Cup. In the final, the United States was beaten by Mexico 5 -- 0. This defeat broke the U.S. team 's 58 - match home unbeaten streak against CONCACAF opponents, and was the first home loss to Mexico since 1999.
In the Fourth round of the 2010 World Cup qualification, the U.S. began by beating Mexico 2 -- 0. The February 2009 loss extended Mexico 's losing streak against America on U.S. soil to 11 matches. Jozy Altidore became the youngest U.S. player to score a hat - trick, in a 3 -- 0 victory over Trinidad and Tobago. Near the end of the summer of 2009, the United States lost 2 -- 1 to Mexico at Estadio Azteca. On October 10, the U.S. secured qualification to the 2010 World Cup with a 3 -- 2 win over Honduras. Four days later, the U.S. finished in first place in the group with a 2 -- 2 tie against Costa Rica.
In the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the U.S. team were drawn in Group C against England, Slovenia and Algeria. After drawing against England (1 -- 1) and Slovenia (2 -- 2), the U.S. defeated Algeria 1 -- 0 with a stoppage time goal from Landon Donovan, taking first place in a World Cup Finals group for the first time since 1930. In the round of 16, the U.S. was eliminated by Ghana, 2 -- 1. On FIFA 's ranking of World Cup teams the U.S. finished in 12th place out of the 32 - team field.
The U.S. again hosted the Gold Cup in 2011. The U.S. advanced past the group stage, then defeated Jamaica 2 -- 0 in the quarterfinals and Panama 1 -- 0 in the semifinals before losing to Mexico 4 -- 2 in the final. Later in the summer, Bob Bradley was relieved of his duties and former German national team manager Jürgen Klinsmann was hired as head coach.
The U.S. had some success in friendlies in 2012 and 2013. The U.S. team won 1 -- 0 in Italy on February 29, 2012, the team 's first ever win over Italy. On June 2, 2013, the U.S. played a friendly against Germany at a sold out RFK Stadium in Washington D.C., with the U.S. winning 4 -- 3. In July 2013, the U.S. hosted the 2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup where it went undefeated in the group stage and won with a 1 -- 0 victory over Panama in the final, with Landon Donovan winning the tournament 's golden ball award.
A 4 -- 3 victory over Bosnia and Herzegovina in an international friendly match in Sarajevo represented the 12th straight win for the USMNT, the longest winning streak for any team in the world at that time. The 12 game winning streak ended September 6, 2013, when the U.S. lost to Costa Rica 3 -- 1 in San José. In 2013 the national team played the final round of qualification, and by defeating Mexico in September, the U.S. clinched a spot in the 2014 World Cup.
For the 2014 World Cup, the U.S. was drawn into Group G, along with Ghana, Germany, and Portugal. The U.S. took revenge on the Ghanaians, winning 2 -- 1. They tied their second group game against Portugal 2 -- 2. In the final game of the group stage, the U.S. fell to Germany 1 -- 0, but moved on to the knockout stage on goal difference. This was the first time that the team made two consecutive trips to the knockout stage of the FIFA World Cup. In the round of 16, the U.S. lost 2 -- 1 to Belgium in extra time, despite goalkeeper Tim Howard making a World Cup record 15 saves during the match.
The national team 's next tournament under Klinsmann was the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup. The U.S. were eliminated by Jamaica 2 -- 1 in the semifinals, before losing to Panama on penalties in the third place match. The fourth - place finish was the worst Gold Cup performance by the national team since 2000, and the first time the team failed to make the tournament final since 2003. In the 2015 CONCACAF Cup playoff to determine the region 's entry to the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup, the U.S. were defeated 3 -- 2 by Mexico at the Rose Bowl. In June 2016, the U.S. played as hosts of Copa América Centenario. The U.S. topped Group A on goal difference against Colombia. The U.S. beat Ecuador 2 -- 1 in the quarter - finals, but then fell to Argentina 4 -- 0 and lost to Colombia again 1 -- 0 in the third place match. They finished fourth at the Copa América, tying their best finish ever in 1995.
Following consecutive losses to Mexico and Costa Rica in the opening games of the final round of qualification for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Klinsmann was removed as national team coach and technical director and replaced by previous U.S. manager Bruce Arena. World Cup qualification resumed on March 24, 2017, where Arena and his team had a record 6 -- 0 win over Honduras. Four days later, the team traveled to Panama City, drawing Panama 1 -- 1. After beating Trinidad and Tobago 2 -- 0, the U.S. got their third ever result in World Cup Qualification at the Estadio Azteca when they drew 1 -- 1 against Mexico. In July 2017, the U.S. won their sixth CONCACAF Gold Cup with a 2 -- 1 win over Jamaica in the final. Following an agonizing 2 -- 1 defeat to Trinidad and Tobago on October 10, 2017, the U.S. failed to qualify for the 2018 World Cup, missing the tournament for the first time since 1986. On October 13, 2017, Arena resigned. Many pundits and analysts called this the worst result and worst performance in the history of the national team.
In June 2018 Earnest Stewart was named General Manager of the U.S. Soccer Federation.
Since their first unofficial game against Canada, the most common U.S. uniform has been white tops with blue shorts. In 1950, the U.S. adopted a Peru - styled diagonal stripe or "sash '' across the shirt. The stripe has been on third uniforms for 2003, 2004, and 2006, as well as the 2010 home, road and third uniforms. An additional color scheme based on the U.S. flag has been occasionally used (most prominently in the 1994 World Cup and 2012 -- 13 qualifiers as well the 1983 Team America franchise of the North American Soccer League) comprising a shirt with red and white stripes with blue shorts.
Adidas provided the uniforms for the United States from 1984 until 1994. Since 1995, Nike has been the uniform supplier.
The teams of Mexico and the United States are widely considered as the two major powers of CONCACAF. Matches between the two nations often attract much media attention, public interest and comment in both countries. Although the first match was played in 1934, their rivalry was not considered major until the 1980s, when the teams began to frequently compete in CONCACAF cups. On August 15, 2012, the United States defeated Mexico at Estadio Azteca in the first victory for the U.S. against Mexico on Mexican soil in 75 years. Ever since their first meeting in 1934, the two teams have met 65 times, with Mexico leading the overall series 34 -- 18 -- 15 (W -- L -- T), outscoring the U.S. 138 -- 79. However, since the 1990s, the tide began to change due to a rapid growth of soccer in the United States. During the 21st century, the series has favored the U.S. 13 -- 7 -- 6 (W -- L -- T). The United States and Mexico have won every edition of the CONCACAF Gold Cup except one (the 2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup was won by Canada).
In recent years the United States has also begun to develop a rivalry with Costa Rica.
There have been two main supporter groups backing the United States men 's national soccer team, Sam 's Army and The American Outlaws. Sam 's Army started shortly after the 1994 World Cup in the United States and were active through 2014. Sam 's Army members wore red to matches and sung or chanted throughout the match. They often brought huge U.S. flags and other banners to the game.
The American Outlaws was started in Lincoln, Nebraska in 2007 as a local supporters ' group. The group 's membership attempted to address a lack of consistency from game to game in supporter organization and social events on match days. To achieve this goal the American Outlaws became a nationwide, non-profit, supporters ' group. Some American Outlaws members wear American flag bandanas over their faces and commonly wear soccer supporter scarves. Some branches of the American Outlaws have their own scarves specific to their branch.
The United States does not have a dedicated national stadium like other national teams; instead, the team has played their home matches at 107 venues in 27 states and the District of Columbia. Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium, located in the national capital of Washington, D.C., has hosted 24 matches, the most of any stadium. The State of California has hosted 109 matches, the most of any state, and the Los Angeles metropolitan area has hosted 73 matches at several venues in and around the city of Los Angeles. The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum hosted 20 matches from 1965 to 2000, but fell out of use due to its age. The Rose Bowl, a 92,000 - seat venue in Pasadena, has hosted 17 national team matches, as well as the 1994 FIFA World Cup Final, the 1999 FIFA Women 's World Cup Final, and the 1984 Olympics Gold Medal Match.
ESPN and Fox Sports 1 evenly split the English language rights for U.S. Soccer broadcasts from 2015 to 2022. Univision Deportes has the Spanish language rights to all U.S. Soccer broadcasts from 2015 to 2022. These agreements do not apply to FIFA World Cup away qualifiers, whose rights are distributed by the host country. Therefore, these matches can often be found on other networks such as beIN Sports and Telemundo.
For all past and present players who have appeared for the national team, see United States men 's national team players.
The following 20 players were named to the squad for the friendly against France, on June 9, 2018. Caps and goals are updated as of June 9, 2018, after the match against France.
The following players have also been called up to the United States squad within the last twelve months.
Notes:
The following is a list of match results from the previous 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.
For all past match results of the national team, see single - season articles and the team 's results page.
The U.S. regularly competes at the FIFA World Cup, the CONCACAF Gold Cup, and the Summer Olympics. The U.S. has also played in the FIFA Confederations Cup, Copa América by invitation, as well as several minor tournaments.
The best result for the United States in a World Cup came in 1930 when they reached the semifinals. The best result in the modern era is the 2002 World Cup, when the U.S. reached the quarterfinals. The worst result in the modern era was a first round elimination in 1990, 1998, and 2006.
In the Confederations Cup, the United States finished in third place in both 1992 and 1999, and were runner - up in 2009. The United States appeared in their first intercontinental tournament final at the 2009 Confederations Cup. In the semifinals, the United States upset top ranked Spain 2 -- 0, to advance to the final. In the final, the United States lost 3 -- 2 to Brazil.
The U.S. men 's soccer team have played in the Summer Olympics since 1924. From that tournament to 1976, only amateur players were allowed on Olympic teams per Olympic rules. The Olympics became a full international tournament in 1984 after the IOC allowed full national teams from outside FIFA CONMEBOL & UEFA confederations. Since then the U.S. national team results have dramatically improved. Ever since 1992 the men 's Olympic event has been age - restricted, under 23 plus three overage players, and participation has been by the United States men 's national under - 23 soccer team.
In regional competitions, the United States has won the CONCACAF Gold Cup six times, with their most recent title in 2017. Their best ever finish at the Copa América was fourth - place at the 1995 and 2016 editions.
CONCACAF Championship 1963 -- 1989, CONCACAF Gold Cup 1991 -- present
South American Championship 1916 -- 1967, Copa América 1975 -- present
Major competitions
Minor competitions
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what happened in 1980 during the cold war | Cold War (1979 -- 1985) - wikipedia
Part of a series on the History of the Cold War
The Cold War (1979 -- 1985) refers to the phase of a deterioration in relations between the Soviet Union and the West arising from the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979. With the election of British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in 1979, and United States President Ronald Reagan in 1980, a corresponding change in Western foreign policy approach toward the Soviet Union was marked with the abandonment of détente in favor of the Reagan Doctrine policy of rollback, with the stated goal of dissolving Soviet influence in Soviet Bloc countries. During this time, the threat of nuclear war had reached new heights not seen since the Cuban Missile Crisis.
The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan following the Saur Revolution in that country, ultimately leading to the deaths of around one million civilians. Mujahideen fighters succeeded in forcing a Soviet military withdrawal in 1989. In response, U.S. President Jimmy Carter announced a U.S. - led boycott of the Moscow 1980 Summer Olympics. In 1984, the Soviet Union responded with its own boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, California. Tensions increased when the U.S. announced they would deploy Pershing II missiles in West Germany, followed by Reagan 's announcement of the U.S. Strategic Defense Initiative and were further exacerbated in 1983 when Reagan branded the Soviet Union an "evil empire ''.
In April 1983, the United States Navy conducted FleetEx ' 83 - 1, the largest fleet exercise held to date in the North Pacific. The conglomeration of approximately forty ships with 23,000 crewmembers and 300 aircraft, was arguably the most powerful naval armada ever assembled. U.S. aircraft and ships attempted to provoke the Soviets into reacting, allowing U.S. Naval Intelligence to study Soviet radar characteristics, aircraft capabilities, and tactical maneuvers. On April 4, at least six U.S. Navy aircraft flew over one of the Kurile Islands, Zeleny Island, the largest of a set of islets called the Habomai Islands. The Soviets were outraged and ordered a retaliatory overflight of the Aleutian Islands. The Soviet Union also issued a formal diplomatic note of protest, which accused the United States of repeated penetrations of Soviet airspace. In the following September, the civilian airliner Korean Air Lines Flight 007 was downed by Soviet fighter jets over nearby Moneron Island.
In November 1983, NATO conducted a military exercise known as "Able Archer 83 ''. The realistic simulation of a nuclear attack by NATO forces caused considerable alarm in the USSR and is regarded by many historians to be the closest the world came to nuclear war since the Cuban missile crisis in 1962.
This period of the Cold War would continue through U.S. President Reagan 's first term (1981 -- 1985), through the death of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev in 1982, the brief interim period of Soviet leadership consisting of Yuri Andropov (1982 -- 1984) and Konstantin Chernenko (1984 -- 1985). This phase in the Cold War concluded in 1985 with the ascension of reform - minded Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev who brought a commitment to reduce tensions between the East and the West and bring about major reforms in Soviet society.
During the 1970s, the United States and the Soviet Union had pursued a policy of détente, whereby both sides trying to improve their geopolitical situation while minimizing the risk of direct war between the superpowers. Extensive trade ties were established between nations of both blocs, to the point that approximately 70 percent of the Soviet Union 's grain came from the United States. In 1975, steps to expand political ties between NATO and Soviet - bloc nations (i.e. Ostpolitik) culminated in the signing of the Helsinki Accords. Additionally, several major arms control agreements were signed, such as SALT I & II.
Additionally, efforts were taken by the United States to secure a peace treaty to end its participation in the Vietnam War. To this end, Nixon attempted to induce China to support the peace process and proceeded to make a historic trip to the communist nation. While this outreach to China would ultimately fail to avert communist victory in the Vietnam War, it is still regarded one of the most important geopolitical acts of the 20th century, fundamentally altering the Cold War dynamic between the U.S. and the USSR.
While such efforts toward détente were generally supported by the publics of both sides (for example 68 percent of Americans believed that Nixon 's China Trip would improve world peace) there were still critics of such efforts. In the United States, conservatives such as Barry Goldwater condemned détente, going onto say, "Our objective must be the destruction of the enemy as an ideological force possessing the means of power '' and warning that trade with the Soviet Union assists in the maintenance of Soviet hegemony in Eastern Europe. American opposition to détente was also shared by members of the American left, such as Sen. Henry "Scoop '' Jackson, who believed the Soviet Union needed to be aggressively confronted by the United States. Despite these criticisms, détente continued throughout the 1970s, enjoying support from members of both sides of the American political divide, with both parties nominating pro-détente candidates in the 1976 Presidential Election (President Ford vs. Governor Jimmy Carter.)
In Western Europe, there was also some opposition to détente. As a consequence of West German Chancellor Willy Brandt 's Ostpolitik, the West German government repudiated all claims east of the Oder - Niesse river, forfeiting claims historic German territory that had been lost at the end of World War II. While this move helped ease fears of German revanchism against the Soviet Union and Poland, it drew criticism from Brandt 's chief opponent, the centre - right Christian Democratic Union (CDU.)
In the Soviet Union itself, dissidents such as Andrei Sakharov (also former member of the Soviet nuclear program), warned that Western security was threatened if détente was n't accompanied by liberalization in the Soviet Union. Soviet and Eastern human rights activists came under renewed assault during this time period by communist intelligence services, such as the KGB. The absence of significant western criticism of continued human rights abuses resulted in rising discontent among Eastern European dissidents, with Czech playwright (and future President) Vachlav Havel labeling détente as "naive, thickheaded. ''
Chancellor Willy Brandt (left) with American President Richard Nixon (right.) The two statesmen were champions of détente and trade with the Eastern Bloc.
President Nixon and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai toast one another during the former 's visit to the People 's Republic of China. The two are credited with forging a new axis in the Cold War out of mutual hostility to the Soviet Union.
Secretary of State Dr. Henry Kissenger (right), is widely credited with playing a driving role in American foreign policy during the first half of the 1970s, particularly in regards to Cold War policy.
General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev, the de-facto leader of the Soviet Union from 1964 -- 1982, played the leading role in determining the communist world 's foregin policy during this time period.
This era of relative cooperation was n't without conflict. Throughout the era of détente, both sides continued their stockpiling of nuclear weapons, along with delivery systems for those weapons. The emergence of Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vechiles (MIRVs) radically increased both the Soviet Union 's and the United States ' killing capacity in the event of a nuclear war and increased the possibility of a preventive strike. SALT II was signed in 1979 in an attempt to contain the expansion of MIRVs. However, this treaty was n't ratified by the U.S. Senate due to the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan in December of that year.
Both the Soviet Union and the United States had taken an interest in Afghanistan during the Cold War vying for influence in the neutral mountainous country. To this end, both the Soviet Union and the United States undertook massive infrastructure projects in the underdeveloped nation. So generous was superpower aid that the Afghan Prime Minister Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal once said that, "he could light his American cigarettes with Russian matches. ''
Afghanistan witnessed a period of rising political instability that began with the overthrow of King Zahir Shah in 1973. During the period, Afghanistan witnessed a massive growth in the size of its communist movement, particularly in the ranks of the Afghan military. This culminated in the 1978 Saur Revolution, where by members of the People 's Democratic Party of Afghanistan, a Soviet - backed Marxist -- Leninist party, seized power in a bloody coup.
The communists initiated a radical social and political revolution which saw the liquidation of large numbers of dissidents and "class enemies. '' The coup and subsequent political violence provoked a civil war between the Marxist state and its non-communist opponents, which included, among others, radical Islamists. The deterioration of the communists military position prompted the Soviet Union to intervene in the conflict. The entrance of the Soviet Union into the Afghanistan War is widely credited with ending support for détente and provoked a series of retaliatory responses from the United States, such as the aforementioned withdrawal from SALT II, as well as the imposition of a grain embargo, the boycotting of the 1980 Moscow Summer Olympics, and the beginning of weapons sales to Afghan anti-Soviet rebels. Additionally, it diplomatically isolated the Soviet Union on the world stage, particularly in the Middle East.
The election of Ronald Reagan is widely heralded as a turning point in the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union. According to Henry Kissinger, Reagan was "the first postwar President to take the offensive both ideologically and strategically. '' While Carter had initiated a military buildup after the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan, it would be under the Reagan Administration that the United States would aggressively buildup its conventional and nuclear stockpile, marking a renewed period of competition in place of cooperation.
In 1984, journalist Nicholas Lemann interviewed Reagan Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger and summarized the strategy of the Reagan administration to roll back the Soviet Union:
Lemann notes that when he wrote that in 1984, he thought the Reaganites were living in a fantasy world. But in 2016, he says, that passage represents "a fairly uncontroversial description of what Reagan actually did. ''
The Reagan strategy also included escalating conflicts the Soviets were involved in, especially the Soviet - Afghan war and the Central American crisis. It included diplomatic moves to persuade Western European governments to host American missiles pointed at the Soviet Union. Additionally in included an attempt to construct a space based anti-ballistic missile defense known as the Strategic Defense Initiative (However many critics dubbed it "Star Wars. '')
The strategies were continued until the Revolutions of 1989. People in the Eastern European satellite states revolted against their dictatorships and became parliamentary democracies. Russian people ended their communist system in 1991. Without support from Moscow, many subsidized communist movements in the Asia, Africa, and Latin America virtually collapsed.
In the 1970s, the Polish economy had experienced a period of declining productivity, cultimating in the nations first post-WWII recession in 1979 In 1980, striking workers at the Gdansk Shipyard announced the formation of Solidarity, a non-communist trade union. On Aug. 31, 1980, the Polish government agreed to many of the union 's demands, including its legalization, making Solidarity (now 10 million members strong) the first trade union in the Warsaw Pact to not be under the control of the communist government.
Throughout the following year, Poland experienced growing political chaos as the Solidarity protests spread across the country, threatening the survival of the communist state. On Dec. 31, 1981, General Jaruzelski, head of the Polish military, declared a state of martial law across Poland, ordering the arrest of members of Solidarity and other opposition organizations.
During the period leading up to the declaration of martial law by Poland 's government, there was speculation on both sides of the Iron Curtain about the specter of a Soviet military intervention in the crisis, similar to previous Soviet interventions in Eastern Europe (i.e. Hungarian Revolution, Prague Spring.) However, the Soviets ultimately decided against direct intervention in Poland out of fear of western economic sanctions on the Soviet Union.
Poland would remain in a state of martial law until 1984, when the Polish government began gradually releasing members of the Polish opposition from prison. The conflict between Solidarity and the Jaruzelski government would ultimately come to an end in 1989, with the democratization of Poland and the defeat of the ruling communist party in Poland 's first free post-World War II elections.
During the 1970s, the Soviet Union had developed a new class of intermediate range ballistic missiles capable of carrying nuclear weapons. By the end of 1979, it deployed 130 SS - 20 missiles capable of launching over 390 warheads to the western part of the Soviet Union and to allied Warsaw Pact states. This move set off alarms in the NATO alliance, which was dependent upon tactical nuclear superiority to offset the Soviets conventional superiority.
In order to enhance the nuclear deterrence of the NATO alliance, member states committed to deploy several hundred missiles to Western Europe, mainly Pershing II.
During the Cold War prior to the 1970s and 1980s, the primary heavy strategic bomber of the United States Air Force was the B - 52 Stratofortress. However, the development of more sophisticated Airborne Early Warning and Control (AWACS) technology rendered the B - 52 more vulnerable to attacks from the ground and enemy fighters. The Air Force saw a need for a bomber that could go faster, was more maneuverable, and could still deliver a substantial payload to its target. This led to the development of the B - 1A Lancer in the early to mid 1970s. The B - 1A program was cancelled in 1977 but was later brought back by President Reagan in 1981 under its new and current designation, the B - 1B. The B - 1B is capable of speeds at or above Mach 1.2 and can deliver a payload of 75,000 pounds. The Lancer was a nuclear capable bomber until 1994 when the nuclear mission for the bomber was cancelled, and it was switched to conventional weapons.
Another weapon that was produced during this time frame was the Pershing II Medium - range Ballistic Missile (MRBM). The Pershing II was first deployed in Europe in 1983. It had a range of around 1,000 miles and carried a single W - 85 variable yield nuclear warhead, which had a yield between five and 80 kilotons. Although this warhead has a smaller yield than the W - 50 warhead (up to 150 kilotons), the increased accuracy of the Pershing II missile meant that there was not a need for large yield warheads. Instead, the missile was capable of striking very close to its target using its radar and inertial guidance units.
"Never, perhaps, in the postwar decades has the situation in the world been as explosive and, hence, more difficult and unfavorable as in the first half of the 1980 's. '' - Mikhail Gorbachev, February 1986
Supposedly one of the closest calls during this period of the Cold War happened during the Able Archer exercise performed by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1983. Able Archer 83 was a realistic military simulation exercise performed in November 1983. As part of the exercise, the NATO forces simulated a full - scale nuclear assault which may have invoked an unexpected response from the Soviet Union. After they had received information on what appeared to be a mobilization of NATO forces in Europe, many military officials in the Soviet Union believed that the United States was using the exercise to disguise a strategic nuclear first strike. This led to an unusual response from the Soviet Union. This response involved Soviet military units in East Germany and Poland being put on alert, an abnormal amount of reconnaissance flights. *
Throughout the 70s and 80s, the general public became increasingly concerned with the continuous and growing threat of war and nuclear war in particular, and the - by then - international peace and anti-nuclear movements grew dramatically with many protests, happenings and activist events to spread awareness and push for disarmaments and change political agendas. The movements were most active in Europe, the US, Canada and Japan and a culmination was reached in 1982, June 12, when a million people marched in New York for an end to the Cold War arms race and nuclear weapons. It is the largest gathering of protesters in American history.
The early 1980s saw a continued Afghan resistance to the Soviet invasion. The United States and other anti-Soviet nations, such as Saudi Arabia, Iran and Pakistan, provided material assistance to the Afghan rebels, who were often referred to as the Mujaheddin (Arabic for "holy warriors. '') The United States provided approximately $750 million year to the Afghan rebels, largely via the CIA. This support for the Afghan rebels, which would ultimately go onto include sales of anti-aircraft "Stinger '' missiles, is widely considered as being instrumental in denying the Soviet Union victory in Afghanistan.
In addition to the Afghan War, the Middle East saw several other conflicts during this era. The Iran - Iraq War, pitted the new Islamic revolutionary government of Iran against the Iraqi Baathist state led by Saddam Hussein. Despite fighting an Iraq that was armed by the both the Soviet Union and the West, Iran fought the invaders to a standstill. The war remained a stalemate until 1988, when a status quo ante - bellum cease - fire was arranged between the two parties. The war had claimed the lives of over a million people.
The era also saw the continuation of the Lebanese Civil War (1975 -- 1990), with the American - backed Israelis and the Soviet backed Syrians fighting alongside various Lebanese political factions that they in turn supported.
In Africa, neither the Soviet Union nor the United States got directly involved in the numerous conflicts raging on the continent. However, several African civil wars turned into proxy wars involving foreign powers, with South African and Cuban soldiers fighting one another in the Angolan Civil War. Other conflicts in Africa were the Ethiopian Civil War, the War in Mozambique, and the Second Sudanese Civil War. This combined with a total of 20 successful coups meant that Africa was a continued source of instability throughout the 1980s.
Along with the various military confrontations going on across the continent, South Africa, then still under the control the apartheid government, faced increasing isolation due to both its domestic repression of the indigenous black population and its assertive foreign policy. Soviet - bloc states continued their sponsorship of the ANC and other anti-Apartheid movement s sending both lethal and non-lethal aid. South Africa witnessed increasing instability as both civil disobedience and militant violence against the Pretoria government intensified. In western countries, such as the United States, there was a growing movement calling for the suspension of economic relations with South Africa, often referred to as the Disinvestment Movement. While the movement failed to bring about an immediate end to Western trade with South Africa, by the end of the decade the United States Congress would pass (over President Reagan 's veto) the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act, which combined with other nations taking similar measures would strike a major blow to the South African economy.
In the mid -- 1970s and early 1980s, evidence of biological warfare had appeared in Afghanistan, Laos, and Kampuchea (or Cambodia). The substance commonly found in many of the attacks was T - 2 mycotoxin, a trichothecene mycotoxin which became notorious for its role in the "Yellow Rain '' attacks in the three countries mentioned previously. It is called yellow rain because the substance was usually associated with a yellow color and many of those who witnessed an attack described the substance as sounding like rain when it fell to the ground. The chemical agent was delivered by many different means including: aircraft rockets and bombs, spray tanks, mortar shells, grenades, and traps.
These chemicals were believed to be either supplied or delivered by the Soviets and were used in at least some of over 400 attacks and contributed to at least a fraction of over ten thousand deaths during these attacks. This chemical agent had many severe symptoms including but not limited to: vomiting, damage to the nervous system, skin and eye irritation, vision impairment or loss, and diarrhea.
Following a few years of armed exchanges between the Soviet Union backed Vietnamese and the Chinese backed Cambodian armies, Vietnam launched a full - scale invasion of Cambodia on Christmas Day in 1978. The decision to invade Cambodia was instigated by Cambodia from their many attacks on the Vietnamese, which peaked in 1977 - 78.
The Malayan Communist Party (MCP) launched their second insurgency on June 17, 1968, twenty years after their first insurgency. On that day, the MCP launched an attack which killed 17 members of security forces near Kroh - Bentong. However, things would quickly take a turn for the worse when, in 1970, issues began to arise within the MCP. It was believed that government spies had infiltrated the MCP and began working to divide the group. Many members of the MCP started to accuse each other of working with the government, and if they were found to actually be government agents, would usually be put to death. By late 1974, the government agents ' actions had proved successful. The MCP had split into two main groups. The remnants of the MCP grew weaker and weaker and by 1987 the last remaining groups surrendered. Thus, it marked the end of the MCP insurgency.
The year 1979 witnessed the overthrow of the ruling Somoza family in Nicaragua and their subsequent replacement by the left - wing Sandinista movement, lead by Daniel Ortega. The incoming Reagan Administration was committed to the removal of the Nicaraguan government and armed anti-communist revolutionary forces, commonly referred to as the "Contras. '' In late 1983, the United States Congress limited the Reagan Administration to only $24 million in aid for the Contras. The attempts by members the Reagan Administration to illegally circumvent these restrictions resulted in the Iran - Contra Scandal.
Concerned that Nicaragua was the first "domino '' to fall in Central America, the United States increased arms sales to friendly governments in Honduras, Guatemala, and El Salvador, each of whom were dealing with their own leftist - insurgencies. US aid peaked in 1985 at $1.2 billion before declining to a mere $167 million by 1996 (almost all of the latter was non-military aid.)
Colombia witnessed the continuation of their several decade long civil war with the American backed government of Julio Cesar Turbay Ayala fighting various Marxist rebels and drug smugglers. The dominant rebel group, Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), received financial and material support from the Cuban government.
None of these conflicts would be resolved by the midpoint of the decade, lasting until the early 1990s, or in the case of the FARC insurgency, until 2017.
In 1981, the Chairman of the KGB, Yuri Andropov, and General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev launched the largest ever Soviet intelligence gathering campaign, Operation RYAN (Russian: Raketno Yadernoye Napadenie (Ракетно ядерное нападение), meaning "nuclear missile attack ''). The purpose of this exercise was to deploy operatives to collect as much information as possible on the possibility of a nuclear first strike from the U.S. or other NATO powers.
This eight year watchdog initiative seemed to unnerve rather than reassure the USSR. With all of the information flowing in, it was unclear which piece of intelligence marked the initiation of a preemptive strike, which would call for immediate action from the Soviet side, before the U.S. could even get weapons in the air. When the U.S. rolled out a new class of intermediate - range ballistic missiles, the Pershing II, the KGB knew that the Americans were ready to strike, and if it was a preemptive strike, the Soviet arsenal of retaliatory weapons would be at a high risk. In February 1983, the KGB doubled down on Operation RYAN, focusing on any possible indication of a U.S. plan to attack and exponentially increasing tensions.
Korean Air Lines flight 007 (KAL - 007) was headed toward Seoul, South Korea from Anchorage, AK on Sept. 1, 1983. On its way, the flight passed over the Soviet Kamchatka Peninsula, which was not a part of the flight plan. Soviet fighters launched air - to - air missiles and shot down the passenger plane under orders from Soviet commanders. KAL - 007 crashed into the Pacific Ocean, and the 269 souls on board were lost. Among the dead was Larry McDonald, a US Congressman from Georgia.
The timing of this event along with the multiple other conflicts between the U.S. and the Soviet Union in 1983 created an political climate of high tension which could have quickly escalated to disastrous actions by either side in response.
Just as the USSR intensified its scrutiny of nuclear activity through Operation RYAN, the U.S. and NATO began their most advanced, in - depth, and realistic war simulation yet, known as Able Archer. Launched in November 1983, what made this particular war - game so different, and ultimately so consequential, was the inclusion of an end - game scenario that simulated the nuclear option should the war reach such a level.
Soviet intelligence was able to gather that this new aspect had been included, but they were unable to tell whether or not it was all part of the game, or if there was a potential threat of actual nuclear weapons being released. This escalation in the type of simulation being performed by NATO combined with the presence of Pershing II missiles in West Germany put the USSR on edge. On top of a reported increase in communications from Warsaw forces in East Germany, there was an unusually high number of surveillance flights and large amounts of armed and ready Mig - 23s were stationed near the border. Reports from Soviet sources also claim that certain forces were placed on high alert and multiple SS - 20 and SS -- 19 mobile strategic nuclear missiles were moved and waiting.
Many scholars list this event as the closest the world came to nuclear war since the Cuban Missile Crisis, while others argue that the USSR 's actions were not far from standard operating procedure during NATO war - games, perhaps erring on the side of caution due to the presence of the new Pershing II missiles. Most agree that the accumulating effects of this event and so many others in such a short period caused 1983 to be one of the most intense and nearly disastrous years of the Cold War.
Leonid Brezhnev was Soviet Union 's leader for 18 years from 1964 until his death in 1982. Brezhnev 's health was starting to decline due to his heavy smoking and addiction to sleeping pills toward the end of his time leading the Soviet Union. When Brezhnev 's health got worse, the Soviet Union started having issues because he could not run the country.
Brezhnev tried to help lower nuclear tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States. In 1979, the Brezhnev and United States President Jimmy Carter signed a SALT II agreement. The agreement was a new bilateral strategic arms limitation treaty. However, on December 27, 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, so the United States Senate never ratified the treaty. Hafizullah Amin played a large role in the Soviet Union invading Afghanistan. Amin 's relationship with the Soviet Union was decent but was eventually strained, which was one reason the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.
Brezhnev help grow the Soviet Union 's economy and compete with the United States in an arms race during the 1970s. The 1980s was a different story. Because of Brezhnev 's poor health, he could not lead the Soviet Union, which hurt their economy, military, living standards, and politics. Brezhnev had to start relying more on his advisors because of his health. Brezhnev 's advisors would make critical decisions, and Brezhnev eventually became a figurehead for the Soviet Union. But political corruption spread throughout the Soviet leadership. Brezhnev was eventually criticized for the poor quality of life the Soviet Union 's citizens had in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
Yuri V. Andropov succeeded Leonid Brezhnev, however Andropov 's presidency did not last long. He was only the Soviet Union 's leader for 15 months, from November 1982 to February 1984. Andropov quickly got ill in February 1983, and his health was bad enough that he had to start staying in a hospital frequently. Andropov spent his last few days in a hospital before he died in February 9, 1984.
Andropov wanted to clean up Soviet corruption Andropov and attempted a systemic reform. He dismissed many party ministers and secretaries due to their corruption. Andropov also established the Soviet Union 's rational state - society relations, which was designed to ceate resistance from both the elites and the masses. The statists plan did not work because Andropov died, and the plan alone did not have the strength to be successful.
Andropov thought invading Afghanistan and starting a war was a mistake. He believed it was not in the Soviet Union 's best interest, and he gave four main reasons to UN Secretary Javier Pérez de Cuéllar as to why the invasion is not important. Andropov even visited Afghanistan toward the end of 1981 and the beginning of 1982, but he realized that there was no military solution. Andropov 's response was putting pressure on Afghanistan 's leadership, so the Soviet Union could withdraw without having many problems. Andropov 's death meant his vision for Afghanistan would never materialize.
Andropov wanted to fix the Soviet economy because it was struggling toward the end of Brezhnev 's leadership. Gosplan Baibakov presented the 1983 annual plan of economic and social development, and V.F. Garbuzov presented the economic performance of 1982 for the 1983 budget. After listening to these two plans, Andropov had several ideas on how to improve the Soviet economy, especially through agriculture and agricultural workers. Andropov also wanted the industrial ministry and other ministries to meet their target plans.
The Soviet Union had domestic and foreign problems with its economy, which worried Soviet leaders. Andropov did agree with some parts of Brezhnev 's foreign policies, but he also wanted to create better ones. The Soviet Union 's leaders also struggled to find different ways to solve multiple problems. Andropov 's death meant his economic vision was never fully developed.
After Yuri Andropov 's death, Konstantin Chernenko was elected as the next leader for the Soviet Union. Andropov had not wanted Chernenko to become his successor because Chernenko had emphysema health issues. Andropov wish was to actually have Mikhail Gorbachev succeed him. Chernenko 's reign was even shorter than Andropov 's, 13 months from February 1984 to March 1985.
Leonid Brezhnev had helped Chernenko move higher in the political ranks. Chernenko followed some of Brezhnev 's economic ideals, but he was not open about his economic development plans. Chernenko wanted to improve the Soviet Union 's agriculture methods, production and distribution to help jump start the economy.
One of Chernenko 's major achievements was negotiating and signing a new trade pact with China, worth $1.2 billion. This also helped to ease the relationship between the Soviet Union and China. The trade protocol allowed a 50 percent commerce increase between the Soviet Union and China, but it also allowed the Soviet Union to export machinery, cars and timber.
Chernenko also did some work to help improve the relationship between the Soviet Union and the United States. After the Soviet Union ended the intermediate - range nuclear force negotiations in Geneva, all strategic arm talks ceased and neither side talked to the other for the next 12 months. Nonetheless, Chernenko, contacted recently re-elected President Ronald Reagan to reopen negotiations and met him in Geneva, on January 7, 1985. After two long days of negotiation, both sides agreed to "resume formal negotiations on the basis of a new framework. '' This was a new advance in the Soviet Union and the United States ' relationship because it addressed questions regarding both nuclear and space weapons. This new agreement was one way Chernenko helped the Soviet Union 's relationship with the United States. However, Chernenko did not end the Afghanistan invasion, which could have started the process to end the Cold War.
Even after the agreement between the Soviet Union and the United States, the Soviet Union was still boycotting the 1984 Summer Olympics where the United States was hosting the Olympic Games in Los Angeles. The Soviet Union said the Reagan administration could not ensure the Soviet athletes ' security. The Soviet National Olympic Committee also felt its participants would have poor training conditions.
The Soviet Union 's boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics was also a direct response to the United States ' boycott to the 1980 Summer Olympics, which the Soviet Union hosted in Moscow. The United States and other countries were boycotting the Soviet Union because of the Afghanistan invasion. But Chernenko continued Soviet intervention in Afghanistan even after the United States ' 1980 Summer Olympics boycott. Chernenko 's Soviet Union and Reagan 's United States still had disagreements, so the Cold War could not end before Chernenko died.
Dozens of the board wargames were published covering both historical and hypothetical conflicts at scales ranging from man - to - man to global thermonuclear war. Historical conflicts include the Falklands War, the Iran -- Iraq War, the invasion of Grenada, and the Angolan Civil War. The vast majority of titles concerned contemporary World War III "what - if '' scenarios wherein the Cold War turns hot and focused on a presumed Warsaw Pact invasion of Western Europe. Notable games include Ultimatum (1979), The China War (1979), NATO Division Commander (1980), Fifth Corps series (1980), and MechWar 2 (1980), Task Force (1981), Harpoon (1983), Silo 14 (1983), Assault series (1983), Gulf Strike (1983), Firepower (1984), The Third World War series (1984), Air Cav (1985) and Main Battle Area (1985).
In addition, the period witnessed the release of several videogames dealing with the Cold War and Cold War related issues. Examples include Atari 's well - known arcade - game Missile Command (1980), the somewhat infamous Raid over Moscow (1984), which lets you blast through soviet airdefence and finally destroy Moscow (hence the name), as well as Theatre Europe (1985), which simulate an all - out conventional, albeit hypothetical, war between the Warsaw Pact forces and NATO troops over control of Central Europe. Some of these games advise strongly against the use of nuclear weapons, reflecting a widespread fear of nuclear holocaust at the time. Additionally, there were several video games released that dealt with Cold War geopolitics, such as Balance of Power (1985) and Crisis in the Kremlin (1991.)
Two films released in 1983, WarGames and The Day After, dealt with potential all - out nuclear war between the US and the Soviet Union. President Reagan was given a private screening of The Day After and was said to be deeply shaken. He revised his posture toward nuclear war in favor of eventual nuclear abolition, at least in part due to his experience watching the film.
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who kicked the longest field goal in 2017 | Field goal - wikipedia
A field goal (FG) is a means of scoring in American football and Canadian football. To score a field goal the team in possession of the ball must place kick, or drop kick, the ball through the goal, i.e., between the uprights and over the crossbar. American football requires that a field goal must only come during a play from scrimmage, while Canadian football retains open field kicks and thus field goals may be scored at any time from anywhere on the field and by any player. The vast majority of field goals, in both codes, are placed kicked. Drop kicked field goals were common in the early days of Gridiron football but are almost never done in modern times. In most leagues, a successful field goal awards three points (a notable exception is in six - man football where, due to the difficulty of making a successful field goal because of the small number of players available to stop the opposing team from attempting a block, a field goal is worth four points).
A field goal may also be scored through a fair catch kick, but this is extremely rare. Since a field goal is worth only three points, as opposed to a touchdown, which is worth six points, it is usually only attempted in specific situations (see Strategy).
The goal structure consists of a horizontal crossbar suspended 10 feet (3.0 m) above the ground, with two vertical goalposts 18 feet 6 inches (5.64 m) apart extending vertically from each end of the crossbar. In American football the goals are centered on each end line; in Canadian football the goals are centered on each goal line.
As a field goal is worth only three points, while a touchdown scores at least six (which usually becomes seven with a successful conversion, and potentially 8 with a two - point conversion), teams will generally attempt a field goal only in the following situations:
Except in desperate situations, a team will generally attempt field goals only when keeping a drive alive is unlikely, and its kicker has a significant chance of success, as a missed field goal results in a turnover at the spot of the kick (in the NFL) or at the line of scrimmage (in the NCAA). In American high school rules and Canadian football, where a missed field goal is treated the same as a punt, most teams still opt not to attempt field goals from very long range since field goal formations are not conducive to covering kick returns. Even under ideal conditions, the best professional kickers historically had difficulty making kicks longer than 50 yards consistently (the NFL record is 64 yards and the CFL record, 62 yards). If a team chooses not to attempt a field goal on their last down, they can punt to the other team. A punt can not score any points in American football unless the receiving team touches the ball first and the kicking team recovers it (though it can result in a single in Canadian football), but it may push the other team back toward its own end.
The longest field goal kick in NFL history is 64 yards, a record set by Matt Prater on December 8, 2013. The previous record was 63, originally set by Tom Dempsey and then matched by Jason Elam, Sebastian Janikowski, and David Akers. High school, college and most professional football leagues offer only a three - point field goal; however, some professional leagues have encouraged more rare kicks through four - point field goals. NFL Europe encouraged long field goals of 50 yards or more by making those worth four points instead of three (much like Australian rules ' Super Goal or basketball 's three - point line), a rule since adopted by the Stars Football League. Similarly, the sport of arena football sought (unsuccessfully) to repopularize the drop kick by making that worth four points; it failed, since only one kicker (Brian Mitchell) was able to do it with any semblance of proficiency. (In six - man football, where there is no offensive line, all field goals are worth four points instead of the usual three.)
The overall field goal percentage during the 2010 NFL season was 82.3. In comparison, Jan Stenerud, one of only two pure kickers in the Pro Football Hall of Fame (along with Ray Guy), had a career field goal percentage of 66.8 from 1967 to 1985.
When a team decides to attempt a field goal, it will generally line up in a very tight formation, with all but two players lined up along or near the line of scrimmage: the placekicker and the holder. The holder is usually the team 's punter or backup quarterback. Instead of the regular center, a team may have a dedicated long snapper trained especially to snap the ball on placekick attempts and punts.
The holder usually lines up seven to eight yards behind the line of scrimmage, with the kicker a few yards behind him. Upon receiving the snap, the holder holds the ball against the ground vertically, with the stitches away from the kicker. The kicker begins his approach during the snap, so the snapper and holder have little margin for error. A split - second mistake can disrupt the entire attempt.
The measurement of a field goal 's distance is from the goalpost to the point where the ball was positioned for the kick by the holder. In American football, where the goalpost is located at the back of the end zone (above the end line), the ten yards of the end zone are added to the yard line distance at the spot of the hold.
In the early days of the sport, placekickers approached the ball straight on, with the toe making first contact with the ball. The technique of kicking the ball "soccer - style '', by approaching the ball at an angle and kicking it with the instep, was introduced by kicker Pete Gogolak in the 1960s. The Hungarian - born Gogolak, reflecting his roots in European soccer, observed that kicking the ball at an angle could cover more distance than kicking straight on; today, the soccer - style kick is now universal; the last straight on kicker in the NFL was Mark Moseley, who last played in 1986.
If there is any time left in the half, the method of resuming play after a successful field goal varies between leagues.
A missed field goal is said to be "no good '' if the kicked ball does not cross between the uprights and / or over the crossbar of the goal posts. If it misses to the posts ' left it may be called "wide left '' and "wide right '' if it misses to the posts ' right. A field goal attempt may be described as "short '' if it does not have sufficient distance to go over the cross bar. Some commentators will only describe a field goal attempt as being short if it appears to have been aimed correctly while others will describe an attempt appearing to lack both accuracy and distance as being both wide and short.
If a field goal attempt is missed and does not go out of bounds, a defensive player may catch the ball and return it, like a punt or kickoff. This type of play usually occurs during an extremely long field goal attempt due to the distance the defense must travel to reach the returner. If there is a significant likelihood of a miss and the strategic game situation warrants it, the defense places a player downfield, in or near their end zone, to catch the ball. The risk in this is that the return man may be tackled deep in his own territory, at a considerably worse position than he could have gotten by letting the ball go dead (see below); furthermore, should the returner fumble the ball, the kicking team can recover it and gain a new set of downs (the advantage is that the kicking team is lined up very close together to stop kick blockers, and not spread across the field like a kickoff or punt team, and is therefore in poor position to defend the return). Thus, teams will usually return a kick only towards the end of a half (when the kick will be the final play) or in a particularly desperate situation.
If a ball caroms off one of the goal posts or the crossbar, but lands in the field of play, the ball is considered dead and can not be returned. (This is not the case in arena football, where large "rebound nets '' surround the goal posts for the explicit purpose of keeping the ball in play.) However, if the ball caroms off one of the goal posts or the crossbar and continues into the goal, the score counts.
Situations where the defense does not return a missed field goal vary between leagues and levels of play:
Occasionally, the defense will succeed in blocking a field goal. If a blocked field goal is in or behind the neutral zone, it is treated like a fumble and can be advanced by either team. Beyond the neutral zone, a blocked kick is treated like a punt and can be advanced only by the defense, unless a defensive player fumbles the ball, after which an offensive player can advance it.
In the early days of football, kicking was highly emphasized. In 1883, the scoring system was devised, with field goals counting for 5 points, and touchdowns and conversions worth 4 apiece. In 1897, the touchdown was raised to 5 points while the conversion was lowered to 1 point. Field goals were devalued to 4 points in 1904, and then to the modern 3 points in 1909. The touchdown was changed to 6 points in 1912 in American football; the Canadian game followed suit in 1956.
The spot of the conversion has also changed through the years. In 1924, NCAA rules spotted the conversion at the 3 - yard line, before moving it back to the 5 - yard line in 1925. In 1929, the spot was moved up to the 2 - yard line, which the NFL had done until 2014. In 1968, the NCAA diverged from the NFL rules in moving the spot back to the original 3 - yard line. Canadian rules originally spotted the conversion at the 5 - yard line, which remains closer than in the American code as the goalposts are at the front of the end zone. In 2015, to make conversion kicks harder, the NFL and CFL moved the spot of the kick to the 15 and 25 - yard lines, respectively. In addition, the CFL moved the spot for a two - point conversion up to the 3 - yard line to entice more teams to go for 2 points as opposed to one.
The goalposts were originally located on the goal line; this led to many injuries and sometimes interfered with play. The NCAA moved the goal posts to the rear of the end zone in 1927. The NFL (still following NCAA rules at the time) followed suit, but moved the posts back to the goal line starting in the 1932 NFL Playoff Game, a change made necessary by the size of the indoor Chicago Stadium and kept when the NFL rules stopped mirroring the NCAA rules in 1933. The NFL kept the post at the goal line until 1974, when they were moved back to the rear of the end zone. This was partly a result of the narrowed hashmark distance made in 1972, which had made for easier field - goal angles. The Canadian game still has posts on the goal line.
The width of the goalposts and the hashmarks have also varied throughout the years. In 1959, the NCAA goalposts were widened to 23 feet 4 inches (7.11 m), the standard width for high school posts today. In 1991, the college goalposts were reduced in width to 18 ft 6 in (5.64 m), matching the NFL. For the 1991 and 1992 seasons, this meant potentially severe angles for short field goal attempts, since the hashmark width remained at 53 ft 4 in (16.26 m). In 1993, the NCAA narrowed the distance between the hashmarks to 40 ft (12.19 m), matching what was the width of hashmarks in the NFL from 1945 through 1971; the NFL narrowed the hashmarks in 1972 to goalpost width at 18.5 feet (5.64 m). In the CFL, the hashmarks are 51 feet (16 m), but the field is 195 feet (59 m) in width, 35 feet (11 m) wider than the American field.
The NFL increased the height of the uprights above the crossbar to 20 feet (6.10 m) in 1966 and 30 feet (9.14 m) in 1974. In 2014, they were raised five feet to 35 feet (10.67 m) after the adoption of a proposal by New England Patriots head coach Bill Belichick.
The "slingshot '' goalpost, with a single post curving to support the crossbar, was invented by Jim Trimble and Joel Rottman in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The first were built by Alcan and displayed at Expo 67, the World 's fair in Montreal. The NFL had standardized the goalposts in 1966 and adopted the slingshot for the 1967 season; the NCAA later adopted the same rule, but later allowed the use of "offset '' goalposts, with two posts rather than one (which were the norm prior to the invention of the "slingshot '' goalposts). The CFL was the first league to use the new goalposts; they made their debut in the 2nd game of the CFL 's Eastern Conference final in 1966 (which was played at Montreal 's Autostade as Landsdowne Park (now TD Place Stadium), the home of Ottawa Rough Riders, was undergoing renovations), and were used in the Grey Cup the next week at Vancouver 's Empire Stadium. Three schools in Division I FBS currently use dual - support posts: Florida State, LSU, and Washington State. A special exemption was allowed by the NFL for the New Orleans Saints to use the offset goalposts during the 2005 season, when they used LSU 's stadium for home games after Hurricane Katrina.
Goalposts at the professional level today are sometimes equipped with a camera mounted to the stanchion immediately behind the center of the crossbar. Since these cameras are both above and slightly behind the crossbar, a field goal attempt will be judged good if it strikes this equipment.
In 1989, the NCAA banned the kicking tee for field goals and extra points, requiring kicks from the ground.
During the 2011 NFL season, a record 90 field goals of 50 yards or longer were made. In 2012, this record was increased to 92 field goals of 50 yards or longer.
As recorded in Guinness World Records:
The record for a field goal at any level is 69 yards. It was kicked by Ove Johansson of the Abilene Christian University Wildcats in the 1976 game against East Texas State University Lions (now Texas A&M University -- Commerce) in Shotwell Stadium, Abilene, Texas.
The longest field goal made was 64 yards by Matt Prater of the Denver Broncos on December 8, 2013. The longest field goal attempt in an NFL game was 76 yards by Sebastian Janikowski on September 28, 2008.
In the history of the NFL regular season, only 18 field goals have been made from at least 60 yards:
Prior to Dempsey 's 1970 kick, the longest field goal in NFL history was a 56 - yard field goal by Bert Rechichar in 1953. A 55 - yard field goal, achieved by a drop kick, was recorded by Paddy Driscoll in 1924, and stood as the unofficial record until that point; some sources indicate a 54 - yarder by Glenn Presnell in 1934 as the record, due to the inability to precisely verify Driscoll 's 55 - yarder.
In a pre-season NFL game between the Denver Broncos and the Seattle Seahawks on August 29, 2002, Ola Kimrin kicked a 65 - yard field goal. However, because pre-season games are not counted toward official records, this accomplishment is not the official record.
All of the above kicks were successful with the use of a kicking tee, which was banned by the NCAA after the 1988 season.
The longest known drop - kicked field goal in college football was a 62 - yard kick from Pat O'Dea, an Australian kicker who played on the Wisconsin Badgers football team. O'Dea's kick took place in a blizzard against Northwestern on November 15, 1898.
The longest field goal in U Sports football history is 59 yards, by Niko Difonte of Calgary Dinos, playing against the UBC Thunderbirds on November 11, 2017. The field goal was the final and winning play of the 81st Hardy Cup.
Field goal returns are rare in the NFL, since an attempt with sufficient distance that misses the uprights will automatically be dead. Returns are possible when a field goal is short, but in that case returners will usually down the ball so as to scrimmage from the spot of the kick. Normally, a return will only be attempted when there is not enough time left in the half to run a play from scrimmage. Nevertheless, four field goals have been returned for at least 107 yards in the 21st century:
Because the goalposts in Canadian football are on the goal line, and because downing the ball in the end zone results in the kicking team scoring a single point, field goal returns are much more common. The longest missed field goal return in the CFL is 131 total yards. Against the Montreal Alouettes on August 22, 1958, the Toronto Argonauts ' Boyd Carter ran 15 yards, then threw a lateral to Dave Mann, who then returned it for the final 116 yards. This return, which started 21 yards behind the goal line, was during the era of 25 - yard end zones (which made the maximum theoretical missed field return distance 134 yards in those days) and therefore can not be met or exceeded on the modern field with 20 - yard end zones. Since the shortening of the end zones in the CFL in 1986, a field goal has been returned for the maximum 129 yards on two occasions: by Tristan Jackson of the Saskatchewan Roughriders on July 14, 2012 and by Trent Guy of the Montreal Alouettes on September 23, 2012.
In NCAA college football, only five missed field goals returns for touchdowns have ever been returned 100 yards or more:
In U Sports football, like in the CFL, the longest possible missed field goal return is 129 yards, and this has occurred three times.
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describe the key functions of the major pathways in the visual cortex. | Visual cortex - wikipedia
The visual cortex of the brain is a part of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information. It is located in the occipital lobe in the back of the head.
Visual information coming from the eye goes through the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus and then reaches the visual cortex. The part of the visual cortex that receives the sensory inputs from the thalamus is the primary visual cortex, also known as visual area 1 (V1), and the striate cortex. The extrastriate areas consist of visual areas 2 (V2), 3 (V3), 4 (V4), and 5 (V5).
Both hemispheres of the brain contain a visual cortex; the visual cortex in the left hemisphere receives signals from the right visual field, and the visual cortex in the right hemisphere receives signals from the left visual field.
The primary visual cortex (V1) is located in and around the calcarine fissure in the occipital lobe. Each hemisphere 's V1 receives information directly from its ipsilateral lateral geniculate nucleus that receives signals from the contralateral visual hemifield.
Neurons in the visual cortex fire action potentials when visual stimuli appear within their receptive field. By definition, the receptive field is the region within the entire visual field that elicits an action potential. But, for any given neuron, it may respond best to a subset of stimuli within its receptive field. This property is called neuronal tuning. In the earlier visual areas, neurons have simpler tuning. For example, a neuron in V1 may fire to any vertical stimulus in its receptive field. In the higher visual areas, neurons have complex tuning. For example, in the inferior temporal cortex (IT), a neuron may fire only when a certain face appears in its receptive field.
The visual cortex receives its blood supply primarily from the calcarine branch of the posterior cerebral artery.
V1 transmits information to two primary pathways, called the ventral stream and the dorsal stream.
The what vs. where account of the ventral / dorsal pathways was first described by Ungerleider and Mishkin.
More recently, Goodale and Milner extended these ideas and suggested that the ventral stream is critical for visual perception whereas the dorsal stream mediates the visual control of skilled actions. It has been shown that visual illusions such as the Ebbinghaus illusion distort judgements of a perceptual nature, but when the subject responds with an action, such as grasping, no distortion occurs.
Work such as the one from Scharnowski and Gegenfurtner suggests that both the action and perception systems are equally fooled by such illusions. Other studies, however, provide strong support for the idea that skilled actions such as grasping are not affected by pictorial illusions and suggest that the action / perception dissociation is a useful way to characterize the functional division of labor between the dorsal and ventral visual pathways in the cerebral cortex.
The primary visual cortex is the most studied visual area in the brain. In mammals, it is located in the posterior pole of the occipital lobe and is the simplest, earliest cortical visual area. It is highly specialized for processing information about static and moving objects and is excellent in pattern recognition.
The functionally defined primary visual cortex is approximately equivalent to the anatomically defined striate cortex. The name "striate cortex '' is derived from the line of Gennari, a distinctive stripe visible to the naked eye that represents myelinated axons from the lateral geniculate body terminating in layer 4 of the gray matter.
The primary visual cortex is divided into six functionally distinct layers, labeled 1 to 6. Layer 4, which receives most visual input from the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), is further divided into 4 layers, labelled 4A, 4B, 4Cα, and 4Cβ. Sublamina 4Cα receives mostly magnocellular input from the LGN, while layer 4Cβ receives input from parvocellular pathways.
The average number of neurons in the adult human primary visual cortex in each hemisphere has been estimated at around 140 million.
V1 has a very well - defined map of the spatial information in vision. For example, in humans, the upper bank of the calcarine sulcus responds strongly to the lower half of visual field (below the center), and the lower bank of the calcarine to the upper half of visual field. In concept, this retinotopic mapping is a transformation of the visual image from retina to V1. The correspondence between a given location in V1 and in the subjective visual field is very precise: even the blind spots are mapped into V1. In terms of evolution, this correspondence is very basic and found in most animals that possess a V1. In humans and animals with a fovea in the retina, a large portion of V1 is mapped to the small, central portion of visual field, a phenomenon known as cortical magnification. Perhaps for the purpose of accurate spatial encoding, neurons in V1 have the smallest receptive field size of any visual cortex microscopic regions.
The tuning properties of V1 neurons (what the neurons respond to) differ greatly over time. Early in time (40 ms and further) individual V1 neurons have strong tuning to a small set of stimuli. That is, the neuronal responses can discriminate small changes in visual orientations, spatial frequencies and colors. Furthermore, individual V1 neurons in human and animals with binocular vision have ocular dominance, namely tuning to one of the two eyes. In V1, and primary sensory cortex in general, neurons with similar tuning properties tend to cluster together as cortical columns. David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel proposed the classic ice - cube organization model of cortical columns for two tuning properties: ocular dominance and orientation. However, this model can not accommodate the color, spatial frequency and many other features to which neurons are tuned. The exact organization of all these cortical columns within V1 remains a hot topic of current research. The mathematical modeling of this function has been compared to Gabor transforms.
Later in time (after 100 ms), neurons in V1 are also sensitive to the more global organisation of the scene (Lamme & Roelfsema, 2000). These response properties probably stem from recurrent feedback processing (the influence of higher - tier cortical areas on lower - tier cortical areas) and lateral connections from pyramidal neurons (Hupe et al. 1998). While feedforward connections are mainly driving, feedback connections are mostly modulatory in their effects (Angelucci et al., 2003; Hupe et al., 2001). Evidence shows that feedback originating in higher - level areas such as V4, IT, or MT, with bigger and more complex receptive fields, can modify and shape V1 responses, accounting for contextual or extra-classical receptive field effects (Guo et al., 2007; Huang et al., 2007; Sillito et al., 2006).
The visual information relayed to V1 is not coded in terms of spatial (or optical) imagery but rather are better described as edge detection. As an example, for an image comprising half side black and half side white, the dividing line between black and white has strongest local contrast (that is, edge detection) and is encoded, while few neurons code the brightness information (black or white per se). As information is further relayed to subsequent visual areas, it is coded as increasingly non-local frequency / phase signals. Note that, at these early stages of cortical visual processing, spatial location of visual information is well preserved amid the local contrast encoding (edge detection).
Axiomatically determined functional models of simple cells in V1 have been determined by Lindeberg in terms of directional derivatives of affine Gaussian kernels over the spatial domain in combination with temporal derivatives of either non-causal or time - causal scale - space kernels over the temporal domain (see axiomatic theory of receptive fields). Specifically, it has been shown that this theory both leads to predictions about receptive fields with good qualitative agreement with the biological receptive field measurements performed by DeAngelis et al. and guarantees good theoretical properties of the mathematical receptive field model, including covariance and invariance properties under natural image transformations.
Differences in size of V1 also seem to have an effect on the perception of illusions.
Visual area V2, or secondary visual cortex, also called prestriate cortex, is the second major area in the visual cortex, and the first region within the visual association area. It receives strong feedforward connections from V1 (direct and via the pulvinar) and sends strong connections to V3, V4, and V5. It also sends strong feedback connections to V1.
In terms of anatomy, V2 is split into four quadrants, a dorsal and ventral representation in the left and the right hemispheres. Together, these four regions provide a complete map of the visual world. V2 has many properties in common with V1: Cells are tuned to simple properties such as orientation, spatial frequency, and colour. The responses of many V2 neurons are also modulated by more complex properties, such as the orientation of illusory contours, binocular disparity, and whether the stimulus is part of the figure or the ground. Recent research has shown that V2 cells show a small amount of attentional modulation (more than V1, less than V4), are tuned for moderately complex patterns, and may be driven by multiple orientations at different subregions within a single receptive field.
It is argued that the entire ventral visual - to - hippocampal stream is important for visual memory. This theory, unlike the dominant one, predicts that object - recognition memory (ORM) alterations could result from the manipulation in V2, an area that is highly interconnected within the ventral stream of visual cortices. In the monkey brain, this area receives strong feedforward connections from the primary visual cortex (V1) and sends strong projections to other secondary visual cortices (V3, V4, and V5). Most of the neurons of this area are tuned to simple visual characteristics such as orientation, spatial frequency, size, color, and shape. Anatomical studies implicate layer 3 of area V2 in visual - information processing. In contrast to layer 3, layer 6 of the visual cortex is composed of many types of neurons, and their response to visual stimuli is more complex.
In a recent study, the Layer 6 cells of the V2 cortex were found to play a very important role in the storage of Object Recognition Memory as well as the conversion of short - term object memories into long - term memories.
The term third visual complex refers to the region of cortex located immediately in front of V2, which includes the region named visual area V3 in humans. The "complex '' nomenclature is justified by the fact that some controversy still exists regarding the exact extent of area V3, with some researchers proposing that the cortex located in front of V2 may include two or three functional subdivisions. For example, David Van Essen and others (1986) have proposed the existence of a "dorsal V3 '' in the upper part of the cerebral hemisphere, which is distinct from the "ventral V3 '' (or ventral posterior area, VP) located in the lower part of the brain. Dorsal and ventral V3 have distinct connections with other parts of the brain, appear different in sections stained with a variety of methods, and contain neurons that respond to different combinations of visual stimulus (for example, colour - selective neurons are more common in the ventral V3). Additional subdivisions, including V3A and V3B have also been reported in humans. These subdivisions are located near dorsal V3, but do not adjoin V2.
Dorsal V3 is normally considered to be part of the dorsal stream, receiving inputs from V2 and from the primary visual area and projecting to the posterior parietal cortex. It may be anatomically located in Brodmann area 19. Braddick using fMRI has suggested that area V3 / V3A may play a role in the processing of global motion Other studies prefer to consider dorsal V3 as part of a larger area, named the dorsomedial area (DM), which contains a representation of the entire visual field. Neurons in area DM respond to coherent motion of large patterns covering extensive portions of the visual field (Lui and collaborators, 2006).
Ventral V3 (VP), has much weaker connections from the primary visual area, and stronger connections with the inferior temporal cortex. While earlier studies proposed that VP contained a representation of only the upper part of the visual field (above the point of fixation), more recent work indicates that this area is more extensive than previously appreciated, and like other visual areas it may contain a complete visual representation. The revised, more extensive VP is referred to as the ventrolateral posterior area (VLP) by Rosa and Tweedale.
Visual area V4 is one of the visual areas in the extrastriate visual cortex. In macaques, it is located anterior to V2 and posterior to posterior inferotemporal area (PIT). It comprises at least four regions (left and right V4d, left and right V4v), and some groups report that it contains rostral and caudal subdivisions as well. It is unknown whether the human V4 is as expansive as that of the macaque homologue which is a subject of debate.
V4 is the third cortical area in the ventral stream, receiving strong feedforward input from V2 and sending strong connections to the PIT. It also receives direct input from V1, especially for central space. In addition, it has weaker connections to V5 and dorsal prelunate gyrus (DP).
V4 is the first area in the ventral stream to show strong attentional modulation. Most studies indicate that selective attention can change firing rates in V4 by about 20 %. A seminal paper by Moran and Desimone characterizing these effects was the first paper to find attention effects anywhere in the visual cortex.
Like V2, V4 is tuned for orientation, spatial frequency, and color. Unlike V2, V4 is tuned for object features of intermediate complexity, like simple geometric shapes, although no one has developed a full parametric description of the tuning space for V4. Visual area V4 is not tuned for complex objects such as faces, as areas in the inferotemporal cortex are.
The firing properties of V4 were first described by Semir Zeki in the late 1970s, who also named the area. Before that, V4 was known by its anatomical description, the prelunate gyrus. Originally, Zeki argued that the purpose of V4 was to process color information. Work in the early 1980s proved that V4 was as directly involved in form recognition as earlier cortical areas. This research supported the two - streams hypothesis, first presented by Ungerleider and Mishkin in 1982.
Recent work has shown that V4 exhibits long - term plasticity, encodes stimulus salience, is gated by signals coming from the frontal eye fields, and shows changes in the spatial profile of its receptive fields with attention.
The middle temporal visual area (MT or V5) is a region of extrastriate visual cortex. In several species of both New World monkeys and Old World monkeys the MT area contains a high concentration of direction - selective neurons. The MT in primates is thought to play a major role in the perception of motion, the integration of local motion signals into global percepts, and the guidance of some eye movements.
MT is connected to a wide array of cortical and subcortical brain areas. Its input comes from visual cortical areas V1, V2 and dorsal V3 (dorsomedial area), the koniocellular regions of the LGN, and the inferior pulvinar. The pattern of projections to MT changes somewhat between the representations of the foveal and peripheral visual fields, with the latter receiving inputs from areas located in the midline cortex and retrosplenial region.
A standard view is that V1 provides the "most important '' input to MT. Nonetheless, several studies have demonstrated that neurons in MT are capable of responding to visual information, often in a direction - selective manner, even after V1 has been destroyed or inactivated. Moreover, research by Semir Zeki and collaborators has suggested that certain types of visual information may reach MT before it even reaches V1.
MT sends its major output to areas located in the cortex immediately surrounding it, including areas FST, MST, and V4t (middle temporal crescent). Other projections of MT target the eye movement - related areas of the frontal and parietal lobes (frontal eye field and lateral intraparietal area).
The first studies of the electrophysiological properties of neurons in MT showed that a large portion of the cells are tuned to the speed and direction of moving visual stimuli.
Lesion studies have also supported the role of MT in motion perception and eye movements. Neuropsychological studies of a patient unable to see motion, seeing the world in a series of static ' frames ' instead, suggested that V5 in the primate is homologous to MT in the human.
However, since neurons in V1 are also tuned to the direction and speed of motion, these early results left open the question of precisely what MT could do that V1 could not. Much work has been carried out on this region, as it appears to integrate local visual motion signals into the global motion of complex objects. For example, lesion to the V5 leads to deficits in perceiving motion and processing of complex stimuli. It contains many neurons selective for the motion of complex visual features (line ends, corners). Microstimulation of a neuron located in the V5 affects the perception of motion. For example, if one finds a neuron with preference for upward motion in a monkey 's V5 and stimulates it with an electrode, then the monkey becomes more likely to report ' upward ' motion when presented with stimuli containing ' left ' and ' right ' as well as ' upward ' components.
There is still much controversy over the exact form of the computations carried out in area MT and some research suggests that feature motion is in fact already available at lower levels of the visual system such as V1.
MT was shown to be organized in direction columns. DeAngelis argued that MT neurons were also organized based on their tuning for binocular disparity.
The dorsomedial area (DM) also known as V6, appears to respond to visual stimuli associated with self - motion and wide - field stimulation. V6, is a subdivision of the visual cortex of primates first described by John Allman and Jon Kaas in 1975. V6 is located in the dorsal part of the extrastriate cortex, near the deep groove through the centre of the brain (medial longitudinal fissure), and typically also includes portions of the medial cortex, such as the parieto - occipital sulcus. DM contains a topographically organized representation of the entire field of vision.
There are similarities between the visual area V5 and V6 of the common marmoset. Both areas receive direct connections from the primary visual cortex. And both have a high myelin content, a characteristic that is usually present in brain structures involved in fast transmission of information.
For many years, it was considered that DM only existed in New World monkeys. However, more recent research has suggested that DM also exists in Old World monkeys and perhaps humans. V6 is also sometimes referred to as the parieto - occipital area (PO), although the correspondence is not exact.
Neurons in area DM / V6 of night monkeys and common marmosets have unique response properties, including an extremely sharp selectivity for the orientation of visual contours, and preference for long, uninterrupted lines covering large parts of the visual field.
However, in comparison with area MT, a much smaller proportion of DM cells shows selectivity for the direction of motion of visual patterns. Another notable difference with area MT is that cells in DM are attuned to low spatial frequency components of an image, and respond poorly to the motion of textured patterns such as a field of random dots. These response properties suggest that DM and MT may work in parallel, with the former analyzing self - motion relative to the environment, and the latter analyzing the motion of individual objects relative to the background.
Recently, an area responsive to wide - angle flow fields has been identified in the human and is thought to be a homologue of macaque area V6.
The connections and response properties of cells in DM / V6 suggest that this area is a key node in a subset of the ' dorsal stream ', referred to by some as the ' dorsomedial pathway '. This pathway is likely to be important for the control of skeletomotor activity, including postural reactions and reaching movements towards objects The main ' feedforward ' connection of DM is to the cortex immediately rostral to it, in the interface between the occipital and parietal lobes (V6A). This region has, in turn, relatively direct connections with the regions of the frontal lobe that control arm movements, including the premotor cortex.
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where does the legend of dracula come from | Dracula - wikipedia
Dracula is an 1897 Gothic horror novel by Irish author Bram Stoker. It introduced Count Dracula, and established many conventions of subsequent vampire fantasy. The novel tells the story of Dracula 's attempt to move from Transylvania to England so that he may find new blood and spread the undead curse, and of the battle between Dracula and a small group of men and a woman led by Professor Abraham Van Helsing.
Dracula has been assigned to many literary genres including vampire literature, horror fiction, the gothic novel, and invasion literature. The novel has spawned numerous theatrical, film, and television interpretations.
The story is told in epistolary format, as a series of letters, diary entries, newspaper articles, and ships ' log entries, whose narrators are the novel 's protagonists, and occasionally supplemented with newspaper clippings relating events not directly witnessed. The events portrayed in the novel take place chronologically and largely in England and Transylvania during the 1890s and all transpire within the same year between 3 May and 6 November. A short note is located at the end of the final chapter written 7 years after the events outlined in the novel.
The tale begins with Jonathan Harker, a newly qualified English solicitor, visiting Count Dracula in the Carpathian Mountains on the border of Transylvania, Bukovina, and Moldavia, to provide legal support for a real estate transaction overseen by Harker 's employer, Mr Peter Hawkins of Exeter. At first enticed by Dracula 's gracious manners, Harker soon realizes that he is Dracula 's prisoner. Wandering the Count 's castle against Dracula 's admonition, Harker encounters three female vampires, called "the sisters '', from whom he is rescued by Dracula. After the preparations are made, Dracula leaves Transylvania and abandons Harker to the sisters. Harker barely escapes from the castle with his life.
Dracula boards a Russian ship, the Demeter, taking along with him boxes of Transylvanian soil, which he required in order to regain his strength. Not long afterward, the ship having weighed anchor at Varna, runs aground on the shores of Whitby in the east coast of England. The captain 's log narrates the gradual disappearance of the entire crew, until the captain alone remained, himself bound to the helm to maintain course. An animal resembling "a large dog '' is seen leaping ashore. The ship 's cargo is described as silver sand and 50 boxes of "mould '', or earth, from Transylvania. It is later learned that Dracula successfully purchased multiple estates under the alias ' Count De Ville ' throughout London and devised to distribute the 50 boxes to each of them utilizing transportation services as well as moving them himself. He does this to secure for himself "lairs '' and the 50 boxes of earth would be used as his graves which would grant safety and rest during times of feeding and replenishing his strength.
Harker 's fiancée, Mina Murray, is staying with her friend Lucy Westenra, who is holidaying in Whitby. Lucy receives three marriage proposals from Dr. John Seward, Quincey Morris, and Arthur Holmwood (the son of Lord Godalming who later obtains the title himself). Lucy accepts Holmwood 's proposal while turning down Seward and Morris, but all remain friends. Dracula communicates with Seward 's patient, Renfield, an insane man who wishes to consume insects, spiders, birds, and rats to absorb their "life force ''. Renfield is able to detect Dracula 's presence and supplies clues accordingly.
Soon Dracula is indirectly shown to be stalking Lucy. As time passes she begins to suffer from episodes of sleepwalking and dementia, as witnessed by Mina. When Lucy begins to waste away suspiciously, Seward invites his old teacher, Abraham Van Helsing, who immediately determines the true cause of Lucy 's condition. He refuses to disclose it but diagnoses her with acute blood - loss. Van Helsing prescribes numerous blood transfusions to which he, Seward, Quincey, and Arthur all contribute over time. Van Helsing also prescribes garlic flowers to be placed throughout her room and weaves a necklace of withered garlic blossoms for her to wear. However she continues to waste away -- appearing to lose blood every night. While both doctors are absent, Lucy and her mother are attacked by a wolf and Mrs. Westenra, who has a heart condition, dies of fright. Van Helsing attempts to protect her with garlic but fate thwarts him each night, whether Lucy 's mother removes the garlic from her room, or Lucy herself does so in her restless sleep. The doctors have found two small puncture marks about her neck, which Dr. Seward is at a loss to understand. After Lucy dies, Van Helsing places a golden crucifix over her mouth, ostensibly to delay or prevent Lucy 's vampiric conversion. Fate conspires against him again when Van Helsing finds the crucifix in the possession of one of the servants who stole it off Lucy 's corpse.
Following Lucy 's death and burial, the newspapers report children being stalked in the night by a "bloofer lady '' (i.e., "beautiful lady ''). Van Helsing, knowing Lucy has become a vampire, confides in Seward, Lord Godalming, and Morris. The suitors and Van Helsing track her down and, after a confrontation with her, stake her heart, behead her, and fill her mouth with garlic. Around the same time, Jonathan Harker arrives from Budapest, where Mina marries him after his escape, and he and Mina join the campaign against Dracula.
The vampire hunters stay at Dr. Seward 's residence, holding nightly meetings and providing reports based on each of their various tasks. Mina discovers that each of their journals and letters collectively contain clues to which they can track him down. She tasks herself with collecting them, researching newspaper clippings, fitting the most relevant entries into chronological order and typing out copies to distribute to each of the party which they are to study. Jonathan Harker tracks down the shipments of boxed graves and the estates which Dracula has purchased in order to store them. Van Helsing conducts research along with Dr. Seward to analyze the behaviour of their patient Renfield who they learn is directly influenced by Dracula. They also research historical events, folklore, and superstitions from various cultures to understand Dracula 's powers and weaknesses. Van Helsing also establishes a criminal profile on Dracula in order to better understand his actions and predict his movements. Arthur Holmwood 's fortune assists in funding the entire operation and expenses. As they discover the various properties Dracula had purchased, the male protagonists team up to raid each property and are several times confronted by Dracula. As they discover each of the boxed graves scattered throughout London, they pry them open to place and seal wafers of sacramental bread within. This act renders the boxes of earth completely useless to Dracula as he is unable to open, enter or further transport them.
After Dracula learns of the group 's plot against him, he attacks Mina on three occasions, and feeds Mina his own blood to control her. This curses Mina with vampirism and changes her but does not completely turn her into a vampire. Van Helsing attempts to bless Mina through prayer and by placing a wafer of sacrament against her forehead, but it burns her upon contact leaving a wretched scar. Under this curse, Mina oscillates from consciousness to a semi-trance during which she perceives Dracula 's surroundings and actions. Van Helsing is able to use hypnotism at the hour of dawn and put her into this trance to further track his movements. Mina, afraid of Dracula 's link with her, urges the team not to tell her their plans out of fear that Dracula will be listening. After the protagonists discover and sterilize 49 boxes found throughout his lairs in London, they learn that Dracula has fled with the missing 50th box back to his castle in Transylvania. They pursue him under the guidance of Mina. They split up into teams once they reach Europe; Van Helsing and Mina team up to locate the castle of Dracula while the others attempt to ambush the boat Dracula is using to reach his home. Van Helsing raids the castle and destroys the vampire "sisters ''. Upon discovering Dracula being transported by Gypsies, the trio attack the caravan carrying Dracula in the 50th box of Earth. After dispatching many Gypsies who were sworn to protect the Count, Harker shears Dracula through the throat with a kukri knife, while the mortally wounded Quincey stabs the Count in the heart with a Bowie knife. Dracula crumbles to dust, and Mina is freed from her curse of vampirism, as the scar on her forehead disappears. Soon after, Quincey dies from his wounds.
The book closes with a note left by Jonathan Harker seven years after the events of the novel, detailing his married life with Mina and the birth of their son, whom they name after all four members of the party, but address as "Quincey ''. Quincey is depicted sitting on the knee of Van Helsing as they recount their adventure. Seward and Arthur have each gotten married.
The short story "Dracula 's Guest '' was posthumously published in 1914, two years after Stoker 's death. It was, according to most contemporary critics, the deleted first (or second) chapter from the original manuscript and the one which gave the volume its name, but which the original publishers deemed unnecessary to the overall story.
"Dracula 's Guest '' follows an unnamed Englishman traveller as he wanders around Munich before leaving for Transylvania. It is Walpurgis Night and the young Englishman foolishly leaves his hotel, in spite of the coachman 's warnings, and wanders through a dense forest alone. Along the way, he feels that he is being watched by a tall and thin stranger (possibly Count Dracula).
The short story climaxes in an old graveyard, where the Englishman, caught in a blizzard takes refuge in the marble tomb of "Countess Dolingen of Gratz ''. Within the tomb he sees the Countess -- apparently asleep and healthy -- but before he can investigate further, a mysterious force throws him clear of the tomb. A lightning bolt then strikes the tomb, destroying it and incinerating the undead screaming countess. The Englishman then loses consciousness. He awakens to find a "gigantic '' wolf lying on his chest and licking at his throat; however, the wolf merely keeps him warm and protects him until help arrives.
When the Englishman is finally taken back to his hotel, a telegram awaits him from his expectant host Dracula, with a warning about "dangers from snow and wolves and night ''.
A small section was removed from a draft of the final chapter, in which Dracula 's castle falls apart as he dies, hiding the fact that vampires were ever there.
As we looked there came a terrible convulsion of the earth so that we seemed to rock to and fro and fell to our knees. At the same moment with a roar which seemed to shake the very heavens the whole castle and the rock and even the hill on which it stood seemed to rise into the air and scatter in fragments while a mighty cloud of black and yellow smoke volume on volume in rolling grandeur was shot upwards with inconceivable rapidity.
Then there was a stillness in nature as the echoes of that thunderous report seemed to come as with the hollow boom of a thunder - clap -- the long reverberating roll which seems as though the floors of heaven shook. Then down in a mighty ruin falling whence they rose came the fragments that had been tossed skywards in the cataclysm.
Between 1879 and 1898, Stoker was a business manager for the Lyceum Theatre in London, where he supplemented his income by writing a large number of sensational novels, his most successful being the vampire tale Dracula published on 26 May 1897. Parts of it are set around the town of Whitby, where he spent summer holidays.
Throughout the 1880s and 1890s, authors such as H. Rider Haggard, Rudyard Kipling, Robert Louis Stevenson, Arthur Conan Doyle, and H.G. Wells wrote many tales in which fantastic creatures threatened the British Empire. Invasion literature was at a peak, and Stoker 's formula was very familiar by 1897 to readers of fantastic adventure stories, of an invasion of England by continental European influences. Victorian readers enjoyed Dracula as a good adventure story like many others, but it did not reach its legendary status until later in the 20th century when film versions began to appear.
Before writing Dracula, Stoker spent seven years researching European folklore and stories of vampires, being most influenced by Emily Gerard 's 1885 essay "Transylvania Superstitions '' which includes content about a vampire myth. Some historians are convinced that a historic figure, Vlad III Dracula, often called Vlad the Impaler, was the model for Stoker 's Count although there is no supporting evidence. Stoker borrowed only "scraps of miscellaneous information '', according to one expert, about this bloodthirsty tyrant of Wallachia and there are no comments about him in Stoker 's working notes. Dracula scholar Elizabeth Miller has remarked that aside from the name and some mention of Romanian history, the background of Stoker 's Count bears no resemblance to that of Vlad III Dracula.
Later he also claimed that he had a nightmare, caused by eating too much crab meat, about a "vampire king '' rising from his grave.
Although a widely known vampire novel, Dracula was not the first. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe published The Bride of Corinth in 1797. ("From my grave to wander I am forc 'd Still to seek The God 's long - sever 'd link, Still to love the bridegroom I have lost, And the life - blood of his heart to drink;) Later Sheridan Le Fanu 's 1871 Carmilla, about a lesbian vampire could have inspired Bram Stoker 's Dracula, and Varney the Vampire, a lengthy penny dreadful serial from the mid-Victorian period by James Malcolm Rymer. John Polidori created the image of a vampire portrayed as an aristocratic man, like the character of Dracula, in his tale "The Vampyre '' (1819). (He wrote Vampyre during a summer which he spent with Frankenstein creator Mary Shelley, her husband poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Lord Byron in 1816.)
The Lyceum Theatre where Stoker worked between 1878 and 1898 was headed by actor - manager Henry Irving, who was Stoker 's real - life inspiration for Dracula 's mannerisms and who Stoker hoped would play Dracula in a stage version. Irving never did agree to do a stage version, but Dracula 's dramatic sweeping gestures and gentlemanly mannerisms drew their living embodiment from Irving.
The Dead Un-Dead was one of Stoker 's original titles for Dracula, and the manuscript was entitled simply The Un-Dead up until a few weeks before publication. Stoker 's notes for Dracula show that the name of the count was originally "Count Wampyr '', but Stoker became intrigued by the name "Dracula '' while doing research, after reading William Wilkinson 's book An Account of the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia with Political Observations Relative to Them (London 1820), which he found in the Whitby Library and consulted a number of times during visits to Whitby in the 1890s. The name Dracula was the patronym (Drăculea) of the descendants of Vlad II of Wallachia, who took the name "Dracul '' after being invested in the Order of the Dragon in 1431. In the Old Romanian language, the word dracul (Romanian drac "dragon '' + - ul "the '') meant "the dragon '' and Dracula meant "son of the dragon ''. In the present day however, dracul means "the devil ''.
Dracula was published in London in May 1897 by Archibald Constable and Company. Costing six shillings, the novel was bound yellow cloth and titled in red letters. It was copyrighted in the United States in 1899 with the publication by Doubleday & McClure of New York. But when Universal Studios purchased the rights, it came to light that Bram Stoker had not complied with a portion of US copyright law, placing the novel into the public domain. In the United Kingdom and other countries following the Berne Convention on copyrights, the novel was under copyright until April 1962, fifty years after Stoker 's death.
Dracula was not an immediate bestseller when it was first published, although reviewers were unstinting in their praise. The contemporary Daily Mail ranked Stoker 's powers above those of Mary Shelley and Edgar Allan Poe, as well as Emily Brontë 's Wuthering Heights.
According to literary historians Nina Auerbach and David J. Skal in the Norton Critical Edition, the novel has become more significant for modern readers than it was for Victorian readers, most of whom enjoyed it just as a good adventure story. It reached its broad and iconic status only later in the 20th century when the movie versions appeared. A. Asbjørn Jøn has also noted that Dracula has had a significant impact on the image of the vampire in popular culture, folklore, and legend.
It did not make much money for Stoker. In the last year of his life, he was so poor that he had to petition for a compassionate grant from the Royal Literary Fund, and his widow was forced to sell his notes and outlines of the novel at a Sotheby 's auction in 1913, where they were purchased for a little over £ 2. But then F.W. Murnau 's unauthorized adaptation of the story was released in theatres in 1922 in the form of Nosferatu. Stoker 's widow took affront and, during the legal battle that followed, the novel 's popularity started to grow.
Nosferatu was followed by a highly successful stage adaptation, touring the UK for three years before arriving in the US where Stoker 's creation caught Hollywood 's attention and, after the American 1931 movie version was released, the book has never been out of print.
However, some Victorian fans were ahead of the time, describing it as "the sensation of the season '' and "the most blood - curdling novel of the paralysed century ''. Sherlock Holmes author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle wrote to Stoker in a letter, "I write to tell you how very much I have enjoyed reading Dracula. I think it is the very best story of diablerie which I have read for many years. '' The Daily Mail review of 1 June 1897 proclaimed it a classic of Gothic horror, "In seeking a parallel to this weird, powerful, and horrorful story our mind reverts to such tales as The Mysteries of Udolpho, Frankenstein, The Fall of the House of Usher... but Dracula is even more appalling in its gloomy fascination than any one of these. ''
Similarly good reviews appeared when the book was published in the U.S. in 1899. The first American edition was published by Doubleday & McClure in New York.
In the last several decades, literary and cultural scholars have offered diverse analyses of Stoker 's novel and the character of Count Dracula. C.F. Bentley reads Dracula as an embodiment of the Freudian id. Carol A. Senf reads the novel as a response to the powerful New Woman, while Christopher Craft sees Dracula as embodying latent homosexuality and sees the text as an example of a ' characteristic, if hyperbolic instance of Victorian anxiety over the potential fluidity of gender roles '. Stephen D. Arata interprets the events of the novel as anxiety over colonialism and racial mixing, and Talia Schaffer construes the novel as an indictment of Oscar Wilde. Franco Moretti reads Dracula as a figure of monopoly capitalism, though Hollis Robbins suggests that Dracula 's inability to participate in social conventions and to forge business partnerships undermines his power. Richard Noll reads Dracula within the context of 19th century alienism (psychiatry) and asylum medicine. D. Bruno Starrs understands the novel to be a pro-Catholic pamphlet promoting proselytization.
Dracula is a work of fiction, but it does contain some historical references; although it is a matter of conjecture and debate as to how much historical connection was deliberate on Stoker 's part.
Attention was drawn to the supposed connections between the historical Transylvanian - born Vlad III Dracula (also known as Vlad Tepes) of Wallachia and Bram Stoker 's fictional Dracula, following the publication of In Search of Dracula by Radu Florescu and Raymond McNally in 1972.
During his main reign (1456 -- 1462), "Vlad the Impaler '' is said to have killed from 40,000 to 100,000 European civilians (political rivals, criminals, and anyone that he considered "useless to humanity ''), mainly by impaling. The sources depicting these events are records by Saxon settlers in neighbouring Transylvania who had frequent clashes with Vlad III. Vlad III is revered as a folk hero by Romanians for driving off the invading Ottoman Turks, of whom his impaled victims are said to have included as many as 100,000. There is no evidence that the Count in the novel was modelled on that bloodthirsty tyrant of Wallachia. At most, Stoker borrowed only the name Dracula and "scraps of miscellaneous information '' about Romanian history, according to one expert, Elizabeth Miller; as well, and there are no comments about him in the author 's working notes.
Historically, the name "Dracula '' is derived from a Chivalric order called the Order of the Dragon, founded by Sigismund of Luxembourg (then king of Hungary) to uphold Christianity and defend the Empire against the Ottoman Turks. Vlad II Dracul, father of Vlad III, was admitted to the order around 1431, after which Vlad II wore the emblem of the order and later, as ruler of Wallachia, his coinage bore the dragon symbol, from which the name "Dracula '' is derived since "dracul '' in Romanian means "the dragon ''. People of Wallachia only knew voievod (king) Vlad III as Vlad Țepeș (the Impaler). The name "Dracula '' became popular in Romania after publication of Stoker 's book. Contrary to popular belief, the name Dracula does not translate to "son of the devil '' in Romanian, which would be "pui de drac ''.
Stoker came across the name Dracula in his reading on Romanian history, and chose this to replace the name (Count Wampyr) originally intended for his villain. Some Dracula scholars led by Elizabeth Miller argue that Stoker knew little of the historic Vlad III except for the name "Dracula '' in addition to a few bits of Romanian history. Stoker mentions that his Dracula fought against the Turks and was later betrayed by his brother, historical facts in the novel which point to Vlad III:
Who was it but one of my own race who as Voivode crossed the Danube and beat the Turk on his own ground? This was a Dracula indeed! Woe was it that his own unworthy brother, when he had fallen, sold his people to the Turk and brought the shame of slavery on them! Was it not this Dracula, indeed, who inspired that other of his race who in a later age again and again brought his forces over the great river into Turkey - land; who, when he was beaten back, came again, and again, though he had to come alone from the bloody field where his troops were being slaughtered, since he knew that he alone could ultimately triumph! (Chapter 3, pp. 19)
The Count 's identity is later speculated on by Professor Van Helsing:
He must, indeed, have been that Voivode Dracula who won his name against the Turk, over the great river on the very frontier of Turkey - land. (Chapter 18, p. 145)
Many of Stoker 's biographers and literary critics have found strong similarities to the earlier Irish writer Sheridan Le Fanu 's classic of the vampire genre Carmilla. In writing Dracula, Stoker may also have drawn on stories about the sídhe, some of which feature blood - drinking women. The folkloric figure of Abhartach has also been suggested as a source.
In 1983, McNally additionally suggested that Stoker was influenced by the history of Hungarian Countess Elizabeth Bathory, who tortured and killed between 36 and 700 young women. It was later commonly believed that she committed these crimes to bathe in their blood, believing that this preserved her youth.
In her book The Essential Dracula, Clare Haword - Maden suggested that the castle of Count Dracula was inspired by Slains Castle, at which Bram Stoker was a guest of the 19th Earl of Erroll. According to Miller, he first visited Cruden Bay in 1893, three years after work had begun on Dracula. Haining and Tremaine maintain that, during this visit, Stoker was especially impressed by Slains Castle 's interior and the surrounding landscape. Miller and Leatherdale question the stringency of this connection.
Possibly, Stoker was not inspired by a real edifice at all, but by Jules Verne 's novel The Carpathian Castle (1892) or Anne Radcliffe 's The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794). A third possibility is that he copied information about a castle at Vécs from one of his sources on Transylvania, the book by Major E.C. Johnson. A further option is that Stoker saw an illustration of Castle Bran (Törzburg) in the book on Transylvania by Charles Boner, or read about it in the books by Mazuchelli or Crosse.
Many of the scenes in Whitby and London are based on real places that Stoker frequently visited, although he distorts the geography for the sake of the story in some cases. One scholar has suggested that Stoker chose Whitby as the site of Dracula 's first appearance in England because of the Synod of Whitby, given the novel 's preoccupation with timekeeping and calendar disputes.
Daniel Farson, Leonard Wolf, and Peter Haining have suggested that Stoker received much historical information from Ármin Vámbéry, a Hungarian professor whom he met at least twice. Miller argues, "there is nothing to indicate that the conversation included Vlad, vampires, or even Transylvania '', and "furthermore, there is no record of any other correspondence between Stoker and Vámbéry, nor is Vámbéry mentioned in Stoker 's notes for Dracula. ''
The story of Dracula has been the basis for numerous films and plays. Stoker himself wrote the first theatrical adaptation, which was presented at the Lyceum Theatre on 18 May 1897 under the title Dracula, or The Undead shortly before the novel 's publication and performed only once, in order to establish his own copyright for such adaptations. This adaption was first published only a century later in Oct 1997. The first motion picture to feature Dracula was Dracula 's Death, produced in Hungary in 1921. The now - lost film, however, was not an adaptation of Stoker 's novel, but featured an original story.
F.W. Murnau 's unauthorised film adaptation Nosferatu was released in 1922, and the popularity of the novel increased considerably, owing to an attempt by Stoker 's widow, who tried to have the film removed from public circulation. Prana Film, the production company, had been unable to obtain permission to adapt the story from Bram 's widow Florence Stoker, so screenwriter Henrik Galeen was told to alter numerous details to avoid legal trouble. Galeen transplanted the action of the story from 1890s England to 1830s Germany and reworked several characters, dropping some (such as Lucy and all three of her suitors), and renaming others (Dracula became Orlok, Jonathan Harker became Thomas Hutter, Mina became Ellen, and so on). This attempt failed to avoid a court case, however; Florence Stoker sued Prana Film, and all copies of the film were ordered to be destroyed. However, the company was bankrupt, and Stoker only recovered her legal fees in damages. Some copies survived and found their way into theatres. Eventually, Florence Stoker gave up the fight against public displays of the film. Subsequent rereleases of the film have typically undone some of the changes, such as restoring the original character names (a practice also followed by Werner Herzog in his 1979 remake of Murnau 's film Nosferatu the Vampyre).
Florence Stoker licensed the story to playwright Hamilton Deane, whose 1924 stage play adaptation toured England for several years before settling down in London. In 1927, American stage producer Horace Liveright hired John L. Balderston to revise Deane 's script in advance of its American premiere. Balderston significantly compressed the story, most notably consolidating or removing several characters. The Deane play and its Balderston revisions introduced an expanded role and history for Renfield, who now replaced Jonathan Harker as Dracula 's solicitor in the first part of the story; combined Mina Harker and Lucy Westenra into a single character (named Lucy); and omitted both Arthur Holmwood and Quincey Morris entirely. When the play premiered in New York, it was with Bela Lugosi in the title role, and with Edward van Sloan as Abraham Van Helsing, roles which both actors (as well as Herbert Bunston as Dr. Seward) reprised for the English - language version of the 1931 Universal Studios film production. The 1931 film was one of the most commercially successful adaptations of the story to date; it and the Deane / Balderston play that preceded it set the standard for film and television adaptations of the story, with the alterations to the novel becoming standard for later adaptations for decades to come. Universal Studios continued to feature the character of Dracula in many of their horror films from the 1930s and 1940s.
In 1958, British film company Hammer Film Productions followed the success of its The Curse of Frankenstein from the previous year with Dracula, released in the US as The Horror of Dracula, directed by Terence Fisher. Fisher 's production featured Christopher Lee as Dracula and Peter Cushing as Van Helsing. It was an international hit for Hammer Film, and Lee fixed the image of the fanged vampire in popular culture. Both Lee and Cushing reprised their roles multiple times over the next decade and a half, concluding with The Legend of the 7 Golden Vampires (with Cushing but not Lee) in 1974. Christopher Lee also took on the role of Dracula in Count Dracula, a 1970 Spanish - Italian - German coproduction notable for its adherence to the plot of the original novel. Playing the part of Renfield in that version was Klaus Kinski, who later played Dracula himself in 1979 's Nosferatu the Vampyre.
In 1977, the BBC made Count Dracula, a 155 - minute adaptation for television starring Louis Jourdan. Later film adaptations include John Badham 's 1979 Dracula, starring Frank Langella and inspired by the 1977 Broadway revival of the Deane / Hamilton play, and Francis Ford Coppola 's 1992 Bram Stoker 's Dracula, starring Gary Oldman. The character of Count Dracula has remained popular over the years, and many films have used the character as a villain, while others have named him in their titles, including Dracula 's Daughter and The Brides of Dracula. As of 2009, an estimated 217 films feature Dracula in a major role, a number second only to Sherlock Holmes (223 films). A large number of these appearances are not adaptations of Stoker 's novel, but merely feature the character in an unrelated story.
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where is lake biwa in japan on a map | Lake Biwa - wikipedia
Lake Biwa (Japanese: 琵琶湖, Hepburn: Biwa - ko) is the largest freshwater lake in Japan, located in Shiga Prefecture (west - central Honshu), northeast of the former capital city of Kyoto. Because of its proximity to the ancient capital, references to Lake Biwa appear frequently in Japanese literature, particularly in poetry and in historical accounts of battles.
The name Biwako was established in the Edo period. There are various theories about the origin of the name Biwako, but it is generally believed to be so named because of the resemblance of its shape to that of a stringed instrument called the biwa. Kōsō, a learned monk of Enryaku - ji in the 14th century, gave a clue to the origin of the name Biwako in his writing: "The lake is the Pure land of the goddess Benzaiten because she lives on Chikubu Island and the shape of the lake is similar to that of the biwa, her favorite instrument. ''
The lake was formerly known as the Awaumi (淡海, Freshwater Sea) or the Chikatsu Awaumi (近 淡海, Freshwater Sea Near the Capital). Later the pronunciation Awaumi changed to the modern Ōmi as in the name of Ōmi Province. The lake is also called Nio no Umi (鳰 の 海, "Little Grebe Lake '') in literature.
The area of this lake is about 670 km2. Small rivers drain from the surrounding mountains into Lake Biwa, and its main outlet is the Seta River, which later becomes the Uji River, combining with the Katsura and Kizu to become the Yodo River and flows into the Seto Inland Sea at Osaka Bay.
It serves as a reservoir for the cities of Kyoto and Ōtsu and is a valuable resource for nearby textile industries. It provides drinking water for about 15 million people in the Kansai region. Lake Biwa is a breeding ground for freshwater fish, including trout, and for the pearl culture industry.
The Lake Biwa Canal, built in the late 1890s and later expanded during the Taishō period played a role of great importance in the rekindling of Kyoto 's industrial life, after a steep decline following the transfer of the capital to Tokyo.
Lake Biwa is home to many popular beaches along the north - western shore, in particular, for example, Shiga Beach and Omi - Maiko. The Mizunomori Water Botanical Garden and The Lake Biwa Museum in Kusatsu are also of interest.
The Lake Biwa Marathon takes place in Otsu, the city at the southern end of the lake, annually since 1962.
Lake Biwa is of tectonic origin and is one of the world 's oldest lakes, dating to at least 4 million years ago. This long uninterrupted age has allowed for a notably diverse ecosystem to evolve in the lake. Naturalists have documented more than 1000 species and subspecies in the lake, including about 60 endemic. Lake Biwa is an important place for water birds. About 5,000 water birds visit Lake Biwa every year.
There are 46 native fish species and subspecies in the lake, including 11 species and 5 subspecies that are endemic or near - endemic. The endemic species are five cyprinids (Carassius cuvieri, Gnathopogon caerulescens, Ischikauia steenackeri, Opsariichthys uncirostris and Sarcocheilichthys biwaensis), a true loach (Cobitis magnostriata), two gobies (Gymnogobius isaza and an undescribed species of Rhinogobius), two silurid catfish (Silurus biwaensis and S. lithophilus) and a cottid (Cottus reinii). The Biwa trout is also endemic to the lake, but some maintain that it is a subspecies of the widespread masu salmon rather than a separate species. The remaining endemic fish are subspecies of Carassius auratus, Cobitis minamorii, Sarcocheilichthys variegatus and Squalidus (chankaensis) biwae.
Lake Biwa is also the home of a large number of molluscs, including 38 freshwater snails (19 endemic) and 16 bivalves (9 endemic).
Recently the biodiversity of the lake has suffered greatly due to the invasion of foreign fish, the black bass and the bluegill. Bluegill were presented to the Emperor and later freed in the lake as a food source for other fish. Black bass were introduced as a sport fish. In July 2009, a largemouth bass weighing 22 pounds, 4 ounces (about 10.09 kg) was caught in the lake by Manabu Kurita. It has been officially certified by the International Game Fish Association (IGFA) to tie the largemouth bass world record held solely by George Perry for 77 years.
The Awazu site, a submerged shell - midden of Lake Biwa, is an important archaeological site of Jōmon period. It goes back to the beginning of the Initial Jōmon period (ca. 9300 BP). It lies near the southern end of Lake Biwa, close to Otsu City, at a depth of 2 to 3m from the bottom.
The site shows the use of plant and animal food resources by Jōmon peoples. It also demonstrates the importance of nut consumption in this period.
Shell Midden No. 3 is dated to the Middle Jōmon period. An abundance of horse chestnuts was uncovered here (c. 40 % of the total estimated diet). This indicates that, by this later period, a sophisticated processing technology was mastered in order to remove the harmful tannic acid, and make this food safe for consumption.
Ishiyama is another such site of early Jōmon period on Lake Biwa.
Various environmental laws cover Lake Biwa:
Legislation to prevent eutrophication was enacted in 1981 and first enforced on July 1, 1982; therefore, this day is called "Lake Biwa Day (びわ湖 の 日, Biwako no Hi) ''. The legislation established standards for the nitrogen and phosphorus levels for agricultural, industrial, and household water sources emptying into the lake. They also banned people from using and selling synthetic detergents which contain phosphorus.
The lake was designated as a UNESCO Ramsar Wetland (1993) in accordance with the Ramsar Convention. The object of this treaty is to protect and sensibly use internationally valuable wetlands. The Kushiro marsh (釧路 湿原, Kushiro Shitsugen) in Japan is under this treaty now.
Reed colonies on the shore form give Lake Biwa its characteristic scenery. The reeds play an important role in purifying water as well as providing habitat for birds and fish. At one time there were large areas of reeds along the shores of Lake Biwa, which local government surveys recently found to have halved in size due to encroaching development. This Shiga Ordinance for the Conservation of Reed Vegetation Zones to protect, grow, and utilize the reed beds has been in force since 1992.
Lake Biwa at Chomeiji - cho, Ōmihachiman
Lake Biwa Canal
Mangetsu - ji temple, one of the Eight Views of Omi
A pleasure boat from the Otsu port
Chikubu Island
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how many times have the vikings been to the nfc championship | NFC Championship game - wikipedia
The NFC Championship Game (also unofficially referred to as the NFC Title Game) is one of the two semi-final playoff games of the National Football League (NFL), the largest professional American football league in the United States. The game is played on the penultimate Sunday in January and determines the champion of the National Football Conference (NFC). The winner then advances to face the winner of the American Football Conference (AFC) Championship Game in the Super Bowl.
The game was established as part of the 1970 merger between the NFL and the American Football League (AFL), with the merged league realigning into two conferences. Since 1984, each winner of the NFC Championship Game has also received the George Halas Trophy, named after the founder and longtime owner of the NFL 's Chicago Bears, George Halas.
The first NFC Championship Game was played following the 1970 regular season after the merger between the NFL and the American Football League. The game is considered the successor to the original NFL Championship, and its game results are listed with that of its predecessor in the annual NFL Record and Fact Book. Since the pre-merger NFL consisted of six more teams than the AFL, a realignment was done as part of the merger to create two conferences with an equal number of teams: The NFL 's Baltimore Colts, the Cleveland Browns, and the Pittsburgh Steelers joined the ten former AFL teams to form the AFC; while the remaining 13 pre-merger NFL clubs formed the NFC.
Every NFC team has played in an NFC Championship at least once. The Seattle Seahawks, who have been members in both the AFC and the NFC, hold the distinction of appearing in both conference title games. Only the Detroit Lions have yet to win an NFC Championship Game.
At the end of each regular season, a series of playoff games involving the top six teams in the NFC are conducted. In the current (since 2002 -- 03 season) NFL playoff structure, this consists of the four division champions and two wild card teams (those clubs that possess the two best won - loss records after the regular season yet fail to win their division). The two teams remaining following the Wild Card round (first round) and the divisional round (second round) play in the NFC Championship game.
Initially, the site of the game was determined on a rotating basis. Since the 1975 -- 76 season, the site of the NFC Championship has been based on playoff seeding based on the regular season won - loss record, with the highest surviving seed hosting the game. A wild card team can only host the game if both participants are wild cards, in which case the fifth seed would host the sixth seed. Such an instance has never occurred in the NFL.
Beginning with 1984 - 85 season, the winner of the NFC Championship Game has received the George Halas Trophy, named after the longtime owner and coach of the Chicago Bears, a charter member of the NFL. The original design consisted of a wooden base with a sculpted NFC logo in the front and a sculpture of various football players in the back.
It, and the Lamar Hunt Trophy that is awarded to the AFC champion, were redesigned for the 2010 -- 11 NFL playoffs by Tiffany & Co. at the request of the NFL in an attempt to make both awards more significant. The trophies are now a new, silver design with the outline of a hollow football positioned on a small base to more closely resemble the Vince Lombardi Trophy, awarded to the winner of the Super Bowl.
The George Halas Trophy should not be confused with the Newspaper Enterprise Association 's George S. Halas Trophy which was awarded to the NFL 's defensive player of the year from 1966 to 1996 or the Pro Football Writers Association 's George S. Halas Courage Award.
^ a: Overtime
^ b: Includes appearances during their first tenure in Los Angeles (the 1970 merger to 1994), where they went 1 -- 6 in NFC Championship Games; and their period as the St. Louis Rams (1995 -- 2015), where they went 2 -- 0 in NFC Championship Games.
^ c: The Seahawks were members of the NFC in 1976 and then members of the AFC from 1977 -- 2001, before rejoining the NFC in 2002. Including their only appearance in the AFC Championship Game (0 -- 1), they hold a combined 3 -- 1 record between both Conference Championship Games.
Notes:
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buffy the vampire slayer when do angel and buffy get together | Surprise (Buffy the Vampire Slayer) - wikipedia
"Surprise '' is episode 13 of season two of the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer. It was written by Marti Noxon and first broadcast on January 19, 1998. "Surprise '' is part one of a two part story. Part two, "Innocence '', was broadcast the next day.
Buffy has a vivid dream (a very undead Drusilla dusts Angel) which she fears is prophetic and realises that Spike and Dru may still be alive. Oz finally asks Willow out on a date. She accepts, but remembers the Scoobies are planning a surprise party for Buffy 's 17th birthday and instead invites him to the party. Elsewhere, Dru, strong as Buffy dreamed, arranges her own gala event, while Spike, using a wheelchair but quite undead as well, directs his gang to collect scattered pieces of the demon Judge to reassemble for her present. Jenny Calendar gets a visit from a mysterious man who reveals Miss Calendar 's Gypsy past, and they discuss her responsibilities in ensuring Angel 's continued suffering. The man orders Jenny to separate Angel from the Slayer, Jenny agrees and she reveals that the man is her uncle. On their way to Buffy 's surprise party, she and Miss Calendar intercept a piece of the Judge and bring it to the party, deducing Dru 's plot. Following her Gypsy orders, Jenny encourages Angel on his mission to prevent the dire consequences of reassembly -- he must take the Judge 's arm by cargo ship to "the remotest region possible. '' While Angel gives Buffy a Claddagh ring for her birthday during their tearful parting at the dock, Spike 's vamps manage to steal the arm back, scrubbing the mission. Later at the library, Buffy has another informative dream, and takes Angel to investigate the factory where Spike and Dru have their lair. They discover the Judge is fully assembled and activated, and Spike and Drusilla capture and taunt the two, debating who will die first. They narrowly escape into the sewer system, then return to Angel 's apartment exhausted and drenched from the rain. Still suffering from successive threats of losing one another, Angel and Buffy confess feelings each has been trying to suppress. They make love for the first time and fall asleep in each other 's arms. Suddenly, in a flash of lightning and a crash of thunder, Angel bolts awake and runs out into the storm, calling Buffy 's name in anguish.
Brian Thompson, who played the Judge, also played Luke in "Welcome to the Hellmouth ''. Both episodes were two - parters in which his character died in the second part.
"Surprise '' was the final episode to air on Monday nights on The WB. Together with "Innocence, '' the show transitioned from Mondays to Tuesdays as a lead - in for The WB 's then newest debuting series Dawson 's Creek. Both Buffy and Dawson 's Creek would go on to become two of the network 's signature series.
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when does the movie the bride come out | The Princess Bride (film) - wikipedia
The Princess Bride is a 1987 American romantic fantasy adventure comedy - drama film directed and co-produced by Rob Reiner, and starring Cary Elwes, Robin Wright, Mandy Patinkin, Chris Sarandon, Wallace Shawn, André the Giant and Christopher Guest. Adapted by William Goldman from his 1973 novel of the same name, it tells the story about a farmhand named Westley, accompanied by befriended companions along the way, who must rescue his true love Princess Buttercup from the odious Prince Humperdinck. The story is presented in the film as a book being read by a grandfather (Peter Falk) to his sick grandson (Fred Savage), thus effectively preserving the novel 's narrative style.
Released in the United States on September 25, 1987, the film is number 50 on Bravo 's "100 Funniest Movies '', number 88 on The American Film Institute 's (AFI) "AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Passions '' list of the 100 greatest film love stories, and 46 in Channel 4 's 50 Greatest Comedy Films list. In 2016, the film was inducted into the National Film Registry, being deemed as "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant ''.
The film is an enactment of the following story read by a sick boy 's grandfather as the boy sits in bed listening, framed and occasionally interrupted by scenes of the reading.
A beautiful young woman named Buttercup lives on a farm in the fictional country of Florin. Whenever she orders the farmhand Westley to do chores for her, he complies and answers "As you wish. '' Eventually she realizes he loves her and admits her love for him. Westley leaves to seek his fortune so they can marry, but his ship is attacked by the Dread Pirate Roberts.
Five years later, believing Westley is dead, Buttercup reluctantly agrees to marry Prince Humperdinck, heir to the throne of Florin. Before the wedding, she is kidnapped by three outlaws: a short Sicilian boss named Vizzini, a gigantic wrestler from Greenland named Fezzik, and a Spanish fencing master named Inigo Montoya, who seeks revenge against the six - fingered man who killed his father. The outlaws are pursued by Prince Humperdinck with a complement of soldiers, and also by a masked man in black.
The man in black catches up to the outlaws at the top of the Cliffs of Insanity, where he defeats Inigo in a duel and knocks him unconscious, chokes Fezzik until he blacks out, and kills Vizzini by tricking him into drinking poison. When he tells Buttercup he is Roberts, she becomes enraged at him for killing Westley and shoves him into a gorge, wishing death upon him, but she realizes he is Westley himself when he replies "As you wish! '' She throws herself into the gorge after him, and they flee through the dangerous Fire Swamp. When they are captured on the other side by Humperdinck and his sadistic six - fingered vizier Count Rugen, Buttercup agrees to return with Humperdinck in exchange for Westley 's release, but Humperdinck secretly orders Rugen to lock Westley in the castle torture chamber.
When Buttercup expresses unhappiness at marrying Humperdinck, he promises to search for Westley, but his real plan is to start a war with the neighboring country of Guilder by killing Buttercup and framing them for her death. Buttercup taunts Humperdinck after learning that he never tried to find Westley. Enraged, Humperdinck tortures Westley almost to death. Meanwhile, Inigo and Fezzik meet when Humperdinck orders a gang of goons to arrest the thieves in a nearby forest, and Fezzik tells Inigo about Rugen. Inigo decides that they need Westley 's help to get into the castle, and when he hears cries of anguish, he realizes they must be from Westley. Inigo and Fezzik find Westley and fear him dead. Upon bringing him to a "magic man '', however, they learn that Westley is "only mostly dead '', and the magic man revives him to a state of heavy paralysis.
After Westley, Inigo, and Fezzik invade the castle, Humperdinck orders the wedding ceremony shortened and Inigo finds and kills Rugen in a duel, repeatedly reciting his greeting of vengeance: "Hello, my name is Inigo Montoya. You killed my father. Prepare to die. '' Westley finds Buttercup, who is about to commit suicide, and assures her that her marriage is invalid because she never said "I do. '' Still partly paralyzed, he bluffs his way out of a duel with Humperdinck, then rides away with Buttercup, Inigo, and Fezzik.
Back in the boy 's bedroom, the boy asks his grandfather to read the story to him again the next day, to which the grandfather replies, "As you wish '', which, as he explained earlier, means "I love you. ''
There had been many attempts to turn the novel into a film. In 1973, 20th Century Fox paid Goldman $500,000 for the film rights and to do a screenplay. Richard Lester was signed to direct and the movie was almost made, but the head of production at Fox was fired and the project was put on hiatus. Goldman subsequently bought back the film rights to the novel with his own money. The movie was almost financed several times over the next decade -- at one stage in the early 1980s, Christopher Reeve was interested in playing Westley -- before Rob Reiner managed to secure funding from Norman Lear.
The film was shot in various locations in Great Britain and Ireland:
Cary Elwes and Mandy Patinkin learned to fence (both left - and right - handed) for the film (reportedly spending all their free time during the production practicing with fencing instructors Bob Anderson and Peter Diamond, and with each other). The actors performed all of the fencing in the sword fight scene personally, although stunt doubles were used for the two somersaults.
Popular professional wrestler André the Giant had undergone major back surgery prior to filming and, despite his great size and strength, could not support the weight of Cary Elwes during their fight scene or Robin Wright for a scene at the end of the film. For the wrestling scene, when Elwes was pretending to hang on André 's back, he was actually walking on a series of ramps below the camera during close - ups. For the wide shots, a stunt double took the place of André. When he was apparently carrying Wright, she was actually suspended by cables.
The original soundtrack album was composed by Mark Knopfler, and released by Warner Bros. Records in the United States and Vertigo Records internationally in November 1987. The album contains the song "Storybook Love '', performed by Willy DeVille and produced by Mark Knopfler. It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 60th Academy Awards.
In his audio commentary of the film on the special edition DVD, director Rob Reiner said that only Mark Knopfler of Dire Straits could create a soundtrack to capture the film 's quirky yet romantic nature. Reiner was an admirer of Knopfler 's work but did not know him before working on the film. He sent the script to him hoping he would agree to score the film. Knopfler agreed on one condition: that somewhere in the film Reiner would include the USS Coral Sea (CV - 43) baseball cap (which had been modified to say "USS Ooral Sea OV - 4B '') he wore as Marty DiBergi in This Is Spinal Tap. Reiner was unable to produce the original cap, but did include a similar cap in the grandson 's room. Knopfler later said he was joking.
The film was initially a modest success, grossing $30.8 million at the United States and Canada box office, on a $16 million production budget.
The Princess Bride received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 97 % "Certified Fresh '' rating, based on 64 reviews, with an average rating of 8.3 / 10. The site 's consensus states: "A delightfully postmodern fairy tale, The Princess Bride is a deft, intelligent mix of swashbuckling, romance, and comedy that takes an age - old damsel - in - distress story and makes it fresh. '' On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 77 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews. ''
Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert gave the film a "two thumbs up '' rating on their television program. Ebert also wrote a very favorable print review in his column for the Chicago Sun - Times. Richard Corliss of Time said the film was fun for the whole family, and later, Time listed the film as one of the "Best of ' 87 ''. Janet Maslin of The New York Times praised the cast and the sweetness of the film.
The Princess Bride was not a major box - office success, but it became a cult classic after its release to the home video market. The film is widely regarded as eminently quotable.
In 2000, readers of Total Film magazine voted The Princess Bride the 38th greatest comedy film of all time. In 2006, William Goldman 's screenplay was selected by the Writers Guild of America as the 84th best screenplay of all time; it earned the same ranking in the Guild 's 2013 update. The film was selected number 88 on The American Film Institute 's (AFI) "AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Passions '' listing the 100 greatest film love stories of all time. BBC Radio 5 's resident film critic, Mark Kermode, is a fan of the film, frequently considering it a model to which similar films aspire..
In December 2011, director Jason Reitman staged a live dramatic reading of The Princess Bride script at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA), with Paul Rudd as Westley; Mindy Kaling as Buttercup; Patton Oswalt as Vizzini; Kevin Pollak as Miracle Max; Goran Visnjic as Inigo Montoya; Cary Elwes (switching roles) as Humperdinck; director Rob Reiner as the grandfather; and Fred Savage reprising his role as the grandson.
In 2013, director Ari Folman released a live action / animation film, The Congress, directly referencing the film and starring Robin Wright herself as a digitally cloned actress.
In North America, the film was released on VHS and Laserdisc in 1988 by Nelson Entertainment, the latter being a "bare bones '' release in unmatted full screen. New Line Home Video reissued the VHS in 1994.
The Criterion Collection released a matted widescreen version, bare bones version on laserdisc in 1989, supplementing it with liner notes. In 1997 Criterion re-released the Laserdisc as a "special edition ''. This edition was widescreen and included an audio commentary by Rob Reiner, William Goldman, Andrew Scheinman, Billy Crystal, and Peter Falk; excerpts from the novel read by Rob Reiner; behind the scenes footage; a production scrapbook by unit photographer Clive Coote; design sketches by production designer Norman Garwood; and excerpts from the television series Morton and Hayes, directed by Christopher Guest.
By 2000, MGM had acquired the US home video rights to the film (as part of the "pre-1996 Polygram film library '' package) and released the film on VHS and DVD. The DVD release featured the soundtrack remastered in Dolby Digital 5.1 with the film in wide and full screen versions, and included the original US theatrical trailer. The next year MGM re-released the film in another widescreen "special edition '', this time with two audio commentaries -- one by Rob Reiner, the other by William Goldman -- "As You Wish '', "Promotional '', and "Making Of '' featurettes; a "Cary Elwes Video Diary ''; the US and UK theatrical trailers; four television spots; a photo gallery; and a collectible booklet.
In 2006, MGM released a two - disc set with varying covers -- the "Dread Pirate '' and "Buttercup '' editions. Each featured their respective character, but had identical features: in addition to the features in the previous release were, the "Dread Pirate Roberts: Greatest Legend of the Seven Seas '', "Love is Like a Storybook Story '', and "Miraculous Make Up '' featurettes, "The Quotable Battle of Wits '' game, and Fezzik 's "Guide to Florin '' booklet.
Another year later, to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the film, MGM and 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment (whose parent company 20th Century Fox continues to hold all US rights to the film except for US home video rights) released the film with flippable cover art featuring the title displayed in an ambigram. This DVD did not include any of the bonus features from the older editions, but had new short featurettes and a new game. A Blu - ray Disc was released on March 17, 2009, encoded in 5.1 DTS - HD Master Audio. Special features include two audio commentaries, the original theatrical trailer and eight featurettes.
In 2007, the film was released for download in the iTunes Store.
The film is also available in Region 2 where it is published by Lions Gate Entertainment. Its extras are the theatrical trailer and text filmographies.
It was announced that composer Adam Guettel was working with William Goldman on a musical adaptation of The Princess Bride in 2006. The project was abandoned in February 2007 after Goldman reportedly demanded 75 percent of the author 's share, even though Guettel was writing both the music and the lyrics. Some of Guettel 's music for the production has since surfaced in concert performances and workshops.
In 2008, PlayRoom Entertainment released The Princess Bride: Storming the Castle, a board game based on the film.
The Princess Bride Game is a casual video game developed and published by New York game development studio Worldwide Biggies.
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the story of saiunkoku episode 8 english dub | List of the Story of Saiunkoku episodes - wikipedia
The anime series The Story of Saiunkoku is based on the series of Japanese light novels written by Sai Yukino. Produced by Madhouse Studios and directed by Jun Shishido, the series premiered in Japan on NHK on April 8, 2006. The first season ran for 39 episodes until its conclusion on February 24, 2007. The series ' second season, referred to as Saiunkoku Monogatari 2nd Series, premiered on April 7, 2007 and ran for another 39 episodes until its conclusion on March 8, 2008.
In May 2007, Geneon Entertainment announced it had acquired the licensed to releases the anime in North America with English language options. In September 2007, after only two volumes had been released, Geneon closed its North America operations. In July 2008, Funimation Entertainment announced that it will distribute several Geneon titles, including The Story of Saiunkoku.
The series uses three pieces of theme music. "Hajimari no kaze '' by Ayaka Hirahara is used for the opening theme for both the first and second seasons. For the ending theme, "Saikou no Kataomoi '' by Sachi Tainaka is used for the first season, while "Asu he '' by Teruya Miho is used for the second season.
The reason bandits have been attacking Ensei Rō is revealed; while acting as temporary governor of Sa province, Ensei angered the local nobility by rejecting corruption and bribes. As he has not passed the official examination required to be a high official, Ensei returns his seal of governorship to Ryūki. Ryūki passes a law allowing women to take the official examinations.
Shūrei and company learn that Banri was tricked by two men into doing the paintings, while Shin Suou reveals his amazing insight on how his father is part of the painting forgeries but is not involved in the money counterfeiting. But before they can do anything, someone else had sent soldiers from the Imperial Palace arrest Shin Suou and his father on counterfeiting and forgery charges, which carries the death penalty. Shūrei goes through the official procedures and with some "persuasion '' from Seiran, convinces Shin Suou to help lower the penalty on his father. Shūrei meets with Ryūki and watches the first Sakura blossoms from the tree, with Shūrei venting her anger on "Ryūki '' for the suspension.
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who sang poor unfortunate souls in little mermaid | Poor Unfortunate Souls - wikipedia
"Poor Unfortunate Souls '' is a song from the Walt Disney Pictures animated film The Little Mermaid. Written by Howard Ashman and Alan Menken and performed by Pat Carroll, "Poor Unfortunate Souls '' is sung to Princess Ariel by Ursula the Sea Witch. In a style that combines Broadway theatre with Burlesque, Ursula uses the song to seduce Ariel into trading her voice for the chance to temporarily become human.
Howard Ashman recorded a version of the song with himself in the role of Ursula, to send to Carroll to convince her to take the role, which it did. This version was released in the four - CD set The Music Behind the Magic. Carroll admits that she borrowed some of the inflections she used in the song from Ashman 's performance, and that he had been delighted she had done so.
"Poor Unfortunate Souls '' is also noteworthy for Ursula 's incantation at the end of the song actually being sung, rather than merely recited. Accompanied by Gothic organ music, the spell features words somewhat twisted from normal everyday words, only strung together extremely quickly:
A short reprise of this song is featured later in the original Disney movie being sung by Vanessa (Jodi Benson). This reprise is sometimes referred to as "Vanessa 's Song ''. It was included in The Legacy Collection: The Little Mermaid, released as a two - disc album on November 24, 2014, to coincide with the film 's twenty - fifth anniversary.
Two versions of a full reprise of "Poor Unfortunate Souls '' were written for the Broadway adaptation. The first version, used for the demo workshop and performed by Emily Skinner, contains lyrics implying that it is meant to be sung before Ursula transforms herself into Vanessa, with the spell incantation:
The above demo reprise was scrapped when Ursula 's temporary transformation into Vanessa was removed from the storyline of the Broadway show. It was replaced with a different reprise, sung by Ursula to King Triton to force him into taking Ariel 's place in the agreement.
Carroll 's original rendition of "Poor Unfortunate Souls '' was included on a 1995 compilation CD of songs performed by or about various Disney villains called Rascal Songs. The CD was released as part of a four - disc Disney song series as a McDonald 's promotional item.
The Jonas Brothers covered "Poor Unfortunate Souls '' for the Little Mermaid two - disk special edition of the soundtrack, released on October 3, 2006 to correspond with the two - disk The Little Mermaid Platinum Edition DVD. The Special Edition Soundtrack includes a music video for the song, where the boys are singing around a public swimming pool.
Although the song mostly stays true to the lyrics of the original, certain lines have been changed to prevent any reference to magic or gender. For instance, the line "They were n't kidding when they called me, well, a witch '' was changed to "They were n't kidding when they called me kinda strange '', as well as the line "I 'm a very busy woman '' changed to "I 'm a very busy person. '' Where the original line was "Flotsam, Jetsam, now I _́ ve got her, boys '', the cover features the line "Nick and Kevin, now I _́ ve got her, boys ''. The second verse and ending have also been omitted. Instead, the song ends with a reprise of the chorus following the first verse.
The song is also featured on Disney 's On the Record along with "Part of Your World '', "Under the Sea '' and "Kiss the Girl '' of songs from The Little Mermaid.
A portion of the song is performed twice in the Walt Disney World Magic Kingdom Halloween - themed fireworks show HalloWishes during Mickey 's Not - So - Scary Halloween Party. Also at Walt Disney World, an instrumental snippet of the song is featured in the Electrical Water Pageant to accompany the appearance of a red octopus.
It was performed at Miss America 2016 by Miss Rhode Island Alexandra Curtis.
A cover by the gothic electronic band Pretty Addicted was released on February 14, 2016.
American singer Michelle Visage performed a parody version of the song, entitled "Poor Unfortunate Queens '', during RuPaul 's Drag Race Battle of the Seasons Tour.
A pop rendition of the song, it 's sing by the American actress and singer China Anne McClain, in the Disney Channel Original Movie: Descendants 2.
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what is the order of the jojo anime | JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure - wikipedia
JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure (Japanese: ジョジョ の 奇妙 な 冒険, Hepburn: JoJo no Kimyō na Bōken) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Hirohiko Araki. It was originally serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump from 1987 to 2004 before being transferred to the monthly seinen magazine Ultra Jump in 2005. The current story arc, JoJolion, started in 2011. JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure is currently Shueisha 's second largest manga series with its chapters collected into 121 tankōbon volumes and counting.
A six - volume original video animation adaptation of the later half of the series ' third story arc was released from 1993 to 1994 by studio A.P.P.P., followed by another seven - volume series covering earlier parts of the arc from 2000 to 2002. A.P.P.P. also produced a theatrical film of the first arc in 2007. In 2012, an anime television series produced by David Production began broadcast on Tokyo MX and covered the first two story arcs of the manga in 26 episodes. A second 48 - episode season covering the third arc was broadcast in 2014 and 2015, a 39 - episode season adapting the fourth aired between April and December 2016, and a new season adapting the fifth will premiere in October 2018.
The JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure manga has over 100 million copies in print, making it one of the best - selling manga series in history, and has spawned a large media franchise that includes several novelizations and video games, action figures, a jewelry line, and even snack foods. From 2003 to 2005, Super Techno Arts released both OVA series in North America. Viz Media released a translation of the third part of JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure in North America from 2005 to 2010, but began publishing the series from the beginning in 2015.
JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure tells the story of the Joestar family, a family whose various members discover they are destined to take down supernatural foes using unique powers that they possess. The manga is split up into 8 unique parts, each following the story of one member of the Joestar family, who inevitably has a name that can be abbreviated to the titular "JoJo ''. The first six parts of the series take place within a single continuity, while parts 7 and 8 take place in an alternate continuity.
Part 1 Phantom Blood introduces the Stone Mask (石 仮面, Ishikamen), an artifact discovered in Aztec ruins that reacts to contact with blood. When it is worn by someone and blood is spilled on it, the Stone Mask produces spikes that drive themselves into the wearer 's skull, transforming them into an immortal Vampire (吸血鬼, Kyūketsuki). These Vampires drain people of their blood through their fangs or their fingers and seemingly have full control of their bodies, able to heal from most injuries and can combine other creatures into abominations. A Vampire can only be killed by destroying the head, or by exposure to natural sunlight or ultraviolet rays. The Ripple (波紋, Hamon) is also introduced as a martial arts technique that allows the user to focus bodily energy via controlled breathing. It is effective in combating vampires, as experienced Ripple users can emulate sunlight. Such energy is also useful in combating Zombies (屍 生 人 (ゾンビ), Zonbi, also referred to as "Undead '' (亡者 (アンデッド), Andeddo)) created by vampires.
Part 2 Battle Tendency introduces the Pillar Men (柱 の 男, Hashira no Otoko), an ancient race of apex predators and progenitors to the Vampires. One of their members created the Stone Masks in an attempt to find a way to bypass their species ' weakness to sunlight so they may rule Earth. When they are exposed to sunlight, they turn to stone, thus making them susceptible to the energies of the Ripple. Their surviving members, seek out the Red Stone of Aja (エイジャ の 赤石, Eija no Sekiseki), a flawless version of a naturally occurring gem that amplifies light into nearly laser precision which is able to perfect the transformation into a truly immortal being with control over all life 's forces. It is for this reason that the Ripple users protect the flawless Super Aja so it can never fall into the hands of the Pillar Men.
Part 3 Stardust Crusaders introduces the supernatural power of Stands (スタンド, Sutando), so named because the semi-physical manifestation of the user 's psychic powers resembles a spiritual familiar standing next to them. Joseph Joestar first refers to it as a "Ghostly Ripple '' (幽 波紋 (スタンド), Sutando, but without furigana it would be pronounced yū hamon). A person may obtain a Stand through bloodlines, rigorous spiritual and / or Ripple training, exceptionally strong willpower, desire and / or passion. A Stand may never manifest itself until it is amplified by certain conditions or factors and not everyone has the ability to control it. Some Stands appear to have a separate and autonomous personality from their users, able to act on their own to protect them or speak to them. Generally, if the Stand user is incapacitated, the Stand will no longer be a threat and destroying a Stand will result in the death of its user.
Part 4 Diamond Is Unbreakable introduces a Bow and Arrow (弓 と 矢, Yumi to Ya), forged from a mysterious meteorite that made its way to Earth after being drawn in by the spiritual powers of the planet 's inhabitants. A Stand can be brought forth after one is pierced by the Arrow, however the results can be unpredictable, as it could easily kill an unqualified person, and there is no apparent way to know if a person is qualified ahead of time. The Arrows do, however, tend to seek out qualified people on their own if there is someone to guide them. The Arrows also have the ability to make a Stand even more powerful if its user is hit with the Arrow. However, if a Stand is struck by an Arrow, becomes a brand new
Part 5 Golden Wind elaborates upon a property of the Arrow to create a "Requiem '' (鎮魂歌 (レクイエム), Rekuiemu) Stand. If the Arrow hits the Stand instead of the user, the Stand can completely change form and its powers become a Requiem Stand with increased powers. These powers relate to the control over the souls of living beings. In the two instances where this form was achieved, Requiem was added to the end of the Stand 's name. Gold Experience has been pierced twice by Arrows but only once did it evolve into a Requiem Stand; this phenomenon may be related to the sentience of Arrows seeking out qualified users.
Part 6 Stone Ocean shows examples of a single person possessing two Stands because of the ability of an extraordinary Stand. Enrico Pucci is able to produce artificial Stand users, by stealing others ' Stands and transforming them into Discs (ディスク, Disuku) and then "inserting '' them into certain individuals. Part 6 also features DIO 's bone (DIO の 骨, DIO no Hone), the sole remaining part of DIO which is instrumental in Pucci 's Way to Heaven (天国 へ 行く 方法, Tengoku e Iku Hōhō). It grants a new and more powerful Stand that ultimately leads to the creation of Made in Heaven メイド ・ イン ・ ヘヴン (Meido In Hevun), a powerful Stand that can accelerate the universe to the point of a universal reset.
Part 7 Steel Ball Run introduces the Spin (回転, Kaiten), a technique that incorporates the Fibonacci spiral, the golden ratio and the golden rectangle (黄金 長方形, ōgon chōhōkei) into a means of manipulating the Magnus effect to the user 's benefit, but its true power lies in its destructive effects. Also introduced in Part 7 is the Saint 's Corpse (聖人 の 遺体, Seijin no Itai), body parts of a deceased holy man (hinted to be Jesus Christ) that imbue the user with a Stand if the body part is fused with the user. If the user loses the Corpse part, they lose their Stand.
Part 8 JoJolion introduces another method of obtaining a Stand, interaction with the Wall Eyes (壁 の 目, Kabe no Me), strange fault - like structures that have risen from the ground following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. They disrupt all forms of transportation, communication, and utilities, but all users of Stands have come in contact with the Wall Eyes at some point. A race of Stand - using Rock People (岩 人間, Iwa Ningen) also appears in JoJolion. These humans seem to innately possess the ability to turn their body into stone and enter a state of suspended animation.
For JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure, Araki wanted to use a classical method as a base and then introduce modern elements in the singular. As an example, he often draws in a realistic style but then uses surreal colors. Araki has been aiming to draw real spirits in JoJo resulting in him going to the Kappa River in Tōno, Iwate, to get a better understanding of the concept. Araki claims getting inspiration from the art of the 1980s, shading techniques in Western art, and classical paintings; the manga coloring is based on calculations rather than consistency, with Araki citing artists like Paul Gauguin as inspiration. He also claims mystery is the central theme of the manga, as he was fascinated by it as a child. Furthermore, Araki wanted to explore superpowers and energy in JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure resulting in various concepts such as the Hamon and the Stands. He said that the supernatural basis of the fights in his series evened the battlefield for women and children to match up against strong men. For Stardust Crusaders in particular, Araki was influenced by role - playing games in designing the characters ' skills.
The characters had no models with the exception of Jotaro Kujo who was based on Clint Eastwood. For every part, Araki stated that he wanted to try a different type of main character. For example, whereas Part 1 's Jonathan Joestar was a serious person, Part 2 's Joseph Joestar was a rude person. Although their personalities are different, the two share a physical resemblance in order to have some continuity because it was unheard of at the time for a main character to die in a Weekly Shōnen Jump series. Araki 's consistent focus on the Joestar family was intended to give a feeling of pride as well as due to the wonder and mystery there is on the lineage.
Having originally planned the series as a trilogy, Araki thought to have the final confrontation set in present - day Japan. But he did not want it to be a tournament affair, which was popular in Weekly Shōnen Jump at the time, and therefore decided to make Part 3 a "road movie '' inspired by Around the World in Eighty Days. With Part 4, Araki said that he moved away from "muscle men '' as they fell out of popularity with readers and he wanted to focus more on fashion. When designing his characters ' outfits, Araki considers both everyday fashion and "cartoonish, bizarre clothing that would be impractical in real life. '' For Part 6, Araki wrote a female protagonist for the first time which he found complicated, but also interesting due to the humanity she could possess. He later described Part 2 's much earlier supporting character Lisa Lisa as fresh and "unheard of '' in both manga and society in general for its time, and said it was exciting to challenge people 's expectations with the female warrior - type. Having not specifically set out on creating a disabled character, Araki explained that Part 7 's paraplegic Johnny Joestar was a natural result of wanting to show a character who could grow, both physically and mentally, during a race where "he would be forced not only to rely on other people, but horses as well. ''
Araki uses unique onomatopoeia and poses in the series, which he attributes to his love for heavy metal and horror films. The poses, which are known in Japan as JoJo - dachi (ジョジョ 立ち, lit. "JoJo standing ''), are iconic on his book covers and panels, and were inspired by Araki 's trip to Italy in his 20s and his studies of Michelangelo 's sculptures. The poses are so popular that fans often reenact them in homage to JoJo. A reporter for Rocket News attempted to shop at the special 25th anniversary JoJo - themed Lawson in Sendai in a JoJo - dachi in 2012, and in 2014, singer Shoko Nakagawa remarked that she accidentally broke her coccyx after performing a JoJo - dachi during a concert in Nagoya.
Written and illustrated by Hirohiko Araki, JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure began serialization in Weekly Shōnen Jump in its combined issue # 1 - 2 of 1987, which was published on January 1, 1987. The chapters are collected and published into tankōbon volumes by Shueisha, with the first released on August 10, 1987. The series is broken into arcs or parts, each of which stars a different descendant of the Joestar family. During Part 5, which takes place in Italy, the series ' title was occasionally written in Italian as Le Bizzarre Avventure di GioGio. After volume 63, each parts ' tankōbon have started the number count back at one; see Stone Ocean, Steel Ball Run and JoJolion. The series was switched to the magazine Ultra Jump in 2005, during Steel Ball Run, with the chapters now published monthly. JoJolion, the current arc, began on May 19, 2011. A sōshūhen edition that aims to recreate the manga as it was originally serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump with color pages, promotional text, and next chapter previews, began being published in October 2012. That same year, the first three Parts of the series were digitally colored and released as digital downloads for smartphones and tablet computers. A hardcover re-release of the first three Parts, including colored pages from their original serialization, was collected under the title JoJonium (ジョジョ ニウム, Jojoniumu) between December 4, 2013, and March 4, 2015.
In the early 1990s Viz Media had planned to release an English - language version of JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure in North America as "The Strange Adventures of Jojo '', evident by an advertisement in their newsletter at the time, Viz - In. It is suspected the plans were canned after Baoh, another series by Hirohiko Araki, sold poorly. The series was brought up again for talks in 2002, for release as individual monthly chapters. However, by this time, that publication format for manga was becoming less popular in North America.
JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure finally received a North American release in 2005, in the graphic novel format, similar to its Japanese tankōbon. However, it is only of the series ' third part, Stardust Crusaders, which is the most popular and well - known. Originally published bimonthly, the volumes were later reduced to a quarterly release. The first volume was released on November 8, 2005, and the last on December 7, 2010. Viz 's release changed the names of several characters due to copyright concerns and included some censorship, with scenes of animal violence redrawn by Araki himself. JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure has also seen domestic releases in Italy by Star Comics, in France by J'ai Lu and Tonkam, Taiwan by Tong Li Publishing, and in Malaysia by Comics House.
In 2013, Viz revealed that they planned to release the third part digitally and expressed interest in further material of the series, however, they explained the difficulties due to the numerous blatant references to real - life musicians and fashion designers. Viz Media began publishing the JoJonium edition of Phantom Blood digitally in September 2014, with a three - volume hardcover print edition that includes color pages following throughout 2015. They then licensed the four - volume part 2 Battle Tendency, which they began publishing digitally in March 2015 and in print in November 2015. Viz began re-releasing Stardust Crusaders in the hardcover format in fall 2016. At Anime Expo 2016, Viz Media announced they will be publishing part 4 Diamond is Unbreakable.
Araki has also drawn several spin - offs of JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure. The first being "Thus Spoke Kishibe Rohan. Episode 16: At a Confessional '' published in Weekly Shōnen Jump in 1997, which stars Rohan Kishibe from Part 4 and launched a series, Thus Spoke Kishibe Rohan. "Deadman 's Questions '' (デッドマン ズ Q, Deddomanzu Kuesuchonzu) is a three chapter story starring Yoshikage Kira from Part 4 and was published in the magazine Allman in 1999. Both of these were later collected in Araki 's 1999 Under Execution, Under Jailbreak (死刑 執行 中 脱獄 進行 中, Shikei Shikkōchū Datsugoku Shinkōchū) collection of one - shots. Oingo Boingo Brothers Adventure (オインゴ と ボインゴ 兄弟 大 冒険, Oingo to Boingo Kyōdai Daibōken) was released in October 2002, features the title characters originally from Part 3 and is drawn in the same art style as Boingo 's Stand, which is a fortune - telling comic book. Continuing the series starring Rohan, "Thus Spoke Rohan Kishibe - Mutsu - kabe Hill - '' was published in Jump SQ in 2007. "Thus Spoke Rohan Kishibe ~ Episode 5: Millionaire Village ~ '' was published in the October 6, 2012, issue of Weekly Shōnen Jump. "Thus Spoke Rohan Kishibe ~ Episode 6: Poaching Seashore ~ '' was published in Weekly Shōnen Jump on October 12, 2013. A collected volume of Thus Spoke Kishibe Rohan was published by Shueisha on November 19, 2013, collecting the stories "At a Confessional '', "Mutsu - kabe Hill '', "Millionaire Village '', "Poaching Seashore '', and "Rohan Kishibe Goes to Gucci ''. "Thus Spoke Rohan Kishibe ~ Episode 4: Mochizuki Family Moon Viewing ~ '' was released for free on September 21, 2014, as part of Shueisha 's Shōnen Jump+ website debut. The newest part of the series "Thus Spoke Rohan Kishibe Episode # 07 Monday - Sun Shower '' was published in Weekly Shōnen Jump on December 4, 2015.
A 13 - episode OVA adaptation of Part 3, Stardust Crusaders, was produced by A.P.P.P.. The first set of six episodes, which begins during the middle of the arc, were released by Pony Canyon on VHS and Laserdisc from November 19, 1993, to November 18, 1994. The series was released by Klock Worx on Region 2 DVD and VHS from May 25, 2000, to October 25, 2002, starting with seven newly produced prequel episodes adapting the beginning of the arc, followed by re-releases of the earlier episodes renumbered from 8 through 13 to take into account their later chronological placement. Super Techno Arts produced an English - language dub of all thirteen episodes in North America as a six - volume DVD series between 2003 and 2005, with the episodes also arranged in chronological order.
JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure: Phantom Blood, a feature film adaptation of the manga 's first story arc, was released theatrically on February 17, 2007, in Japan. The film was produced by A.P.P.P. to commemorate the 25th anniversary of creator Hirohiko Araki 's career as a manga artist.
At a July 5, 2012 press conference celebrating the 25th anniversary of the series and promoting an upcoming Hirohiko Araki art exhibition, Araki and his people announced that an anime adaptation of JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure was in production and would premiere in October 2012. The 26 - episode first season, which covers both the Phantom Blood and Battle Tendency arcs, aired on Tokyo MX between October 5, 2012 and April 5, 2013.
Although teased at in the post-credit scenes of the finale, the second season of the anime was officially announced in October 2013 in the November 2013 issue of Ultra Jump and the fifth tankōbon volume of JoJolion. It was broadcast on Tokyo MX in two parts for a total of 48 episodes; the first from April 4 to September 12, 2014, and the second from January 9 to June 19, 2015. At the "Last Crusaders '' event for Stardust Crusaders, an adaptation of Diamond Is Unbreakable was announced. It premiered on April 1, 2016 and ended on December 23, 2016. An OVA adapting the Thus Spoke Rohan Kishibe manga spin - offs will be made available to those in Japan who buy every Blu - ray or DVD volume of the Diamond Is Unbreakable anime.
With the 2014 premiere of Stardust Crusaders, American - based website Crunchyroll began streaming the anime series for viewers outside Japan an hour after it aired in Japan. Warner Bros. Home Entertainment released Parts 1 and 2 in a DVD set on September 22, 2015, with an English dub. In July 2016, Viz Media announced they acquired the Blu - ray rights to the series and released it with an English dub in July 2017. On October 15, 2016, American cable block Adult Swim began airing the anime on its Toonami block.
Part 5, Golden Wind, was confirmed for an anime adaptation on June 21, 2018. The series will air in October of 2018.
Several light novels based on the JoJo series have been written, each by a different author, but all including illustrations by Hirohiko Araki. The first, based on Part 3, was simply titled JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure, released on November 4, 1993, and written by Mayori Sekijima and Hiroshi Yamaguchi. Le Bizzarre Avventure di GioGio II: Golden Heart / Golden Ring (ジョジョ の 奇妙 な 冒険 II ゴールデン ハート / ゴールデン リング, JoJo no Kimyō na Bōken Tsū Gōruden Hāto / Gōruden Ringu) written by Gichi Ōtsuka and Miya Shōtarō, was released on May 28, 2001, and based on Part 5. Both of these novels received Italian translations and releases; the first in 2003, often with the added subtitle of The Genesis of Universe, and the second in 2004.
In 2000, it was announced that Otsuichi would be writing a novel based on Part 4. The novel proved difficult to complete; in Kono Mystery ga Sugoi! 2004, Otsuichi claimed to have written over 2000 pages, but thrown them all out. Intent on writing a novel that lived up to the manga, it took him until 2007 to complete The Book: JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure 4th Another Day.
In April 2011, it was announced that Nisio Isin, Kouhei Kadono, and Ōtarō Maijō were each writing novel adaptations of JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure in celebration of the series ' 25th anniversary. Kadono 's, titled Purple Haze Feedback (恥知らず の パープル ヘイズ, Hajishirazu no Pāpuru Heizu), was released on September 16, 2011, and is based on Part 5. Isin 's was released on December 16, 2011, based on Part 3 and titled JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure Over Heaven. Maijō 's novel, Jorge Joestar, was revealed in July and released on September 19, 2012. It tells the story of George Joestar II, son of Jonathan and father of Joseph, in his childhood growing up on La Palma where he is known as "Jorge Joestar '' as well as an alternate version living in Japan named "Joji Joestar '' investigating mysteries behind the appearance of a moving island. It features characters from and inspired by nearly every part of JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure.
From 1992 to 1993, a drama CD adaptation of Part 3 was released in three volumes, titled JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure Volume 1: Meet Jotaro Kujo (ジョジョ の 奇妙 な 冒険 第 1 巻 空 条 承 太郎 見参 の 巻), JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure Volume 2: The Death of Avdol (ジョジョ の 奇妙 な 冒険 第 2 巻 アヴドゥル 死す の 巻) and JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure Volume 3: The World of Dio (ジョジョ の 奇妙 な 冒険 第 3 巻 DIO の 世界 の 巻). They starred Kiyoyuki Yanada as Jotaro, Kenji Utsumi (volumes 1 - 2) and Gorō Naya (volume 3) as Joseph Joestar, Akio Ōtsuka as Avdol, Shō Hayami as Kakyoin, Ken Yamaguchi as Polnareff, Keiichi Nanba as Hol Horse, Shigeru Chiba as J. Geil, and Norio Wakamoto as Dio.
Araki has released multiple books containing original artwork he has produced for JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure. JoJo6251 was released in 1993 and features artwork, story details, and behind the scenes information for Phantom Blood, Battle Tendency, Stardust Crusaders, and Diamond Is Unbreakable. This was followed in 2000 by JoJo A-Go! Go! which features original artwork from Golden Wind and Stone Ocean. In 2013, he released JoJoveller, a multimedia set that includes a book featuring original artwork for Stone Ocean, Steel Ball Run, and JoJolion; a book detailing the history of the publications; and a book detailing every Stand featured since Stardust Crusaders. The limited edition has two Blu - rays showing the 25th anniversary art exhibition in Tokyo and a behind - the - scenes look at Araki 's creative process.
Several video games based on JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure have been created. A role - playing video game was released on the Super Famicom in 1993, and several fighting games have been released, including JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure: All Star Battle for the series ' 25th anniversary. Characters from JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure have also been featured in various cross-over games with other characters from Weekly Shōnen Jump.
In 2016, it was announced that Toho and Warner Bros. were partnering to produce a live - action film based on the fourth arc of JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure. Takashi Miike directed the film that stars Kento Yamazaki as Josuke and which was released in summer 2017. Both studios were planning for worldwide distribution and are hoping to create sequels.
JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure has over 100 million copies in print, and is one of the best - selling Weekly Shōnen Jump series of all - time. For the 10th anniversary of the Japan Media Arts Festival in 2006, Japanese fans voted JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure second on a list of the Top 10 Manga of all time. JoJo ranked 10th in a 2009 survey by Oricon on what manga series people want to see receive a live - action adaptation. The 2013 edition of Kono Manga ga Sugoi!, which surveys people in the manga and publishing industry, named JoJolion the 12th best manga series for male readers. JoJolion won the grand prize for manga at the 2013 Japan Media Arts Festival.
The first volume of JoJolion was the second best - selling manga for its debut week, its second volume was number three and its third was number two. All three volumes were some of the best - selling manga of 2012. All three volumes of Viz Media 's release of Phantom Blood and all four volumes of Battle Tendency reached the top seven positions on The New York Times Manga Best Seller list.
IGN named the series a "must read '', declaring the artwork of "a standard virtually unseen in most manga produced today ''. Rebecca Silverman of Anime News Network wrote that JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure "combines a fighting story with a solid emotional background, and will absolutely put hair on your chest. '' She called Dio an excellent villain that the readers can enjoy hating. However, she criticized the anatomy of characters, saying "bodies are often twisted into impossible positions. '' Otaku USA 's Joseph Luster called the series "fun as hell '' and noted how the beginning is not filled with action like most Weekly Shōnen Jump series, but instead has the tension of horror and thriller films. Heidi Kemps, also of Otaku USA, was mostly positive in her review of Rohan at the Louvre, praising the art for being drawn in full - color by hand, although noted that readers new to JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure might not fully understand the ending due to there being only a brief explanation of Rohan 's Stand power. Writer Gen Urobuchi noted that in "Part 2 '' even though Caesar Zeppeli dies, he became "immortal. ''
The first set of OVAs was given three out of five stars by Eric Gaede of THEM Anime Reviews. He praised the fight scenes as more believable than those from other series such as Dragon Ball and the characters ' personalities, although felt the villains resorted to clichés when they are about to be defeated. However, he called the story "disjointed '' and the animation "drab and colorless ''.
The JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure anime television series was named one of the best of 2012 by Otaku USA. It was added to the list by Joseph Luster, however, in his review he cited David Production having a small budget for several of his problems with the series, stating some portions of the animation are a "butt hair above motion comic standards, '' but that it usually makes up for it in "sheer style. '' Michael Toole of Anime News Network had similar views, writing that the show 's good writing, art direction, and pacing were "sometimes obscured by grade - Z animation. '' At the 2013 CEDEC Awards, the anime 's opening sequence won in the Visual Arts division. Several critics have credited the success of the anime adaptation for bringing about a surge of popularity for the JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure franchise amongst Western audiences. In 2018, Danni Wilmoth of Crunchyroll included the series on her list of "The 20 Series Every Anime Fan Needs to Watch ''.
In May 2008, both Shueisha and studio A.P.P.P. halted manga / OVA shipments of JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure after a complaint had been launched against them from Egyptian Islamic fundamentalists, after noticing a scene in the OVAs that has the villain, Dio Brando, reading a book depicting pages from the Qur'an. This recall affected the English - language releases as well, causing Viz Media and Shueisha to cease publication for a year. Even though the manga did not feature that specific scene, Shueisha had Araki redraw scenes that depicted characters fighting on top of, and destroying, mosques for later printings of the series. Viz resumed publication a year later, with the eleventh volume being published on April 7, 2009. Jason Thompson later included Shueisha 's changes to the manga on a list of "The Greatest Censorship Fails '' in manga.
The September 2007 issue of Cell had a cover drawn by Hirohiko Araki with a ligase represented as a JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure Stand. He also contributed artwork towards the restoration of Chūson - ji following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. Araki contributed JoJo - inspired art for Sayuri Ishikawa 's 2012 album X - Cross -, where she performs one of the series ' iconic poses and is drawn wearing jewelry from the manga. JoJo - style artwork has also been produced for other literature, such as for a 2008 collection featuring Yasunari Kawabata 's short story "The Dancing Girl of Izu '' and a 2012 reprint of Tamaki Saitō 's Lacan for Surviving.
In 2009, Araki 's artwork for JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure was one of five artists featured in the Louvre 's Le Louvre invite la bande dessinée ("The Louvre Invites Comic - Strip Art '') exhibition. To commemorate this honor, he wrote Rohan au Louvre (岸辺 露伴 ルーヴル へ 行く, Kishibe Rohan Rūvuru e Iku), a 123 - page full color story starring Rohan Kishibe visiting the Louvre and discovering a cursed painting tied to his family. The following year it was published in France and ran in Ultra Jump, and in February 2012 was translated and released in North America by NBM Publishing.
The song "Do n't Bite the Dust '' by metal band Lovebites was influenced by and named after a Stand from Diamond is Unbreakable.
From September 17 to October 6, 2011, the Gucci store in Shinjuku hosted the Gucci x Hirohiko Araki x Spur "Rohan Kishibe Goes to Gucci '' Exhibition, a collaboration between the luxury Italian clothing brand, Araki, and the Japanese fashion magazine Spur. The exhibit celebrated the 90th anniversary of Gucci and featured a life - size figure of Rohan Kishibe, as well as numerous illustrations by Araki; including actual pieces of the brand 's own 2011 -- 2012 fall / winter collection and his own original fashion designs. The October 2011 issue of Spur featured another one - shot manga titled Rohan Kishibe Goes to Gucci (岸辺 露伴 グッチ へ 行く, Kishibe Rohan Guchi e Yuku), in which Rohan goes to a Gucci factory to discover the secret behind a magical handbag with the characters wearing and using Gucci products. This was followed by another collaboration in the February 2013 issue of Spur with Jolyne, Fly High with Gucci (徐 倫 、 GUCCI で 飛ぶ, Jorīn, Gutchi de Tobu), starring Jolyne Cujoh from Part 6. A free English translation of the latter was previously available on Gucci 's Facebook page. Again, Araki 's artwork was featured in Gucci 's storefront displays around the world.
There were several art exhibitions in 2012 in Japan for the manga 's 25th anniversary. The first was in Araki 's birthplace of Sendai, which included a Lawson store remodeled to look like the "Owson '' store that appears in Diamond Is Unbreakable and JoJolion. The store was opened from July 28 to September 30, and contained exclusive goods with the Owson name. The second exhibition was held in Tokyo from October 6 to November 4 and hangouts were held on Google Plus to allow fans to view the gallery at night through the lens of Remote Romance (リモート ロマンス, Rimōto Romansu), an original "Stand '' Araki and his team created for the event. The exhibit was taken to Italy from June 28 to July 14, 2013, and shown at the Gucci showroom in Florence.
The October 2012 issue of Ultra Jump contained a special booklet titled 25 Years With JoJo, also in celebration of the anniversary, featuring messages and tribute art from well - known manga artists such as Akira Toriyama, Yoshihiro Togashi, Eiichiro Oda, Clamp, and 18 others. During the 25th anniversary celebrations, a special smartphone with a JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure inspired UI was released.
To celebrate the release of the All Star Battle video game, created for the 25th anniversary, a special JoJo - themed train traveled the Yamanote Line in Tokyo from August 29 to September 9, 2013. Illustrations and advertisements of the series littered the interior, with videos of the game shown on displays, while the exterior had 33 characters as livery.
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in computer what kind of led is used | LED display - wikipedia
An LED display is a flat panel display, which uses an array of light - emitting diodes as pixels for a video display. Their brightness allows them to be used outdoors where they are visible in the sun store signs and billboards, and in recent years they have also become commonly used in destination signs on public transport vehicles. LED displays are capable of providing general illumination in addition to visual display, as when used for stage lighting or other decorative (as opposed to informational) purposes.
The first true all - LED flat panel television screen was possibly developed, demonstrated and documented by James P. Mitchell in 1977. Initial public recognition came from the Westinghouse Educational Foundation Science Talent Search group, a Science Service organization. The paper entry was named in the "Honors Group '' publicized to universities on January 25, 1978. The paper was subsequently invited and presented at the Iowa Academy of Science at the University of Northern Iowa. The operational prototype was displayed at the Eastern Iowa SEF on March 18 and obtained a top "Physical Sciences '' award and IEEE recognition. The project was again displayed at the 29th International SEF at the Anaheim Ca. Convention Center on May 8 -- 10. The 1⁄4 - inch thin miniature flat panel modular prototype, scientific paper, and full screen (tiled LED matrix) schematic with video interface were displayed at this event. It received awards by NASA and General Motors Corporation. This project marked some of the earliest progress towards the replacement of the 70 + year old high - voltage analog CRT system (cathode - ray tube technology) with a digital x-y scanned LED matrix driven with a NTSC television RF video format. Mitchell 's paper projected the future replacement of CRTs and included foreseen application to battery operated devices due the advantages of low - power. Displacement of the electromagnetic scan systems included the removal of inductive deflection, electron beam and color convergence circuits and has been a significant achievement. The unique properties of the light emitting diode as an emissive device simplifies matrix scanning complexity and has helped the modern television adapt to digital communications and shrink into its current thin form factor.
The 1977 model was monochromatic by design. The efficient Blue LED completing the color triad, did not arrive for another decade. Large displays now use high - brightness diodes to generate a wide spectrum of colors. It took three decades and organic light - emitting diodes for Sony to introduce an OLED TV, the Sony XEL - 1 OLED screen which was marketed in 2009. Later, at CES 2012, Sony presented Crystal LED, a TV with a true LED - display (in which LEDs are used to produce actual images rather than acting as backlighting for other types of display, as in LED - backlit LCDs which are commonly marketed as LED TVs).
The 2011 UEFA Champions League Final match between Manchester United and Barcelona was broadcast live in 3D format in Gothenburg (Sweden), on an EKTA screen. It had a refresh rate of 100 Hz, a diagonal of 7.11 m (23 ft 3.92 in) and a display area of 6.192 × 3.483 m, and was listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the largest LED 3D TV.
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is k a window seat on a plane | Aircraft seat map - wikipedia
An aircraft seat map or seating chart, is a diagram of the seat layout inside a passenger airliner. They are often published by airlines for informational purposes, and are of use to passengers for selection of their seat at booking or check - in.
Seat maps usually indicate the basic seating layout, the numbering and lettering of the seats, the location of the emergency exits, lavatories, galleys, bulkheads and wings. Airlines which allow internet check - in frequently present a seat map indicating free and occupied seats to the passenger so that they select their seat from it.
In addition to the published seat maps from airliners, there are a number of independent websites which also publish seat maps along with reviews of individual seats, noting the particularly good (extra legroom, quiet cabin, etc.) or bad (lack of recline, unusually cramped, missing window, etc.) seats.
Most of the airlines publish the seat configurations for their aircraft, but the quality of these seat maps is sometimes questionable. Some of the details and information about seats are confusing. Usually airlines do not publish seat maps for every aircraft, only for the larger aircraft and for the ones flying on frequent routes.
When passengers complete an online booking, or check in online, they are often also presented with an aircraft seat map. However, this data is sourced from the original text - only seat maps on computer reservation systems such as Sabre where the seatmap is simply held as a two - dimensional array and as such can only display a grid of seats, as opposed to the more ingenious layouts now used in First and Business Class.
Nichols et al. (2013) have reported that when people book seats on - line, they exhibit a leftward preference for seats on an aircraft, but a rightward preference for seats at the theatre.
In addition to those published seat maps which can be found on airline websites, there are some other websites that publish aircraft seat maps for almost all commercial carriers. Seat maps that can be found on these sites usually have more details and on some websites you can find comments from other passengers with advantages and disadvantages about each seat.
The accuracy and editorial independence of specialised websites showing seat maps have also been questioned. Seatguru has come under scrutiny since it was sold to the online booking agent Expedia for $1.2 m, and Expedia now use the seatguru information when selling seats. As a result, SeatGuru has received some criticism for presenting seat maps which are inaccurate and where no one from the company has travelled on the aircraft; for example showing bars on aircraft where there are none (on the Singapore A380) or seat rows that do n't exist (on the Emirates A380).
The latest generation of user - generated airline seatmaps include comments from frequent flyers, and one specialised website has gained access from airlines to take pictures of every seat, and sit in them to write specific recommendations, alongside the detailed seat maps.
On many aircraft, the rightmost seats have letter designations HJK, skipping the letter I. This is because each seat has a row number followed by letter. Letters that confuse with numbers must be avoided. Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) was the first to implement this, avoiding I (1), O (0) and S (5). The remaining letters are called the DEC alphabet.
Occasionally, aircraft with a seating structure of 2 + 2 may letter the seats as "ACDF '' to keep with the standard of A / F being window and C / D being aisle on short - haul aircraft (which generally have 3 + 3 seats).
In First and Business class cabins, the seat letters for the window seats will typically be the same as in coach, with some letters skipped in between as there are fewer seats per row. For example, if economy cabin is ten across, labeled ABC - DEFG - HJK, the Business Class cabin might be labeled AC - DG - HK for a six across layout, with A-DG - K for a four across First Class. One notable exception to this is Delta Air Lines, who uses sequential letters regardless of cabin layout on all aircraft (AB - CD - EF in Business Class and ABC - DEF - GHJ in Economy).
Some airlines omit the row number 13. For example, Lufthansa, (as shown e.g. on the Lufthansa A321 / 100 seating plan) reputedly because of a widespread superstition that the number 13 is unlucky. Emirates used to have a row 13, but on their latest A380 aircraft have removed it (as shown on Emirates A380 - 800 seating plan). British Airways are less superstitious, and their seat maps for A320 aircraft shows a row 13. Delta Air Lines also includes row 13 in many of their seat maps.
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write a note on any one seal of indus valley civilization | Indus Valley Civilisation - wikipedia
The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), or Harappan Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation (3300 -- 1300 BCE; mature period 2600 -- 1900 BCE) mainly in the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early cradles of civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread.
Aridification of this region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial spur for the urbanisation associated with the civilisation, but eventually also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation 's demise, and to scatter its population eastward.
At its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley developed new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings. Children 's toys were found in the cities, with few weapons of war, suggesting peace and prosperity. Their trade seals, decorated with animals and mythical beings, indicate they conducted thriving trade with lands as far away as Sumer in southern Mesopotamia.
The Indus Valley Civilisation is also named the Harappan civilisation after Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s, in what was then the Punjab province of British India. The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards Mohenjo - daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj. Excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. This Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the cultures immediately preceding and following it. Of these, the earlier is often called the Early Harappan culture, while the later one may be referred to as the Late Harappan, both of which existed in the same area as the Mature Harappan Civilisation. The early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, from which the river plains were populated.
A total of 1,022 cities and settlements had been found by 2008, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar - Hakra Rivers, and their tributaries; of which 406 sites are in Pakistan and 616 sites in India; of these 96 have been excavated. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo - daro (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Dholavira, Ganeriwala and Rakhigarhi.
The Harappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered. A relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo - Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars.
The Indus Valley Civilisation is named after the Indus Valley, where the first remains were found. The Indus Valley Civilisation is also named the Harappan civilisation after Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s, in what was then the Punjab province of British India.
The Indus Valley Civilisation has also been called by some the "Sarasvati culture '', the "Sarasvati Civilisation '', the "Indus - Sarasvati Civilisation '' or the "Sindhu - Saraswati Civilisation '', as the Ghaggar - Hakra river is identified by some with the mythological Sarasvati river, suggesting that the Indus Valley Civilisation was the Vedic civilisation as perceived by traditional Hindu beliefs.
The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) encompassed much of Pakistan, western India, and northeastern Afghanistan; extending from Pakistani Balochistan in the west to Uttar Pradesh in the east, northeastern Afghanistan in the north and Maharashtra in the south. Shortugai to the north is on the Oxus River, the Afghan border with Tajikistan, and in the west Sutkagan Dor is close to the Iranian border. The Kulli culture of Balochistan, of which more than 100 settlement sites are known, can be regarded as a local variant of the IVC, or a related culture.
The geography of the Indus Valley put the civilisations that arose there in a highly similar situation to those in Egypt and Peru, with rich agricultural lands being surrounded by highlands, desert, and ocean. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistan 's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa as well. Other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Maharashtra. The largest number of colonies are in the Punjab, Sindh, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Gujarat belt Coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor in Western Baluchistan to Lothal in Gujarat. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan, in the Gomal River valley in northwestern Pakistan, at Manda, Jammu on the Beas River near Jammu, India, and at Alamgirpur on the Hindon River, only 28 km from Delhi. Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast, for example, Balakot, and on islands, for example, Dholavira.
It flourished along the system of monsoon - fed perennial rivers in the basins of the Ghaggar - Hakra River in northwest India, and the Indus River flowing through the length of Pakistan. There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Ghaggar River in India and Hakra channel in Pakistan.
616 sites have been discovered along the dried up river beds of the Ghaggar - Hakra River and its tributaries, while 406 sites have been found along the Indus and its tributaries. According to Shereen Ratnagar the Ghaggar - Hakra desert area has more remaining sites than the alluvium of the Indus Valley, since the Ghaggar - Hakra desert area has been left untouched by settlements and agriculture since the end of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
The ruins of Harappa were described in 1842 by Charles Masson in his Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan, and the Punjab, where locals talked of an ancient city extending "thirteen cosses '' (about 25 miles or 41 km).
In 1856, Alexander Cunningham, later director - general of the archaeological survey of northern India, visited Harappa where the British engineers John and William Brunton were laying the East Indian Railway Company line connecting the cities of Karachi and Lahore. John wrote, "I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway ''. They were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called Harappa. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well - burnt bricks, and, "convinced that there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted '', the city of Harappa was reduced to ballast. A few months later, further north, John 's brother William Brunton 's "section of the line ran near another ruined city, bricks from which had already been used by villagers in the nearby village of Harappa at the same site. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles (150 km) of the railroad track running from Karachi to Lahore ''.
In 1872 -- 75, Cunningham published the first Harappan seal (with an erroneous identification as Brahmi letters). More Harappan seals were discovered in 1912 by John Faithfull Fleet, prompting an archaeological campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall. Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats began excavating Harappa in 1921, finding buildings and artefacts indicative of an ancient civilisation. These were soon complemented by discoveries at Mohenjo - daro by Rakhal Das Banerjee, Ernest J.H. Mackay, and Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo - daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the independence in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein.
Following independence, the bulk of the archaeological finds were inherited by Pakistan where most of the IVC was based; however with more recent discoveries India now has 50 % more sites than Pakistan. Outposts of the Indus Valley civilisation were excavated as far west as Sutkagan Dor in Pakistani Balochistan, as far north as at Shortugai on the Amu Darya (the river 's ancient name was Oxus) in current Afghanistan, as far east as at Alamgirpur, Uttar Pradesh, India and as far south as at Malwan, in modern - day Surat, Gujarat, India.
In 2010, heavy floods hit Haryana in India and damaged the archaeological site of Jognakhera, where ancient copper smelting furnaces were found dating back almost 5,000 years. The Indus Valley Civilisation site was hit by almost 10 feet of water as the Sutlej Yamuna link canal overflowed.
The cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation had "social hierarchies, their writing system, their large planned cities and their long - distance trade (which) mark them to archaeologists as a full - fledged ' civilisation. ' '' The mature phase of the Harappan civilisation lasted from c. 2600 to 1900 BCE. With the inclusion of the predecessor and successor cultures -- Early Harappan and Late Harappan, respectively -- the entire Indus Valley Civilisation may be taken to have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th centuries BCE. It is part of the Indus Valley Tradition, which also includes the pre-Harappan occupation of Mehrgarh, the earliest farming site of the Indus Valley.
Several periodisations are employed for the periodisation of the IVC. The most commonly used classifies the Indus Valley Civilisation into Early, Mature and Late Harappan Phase. An alternative approach by Shaffer divides the broader Indus Valley Tradition into four eras, the pre-Harappan "Early Food Producing Era, '' and the Regionalisation, Integration, and Localisation eras, which correspond roughly with the Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan phases.
According to Rao, Hakra Ware has been found at Bhirrana, and is pre-Harappan, dating to the 8th -- 7th millennium BCE. Hakra Ware culture is a material culture which is contemporaneous with the early Harappan Ravi phase culture (3300 -- 2800 BCE) of the Indus Valley. According to Dikshit and Rami, the estimation for the antiquity of Bhirrana as pre-Harappan is based on two calculations of charcoal samples, giving two dates of respectively 7570 -- 7180 BCE, and 6689 -- 6201 BCE.
Mehrgarh is a Neolithic (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE) site to the west of the Indus River valley, near the capital of the Kachi District in Pakistan, on the Kacchi Plain of Balochistan, near the Bolan Pass. According to Ahmad Hasan Dani, professor emeritus at Quaid - e-Azam University, Islamabad, the discovery of Mehrgarh "changed the entire concept of the Indus civilisation (...) There we have the whole sequence, right from the beginning of settled village life. '' Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia. According to Parpola, the culture migrated into the Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Mehrgarh was influenced by the Near Eastern Neolithic, with similarities between "domesticated wheat varieties, early phases of farming, pottery, other archaeological artefacts, some domesticated plants and herd animals. '' Gallego Romero et al. (2011) notice that "(t) he earliest evidence of cattle herding in south Asia comes from the Indus River Valley site of Mehrgarh and is dated to 7,000 YBP. ''
Lukacs and Hemphill suggest an initial local development of Mehrgarh, with a continuity in cultural development but a change in population. According to Lukacs and Hemphill, while there is a strong continuity between the neolithic and chalcolithic (Copper Age) cultures of Mehrgarh, dental evidence shows that the chalcolithic population did not descend from the neolithic population of Mehrgarh, which "suggests moderate levels of gene flow. '' Mascarenhas et al. (2015) note that "new, possibly West Asian, body types are reported from the graves of Mehrgarh beginning in the Togau phase (3800 BCE). '' According to Narasimhan et al. (2018), the IVC - population likely resulted from a mixture of Iranian agriculturalists and South Asian hunter - gatherers, and came into being between ca. 4700 -- 3000 BCE.
The Early Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearby Ravi River, lasted from c. 3300 BCE until 2800 BCE. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar - Hakra River Valley to the west, and predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800 -- 2600 BCE, Harappan 2), named after a site in northern Sindh, Pakistan, near Mohenjo - daro. The earliest examples of the Indus script date to the 3rd millennium BCE.
The mature phase of earlier village cultures is represented by Rehman Dheri and Amri in Pakistan. Kot Diji represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan, with the citadel representing centralised authority and an increasingly urban quality of life. Another town of this stage was found at Kalibangan in India on the Hakra River.
Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials, including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead - making. By this time, villagers had domesticated numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton, as well as animals, including the water buffalo. Early Harappan communities turned to large urban centres by 2600 BCE, from where the mature Harappan phase started. The latest research shows that Indus Valley people migrated from villages to cities.
The final stages of the Early Harappan period are characterised by the building of large walled settlements, the expansion of trade networks, and the increasing integration of regional communities into a "relatively uniform '' material culture in terms of pottery styles, ornaments, and stamp seals with Indus script, leading into the transition to the Mature Harappan phase.
According to Giosan et al. (2012), the slow southward migration of the monsoons across Asia initially allowed the Indus Valley villages to develop by taming the floods of the Indus and its tributaries. Flood - supported farming led to large agricultural surpluses, which in turn supported the development of cities. The IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the seasonal monsoons leading to summer floods. Brooke further notes that the development of advanced cities coincides with a reduction in rainfall, which may have triggered a reorganisation into larger urban centers.
According to J.G. Shaffer and D.A. Lichtenstein, the Mature Harappan Civilisation was "a fusion of the Bagor, Hakra, and Kot Diji traditions or ' ethnic groups ' in the Ghaggar - Hakra valley on the borders of India and Pakistan ''.
By 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities turned into large urban centres. Such urban centres include Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo - daro in modern - day Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal in modern - day India. In total, more than 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Indus Rivers and their tributaries.
A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilisation making them the first urban centre in the region. The quality of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on hygiene, or, alternatively, accessibility to the means of religious ritual.
As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo - daro and the recently partially excavated Rakhigarhi, this urban plan included the world 's first known urban sanitation systems: see hydraulic engineering of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The house - building in some villages in the region still resembles in some respects the house - building of the Harappans.
The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today. The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts.
The purpose of the citadel remains debated. In sharp contrast to this civilisation 's contemporaries, Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, no large monumental structures were built. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or temples -- or of kings, armies, or priests. Some structures are thought to have been granaries. Found at one city is an enormous well - built bath (the "Great Bath ''), which may have been a public bath. Although the citadels were walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive. They may have been built to divert flood waters.
Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others pursuing the same occupation in well - defined neighbourhoods. Materials from distant regions were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads and other objects. Among the artefacts discovered were beautiful glazed faïence beads. Steatite seals have images of animals, people (perhaps gods), and other types of inscriptions, including the yet un-deciphered writing system of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods and most probably had other uses as well.
Although some houses were larger than others, Indus Civilisation cities were remarkable for their apparent, if relative, egalitarianism. All the houses had access to water and drainage facilities. This gives the impression of a society with relatively low wealth concentration, though clear social levelling is seen in personal adornments.
Toilets that used water were used in the Indus Valley Civilisation. The cities of Harappa and Mohenjo - daro had a flush toilet in almost every house, attached to a sophisticated sewage system.
Archaeological records provide no immediate answers for a centre of power or for depictions of people in power in Harappan society. But, there are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented. For instance, the majority of the cities were constructed in a highly uniform and well - planned grid pattern, suggesting they were planned by a central authority; extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery, seals, weights and bricks; presence of public facilities and monumental architecture; heterogeneity in the mortuary symbolism and in grave goods (items included in burials).
These are the major theories:
The people of the Indus Civilisation achieved great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures. A comparison of available objects indicates large scale variation across the Indus territories. Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal in Gujarat, was approximately 1.704 mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age. Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurement for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their hexahedron weights.
These chert weights were in a ratio of 5: 2: 1 with weights of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units, with each unit weighing approximately 28 grams, similar to the English Imperial ounce or Greek uncia, and smaller objects were weighed in similar ratios with the units of 0.871. However, as in other cultures, actual weights were not uniform throughout the area. The weights and measures later used in Kautilya 's Arthashastra (4th century BCE) are the same as those used in Lothal.
Harappans evolved some new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The engineering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks.
In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh, Pakistan, discovered that the people of the Indus Valley Civilisation, from the early Harappan periods, had knowledge of proto - dentistry. Later, in April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e., in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. Eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults were discovered in a Neolithic graveyard in Mehrgarh that dates from 7,500 -- 9,000 years ago. According to the authors, their discoveries point to a tradition of proto - dentistry in the early farming cultures of that region.
A touchstone bearing gold streaks was found in Banawali, which was probably used for testing the purity of gold (such a technique is still used in some parts of India).
Various sculptures, seals, bronze vessels pottery, gold jewellery, and anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze, and steatite have been found at excavation sites.
A number of gold, terracotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal the presence of some dance form. These terracotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs. The animal depicted on a majority of seals at sites of the mature period has not been clearly identified. Part bull, part zebra, with a majestic horn, it has been a source of speculation. As yet, there is insufficient evidence to substantiate claims that the image had religious or cultic significance, but the prevalence of the image raises the question of whether or not the animals in images of the IVC are religious symbols.
Sir John Marshall reacted with surprise when he saw the famous Indus bronze statuette of a slender - limbed dancing girl in Mohenjo - daro:
When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric; they seemed to completely upset all established ideas about early art, and culture. Modeling such as this was unknown in the ancient world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, therefore, that some mistake must surely have been made; that these figures had found their way into levels some 3000 years older than those to which they properly belonged... Now, in these statuettes, it is just this anatomical truth which is so startling; that makes us wonder whether, in this all - important matter, Greek artistry could possibly have been anticipated by the sculptors of a far - off age on the banks of the Indus.
Many crafts including, "shell working, ceramics, and agate and glazed steatite bead making '' were practised and the pieces were used in the making of necklaces, bangles, and other ornaments from all phases of Harappan culture. Some of these crafts are still practised in the subcontinent today. Some make - up and toiletry items (a special kind of combs (kakai), the use of collyrium and a special three - in - one toiletry gadget) that were found in Harappan contexts still have similar counterparts in modern India. Terracotta female figurines were found (ca. 2800 -- 2600 BCE) which had red colour applied to the "manga '' (line of partition of the hair).
Seals have been found at Mohenjo - daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and another sitting cross-legged in what some call a yoga - like pose (see image, the so - called Pashupati, below). This figure, sometimes known as a Pashupati, has been variously identified. Sir John Marshall identified a resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva. If this can be validated, it would be evidence that some aspects of Hinduism predate the earliest texts, the Veda.
A harp - like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects found at Lothal indicate the use of stringed musical instruments. The Harappans also made various toys and games, among them cubical dice (with one to six holes on the faces), which were found in sites like Mohenjo - Daro.
The Indus civilisation 's economy appears to have depended significantly on trade, which was facilitated by major advances in transport technology. The IVC may have been the first civilisation to use wheeled transport. These advances may have included bullock carts that are identical to those seen throughout South Asia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats were probably small, flat - bottomed craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see on the Indus River today; however, there is secondary evidence of sea - going craft. Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal and what they regard as a docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal in western India (Gujarat state). An extensive canal network, used for irrigation, has however also been discovered by H. - P. Francfort.
During 4300 -- 3200 BCE of the chalcolithic period (copper age), the Indus Valley Civilisation area shows ceramic similarities with southern Turkmenistan and northern Iran which suggest considerable mobility and trade. During the Early Harappan period (about 3200 -- 2600 BCE), similarities in pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments, etc. document intensive caravan trade with Central Asia and the Iranian plateau.
Judging from the dispersal of Indus civilisation artefacts, the trade networks, economically, integrated a huge area, including portions of Afghanistan, the coastal regions of Persia, northern and western India, and Mesopotamia. Studies of tooth enamel from individuals buried at Harappa suggest that some residents had migrated to the city from beyond the Indus Valley. There is some evidence that trade contacts extended to Crete and possibly to Egypt.
There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilisations as early as the middle Harappan Phase, with much commerce being handled by "middlemen merchants from Dilmun '' (modern Bahrain and Failaka located in the Persian Gulf). Such long - distance sea trade became feasible with the development of plank - built watercraft, equipped with a single central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or cloth.
Several coastal settlements like Sotkagen - dor (astride Dasht River, north of Jiwani), Sokhta Koh (astride Shadi River, north of Pasni), and Balakot (near Sonmiani) in Pakistan along with Lothal in western India, testify to their role as Harappan trading outposts. Shallow harbours located at the estuaries of rivers opening into the sea allowed brisk maritime trade with Mesopotamian cities.
It is generally assumed that most trade between the Indus Valley (ancient Meluhha?) and western neighbors proceeded up the Persian Gulf rather than overland. Although there is no incontrovertible proof that this was indeed the case, the distribution of Indus - type artifacts on the Oman peninsula, on Bahrain and in southern Mesopotamia makes it plausible that a series of maritime stages linked the Indus Valley and the Gulf region.
In the 1980s, important archaeological discoveries were made at Ras al - Jinz (Oman), demonstrating maritime Indus Valley connections with the Arabian Peninsula.
According to Gangal et al. (2014), there is strong archeological and geographical evidence that neolithic farming spread from the Near East into north - west India, but there is also "good evidence for the local domestication of barley and the zebu cattle at Mehrgarh. ''
According to Jean - Francois Jarrige, farming had an independent origin at Mehrgarh, despite the similarities which he notes between Neolithic sites from eastern Mesopotamia and the western Indus valley, which are evidence of a "cultural continuum '' between those sites. Nevertheless, Jarrige concludes that Mehrgarh has an earlier local background, '' and is not a "' backwater ' of the Neolithic culture of the Near East. '' Archaeologist Jim G. Shaffer writes that the Mehrgarh site "demonstrates that food production was an indigenous South Asian phenomenon '' and that the data support interpretation of "the prehistoric urbanisation and complex social organisation in South Asia as based on indigenous, but not isolated, cultural developments ''.
Jarrige notes that the people of Mehrgarh used domesticated wheats and barley, while Shaffer and Liechtenstein note that the major cultivated cereal crop was naked six - row barley, a crop derived from two - row barley. Gangal agrees that "Neolithic domesticated crops in Mehrgarh include more than 90 % barley, '' noting that "there is good evidence for the local domestication of barley. '' Yet, Gangal also notes that the crop also included "a small amount of wheat, '' which "are suggested to be of Near - Eastern origin, as the modern distribution of wild varieties of wheat is limited to Northern Levant and Southern Turkey. ''
The cattle that are often portrayed on Indus seals are humped Indian aurochs, which are similar to Zebu cattle. Zebu cattle is still common in India, and in Africa. It is different from the European cattle, and had been originally domesticated on the Indian subcontinent, probably in the Baluchistan region of Pakistan.
Research by J. Bates et al. (2016) confirms that Indus populations were the earliest people to use complex multi-cropping strategies across both seasons, growing foods during summer (rice, millets and beans) and winter (wheat, barley and pulses), which required different watering regimes. J. Bates et al. (2016) also found evidence for an entirely separate domestication process of rice in ancient South Asia, based around the wild species Oryza nivara. This led to the local development of a mix of "wetland '' and "dryland '' agriculture of local Oryza sativa indica rice agriculture, before the truly "wetland '' rice Oryza sativa japonica arrived around 2000 BCE.
It has often been suggested that the bearers of the IVC corresponded to proto - Dravidians linguistically, the break - up of proto - Dravidian corresponding to the break - up of the Late Harappan culture. Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola concludes that the uniformity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any possibility of widely different languages being used, and that an early form of Dravidian language must have been the language of the Indus people. Today, the Dravidian language family is concentrated mostly in southern India and northern and eastern Sri Lanka, but pockets of it still remain throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (the Brahui language), which lends credence to the theory.
According to Heggarty and Renfrew, Dravidian languages may have spread into the Indian subcontinent with the spread of farming. According to David McAlpin, the Dravidian languages were brought to India by immigration into India from Elam. In earlier publications, Renfrew also stated that proto - Dravidian was brought to India by farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile Crescent, but more recently Heggarty and Renfrew note that "a great deal remains to be done in elucidating the prehistory of Dravidian. '' They also note that "McAlpin 's analysis of the language data, and thus his claims, remain far from orthodoxy. '' Heggarty and Renfrew conclude that several scenarios are compatible with the data, and that "the linguistic jury is still very much out. '' ((refn group = note Nevertheless, Kivisild et al. (1999) note that "a small fraction of the West Eurasian mtDNA lineages found in Indian populations can be ascribed to a relatively recent admixture. '' at ca. 9,300 ± 3,000 years before present, which coincides with "the arrival to India of cereals domesticated in the Fertile Crescent '' and "lends credence to the suggested linguistic connection between the Elamite and Dravidic populations. '' According to Kumar (2004), referring to Quintan - Murci et al. (2001), "microsatellite variation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion of populations to around 9000 YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India. This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam in south - west Iran to the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south - west Iran. '' According to Palanichamy et al. (2015), "The presence of mtDNA haplogroups (HV14 and U1a) and Y - chromosome haplogroup (L1) in Dravidian populations indicates the spread of the Dravidian language into India from west Asia. '')
Between 400 and as many as 600 distinct Indus symbols have been found on seals, small tablets, ceramic pots and more than a dozen other materials, including a "signboard '' that apparently once hung over the gate of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira.
Typical Indus inscriptions are no more than four or five characters in length, most of which (aside from the Dholavira "signboard '') are tiny; the longest on a single surface, which is less than 1 inch (2.54 cm) square, is 17 signs long; the longest on any object (found on three different faces of a mass - produced object) has a length of 26 symbols.
While the Indus Valley Civilisation is generally characterised as a literate society on the evidence of these inscriptions, this description has been challenged by Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel (2004) who argue that the Indus system did not encode language, but was instead similar to a variety of non-linguistic sign systems used extensively in the Near East and other societies, to symbolise families, clans, gods, and religious concepts. Others have claimed on occasion that the symbols were exclusively used for economic transactions, but this claim leaves unexplained the appearance of Indus symbols on many ritual objects, many of which were mass - produced in moulds. No parallels to these mass - produced inscriptions are known in any other early ancient civilisations.
In a 2009 study by P.N. Rao et al. published in Science, computer scientists, comparing the pattern of symbols to various linguistic scripts and non-linguistic systems, including DNA and a computer programming language, found that the Indus script 's pattern is closer to that of spoken words, supporting the hypothesis that it codes for an as - yet - unknown language.
Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel have disputed this finding, pointing out that Rao et al. did not actually compare the Indus signs with "real - world non-linguistic systems '' but rather with "two wholly artificial systems invented by the authors, one consisting of 200,000 randomly ordered signs and another of 200,000 fully ordered signs, that they spuriously claim represent the structures of all real - world non-linguistic sign systems ''. Farmer et al. have also demonstrated that a comparison of a non-linguistic system like medieval heraldic signs with natural languages yields results similar to those that Rao et al. obtained with Indus signs. They conclude that the method used by Rao et al. can not distinguish linguistic systems from non-linguistic ones.
The messages on the seals have proved to be too short to be decoded by a computer. Each seal has a distinctive combination of symbols and there are too few examples of each sequence to provide a sufficient context. The symbols that accompany the images vary from seal to seal, making it impossible to derive a meaning for the symbols from the images. There have, nonetheless, been a number of interpretations offered for the meaning of the seals. These interpretations have been marked by ambiguity and subjectivity.
Photos of many of the thousands of extant inscriptions are published in the Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions (1987, 1991, 2010), edited by Asko Parpola and his colleagues. The final, third, volume, republished photos taken in the 1920s and 1930s of hundreds of lost or stolen inscriptions, along with many discovered in the last few decades. Formerly, researchers had to supplement the materials in the Corpus by study of the tiny photos in the excavation reports of Marshall (1931), MacKay (1938, 1943), Wheeler (1947), or reproductions in more recent scattered sources.
Edakkal Caves in Wayanad district of Kerala contain drawings that range over periods from as early as 5000 BCE to 1000 BCE. The youngest group of paintings have been in the news for a possible connection to the Indus Valley Civilisation.
The religion and belief system of the Indus Valley people have received considerable attention, especially from the view of identifying precursors to deities and religious practices of Indian religions that later developed in the area. However, due to the sparsity of evidence, which is open to varying interpretations, and the fact that the Indus script remains undeciphered, the conclusions are partly speculative and largely based on a retrospective view from a much later Hindu perspective. An early and influential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu interpretations of archaeological evidence from the Harappan sites was that of John Marshall, who in 1931 identified the following as prominent features of the Indus religion: a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; deification or veneration of animals and plants; symbolic representation of the phallus (linga) and vulva (yoni); and, use of baths and water in religious practice. Marshall 's interpretations have been much debated, and sometimes disputed over the following decades.
One Indus Valley seal shows a seated figure with a horned headdress, possibly tricephalic and possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as an early form of the Hindu god Shiva (or Rudra), who is associated with asceticism, yoga, and linga; regarded as a lord of animals; and often depicted as having three eyes. The seal has hence come to be known as the Pashupati Seal, after Pashupati (lord of all animals), an epithet of Shiva. While Marshall 's work has earned some support, many critics and even supporters have raised several objections. Doris Srinivasan has argued that the figure does not have three faces, or yogic posture, and that in Vedic literature Rudra was not a protector of wild animals. Herbert Sullivan and Alf Hiltebeitel also rejected Marshall 's conclusions, with the former claiming that the figure was female, while the latter associated the figure with Mahisha, the Buffalo God and the surrounding animals with vahanas (vehicles) of deities for the four cardinal directions. Writing in 2002, Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto - Shiva would be going too far. Despite the criticisms of Marshall 's association of the seal with a proto - Shiva icon, it has been interpreted as the Tirthankara Rishabhanatha by Jains and Vilas Sangave or an early Buddha by Buddhists. Historians such as Heinrich Zimmer and Thomas McEvilley believe that there is a connection between first Jain Tirthankara Rishabhanatha and the Indus Valley civilisation.
Marshall hypothesised the existence of a cult of Mother Goddess worship based upon excavation of several female figurines, and thought that this was a precursor of the Hindu sect of Shaktism. However the function of the female figurines in the life of Indus Valley people remains unclear, and Possehl does not regard the evidence for Marshall 's hypothesis to be "terribly robust ''. Some of the baetyls interpreted by Marshall to be sacred phallic representations are now thought to have been used as pestles or game counters instead, while the ring stones that were thought to symbolise yoni were determined to be architectural features used to stand pillars, although the possibility of their religious symbolism can not be eliminated. Many Indus Valley seals show animals, with some depicting them being carried in processions, while others show chimeric creations. One seal from Mohenjo - daro shows a half - human, half - buffalo monster attacking a tiger, which may be a reference to the Sumerian myth of such a monster created by goddess Aruru to fight Gilgamesh.
In contrast to contemporary Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilisations, Indus Valley lacks any monumental palaces, even though excavated cities indicate that the society possessed the requisite engineering knowledge. This may suggest that religious ceremonies, if any, may have been largely confined to individual homes, small temples, or the open air. Several sites have been proposed by Marshall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religious purpose, but at present only the Great Bath at Mohenjo - daro is widely thought to have been so used, as a place for ritual purification. The funerary practices of the Harappan civilisation are marked by their diversity, with evidence of supine burial, fractional burial (in which the body is reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elements before final interment), and even cremation.
Around 1900 BCE signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE most of the cities had been abandoned. Recent examination of human skeletons from the site of Harappa has demonstrated that the end of the Indus civilisation saw an increase in inter-personal violence and in infectious diseases like leprosy and tuberculosis.
According to historian Upinder Singh, "the general picture presented by the late Harappan phase is one of a breakdown of urban networks and an expansion of rural ones. ''
During the period of approximately 1900 to 1700 BCE, multiple regional cultures emerged within the area of the Indus civilisation. The Cemetery H culture was in Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh, the Jhukar culture was in Sindh, and the Rangpur culture (characterised by Lustrous Red Ware pottery) was in Gujarat. Other sites associated with the Late phase of the Harappan culture are Pirak in Balochistan, Pakistan, and Daimabad in Maharashtra, India.
The largest Late Harappan sites are Kudwala in Cholistan, Bet Dwarka in Gujarat, and Daimabad in Maharashtra, which can be considered as urban, but they are smaller and few in number compared with the Mature Harappan cities. Bet Dwarka was fortified and continued to have contacts with the Persian Gulf region, but there was a general decrease of long - distance trade. On the other hand, the period also saw a diversification of the agricultural base, with a diversity of crops and the advent of double - cropping, as well as a shift of rural settlement towards the east and the south.
The pottery of the Late Harappan period is described as "showing some continuity with mature Harappan pottery traditions, '' but also distinctive differences. Many sites continued to be occupied for some centuries, although their urban features declined and disappeared. Formerly typical artifacts such as stone weights and female figurines became rare. There are some circular stamp seals with geometric designs, but lacking the Indus script which characterized the mature phase of the civilisation. Script is rare and confined to potsherd inscriptions. There was also a decline in long - distance trade, although the local cultures show new innovations in faience and glass making, and carving of stone beads. Urban amenities such as drains and the public bath were no longer maintained, and newer buildings were "poorly constructed ''. Stone sculptures were deliberately vandalised, valuables were sometimes concealed in hoards, suggesting unrest, and the corpses of animals and even humans were left unburied in the streets and in abandoned buildings.
During the later half of the 2nd millennium BCE, most of the post-urban Late Harappan settlements were abandoned altogether. Subsequent material culture was typically characterised by temporary occupation, "the campsites of a population which was nomadic and mainly pastoralist '' and which used "crude handmade pottery. '' However, there is greater continuity and overlap between Late Harappan and subsequent cultural phases at sites in Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh, primarily small rural settlements.
In 1953 Sir Mortimer Wheeler proposed that the invasion of an Indo - European tribe from Central Asia, the "Aryans '', caused the decline of the Indus Civilisation. As evidence, he cited a group of 37 skeletons found in various parts of Mohenjo - daro, and passages in the Vedas referring to battles and forts. However, scholars soon started to reject Wheeler 's theory, since the skeletons belonged to a period after the city 's abandonment and none were found near the citadel. Subsequent examinations of the skeletons by Kenneth Kennedy in 1994 showed that the marks on the skulls were caused by erosion, and not by violence.
In the Cemetery H culture (the late Harappan phase in the Punjab region), some of the designs painted on the funerary urns have been interpreted through the lens of Vedic literature: for instance, peacocks with hollow bodies and a small human form inside, which has been interpreted as the souls of the dead, and a hound that can be seen as the hound of Yama, the god of death. This may indicate the introduction of new religious beliefs during this period, but the archaeological evidence does not support the hypothesis that the Cemetery H people were the destroyers of the Harappan cities.
Suggested contributory causes for the localisation of the IVC include changes in the course of the river, and climate change that is also signalled for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East. As of 2016 many scholars believe that drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia caused the collapse of the Indus Civilisation.
The Ghaggar - Hakra system was rain - fed, and water - supply depended on the monsoons. The Indus Valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. The Indian monsoon declined and aridity increased, with the Ghaggar - Hakra retracting its reach towards the foothills of the Himalaya, leading to erratic and less extensive floods that made inundation agriculture less sustainable.
Aridification reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation 's demise, and to scatter its population eastward. According to Giosan et al. (2012), the IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the seasonal monsoons leading to summer floods. As the monsoons kept shifting south, the floods grew too erratic for sustainable agricultural activities. The residents then migrated towards the Ganges basin in the east, where they established smaller villages and isolated farms. The small surplus produced in these small communities did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out.
Archaeological excavations indicate that the decline of Harappa drove people eastward. According to Possehl, after 1900 BCE the number of sites in today 's India increased from 218 to 853. According to Andrew Lawler, "excavations along the Gangetic plain show that cities began to arise there starting about 1200 BCE, just a few centuries after Harappa was deserted and much earlier than once suspected. '' According to Jim Shaffer there was a continuous series of cultural developments, just as in most areas of the world. These link "the so - called two major phases of urbanisation in South Asia ''.
At sites such as Bhagwanpura (in Haryana), archaeological excavations have discovered an overlap between the final phase of Late Harappan pottery and the earliest phase of Painted Grey Ware pottery, the latter being associated with the Vedic Culture and dating from around 1200 BCE. This site provides evidence of multiple social groups occupying the same village but using different pottery and living in different types of houses: "over time the Late Harappan pottery was gradually replaced by Painted Grey ware pottery, '' and other cultural changes indicated by archaeology include the introduction of the horse, iron tools, and new religious practices.
There is also a Harappan site called Rojdi in Rajkot district of Saurashtra. Its excavation started under an archaeological team from Gujarat State Department of Archaeology and the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania in 1982 -- 83. In their report on archaeological excavations at Rojdi, Gregory Possehl and M.H. Raval write that although there are "obvious signs of cultural continuity '' between the Harappan Civilisation and later South Asian cultures, many aspects of the Harappan "sociocultural system '' and "integrated civilization '' were "lost forever, '' while the Second Urbanisation of India (beginning with the Northern Black Polished Ware culture, c. 600 BCE) "lies well outside this sociocultural environment ''.
Previously, scholars believed that the decline of the Harappan civilisation led to an interruption of urban life in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and many elements of the Indus Civilisation appear in later cultures. The Cemetery H culture may be the manifestation of the Late Harappan over a large area in the region of Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh, and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture its successor. David Gordon White cites three other mainstream scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated '' that Vedic religion derives partially from the Indus Valley Civilisations.
As of 2016, archaeological data suggests that the material culture classified as Late Harappan may have persisted until at least c. 1000 -- 900 BCE and was partially contemporaneous with the Painted Grey Ware culture. Harvard archaeologist Richard Meadow points to the late Harappan settlement of Pirak, which thrived continuously from 1800 BCE to the time of the invasion of Alexander the Great in 325 BCE.
In the aftermath of the Indus Civilisation 's localisation, regional cultures emerged, to varying degrees showing the influence of the Indus Civilisation. In the formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspond to a regional culture called the Cemetery H culture. At the same time, the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture expanded from Rajasthan into the Gangetic Plain. The Cemetery H culture has the earliest evidence for cremation; a practice dominant in Hinduism today.
The mature (Harappan) phase of the IVC is contemporary to the Early and Middle Bronze Age in the Ancient Near East, in particular the Old Elamite period, Early Dynastic to Ur III Mesopotamia, Prepalatial Minoan Crete and Old Kingdom to First Intermediate Period Egypt.
The IVC has been compared in particular with the civilisations of Elam (also in the context of the Elamo - Dravidian hypothesis) and with Minoan Crete (because of isolated cultural parallels such as the ubiquitous goddess worship and depictions of bull - leaping). The IVC has been tentatively identified with the toponym Meluhha known from Sumerian records; the Sumerians called them Meluhhaites.
Shahr - i - Sokhta, located in southeastern Iran shows trade route with Mesopotamia. A number of seals with Indus script have been also found in Mesopotamian sites.
After the discovery of the IVC in the 1920s, it was immediately associated with the indigenous Dasyu inimical to the Rigvedic tribes in numerous hymns of the Rigveda. Mortimer Wheeler interpreted the presence of many unburied corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo - daro as the victims of a warlike conquest, and famously stated that "Indra stands accused '' of the destruction of the IVC. The association of the IVC with the city - dwelling Dasyus remains alluring because the assumed timeframe of the first Indo - Aryan migration into India corresponds neatly with the period of decline of the IVC seen in the archaeological record. The discovery of the advanced, urban IVC however changed the 19th - century view of early Indo - Aryan migration as an "invasion '' of an advanced culture at the expense of a "primitive '' aboriginal population to a gradual acculturation of nomadic "barbarians '' on an advanced urban civilisation, comparable to the Germanic migrations after the Fall of Rome, or the Kassite invasion of Babylonia. This move away from simplistic "invasionist '' scenarios parallels similar developments in thinking about language transfer and population movement in general, such as in the case of the migration of the proto - Greek speakers into Greece, or the Indo - Europeanisation of Western Europe.
Proto - Munda (or Para-Munda) and a "lost phylum '' (perhaps related or ancestral to the Nihali language) have been proposed as other candidates for the language of the IVC. Michael Witzel suggests an underlying, prefixing language that is similar to Austroasiatic, notably Khasi; he argues that the Rigveda shows signs of this hypothetical Harappan influence in the earliest historic level, and Dravidian only in later levels, suggesting that speakers of Austroasiatic were the original inhabitants of Punjab and that the Indo - Aryans encountered speakers of Dravidian only in later times.
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who has the power to ratify a treaty | Ratification - wikipedia
Ratification is a principal 's approval of an act of its agent that lacked the authority to bind the principal legally. Ratification defines the international act in which a state indicates its consent to be bound to a treaty if the parties intended to show their consent by such an act. In the case of bilateral treaties, ratification is usually accomplished by exchanging the requisite instruments, and in the case of multilateral treaties, the usual procedure is for the depositary to collect the ratifications of all states, keeping all parties informed of the situation. The institution of ratification grants states the necessary time - frame to seek the required approval for the treaty on the domestic level and to enact the necessary legislation to give domestic effect to that treaty. The term applies to private contract law, international treaties, and constitutions in federal states such as the United States and Canada. The term is also used in parliamentary procedure in deliberative assemblies.
In contract law, the need for ratification can arise in two ways: if the agent attempts to bind the principal despite lacking the authority to do so; and if the principal authorizes the agent to make an agreement, but reserves the right to approve it. An example of the former situation is an employee not normally responsible for procuring supplies contracting to do so on the employer 's behalf. The employer 's choice on discovering the contract is to ratify it or to repudiate it.
The latter situation is common in trade union collective bargaining agreements. The union authorizes one or more people to negotiate and sign an agreement with management. A collective bargaining agreement can not become legally binding until the union members ratify the agreement. If they do not approve it, the agreement is void, and negotiations resume.
The ratification of international treaties is always accomplished by filing instruments of ratification as provided for in the treaty. In most democracies, the legislature authorizes the government to ratify treaties through standard legislative procedures by passing a bill.
The President of India makes a treaty in exercise of his executive power, on the aid and the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister, and no court of law in India may question its validity. The president is allowed to ratify, under Article 73 (1) (b) of the Constitution of India, but no agreement or treaty entered into by the president is enforceable by the courts, even on ratification by the Parliament of India, as India follows a dualist theory for the implementation of international laws.
If the parliament wishes to codify the agreement entered into by the executive thereby making it enforceable by the courts of India, it may do so under Article 253 of the constitution.
Treaty ratification was a Royal Prerogative, exercised by Her Majesty on the advice of her Government. By a convention called the Ponsonby Rule, treaties were usually placed before parliament for 21 days before ratification. It was put onto a statutory footing by the Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010.
Treaty power is a co-ordinated effort between the Executive branch and the Senate. The President may form and negotiate, but the treaty must be advised and consented to by a two - thirds vote in the Senate. Only after the Senate approves the treaty can the President ratify it. Once it is ratified, it becomes binding on all the states under the Supremacy Clause. While the House of Representatives does not vote on it at all, the requirement for the Senate 's advice and consent to ratification makes it considerably more difficult to rally enough political support for international treaties. Also, if implementation of the treaty requires the expenditure of funds, the House of Representatives may be able to block or at least impede such implementation by refusing to vote for the appropriation of the necessary funds.
The President usually submits a treaty to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (SFRC) along with an accompanying resolution of ratification or accession. If the treaty and resolution receive favorable committee consideration (a committee vote in favor of ratification or accession), the treaty is then forwarded to the floor of the full Senate for such a vote. The treaty or legislation does not apply until it has been ratified. A multilateral agreement may provide that it will take effect upon its ratification by less than all of the signatories. Even though such a treaty takes effect, it does not apply to signatories that have not ratified it. Accession has the same legal effect as ratification, for treaties already negotiated and signed by other states. An example of a treaty to which the Senate did not advise and consent to ratification is the Treaty of Versailles, which failed to garner support because of the Covenant of the League of Nations.
The US can also enter into international agreements by way of executive agreements. They are not made under the Treaty Clause and do not require ratification of two thirds of the Senate. Congressional - executive agreements are passed by a majority of both houses of Congress as a regular law. If the agreement is completely within the President 's constitutional powers, it can be made by the President alone without Congressional approval, but it will have the force of an executive order and can be unilaterally revoked by a future President. All types of agreements are treated internationally as "treaties ''. See Foreign policy of the United States # Law.
In Australia, power to enter into treaties is an executive power within Section 51 of the Australian Constitution so the Australian Government may enter into a binding treaty without seeking parliamentary approval. However, implementation of treaties requires legislation by the Australian parliament, following Section 51 (xxix) of the Australian Constitution, signed by the Governor - General of Australia.
In Japan, in principle both houses of the parliament (the National Diet) must approve the treaty for ratification. If the House of Councilors rejects a treaty approved by the House of Representatives, and a joint committee of both houses can not come to agreement on amendments to the original text of the treaty, or the House of Councilors fails to decide on a treaty for more than thirty days, the House of Representatives the will be regarded as the vote of the National Diet approving the ratification. The approved treaty will then be promulgated into law by the act of the Emperor.
Federations usually require the support of both the federal government and some given percentage of the constituent governments for amendments to the federal constitution to take effect.
Not all constitutional amendments in India require ratification by the states. Only constitutional amendments that seek to make any change in any of the provisions mentioned in the proviso to article 368 of the Constitution of India, must be ratified by the Legislatures of not less than one - half of the States. These provisions relate to certain matters concerning the federal structure or of common interest to both the Union and the States viz., the election of the President (articles 54 and 55); the extent of the executive power of the Union and the States (articles 73 and 162); the High Courts for Union territories (article 241); The Union Judiciary and the High Courts in the States (Chapter IV of Part V and Chapter V of Part VI); the distribution of legislative powers between the Union and the States (Chapter I of Part XI and Seventh Schedule); the representation of States in Parliament; and the provision for amendment of the Constitution laid down in article 368. Ratification is done by a resolution passed by the State Legislatures. There is no specific time limit for the ratification of an amending Bill by the State Legislatures. However, the resolutions ratifying the proposed amendment must be passed before the amending Bill is presented to the President for his assent.
Article Seven of the constitution of the United States describes the process by which the entire document was to become effective. It required that conventions of nine of the thirteen original States ratify the constitution. If fewer than thirteen states ratified the document, it would become effective only among the states ratifying it. New Hampshire was the ninth state to ratify, doing so on June 21, 1788, but, as a practical matter, it was decided to delay implementation of the new government until New York and Virginia could be persuaded to ratify. Congress intended that New York City should be the first capital, and that George Washington, of Mount Vernon, Virginia, should be the first President, and both of those things would have been somewhat awkward if either New York or Virginia were not part of the new government. Ratification by those states was secured - Virginia on June 25 and New York on July 26 - and the government under the Constitution began on March 4, 1789.
For subsequent amendments, Article Five describes the process of a potential amendment 's adoption. Proposals to adopt an amendment may be called either by a two - thirds vote by both houses of Congress or by a national convention as a result of resolutions adopted by two - thirds (presently at least 34 out of 50) of the states ' legislatures. For an amendment to be adopted, three - quarters of the states (presently at least 38 out of 50) must ratify the amendment either by a vote of approval in each state 's legislature or by state ratifying conventions -- Congress may specify which method must be used to ratify the amendment. Congress may also set a deadline by which the threshold for adoption must be met.
A deliberative assembly, using parliamentary procedure, could ratify action that otherwise was not validly taken. For example, action taken where there was no quorum at the meeting is not valid until it is later ratified at a meeting where a quorum is present.
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list the three categories of electronic commerce that are most commonly used | Electronic business - Wikipedia
Online Business or e-business is a term which can be used for any kind of business or commercial transaction that includes sharing information across the internet. Commerce constitutes the exchange of products and services between businesses, groups and individuals and can be seen as one of the essential activities of any business. Electronic commerce focuses on the use of ICT to enable the external activities and relationships of the business with individuals, groups and other businesses or e business refers to business with help of internet i.e. doing business with the help of internet network. The term "e-business '' was coined by IBM 's marketing and Internet team in 1996.
In 1994, IBM, with its agency Ogilvy & Mather, began to use its foundation in IT solutions and expertise to market itself as a leader of conducting business on the Internet through the term "e-business. '' Then CEO Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. was prepared to invest $1 billion to market this new brand.
After conducting worldwide market research in October 1997, IBM began with an eight - page piece in the Wall Street Journal that would introduce the concept of "e-business '' and advertise IBM 's expertise in the new field. IBM decided not to trademark the term "e-business '' in the hopes that other companies would use the term and create an entire new industry. However, this proved to be too successful and by 2000, to differentiate itself, IBM launched a $300 million campaign about its "e-business infrastructure '' capabilities. Since that time, the terms, "e-business '' and "e-commerce '' have been loosely interchangeable and have become a part of the common vernacular.
When organizations go online, they have to decide which e-business models best suit their goals. A business model is defined as the organization of product, service and information flows, and the source of revenues and benefits for suppliers and customers. The concept of e-business model is the same but used in the online presence.
A key component of the business model is the revenue model, which is a framework for generating revenues. It identifies which revenue source to pursue, what value to offer, how to price the value, and who pays for the value. It is a key component of a company 's business model. It primarily identifies what product or service will be created in order to generate revenues and the ways in which the product or service will be sold.
Without a well defined revenue model, that is, a clear plan of how to generate revenues, new businesses will more likely struggle due to costs which they will not be able to sustain. By having a clear revenue model, a business can focus on a target audience, fund development plans for a product or service, establish marketing plans, begin a line of credit and raise capital.
E-commerce (short for "electronic commerce '') is trading in products or services using computer networks, such as the Internet. Electronic commerce draws on technologies such as mobile commerce, electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated data collection. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the World Wide Web for at least one part of the transaction 's life cycle, although it may also use other technologies such as e-mail.
While much has been written of the economic advantages of Internet - enabled commerce, there is also evidence that some aspects of the internet such as maps and location - aware services may serve to reinforce economic inequality and the digital divide. Electronic commerce may be responsible for consolidation and the decline of mom - and - pop, brick and mortar businesses resulting in increases in income inequality. Author Andrew Keen, a long - time critic of the social transformations caused by the Internet, has recently focused on the economic effects of consolidation from Internet businesses, since these businesses employ much less people per dollar of sales than traditional retailers.
E-business systems naturally have greater security risks than traditional business systems, therefore it is important for e-business systems to be fully protected against these risks. A far greater number of people have access to e-businesses through the internet than would have access to a traditional business. Customers, suppliers, employees, and numerous other people use any particular e-business system daily and expect their confidential information to stay secure. Hackers are one of the great threats to the security of e-businesses. Some common security concerns for e-Businesses include keeping business and customer information private and confidential, authenticity of data, and data integrity. Some of the methods of protecting e-business security and keeping information secure include physical security measures as well as data storage, data transmission, anti-virus software, firewalls, and encryption to list a few.
Confidentiality is the extent to which businesses makes personal information available to other businesses and individuals. With any business, confidential information must remain secure and only be accessible to the intended recipient. However, this becomes even more difficult when dealing with e-businesses specifically. To keep such information secure means protecting any electronic records and files from unauthorized access, as well as ensuring safe transmission and data storage of such information. Tools such as encryption and firewalls manage this specific concern within e-business.
E-business transactions pose greater challenges for establishing authenticity due to the ease with which electronic information may be altered and copied. Both parties in an e-business transaction want to have the assurance that the other party is who they claim to be, especially when a customer places an order and then submits a payment electronically. One common way to ensure this is to limit access to a network or trusted parties by using a virtual private network (VPN) technology. The establishment of authenticity is even greater when a combination of techniques are used, and such techniques involve checking "something you know '' (i.e. password or PIN), "something you need '' (i.e. credit card), or "something you are '' (i.e. digital signatures or voice recognition methods). Many times in e-business, however, "something you are '' is pretty strongly verified by checking the purchaser 's "something you have '' (i.e. credit card) and "something you know '' (i.e. card number).
Data integrity answers the question "Can the information be changed or corrupted in any way? '' This leads to the assurance that the message received is identical to the message sent. A business needs to be confident that data is not changed in transit, whether deliberately or by accident. To help with data integrity, firewalls protect stored data against unauthorized access, while simply backing up data allows recovery should the data or equipment be damaged.
This concern deals with the existence of proof in a transaction. A business must have assurance that the receiving party or purchaser can not deny that a transaction has occurred, and this means having sufficient evidence to prove the transaction. One way to address non-repudiation is using digital signatures. A digital signature not only ensures that a message or document has been electronically signed by the person, but since a digital signature can only be created by one person, it also ensures that this person can not later deny that they provided their signature.
When certain electronic resources and information is limited to only a few authorized individuals, a business and its customers must have the assurance that no one else can access the systems or information. Fortunately, there are a variety of techniques to address this concern including firewalls, access privileges, user identification and authentication techniques (such as passwords and digital certificates), Virtual Private Networks (VPN), and much more.
This concern is specifically pertinent to a business ' customers as certain information must be available when customers need it. Messages must be delivered in a reliable and timely fashion, and information must be stored and retrieved as required. Because availability of service is important for all e-business websites, steps must be taken to prevent disruption of service by events such as power outages and damage to physical infrastructure. Examples to address this include data backup, fire - suppression systems, Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) systems, virus protection, as well as making sure that there is sufficient capacity to handle the demands posed by heavy network traffic.
The business internet which supports e-business has a cost to maintain of about $2 trillion in outsourced IT dollars just in the United States alone. With each website custom crafted and maintained in code, the maintenance burden is enormous. In the twenty - first century, look for new businesses that will help standardize the look and feel of the internet presence of a business to be more uniform in nature to help reduce the cost of maintenance. Expect maintenance by graphical software tools instead of directly by code as a key business proposition that will revolutionize the internet once again.
When it comes to security solutions, sustainable electronic business requires support for data integrity, strong authentication, and privacy.
There are several different ways to prevent access to the data that is kept online. One way is to use anti-virus software. This is something that most people use to protect their networks regardless of the data they have. E-businesses should use this because they can then be sure that the information sent and received to their system is clean. A second way to protect the data is to use firewalls and network protection. A firewall is used to restrict access to private networks, as well as public networks that a company may use. The firewall also has the ability to log attempts into the network and provide warnings as it is happening. They are very beneficial to keep third - parties out of the network. Businesses that use Wi - Fi need to consider different forms of protection because these networks are easier for someone to access. They should look into protected access, virtual private networks, or internet protocol security. Another option they have is an intrusion detection system. This system alerts when there are possible intrusions. Some companies set up traps or "hot spots '' to attract people and are then able to know when someone is trying to hack into that area.
Encryption, which is actually a part of cryptography, involves transforming texts or messages into a code which is unreadable. These messages have to be decrypted in order to be understandable or usable for someone. There is a key that identifies the data to a certain person or company. With public key encryption, there are actually two keys used. One is public and one is private. The public one is used for encryption, and the private for decryption. The level of the actual encryption can be adjusted and should be based on the information. The key can be just a simple slide of letters or a completely random mix - up of letters. This is relatively easy to implement because there is software that a company can purchase. A company needs to be sure that their keys are registered with a certificate authority.
The point of a digital certificate is to identify the owner of a document. This way the receiver knows that it is an authentic document. Companies can use these certificates in several different ways. They can be used as a replacement for user names and passwords. Each employee can be given these to access the documents that they need from wherever they are. These certificates also use encryption. They are a little more complicated than normal encryption however. They actually used important information within the code. They do this in order to assure authenticity of the documents as well as confidentiality and data integrity which always accompany encryption. Digital certificates are not commonly used because they are confusing for people to implement. There can be complications when using different browsers, which means they need to use multiple certificates. The process is being adjusted so that it is easier to use.
A final way to secure information online would be to use a digital signature. If a document has a digital signature on it, no one else is able to edit the information without being detected. That way if it is edited, it may be adjusted for reliability after the fact. In order to use a digital signature, one must use a combination of cryptography and a message digest. A message digest is used to give the document a unique value. That value is then encrypted with the sender 's private key.
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when is the last time the senate passed a budget | United States budget process - wikipedia
The United States budget process is the framework used by Congress and the President of the United States to formulate and create the United States federal budget. The process was established by the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921, the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974, and additional budget legislation.
Prior to 1974, Congress had no formal process for establishing a federal budget. When President Richard Nixon began to refuse to spend funds that Congress had allocated, they adopted a more formal means by which to challenge him. The Congressional Budget Act of 1974 created the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), which gained more control of the budget, limiting the power of the President 's Office of Management and Budget (OMB). The Act passed easily while the administration was embroiled in the Watergate scandal and was unwilling to provoke Congress.
The United States budget process begins when the President of the United States submits a budget request to Congress. The President 's budget is formulated over a period of months with the assistance of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), the largest office within the Executive Office of the President. The budget request includes funding requests for all federal executive departments and independent agencies. Budget documents include supporting documents and historical budget data and contains detailed information on spending and revenue proposals, along with policy proposals and initiatives with significant budgetary implications. The President 's budget request constitutes an extensive proposal of the administration 's intended revenue and spending plans for the following fiscal year. The budget proposal includes volumes of supporting information intended to persuade Congress of the necessity and value of the budget provisions. In addition, each federal executive department and independent agency provides additional detail and supporting documentation on its own funding requests. The documents are also posted on the OMB website.
The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 requires the President to submit the budget to Congress for each fiscal year, which is the 12 - month period beginning on October 1 and ending on September 30 of the next calendar year. The current federal budget law (31 U.S.C. § 1105 (a)) requires that the President submit the budget between the first Monday in January and the first Monday in February. In recent times, the President 's budget submission has been issued in the first week of February. The budget submission has been delayed, however, in some new presidents ' first year when the previous president belonged to a different party. The 2014 United States federal budget was not submitted by the President until April 10, 2013 due to negotiations over the United States fiscal cliff and implementation of the sequester cuts mandated by the Budget Control Act of 2011. (The House had already prepared its budget proposal on March 21, and the Senate proposed a budget on March 23.)
President Warren G. Harding brought about the enactment of the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921, which, for the first time, required the President to submit a budget annually to Congress and which established the Bureau of the Budget, the forerunner of the Office of Management and Budget, to assist in the formulation of the budget. Initially the Bureau was within the U.S. Department of the Treasury, but in 1939 it was moved to the Executive Office of the President.
The President 's budget submission is referred to the House and Senate Budget Committees and to the Congressional Budget Office (CBO). Other committees with budgetary responsibilities submit requests and estimates to the budget committees during this time.
In March, the CBO publishes an analysis of the President 's budget proposals. The CBO budget report and other publications are also posted on the CBO website. CBO computes a current - law baseline budget projection that is intended to estimate what federal spending and revenues would be in the absence of new legislation for the current fiscal year and for the coming 10 fiscal years. However, the CBO also computes a current - policy baseline, which makes assumptions about, for instance, votes on tax cut sunset provisions. The current CBO 10 - year budget baseline projection grows from $3.7 trillion in 2011 to $5.7 trillion in 2021.
In March, the budget committees consider the President 's budget proposals in the light of the CBO budget report, and each committee submits a budget resolution to its house by April 1. The House and Senate each consider these budget resolutions, and are expected to pass them, possibly with amendments, by April 15. A budget resolution is a kind of concurrent resolution; it is not a law, and therefore does not require the President 's signature.
There is no obligation for either or both houses of Congress to pass a budget resolution. There may not be a resolution every year; if none is established, the previous year 's resolution remains in force. For example, the Senate has not passed a budget resolution for FY2011, FY2012, or FY2013, and passed the FY2014 budget resolution on March 23, 2013, 23 days before the April 15 deadline set by the No Budget, No Pay Act of 2013. This was the first budget resolution passed by the Senate since a FY2010 budget passed on April 29, 2009. The House and Senate may propose a budget independently of the President 's budget. For example, for the 2014 budget process, the House prepared its budget proposal on March 21 and the Senate proposed a budget on March 23, while the President 's budget was not submitted until April 10.
After both houses pass a budget resolution, selected Representatives and Senators negotiate a conference report to reconcile differences between the House and the Senate versions. The conference report, in order to become binding, must be approved by both the House and Senate.
The budget resolution is not legally binding but serves as a blueprint for the actual appropriation process, and provides Congress with some control over the appropriation process. All new discretionary spending requires authority through enactment of appropriation bills or continuing resolutions.
In general, funds for federal government programs must be authorized by an "authorizing committee '' through enactment of legislation. Then, through subsequent acts by Congress, budget authority is then appropriated by the Appropriations Committee of the House. In principle, committees with jurisdiction to authorize programs make policy decisions, while the Appropriations Committees decide on funding levels, limited to a program 's authorized funding level, though the amount may be any amount less than the limit.
The budget resolutions specify funding levels for the House and Senate Appropriations Committees and their 12 subcommittees, establishing various budget totals, allocations, entitlements, and may include reconciliation instructions to designated House or Senate committees. The appropriations committees start with allocations in the budget resolution and draft appropriations bills, which may be considered in the House after May 15. Once appropriations committees pass their bills, they are considered by the House and Senate. When there is a final budget, the spending available to each appropriations committee for the coming fiscal year is usually provided in the joint explanatory statement included in the conference report. The appropriations committees then allocate that amount among their respective subcommittees, each to allocate the funds they control among the programs within their jurisdiction.
A conference committee is typically required to resolve differences between House and Senate appropriation bills. Once a conference bill has passed both chambers of Congress, it is sent to the President, who may sign the bill or veto it. If he signs, the bill becomes law. Otherwise, Congress must pass another bill to avoid a shutdown of at least part of the federal government.
In recent years, Congress has not passed all of the appropriations bills before the start of the fiscal year. Congress may then enact continuing resolutions that provide for the temporary funding of government operations. Failure to appropriate funds results in a partial government shutdown, such the federal government shutdown in October 2013.
In practice, the separation between policy making and funding and the division between appropriations and authorization activities are imperfect. Authorizations for many programs have long lapsed, yet still receive appropriated amounts, while other programs that are authorized receive no funds at all. In addition, policy language, which is legislative text changing permanent law, is included in appropriation measures.
Each function within the budget may include "budget authority '' and "outlays '' that fall within the broad categories of discretionary spending or direct spending.
Discretionary spending requires an annual appropriation bill, which is a piece of legislation. Discretionary spending is typically set by the House and Senate Appropriations Committees and their various subcommittees. Since the spending is typically for a fixed period (usually a year), it is said to be under the discretion of the Congress. Some appropriations last for more than one year (see Appropriation bill for details). In particular, multi-year appropriations are often used for housing programs and military procurement programs.
There are currently 12 appropriation bills that must be passed each fiscal year in order for continued discretionary spending to occur. The subject of each appropriations bill corresponds to the jurisdiction of the respective House and Senate appropriation subcommittees:
As of 2012, there are 12 appropriations bills which need to be passed each year:
Multiple bills are sometimes combined into one piece of legislation, such as the Omnibus Appropriations Act, 2009. A continuing resolution is often passed if an appropriations bill has not been signed into law by the end of the fiscal year.
Direct spending, also known as mandatory spending, refers to spending enacted by law, but not dependent on an annual or periodic appropriation bill. Most mandatory spending consists of transfer payments and welfare benefits such as Social Security benefits, Medicare, and Medicaid. Many other expenses, such as salaries of federal judges, are mandatory, but account for a relatively small share of federal spending. The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimates costs of mandatory spending programs on a regular basis.
Congress can affect spending on entitlement programs by changing eligibility requirements or the structure of programs. Certain programs, because the language authorizing them are included in appropriation bills, are termed "appropriated entitlements. '' This is a convention rather than a substantive distinction, since the programs, such as Food Stamps, would continue to be funded even were the appropriation bill to be vetoed or otherwise not enacted.
The federal budget is divided into categories known as budget functions. These functions include all spending for a given topic, regardless of the federal agency that oversees the individual federal program. Both the President 's budget, and Congress ' budget resolution provide summaries by function.
List of budget functions:
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willie nelson roll me up and smoke me when i'm gone | Roll Me Up and Smoke Me When I Die - wikipedia
"Roll Me Up and Smoke Me When I Die '' is a Willie Nelson single from his 2012 album Heroes. The song written by Willie Nelson, Buddy Cannon, Rich Alves, John Colgin and Mike McQuerry, features vocals by Snoop Dogg, Kris Kristofferson and Jamey Johnson.
It was released on April 20, 2012 on 420 day, a counterculture holiday in North America related to cannabis culture. It became the first released single from the album. The same day, Nelson performed the song during the unveiling ceremony of his statue in Austin, Texas.
Initially, the album was to be named Roll Me Up and Smoke Me When I Die, after the single. The name was later changed to Heroes, after Nelson and his production team decided that the original name could deter some conservative sale outlets to carry the album. Besides its regular release, the single was also made available in a green - colored 7 '' vinyl, in support of Record Store Day with a special previously unreleased solo version of the song performed by Willie Nelson.
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where was the beach scene filmed in sweet home alabama | Sweet Home Alabama (film) - wikipedia
Sweet Home Alabama is a 2002 American romantic comedy film directed by Andy Tennant, starring Reese Witherspoon, Josh Lucas, Patrick Dempsey and Candice Bergen. The film was released by Touchstone Pictures on September 27, 2002.
The film opens on a stormy Alabama beach with two children, Melanie Smooter and Jake Perry. Jake has brought Melanie out to show her the glass sculptures that result when sand is struck by lightning. They discuss their future together, with Jake asserting they will be married one day.
In the present day, Melanie has changed her last name to Carmichael, a rich local family, to hide her poor Southern roots. She is a successful up - and - coming fashion designer in New York City. After becoming engaged to Andrew, Melanie goes home alone to Alabama to tell her parents. In reality she is going to procure a divorce from her estranged husband Jake. Andrew 's mother, the Mayor of New York, expresses doubt that Melanie is good enough for her son, whom she is grooming to eventually run for President of the United States.
In Alabama, Melanie asks Jake why he has returned the divorce papers unsigned for the last seven years, but he orders her out of his house, eventually calling the sheriff (another childhood friend) to intervene. When Melanie 's father brings her home from the station she announces her engagement.
Hoping to spur Jake to sign the papers, Melanie empties out his checking account, after learning that her name is still on it. Jake says he will sign the papers in the morning, lamenting "nobody finds their soulmate when they 're ten years old ''. Following Jake to a local bar, Melanie gets drunk and embarrasses herself in front of her childhood friends, expressing disgust at their lifestyle, confessing that Jake got her pregnant, hence why she married him, and outing a mutual friend, Bobby Ray Bailey. When Melanie wakes up the next morning, the divorce papers are lying on her bed, finally signed by Jake.
Melanie visits the Carmichael plantation to apologize to Bobby Ray, where she is cornered by a private detective sent to dig up dirt for the mayor. Realizing her predicament, Bobby Ray pretends to be her cousin, backing up her pretense that this is her childhood home. Melanie soon reconciles with her other friends, and learns that Jake followed her to New York City to win her back -- intimidated by the size of Manhattan, he returned home determined to make something of himself first. Jake finds Melanie in a graveyard upset over their old dog, and they have a heart to heart about their wedding, the loss of their baby due to miscarriage, and Melanie leaving for a new life. Melanie now realizes why Jake never signed the divorce papers.
Andrew arrives at the Carmichael Plantation to surprise Melanie. Jake takes him to a Civil War reenactment, where Melanie is with her father. On the way, knowing who Andrew is, Jake regales him with the story of "Felony '' Melanie Smooter, a young girl who once tied dynamite to a cat 's tail and then was arrested after it ran into the bank. When Andrew sees Melanie at the battlefield, she tells him Jake is her former husband. When her father introduces himself as Earl Smooter, Andrew realizes that Melanie has lied to him about who she really is and leaves. Andrew soon appears at Melanie 's parents ' house, having gotten over the shock and admitting he still wants to marry her, here in Alabama.
Once Melanie 's friends from New York arrive, they browse at a glazier whose wares they all have admired in New York, only to realize it is Jake.
Melanie 's lawyer interrupts the wedding ceremony, bringing the divorce papers that Melanie herself has missed signing. Melanie hesitates, realizing her love for Jake. She wishes Andrew luck in finding a good woman. Andrew, distressed but showing no ill - feelings, wishes her well in return. His mother explodes, berating Andrew for risking his promising political career and verbally attacking Melanie. She then insults the town and Melanie 's mother, for which Melanie punches her in the jaw, to the cheers of the crowd.
Melanie, in her wedding gown in the rain, finds Jake planting metal rods in the beach to draw lighting to create more sand sculptures. She tells him they are still married, and asks why he did n't tell her he came to New York. They repeat the conversation from when they were children about why they want to be married. As Jake and Melanie kiss, sheriff Wade "arrests '' them and takes them to the bar owned by Jake 's mother, where their friends and family are waiting. The pair finally get their long - awaited first dance as husband and wife, to the tune of Lynyrd Skynyrd 's "Sweet Home Alabama. '' A mid-credits sequence shows that they have a daughter. Melanie continues to thrive as a designer and Jake opens a "Deep South Glass '' franchise in New York. A newspaper clipping announces the wedding of Andrew and a girl named Erin Vanderbilt.
Although centered in a fictional version of the town of Pigeon Creek, near a fictional version of Greenville, Alabama, the film was mostly shot in Georgia. The Carmichael Plantation, which Melanie tells the reporter is her childhood home, is the Oak Hill Berry Museum, a historic landmark in Georgia which is on the campus of Berry College in Rome, Georgia.
The streets and storefronts of Crawfordville, Georgia were used as the backdrop for the Catfish Festival and other downtown scenes. The coonhound cemetery was on Moore Street in Crawfordville, and the bar was located at Heavy 's Barbecue near the town. Glass that forms when lightning hits sand, as in the film, is called fulgurite.
Jake 's glassblowing shop was filmed at an old mill, named Starr 's Mill, in Fayette County, Georgia. Wynn 's Pond in Sharpsburg, Georgia is the location where Jake lands his plane. The historic homes shown at Melanie 's return to Pigeon Creek were shot in Eufaula, Alabama.
The movie title and theme song lyrics are from the "Sweet Home Alabama '' song by Southern rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd, that first appeared in 1974 on their second album, Second Helping.
This film received mostly mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, 38 % of critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 157 reviews.
Roger Ebert, critic for the Chicago Sun Times, awarded it three - out - of - four stars, commenting, "It is a fantasy, a sweet, light - hearted fairy tale with Reese Witherspoon at its center. She is as lovable as Doris Day would have been in this role... So I enjoyed Witherspoon and the local color, but I am so very tired of the underlying premise. ''
Andrew Sarris, critic for the New York Observer, said that the movie "Would be an unendurable viewing experience for this ultra-provincial New Yorker if 26 - year - old Reese Witherspoon were not on hand to inject her pure fantasy character, Melanie Carmichael, with a massive infusion of old - fashioned Hollywood magic. ''
The film grossed over US $35 million in its first weekend. By the end of its run in the United States, Sweet Home Alabama grossed over US $130 million, and another US $53,399,006 internationally. With a reported budget of US $30 million, it was a box office hit, despite the mixed reviews.
The film won the following awards:
Sweet Home Alabama (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack), the film soundtrack, includes thirteen songs by different artists.
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who says mangal bhavan amangal hari and to whom | Ramcharitmanas - Wikipedia
Ramcharitmanas (Devanāgarī: श्रीरामचरितमानस, IAST: ŚrīRāmacaritamānasa), is an epic poem in the language Awadhi, composed by the 16th - century Indian bhakti poet Goswami Tulsidas (c. 1532 -- 1623). Ramcharitmanas literally means "Lake of the deeds of Rama ''. Ramcharitmanas is considered as one of the greatest works of Hindi literature, Indian literature as well as of the world literature. The work has variously been acclaimed as "the living sum of Indian culture '', "the tallest tree in the magic garden of medieval Indian poetry '', "the greatest book of all devotional literature '' and "the best and most trustworthy guide to the popular living faith of the Indian people ''.
Divisions
Sama vedic
Yajur vedic
Atharva vedic
Vaishnava puranas
Shaiva puranas
Tulsidas (the Sanskrit name of Tulsidas can be transliterated in two ways. Using the IAST transliteration scheme, the name is written as Tulasīdāsa, as pronounced in Sanskrit. Using the Hunterian transliteration scheme, it is written as Tulsidas or Tulsīdās, as pronounced in Hindi). Tulsidas was a great scholar of Sanskrit. However, he wanted the story of Rama to be accessible to the general masses and not just the Sanskrit - speaking elite. In order to make the story of Rama as accessible to the layman as to the scholar, Tulsidas chose to write in Awadhi, a local dialect of Hindi which was in vogue as the language of general parlance in large parts of north India during the composition of the work. Tradition has it that Tulsidas had to face a lot of criticism from the sanskrit scholars of Varanasi for being a bhasha (vernacular) poet. However, Tulsidas remained steadfast in his resolve for simplifying the knowledge contained in the Vedas, the Upanishads and the Puranas to the common people. Subsequently, his work was accepted by all.
Ramcharitmanas, made available the story of Rama to the common man to sing, meditate and perform on. The writing of Ramcharitmanas also heralded many a cultural tradition, most significantly that of the tradition of Ramlila, the dramatic enactment of the text. Ramcharitmanas is considered by many as a work belonging to the Saguna school of the Bhakti movement in Hindi literature.
Tulsidas began writing the Ramcharitmanas in Ayodhya in Vikram Samvat 1631 (1574 CE). The exact date is stated within the poem as being the ninth day of the month of Chaitra, which is the birthday of Rama, Rama Navami. Ramcharitmanas was composed at Ayodhya, Varanasi & Chitrakoot. India was under the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar (1556 - 1605 CE) during this period. This also makes Tulsidas a contemporary of William Shakespeare.
The Ramcharitmanas is written in vernacular Awadhi language, The core of the work is considered by some to be a poetic retelling of the events of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana by Valmiki. The Valmiki Ramayana is centered on the narrative of Rama, the scion of the family tree of king Raghu of the Sun Dynasty. Rama was the crown prince of Ayodhya and is considered in Hindu tradition as the seventh Avatar of Vishnu. However, the Ramacharitmanas is by no means a word - to - word copy of the Valmiki Ramayana nor an abridged re-telling of the latter. Ramcaritmanas has elements from many other Ramayanas written earlier in Sanskrit and other Indian dialects as well as stories from Puranas. Tulsidas himself never writes Ramcharitmanas as being a retelling of Valmiki Ramayana. He calls the epic Ramcharitmanas as the story of Rama, that was stored in the mind (Mānasa) of Shiva before he narrated the same to His wife Parvati. Tulsidas claims to have received the story through his guru, Narharidas. Tulsidas was a naive (Acheta) child and the story was stored in his mind (Mānasa) for long before he wrote it down as Ramcharitmanas. Some understand this passage of the Ramcharitmanas to mean that Tulsidas at first could not grasp the story fully as he was a naïve young boy. His guru graciously repeated it again and again so that he could understand and remember it. Then he narrated the story and named it Ramcharitmanas as Shiva himself called it. The epic poem is, therefore, also referred to as Tulsikrit Ramayana (literally, The Ramayana composed by Tulsidas).
The Ramcharitmanas is a masterpiece of vernacular literature. Some believe it to represent a challenge to the dominance of high - class Brahmanical Sanskrit, echoing the revolt of Buddha against Brahmanical elitism. However, this interpretation appears faulty as Tulsidas himself was a brahmin and often talks very highly of the Brahmins in Ramcharitmanas and other books written by him. It was the attempt of Tulsidas to reconcile the different stories of Rama and to bring the story within the reach of the common man.
Ramcharitmanas consists of seven Kāndas (literally "books '' or "episodes '', cognate with cantos). Tulsidas compared the seven Kāndas of the epic to seven steps leading into the holy waters of Lake Manasarovar "which purifies the body and the soul at once ''.
The first two parts, Bāl Kāṇḍ (Childhood Episode) and Ayodhyā Kāṇḍ (Ayodhya Episode), make up more than half of the work. The other parts are Araṇya Kāṇḍ (Forest Episode), Kiśkindhā Kāṇḍ (Kishkindha Episode), Sundar Kāṇḍ (Pleasant Episode), Laṅkā Kāṇḍ (Lanka Episode), and Uttar Kāṇḍ (Later Episode). The work is primarily composed in the Chaupai metre (four - line quatrains), separated by the Doha metre (two - line couplets), with occasional Soratha and various Chhand metres.
Every chapter of the Ramcharitmanas begins with an invocation or Mangalācharaņ. It is customary of the Indian tradition of writing that the author begins a new book with invocation to the Gods to ensure that the sankalpa is finished unhindered. The first three or four verses of each Kānd are typically in the form of invocations.
Bāl Kāṇḍ begins with a hymn honouring the goddess Saraswati and the god Ganesha, the deities related to knowledge, wisdom, speech and auspiciousness.
Ayodhyā Kāṇḍ begins with the famous verse dedicated to the god Shiva: May He in whose lap shines forth the Daughter of the mountain king, who carries the celestial stream on His head, on whose brow rests the crescent moon, whose throat holds poison and whose breast is support of a huge serpent, and who is adorned by the ashes on His body, may that chief of gods, the Lord of all, the Destroyer of the universe, the omnipresent Śhiva, the moon - like Śańkara, ever protect me. ''
Araṇya Kāṇḍ 's first verse again extols Shiva: I reverence Bhagavan Śańkara, the progeny of Brahmā, the very root of the tree of piety, the beloved, devotee of King Śri Rama, the full moon that brings joy to the ocean of wisdom, the sun that opens the lotus of dispassion, the wind that disperses the clouds of ignorance, who dispels the thick darkness of sin and eradicates the threefold agony and who wipes off all calumny and obloquy.
Kiśkindhā Kāṇḍ commences with the following verse: Lovely as a jasmine and a blue lotus, of surpassing strength, repositories of wisdom, endowed with natural grace, excellent bowmen, hymned by the Vedas, and lovers of the cow and Brāhmaņas, who appeared in the form of mortal men through their own Māyā (deluding potency) as the two noble scions of Raghu, the armours of true dharma, friendly to all and journeying in quest for Sita, may they both grant us Devotion.
Sundar Kāṇḍ begins with a hymn in the praise of Rama: I adore the Lord of the universe bearing the name of Rama, the chief of the Raghu 's line and the crest - jewel of kings, the mine of compassion, the dispeller of all sins, appearing in human form through His Māyā (deluding potency), the greatest of all gods, knowable through Vedānta (the Upanishads), constantly worshipped by Brahmā (the Creator), Śhambhu (Śivā), and Śeşa (the serpent - god), the one who bestows of supreme peace in the form of final beatitude, placid, eternal, beyond the ordinary means of cognition, sinless and all - pervading.
Laṅkā Kāṇḍ begins with this hymn: I adore Śri Rama, the supreme Deity, the object of worship even by Śivā (the destroyer of Kāma, the God of Love), the Dispeller of the fear of rebirth, the lion to quell the mad elephant in the form of Death, the Master of Yogīs, attainable through immediate knowledge, the storehouse of good qualities, unconquerable, attributeless, immutable, beyond the realm of Māyā, the Lord of celestials, intent on killing the evil - doers, the only protector of the Brāhmaņas, beautiful as a cloud laden with moisture, who has lotus like eyes and appeared in the form of an earthly king.
Uttar Kāṇḍ begins with the following hymn: I unceasingly extol Śri Ramā, the praiseworthy lord of Jānakī (Sītā, Janakā 's daughter and the wife of Rama), the chief of Raghu 's line, possessed of a form greenish blue, the color of the neck of a peacock and adorned with an insignia of Brahmā pada, the lotus - foot, which testifies to His being the greatest of all gods - rich in splendour, clad in yellow robes, lotus - eyed, ever - propitious, holding a bow and arrow in His hands, riding an aerial car named Puşpakā, accompanied by a host of monkeys and waited upon by His own brother Lakşmaņa.
Tulsidas ends every chapter in a similar manner describing the ending in the Sanskrit language.
Every Kānd is formally concluded by Goswami Tulsidas. The following is an example of the ending of Kiśkindhā Kāṇḍ:
Translation: "Thus ends the fourth descent into the Mānasa lake of Sri Rama 's exploits, that eradicates all the impurities of the kali age. '' All the other Kāndas are concluded in the same way where the word caturthah is substituted, according to the Kānd being concluded.
Ramcharitmanas is structured around three separate conversations. The conversations happen between Shiva and Parvati, Sages Bharadwaj and Yajnavalkya and finally Kakbhushundi and the king of birds, Garuda. Some scholars are of the opinion that there is also an underlying personal conversation between Tulsidas and Lord Rama all through the text of Ramcharitmanas.
The Child Episode
Tulsidas begins the story with an invocation to various deities, his guru, and saints who have preceded him and those who will succeed him in the future. Homage is paid to Valmiki for bringing the Ramayana to the devotees of Rama. Next are introduced and praised the various characters of the epic beginning with the birthplace of Rama, the holy city of Ayodhya. Praises are bestowed on Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya and Rama 's father, and his queens Kausalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra. Tulsidas then praises King Janaka, the father - in - law of Rama), and his family. He goes on to praise the brothers of Rama - Bharata, Lakshman & Shatrughna and sings the glories of Hanuman, the constant companion to Rama, Sugriva, the monkey king and Jambavan, the leader of bears. Next, the characters of Sita and Rama are introduced.
The story of Ramcharitmanas is then underway. It begins with the meeting of two sages - Bharadwaj and Yajnavalkya. Bharadwaj asks Yajnavalkya to narrate in detail the story of Rama. Yajnavalkya begins with how Shiva came about retelling the story of Rama to his wife Parvati. (The great story of Sati 's self - immolation, the destruction of her father Daksha 's sacrifice, the rebirth of Sati as Parvati and her marriage to Shiva). Shiva explains five different reasons as to why Rama incarnated on earth in different ages Kalpa (aeon). Each of these stories is discussed in detail, with the primary message being that Rama incarnated on earth to protect the righteous who follow the path of Dharma. The story then moves to the birth of Ravana and his brothers. Post this point, the narration is done at different times by Shiva, Yajnavalkya, Kakbhushundi and Tulsidas.
The story now moves to the abode of Brahma where Brahma and the other Hindu Devas are found mulling on the ways to rid the earth of Ravana and his excesses. Unable to find a solution, they pray to Shiva and ask him for his guidance on where to find the supreme God who will come to their rescue. Shiva tells them that they do n't need to go anywhere to find the Supreme God for He resides in the hearts of his devotees. All the Devas then Pray to the supreme Brahman to rid the earth of the demons wreaking havoc on men as well as Devas. Brahman shows compassion to all and announces in an Akashvani that He will be born in the Sun Dynasty to save the Devas and His devotees from the demons.
The story then moves to Ayodhya. One fine day, Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya, realizes that he has become old and still issueless... He conveys his distress to sage Vasistha, the family guru, and seeks the way forward. Vasistha comforts Dasharatha and tells him that he will have four sons. Vasistha requests Shringi Rishi to perform the Putrakām yajna (vedic yajna for the birth of sons). Tulsidas states that the birth of Rama and his brothers took place on the ninth day of the Chaitra month. It was the fortnight of the moon, known as the shukla period.
The story then moves on and Rama and His brothers are now grown - up boys. The sage Vishvamitra arrives at Dashratha 's royal court where the King receives his eminent guest with great honour. Sage Vishvamitra lived in the forest and was performing great sacrifices. However, the demons Maricha and Subahu would always desecrate the ceremonial offerings. He knew that Rama had taken birth on earth to protect his devotees and so he decided to visit Dashratha to ask him a favour. The sage asks the king to let his sons accompany him to the forest. Reluctantly the king agrees. Rama knew before hand the intention of Vishvamitra in asking him to come along with him. He asures the sage that he would obey his commands. Lakshman kills Subahu and Rama kills Maricha, the dreaded demons.
The story then moves to the deliverance of Ahalya. Rama, Lakshman and Vishvamitra venture on a journey and reach the beautiful kingdom of the Videhas, Mithila. The king of Mithila, Janaka, welcomes the great sage and asks him who are the two boys accompanying him... Janaka is overcome by great emotion as he is able to sense the true nature of their mission... The brothers then set out to discover the beautiful city and visit Janaka 's garden. This is an important section of the manās as it portrays the first meeting of Rama and Sita...
In the meanwhile, King Janaka arranges a swayamvara ceremony for his daughter Sita. A swayamvara ceremony is a Vedic ritual in which a prospective bride selects her groom from among a group of suitors who attend the ceremony. Sita falls in love with Rama at first sight in Janaka 's garden and prays to Gauri that she may get Rama as her husband. King Janaka sends a messenger to invite Rama, Laksman and Sage Vishvamitra to attend the swayamvara. Janaka puts a condition to identify the right groom for Sita. The great bow of Shiva by the name of Pinaka was kept in the arena. Any suitor who would be able to string Pinaka would be married to Sita. Many princes try but fail to even nudge the mammoth bow. This causes great distress to Janaka who wonders aloud if the earth has become devoid of brave men. This statement of Janaka angers Lakshman who retorts that no one talks in this vein, when a gathering like this, has the presence of scions of the Sun Dynasty. Rama gently nudges him to keep calm as Vishwamitra asks him to break the bow and make Janaka happy once again... Rama steps in and effortlessly lifts and strings the divine bow. In a swift move, he breaks the bow. The breaking of Pinaka causes a great noise that disturbs the great sage Parashurama in his meditation and he storms into the swayamvara arena in great anger vowing to kill whoever had dared to break the bow of lord Shiva. Lakshman enters into an argument with Parashurama, paying scant respect to the sage who was known for his bursts of anger and was known to slay whoever dared to oppose him. Ultimately, Rama brings him around. Parashurama comes to know the real nature of Lord Rama as the ultimate Brahman, pays his respects and leaves for the forests for meditation. Sita places the wreath of victory around the neck of Rama in accordance with the rules of the swayamvara and is thus wedded to him.
However, Sita being his beloved daughter, Janaka desires to conduct a grand marriage of Sita and Rama in accordance with both Vedic and laukik (traditional) customs. Janaka dispatches messengers to Ayodhya to inform Dashratha and his family about the marriage of Rama and Sita and invites them for the formal consummation of marriage ceremony. Dashratha starts with a great marriage procession, consisting of Rama 's family, friends and well wishers in addition to Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma and all Devas who take up human form and depart for Mithila.
After a grand wedding, the kind of which had never been witnessed in the universe, Rama and Sita return to Ayodhya where there was a great celebration and much rejoicing.
The Ayodhya Episode
Ayodhya was described as being like a heaven on earth ever since Rama and Sita came back from Mithila. As King Dasaratha was getting old, he wanted to install his son Rama as Prince Regent. He decided to start the ceremonies for his coronation the very next day. The Devas however became very concerned at the prospect of Rama remaining in Ayodhya, and not pursuing the wicked Ravana, and vanquishing him. Something had to happen if Rama was to embark on his mission to rid the world of Ravana. They approached Goddess Saraswati for help.
King Dashratha has three wives. Queen Kaushalya is the principal queen and the mother of Rama. Queen Kaikeyi is the mother of Bharata and Queen Sumitra is the mother of Lakshman and Shatrughna. Saraswati decides to influence the mind of one of Queen Kaikeyi 's maid servants named Manthara. Manthara 's mind harbors evil intentions and she begins to talk to Queen Kaikeyi in harsh and conceited tones. She finds fault with Kaikeyi for being supportive of the king 's plan of installing Rama, as Prince Regent when her own mind tells her that Bharata would clearly be a greater king. At that time Bharata is in Kaikeya country visiting his uncle and so he is unaware of what is happening in Ayodhya. Slowly Queen Kaikeyi 's mind is poisoned. Manthara reminds Queen Kaikeyi of the two boons that the King had promised her. Kaikeyi enters the private room in the royal palace, where the King gives audience to his queens, and awaits Dashratha. Dashratha is greatly alarmed and concerned that Kaikeyi is sitting in the sulking chamber, while the entire population of Ayodhya is greatly happy and eagerly anticipating the coronation of Rama. Queen Kaikeyi speaks harshly to Dashratha, which surprises the king. She reminds him of the two boons he promised her and to his bewilderment, asks him to install her son Bharata as Prince Regent and send Rama into the forest for 14 years. Queen Kaikeyi is unmoved by Dashratha 's lamentations and finally the king emotionally breaks down. The king 's assistant Sumantra sends for Rama with a request to meet his father.
Queen Kaikeyi speaks to Rama and explains to him the boons that she had asked of His father. Rama is actually the Supreme Personality of Godhead incarnated on earth, yet He accepts His stepmother 's request and decides to leave the kingdom as it serves his purpose as well. The people of Ayodhya remonstrate against Queen Kaikeyi who firmly believes that she is doing the right thing. Rama attempts to dissuade Lakshman and Sita from joining him but is unable to do so. The scene becomes very emotional as Rama, Sita and Lakshman greet their mothers before finally going to Dashratha to take leave of him. Dashratha attempts, in vain, to try to talk Sita out of joining Rama in the forest.
The residents of Ayodhya ca n't spare the thought of being away from Rama and decide to join him in the forest. Rama, Sita, Lakshman and Sumantra go incognito and in the dead of the night leave the city and move into the forest. They leave for a place called Sringaverapur after which they meet Guha, the Nishad king. They arrive at Prayag, the holy city where the Rivers Ganges, Yamuna and Saraswati meet. Rama meets with the Sage Bharadwaj at his ashram. Rama is overwhelmed with the reception and love shown by the people inhabiting the banks of the Yamuna. Rama then meets Sage Valmiki, the author of the Ramayan at Chitrakoot dham. Valmiki recognises the true opulence of Rama and sings His praises. At this point Tulsidas takes great care to describe the beauty of the land of Chitrakoot with some inspiring poetry.
Rama asks Sumantra to return to Ayodhya which saddens Sumantra. He not only wants to stay with Rama, he is also afraid of going back only to face the anger and wrath of the citizens of Ayodhya. Rama persuades him to go back. On returning to Ayodhya, Sumantra meets Dashratha, who asks him the whereabouts of Rama. The pain of separation from Rama is too much for Dashratha who passes away crying Rama 's name.
Sage Vashishtha knows that Rama will not return to the kingdom and so immediately sends an envoy to call Bharata and Shatrughna back to Ayodhya. Bharata learns of all that has happened and chastises his mother, Queen Kaikeyi. He is greatly pained and blames himself for Rama leaving Ayodhya. He accuses her of bringing ruin to the family. Shatrughna comes across Manthara and beats her in rage. They approach Queen Kaushalya and see her in a sorry state. Bharata begs for her forgiveness and loudly laments while the Queen attempts to pacify him. She asks him to carry out his duty and rule Ayodhya, but Bharata can not bear the thought of sitting on the throne with his father dead and his brothers in exile in the forest. The cremation of King Dashratha takes place. Bharata and Shatrughna decide to go into the forest and ask Rama to return to Ayodhya and take the throne. Many citizens as well as the royal family, who have been grieving ever since Rama had left them, decide to join the brothers.
The Nishads see the approaching royal party and become suspicious. Guha approaches Bharata to understand his motive for bringing such a large party to the forest. He assumes that Bharata has some sinister motive. Bharata shows his love for Rama and Guha is moved to tears by his love for his brother. The royal procession then moves forward to Chitrakoot. Lakshman sees the huge army of people with Bharata and immediately begins to chastise Bharata. Rama counters this by praising the greatness of Bharata, leaving Lakshman feeling sorry for his harsh words. Bharata finally arrives at Chitrakoot where the brothers are all reunited once again. They collectively mourn the passing of their father and perform his Shraddha (obsequies) along with Sage Vashistha leading the ceremony.
Despite all of Bharata 's convincing, Rama is true to the word given to his father and step mother Kaikeyi, and vows that he will fulfill her wish. Bharata says that he simply can not sit on the throne while Rama wanders in the forest. He asks Rama for his sandals, which he would place at the throne and would only act as Rama 's representative and not as a full - fledged king. With much sorrow and hurt, Bharata leaves Rama and returns to Ayodhya. He decides that he would not live in the kingdom while Rama is in exile and so lives like a hermit in a nearby town called Nandigram.
The Forest Episode
Rama, Sita and Lakshman wander in the forest and come across the hermitage of a sage called Atri. Atri sees them approaching and is overcome with great joy. Sita is embraced by Atri 's wife, Anasuya. Anusuya talks to Sita at length about the duties of a devoted wife.
Rama, Sita and Lakshman venture further into the forest and encounter Viradha. Viradha attempts to capture Sita. Rama kills him by burying him in a ditch. They then visit the ashram of Sage Sarabhanga. Rama asks him of where he should go for shelter in the forest. He is advised to visit the sage Sutiksna. As Rama approaches Sutiksna, the latter comes out of his meditation. He tells Rama that he had been awaiting his arrival, and had even turned down the offer of entering the heavenly planets.
Continuing on their journey through the forest, they meet with Sage Agastya where Rama pays his respect to the sage. Agastya gifts divine weapons to Rama and advises him to venture further into the forest and into the region of Dandaka. Rama meets with the eagle, Jatayu. Rama, Sita and Lakshman take up abode at Panchavati and build a beautiful ashram, as per the advice of Agastya. Laksman becomes nostalgic of the past and begins to talk harshly about Kaikeyi. Rama pacifies him and explains that it is sinful to speak of his mother in such a way.
The story takes a new turn, as Rama, Sita and Lakshman are approached by the sister of the demon - king Ravana, called Surpanakha. She immediately takes a liking to Rama and falls in love with him. She disguises herself and talks to Rama in sweet tones. Rama rejects her advances explaining that he is already married and advises her to approach Laksman as he is unmarried. However, Laksman also rejects her advances. Surpanakha takes it as a great insult to be spurned like this, and attempts to hurt Sita. Laksman takes hold of his sword and lops off Surpanakha 's ear lobes and nose. Feeling humiliated, Surpanakha leaves the forest and goes to the abode of her brothers Khara, Dusana and Trisira. They are angry at the treatment meted out to their sister and leave with the intention of killing Rama. All three brothers are vanquished by Rama.
Surpanakha is greatly upset and visits Ravana at his residence in Lanka. She explains all that has happened, after which Ravana calls for his old friend Maricha. Ravana hatches a plot and asks Maricha to disguise himself as a golden deer, so that Ravana may then kidnap Sita. Maricha has already felt the power of Rama (as mentioned in Bālakāṇḍa) and is apprehensive, however, he thinks that he is going to die either way since Ravana will kill him in rage for refusing him. Ravana and Marich immediately leave for Rama 's forest abode. Maricha takes his position and instantly Sita is attracted by his deer form. Rama knows that Ravana 's intentions and orders Sita to place her shadow (Maya Sita) in her place, while she would hide in the fire. She asks Rama time and time again to hunt for the deer and bring it to her. Rama runs after the deer and is soon quite a far distance away from the ashram. Rama releases an arrow and hits the deer. Impersonating Rama 's voice, Marich shouts out to Laksman to help him. Maya Sita (hereafter called simply Sita) hears the cry and orders Laksman to go help his brother. Ravana, while posing as a begging minstrel, uses this opportunity to forcibly kidnap Sita from the ashram. Jatayu, the eagle, sees Ravana 's sinful act and attempts to fight with him, but Ravana has too much power and cuts off Jatayu 's wings and leaves him for dead. Rama and Lakshman return to find the ashram empty. They anxiously set out to find Sita and find the severely wounded eagle. Jatayu dies in Rama 's lap and receives liberation. As they continue to look for Sita they come across the hermitage of Shabari. Tulsidas says that Shabari washes the feet of Ram with tears from her eyes and feeds him half eaten wild berries to ensure he gets only sweet ones. She is given liberation by Rama.
The brothers then head towards the Pampasarovar lake.
The Kiśkindhā Region Episode
High up in the Rishyamuk mountains, Sugriva sees Rama and Laksman at the foothills. He consults Hanuman as to whether he thinks they have been sent by his brother Bali. Hanuman disguises himself as a Brahmin and approaches the brothers. Hanuman recognises the true nature of Rama as God - incarnation and surrenders himself to his Holy feet. He tells the brothers that his king, Sugriva, wishes to extend his friendship to Them and will help Them to find Sita. Rama asks Sugriva why he resides in the mountains instead of Kishkindha, where Sugriva tells of his feud with his brother Bali. Rama sympathises with Sugriva and decides to help Sugriva in return for the latter 's help in finding Sita. Ram kills Bali and installs Sugriva as king of Kishkindha and Angada, Bali 's son, as prince regent. Sugriva becomes too attached to his new regal lifestyle and forgets about his agreement with Rama, which fills Rama with great anger. Rama asks Laksman to bring Sugriva to him. Laksman enters the royal court and threatens to burn the entire city to ashes. Sugriva is gravely worried and asks Hanuman to pacify him. Laksman escorts Sugriva to Rama and upon seeing Him, Sugriva falls as His feet and begs forgiveness.
Sugriva immediately orders the gathering of the region 's bear and monkey community. Armies of bears and monkeys are dispatched north, south east and west to search for Sita. Rama knew that only Hanuman was really capable of finding Sita. He asks Hanuman to narrate the agony of separation from her and then hands over his ring. Hanuman is joined by Angad, Nala, Kesari and Jambavan as well as many others as they head to the south. As the army approach the coast, Jambavan and Angad see a cave by the shore of the ocean. The cave is occupied by Sampati (who is actually Jatayu 's older brother). There is a conversation during which Angad explains that Jatayu died serving Rama and thereafter Sampati narrates his biography. He tells the monkeys that he is sure that Sita is captive in Ashok Vatika in Lanka. The island is 400 miles away and requires someone who is able to jump the distance. Jambavan deduces that Hanuman is the only one capable of the task.
The Pleasant Episode
Hanuman takes Jambavan 's suggestion and immediately takes off for Lanka. He climbs onto the mountain and using it as a pivot, launches himself into the air. He meets Surasa, the mother of serpents and passes her test. The ocean demoness tries to capture Hanuman, thinking of him as a bird. He quickly kills her and then lands on the shore of the ocean in Lanka. He sees beautiful lush gardens, groves, lakes and reservoirs. Hanuman takes a minute form and, remembering Rama, enters Lanka. He is accosted by the demon Lankini whom he hits with his fist and causes her to fall to the ground.
Hanuman flies through the various palaces and gardens for his search of Sita, and amongst all the demonic activities going on in Lanka, Hanuman sees a palace where Sri Hari 's name is being chanted. He is drawn towards the palace and decides to visit the inhabitant. The palace belongs to Ravana 's brother, Vibhishan. Hanuman narrates Rama katha (story) and then introduces himself. Hanuman proceeds to Ashok Vatika where he finally sees Sita. He positions himself on a branch of a tree, under which Sita was sitting, and contemplates his next move. He sees Ravana walk towards Sita and beg her to glance at least once toward him. She simply looks at a blade of grass to insult him. Ravana threatens to behead Sita but is calmed down by his wife, Mandodari. Hanuman has to use all his powers of calm not to react to Ravana 's threats. When all is quiet again, Hanuman begins to sing the glory of Rama in sweet tones. He then approaches Sita and explains who he is. He presents the ring lord Rama had given him and Sita is overjoyed. She blesses Hanuman with many kind words and boons.
Hanuman tells Sita that he is hungry and asks for her permission to eat fruits from the grove. He not only eats but manages to destroy large parts of it. He easily kills one of Ravana 's sons, prince Aksaya. Indrajit arrives in the grove and Hanuman allows himself to be captured. He is brought in front of the king of Lanka, Ravana. Ravana orders his death, however, Vibhishan reminds him that Hanuman is an envoy and can not be killed according to religious principle. Ravana decides to humiliate Hanuman by setting his tail on fire. Large amounts of clothes are tied to his tail and soaked in oil. Hanuman chants the name of Rama and his tail begins to get longer, and more cloth and oil is used. He changes from his small form into a gigantic form and decides to torch alight the whole of Lanka.
He returns to the ocean to extinguish his tail and then goes to Sita to reassure her that the next time she sees him, it will be with Rama. He bids farewell to Sita and leaps back towards Angad and Jambavan. The monkey army then ventures back to where Sugriva, Rama and Lakshman are waiting. On arrival Hanuman explains all that happened and immediately an army is prepared to go south towards Lanka.
Meanwhile, in Lanka, both Mandodari and Vibhishan ask Ravana to hand Sita back to Rama. Ravana takes great exception to this suggestion and begins to insult Vibhishan particularly. He tells him he has no need for a weakling like him and that he is no longer needed. Vibhishan decides to join Rama at Kishkindha. Vibhishan falls at Ram 's feet and asks him for protection. The army deliberate over how to cross the ocean to Lanka. The deity of the seas tells Rama of the boon obtained by the monkey brothers Nila and Nala, and that they have the power to build a bridge to link the seashore to Lanka.
The Lanka Episode
Jambavan asks the monkeys Nala and Nila to begin work on building the bridge across the sea. The Mānas states that entire mountain ranges were used by Nala and Nila to complete their objective. Rama remembers Lord Shiva and decides to install a shrine for Rameswaram. Upon completion, the army of Rama begins to cross the bridge and arrives at Lanka, taking camp on Mount Suvela. Ravana hears of the advances of Rama 's army and feels greatly agitated. Mandodari asks Ravana to return Sita to Rama as she fears for her husband 's life. Ravana is dismissive of Rama 's power and pacifies his wife. Next, Ravana 's son Prahasta attempts to reinforce his mothers sentiments, but all to no avail.
Rama fires a warning shot from his retreat in Suvela. The arrow strikes Ravana 's crown and royal umbrella. Mandodari once again attempts to convince Ravana of handing Sita back to Rama. Meanwhile, Rama asks Jambavan what should be done. Jambavan suggests that they send Angada, as messenger, to give Ravana a chance to return Sita. On reaching Ravana 's court, Angada explains he is the ambassador of Rama, and tells Ravana that he still has time to save himself from destruction. Ravana insults Angada and his refusal to comply makes war inevitable.
The war begins with great ferocity as Ravana loses half of his army on the first day. Indrajit, Ravan 's son, is required to enter the battle far earlier than he expected. He severely wounds Lakshman with his special weapon, the Saang. Hanumanji is ordered to fetch the doctor of Lanka called Sushena. Sushena tells Rama that there exists a herb called Sanjivani which can only be found in the Himalayan mountains. It is the only hope to save Lakshman. Hanuman immediately reassures Rama that he shall find this herb. As Hanuman is about to leave, Ravana orders the demon Kalanemi to impede him. However, Hanuman kills Kalanemi with ease. Hanuman reaches the mountain and ca n't find the herb. In his frustration he decides to take the entire mountain to Lanka.
Hanuman makes good speed towards Lanka when suddenly he is shot by an arrow as he approaches Nandigram. Hanuman is mistaken to be a demon by Bharat. Hanuman falls to the ground together with the great hill. Hanuman regains consciousness and recognizes that Bharata is Rama 's brother. He continues on to Lanka where he delivers the Sanjivani herb and Sushena treats Lakshman. Rama embraces Hanuman with great pride and affection. Ravan takes the news of Lakshman 's recovery very badly and decides to awaken his brother Kumbhakarna. Kumbhakarna kills indiscriminantly and wreaks much havoc. Rama releases an arrow which kills him instantly. The death of his brother scares Ravan greatly. Indrajit hastily tries to arrange a ceremony to receive great boons and powers but is interrupted by Hanuman and Angada. Lakshman takes up arms against Indrajit and kills him. Rama throws numerous arrows at Ravana but is unable to kill him. He asks Vibhishan on how to kill his brother after which Rama finally kills Ravana. The war is over.
Ravana 's funeral takes place and Vibhishan is crowned the king of Lanka. Hanuman carries the happy news to Sita in Ashok vatika. Finally Rama and Sita are reunited. Rama and the army prepare to depart Lanka and return towards Ayodhya. Rama, Sita, Lakshman and the senior monkeys travel back in Ravana 's flying vehicle, Pushpak Vimaan.
The Epilogue
It is now the day before Rama is to return to Ayodhya after serving his exile. Bharata is anxious that his brother still has n't arrived. The Mānas mentions that Bharata had passed his days shedding tears for fourteen years in Nandigram. Hanuman meets Bharata telling him of the arrival of Rama, Sita and Laksman. Bharata rushes to Ayodhya to tell the citizens of the great news. As the Pushpak Vimaan landed in Ayodhya the citizens shouted chants of ' Glory be to Ramchandra '. Rama, Sita and Laksman collectively touch the feet of the sage Vashishta on arriving in Ayodhya and thereafter greet all that have gathered in the assembly. Lastly Rama meets Bharata with great affection and love. Rama 's coronation takes place and he is finally crowned king of Ayodhya. Shiva arrives to glorify the festivities further and asks Rama of the boon that he may have firm and undeviating devotion of Rama 's feet.
In conclusion to the tale, Rama has twin sons named Lava and Kusha. The other brothers each have two sons as well. It is mentioned that great sages like Nārad and Sanaka visit Ayodhya to meet with Rama and to see his great city.
In the subsequent passages of Uttar Kānd the biography of Saint Kakbhushundi is given, followed by a description of what is to be expected in the current age of Kaliyuga. Shiva ends his narration of the Rama Katha to Parvati as does Kakbhushundi to Garuda. It is not mentioned whether Yajnavalkya finishes his recitation to Bharadwaj. Finally, Goswami Tulsidas concludes his retelling of the Shri Ramcharitmanas. The Rudrastakam in Sanskrit is a part of this Kanda.
During the Bālakāṇḍa, it is mentioned that Shiva is retelling the story of Rama (Rama Katha) to his spouse Parvati. During this retelling, Shiva explains as many as five reasons why Rama incarnated on earth.
The brothers Jay and Vijay are the two favoured gate keepers of Hari. Due to a curse, by the Brahmin Sanaka and his three brothers, Jay and Vijay were born in the species of the demons. One took the birth of Hiranyakashipu and the other was born as Hiranyaksha. The Supreme incarnated Himself as Varaha in order to kill Hiranyaksha, while incarnating as Narasimha to kill Hiranyakashipu. Even though these brothers are killed by Hari Himself, they do not attain liberation as the Brahman 's had cursed them to three births and so were reborn as the powerful demons Ravana and Kumbhakarna. Hari took a human incarnation, as Rama, to kill Ravana and Kumbhakarna.
Nārad Muni was wandering in Himalayan mountains and begins to think about Vishnu. He instantly falls into a deep meditative trance. Seeing the sage 's state, Indra becomes apprehensive as he sees Nārad 's trance as a threat to his own position as the chief of demigods in heaven. Indra asks Kamadeva to disturb Nārad 's trance. He creates an illusion of fragrant flowers, delightful breezes and such. Heavenly damsels are called but all this has no effect on the sage. Kamadeva accepts defeat and falls at Nārad 's feet, addressing him with deep humility. He recalls all that happened to Shiva and becomes puffed up with pride of his defeating of Kamadeva. Shiva admonishes him not to repeat the story to Hari.
Nārad visits Vishnu at his abode, and unable to control his pride, re-tells his episode with Kamadeva, ignoring all that Shiva had advised. Vishnu further fans Nārad 's pride by telling him that his steadfast vow of celibacy is so strong that he can never be smitten. Nārad then departs Vishnu 's abode. Hari tells Laksmi that he has a plan and sets his illusory powers (maya) into operation. As Nārad departs Vaikuntha, Vishnu creates a beautiful illusory city with illusionary inhabitants. The city is ruled by King Sheelanidhi, who has a beautiful daughter called Vishvamohini. Nārad is intrigued with the city and decides to visit the king. Nārad sees the king 's daughter and falls in love with her. The king explains that he wishes to marry his daughter to a suitable man. Nārad devises a plot to get the princess to choose him.
Nārad approaches Hari and asks him for the gift of great beauty. Vishnu says that he will do only that which is beneficial to Nārad. The sage is glad at heart and thinks that with Vishnu 's favour, the princess will surely choose him. In reality the Hari had made Nārad look hideous. The entire royal court is aware of Nārad 's appearance, but says nothing. The princess filled with rage as soon as she sees Nārad 's ugly form and completely ignores him. He sees a reflection of his face in water and is consumed with rage. He instantly goes back to Vaikuntha and begins to speak to Hari in ugly tones. He curses Hari, "You made me look like a monkey; therefore You shall have monkeys for Your mates. And as You have grievously wronged me, so shall You suffer the pangs of separation from Your wife ''. Hari accepts Nārad 's curse and instantly withdraws his illusionary spell.
Nārad realises that there is no city and there is no Visvamohini, and is dismayed at what he has done. He begs Vishnu to invalidate his curse. Hari explains that it was His will and advises Nārad to chant his name to absolve himself of any sin. Nārad returns to his abode chanting the praises of Ram.
Svayambhuva Manu had Shatarupa as his wife. Manu ruled the earth for many years and carried out the Lord 's commandments. He longed to devotion to Hari and decides to give up rulership to his son so that he can retire to the forest with Satarupa and meditate upon the Lord. Manu and Satarupa settle at the banks of the Sarayu river and devoutly repeat the twelve - syllable Mantra, calling out to who is the source of many Brahmas, Vishnus and Shivas emanate. Some commentators indicate that the twelve - syllable mantra is the Vishnu mantra (Oṃ Namo Bhagavate Vāsudevāya). Rambhadracharya comments that the twelve - letter mantra is the coupled mantra for Sita and Rama.
Manu and Shatarupa first sacrifice food and then water and are finally willing to sacrifice air. Brahma, Hari and Shiva call on Manu but Manu and Satarupa are resolute and do not swerve on their sacrifices. A great voice from the heavens tells Manu, in sweet tones, to ask for a boon. Rama and Sita approach Manu in a beautiful form, which leaves Manu overcome with emotion. Manu explains now that he and Satarupa have seen the Lord 's lotus feet, all their desires have been met. Manu has one longing but does n't know how to ask the Lord. Finally he asks, "O gracious Lord, I tell You my sincere wish: I would have a son like You. I have nothing to conceal from You. ''
The Lord announces that it shall be, however, where would he find a son like Himself? The Lord tells Manu that He Himself would be a son to him. The Lord then asks Satarupa of her wish. She says that she greatly likes the boon received by her husband and wants the same. Bowing at the Lord 's feet, Manu then asks one more favour. He asks that he be dependent on which is granted. The Lord then commands the couple to dwell in Indra 's capital in heaven.
The Lord explains that after some time Manu would be born as the king of Ayodhya, Dashrath and Satarupa as Kausalya. He would then manifest Himself in the royal household as their son. He reassured the couple that their desire would be accomplished.
Prior to the birth of Rama, Muni Bharadwaja is told the story of King Pratapbhanu by Yajnavalkya. There is a kingdom called Kaikay where Satyaketu is king. He has two sons, Pratapbhanu and Arimardana and rules his kingdom with his prime minister Dharamaruchi. Satyaketu abdicates and hands the reign to Pratapbhanu, who becomes conqueror of the world.
Once Pratapbhanu goes into the forest to hunt and sees a wild boar. The boar is actually the demon Kalaketu in disguise who runs away from the king. Pratapbhanu gives chase deeper into the forest. Pratapbhanu chases for many miles and becomes thirsty. He approaches a fake saints ashram, where the resident fake saint wants to hurt and insult Pratapbhanu due to a previous incident. Pratapbhanu does n't recognise the saint, who begins to sweet talk the king and says that by pure love, he wishes to impart boons onto the king. The king asks to be invicible and never ageing, which the fake saint grants, but with the condition that he needs to win favour of all Brahmans. The fake saint advises that the king arrange the cooking of holy food (prasadam) to feed the bramanas, who would surely be in his favour for such an act of kindness. The fake saint 's real intention is to trap the king and repay him for his old grievances.
The fake saint asks the king to go rest, and that he would arrange the feast for the bramanas using his mystic powers. Pratapbhanu waits for three days for the fake saint. Kalaketu, now disguised as a priest, approaches the King in his court and says that he has been sent to cook the holy food. The entire brahmana community is invited. A heavenly voice from above warns the brahmanas that the food is unpure and they should run away immediately. They curse the king that he, his kingdom and entire family are wiped from the face of earth. They also curse that he be born a demon in his next life. The heavenly voice says that the brahmana 's curse is ill thought, as Pratapbhanu is not to blame. Since their curse can not be taken back, the voice says that it is the Brahmana community that will bare the brunt of the evil of his next life.
Pratapbhanu is distraught and quickly goes to his kitchen to find Kalaketu. The king is pained and cries as he realises Kalaketu has vanished. The brahmanas feel sorry for Pratapbhanu and tell him that his evil next life will be ended by Supreme Vishnu himself. As per the curse, Pratapbhanu, Arimardam and Dharmaruchi are all killed as other neighbouring kings invade Kaikay.
Pratapbhanu is reborn as Ravan, Arimardam is reborn as Kumbhkarna and Dharmaruchi as Vibhishan. All three take great penances and are approached by Brahma and Shiva and are asked for any boon. Ravan asks that no one should be able to kill me except the tribes of man and monkeys. Kumbhkarna asks for uninterrupted sleep for periods of six months. Vibhishan asks for unshakeable love for the feet of Vishnu.
The story of how Shiva came about retelling Ramkatha to his consort Parvati is retold in great detail within the Bālakāṇḍa. This part of the story is narrated by Sant Yajnavalkya to Bharadvaj Muni.
In the age of Treta, Shiva, accompanied by His consort Bhavani Sati, went to visit Rishi Agastya. The Rishi being pleased with Shiva 's visit, began to narrate the eternal story of Ram. Shiva listens with great pleasure and then they return towards Their abode. Around these exact days Ram had descended on earth and was wondering the Dandaka forest with Sita and Lakshman. Shiva ponders how he can catch sight of Ram. He finally sees Ram, who is frantically searching for Sita, and instantly joins his palms and prays "Glory to the Redeemer of the universe, who is Truth, Consciousness and Bliss ''. Sati can not recognise Ram and wonders why her Supreme Shiva is praising a mortal. Shiva is the knower of all truth and instantly reads Sati 's thoughts. He advises her to not harbour such doubts and accept that she had seen Ram, whom Agastya had praised earlier. He finally says that if she is still not convinced then she should seek to verify this truth herself. Shiva observes as Sati takes the guise of Sita. Ram and Lakshman instantly see through Sati 's disguised and asks about Shiva 's whereabouts. Sati feels very uncomfortable and heads towards Shiva, thinking of how she is going to explain her folly of questioning His word.
Shiva asks her to tell the truth of how she tested Ram. Sati is unable to tell the truth and says that she did not test Ram, but praised his as You had. Sati forgets that Shiva knows all that has happened and is disappointed that she was disguised as his Sita. He decides that Sati is too chaste to abandon and it is a sin to continue to be her Husband and so from then he has no connection with Sati in her current body. Sati concludes that Shiva has come to know everything and feels very foolish for having tried deceiving Him. Shiva sits under a banyan tree and enters into a long trance. Sati feel extremely sorry but accepts that providence is repaying her for her sins. Many years pass and Shiva finally ends his trance whilst praising Ram. Sati bows down at Shiva 's feet, after which he seats Sati opposite him and he begins to tell stories of Vishnu 's exploits.
While Shiva is narrating the stories of Vishnu, the air is filled with celestial beings. Sati asks Shiva what the occasion is. Shiva explains that Her father Daksha has organised a great sacrifice where many demigods were invited. All except Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva were invited as Daksha had developed a hatred towards the Gods. Sati thinks of Her father and asks if She may visit him at this time. Shiva says that they have no formal invite and that all of Sati 's sisters are invited but because of his animosity towards Shiva, Her father has not invited us. Shiva tries to reason with Sati, that no good can come of Her attending, but Tulsidas explains that a daughters ties to her father are very strong.
When she reaches her father 's abode, no one welcomes Her apart from Her mother. Daksha does not even acknowledge Her and actually burns with anger that She has turned up uninvited. Sati looks around and sees no oblations set apart for Shiva and the lack of respect of her father causes Her mind to rage with great anger. She faces Her father 's court and announces that Shiva is the father of the universe and the beneficent of all. It is the same Shiva that Her father vilifies. She burns Her body with the fires of Yoga. Her guards are beaten and thrashed. When Shiva came to know this, he sends Virabhadra, who wreaks havoc of the sacrifice and Daksha is slain. As Sati is about to die, She asks Lord Hari of the boon that she be devoted to Shiva 's feet in successive births. She is reborn as Parvati, the daughter of Himachal and Mena.
Years after the birth of Parvati, Nārad Muni visits her parents Himachal and Mena. Himachal asks Nārad what the future holds for his daughter. Nārad says that Parvati will be adorned with good traits and win unfailing love of her husband. She will remain ever united with him and bring great glory upon her parents. The only drawback is that her husband will be an ascetic with matted hair who is naked and of hideous accoutrements. Himachal and Mena become disconsolate while Parvati is greatly pleased, as she senses from Nārad 's words that her boon from Vishnu is coming true. Nārad explains to Himachal that the only person who shows the virtues as described by him is Shiva. Parvati 's parents are immediately uplifted and as Nārad leaves, he asks Parvati to fix Her thoughts on Hari and practice austerity. The young Parvati enters the forest and performs great penances in order to obtain Shiva. Her body thins greatly due to her self - mortification after which Brahma declares that she should cease her severe penances as Shiva would soon be hers. History had produced many great sages, but none had performed such penances as this. Brahma instructs that her father would soon come for her and that she should return home with him.
Ever since Sati had quit her body, Shiva had begun chanting Ram 's name and entered into a great trance. Through his mystic power, Ram asks Shiva to marry Parvati. Shiva says that this is not a justifiable request but the word of a master can not be set aside and must be obeyed. Shiva remains in his great trance. Around that time the demon Tāraka was causing distress and was in full flourish. Brahma declares that the son of Shiva will kill Tāraka, but for this to happen His wedding with Parvati needs to be arranged and for that to happen, Shiva 's trance has to be broken. It is decided that the God of Love should be sent to awaken Shiva. He fires five arrows of flowers at Shiva 's breast, the trance is broken and Shiva awakens. Shiva is enraged and, through his third eye, reduces Love to ashes. Love 's consort Rati faints as soon as she hears of her husband 's demise. Seeing the helpless woman, Shiva foretells that her husband will now be called bodiless and shall dominate all without a body form. When Krishna descends on earth, her husband would be born as His son Pradyumna. Thereafter Brahma and other gods approach Shiva and declare that they wish to witness His wedding with their own eyes. Remembering Vishnu 's early request, Shiva gladly agrees and Brahma proceeds to arrange the marriage.
Shiva has no real family and so his attendants begin to adorn Him for His wedding to Parvati. His hair is formed into a crown with serpents forming a crest. Serpents form His earrings, bracelets and adorn his neck and He is smeared in ashes and has lion 's skin wrapped around His loins. He heads the wedding procession and Vishnu and Brahma, as well as a host of spirits, gandharavs and danavs follow behind. After the wedding, Parvati and Shiva return to Kailash where Parvati asks questions around Rama 's divinity. Here Shiva begins his narration of Ram Leela.
On the ninth day of the Chaitra month, the Manas describes that the Sun is at its meridian and the climate is neither cold nor hot. There is a cool, soft and fragrant breeze. The woods are full of blossom and the rivers or in full flow. Brahma deduces that the time for Ram 's birth is approaching and the heavenly beings all crowd over the skies to glimpse sight of the auspicious moment. The sky resounds of music and song as the heavenly beings offer their praises to the Supreme Personality of Godhead.
Here begins one of the most famous chhands from the Manas, the Ram Janam Stuti. The stuti begins with the appearance of Ram. Mother Kaushalya 's is filled with joy as she marvels over Ram 's dark complexion and his four armed form. He is adorned with jewels and a garland of Sylvan flowers and is described as being an ocean of beauty. Kaushalya joins her palms and prays. "O Infinite, How can I praise You! The Vedas and Puranas reveal you to be the repository of all virtues. You are the Lord of Laksmi and the lover of all of Your devotees and have appeared for my good. Every pore of Your body contains multitudes of universes and the thought that You stayed in my womb is truly staggering. '' Ram smiles and exhorts Kaushalya by telling her the charming account of her previous birth so that she can accept Him as her own child. Kaushalya asks Ram to give up His current superhuman form and to start to indulge in childish sports that are dear to a mother 's heart. Ram, described as the Lord of immortals, immediately becomes an infant and begins to cry.
Tulsidas concludes that whoever sings this Stuti attains the abode of Lord Vishnu and never falls into the well of mundane existence. The Stuti has therefore been immortalised and it is a popular prayer sung on the occasion of Ram 's birthday.
Ahalya, the wife of Rishi Gautam, was a beautiful woman. Indra, king of the gods, was tempted and decided to seduce her with trickery. Early morning Rishi Gautam when the dawn had arrived go down to the nearby Ganges for his usual morning bath. While the Rishi was bathing at the river, Indra assumed Gautam 's form and visited Ahalya, fooling her into thinking he was her husband. When Gautam returned, he encountered Indra, emerging from his hut in his (Gautam 's) form. Spiritually powerful, Gautam employed his divine vision to see the whole episode. Enraged, he cursed Indra with impotence. Losing his potency, Indra lost heaven to demons and sat prayerfully in a lotus flower for thousands of years in order to repent. Rishi Gautam, in a blind rage, also cursed his wife, Ahalya, to turn into a boulder. Innocent of any intentional wrongdoing, Ahalya begged for forgiveness. Gautam relented somewhat and said that when Ram is incarnated, he will bless her and break her curse.
Ram, while going to Mithila for Sita Svayamvar along with Sage Vishwamitra and Laksman, stopped at the, then - uninhabited, hermitage of Rishi Gautam. Vishwamitra narrated Ahalya 's story to Ram, and asked him to free her. Ram touched the boulder with his foot and Ahalya was immediately released from the curse. She fell to Ram 's feet and washed his feet with her tears. She felt that her curse had become her fortune as she got the opportunity to seek Ram 's refuge in person. She then returned to her husband 's place.
Many scholars have commented on the sudden ending to the Manas. Valmiki 's Uttar Kānd goes into great detail about Sita going into the forest, as a result of disapproving gossip of the citizens of Ayodhya, during the rule of Ram over Ayodhya. Sitaji asks mother Earth to receive her and Ram leaves His human form and returns to His celestial abode. Tulsidas decides not to mention these at all. The Katha Kar Morari Bapu has mentioned in many of his retellings of Ram Katha, that Tulsidasji did n't want to end the Manas in heartache for Sita. Tulsidas refers to Sita as his mother (as well as the mother of the entire universe) many times in the poem and so, on an emotional level, this becomes very understandable. She has endured enough pain throughout the Manas and so ends his retelling at a relatively happy moment. It is said that there are some Vaishnav devotees who will only recite the Bālakāṇḍa of the Manas, as this is seen as the happiest period of Ram and Sita 's lila on earth. However, Ramchritmans at few places do make reference of Sita 's abandonment, birth of lav - kush and Ram 's demise to his abode. These stories thus can be said to have mentioned in brief.
An unpublished English poetic translation of Ramcharitmanas is provided by (Late) Binda Prasad Khattri of New Market, Banda, Uttar Pradesh. Apparently, the translation can be sung essentially in the same way and with the same rhythm as the original Hindi work.
Frederick Growse translated the Ramcharitmanas into English under the title The Ramayan of Tulsidas during the nineteenth century. His translation remains in print.
The English commentary by Morari Bapu, Mangal Ramayan, is an English composition of one of his orrated Ram Katha commentaries. The book contains all the translations of prayers, Doha, Chaupais, and Chandan sung by Bapu, as well as an in - depth disccusion behind the meanings of the poetry.
Tulsi Manas Mandir
Notes
References
Online sources
Bibliography
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who's playing michael myers in halloween 2018 | Halloween (2018 film) - Wikipedia
Halloween is an upcoming American slasher film directed by David Gordon Green and written by Green, Jeff Fradley, and Danny McBride. It is the eleventh installment in the Halloween franchise, and is a direct sequel to Halloween, while disregarding the continuity of the previous sequels. Series co-creator John Carpenter serves as a composer, executive producer and creative consultant for the film while Jason Blum produces through Blumhouse. Jamie Lee Curtis and Nick Castle reprise their roles as Laurie Strode and Michael Myers, respectively, with stuntman James Jude Courtney also portraying Michael. The film also stars Judy Greer, Andi Matichak, Will Patton, and Virginia Gardner.
Set forty years after the events of the first film, Halloween centers on Laurie Strode, facing Michael Myers, the masked figure who has haunted her since she narrowly escaped his killing spree on Halloween night four decades ago.
After the release of Rob Zombie 's Halloween II, a sequel to the 2007 remake of the original, two consecutive follow - ups went into development from former rights holder Dimension Films, respectively, but neither achieved fruition. As a result, the company lost the rights to the intellectual property, later obtained by Blumhouse Productions with John Carpenter 's involvement. Carpenter, who disagreed with the remake 's portrayal of lead killer Michael Myers, wanted the next Halloween film to be much more terrifying than the preceding sequels. Filmmakers David Gordon Green and Danny McBride, who were already fans, proposed their vision to Blumhouse and Carpenter; it was accepted and developed into a direct sequel to the original.
Principal photography commenced on January 13, 2018, in South Carolina and concluded on February 19, 2018. The film is set for release on October 19, 2018, a week before the 40th anniversary of John Carpenter 's original Halloween (1978). It will be distributed by Universal Pictures, its first involvement in the Halloween franchise since the 1982 film Halloween III: Season of the Witch.
Laurie Strode comes face - to - face for one final encounter with Michael Myers, 40 years after his initial killing spree in 1978.
In 2011, it was announced that a sequel to 2009 's Halloween II, titled Halloween 3D, would be released on October 26, 2012. At the time of the announcement, there was no director or writer attached to the project. Originally, Patrick Lussier and Todd Farmer were labeled as writers but dropped out due to their occupancy on the Hellraiser reboot. The film would pick up where the final frame of its predecessor left off, and would pay homage to the original version of Michael Myers from the 1978 film. It was dropped from its release schedule of October 26, 2012, as no progress had been made.
In February 2015, it was reported that Patrick Melton and Marcus Dunstan would be writing a new Halloween film, described as a "recalibration '' rather than a reboot, along with Malek Akkad and Matt Stein producing. On June 15, 2015, it was further reported that The Weinstein Company was moving ahead with another Halloween sequel, tentatively titled Halloween Returns with Dunstan directing. It would have been a standalone film set to reintroduce audiences to Michael Myers years after his initial rampage from Halloween and 1981 's Halloween II, as he was confronted by a new generation of victims while on death row. On October 22, 2015, producer Malek Akkad revealed that the production of Halloween Returns had been postponed, stating that the extra time would result in a better film. Malek said on the matter, "Although, I have to say, and this is somewhat new news, but unfortunately things happen in Hollywood where you have issues with studios and different variables. We 've had to take a step back and now we 're trying to re-figure this beast that is the new Halloween. So there is a bit of a delay, but this new Halloween is n't going to be quite what has been announced and what people are expecting, so we 're making some changes there as well. '' In December 2015, it was announced that Dimension Films no longer had the rights to the Halloween franchise after Halloween Returns failed to go into production on schedule. The film 's cancellation was confirmed at the same time.
On May 24, 2016, it was announced that Blumhouse Productions and Miramax were co-financing a new film in the franchise. Blumhouse CEO Jason Blum called the original Halloween a milestone that had influenced the company to begin making horror films, "The great Malek Akkad and John Carpenter have a special place in the hearts of all genre fans and we are so excited that Miramax brought us together. '' The rights specifically went to Miramax and Tarik Akkad, who sought out Blum because of his success as a horror film producer.
When John Carpenter, who had co-written the first two Halloween films with Debra Hill and directed the original, signed on as an executive producer in 2016, he described his intention: "Thirty - eight years after the original Halloween, I 'm going to help to try to make the 10th sequel the scariest of them all. '' He discussed his reasoning for revisiting the franchise since producing 1982 's Halloween III: Season of the Witch in an interview with Rotten Tomatoes, "I talked about the Halloween 's for a long time, the sequels -- I have n't even seen all of them... But finally it occurred to me: Well if I 'm just flapping my gums here, why do n't I try to make it as good as I can? So, you know, stop throwing rocks from the sidelines and get in there and try to do something positive. '' When the rights were acquired by Blumhouse, filmmaker Adam Wingard discussed making a new Halloween film, but ultimately dropped out after being sated by an email of encouragement from Carpenter, "I kinda walked away from it like, I just got everything I wanted out of this job. ' This is about as good as it gets. ' '' David Gordon Green and Danny McBride were publicised on February 9, 2017 to handle screenwriting duties, with Green directing and Carpenter advising the project. Carpenter said that he was impressed with the pitch presented by the co-writers, solicited by Jason Blum, proclaiming that "They get it. ''
Rather than reboot the franchise a second time, they chose to focus primarily on continuing the mythology of the first two films when developing the story, with Danny McBride stating, "We all came to the decision that remaking something that already works is n't a good idea. So we just have a reimagining instead. '' The pitch was created by the writers specifically to present to Carpenter, as they were self - described fans of the original Halloween to begin with. The story was eventually fleshed out so that all of the sequels were ignored from continuity, and the ending of the first film was slightly retconned in what McBride likened to an alternate reality. However, he later said that the film still pays tribute to the other films, despite sharing no direct continuity, "you know like there 's some many different versions, and the timeline is so mixed up, we just thought it would be easier to go back to the source and continue from there. It was nicer than knowing you 're working on Halloween 11, it just seemed cooler, ' we 're making Halloween 2 '. For fans, we pay homage and respect to every Halloween that has been out there. '' Despite Green and McBride 's comedy roots, Halloween was distanced from the comedy genre. McBride further elaborated that "I think there was, like, maybe one joke on the page, but the rest is straight horror. '' Believing that "good horror movie directors are good directors '', Jason Blum hired Green for his perceived "amazing '' storytelling. No large steps were taken without Carpenter 's approval, including the acceptance of the initial pitch and bringing back actress Jamie Lee Curtis.
Displeased with Rob Zombie 's re-imagining and added backstory of murderer Michael Myers, Carpenter wanted to take the character back to his more mysterious roots, describing him as "a force of nature. He 's supposed to be almost supernatural. '' McBride detailed his approach as humanizing the character, "I think we 're just trying to take it back to what was so good about the original. It was just very simple and just achieved that level of horror that was n't turning Michael Myers into some being that could n't be killed. I want to be scared by something that I really think could happen. I think it 's much more horrifying to be scared by someone standing in the shadows while you 're taking the trash out. ''
In September 2017, Jamie Lee Curtis confirmed that she would reprise her role as Laurie Strode. In contrast to the character 's final girl role in the original film, Laurie armed herself and prepared extensively in the time period between films in case Michael Myers ever returned. Although Halloween II and its latter installments have portrayed Myers as a familicidal killer and Laurie as his sister, the writers felt that the added motive made him less frightening as a killer. As such, they intentionally ignored that aspect of the lore. In the trailer for the film, Strode 's granddaughter, played by Andi Matichak, explains how her life has been impacted by Michael 's reign of terror 40 years earlier. When a friend hints that they heard Michael was Laurie 's brother, Matichak 's character replies, "No, it was not her brother, that was something people made up. '' The writers did not originally know if Curtis would be willing to return, according to McBride, so they "busted (their) ass on this script to really make that Laurie Strode character something she would n't be able to say no to. '' On why she returned, Curtis stated, "As soon as I read what David Green and Danny McBride had come up with... and the way that they connected the dots of the story, it made so much sense to me that it felt totally appropriate for me to return to Haddonfield, Ill., for another 40th - anniversary retelling. It 's the original story in many, many, many ways. Just retold 40 years later with my granddaughter. '' Curtis had previously returned as Laurie in the sequels Halloween II (1981), Halloween H20: 20 Years Later, and Halloween: Resurrection.
The following October, Judy Greer entered negotiations to play Laurie 's daughter Karen Strode. Danielle Harris, who played Laurie 's daughter Jamie Lloyd in the original continuity 's Halloween 4 and Halloween 5, contacted Blumhouse with the offer to reprise her role in some way, but the studio planned to go with a different daughter character, to Harris ' disappointment: "I was okay with it when she had a son... but they 're saying it 's the last one and... she has a daughter. And it 's not Jamie. It 's just kind of a bummer, I guess. '' On December 7, 2017, Andi Matichak was cast to play Laurie 's granddaughter Allyson.
On December 20, 2017, it was announced that Nick Castle, who portrayed Michael Myers in the original film, would be reprising his role, with actor and stuntman James Jude Courtney set to portray Myers as well. Courtney was suggested to Malek Akkad and David Gordon Green by stunt coordinator Rawn Hutchinson for his ability to do both physical stunts and genuine acting, auditioning afterwards and receiving a phone call in December 2017 affirming that he had landed the role. Green explained to him his vision for Myers ' mannerisms, an amalgamation of Castle 's original performance and the addition of an efficient cat - eque style of movement. Courtney tailored his portrayal to those specifications from observing an actual cat, "I think cats are the most perfect hunting machines on the planet. And the beauty of it is we do n't judge a cat for what a cat does. So I sort of carried that movement and the non-judgmental approach to the way I moved as The Shape, which I learned from my cat Parcival. '' He referred to collaborating with Castle as an "honor '', with Castle describing it as a "passing of the torch ''. He used John Carpenter and Castle 's work on the original film to determine how the forty years that transpired between the events of the films would inform the character over time.
On January 13, 2018, Ginny Gardner, Miles Robbins, Dylan Arnold and Drew Scheid were confirmed to play Allyson 's friends, respectively. On January 16, 2018, Will Patton was publicized to have joined the film 's roster. He was later joined by Rob Niter, both actors being announced to portray police officers. At the same time, Rhian Rees was cast as a character named Dana. Speaking of the cast, Nick Castle stated that "What I like about this (new film) is they 've got some really good young actors. They fleshed out the relationship of Jamie 's character with her daughter and her granddaughter. And they made some choices that I think are really bold choices about who these people are and why they are the way they are now. ''
Principal production began on January 13, 2018 in Charleston, South Carolina. Originally, it was set to begin in late October 2017, but was delayed until January 2018. Michael Simmonds served cinematography duties, with Paul Daley and Stewart Cantrell operating the camera. According to Danny McBride, the horror of the film aims to create a sense of tension and dread to the audience rather than relying on graphic violence; the make - up and visual effects were provided by Christopher Nelson. Jamie Lee Curtis finished her scenes on February 16, 2018, with the remaining principal photography concluding on February 19, 2018. Response to the film 's first test screening led the filmmakers to schedule reshoots beginning June 11, 2018, where they will adjust the end scene. Filming will take place again in Charleston.
Courtney did a week of rehearsal before filming began. Nelson used a life cast of his face to construct the Michael Myers ' mask and other prosthetics worn by the actor. The mask was weathered and aged to reflect the character 's "authentic evolution '' since the original. Courtney was involved in every scene featuring Myers, including those of Nick Castle, who was only involved for a minimal amount of filming, which Castle described to the journalists on set as a cameo appearance: "Jim is our Michael Myers now. '' Castle expressed that it was the filmmakers intention to maintain the atmosphere of the original and that, like the 1978 film, "it 's very neighborhood - centric... There are a lot of things coinciding (in the new film) that feel like clever ways to introduce a kind of déjà vu of the first one, without feeling like it 's being copied. It was the first thing out of their mouths really: ' We want to do it like John (Carpenter) did it. ' ''
Nelson accompanied Courtney throughout filming, providing him with acting advice from his own knowledge of the characters of the Halloween franchise. Nelson had been interviewed and examined for the film by Akkad and Green after a conversation with Blumhouse producer Ryan Turek, who he was already acquainted with. Collaborating with fellow make - up effects artist Vincent Van Dyke, some of his designs and concepts were initially rejected due to legal complications, which were later straightened out as he began his work on the film. Rather than trying to copy the design of the original mask, he simply intended on recapturing what he described as the visual "feeling '' of it. Because the film is set forty years after the events of the original, he studied the decomposition and wrinkling of forty - year - old masks over time while outlining his take on Myers ' look, "You 're not creating just a mask. You 're creating a feeling that you get that does have an expression... But also the mask looks completely different in every single angle it 's ever been photographed at, and I wanted that feeling too. '' Courtney was hired after Nelson advised Green not to cast a hulking stuntman in the role in compliance with the first film.
After previously providing the score for the original Halloween, Halloween II, and Halloween III: Season of the Witch, John Carpenter confirmed in October 2017 that he had made a deal to score the 2018 release. Regarding his take on the sequel, he said, "I 'll be consulting with the director to see what he feels. I could create a new score, we could update the old score and amplify it, or we could combine those two things. I 'll have to see the movie to see what it requires. ''
Halloween is scheduled to be released theatrically on October 19, 2018.
The CinemaCon film convention premiered exclusive footage on April 25, 2018, garnering positive reactions from those in attendance. The film is scheduled to have a presentation at the San Diego Comic - Con in Hall H on July 20, 2018.
Trick or Treat Studios obtained the official costume licensing rights for the film. Both Nelson and Vincent Van Dyke joined their design team, who used toolings from the screen - used mold of Michael Myers ' mask to adapt it for mass market sale.
In October 2017, John Carpenter said that the film would be the final installment of the series. However, in June 2018, McBride confirmed that he and Green originally had intended to pitch two films that would be shot back - to - back, after deciding against it and waiting to see the reaction to the first film: "We were going to shoot two of them back - to - back. Then we were like, ' Well, let 's not get ahead of ourselves. This could come out, and everyone could hate us, and we 'd never work again. So, let 's not have to sit around for a year while we wait for another movie to come out that we know people are n't going to like. ' So, we were like, ' Let 's learn from this, and see what works, and what does n't. ' But we definitely have an idea of where we would go (with) this branch of the story and hopefully we get a chance to do it. ''
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who played the female lead role in rosemary's baby | Rosemary 's Baby (film) - wikipedia
Rosemary 's Baby is a 1968 American psychological horror film written and directed by Roman Polanski, based on the bestselling 1967 novel of the same name by Ira Levin. The cast features Mia Farrow, John Cassavetes, Ruth Gordon, Sidney Blackmer, Maurice Evans, Ralph Bellamy, Angela Dorian, Clay Tanner, and, in his feature film debut, Charles Grodin. The film chronicles the story of a pregnant woman who suspects that an evil cult wants to take her baby for use in their rituals.
Rosemary 's Baby earned almost universal acclaim from film critics and won numerous nominations and awards. In 2014, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress, being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. ''
In 1965 Rosemary Woodhouse (Mia Farrow), a bright but somewhat naive young housewife, and Guy (John Cassavetes), her husband, a struggling actor, move into the Bramford, an opulent but antiquated New York City apartment building. The couple learns from the building 's manager, Mr. Nicklas (Elisha Cook, Jr.), that their new residence was previously inhabited by Mrs. Gardenia, an elderly woman who had seemingly gone senile. Mr. Nicklas also discovers a dresser concealing a simple closet which contains nothing except a vacuum cleaner and a stack of folded towels. Their friend Hutch (Maurice Evans) tries to dissuade them from taking the apartment, informing them of some of the Bramford 's unsettling history of cannibalism and murder. Undeterred, Rosemary and Guy move into the building.
Rosemary meets a young woman, Terry Gionoffrio (Angela Dorian), a recovering drug addict whom an elderly, eccentric couple in the building, the Castevets, took in from the street. As Rosemary admires a pendant necklace the Castevets gave to Terry, she notices its strange smell. Returning home one night, Guy and Rosemary find that Terry has thrown herself to her death from the window of the Castevets ' seventh - floor apartment.
Rosemary and Guy are quickly befriended by the Castevets, Minnie (Ruth Gordon) and Roman (Sidney Blackmer), whom they 'd first met on the street the night of Terry 's suicide. Minnie invites the Woodhouses to dinner and they accept. Guy forms a bond with the Castevets. Minnie gives Terry 's pendant to Rosemary, telling her it is a good luck charm and the odd smell is from a plant called "tannis root ''. Later, Guy lands a role in a play when the actor who was originally cast suddenly and inexplicably goes blind. Guy suggests that he and Rosemary have a baby.
On the night they plan to conceive, Minnie brings them individual cups of chocolate mousse. Rosemary finds hers has a chalky undertaste and surreptitiously throws it away after a few mouthfuls. Rosemary then passes out and experiences a strange dream in which she is raped by a demonic presence (Clay Tanner) in front of Guy, the Castevets, and other Bramford tenants. When she wakes, she finds scratches on her body. Guy tells her that he raped her while she was unconscious because he did not want to pass up the opportunity for her to conceive.
Rosemary learns that she is pregnant and is due on June 28, 1966. She plans to receive obstetric care from Dr. Hill (Charles Grodin), who is recommended to her by her friend Elise (Emmaline Henry). However, the Castevets insist she see their good friend, Dr. Abraham Sapirstein (Ralph Bellamy), who says that Minnie will make Rosemary a daily drink which is more healthful than the usual vitamin pills.
For the first three months of her pregnancy, Rosemary suffers severe abdominal pains, loses weight, becomes unusually pale, and craves raw meat and chicken liver. Dr. Sapirstein insists the pain will subside soon, and assures her she has nothing to worry about. When Hutch sees Rosemary 's gaunt appearance and hears that she is being fed the mysterious tannis root, he is disturbed enough to do some research. Before he can tell Rosemary his findings, he mysteriously falls into a coma. Rosemary holds a party for some friends, some of whom advise her to have herself checked by Dr. Hill, because the pain she is feeling could be a warning that something is wrong. Rosemary tells Guy her plan to see Dr. Hill, which angers Guy. However, the abdominal pain suddenly disappears. Rosemary 's health and appearance also improve quickly, and she and Guy are happy once again.
Three months later, Hutch dies. He leaves Rosemary a book about witchcraft and it is delivered to her at his funeral along with the cryptic message: "The name is an anagram ''. Rosemary deduces that Roman Castevet is really Steven Marcato, the son of a former resident of the Bramford who was accused of being a Satanist. Rosemary suspects her neighbors and Dr. Sapirstein are part of a witch coven with sinister designs for her baby, and that Guy is cooperating with them in exchange for help in advancing his acting career.
Rosemary becomes increasingly disturbed and shares her fears and suspicions with Dr. Hill, who, assuming she is delusional, calls Dr. Sapirstein and Guy. They tell her that if she cooperates, neither she nor the baby will be harmed. The two men bring Rosemary home, where she briefly escapes them. Despite Rosemary locking them out, they enter the bedroom. Rosemary goes into labor and is sedated by Dr. Sapirstein. When she wakes, she is told the baby died.
In the hall closet, Rosemary discovers a secret door leading into the Castevets ' apartment and hears a baby 's cries, revealing that her child is alive. She then finds a congregation made up of the building 's tenants, as well as Dr. Sapirstein, gathered around her newborn son. When Rosemary pulls back the curtains of the crib, she is horrified and asks what they 've done to its eyes. It is remarked upon that the baby, a boy, has "his father 's eyes, '' to which Rosemary protests that the baby 's eyes are nothing like those of Guy. It is then explained to Rosemary that Guy is actually not the child 's real father; her newborn child, named Adrian, is actually the son of the Devil himself. Guy attempts to calm a horrified Rosemary by explaining to her that they will be generously rewarded with possible wealth and fame in exchange for having produced Satan 's offspring, and that they can conceive a second child that will truly be theirs. Rosemary takes no solace in Guy 's words, instead spitting in his face. Minnie tells Rosemary that she should be honored to be the "lucky '' woman chosen to bear a child for Satan. Roman urges her to become a mother to her son, and assures her that she does not have to join the coven if she does not want to. Initially reluctant, Rosemary ultimately goes to the cradle and gently rocks it, with a small smile on her face.
In Rosemary 's Baby: A Retrospective, a featurette on the DVD release of the film, screenwriter / director Roman Polanski, Paramount Pictures executive Robert Evans, and production designer Richard Sylbert reminisce at length about the production. Evans recalled William Castle brought him the galley proofs of the book and asked him to purchase the film rights even before Random House released the publication. The studio head recognized the commercial potential of the project and agreed with the stipulation that Castle, who had a reputation for low - budget horror films, could produce but not direct the film adaptation. He makes a cameo appearance as the man at the phone booth waiting for Mia Farrow to finish her call.
Evans admired Polanski 's European films and hoped he could convince him to make his American debut with Rosemary 's Baby. He knew the director was a ski buff who was anxious to make a film with the sport as its basis, so he sent him the script for Downhill Racer along with the galleys for Rosemary. Polanski read the latter book non-stop through the night and called Evans the following morning to tell him he thought Rosemary was the more interesting project, and would like the opportunity to write as well as direct it.
The script was modeled very closely on the original novel and incorporated large sections of the novel 's dialogue and details, so much so that nearly every line of dialogue was taken from the novel 's text. Author Ira Levin claimed that during a scene in which Guy mentions wanting to buy a particular shirt advertised in The New Yorker, Polanski was unable to find the specific issue with the shirt advertised and phoned Levin for help. Levin, who had assumed while writing that any given issue of The New Yorker would contain an ad for men 's shirts, admitted that he had made it up.
Polanski envisioned Rosemary as a robust, full - figured, girl - next - door type, and he wanted Tuesday Weld or his own then - fiancée Sharon Tate for the role. Since the book had not reached bestseller status yet, Evans was unsure the title alone would guarantee an audience for the film, and he felt a bigger name was needed for the lead. Mia Farrow -- with only a supporting role in Guns at Batasi (1964) and the then - unreleased A Dandy in Aspic (1968) as her only feature film credits -- had an unproven box office track record, but her role as Allison MacKenzie in the popular television series Peyton Place and her unexpected marriage to Frank Sinatra had made her a household name.
Patty Duke auditioned for the role of Rosemary Woodhouse but lost out to Mia Farrow.
Despite her waif - like appearance (which would ultimately prove beneficial, as Rosemary became more frail as her pregnancy progressed), Polanski agreed to cast her. Her acceptance incensed Sinatra, who had demanded she forgo her career when they wed, and he served her divorce papers via a corporate lawyer in front of the cast and crew midway through filming. In an effort to salvage her relationship, Farrow asked Evans to release her from her contract, but he persuaded her to remain with the project after showing her an hour - long rough cut and assuring her she would receive an Academy Award nomination for her performance. Farrow was not nominated for the award, but stayed with the film, which pleased Evans, Polanski and the entire cast.
Robert Redford was the first choice for the role of Guy Woodhouse, but he turned down the offer. Jack Nicholson was considered briefly before Polanski suggested John Cassavetes.
Sylbert was a good friend of Garson Kanin, who was married to Ruth Gordon, and he suggested her for the role of Minnie Castevet. He also suggested that the Dakota, an Upper West Side apartment building known for its show business tenants, be used for the Bramford. Its hallways were not as worn and dark as Polanski wanted, but when the building 's owners would not allow interior filming, it became a moot point and was used for exterior shots only.
Polanski wanted to cast Hollywood old - timers as the coven members but did not know any by name. He drew sketches of how he envisioned each character, and they were used to fill the roles. In every instance, the actor cast strongly resembled Polanski 's drawing. They included Ralph Bellamy, Patsy Kelly, Elisha Cook, Jr., Phil Leeds and Hope Summers.
When Rosemary calls Donald Baumgart, the actor who goes blind and is replaced by Guy, the voice heard is that of actor Tony Curtis. Farrow, who had not been told who would be reading Baumgart 's lines, recognized the voice but could not place it. The slight confusion she displays throughout the call was exactly what Polanski hoped to capture by not revealing Curtis ' identity in advance.
When Farrow was reluctant to film a scene that depicted a dazed and preoccupied Rosemary wandering into the middle of a Manhattan street into oncoming traffic, Polanski pointed to her pregnancy padding and reassured her, "no one 's going to hit a pregnant woman ''. The scene was successfully shot with Farrow walking into real traffic and Polanski following, operating the hand - held camera since he was the only one willing to do it.
One scene that was shot but later deleted involved Farrow 's character attending an Off - Broadway production of The Fantasticks and encountering Joan Crawford and Van Johnson, who were playing themselves.
The lullaby played over the intro is the song "Sleep Safe and Warm '' and was composed by Krzysztof Komeda and sung by Mia Farrow.
From contemporary reviews, Renata Adler wrote in The New York Times that "The movie -- although it is pleasant -- does n't seem to work on any of its dark or powerful terms. I think this is because it is almost too extremely plausible. The quality of the young people 's lives seems the quality of lives that one knows, even to the point of finding old people next door to avoid and lean on. One gets very annoyed that they do n't catch on sooner. '' Variety stated, "Several exhilarating milestones are achieved in Rosemary 's Baby, an excellent film version of Ira Levin 's diabolical chiller novel. Writer - director Roman Polanski has triumphed in his first US - made pic. The film holds attention without explicit violence or gore... Farrow 's performance is outstanding. '' The Monthly Film Bulletin stated that "After the miscalculations of Cul de Sac and Dance of the Vampires '' Polanski had "returned to the rich vein of Repulsion '' The review noted that "Polanski shows an increasing ability to evoke menace and sheer terror in familiar routines (cooking and telephoning, particularly) '' and Polanski has shown "his transformation of a cleverly calculated thriller into a serious work of art. ''
Ruth Gordon won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in this film.
Today, the film is widely regarded as a classic; the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gave the movie a 99 % rating (67 out of 68 reviews), with the site 's consensus stating "A frightening tale of satanism and pregnancy that is even more disturbing than it sounds thanks to convincing and committed performances by Mia Farrow and Ruth Gordon ''.
In 2014, Rosemary 's Baby was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant '' by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry.
Rosemary 's Baby was one of Stanley Kubrick 's favorite films, according to his brother - in - law and assistant Jan Harlan.
Following the film 's premiere, a string of other films focusing on Satan worshippers and black magic appeared, including The Brotherhood of Satan, Mark of the Devil, Black Noon, and The Blood on Satan 's Claw.
The scene in which Rosemary is raped by Satan was ranked # 23 on Bravo 's 100 Scariest Movie Moments.
Thirty years after he wrote Rosemary 's Baby, Ira Levin wrote Son of Rosemary, a sequel which he dedicated to the film 's star, Mia Farrow. Reaction to the book was mixed, but it made the best seller lists nationwide.
R&B artist SZA included clips of the movie on her mixtape S in the songs "TERROR. DOME '' and "KISMET ''.
In the 1976 television film Look What 's Happened to Rosemary 's Baby, Patty Duke starred as Rosemary Woodhouse and Ruth Gordon reprised her role of Minnie Castevet. The film introduced an adult Andrew / Adrian attempting to earn his place as the Antichrist. It was disliked as a sequel by critics and viewers, and its reputation deteriorated over the years.
A remake of Rosemary 's Baby was briefly considered in 2008. The intended producers were Michael Bay, Andrew Form, and Brad Fuller. The remake fell through later that same year.
In January 2014, NBC made a four - hour Rosemary 's Baby miniseries with Zoe Saldana as Rosemary. The miniseries was filmed in Paris under the direction of Agnieszka Holland.
American Film Institute Lists
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why is neapolitan ice cream called neapolitan ice cream | Neapolitan ice cream - wikipedia
Neapolitan ice cream, sometimes known as harlequin ice cream, is a flavor made up of three separate blocks of vanilla, chocolate, and strawberry ice cream arranged side by side in the same container (typically with no packaging in between). Some brands intermix the flavors more, though the separate flavors are still clearly visible.
Neapolitan ice cream was named in the late 19th century as a reflection of its presumed origins in the cuisine of the Italian city of Naples, and the many Neapolitan immigrants who brought their expertise in frozen desserts with them to the United States. Spumone was introduced to the United States in the 1870s as Neapolitan - style ice cream. Early recipes used a variety of flavors; however, the number of three molded together was a common denominator, to resemble the Italian flag (cf. insalata tricolore). More than likely, chocolate, vanilla, and strawberry became the standard for the reason that they were the most popular flavors in the United States at the time of introduction.
It is the first flavor of ice cream to combine three different flavors. The first recorded recipe was created by head chef of the royal Prussian household Louis Ferdinand Jungius in 1839, who dedicated the recipe to Fürst Pückler.
Jenifer Harvey Lang, in Larousse Gastronomique: "Cosmopolitan slice. A slice of ice - cream cake made with mousse mixture and ordinary ice cream, presented in a small pleated paper case. Neapolitan ice cream consists of three layers, each of a different colour and flavour (chocolate, strawberry, and vanilla), moulded into a block and cut into slices. Neapolitan ice - cream makers were famous in Paris at the beginning of the 19th century, especially Tortoni, creator of numerous ice - cream cakes. ''
John F. Mariani, in The Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink: "Eighteenth century... confectioners ' shops (were) very often run by Italians. Consequently ice creams were often called ' Italian ice creams ' or ' Neapolitan ice creams ' throughout the nineteenth century, and the purveying of such confections became associated with Italian immigrants. ''
Stuart Berg Flexner, in I Hear America Talking: "Neapolitan ice cream, different flavoured layers frozen together... (was) being first being talked about in the 1870s. ''
A cultural reference from The New York Times in 1887: "... in a dress of pink and white stripes, strongly resembling Neapolitan ice cream. ''
1885 -- "Neapolitan box '' (A.B. Marshall, The Book of Ices)
"You must have a Neapolitan box for this ice and fill it up in three or four layers with different coloured and flavoured ice creams (a water ice may be used with the custards); for instance, lemon, vanilla, chocolate and pistachio. Mould in the patent ice cave for about 11⁄2 to 2 hours, turn it out, cut it in slices, and arrange neatly on the dish, on a napkin or dish - paper. ''
1894 -- "Neapolitan Icey Cones '' (Lizzie Heritage, Cassell 's New Universal Cookery Book)
"These are prepared by putting ices of various kinds and colors into a mold known as a Neapolitan ice box, which, when set and turned out, is cut into slices suitable for serving. However small the pieces, the block should be cut so that each person gets some of each kind. They are generally laid on a lace paper on an ice plate. Four or five kinds are usually put in the mold, though three sorts will do. The following will serve as a guide in arranging: First, vanilla cream, then raspberry or cherry or currant water; coffee or chocolate in the middle; the strawberry cream, with lemon or orange or pineapple water to finish. A cream ice flavored with any liqueur, a brown bread cream flavored with brandy, with a couple of bright - colored water ices, form another agreeable mixture. Tea cream may be introduced into almost any combination unless coffee were used. Banana cream, pistachio, or almond cream with cherry water and damson or strawberry water are other options.
"The Neapolitan Ice Spoon has a double use; ice bowl is for putting the mixture into the mold, and the handle is for leveling it. The boxes may be made of tin, which is less expensive than pewter. They are generally sold small enough to make single ices, but these are much more troublesome to prepare. After filling the molds, if there is no cave, ' bed ' the ice in the usual way. ''
In Australia there is a popular cake known as Neapolitan cake or marble cake, made with the same three colors of Neapolitan ice cream swirled through in a marble pattern, usually topped with pink icing.
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why do i need a visa to travel to australia | Visa policy of Australia - wikipedia
The visa policy of Australia deals with the requirements which a foreign national wishing to enter Australia must meet to obtain a visa, which is a permit to travel, to enter and remain in the country. Visa rules are set out in the Migration Act 1958 and the Migration Regulations, which are administered by the Department of Immigration and Border Protection.
Australia maintains a universal visa regime, meaning that every non-citizen in Australia must have a visa, either as a result of an application, or one granted automatically by law. As of 2015 there is no intention to provide visa free access for any country, however Australia gives a visitor visa exemption to:
In addition to the citizens of 45 eVisitor and ETA eligible countries and the citizens of New Zealand who may need to apply for a Visitor visa, the citizens of all other countries may apply for the Visitor visa online, except citizens of Somalia. Citizens of 34 countries are officially considered low risk.
Since 1 September 2015, Australia ceased to issue visa labels on visa holders ' passports, and all visas are issued and recorded on a central database. Visa records can only be accessed through Visa Entitlement Verification Online (VEVO), a digital verification service provided by the Department of Immigration and Border Protection.
There is a large range of visas that may be applied for, for a variety of purposes, including:
Visa formats in Australia have changed over the years. Australia was possibly one of the first countries to replace ink based stamps with more secure stick - on labels in the 1970s.
In 1987, the Department of Immigration initiated a scheme which saw the utilization of computers to process visitor visa applications in overseas Australian missions for the first time.
In 1990, a second generation of the Immigration Records and Information System (IRIS II) was introduced as a replacement of the original 1987 scheme. At the time, IRIS II was the most advanced visa processing system in the world, simplifying immigration clearance processes at airports and enabling across - the - counter visa issue at the Australian diplomatic missions.
In 1996, the Electronic Travel Authority system (ETA) was launched. The system allows visas to be issued electronically and linked to the applicant 's passport, eliminating paper application forms. Australia was the first country in the world to launch electronic visas.
Australia officially ceased the issuance of visa stickers on 1 September 2015, and all visas are issued and recorded electronically.
eVisitor and Electronic Travel Authority (ETA) are authorisations for entry to Australia available to holders of certain passports. Established in 1996 to remove the need for some people to apply for full visas, they can be applied for online, or (for ETAs) through travel agents, airlines, specialist service providers or Australian visa offices. Electronic tourist visas (class 600) are processed by Australian visa offices and consulates outside Australia, and citizens of most countries in the world can apply online. Their applications may be granted in a matter of minutes if a requested period of stay is three months or less and no further information or checking is required. In other cases, the application will be manually processed by a case officer.
The eVisitor was introduced on 27 October 2008, replacing an older eVisa system, to create a reciprocal short stay travel arrangement for nationals of Australia and the European Union, while still maintaining the universal visa system. On 23 March 2013 the business and tourist purpose eVisitors visas were merged into a single application. The eVisitor is available to citizens of all 28 European Union member states and 8 other European countries that are part of the Schengen Area.
The eVisitor is issued free of charge and allows a stay of up to 3 months at a time in a 12 - month period for tourism or business purposes. At the time of travel to, and entry into, Australia, all holders of an eVisitor must be free from tuberculosis and must not have any criminal convictions for which the sentence or sentences (whether served or not) total 12 months or more.
Holders of the following passports are eligible:
The grant rate of eVisitor has been consistently high over the years, never dropping below 98.7 %. In the last quarter of 2014 the lowest approval rates for tourism applications were for the citizens of Romania (74.5 %), Bulgaria (80.8 %), Croatia (80.8 %), Latvia (91.9 %) and Lithuania (94.3 %) with all other countries having a grant rate above 95 %. The eVisitor in 2013 was granted automatically to 85.8 % of applicants but the rates differed significantly among countries. The lowest automatically granted rates in the 4th quarter were for the citizens of Bulgaria (16.2 %), Romania (18.3 %), Czech Republic (58.6 %), Lithuania (59.3 %), Slovakia (66.3 %), Latvia (62.4 %), Poland (71.6 %) and Hungary (77.7 %) with all other countries having an automatic grant rate above 80 %.
In 2014 Bulgaria, Cyprus and Romania notified the European Commission that they consider Australia requires a visa for their citizens. If the notification is accepted, the EU may suspend the visa exemption for certain categories of Australian nationals and may suspend the reciprocal visa - free access to all Australian citizens.
Development of the ETA system commenced in January 1996. It was first implemented in Singapore on a trial basis on 11 September 1996, for holders of Singapore and US passports travelling on Qantas and Singapore Airlines. Implementation of online applications began in June 2001. The current ETA came into effect on 23 March 2013 replacing older ETAs (subclass 976, 977 and 956) while offering a single authorization for both tourist and business purposes.
The ETA allows the holder to visit Australia for unlimited times, up to 3 months per visit, in a 12 - month period for tourism or business purposes. There is no visa application charge but a service charge of AU $20 applies for applications lodged online. At the time of travel to, and entry into, Australia, all holders of an ETA must be free from tuberculosis and must not have any criminal convictions for which the sentence or sentences (whether served or not) total 12 months or more.
Holders of the following passports can apply online:
Nationals of Taiwan holding passports with National ID number can also apply for the ETA but solely through one of the approved travel agents in Taiwan or an Australian visa office outside Australia. Citizens of Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, San Marino, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom (British Citizens and British Nationals (Overseas) only) and the Vatican City may also apply for the ETA instead of eVisitor but solely through a travel agent, airline, specialist service provider or an Australian visa office outside Australia.
Since November 2012, visa labels in passport have not been required, but were issued at a request for a fee. As of September 2015 the possibility to obtain a visa label is no longer available and records are accessible only online through the Visa Entitlement Verification Online (VEVO) service.
On 23 March 2013, a new Visitor visa (subclass 600) replaced the previous Tourist visa (subclass 676).
In addition to countries eligible for the eVisitor and ETA, online applications for the Online Visitor visa can be made by citizens of all countries except for the citizens of Somalia.
Citizens of Somalia need to apply in person at the nearest Australian consular office or Australian Visa Application Centres (run by VFS Global).
In the 4th quarter of 2013 the automatic grant rate for electronically lodged applications outside Australia stood at 28.3 %. Previously the rate ranged from 20.4 % to 63.2 %.
A special purpose visa is a visa exemption given by operation of law to certain non-citizens in Australia to whom standard visa and immigration clearance arrangements do not apply. It effectively exempts certain persons from the normal processes for entry into Australia. These include members of the Royal Family and the members of the Royal party, guests of Government, SOFA forces members including civilian component members, Asia ‐ Pacific forces members, Commonwealth forces members, foreign armed forces dependents, foreign naval forces members, airline positioning crew members and airline crew members, eligible transit passengers, persons visiting Macquarie Island, eligible children born in Australia and Indonesian traditional fishermen visiting the Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands.
Some travelers do not need a Transit visa (subclass 771) if they depart Australia by air within 8 hours of the scheduled time of their arrival, hold confirmed onward booking and documentation necessary to enter the country of their destination and remain in the transit lounge at an airport (i.e. they do not need to clear immigration in order to re-check their luggage).
Holders of the following passports can transit through Australia under this arrangement:
A Transit visa is required for Gold Coast airport, and for Cairns airport and Sydney airport if staying overnight. Transit without a visa through Adelaide applies only to passengers departing on the same aircraft unless advance notice is given by the airline. In addition, those who need to leave the transit lounge for any reason must hold a valid Australian visa.
Residents of thirteen coastal villages in Papua New Guinea are permitted to enter the ' Protected Zone ' of the Torres Strait (part of Queensland) for traditional purposes. This exemption from passport control is part of a treaty between Australia and Papua New Guinea negotiated when PNG became independent from Australia in 1975. Full list was determined in 2000 and includes the following 13 villages -- Bula, Mari, Jarai, Tais, Buji / Ber, Sigabadaru, Mabadauan, Old Mawatta, Ture Ture, Kadawa, Katatai, Parama and Sui. They can make traditional visits (free movement without passports) as far as 10 degrees 30 minutes South latitude (near Number One Reef). Australian traditional inhabitants come from the following villages -- Badu, Boigu, Poruma (Coconut Island), Erub (Darnley Island), Dauan, Kubin, St Pauls, Mabuiag, Mer (Murray Island), Saibai, Ugar (Stephen Island), Warraber (Sue Island), Iama (Yam Island) and Masig (Yorke Island). They can make traditional visits to the Papua New Guinea Treaty Villages and travel north as far as the 9 degrees South latitude (just north of Daru). Vessels from other parts of Papua New Guinea and other countries attempting to cross into Australia or Australian waters are stopped by Australian Customs or the Royal Australian Navy.
Admission and transit is refused to nationals of Somalia, even if not leaving the aircraft and proceeding by the same flight.
SmartGate is an automated border processing system being introduced by the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service and New Zealand Customs Service. The SmartGate is available to eligible to holders of ePassports issued by the following jurisdictions aged 16 or over:
Holders of passports issued by the following countries who possess an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) containing the "AUS '' code on the reverse that it is valid for travel to Australia can enter visa - free for business trips for up to 90 days.
ABTCs are issued to nationals of:
The number of temporary entrants and New Zealand citizens physically present in Australia is estimated every three months by identifying those who have entered Australia and those who have neither left nor granted permanent residency.
Non-citizens who remain in Australia after their visa has expired are termed overstayers. Official government sources put the number of visa overstayers in Australia at approximately 50,000. This has been the official number of undocumented immigrants for about 25 years and is considered to be low. Other sources have placed it at up to 100,000, but no detailed study has been completed to quantify this number, which could be significantly higher.
The government calculates a "Modified Non-Return Rate '' of the people who arrive on a Visitor visa granted outside Australia, but do not depart before their visa expires. It is considered when assessing visa applications as an indicator of Visitor visa compliance.
On 1 June 2013, the Migration Amendment (Reform of Employer Sanctions) Act 2013 commenced and put the onus on businesses to ensure that their employees maintain the necessary work entitlements in Australia. The new legislation enables the Department of Immigration and Border Protection to levy infringement notices against business (AUD $15,300) and individual (AUD $3,060) employers on a strict liability basis -- meaning that there is no requirement to prove fault, negligence or intention.
Whilst citizens of all Member States of the European Union and Schengen associated countries are entitled to use the eVisitor system since 27 October 2008, the European Commission is still assessing whether the eVisitor visa fully satisfies reciprocity requirements. In its Seventh report on certain third countries ' maintenance of visa requirements in breach of the principle of reciprocity from 2012, the European Commission found that in principle, the eVisitor provides equal treatment of the citizens of all Member States and Schengen associated countries. However, while the average autogrant rate was high (86.36 %), the quarterly reports on eVisitor application statistics showed that applications by citizens of some Member States are mainly processed manually. Autogrant rates for Bulgaria and Romania were at just 18 % and 23 %, as the majority of applications were sent for additional examination. The Commission therefore engaged to continue to closely monitor the processing of eVisitor applications. The Commission would submit its assessment of whether eVisitor is equivalent to the Schengen visa application process in a separate document in parallel with the assessment of the Final Rule on ESTA. Currently the Schengen Area does not have visa requirements in place for short - term stays of Australian nationals. The United Kingdom and Ireland are exempt from this particular EU policy, but still do not impose any short - term visa requirements on Australians.
In 2014 Bulgaria, Cyprus and Romania, which are not yet part of the Schengen Area, notified the European Commission that they considered Australia 's low rate of automatically - granted eVisitor authorisations for their citizens tantamount to a normal vis requirement for their citizens. Implications are that if the notification is accepted the EU may suspend the visa exemption for certain categories of Australian nationals and at the latest six months after publication of the regulation, the Commission may decide to suspend the visa - free access to all Australian citizens.
Some countries regard the ETA as being equivalent to visa - free travel when deciding whether to grant the same to Australians wishing to enter their territory. The United States, for example, offers their Visa Waiver Program to Australian passport - holders, and one of the conditions for joining this scheme is that "Governments provide reciprocal visa - free travel for U.S. citizens for 90 days for tourism or business purposes ''. However, United States require from January 2009 similar ETA from citizens of Australia and some more countries. This system is not called visa, but Electronic System for Travel Authorization, therefore the USA still allows visa - free travel for Australians. As of December 1998, Japan has also granted visa - free access to Australians. Other ETA eligible countries and territories Canada, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore and South Korea (90 days) and Taiwan (30 days) also grant visa - free access to Australians while Brunei grants Australians a 30 - day visa on arrival.
In 2014 Australia announced that among the countries discussed for visa waiver extension are the Gulf Cooperation Council countries.
Arrival stamp Melbourne Airport - 1970
Arrival stamp Sydney via ship - 1968
Departure stamp Sydney Airport - 1990
Arrival stamp Brisbane Airport - 1990
Arrival stamps Melbourne Airport - 1982
Arrival stamp Melbourne Airport - 1970
Most visitors arriving to Australia were from the following countries of nationality:
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula. Partially recognized.
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what is the minimum age for energy drinks | Energy drink - wikipedia
An energy drink is a type of beverage containing stimulant drugs, usually including caffeine, which is marketed as providing mental and physical stimulation (marketed as "energy '', but distinct from food energy). They may or may not be carbonated and many also contain sugar or other sweeteners, herbal extracts, taurine, and amino acids. They are a subset of the larger group of energy products, which includes bars and gels, and distinct from sports drinks, which are advertised to enhance sports performance. There are many brands and varieties in this beverage category.
Coffee, tea and other naturally caffeinated beverages are usually not considered energy drinks. Other soft drinks such as cola may contain caffeine, but are also not energy drinks. Some alcoholic beverages, such as Buckfast Tonic Wine, contain caffeine and other stimulants. According to the Mayo Clinic, it is safe for the typical healthy adult to consume a total of 400 mg of caffeine a day. This has been confirmed by a panel of the European Food Safety Authority, which also concludes that a caffeine intake of up to 400 mg per day does not raise safety concerns for adults. According to the ESFA this is equivalent to 4 cups of coffee (90 mg each) or 5 standard cans (250 ml) of energy drink (80 mg each).
Energy drinks have the effects caffeine and sugar provide, but there is little or no evidence that the wide variety of other ingredients have any effect. Most of the effects of energy drinks on cognitive performance, such as increased attention and reaction speed, are primarily due to the presence of caffeine. Other studies, however, ascribe those performance improvements to the effects of the combined ingredients. Advertising for energy drinks usually features increased muscle strength and endurance, but there is still no scientific consensus to support these statements. Energy drinks have been associated with health risks, such as an increased rate of alcohol - related injury, and excessive or repeated consumption can lead to cardiac and psychiatric conditions.
Energy drinks are marketed to provide the benefits among health effects of caffeine along with benefits from the other ingredients they contain. Health experts agree that energy drinks which contain caffeine do improve alertness. The consumption of alcohol drinks combined with energy drinks is a common occurrence on many college campuses. The alcohol industry has recently been criticized for marketing cohesiveness of alcohol and energy drinks. The combination of the two in college students is correlated to students experiencing alcohol - related consequences, and several health risks.
There is no good evidence that other ingredients in energy drinks provide further benefits, even though the drinks are frequently advertised in a way that suggests they have unique benefits. The dietary supplements in energy drinks may be purported to provide produce benefits, such as for vitamin B12, but no claims of using supplements to enhance health in otherwise normal people have been verified scientifically. Various marketing organizations have described energy drinks by saying their beverage "gives you wings '', is "scientifically formulated '', or is a "killer energy brew ''. Marketing of energy drinks has been particularly directed towards teenagers, with manufacturers sponsoring or advertising at extreme sports events and music concerts, and targeting a youthful audience through social media channels.
When mixed with alcohol, either as a prepackaged caffeinated alcoholic drink, a mixed drink, or just a beverage consumed around the same time as alcohol, energy drinks are often consumed in social settings.
Energy drinks have the effects caffeine and sugar provide, but there is little or no evidence that the wide variety of other ingredients have any effect. Most of the effects of energy drinks on cognitive performance, such as increased attention and reaction speed, are primarily due to the presence of caffeine. Advertising for energy drinks usually features increased muscle strength and endurance, but there is little evidence to support this in the scientific literature.
A caffeine intake of 400 mg per day is considered as safe from the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Adverse effects associated with caffeine consumption in amounts greater than 400 mg include nervousness, irritability, sleeplessness, increased urination, abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmia), and dyspepsia. Consumption also has been known to cause pupil dilation when taken with certain antidepressants or SSRIs. Caffeine dosage is not required to be on the product label for food in the United States, unlike drugs, but most (although not all) place the caffeine content of their drinks on the label anyway, and some advocates are urging the FDA to change this practice.
Combined use of caffeine and alcohol may increase the rate of alcohol - related injury. Energy drinks can mask the influence of alcohol, and a person may misinterpret their actual level of intoxication. Since caffeine and alcohol are both diuretics, combined use increases the risk of dehydration, and the mixture of a stimulant (caffeine) and depressant (alcohol) sends contradictory messages to the nervous system and can lead to increased heart rate and palpitations. Although people decide to drink energy drinks with alcohol with the intent of counteracting alcohol intoxication, many others do so to hide the taste of alcohol. However, in the 2015, the EFSA concluded, that "Consumption of other constituents of energy drinks at concentrations commonly present in such beverages would not affect the safety of single doses of caffeine up to 200 mg. '' Also the consumption of alcohol, leading to a blood alcohol content of about 0.08 %, would, according to the EFSA, not affect the safety of single doses of caffeine up to 200 mg. Up to these levels of intake, caffeine is unlikely to mask the subjective perception of alcohol intoxication.
Excessive or repeated consumption of energy drinks can lead to cardiac problems, such as arrhythmias and heart attacks, and psychiatric conditions such as anxiety and phobias. In Europe, energy drinks containing taurine and caffeine have been associated with the deaths of athletes. A 2017 study in the Journal of the American Heart Association noted that caffeine content was not the only factor, and that the cocktail of other ingredients in energy drinks made them more dangerous than drinks whose only stimulant was caffeine; the study noted that more research was needed on the individual ingredients to determine which ones pose a hazard.
Research suggests that emergency room visits are on the increase. In 2005, there were 1,494 emergency room visits related to energy drink consumption in the United States; whereas, in 2011, energy drinks were linked to 20,783 emergency room visits. During this period of increase, males consumers consistently had a higher likelihood of visiting the emergency room over their female counterparts. Research trends also show that emergency room visits are caused mainly by adverse reactions to the drinks. In 2011, there were 14,042 energy drink - related hospital visits. Misuse and abuse of these caffeinated beverages also cause a significant amount of emergency room visits. By 2011, there were 6,090 visits to the ER due to misuse / abuse of the drinks. In many cases 42 % of patients had mixed energy drinks with another stimulant, and in the other 58 % of cases the energy drink was the only thing that had been consumed. Several studies suggest that energy drinks may be a gateway drug.
Energy drinks were an active subset of the early soft drink industry; Pepsi, for instance, was originally marketed as an energy booster. Coca - Cola 's name was derived from its two active ingredients, both known stimulants: coca leaves and kola nuts (a source of caffeine). Fresh coca leaves were replaced by "spent '' ones in 1904 because of concerns over the use of cocaine in food products; the federal lawsuit United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca - Cola pressured The Coca - Cola Company into reducing the amount of caffeine in its formula by 1916. These developments brought an end to the first wave of energy drinks.
In the UK, Lucozade Energy was originally introduced in 1929 as a hospital drink for "aiding the recovery; '' in the early 1980s, it was promoted as an energy drink for "replenishing lost energy. '' One of the first post-Forty Barrels energy drinks introduced in America was Dr. Enuf. Its origins date back to 1949, when a Chicago businessman named William Mark Swartz was urged by coworkers to formulate a soft drink fortified with vitamins as an alternative to sugar sodas full of empty calories. He developed an "energy booster '' drink containing B vitamins, caffeine and cane sugar. After placing a notice in a trade magazine seeking a bottler, he formed a partnership with Charles Gordon of Tri-City Beverage to produce and distribute the soda. Dr. Enuf is still being manufactured in Johnson City, Tennessee and sold sparsely throughout the nation.
In Japan, the energy drink dates at least as far back as the early 1960s, with the launch of the Lipovitan brand. However, in Japan, most of the products of this kind bear little resemblance to soft drinks, and are sold instead in small brown glass medicine bottles, or cans styled to resemble such containers. These "eiyō dorinku '' (literally, "nutritional drinks '') are marketed primarily to salarymen. Bacchus - F, a South Korean drink closely modeled after Lipovitan, also appeared in the early 1960s and targets a similar demographic.
In 1985, Jolt Cola was introduced in the United States. Its marketing strategy centered on the drink 's caffeine content, billing it as a means to promote wakefulness. The drink 's initial slogan read: "All the sugar and twice the caffeine. ''
In 1995, PepsiCo launched Josta, the first energy drink introduced by a major US beverage company (one that had interests outside energy drinks), but Pepsi discontinued the product in 1999. Pepsi would later return to the energy drink market with the AMP brand.
In Europe, energy drinks were pioneered by the Lisa company and a product named "Power Horse '', before Dietrich Mateschitz, an Austrian entrepreneur, introduced the Red Bull product, a worldwide bestseller in the 21st century. Mateschitz developed Red Bull based on the Thai drink Krating Daeng, itself based on Lipovitan. Red Bull became the dominant brand in the US after its introduction in 1997, with a market share of approximately 47 % in 2005.
In New Zealand and Australia, the leading energy drink product in those markets, V, was introduced by Frucor Beverages. The product now represents over 60 % of market in New Zealand and Australia.
UK supermarkets have launched their own brands of energy drinks, sold at lower prices than the major soft drink manufacturers, that are mostly produced by Canadian beverage maker Cott. Tesco supermarkets sell "Kx '' (formerly known as "Kick ''), Sainsbury 's sell "Blue Bolt '' and Asda sell "Blue Charge '' -- all three drinks are sold in 250 - milliliter cans and 1 - liter bottles -- while Morrison 's sell "Source '' in 250 - milliliter cans. Cott sells a variety of other branded energy drinks to independent retailers in various containers.
Since 2002, there has been a growing trend for packaging energy drinks in bigger cans. In many countries, including the US and Canada, there is a limitation on the maximum caffeine per serving in energy drinks, so manufacturers include a greater amount of caffeine by including multiple servings per container. Popular brands such as Red Bull, Hype Energy Drinks and Monster have increased the can size.
The energy shot product, an offshoot of the energy drink, was launched in the US with products such as "5 - Hour Energy, '' which was first released onto the market in 2004. A consumer health analyst explained in a March 2014 media article: "Energy shots took off because of energy drinks. If you 're a white collar worker, you 're not necessarily willing to down a big Monster energy drink, but you may drink an energy shot. ''
In 2007, energy drink powders and effervescent tablets were introduced, whereby either can be added to water to create an energy drink.
Energy drinks are also popular as drink mixers -- Red Bull and vodka is a popular combination. In the US, a product called "Four Loko '' formerly mixed beer with caffeine, while Kahlua is a coffee - flavored alcoholic beverage.
On 14 August 2012, the word "energy drink '' was listed for the first time in the Merriam - Webster 's Collegiate Dictionary.
Energy shots are a specialized kind of energy drink. Whereas most energy drinks are sold in cans or bottles, energy shots are usually sold in smaller 50ml bottles. Energy shots can contain the same total amount of caffeine, vitamins or other functional ingredients as their larger versions, and may be considered concentrated forms of energy drinks. The marketing of energy shots generally focuses on their convenience and availability as a low - calorie "instant '' energy drink that can be taken in one swallow (or "shot ''), as opposed to energy drinks that encourage users to drink an entire can, which may contain 250 calories or more.
Energy drinks such as Red Bull are often used as mixers with alcoholic beverages, producing mixed drinks such as Vodka Red Bull which are similar to but stronger than rum and coke with respect to the amount of caffeine that they contain. Sometimes this is configured as a bomb shot, such as the Jägerbomb or the F - Bomb -- Fireball Cinnamon Whisky and Red Bull.
Caffeinated alcoholic drinks are also sold in some countries in a wide variety of formulations. The American products Four Loko and Joose originally combined caffeine and alcohol before caffeinated alcoholic beverages were banned in the U.S. in 2010.
Several beverages have been marketed in the 2000s as "anti-energy '', "chill out '', or "relaxation '' drinks, including Lava Cola, Slow Cow, Drank, Marley 's Mellow Mood, Mary Jane 's Relaxing Soda, Chill, Calm, Malava Kava, V.i.B., Take 5, Relax by Rockstar and Jones Gaba. They are growing in popularity, with sales doubling from 2008 to 2010, and expected to more than double again by 2014. They contain ingredients such as theanine and melatonin.
Energy drinks generally contain methylxanthines (including caffeine), B vitamins, carbonated water, and high - fructose corn syrup (for non-diet versions). Other commonly used ingredients are guarana, yerba mate, açaí, and taurine, plus various forms of ginseng, maltodextrin, inositol, carnitine, creatine, glucuronolactone, sucralose and ginkgo biloba.
Some energy drink manufacturers do not report how much caffeine their products contain. One survey found that various energy drinks had 6 -- 242 milligrams (mg) of caffeine per serving. In comparison, an 8 US fluid ounces (240 ml) cup of coffee contains 100 mg of caffeine and 12 US fluid ounces (350 ml) of Coca - Cola Classic contains 35 mg of caffeine. Consumer Reports expected that the caffeine content of a beverage should be within 20 % of what the label claims, but product testing on United States energy drinks found that the caffeine levels of some energy drinks vary beyond that range. The Monster Beverage Corporation explained they do not report caffeine levels because "there is no legal or commercial business requirement to do so, and also because our products are completely safe, and the actual numbers are not meaningful to most consumers. '' Scientific groups and consumer organizations have requested more disclosure in ingredient lists.
The sugar in non-diet energy drinks is food energy that can be utilized by the human body.
Globally, energy drinks are typically attractive to young people. Approximately 66 percent of consumers are between the ages of 13 and 35 years, with males being approximately 65 percent of the market. A 2008 statewide Patient Poll conducted by the Pennsylvania Medical Society 's Institute for Good Medicine found that: 20 percent of respondents aged between 21 and 30 had used energy drinks in high school or college to stay awake longer to study, or to write a paper; and 70 percent of respondents knew someone who had used an energy drink to stay awake longer to study or work.
US research by Packaged Facts in 2012 showed that consumers aged between 18 and 34 years, men, Hispanics, Pacific region residents and adults with children in the household were the demographic groups that were using the highest amounts of energy drinks.
Market research firm Euromonitor calculated that the global energy drink market was worth US $3.8 billion in 1999 and this value grew to US $27.5 billion in 2013.
In 2000, the US energy drink market was worth US $350 million and data from the Packaged Facts company shows that the industry grew by 60 percent between 2008 and 2012 in the US -- by 2012 total US sales were over US $12.5 Billion. Red Bull and Monster were the two best - selling brands in 2012, accounting for nearly 80 % of US energy drink sales, and the energy shot market is worth over US $1 billion in 2014.
The energy drink Red Bull did not get market approval in France after the death of an 18 - year - old Irish athlete, Ross Cooney, who died within hours after playing a basketball game and consuming four cans of the product. This ban was challenged in the European Court of Justice in 2004 and consequently lifted. Norway did not allow Red Bull for a time, although this restriction has recently been relaxed. In May 2009 it became legal to sell in Norway. The Norwegian version has reduced B - vitamin B6. The United Kingdom investigated the drink, but only issued a warning against its consumption by children and pregnant women.
In 2009, Colombia, under the Ministry of Social Protection, prohibited the sale and commercialization of energy drinks to minors under the age of 14 under resolution 4150 of 2009.
In November 2012, President Ramzan Kadyrov of Chechnya (Russian Federation) ordered his government to develop a bill banning the sale of energy drinks, arguing that as a form of "intoxicating drug '', such drinks were "unacceptable in a Muslim society ''. Kadyrov cited reports of one death and 530 hospital admissions in 2012 due to "poisoning '' from the consumption of such drinks. A similar view was expressed by Gennady Onishchenko, Chief Sanitary Inspector of Russia.
In 2009, a school in Hove, England requested that local shops refrain from selling energy drinks to students. Headteacher Malvina Sanders added that "This was a preventative measure, as all research shows that consuming high - energy drinks can have a detrimental impact on the ability of young people to concentrate in class. '' The school negotiated for their local branch of the Tesco supermarket to display posters asking students not to purchase the products. Similar measures were taken by a school in Oxted, England, which banned students from consuming drinks and sent letters to parents.
Some countries have certain restrictions on the sale and manufacture of energy drinks. In Australia and New Zealand, energy drinks are regulated under the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code; limiting the caffeine content of ' formulated caffeinated beverages ' (energy drinks) at 320 mg / L (9.46 mg / oz) and soft - drinks at 145 mg / L (4.29 mg / oz). Mandatory caffeine labeling is issued for all food products containing guarana in the country, and Australian energy drink labels warn consumers to drink no more than two cans per day.
As of 2013 in the United States some energy drinks, including Monster Energy and Rockstar Energy, were reported to be rebranding their products as beverages rather than as dietary supplements. As beverages they would be relieved of F.D.A. reporting requirements with respect to deaths and injuries and can be purchased with food stamps, but must list ingredients on the can.
In May 2014 Lithuania became the first state in the world to explicitly ban selling energy drinks to minors below 18 years of age, effective November. An energy drink is described as any beverage containing at least 150 mg / L of caffeine.
In June 2016 Latvia also banned the sale of energy drinks containing caffeine or stimulants like taurine and guarana to people under the age of 18.
Some places ban the sale of prepackaged caffeinated alcoholic beverages, which can be described as energy drinks containing alcohol. In response to these bans, the marketers can change the formula of their products.
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when did memorial day become a national holiday | Memorial Day - wikipedia
Memorial Day or Decoration Day is a federal holiday in the United States for remembering the people who died while serving in the country 's armed forces. The holiday, which is currently observed every year on the last Monday of May, was held on May 29, 2017. The holiday was held on May 30 from 1868 to 1970. It marks the start of the unofficial summer vacation season, while Labor Day marks its end.
Many people visit cemeteries and memorials, particularly to honor those who have died in military service. Many volunteers place an American flag on each grave in national cemeteries.
Memorial Day is not to be confused with Veterans Day; Memorial Day is a day of remembering the men and women who died while serving, while Veterans Day celebrates the service of all U.S. military veterans.
The practice of decorating soldiers ' graves with flowers is an ancient custom. Soldiers ' graves were decorated in the U.S. before and during the American Civil War.
Some believe that an annual cemetery decoration practice began before the American Civil War and thus may reflect the real origin of the "memorial day '' idea. Annual Decoration Days for particular cemeteries are still held on a Sunday in late spring or early summer in some rural areas of the American South, notably in the mountain areas. In cases involving a family graveyard where remote ancestors as well as those who were deceased more recently are buried, this may take on the character of an extended family reunion to which some people travel hundreds of miles. People gather, put flowers on graves and renew contacts with relatives and others. There often is a religious service and a picnic - like "dinner on the grounds, '' the traditional term for a potluck meal at a church.
On June 3, 1861 Warrenton, Virginia was the location of the first Civil War soldier 's grave ever to be decorated, according to a Richmond Times - Dispatch newspaper article in 1906. In 1862 women in Savannah, Georgia decorated Confederate soldiers ' graves oer the Savannah Republican. The 1863 cemetery dedication at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, was a ceremony of commemoration at the graves of dead soldiers. On July 4, 1864, ladies decorated soldiers ' graves according to local historians in Boalsburg, Pennsylvania. and Boalsburg promotes itself as the birthplace of Memorial Day.
In April 1865, following President Abraham Lincoln 's assassination, commemorations were ubiquitous. The more than 600,000 soldiers of both sides who died in the Civil War meant that burial and memorialization took on new cultural significance. Under the leadership of women during the war, an increasingly formal practice of decorating graves had taken shape. In 1865, the federal government began creating national military cemeteries for the Union war dead.
A decoration day observance on May 1, 1865 in Charleston, South Carolina led historian David W. Blight to claim that "African Americans invented Memorial Day in Charleston, South Carolina '', based on accounts in the Charleston Daily Courier and coverage by the New York Tribune. In 2012 Blight stated that he "has no evidence '' that the event in Charleston inspired the establishment of Memorial Day across the country. Accordingly, Snopes labeled the claim that the holiday began in Charleston "false. ''
In 1868, General John A. Logan of the Grand Army of the Republic, an organization of Union veterans founded in Decatur, Illinois, established Decoration Day as a time for the nation to decorate the graves of the Union war dead with flowers. By the 20th century, various Union and Confederate memorial traditions, celebrated on different days, merged, and Memorial Day eventually extended to honor all Americans who died while in the military service.
On May 26, 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson designated an "official '' birthplace of the holiday by signing the presidential proclamation naming Waterloo, New York, as the holder of the title. This action followed House Concurrent Resolution 587, in which the 89th Congress had officially recognized that the patriotic tradition of observing Memorial Day had begun one hundred years prior in Waterloo, New York. The village credits druggist Henry C. Welles and county clerk John B. Murray as the founders of the holiday. Snopes and Live Science discredit the Waterloo account.
On May 5, 1868, General John A. Logan issued a proclamation calling for "Decoration Day '' to be observed annually and nationwide; he was commander - in - chief of the Grand Army of the Republic, the veterans ' organization for Union Civil War veterans. With his proclamation, Logan adopted the Memorial Day practice that had begun in the Southern states three years earlier.
The first northern Memorial Day was observed on May 30, 1868. One author claims that the date was chosen because it was not the anniversary of any particular battle. According to a White House address in 2010, the date was chosen as the optimal date for flowers to be in bloom in the North.
The northern states quickly adopted the holiday. In 1868, memorial events were held in 183 cemeteries in 27 states, and 336 in 1869. In 1871 Michigan made "Decoration Day '' an official state holiday and by 1890, every northern state had followed suit. The ceremonies were sponsored by the Women 's Relief Corps, the women 's auxiliary of the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR), which had 100,000 members. By 1870, the remains of nearly 300,000 Union dead had been reinterred in 73 national cemeteries, located near major battlefields and thus mainly in the South. The most famous are Gettysburg National Cemetery in Pennsylvania and Arlington National Cemetery, near Washington, D.C.
Memorial Day speeches became an occasion for veterans, politicians, and ministers to commemorate the Civil War and, at first, to rehash the "atrocities '' of the enemy. They mixed religion and celebratory nationalism for the people to make sense of their history in terms of sacrifice for a better nation. People of all religious beliefs joined together and the point was often made that the German and Irish soldiers had become true Americans in the "baptism of blood '' on the battlefield.
Since 1868 Doylestown, Pennsylvania has run annual Memorial Day parades which it claims to be the nation 's oldest continuously running; however, the Memorial Day parade in Rochester, Wisconsin predates Doylestown 's by one year.
The U.S. National Park Service and numerous scholars attribute the beginning of a Memorial Day practice in the South to the ladies of Columbus, Georgia. On April 25, 1866, women in Columbus, Mississippi laid flowers on the graves of both the Union and Confederate dead in the city 's cemetery. The early southern Memorial Day celebrations were simple, somber occasions for veterans and their families to honor the dead and tend to local cemeteries.
Historians acknowledge the Ladies Memorial Association played a key role in these rituals of preservation of Confederate "memory. '' Various dates ranging from April 25 to mid-June were adopted in different Southern states. Across the South, associations were founded, many by women, to establish and care for permanent cemeteries for the Confederate dead, organize commemorative ceremonies, and sponsor appropriate monuments as a permanent way of remembering the Confederate dead. The most important of these was the United Daughters of the Confederacy, which grew from 17,000 members in 1900 to nearly 100,000 women by World War I. They were "strikingly successful at raising money to build Confederate monuments, lobbying legislatures and Congress for the reburial of Confederate dead, and working to shape the content of history textbooks. ''
In 1868, some southerners appended the label "Confederate '' to what they originally called "Memorial Day '' after northerners co-opted the holiday. The tradition of observances were linked to the South, they served as the prototype for the national day of memory embraced by the nation in 1868.
By 1890, there was a shift from the emphasis on honoring specific soldiers to a public commemoration of the Confederate south. Changes in the ceremony 's hymns and speeches reflect an evolution of the ritual into a symbol of cultural renewal and conservatism in the South. By 1913, David Blight argues, the theme of American nationalism shared equal time with the Confederate.
Starting in 1868, the ceremonies and Memorial Day address at Gettysburg National Park became nationally known. In July 1913, veterans of the United States and Confederate armies gathered in Gettysburg to commemorate the fifty - year anniversary of the Civil War 's bloodiest and most famous battle.
The four - day "Blue - Gray Reunion '' featured parades, re-enactments, and speeches from a host of dignitaries, including President Woodrow Wilson, the first Southerner elected to the White House after the War. James Heflin of Alabama gave the main address. Heflin was a noted orator; His choice as Memorial Day speaker was criticized, as he was opposed for his support of segregation; however, his speech was moderate in tone and stressed national unity and goodwill, gaining him praise from newspapers.
Since the cemetery dedication at Gettysburg occurred on November 19, that day (or the closest weekend) has been designated as their own local memorial day that is referred to as Remembrance Day.
The preferred name for the holiday gradually changed from "Decoration Day '' to "Memorial Day, '' which was first used in 1882. Memorial Day did not become the more common name until after World War II, and was not declared the official name by Federal law until 1967. On June 28, 1968, Congress passed the Uniform Monday Holiday Act, which moved four holidays, including Memorial Day, from their traditional dates to a specified Monday in order to create a convenient three - day weekend. The change moved Memorial Day from its traditional May 30 date to the last Monday in May. The law took effect at the federal level in 1971. After some initial confusion and unwillingness to comply, all 50 states adopted Congress ' change of date within a few years.
Memorial Day endures as a holiday which most businesses observe because it marks the unofficial beginning of summer. The Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) and Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War (SUVCW) advocate returning to the original date, although the significance of the date is tenuous. The VFW stated in a 2002 Memorial Day Address:
Changing the date merely to create three - day weekends has undermined the very meaning of the day. No doubt, this has contributed a lot to the general public 's nonchalant observance of Memorial Day.
Starting in 1987 Hawaii 's Senator Daniel Inouye, a World War II veteran, introduced a measure to return Memorial Day to its traditional date. Inouye continued introducing the resolution until his death in 2012.
On Memorial Day, the flag of the United States is raised briskly to the top of the staff and then solemnly lowered to the half - staff position, where it remains only until noon. It is then raised to full - staff for the remainder of the day.
The half - staff position remembers the more than one million men and women who gave their lives in service of their country. At noon, their memory is raised by the living, who resolve not to let their sacrifice be in vain, but to rise up in their stead and continue the fight for liberty and justice for all.
The National Memorial Day Concert takes place on the west lawn of the United States Capitol. The concert is broadcast on PBS and NPR. Music is performed, and respect is paid to the men and women who gave their lives for their country.
For many Americans, the central event is attending one of the thousands of parades held on Memorial Day in large and small cities all over the country. Most of these feature marching bands and an overall military theme with the National Guard and other servicemen participating along with veterans and military vehicles from various wars.
One of the longest - standing traditions is the running of the Indianapolis 500, an auto race which has been held in conjunction with Memorial Day since 1911. It runs on the Sunday preceding the Memorial Day holiday. Since 1961 NASCAR 's Coca - Cola 600 has been held the same day. Since 1976 The Memorial Tournament golf event has been held on or close to the Memorial Day weekend. The final of the NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship is held on Memorial Day.
In 2000, Congress passed the National Moment of Remembrance Act, asking people to stop and remember at 3: 00 P.M.
In 1915, following the Second Battle of Ypres, Lieutenant Colonel John McCrae, a physician with the Canadian Expeditionary Force, wrote the poem, "In Flanders Fields ''. Its opening lines refer to the fields of poppies that grew among the soldiers ' graves in Flanders.
In 1918, inspired by the poem, YWCA worker Moina Michael attended a YWCA Overseas War Secretaries ' conference wearing a silk poppy pinned to her coat and distributed over two dozen more to others present. In 1920, the National American Legion adopted it as their official symbol of remembrance.
Scholars, following the lead of sociologist Robert Bellah, often make the argument that the United States has a secular "civil religion '' -- one with no association with any religious denomination or viewpoint -- that has incorporated Memorial Day as a sacred event. With the Civil War, a new theme of death, sacrifice and rebirth enters the civil religion. Memorial Day gave ritual expression to these themes, integrating the local community into a sense of nationalism. The American civil religion, in contrast to that of France, was never anticlerical or militantly secular; in contrast to Britain, it was not tied to a specific denomination, such as the Church of England. The Americans borrowed from different religious traditions so that the average American saw no conflict between the two, and deep levels of personal motivation were aligned with attaining national goals.
Memorial Day has been called a "modern cult of the dead ''. It incorporates Christian themes of sacrifice while uniting citizens of various faiths.
Poems commemorating Memorial Day include:
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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who lost his life during his own discovery | Aron Ralston - Wikipedia
Aron Lee Ralston (born October 27, 1975) is an American outdoorsman, mechanical engineer and motivational speaker known for having survived a canyoneering accident in southeastern Utah in 2003 during which he amputated his own right forearm with a dull pocketknife in order to extricate himself from a dislodged boulder, which had him trapped in Blue John Canyon for five days and seven hours (127 hours). After he freed himself, he had to make his way through the remainder of the canyon, then rappel down a 65 - foot (20 m) sheer cliff face in order to reach safety.
The incident is documented in Ralston 's autobiography Between a Rock and a Hard Place and is the subject of the 2010 film 127 Hours starring James Franco.
Aron Ralston was born on October 27, 1975 in Marion, Ohio. He and his family moved to Denver when he was 12. He is a graduate of Teccs in Ducan, Colorado. He received his college degree from Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, finishing with degrees in mechanical engineering and French, with a minor in piano. At Carnegie Mellon, he served as a resident assistant, studied abroad, and was an active intramural sports participant. He left his job as a mechanical engineer with Intel in Phoenix, Arizona, in 2002 and moved to Aspen, Colorado in order to pursue a life of climbing mountains.
He had the goal of climbing all of Colorado 's "fourteeners '' -- peaks over 14,000 feet (4,270 m) altitude, of which there are 59 -- solo and during winter (a feat that had never been recorded before). He subsequently achieved this goal in 2005. In 2003, Ralston was caught in a Grade 5 avalanche on Resolution Peak, Colorado with his skiing partners Mark Beverly and Chadwick Spencer. No one was seriously injured.
In August 2009, Ralston married Jessica Trusty. His first child was born in February 2010.
On April 26, 2003, Aron Ralston was hiking alone through Blue John Canyon, in eastern Wayne County, Utah, just south of the Horseshoe Canyon unit of Canyonlands National Park. While he was descending a slot canyon, a suspended boulder became dislodged while he was climbing down from it. The rock smashed his left hand, and then crushed his right hand against the canyon wall. Ralston had not informed anyone of his hiking plans, nor did he have any way to call for help.
Assuming that he would die without intervention, he spent five days slowly sipping his small amount of remaining water, approximately 350 ml (12 imp fl oz), and slowly eating his small amount of food, two burritos, while trying to free his arm. He was n't able to free his arm from the 800 lb (360 kg) chockstone. After three days of trying to lift and break the boulder, the dehydrated and delirious Ralston prepared to amputate his trapped right arm at a point on the mid-forearm in order to escape. After having experimented with tourniquets and having made exploratory superficial cuts to his forearm, he realized, on the fourth day, that in order to free his arm he would have to cut through the bones in it, but the tools available to him were insufficient to do so.
After running out of food and water on the fifth day, Ralston decided to drink his own urine. He carved his name, date of birth and presumed date of death into the sandstone canyon wall, and videotaped his last goodbyes to his family. He did not expect to survive the night. After waking at dawn the following day he had an epiphany that he could break his radius and ulna bones using torque against his trapped arm. He did so, then amputated his forearm in about one hour, with his multi-tool, which included a dull two - inch knife. The manufacturer of the tool was never named, but Ralston said "it was not a Leatherman but what you 'd get if you bought a $15 flashlight and got a free multi use tool. ''
After freeing himself Ralston climbed out of the slot canyon in which he had been trapped, rappelled down a 65 - foot (20 m) sheer wall, then hiked out of the canyon. He was 8 miles (13 km) from his vehicle, and had no phone. However, while hiking out of the canyon, he encountered a family on vacation from the Netherlands, Eric and Monique Meijer and their son Andy, who gave him food and water and hurried to alert the authorities. Ralston had feared he would bleed to death; he had lost 40 pounds (18 kg), including 25 % of his blood volume. Rescuers searching for Ralston, alerted by his family that he was missing, had narrowed the search down to Canyonlands and flew by in their helicopter. He was rescued four hours after amputating his arm.
Ralston later said that if he had amputated his arm earlier, he would have bled to death before being found, while if he had not done it he would have been found dead in the slot canyon days later. He believed he was looking forward to the amputation and the freedom it would give.
His severed hand and forearm were retrieved from under the boulder by park authorities. According to television presenter Tom Brokaw, it took 13 men, a winch and a hydraulic jack to move the boulder so that Ralston 's arm could be removed. His arm was then cremated and the ashes given to Ralston. He returned to the accident scene with Tom Brokaw and a camera crew six months later, on his 28th birthday, to film a Dateline NBC special about the accident in which he scattered the ashes of his arm there, where, he said, they belong.
After the accident occurred, Ralston continued to climb mountains frequently, including participating in a 2008 expedition to climb Ojos del Salado in Chile and Monte Pissis in Argentina. In 2005, Ralston became the first person to climb all 59 ranked and / or named Colorado 's ' fourteeners ' solo in winter, a project he started in 1997 and resumed after the amputation in Blue John Canyon.
While Ralston says he intends to climb Mount Everest, he did not go along with polar explorer Eric Larsen on his "Save the Poles '' expedition in 2010, as was previously reported.
In December 2013, Ralston and then - girlfriend Vita Shannon were both arrested in Colorado and charged with domestic violence after an incident at their home. The couple 's two - month old child was present at the time of the incident. Charges for both were later dismissed.
After the accident, Ralston made numerous appearances in the media. On July 21, 2003, Ralston appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman.
On September 10, 2004, Ralston 's story was featured on a two - hour edition of Dateline NBC called "Desperate Days in Blue John Canyon ''. Ralston has appeared twice on The Today Show, Good Morning America, and The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. He has also appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, CNN 's American Morning with Bill Hemmer, Minute to Win It, Anderson Cooper 360 °, CNN Saturday Morning, and CNBC with Deborah Norville. On September 28, 2004, he appeared on the radio program The Bob Rivers Show and described his ordeal as "six days of terror and horror. ''
In 2006, Ralston was featured as a panelist in Miller Lite 's "Man Laws '' ad campaign. He also starred on the Australian interview show Enough Rope. Ralston was a contestant on the U.S. television show Minute To Win It, where he won $125,000 for Wilderness Workshop. The episode aired on February 23, 2011, on NBC.
Ralston provides his voice on The Simpsons episode "Treehouse of Horror XXII '' as the voice on the other end of Homer 's phone when he calls for help after getting trapped in a similar situation to Ralston himself. The episode aired on October 30, 2011.
He took part in the reality show Alone in the Wild, where he had to ' survive ' in the wild with a video camera and a bag of supplies. The episode was aired November 9, 2011, on Discovery UK.
As a corporate speaker, Ralston receives an honorarium of about $25,000 per domestic speaking appearance, and up to $37,000 for international speeches. On May 4, 2007, Ralston appeared at the Swiss Economic Forum and gave a speech about "how he did not lose his hand, but gained his life back. ''
Ralston documented his experience in an autobiographical book titled Between a Rock and a Hard Place, published by Atria Books on September 7, 2004. It reached # 3 on The New York Times Hardcover Non-Fiction list. It hit # 1 in New Zealand and Australia, and is the # 7 best - selling memoir of all - time in the United Kingdom.
Ralston delivered the commencement speech on May 15, 2011, at Carnegie Mellon University for the graduating class of 2011, and again on May 19, 2013, marking the first time the University ever hosted a commencement speaker twice.
He has also appeared on the Comedy Central show Tosh. 0 in a sketch with host Daniel Tosh and another climber in 2012.
British film director Danny Boyle directed the film 127 Hours about Ralston 's accident. Filming took place in March and April 2010, with a release in New York City and Los Angeles on November 5, 2010. Fox Searchlight Pictures funded the film. Actor James Franco played the role of Ralston. The movie received standing ovations at both the Telluride Film Festival and the Toronto International Film Festival. Some of the audience members in Toronto fainted during the final amputation scene.
The film received universal acclaim by critics and review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 93 % of 197 professional critics have given the film a positive review, with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10.
At the 83rd Academy Awards in 2011 the film was nominated for six Oscars, including Best Picture (won by The King 's Speech) and Best Actor for Franco (won by Colin Firth for his role in The King 's Speech). 127 Hours was also nominated in the categories for Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Original Score, Best Original Song, and Best Editing.
Of the authenticity of 127 Hours, Ralston has said that the film is "so factually accurate it is as close to a documentary as you can get and still be a drama, '' and he jokingly added that he thought it is "the best film ever made. ''
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when was the institute of st joseph accepted | Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart - Wikipedia
The Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart, often called the "Josephites '' or "Brown Joeys '', were founded in Penola, South Australia, in 1866 by Mary MacKillop and the Rev. Julian Tenison Woods. Members of the congregation use the postnominal initials RSJ (Religious Sisters of St Joseph).
The centre of the congregation is at Mary MacKillop Place, Mount Street, North Sydney, New South Wales, where Saint Mary MacKillop 's tomb is enshrined in the Mary MacKillop Memorial Chapel.
At present there are around 850 sisters living and working throughout Australia (South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and Western Australia) and New Zealand, as well as in Ireland and Peru.
Besides the main center at North Sydney, the Josephites have "Mary MacKillop Centres '' at Penola, South Australia; Kensington, South Australia; East Melbourne, Victoria; Annerley, Queensland; and South Perth, Western Australia. The Australian - New Zealand Federation of the Sisters of St Joseph includes Congregations in Perthville and Lochinvar in New South Wales.
Fr Woods had been very concerned about the lack of education, particularly Catholic education, in South Australia. In 1866, he invited MacKillop and her sisters Annie and Lexie to come to Penola and open a Catholic school. Woods was appointed director of education and became the founder, along with MacKillop, of a school they opened in a stable there. After renovations by their brother, the MacKillops started teaching more than fifty children. At this time MacKillop made a declaration of her dedication to God and began wearing black.
In 1867 MacKillop became the first member and superior general of the newly formed religious congregation of the Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart, and moved to a new convent in Grote Street, Adelaide. In the same year, at age 25, she adopted the religious name "Sister Mary of the Cross ''. In Adelaide they founded a new school at the request of the bishop, Laurence Bonaventure Sheil, OFM. Dedicated to the education of the children of the poor, it was the first religious institute to be founded by an Australian. The Rule of Life developed by Woods and MacKillop for the convent emphasised poverty, a dependence on divine providence, no ownership of personal belongings and faith that God would provide, and willingness to go where needed. The Rule were approved by Sheil. By the end of 1867 ten other women had joined the Josephites, who had adopted a plain brown religious habit. In consequence, the Josephite sisters became colloquially known as the "Brown Joeys ''.
In an attempt to provide education to all the poor, particularly in country areas, a school was opened at Yankalilla, South Australia, in October 1867. By the end of 1869, more than 70 Josephite sisters were educating children at 21 schools in Adelaide and the country. MacKillop and her Josephites were also involved with an orphanage; neglected children; girls in danger; the aged poor; a reformatory (in Johnstown near Kapunda); a home for the aged; and the incurably ill.
In December 1869, MacKillop and several other sisters travelled to Brisbane to establish the congregation in Queensland. They were based at Kangaroo Point and took the ferry or rowed across the Brisbane River to attend Mass at old St Stephen 's Cathedral. Two years later she was in Port Augusta, South Australia, for the same purpose. The Josephite congregation expanded rapidly and, by 1871, 130 sisters were working in more than 40 schools and charitable institutions across South Australia and Queensland.
After the acquisition of the Mother House at Kensington in 1872, MacKillop made preparations to leave for Rome to have the Rule of the Sisters of St Joseph approved by the Holy See. She travelled to Rome in 1873 and was encouraged in her work by Pope Pius IX. The authorities in Rome made changes to the way Josephites lived in poverty, declared that the Superior General and her Council were the authorities in charge of the institute, and assured MacKillop that the congregation and their Rule of Life would receive final approval after a trial period. The resulting softening of the Rule caused a breach between MacKillop and Woods, who felt that the revised Rule compromised the ideal of vowed poverty and blamed MacKillop for not getting the Rule accepted in its original form. Before Woods ' death on 7 October 1889, he and MacKillop were personally reconciled, but he did not renew his involvement with the congregation. The sisters split, with Woods ' branch becoming known as the "Black Josephites '', for their black habits, while MacKillop 's sisters donned brown habits and were thus known as the "Brown Josephites ''.
While in Europe, MacKillop travelled widely to observe educational methods.
During this period, the Josephites expanded their operations into New South Wales and New Zealand. MacKillop relocated to Sydney in 1883 on the instruction of Bishop Reynolds of Adelaide. When she returned in January 1875, after an absence of nearly two years, she brought approval from Rome for her sisters and the work they did, materials for her school, books for the convent library, several priests, and most of all 15 new Josephites from Ireland. Regardless of her success, she still had to contend with the opposition of priests and several bishops. This did not change after her unanimous election as superior general in March 1875.
The Josephites were unique among Catholic church ministries in two ways. Firstly, the sisters lived in the community rather than in convents. Secondly, the congregation 's constitution required administration by a superior general rather than being subject to the local bishop, a situation unique in its day. This structure resulted in the institute being forced to leave Bathurst in 1876 and Queensland by 1880 due to their respective bishop 's refusal to accept this administrative structure.
Notwithstanding all the trouble, the institute expanded. By 1877 it operated more than 40 schools in and around Adelaide, with many others in Queensland and New South Wales. With the help from Benson, Barr Smith, the Baker family, Emanuel Solomon, and other non-Catholics, the Josephites, with MacKillop as their superior general, were able to continue the religious and other good works, including visiting prisoners in jail.
Sydney 's Archbishop Roger Vaughan died in 1883 and was succeeded by Patrick Francis Moran. Although he had a somewhat positive outlook toward the Josephites, he removed MacKillop as superior general and replaced her with Sister Bernard Walsh.
Pope Leo XIII made the Josephites into a religious congregation of Pontifical right in 1885, with its headquarters in Sydney. He gave the final approval to the Sisters of Saint Joseph of the Sacred Heart in 1888.
Although still living through alms, the Josephite sisters had been very successful. In South Australia they had schools in many country towns including, Willunga, Willochra, Yarcowie, Mintaro, Auburn, Jamestown, Laura, Sevenhill, Quorn, Spalding, Georgetown, Robe, Pekina, and Appila. MacKillop continued her work for the Josephites in Sydney and tried to provide as much support as possible for those in South Australia. In 1883 the institute was successfully established at Temuka in New Zealand, where MacKillop stayed for over a year. In 1889 it was also established in the Australian state of Victoria.
During all these years MacKillop assisted Mother Bernard with the management of the Sisters of St Joseph. She wrote letters of support, advice, and encouragement or just to keep in touch. By 1896, MacKillop was back in South Australia visiting fellow sisters in Port Augusta, Burra, Pekina, Kapunda, Jamestown, and Gladstone. That same year she travelled again to New Zealand, spending several months in Port Chalmers and Arrowtown in Otago. During her time in New Zealand the Sisters of St Joseph established a school in the South Island. In 1897, Bishop Maher of Port Augusta arranged for the Sisters of St Joseph to take charge of the St Anacletus Catholic Day School in Petersburg (now Peterborough).
MacKillop founded a convent and base for the Sisters of St Joseph in Petersburg on 16 January 1897. "On January 16th, 1897, the founder of the Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart, Mother Mary of the Cross, arrived in Petersburg to take over the school. She was accompanied by Sister Benizi (who was placed in charge of the school), Sister M. Joseph, Sister Clotilde, and Sister Aloysius Joseph. They were met at the station by Rev. Father Norton who took them to the newly blessed convent, purchased for them on Railway Terrace. '' The property at 40 Railway Terrace is identified as the convent by a plaque placed by the Diocese of Peterborough.
After the death of Mother Bernard, MacKillop was once more elected unopposed as superior general in 1899, a position she held until her own death. During the later years of her life she had many problems with her health which continued to deteriorate. She suffered from rheumatism and after a stroke in Auckland, New Zealand, in 1902, became paralysed on her right side. For seven years she had to rely on a wheelchair to move around, but her speech and mind were as good as ever and her letter writing had continued unabated after she learned to write with her left hand. Even after suffering the stroke, she inspired enough confidence among the Josephites that she was re-elected in 1905.
MacKillop died on 8 August 1909 in the Josephite convent in North Sydney. The Archbishop of Sydney, Cardinal Moran, stated that: "I consider this day to have assisted at the deathbed of a Saint. '' She was laid to rest at the Gore Hill cemetery, a few kilometres up the Pacific Highway from North Sydney. After MacKillop 's burial, people continually took earth from around her grave. As a result, her remains were exhumed and transferred on 27 January 1914 to a vault before the altar of the Virgin Mary in the newly built memorial chapel on Mount Street, Sydney. The vault was a gift of Joanna Barr Smith, a lifelong friend and admiring Presbyterian.
The wide network of schools and community aid organisations established by the sisters continued to expand throughout Australasia and elsewhere during the 20th century. While vocations within Australia suffered along with other religious institutes in the latter 20th century, its work continued and global recognition came with the canonisation of Mary MacKillop in 2010.
Since 1979 the Congregations of St Joseph, made up of all the Sisters of St Joseph and Associates throughout the world, have had a presence at the United Nations as a Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO). In 1999 the Congregations of St Joseph gained accreditation with the Economic and Social Council at the United Nations, allowing them access to other UN programs and agencies. As an NGO its focus is poverty, empowering women and children, ecology, environment, and immigrants.
The number of sisters teaching in schools and vocations in general have declined in Australia, however the congregation has incorporated works meeting the needs of today, including:
The work of the Sisters continues among the thousands of lay people who lead and serve in the ministries and direct the focus through being directors of the boards of the incorporated community works. One organisation which has emerged among lay people is Josephite Community Aid. It was formed in 1986 to involve young lay people in community work with refugees and others, along with other volunteer programs. Mary MacKillop Centres were established as focal points for pilgrimage, learning, and spirituality.
By the end of the first decade of the 21st century, the Josephites reported around 850 sisters involved in ministering throughout Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, Peru, East Timor, Scotland, and Brazil. The sisters maintained an interest in working in education, aged care, ministry in rural areas, work with indigenous Australians, refugees, families, the homeless, and general pastoral and parish ministries. The South Australian Province Reconciliation Circle, comprising a group of Josephite and Carmelite women together with Aboriginal mentors, began meeting regularly in 2003 to work for justice and reconciliation in indigenous affairs. In 2006 the Conference of Josephite Leaders (Central and Federation Congregations) established the Josephite Justice Office to conduct advocacy in the community.
Between 2012 and 2014 the Sisters of Saint Joseph of Tasmania, Goulburn, Whanganui (Sisters of St Joseph of Nazareth), and the Perthville Congregation have all merged as with the Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart.
In 1925, the congregational leader of the Sisters of St Joseph, Mother Laurence, began the process to have MacKillop declared a saint and Archbishop Michael Kelly of Sydney established a tribunal to carry the process forward. After further investigations, MacKillop 's "heroic virtue '' was declared in 1992. Her canonisation was announced on 19 February 2010 and took place on 17 October 2010. This made her the first Australian saint. An estimated 8,000 Australians were present in Vatican City to witness the ceremony.
Sr Irene McCormack RSJ (21 August 1938 -- 21 May 1991) was an Australian member of the Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart who worked as a missionary in Peru. She was executed there in 1991 by members of Sendero Luminoso ("Shining Path ''), a Maoist rebel guerrilla organisation.
In October 2010, Australian media reported McCormack 's possible recognised sainthood after Mary MacKillop 's canonisation. The Daily Telegraph reported that senior Peruvian and Australian Catholic clergy planned on preparing a submission to the Vatican for McCormack 's cause after Mary MacKillop 's canonisation.
The Congregational Leader of the Sisters of St Joseph, Sister Ann Derwin, said that people in Huasahuasi, who already regarded McCormack as a saint, demanded this, since people judged to have been martyrs do not require evidence of miracles performed through their intercession.
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when did the carolina panthers become a team | History of the Carolina Panthers - Wikipedia
The Carolina Panthers ' history formally dates back to 1993, when the NFL awarded the franchise to Charlotte, North Carolina. The Panthers, along with the Jacksonville Jaguars, began play in the 1995 NFL season as expansion teams. They have played in Charlotte since 1996, winning six division titles and two NFC Championships. They were the first NFL franchise based in the Carolinas, and the second professional sports team based in Charlotte, the first being the NBA 's Charlotte Hornets.
In 1987, shortly after it was decided that Charlotte would receive an expansion National Basketball Association franchise (the Hornets), former Baltimore Colts wide receiver, North Carolina native and businessman Jerry Richardson met with a group of potential backers to discuss the possibility of bringing an NFL expansion team to the Carolina region. Richardson Sports decided upon a spot in the uptown section of Charlotte to build a privately financed stadium seating more than 70,000 fans.
Richardson 's announcement created a buzz in the region, as politicians, businessmen, and citizens all joined together to show the NFL that a team could be supported in the area. United States Senators Jesse Helms of North Carolina and Ernest Hollings of South Carolina put aside their partisan differences to lobby NFL owners to support the expansion. Meanwhile, then - North Carolina Governor James G. Martin and then - South Carolina Governor Carroll A. Campbell, Jr. created a committee of citizens from both states to help the cause. Preseason games were held in the region in 1989, 1990, and 1991. The first two were held at Carter -- Finley Stadium in Raleigh, North Carolina, and Kenan Memorial Stadium in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, respectively, while the third game was held at Williams - Brice Stadium in Columbia, South Carolina. The matchups were between existing NFL teams and all three games were sold out as part of the fans ' efforts to show their support.
In 1992, the NFL released their list of five areas open to a potential NFL team: Baltimore, Maryland; St. Louis, Missouri; Memphis, Tennessee; Jacksonville, Florida; and the Carolinas, represented by Charlotte. After the vote was delayed because of a dispute between the players and the league, the race began again in 1993. In June of that year, Richardson Sports announced that they would finance the stadium through the sale of Permanent Seat Licenses, club seats, and luxury boxes. In a stunning show of fan support, all seats were sold out by the end of the first day.
The feasibility of the team was no longer a question, but it was still up to the league to decide where the new team would go. On October 26, 1993, the league announced that the owners had unanimously voted for the Carolinas to receive the 29th franchise, the first new NFL team since 1976 (Jacksonville was named the 30th team a month later). Fans all over the region celebrated with fireworks. In a memorable moment during the expansion announcement conference, Richardson spoke directly into a camera feed going to the Carolinas to thank the 40,000 people who had purchased the PSLs and allowing the stadium to be built without a burden to the taxpayers.
Even though St. Louis and Baltimore lost out on their expansion bids, they eventually acquired new teams: the Los Angeles Rams moved to St. Louis in 1995 (however, the Rams would return to Los Angeles in 2016), and as the result of the 1996 Cleveland Browns relocation controversy, the Baltimore Ravens were established by the league as technically a new expansion team. Memphis also temporarily received a team when the Houston Oilers relocated in 1996 to Tennessee, intending to play the 1997 and 1998 seasons in Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium while what is now called Nissan Stadium in Nashville was being constructed.
The Panthers signed Dom Capers, former defensive coordinator for the Pittsburgh Steelers and current defensive coordinator for the Green Bay Packers, as their inaugural head coach.
During the 1995 NFL Expansion Draft, Rod Smith was the first player selected by the Panthers. During the 1995 NFL Draft, the Panthers made their first significant addition (in terms of long - term contributions to the team) by drafting Penn State quarterback Kerry Collins. Upon entering the NFL in 1995, the Panthers and Jacksonville Jaguars set about building their respective squads with a luxury not afforded to previous expansion teams: free agency. The Panthers made excellent use of the tool, picking up wide receiver Don Beebe, linebacker Sam Mills, and placekicker John Kasay. The Panthers won the annual Hall of Fame Game against the fellow expansion Jacksonville Jaguars 20 -- 14 (a game known as the "Battle of the Big Cats '', due to the similar nicknames of the franchises) on July 29, 1995. General manager Bill Polian, who had built the Buffalo Bills teams that won four consecutive AFC Championships a few years prior, brought many of the contributors from that squad to Carolina, including Carlton Bailey, Frank Reich, Pete Metzelaars and Beebe.
The home games during the season were played at Clemson University, as the Panthers stadium in Charlotte was still under construction. This made the Panthers the only sports team in one of the Big Four leagues ever based out of South Carolina, even if only for one year. The Panthers originally wanted to play their first season in Williams - Brice Stadium in Columbia, South Carolina, which was closer and more accessible to Charlotte, but the University of South Carolina turned them down.
Despite being drafted first, Kerry Collins was not the team 's first starting QB, that distinction instead going to former Bills backup Frank Reich. The Panthers first regular season game was against the Atlanta Falcons in the Georgia Dome. The Panthers scored on their first three possessions to take a 13 -- 0 lead before the Falcons rallied to win 23 -- 20 in overtime. The Panthers first home game (in Clemson) was a 31 -- 10 loss to the St. Louis Rams. Reich only played in the first three games but was the first Panthers QB to throw a touchdown pass. Collins assumed starting QB duties in week 4. Following an 0 -- 5 start to the season, the Panthers won their first game against the New York Jets 26 -- 15 on October 15, 1995, after Sam Mills returned an interception 36 yards for a touchdown. Later that year, the Panthers stunned the league by not only winning four consecutive games (an expansion team record), but defeating the defending Super Bowl champion San Francisco 49ers 13 -- 7, the first time an expansion team had beaten the reigning champs. The Panthers finished their season 7 -- 9, more than doubling the previous record of a first year expansion team.
In the 1996 NFL Draft, the Panthers used their first pick on running back Tim Biakabutuka, and their second pick on wide receiver Muhsin Muhammad, both players would have successful careers with the team. During the off - season, they also picked up quarterback Steve Beuerlein, tight end Wesley Walls, and linebacker Kevin Greene. After playing their home games at Memorial Stadium in Clemson, South Carolina during their first season, the Panthers began play at the newly completed Ericsson Stadium in Charlotte, North Carolina starting in September. The team 's second year proved even better than the first; following a 5 -- 4 start to the year, the players found a groove and rattled off a seven - game winning streak to end the season with a record of 12 -- 4, and win the NFC West division for the first time in franchise history.
In their first ever playoff game, they beat the Dallas Cowboys 26 -- 17 in the NFC Divisional Playoffs at Ericsson Stadium. The following week, however, they fell to the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers 30 -- 13 in the NFC Championship. Their fellow second - year expansion team, the Jacksonville Jaguars, played in the AFC Championship against the New England Patriots but lost 20 -- 6; the NFL nearly had an all - expansion Super Bowl. Following the successful season, the Panthers were represented at the Pro Bowl by eight players, including Kerry Collins, John Kasay, Sam Mills, and Michael Bates among others. Capers also won NFL Coach of the Year, becoming the first Panthers coach to win the award.
The Panthers picked up several talented players in the 1997 NFL Draft, including safety Mike Minter, tight end Kris Mangum, and also signed running back Fred Lane as an undrafted free agent. Following an impressive second season, the Panthers fully expected to return to the playoffs in 1997, but a 2 -- 4 start quickly began to cloud the minds of Carolina fans. The team finished their third season with a record of 7 -- 9, and missed the playoffs. The Panthers lost their first ever appearance on Monday Night Football by a score of 34 - 21 to the San Francisco 49ers. They were also shut out for the first time in franchise history in a week 11 loss to the Denver Broncos, 34 -- 0.
The Panthers started the 1998 season 0 -- 7, the franchise 's worst start ever. Quarterback Kerry Collins started the first four games for the team before Steve Beuerlein was given the starting job; he started the season 's remaining 12 games. The team got their first win of the year with a 31 -- 17 victory over the New Orleans Saints in week 9, breaking a nine - game losing streak dating back to the previous season. After rallying to win their last two games, the Panthers finished the year 4 -- 12, their worst record in franchise history at the time. Kerry Collins, who was dealing with alcoholism, was released following the season. Head coach Dom Capers was let go as well, after four seasons with the franchise.
After Dom Capers was let go following the previous season, George Seifert was hired as the second head coach in Panthers history. Seifert had won two Super Bowls as the head coach of the San Francisco 49ers, and had a reputation for winning with talented and experienced teams.
The Panthers picked up several players in the 1999 NFL Draft, including defensive end Mike Rucker. In Seifert 's first season with the team, the Panthers finished with an 8 -- 8 record, a four - game improvement from the previous season, and their first. 500 record in franchise history. Following a 2 -- 5 start, they finished 6 -- 3 in their last 9 games, including a last - second victory over Green Bay where QB Steve Beuerlein ran in for the game - winning score, and a 45 -- 13 home victory over the division rival New Orleans Saints in the final game of the season. However, the team missed out on a wildcard playoff berth through a complicated tiebreaker based on total points scored. Wide receiver Rae Carruth, taken with the Panthers first pick of the 1997 Draft, was arrested in 1999 for conspiring to murder his pregnant girlfriend and was later convicted.
In the 2000 NFL Draft, safety Deon Grant and linebacker Lester Towns were among the players selected by the Panthers. In Seifert 's second season with the team, the Panthers finished 7 -- 9, one game worse than the previous season, and missed the playoffs for the fourth consecutive season. They finished third in the NFC West, behind the playoff - bound St. Louis Rams and New Orleans Saints. Veteran quarterback Steve Beuerlein, who had been the team 's starting quarterback since 1998, was released following the season. Former running back Fred Lane, who had been a member of the Panthers for three seasons, was shot and killed by his wife during a domestic dispute in 2000 after signing with the Indianapolis Colts.
Seifert 's third and final season with the Panthers was a disaster. The team released veteran quarterback Steve Beuerlein in the off - season and handed the reins to Jeff Lewis, who was released after several poor performances during the preseason; that left the Panthers with rookie quarterback Chris Weinke under center. Weinke had won the Heisman Trophy and led Florida State to a national championship in college but was unable to duplicate that level of success in the NFL. The Panthers won their opening game against the Minnesota Vikings 24 -- 13, but then lost 15 straight games. This set a record for single - season losing streaks which held until the Detroit Lions ' 0 -- 16 winless campaign of 2008. The Panthers also finished last in their division for the first time in franchise history.
George Seifert was fired the day after the 2001 season ended and the team then set out to find its third head coach. Although his final season was the worst in team history, Seifert did help select several outstanding players in the 2001 NFL Draft including linebacker Dan Morgan, defensive tackle Kris Jenkins and wide receiver Steve Smith, each of whom earned Pro Bowl berths and All - Pro awards while playing for the Panthers. Smith, who played thirteen seasons with the team, was considered one of the most electrifying and explosive wide receivers in the game.
After Seifert was fired following the disastrous 2001 season, the Panthers hired New York Giants defensive coordinator John Fox as the team 's third head coach. Fox was known for defensive discipline and it would be needed to improve a team that had finished in the bottom of the defensive rankings the previous year.
Fox looked to the 2002 NFL Draft to begin revamping the franchise, starting with the second overall pick; defensive end Julius Peppers. Peppers was a dominating defensive end at the University of North Carolina and he was a solid fit for Fox 's defensive plan. The Panthers also picked up linebacker Will Witherspoon and running back DeShaun Foster in the draft. Peppers combined with fellow defensive end Mike Rucker and defensive tackles Brentson Buckner and Kris Jenkins to form what many football experts at the time called the best defensive line in the game. Meanwhile, safety Mike Minter anchored the secondary, while Witherspoon (affectionately called "Spoon '' by fans and teammates) and Mark Fields led the linebacker corps. Veteran Rodney Peete led the offense at QB. Fox 's defense - first philosophy worked well as the Panthers improved to 7 -- 9 (a six - game improvement over the previous year) and posted the league 's second - best overall defense, including allowing a league - low 3.69 yards per rushing attempt.
The 2003 season began with the Panthers drafting several young prospects, including Ricky Manning, Jr. at cornerback, and Jordan Gross at offensive tackle. In addition, then - unknown quarterback Jake Delhomme, running back Stephen Davis, and former Rams wide receiver Ricky Proehl were signed in the off - season, making additions to an offense that needed to complement a top - ranked defense. The team was not without tragedy, however, as it was revealed that former linebacker and coach Sam Mills was diagnosed with intestinal cancer; additionally, linebacker Mark Fields was diagnosed with Hodgkin 's Disease. The team used their struggle as inspiration, and started the season 5 -- 0. Former Saints backup Jake Delhomme replaced Rodney Peete at quarterback by halftime of the season opener against the Jacksonville Jaguars, then led the Panthers to a fourth quarter comeback, thus winning the starting job. Delhomme eventually led the team to an 11 -- 5 record, the NFC South Division title and a playoff berth.
In the playoffs, they easily defeated the Cowboys 29 -- 10 in a home wild - card game before facing the St. Louis Rams in the divisional playoff game in the Edward Jones Dome. Carolina had an 11 - point lead in the last 3 minutes of play, but a touchdown from Marshall Faulk, a successful two - point conversion, and an onside kick that led to a field goal tied the game and sent it to overtime. Both John Kasay and Jeff Wilkins missed potential game - winning kicks in the first overtime, but In the first play of the 2nd OT, however, Jake Delhomme hit Steve Smith with a 69 - yard touchdown pass to win the game, 29 -- 23, sending the Panthers into the NFC Championship game against the Philadelphia Eagles. The Eagles, led by Donovan McNabb, were in the NFC title match for the 3rd year in a row, but lost it as the Panthers shut down the Eagles offense and, with a 14 -- 3 victory, headed to their first Super Bowl against the New England Patriots. The multiple close games, won either in overtime or with a slim margin, gave way to a new nickname for the Panthers: the "Cardiac Cats. ''
at Reliant Stadium, Houston, Texas
At Super Bowl XXXVIII, neither team was able to put up points in the first quarter, and the game remained scoreless until near the end of the first half. However, 24 points were scored in the last 5 minutes of the first half, and the score going into halftime was 14 -- 10 New England. The third quarter was also scoreless and it was n't until late in the game that things heated up once again. The teams traded leads numerous times in the highest - scoring fourth quarter in Super Bowl history, including setting a record when Jake Delhomme hit Muhsin Muhammad for an 85 - yard touchdown pass early in the fourth quarter. That pass made the score 22 -- 21, Carolina and went down in the record books as the longest offensive play in Super Bowl history. After New England responded with a touchdown of their own and a 2 - point conversion to make it 29 -- 22, Carolina would storm right back to tie the game with a touchdown pass to Ricky Proehl with 1: 08 left in regulation, opening the possibility to the first overtime game in Super Bowl history. However, John Kasay 's kickoff went out of bounds, giving the Patriots the ball on their own 40 - yard line. Adam Vinatieri, who had won Super Bowl XXXVI two years earlier on a last - second field goal, repeated his heroics, connecting on a 41 - yarder with four seconds left, even though he had already missed two field goals in the game. This gave the Patriots their second Super Bowl win in three years.
Experts all picked the Panthers to repeat their 2003 season success in 2004. Having selected cornerback Chris Gamble and wide receiver Keary Colbert with their top two picks in the 2004 draft, and not having lost any core players from their Super Bowl run, the team looked ready for their 10th Anniversary season. In addition, Mark Fields, who had missed the previous season with Hodgkin 's disease, returned and was ready to go. But the team suffered major injuries early on, as Steve Smith broke his leg in the season opener against Green Bay, Stephen Davis suffered a knee injury before the second game of the season, and Kris Jenkins had shoulder problems that benched him for the year. In fact, the Panthers had 14 players on injured reserve, including their top four running backs, more than any other team. This led to a 1 -- 7 start, and people began wondering if they would repeat the 1 -- 15 season of 2001. However, backup fullback Nick Goings stepped up to the challenge with five 100 - yd rushing games, Keary Colbert played better than most rookies thrown into the # 2 receiver spot, and the defense held together despite the injuries to help the team win 6 of their last 8 games, finishing 7 -- 9. The Panthers barely missed the playoffs after losing a close game to New Orleans, when a 60 - yard field goal attempt fell just short as time expired.
Among things the Panthers did in 2004 to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the franchise was name a 10th Anniversary All - Time Team. With the exception of tight end Wesley Walls, every offensive starter was on the team during their Super Bowl run of 2003. The only defensive players to make the anniversary team that played in the Super Bowl were the front four (Peppers, Rucker, Jenkins and Buckner), linebacker Dan Morgan, and safety Mike Minter. Pro Bowl punter Todd Sauerbrun made the squad as well. Naturally, kicker John Kasay made the team, since he had been the team 's kicker since its inception.
Despite a home - opening loss to the New Orleans Saints to start off the 2005 season, the Panthers got revenge against the two - time defending champion New England Patriots for the loss in Super Bowl XXXVIII, winning the rematch by a final score of 27 -- 17. Despite going on the road and losing a close game to the Miami Dolphins 27 -- 24, the Panthers managed to get a six - game winning streak going, including a win at home on Monday Night Football against the Green Bay Packers. In a home game against the Minnesota Vikings, Steve Smith, who had already emerged as one of the league 's best wide receivers had a real breakthrough, catching 11 passes for 201 yards and 1 touchdown, with his longest reception of the game being 69 yards. Jake Delhomme also enjoyed one of his best outings in years, completing 21 of 29 passes for 341 yards and three touchdowns, giving Delhomme a nomination for FedEx Air Player of The Week.
Their winning streak came to an end however at the hands of the Chicago Bears. The # 1 defense held the Panthers to just three points, as they lost the game 13 -- 3. After losing to the Cowboys in the season 's penultimate game, the Panthers needed a victory to secure a spot in the playoffs. They responded with a dominating New Years Day performance at the Georgia Dome, a 44 -- 11 victory over the Falcons, making the score the largest margin of victory in franchise history, and the first time since 1997 that the Panthers were able to beat the Falcons in the Georgia Dome. With that victory, the Panthers secured themselves the NFC 's # 5 seed.
The Panthers began their post-season play on Sunday January 8, 2006 at Giants Stadium against the New York Giants. After both sides failed to score in the first quarter, the trifecta of Jake Delhomme, DeShaun Foster, and Steve Smith showed dominance as they shut out the Giants 23 -- 0. Carolina 's coach, John Fox, used to be the defensive coordinator for the Giants when they went to the Super Bowl earlier in the decade. New York was the nation 's number one television market, and the shutout in the playoffs was significant.
Their next opponent was the Chicago Bears, home to the nation 's third largest television market. The Panthers defeated them at Soldier Field with a final score of 29 -- 21. With that victory, the Panthers advanced to the NFC Championship Game for the third time in the franchise 's 11 - year history. However, during the Chicago game Deshaun Foster suffered a crushing ankle injury that would keep him indefinitely sidelined. Also, star defensive end Julius Peppers re-injured an ailing shoulder. The next weekend they played against the Seattle Seahawks for the NFC Championship, but injuries and playing on the road for the fourth straight week caught up with the Panthers and they came up short, losing 34 -- 14.
In the 2006 NFL Draft, the Panthers drafted running back Deangelo Williams in the first round. Coming off a playoff season and with new acquisition Keyshawn Johnson, the Panthers sold out Bank of America Stadium fifteen minutes after tickets went on sale. An early injury to Steve Smith led to a two - game losing streak, but his return coincided with a four - game winning run. However, Jake Delhomme was injured soon after and was lost for three games. In the end, the team finished 8 -- 8 and missed the playoffs. Following the season, offensive coordinator Dan Henning was fired and Johnson retired, becoming an NFL analyst for ESPN for several years.
Among the players the team drafted that offseason was WR Dwayne Jarrett, picked in the second round of the 2007 NFL Draft. Jarrett would become a major draft bust. The Panthers began the season as playoff contenders, and won their opener against the St. Louis Rams for the first time since 2003. The following week at home against the Houston Texans, the Panthers jumped ahead 14 -- 0 but lost 34 -- 21, unable to fend off a relentless passing attack by the Texans. In week three against the Atlanta Falcons, Delhomme was lost for the season with an injured elbow, which resulted in Tommy John surgery. After a close loss to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in week 4, the Panthers got back on the winning track behind the passing arm of former Houston Texans standout QB David Carr, who drew from the playbook of his 2006 defeat of the Indianapolis Colts by engineering two 4th - quarter drives; the first for a TD, and the last to set up the game - winning field goal by John Kasay to defeat the New Orleans Saints. Unfortunately for the Panthers, the unpopular Carr suffered the first major injury of his career, badly injuring his back against the Saints. After returning to the game in the second half to get the win, Carr would play sparingly for the rest of the year, forcing the Panthers to rely on a combination of 44 - year - old Vinny Testaverde and rookie Matt Moore for the remainder of the season. The Panthers finished 7 -- 9, and missed the playoffs again.
The Panthers picked up several talented players in the 2008 NFL Draft, including running back Jonathan Stewart, and offensive tackle Jeff Otah. With the help of a much improved rushing offense, the Panthers rebounded in the 2008 season, going 8 -- 0 at home, and finishing the season with a 12 -- 4 record. After defeating the New Orleans Saints 33 -- 31 in the last game of the regular season, the Panthers claimed their second NFC South title and a first round bye in the playoffs. However, on January 10 the Panthers ' season came to a disappointing end, as they lost to the Arizona Cardinals 33 -- 13 at home in the Divisional round. The Panthers ' offense was plagued by Delhomme 's 6 turnovers (5 interceptions and a fumble) and the Cardinals 27 first - half points.
The 2009 season opener witnessed Carolina lose at the hands of the Eagles (including Delhomme 's six turnovers), followed by losses to Atlanta and Dallas. The Panthers got their first win in week 5 against Washington. In Week 6, they defeated their division rival Buccaneers 28 -- 21, a game that was most notable for cornerback Dante Wesley launching himself into the neck of Tampa Bay punt returner Clifton Smith after Smith had waved for a fair catch. Smith was knocked unconscious and Wesley ejected for his actions after a brief fight broke out between both teams. Wesley was suspended one game and fined $20,000. There followed an uneven string of wins and losses. After 11 games, a recently injured Delhomme was benched, and replaced at starting QB by Matt Moore. With a more aggressive offense in place, the Panthers won four of their last five games, including their last three. These victories included an impressive 26 -- 7 sweep of playoff - bound Minnesota. They then crushed the Giants 41 -- 9 in the last game at Giants Stadium, and ended the season at 8 -- 8 with a 23 -- 10 victory over the Saints.
The Panthers lost several key players during the 2010 off - season from previous seasons, including quarterback Jake Delhomme, defensive end Julius Peppers, wide receiver Muhsin Muhammad, and cornerback Dante Wesley. Their most notable draft pick was Notre Dame quarterback Jimmy Clausen, who eventually started 10 games during the season. Matt Moore started at QB when the Panthers lost in New York in Week 1, and then fell to Tampa Bay. The 0 -- 2 team then benched Moore and installed Clausen as starting quarterback. After suffering further defeats against Cincinnati, New Orleans, and Chicago, Carolina entered its bye week at 0 -- 5. Moore was brought out as starter again in Week 7 and the Panthers got their first win by defeating San Francisco 23 -- 20. Following another seven - game losing streak, in which Moore was eventually placed on injured reserve, Clausen lead the Panthers to their second win, a 19 -- 12 victory over the Cardinals. In the end, the Panthers finished the season with a record of 2 -- 14 and a last place finish in the NFC South. This marked the team 's worst record since 2001 and the worst record in the league that season. However, the team 's last - place finish gave them the number one pick in the 2011 NFL Draft.
After a disappointing 2010 season, John Fox was fired along with most of his coaching staff 24 hours after the regular season concluded. A few months later, the Panthers hired Ron Rivera as the fourth head coach in Panther history. Rivera was previously the defensive coordinator for the Chicago Bears and the San Diego Chargers before being hired by the Panthers.
The Panthers selected Heisman Trophy and National Championship - winning quarterback Cam Newton with the 1st overall pick of the 2011 NFL Draft. This move was controversial, as Newton 's ability to play in the NFL was widely doubted by many experts, but it also showed a clear sign that the Panthers were dissatisfied with Jimmy Clausen. Amid all the speculation Cam went on to break Peyton Manning 's rookie passing yard record, rushing TD 's by a quarterback in a single season, and many other records. With leadership from Newton, coach Ron Rivera, and a huge comeback season from Steve Smith, the Panthers would finish the 2011 season 6 -- 10 -- a four - game improvement over the previous year -- and finish 3rd in the division.
The Panthers drafted Boston College linebacker Luke Kuechly with the 9th overall pick in the 2012 NFL Draft and unveiled an updated logo. Carolina started the season 2 - 8, losing many of them by late - game collapses. A 19 - 14 loss to the Cowboys resulted in longtime general manager Marty Hurney being fired. However, the team managed to win 5 out of their final 6 games to finish with a record of 7 - 9, good for 2nd in the NFC South. It became their first season with single - digit losses since 2009. The strong finish helped to save head coach Ron Rivera from otherwise losing his job, despite talk of the coach being fired after the season 's end.
After allowing the Buffalo Bills to score the game - winning touchdown with only 2 seconds left in their week 2 matchup, and then losing 22 - 6 the next week against the Cardinals in which Cam Newton threw three interceptions, the Panthers fell 1 - 3 to begin the season. Coach Ron Rivera 's job was once again in serious jeopardy, along with questions of Newton 's leadership. The team rebounded the following week, beating the Minnesota Vikings 35 - 10 and unexpectedly went on a then - franchise record eight - game winning streak. During the streak, the Panthers defeated the reigning NFC champion San Francisco 49ers in California and defeated the longtime AFC powerhouse New England Patriots on Monday Night Football in Charlotte. The Panthers defense, led by second year linebacker Luke Kuechly, became the main star during the streak, holding opponents to 20 points or less. It finally ended in week 14, when Carolina was beaten 31 - 13 by their division rival New Orleans Saints on Sunday Night Football. The Panthers were able to finish strong with three victories in a row. Rebounding with a 30 - 20 victory over the Jets, they avenged their loss to the Saints with a nail - biting 17 - 13 win. A razor thin 21 - 20 season finale win over the Atlanta Falcons the following week allowed Carolina to clinch their third NFC South title overall and the 2nd seed for the NFC playoffs.
In the Divisional round of the playoffs, the Panthers hosted the 49ers. The reigning conference champions were much healthier than they were in the regular season, and defeated the Panthers 23 - 10. Following the season, Rivera won Coach of the Year, becoming the second Panthers coach to win the award and Kuechly won Defensive Player of the Year, the first Panther to win the honor.
After a strong start with wins against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and the Detroit Lions, the Panthers suffered a dismal 1 - 8 - 1 record over the next 10 games, falling to 3 - 8 - 1 with an embarrassing loss against the Vikings, including having two punts blocked. Their record included a 37 - 37 overtime tie against the Cincinnati Bengals in Week 6, the first ever tie in both franchise history and NFL history under the current overtime rules. The tide turned in December, with four consecutive wins against the New Orleans Saints, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Cleveland Browns, and Atlanta Falcons. With these wins, the Panthers finished the season at 7 - 8 - 1.
Despite having a losing record, the Panthers captured their second straight NFC South division title and, for the first time in franchise history, playoff berths in back - to - back years. They were also the first team in NFC South history to have back to back division titles and the second team to win a division title with a sub -. 500 record, the first team being the 2010 Seattle Seahawks. The Panthers defeated the Arizona Cardinals in the Wild Card round, their first postseason victory in nine years, but lost to the Seattle Seahawks in the Divisional round.
The Panthers looked to improve on their playoff run from 2014, but things started ominously before the season began as top WR Kelvin Benjamin was lost for the year after tearing his ACL in a non-contact drill during practice. Despite what some thought was a major loss in Benjamin, Carolina went on to shock the NFL by achieving both a franchise - best and league - best 15 - 1 record, including 14 consecutive victories to start the season, the most by any NFC team in history. Their only regular season loss occurred in the penultimate week of the regular season against the Atlanta Falcons. Season highlights included Cam Newton 's flip into the end zone in week 2, defeating Seattle on the road in week 5, an overtime victory over the Colts in week 8, blowing out the Cowboys in the Panthers first Thanksgiving Day game in week 10, winning their third straight division title in week 11, and achieving home - field advantage throughout the playoffs for the first time in franchise history in week 17. Also, ten players (six offensive, four defensive) were selected to the Pro Bowl, the most in team history along with eight All - Pro selections.
In the postseason, the Panthers, having earned home - field advantage, earned a 1st - round bye. At home for the Divisional Round, Carolina faced Seattle in a rematch from the playoffs a year before. After jumping out to a 31 - 0 halftime lead, the Seahawks stormed back with 24 unanswered points to make it 31 - 24, however the Panthers would recover the ensuing onside kick, ending Seattle 's quest for a possible third consecutive Super Bowl appearance. Next, the Panthers hosted the Arizona Cardinals in their first NFC Championship game appearance since 2005 and the first one played in Charlotte. Carolina routed the Cardinals, forcing seven turnovers en route to a 49 - 15 victory, their first NFC Championship win since 2003. With the win, Carolina advanced to Super Bowl 50, the team 's first appearance in thirteen years. The Panthers were defeated by the Denver Broncos in the Super Bowl by a score of 24 -- 10.
At the NFL Honors, which took place the day before the Super Bowl, it was announced Newton had won the NFL MVP award, becoming the first Panther to ever win the honor. The QB also won Offensive Player of the Year (another first), while Rivera won his second Coach of the Year award in three seasons.
Looking to defend their NFC South crown for a fourth straight season, the Panthers backfired. Josh Norman was cut by now fired GM Dave Gettleman who was a very controversial guy for cutting Steve Smith as well and Norman then signed with Washington in the offseason, leading the team to draft three corners to replace him. The year started with a close loss to the Broncos. A win against the 49ers the following week did n't help, as the team went 1 - 5 over the first six weeks. After a week 13 blowout loss to Seattle, the Panthers rebounded to win two straight. However, they could n't stop the Falcons who won the NFC South, ending Carolina 's three - year run. Newton had statistically the worst season of his career and the team finished with a 6 - 10 record. The season was also marked by the death of former special teams coordinator Bruce DeHaven. Four days after the season ended, team president Danny Morrison resigned. The Panthers also lost defensive coordinator Sean McDermott who became Buffalo 's head coach.
Buffalo Bills Miami Dolphins New England Patriots New York Jets
Baltimore Ravens Cincinnati Bengals Cleveland Browns Pittsburgh Steelers
Houston Texans Indianapolis Colts Jacksonville Jaguars Tennessee Titans
Denver Broncos Kansas City Chiefs Los Angeles Chargers Oakland Raiders
Dallas Cowboys New York Giants Philadelphia Eagles Washington Redskins
Chicago Bears Detroit Lions Green Bay Packers Minnesota Vikings
Atlanta Falcons Carolina Panthers New Orleans Saints Tampa Bay Buccaneers
Arizona Cardinals Los Angeles Rams San Francisco 49ers Seattle Seahawks
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causes of bullwhip effect in supply chain management | Bullwhip effect - wikipedia
The bullwhip effect is a distribution channel phenomenon in which forecasts yield supply chain inefficiencies. It refers to increasing swings in inventory in response to shifts in customer demand as one moves further up the supply chain. The concept first appeared in Jay Forrester 's Industrial Dynamics (1961) and thus it is also known as the Forrester effect. The bullwhip effect was named for the way the amplitude of a whip increases down its length. The further from the originating signal, the greater the distortion of the wave pattern. In a similar manner, forecast accuracy decreases as one moves upstream along the supply chain. For example, many consumer goods have fairly consistent consumption at retail but this signal becomes more chaotic and unpredictable as the focus moves away from consumer purchasing behavior.
In the 1990s, Hau Lee, a Professor of Engineering and Management Science at Stanford University, helped incorporate the concept into supply chain vernacular using a story about Volvo. Suffering a glut in green cars, sales and marketing developed a program to move the excess inventory. While successful in generating the desired market pull, manufacturing did not know about the promotional plans. Instead, they read the increase in sales as an indication of growing demand for green cars and ramped up production.
Research indicates a fluctuation in point - of - sale demand of + / - five percent will be interpreted by supply chain participants as a change in demand of up to + / - forty percent. Much like cracking a whip, a small flick of the wrist (a shift in point of sale demand) can cause a large motion at the end of the whip (manufacturer 's response).
Because customer demand is rarely perfectly stable, businesses must forecast demand to properly position inventory and other resources. Forecasts are based on statistics, and they are rarely perfectly accurate. Because forecast errors are given, companies often carry an inventory buffer called "safety stock ''.
Moving up the supply chain from end - consumer to raw materials supplier, each supply chain participant has greater observed variation in demand and thus greater need for safety stock. In periods of rising demand, down - stream participants increase orders. In periods of falling demand, orders fall or stop, thereby not reducing inventory. The effect is that variations are amplified as one moves upstream in the supply chain (further from the customer). This sequence of events is well simulated by the beer distribution game which was developed by MIT Sloan School of Management in the 1960s.
The causes can further be divided into behavioral and operational causes.
Human factors influencing the behavior in supply chains are largely unexplored. However, studies suggest that people with increased need for safety and security seem to perform worse than risk - takers in a simulated supply chain environment. People with high self - efficacy experience less trouble handling the bullwhip - effect in the supply chain.
In addition to greater safety stocks, the described effect can lead to either inefficient production or excessive inventory, as each producer needs to fulfill the demand of its customers in the supply chain. This also leads to a low utilization of the distribution channel.
In spite of having safety stocks there is still the hazard of stock - outs which result in poor customer service and lost sales. In addition to the (financially) hard measurable consequences of poor customer services and the damage to public image and loyalty, an organization has to cope with the ramifications of failed fulfillment which may include contractual penalties. Moreover, repeated hiring and dismissal of employees to manage the demand variability induces further costs due to training and possible lay - offs.
In theory, the bullwhip effect does not occur if all orders exactly meet the demand of each period. This is consistent with findings of supply chain experts who have recognized that the bullwhip effect is a problem in forecast - driven supply chains, and careful management of the effect is an important goal for supply chain managers. Therefore, it is necessary to extend the visibility of customer demand as far as possible.
One way to achieve this is to establish a demand - driven supply chain which reacts to actual customer orders. In manufacturing, this concept is called kanban. This model has been successfully implemented in Wal - Mart 's distribution system. Individual Wal - Mart stores transmit point - of - sale (POS) data from the cash register back to corporate headquarters several times a day. This demand information is used to queue shipments from the Wal - Mart distribution center to the store and from the supplier to the Wal - Mart distribution center. The result is near - perfect visibility of customer demand and inventory movement throughout the supply chain. Better information leads to better inventory positioning and lower costs throughout the supply chain.
The concept of "cumulative quantities '' is a method that can tackle and even avoid the bull - whip - effect. This method is developed and practised mainly in the German automotive industry, with its expanded supply chains and is established in several EDI - formats between OEMs and their suppliers.
Barriers to the implementation of a demand - driven supply chain include the necessary investment in information technology and the creation of a corporate culture of flexibility and focus on customer demand. Another prerequisite is that all members of a supply chain recognize that they can gain more if they act as a whole which requires trustful collaboration and information sharing.
Methods intended to reduce uncertainty, variability, and lead time:
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what tissue has the most solid ground substance | Ground substance - Wikipedia
Ground substance is an amorphous gel - like substance in the extracellular space that contains bedded - in connective tissue cells and fibers. In a tissue, cells are surrounded and supported by an extracellular matrix.
Ground substance is active in the development, movement, and proliferation of tissues, as well as their metabolism. Additionally, cells use them for support, water storage, binding, and a medium for intercellular exchange (especially between blood cells and other types of cells)
The components of the ground substance vary depending on the tissue. Ground substance is primarily composed of water, glycosaminoglycans (most notably hyaluronan), proteoglycans, and glycoproteins. Usually it is not visible on slides, because it is lost during staining in the preparation process.
The meaning of the term has evolved over time.
In cytology, it may refer to the cytosol or protoplasm.
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where does the rio grande river flow through | Rio Grande - wikipedia
The Rio Grande (/ ˈriːoʊ ˈɡrænd / or / ˈriːoʊ ˈɡrɑːndeɪ /; Spanish: Río Bravo del Norte, pronounced (ˈri. o ˈβɾaβo ðel ˈnorte) or simply Río Bravo) is one of the principal rivers in the southwest United States and northern Mexico (the other being the Colorado River). The Rio Grande begins in south - central Colorado in the United States and flows to the Gulf of Mexico. Along the way, it forms part of the Mexico -- United States border. According to the International Boundary and Water Commission, its total length was 1,896 miles (3,051 km) in the late 1980s, though course shifts occasionally result in length changes. Depending on how it is measured, the Rio Grande is either the fourth - or fifth - longest river system in North America.
The river serves as part of the natural border between the U.S. state of Texas and the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas. A very short stretch of the river serves as part of the boundary between the U.S. states of Texas and New Mexico. Since the mid -- 20th century, heavy water consumption of farms and cities along with many large diversion dams on the river has left only 20 % of its natural discharge to flow to the Gulf. Near the river 's mouth, the heavily irrigated lower Rio Grande Valley is an important agricultural region.
The Rio Grande 's watershed covers 182,200 square miles (472,000 km). Many endorheic basins are situated within, or adjacent to, the Rio Grande 's basin, and these are sometimes included in the river basin 's total area, increasing its size to about 336,000 square miles (870,000 km).
The Rio Grande rises in the western part of the Rio Grande National Forest in the U.S. state of Colorado. The river is formed by the joining of several streams at the base of Canby Mountain in the San Juan Mountains, just east of the Continental Divide. From there, it flows through the San Luis Valley, then south into the Middle Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico, passing through the Rio Grande Gorge near Taos, then toward Española, and picking up additional water from the San Juan - Chama Diversion Project from the Rio Chama. It then continues on a southerly route through the desert cities of Albuquerque, and Las Cruces to El Paso, Texas and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua. In the Albuquerque area, the river flows past a number of historic Pueblo villages, including Sandia Pueblo and Isleta Pueblo. Below El Paso, it serves as part of the border between the United States and Mexico.
The official river border measurement ranges from 889 miles (1,431 km) to 1,248 miles (2,008 km), depending on how the river is measured. A major tributary, the Rio Conchos, enters at Ojinaga, Chihuahua, below El Paso, and supplies most of the water in the border segment. Other tributaries include the Pecos and the smaller Devils, which join the Rio Grande on the site of Amistad Dam. Despite its name and length, the Rio Grande is not navigable by ocean - going ships, nor do smaller passenger boats or cargo barges use it as a route. It is barely navigable at all, except by small boats in a few places; at its deepest point, the river 's depth is 60 feet (18 m),
The Rio Grande rises in high mountains and flows for much of its length at high elevation; Albuquerque is 5,312 feet (1,619 m), and El Paso 3,762 feet (1,147 m) above sea level. In New Mexico, the river flows through the Rio Grande rift from one sediment - filled basin to another, cutting canyons between the basins and supporting a fragile bosque ecosystem on its flood plain. From El Paso eastward, the river flows through desert. Although irrigated agriculture exists throughout most of its stretch, it is particularly extensive in the subtropical Lower Rio Grande Valley. The river ends in a small, sandy delta at the Gulf of Mexico. During portions of 2001 and 2002, the mouth of the Rio Grande was blocked by a sandbar. In the fall of 2003, the sandbar was cleared by high river flows around 7,063 cubic feet per second (200 m / s).
Navigation was active during much of the 19th century, with over 200 different steamboats operating between the river 's mouth close to Brownsville, and Rio Grande City, Texas. Many steamboats from the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers were requisitioned by the US government and moved to the Rio Grande during the Mexican War in 1846. They provided transport for the U.S. Army, under General Zachary Taylor, to invade Monterrey, Mexico, via Camargo Municipality, Tamaulipas. Army engineers recommended that with small improvements, the river could easily be made navigable as far north as El Paso. Those recommendations were never acted upon.
The Brownsville & Matamoros International Bridge, a large swing bridge, dates back to 1910 and is still in use today by automobiles connecting Brownsville with Matamoros, Tamaulipas. It has not been opened since the early 1900s, though, when the last of the big steamboats disappeared. At one point, the bridge also had rail traffic. Railroad trains no longer use this bridge. A new rail bridge (West Rail International Crossing) connecting the U.S. and Mexico was built about 15 miles west of the Brownsville & Matamoros International Bridge. It was inaugurated in August 2015. It moved all rail operations out of downtown Brownsville and Matamoros. The West Rail International Crossing is the first new international rail crossing between the U.S. and Mexico in 105 years. The Brownsville & Matamoros International Bridge is now operated by the Brownsville and Matamoros Bridge Company, a joint venture between the Mexican government and the Union Pacific Railroad.
At the mouth of the Rio Grande, on the Mexican side, was the large commercial port of Bagdad. During the American Civil War, this was the only legitimate port of the Confederacy. European warships anchored offshore to maintain the port 's neutrality, and managed to do so successfully throughout that conflict, despite occasional stare - downs with blockading ships from the US Navy. It was a shallow - draft river port, with several smaller vessels that hauled cargo to and from the deeper - draft cargo ships anchored off shore. These deeper - draft ships could not cross the shallow sandbar at the mouth of the river. The port 's commerce was European military supplies, in exchange for bales of cotton.
During the late - 1830s and early - 1840s, the river marked the disputed border between Mexico and the nascent Republic of Texas; Mexico marked the border at the Nueces River. The disagreement provided part of the rationale for the US invasion of Mexico in 1846, after Texas had been admitted as a new state. Since 1848, the Rio Grande has marked the boundary between Mexico and the United States from the twin cities of El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, to the Gulf of Mexico. As such, crossing the river was the escape route used by some Texan slaves to seek freedom. Mexico had liberal colonization policies and had abolished slavery in 1828.
In 1899, after a gradual change to the river position, a channel was dug for flood control which moved the river, creating what was called Cordova Island, which became the center of the Chamizal dispute. Resolving the dispute took many years and almost resulted in the assassination of the American and Mexican presidents.
In 1944, the US and Mexico signed a treaty regarding the river, and in 1997, the US designated the Rio Grande as one of the American Heritage Rivers. Two portions of the Rio Grande are designated National Wild and Scenic Rivers System, one in northern New Mexico and the other in Texas, at Big Bend National Park.
In the summer of 2001, a 328 - foot (100 m) - wide sandbar formed at the mouth of the river, marking the first time in recorded history that the Rio Grande failed to empty into the Gulf of Mexico. The sandbar was subsequently dredged, but it reformed almost immediately. Spring rains the following year flushed the reformed sandbar out to sea, but it returned in the summer of 2002. As of the fall of 2003, the river once again reaches the Gulf.
The United States and Mexico share the water of the river under a series of agreements administered by the International Boundary and Water Commission (IBWC), US - Mexico. The most notable of these treaties were signed in 1906 and 1944. The IBWC traces its institutional roots to 1889, when the International Boundary Committee was established to maintain the border. The IBWC today also allocates river waters between the two nations, and provides for flood control and water sanitation.
Use of that water belonging to the United States is regulated by the Rio Grande Compact, an interstate pact between Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas. The water of the Rio Grande is over-appropriated: that is, more users for the water exist than water in the river. Because of both drought and overuse, the section from El Paso downstream through Ojinaga was recently tagged "The Forgotten River '' by those wishing to bring attention to the river 's deteriorated condition.
A number of dams are on the Rio Grande, including Rio Grande Dam, Cochiti Dam, Elephant Butte Dam, Caballo Dam, Amistad Dam, Falcon Dam, Anzalduas Dam, and Retamal Dam. In southern New Mexico and the upper portion of the Texas border segment, the river 's discharge dwindles. Diversions, mainly for agricultural irrigation, have increased the natural decrease in flow such that by the time the river reaches Presidio, little or no water is left. Below Presidio, the Rio Conchos restores the flow of water. Near Presidio, the river 's discharge is frequently zero. Its average discharge is 178 cubic feet per second (5 m / s), down from 945 cubic feet per second (27 m / s) at Elephant Butte Dam. Supplemented by other tributaries, the Rio Grande 's discharge increases to its maximum annual average of 3,504 cubic feet per second (99 m / s) near Rio Grande City. Large diversions for irrigation below Rio Grande City reduce the river 's average flow to 889 cubic feet per second (25 m / s) at Brownsville and Matamoros.
The major international border crossings along the river are at Ciudad Juárez and El Paso; Presidio, and Ojinaga; Laredo, and Nuevo Laredo; McAllen and Reynosa; and Brownsville and Matamoros. Other notable border towns are the Texas / Coahuila pairings of Del Rio -- Ciudad Acuña and Eagle Pass -- Piedras Negras.
Río Grande is Spanish for "Big River '' and Río Grande del Norte means "Great River of the North ''. In English, Rio Grande is pronounced either / ˈriːoʊ ˈɡrænd / or / ˈriːoʊ ˈɡrɑːndeɪ /. Because río means "river '' in Spanish, the phrase Rio Grande River is redundant.
In Mexico, it is known as Río Bravo or Río Bravo del Norte, bravo meaning (among other things) "furious '' or "agitated ''.
Historically, the Pueblo and Navajo peoples also had names for the Rio Grande / Rio Bravo:
The four Pueblo names likely antedated the Spanish entrada by several centuries.
Rio del Norte was most commonly used for the upper Rio Grande (roughly, within the present - day borders of New Mexico) from Spanish colonial times to the end of the Mexican period in the mid-19th century. This use was first documented by the Spanish in 1582. Early American settlers in South Texas began to use the modern ' English ' name Rio Grande. By the late 19th century, in the United States, the name Rio Grande had become standard in being applied to the entire river, from Colorado to the sea.
By 1602, Río Bravo had become the standard Spanish name for the lower river, below its confluence with the Rio Conchos.
The largest tributary of the Rio Grande by discharge is the Rio Conchos, which contributes almost twice as much water as any other. In terms of drainage basin size, the Pecos River is the largest.
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who appointed the current members of the supreme court | List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States - wikipedia
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest ranking judicial body in the United States. Its membership, as set by the Judiciary Act of 1869, consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight associate justices, any six of whom would constitute a quorum. Justices are nominated by the President of the United States and appointed after confirmation by the United States Senate. Justices of the Supreme Court have life tenure and receive a salary which is set at $255,500 per year for the chief justice and at $244,400 per year for each associate justice as of 2014.
The Supreme Court was created in 1789 by Article III of the United States Constitution, which stipulated that the "judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court '' together with any lower courts Congress may establish. Congress organized the Court that year with the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1789. It specified the Court 's original and appellate jurisdiction, created thirteen judicial districts, and fixed the number of justices at six (one chief justice and five associate justices).
Since 1789, Congress has occasionally altered the size of the Supreme Court, historically in response to the country 's own expansion in size. An 1801 act would have decreased the Court 's size to five members upon its next vacancy. However, an 1802 act negated the effects of the 1801 act upon the Court before any such vacancy occurred, maintaining the Court 's size at six members. Later legislation increased its size to seven members in 1807, to nine in 1837, and to ten in 1863. An 1866 act was to have reduced the Court 's size from ten members to seven upon its next three vacancies, and two vacancies did occur during this period. However, before a third vacancy occurred, the Judiciary Act of 1869 intervened, restoring the Court 's size to nine members, where it has remained since.
While the justices of the Supreme Court are appointed for life, many have retired or resigned. Beginning in the early 20th century, many justices who left the Court voluntarily did so by retiring from the Court without leaving the federal judiciary altogether. A retired justice, according to the United States Code, is no longer a member of the Supreme Court, but remains eligible to serve by designation as a judge of a U.S. Court of Appeals or District Court, and many retired justices have served in these capacities. Historically, the average length of service on the Court has been less than 15 years. However, since 1970 the average length of service has increased to about 26 years.
There are currently nine justices serving on the Supreme Court; listed in order of seniority, they are:
Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, 113 persons have served on the Court. William O. Douglas holds the record for longest tenure on the Court -- 36 years, 211 days, and Thomas Johnson 's 163 day tenure is the shortest. Five individuals were confirmed for associate justice, and later appointed chief justice separately: Charles Evans Hughes, William Rehnquist, John Rutledge, Harlan F. Stone, and Edward Douglass White. While listed twice, each of them has been assigned only one index number. The justices of the Supreme Court are:
This graphical timeline depicts the progression of the justices on the Supreme Court. Information regarding each justice 's predecessors, successors and fellow justices, as well as their tenure on the court can be gleaned (and comparisons betwen justices drawn) from it. Additionally, The progression of presidents, along with the number of justices each nominated, is shown at the top of the timeline to give a more detailed historical context. Regarding the associate justice seat numbers, due to the several changes in the size of the Court since 1789, two of the ten seats chronicled below -- "Seat 7 '' and "Seat 5 '' -- have been abolished, both as a result of the Judicial Circuits Act of 1866.
This graphical timeline depicts the length of each current Supreme Court justice 's tenure on the Court.
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who sings it's too late to apologize | Apologize (OneRepublic song) - Wikipedia
"Apologize '' (also spelled "Apologise '' internationally) is the debut single written by OneRepublic frontman Ryan Tedder for OneRepublic 's debut album Dreaming Out Loud. It was released as the lead single of that album. A remix version was included on the Timbaland album, Shock Value, and on the deluxe version of Dreaming Out Loud.
The song was the biggest radio airplay hit in the history of the Mainstream Top 40 chart in North America, with 10,394 plays in one week, until its record was broken by Leona Lewis 's "Bleeding Love '', which was also co-written by Tedder. The song was a major hit internationally, reaching number one in 16 countries, including Australia, Austria, Canada, Germany, Italy, New Zealand, Sweden, Turkey, and the Netherlands, as well as staying at number one for eight consecutive weeks on the Billboard Pop 100 chart. The song peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100, staying in the top - 10 for 25 weeks, and spent 13 weeks at number one in Canada.
"Apologize '' earned the band a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals and was ranked number 50 on the list of the Billboard Hot 100 's All - Time Top Songs list from the chart 's first 50 years. It spent 25 consecutive weeks in the top 10, the longest stay there for any song since "Smooth '' by Santana, which spent 30 weeks in 1999. It was also ranked number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 Songs of the Decade. It was OneRepublic 's biggest hit single in the United States until "Counting Stars '' was released in 2013.
Timbaland remixed the song for his second studio album, Shock Value. This version, also produced by Greg Wells, included an extra line of percussion, new backing vocals, and added sound samples, in addition to sound mixing and various other minor changes. The guitar solo after the second verse was omitted, completing its transformation to a more R&B style to fit with Shock Value. When the remix debuted, on the back of the strong Timbaland name, radio outlets announced the artist for the song as "Timbaland '' or "Timbaland with OneRepublic ''. As the song gained popularity it was changed to "Timbaland Presents OneRepublic ''.
An official video associated with the remix was filmed on September 19, 2007 and released in early October. The video premiered on VH1 's Top 20 Countdown on October 27, 2007. The video was directed by Robert Hales and was shot in a recording studio showing OneRepublic performing the song. The video also includes scenes from a New Year 's Eve countdown party, starring actor Brian A. Pollack. In a third version of the video, also directed by Robert Hales and associated with the remix, Timbaland is shown remixing the song himself. A European version of the video features clips of the film Keinohrhasen, starring Til Schweiger. A Japanese version of the video was also made available for a short time. It features the same footage as the original but has more scenes from different angles of the camera. It also features footage of people falling and floating in the air in slow motion. A fan made video by Aaron Platt is also popular. The music video currently has 176.4 million views.
"Apologize '' was OneRepublic 's breakout hit and first number - one hit. In the United States, "Apologize '' peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 for four non-consecutive weeks, first blocked from the top spot for two weeks by Chris Brown 's "Kiss Kiss '' and then for two weeks by Alicia Keys ' "No One ''. It spent 11 weeks at number three and 25 weeks inside the top 10 and peaked at number three for 10 weeks on the Hot 100 Airplay. It also topped the Billboard Pop 100 and became the third single from Shock Value to have topped the chart. It also became the album 's first number - one single on the Billboard Adult Top 40. It is also the second consecutive single from Shock Value to reach number one on the US Mainstream Top 40 radio. It became only the tenth song to sell over 5 million by May 2011 in the US. As of February 2014, it had sold 5,819,000 copies.
In the UK, "Apologize '' climbed to number 32 on the strength of digital downloads alone, and peaked at number three. The song spent 28 consecutive weeks in the top 40 and 13 weeks in the top 10. The song ended 2007 as the year 's sixteenth biggest selling single in Britain. In Australia, the single debuted at number 10 on the ARIA Singles Chart, and peaked at number one. It stayed at the top for eight consecutive weeks, and was certified 4x Platinum by ARIA. The song reached number one on both the Canadian Hot 100 and New Zealand RIANZ Chart. It is the most downloaded single of all time in Australia and New Zealand. On Billboard 's official European Hot 100 Singles chart, the song debuted at number 16, making it the highest debut chart position of any new act in the history of the chart. It later entered the top 10. The song went gold in Russia with 100,000 copies sold.
In Germany, the song was downloaded 437,000 times, making it the third best - selling download single of all time behind Lady Gaga 's "Poker Face '' and Lena Meyer - Landrut 's "Satellite ''.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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winner of world hip hop dance championship 2015 | World Hip Hop dance Championship - wikipedia
The World Hip Hop Dance Championship is an international hip - hop dance competition created in 2002 by Hip Hop International. Countries that have participated in the past are Dominican Republic, Greece, Cyprus, Chile, Italy, Mexico, France, Japan, Switzerland, Morocco, Philippines, United Kingdom, China, Canada, Germany, Australia, Ireland, Malaysia, India, Colombia, South Africa, Nigeria, New Zealand, Denmark, Spain, Russia, Portugal, Netherlands, Argentina, Brazil, Trinidad and Tobago, Poland, Uruguay, Thailand and the United States of America. There are four sections of competition: hip - hop for adult, varsity (ages 12 -- 17), and junior (ages 7 -- 12) crews, popping for solo dancers, locking for solo dancers, and breaking for adult crews.
In August 2015, new countries, Gabon, Panama and South Korea, Kenya, among others, participated for the first time, joining a record 3000 contestants from 50 countries. South Korea 's, Lock ' N LOL won gold in the mega crew division.
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summary and critical analysis of george orwell bookshop memories | Bookshop Memories - wikipedia
"Bookshop Memories '' is an essay published in 1936 by the English author George Orwell. As the title suggests, it is a reminiscence of his time spent working as an assistant in a second - hand bookshop.
In October 1934 Orwell 's aunt Nellie Limouzin recommended him for the job, as part - time assistant at Booklover 's Corner in South End Road, Hampstead. The shop was run by her friends the Westropes, who also provided him with accommodation. He was job sharing with Jon Kimche so that he worked at the shop in the afternoons, having the mornings free to write and the evenings to socialise.
Kimche recalled Orwell never sitting, but standing in the middle of the shop "a slightly forbidding figure '' who probably resented the idea of selling anything to people. Kimche retained the image of "a very tall figure almost like de Gaulle '' with a small boy looking up and buying stamps from him. Peter Vansittart recalled visiting the shop as a child with the "slightly ungracious assistant '' trying to sell him a copy of Trader Horn in Madagascar. Kay Ekevall, who established a relationship with Orwell after meeting him at the shop, recalled "I saw this new assistant and thought he was a great asset because he could reach all the shelves nobody else could without hauling a ladder out! ''
While working in the bookshop, Orwell was working on the novel Keep the Aspidistra Flying (1936) and was able to draw on his experiences. Many commentators have pointed out that the bookshop in the novel bears little relationship to Booklover 's Corner.
The essay first appeared in the November 1936 issue of Fortnightly.
Orwell describes the irritating behaviour of bookshop customers - first edition snobs, oriental students, vague minded women and "the kind of people who would be a nuisance anywhere but have special opportunities in a bookshop ''. The shop had various sidelines including typewriters, stamps for collectors, horoscopes and Christmas novelties (Orwell was particularly amused by an invoice for these that included the phrase "2 doz. Infant Jesus with rabbits ''). However, the main sideline was the lending library, which to Orwell shed a new light on readers: "In a lending library you see people 's real tastes, not their pretended ones. ''
In conclusion, Orwell says that he would not wish to be a bookseller full - time, mainly because it is a job that tends to give one a distaste for books.
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when does someone register as a sex offender | Sex offender registry - wikipedia
A sex offender registry is a system in various countries designed to allow government authorities to keep track of the activities of sex offenders including those who have completed their criminal sentences. In some jurisdictions, where sex offender registration can, registration is accompanied by residential address notification requirements. In many jurisdictions, registered sex offenders are subject to additional restrictions, including on housing. Those on parole or probation may be subject to restrictions that do not apply to other parolees or probationers. Sometimes, these include (or have been proposed to include) restrictions on being in the presence of underage persons (under the age of majority), living in proximity to a school or day care center, owning toys or items targeted towards children, or using the Internet. Sex offender registries exist in many English - speaking countries, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United States, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, South Africa, the United Kingdom, Israel and the Republic of Ireland. The United States is the only country with a registry that is publicly accessible; all other countries in the English - speaking world have sex offender registries only accessible by law enforcement.
In offense - based systems, registration is required when a person is convicted under one of the listed offenses requiring registration. In the US Federal system, persons registered are put into a tier program based on their offense of conviction. Risk based systems have been proposed but not implemented as of print.
In the United States, the vast majority of the states are applying offense - based registries, leaving the actual risk level of the offender and severity of the offense uncertain. The few U.S. states applying risk - based systems are pressured by the U.S. federal government to adopt offense - based systems in accordance with Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act. Studies have shown that actuarial risk assessment instruments consistently outperform the offense - based system mandated by federal law. Consequently, the effectiveness of offense - based registries have been questioned by professionals, and evidence exists suggesting that such registries are counterproductive.
Some aspects of the current sex offender registries in the United States have been widely criticized by civil rights organizations Human Rights Watch and the ACLU, professional organizations Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers and Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers, reformist groups Reform Sex Offender Laws, Inc., Women Against Registry and USA FAIR, and by child safety advocate Patty Wetterling, the Chair of National Center for Missing & Exploited Children. Virtually no studies exist finding U.S. registries effective, prompting some researchers to call them pointless, many even calling them counterproductive, arguing that they increase the rate of re-offense.
The Australian National Child Offender Register (ANCOR) is a web - based system used in all jurisdictions. Authorized police use ANCOR to monitor persons convicted of child sex offences and other specified offences once they have served their sentence. Offenders are monitored for eight years, 15 years or the remainder of their life (four years or 71⁄2 years for juvenile offenders). On 1 March 2011, there were 12,596 registered offenders across Australia.
Canada 's National Sex Offender Registry (NSOR) came into force on 15 December 2004, with the passing of the Sex Offender Information Registration Act (SOIR Act). The public does not have access to the registry.
Since 2001, the Province of Ontario operates its own sex offender registry concurrently with the federal registry. Unlike the federal registry which has an opt - out provision if an offender can convince a judge they are not a threat, the Ontario registry has no such provision. As a result, individuals who have been convicted of a designated offence at any time after 2001, and relocate to Ontario, are obligated to register for a period of at least 10 years. The registration period begins on the day the ex-offender relocates to Ontario.
Under the 2001 Sexual Offenders Act, all those convicted of certain sexual offenses are obliged to notify the police within 7 days their name and address. They must also notify the police of any changes to this information or if they intend to stay somewhere other than their registered address for more than 7 days (including if they are traveling abroad). Individuals are subject to these registration requirements for varying durations, based on a sliding scale of the severity of the sentence they received. This scale is as follows:
The New Zealand government has plans to introduce a sex offenders register by the end of 2014. It will be managed by the New Zealand Police and information will be shared between the Police, Child, Youth and Family, the Department of Corrections, the Ministry of Social Development, and the Department of Building and Housing -- government agencies which deal with child safety. Like the Australian and British registers, the New Zealand sex offenders register will not be accessible to the general public but only to officials with security clearance. It will also include individuals who have been granted name suppression. This proposed register has received support from both the ruling National Party and the opposition Labour Party. However political lobby group the Sensible Sentencing Trust has criticised the proposed register for its lack of public access.
On 4 August 2014, the New Zealand Cabinet formally approved the establishment of a sex offenders register. According to the Minister of Police and Corrections Anne Tolley, Cabinet has agreed to allocate $35.5 million over the next ten years for the technology component of the register and initial ICT work is underway as of 14 August 2014. The sex offenders ' register is expected to be operational by 2016 once enabling legislation is passed and changes are made to the Corrections Act to enable information sharing.
The National Register for Sex Offenders was established in terms of the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 2007. It records the details of anyone convicted of a sexual offence against a child or a mentally disabled person. The public does not have access to the registry; it is available to employers of people who work with children or mentally disabled people, to authorities responsible for licensing institutions that care for children or mentally disabled people, and to those responsible for approving foster care and adoptions. People listed on the register are prohibited from working with children or mentally disabled people, from managing institutions that care for children or mentally disabled people, and from being foster parents or adoptive parents.
The Sexual Offences Act Chapter 11: 28 Part III provides for Notification Requirements for Sex Offenders. This Sex Offenders Registry is only accessible to the Police Service and other branches of government. There are several gaps in this policy noted by members of the Caribbean Committee against Sex Crimes, most notably that the registry only deals with offenses committed within the Jurisdiction of Trinidad and Tobago. Persons who are registered Sex Offenders from other jurisdictions are not registered when they immigrate or are deported to Trinidad and Tobago.
In the United Kingdom, the Violent and Sex Offender Register (ViSOR) is a database of records of those required to register with the Police under the Sexual Offences Act 2003, those jailed for more than 12 months for violent offences, and unconvicted people thought to be at risk of offending. The Register can be accessed by the Police, National Probation Service and HM Prison Service personnel. It is managed by the National Policing Improvement Agency of the Home Office.
Sex offender registries in the United States consist of federal and state level systems designed to collect information of convicted sex offenders for law enforcement and public notification purposes. All 50 states and District of Columbia maintain registries that are open to public via sex offender registration websites, although some registered sex offenders are visible to law enforcement only. According to NCMEC, as of 2015 there were 843,260 registered sex offenders in the United States. Registrants have to periodically appear in person to their local law enforcement for purposes of collecting their personal information, such as photograph, fingerprints, name, scars, tattoos, living address, place of employment and vehicle information.
Information pertaining to names, addresses, physical description and vehicles are made public via official websites. In addition, registrants are often subject to restrictions that bar loitering, working or living within exclusion zones that sometimes cover entire cities and have forced registrants into encampments, such as the Julia Tuttle Causeway sex offender colony.
Anthropology professor Roger Lancaster has called the restrictions "tantamount to practices of banishment '' that he deems disproportional, noting that registries include not just the "worst of the worst '', but also "adults who supplied pornography to teenage minors; young schoolteachers who foolishly fell in love with one of their students; men who urinated in public, or were caught having sex in remote areas of public parks after dark. '' In many instances, individuals have pleaded guilty to an offense like urinating in public decades ago, not realizing the result would be their placement on a sex offender registry, and all of the restrictions that come with it.
Depending on jurisdiction, offenses requiring registration range in their severity from public urination or children and teenagers experimenting with their peers, to violent predatory sexual offenses. In some states non-sexual offenses such as unlawful imprisonment may require sex offender registration. According to Human Rights Watch, children as young as 9 have been placed on the registry for sexually experimenting with their peers. Juvenile convicts account for as much as 25 percent of the registrants. Federal Adam Walsh Act pressured states to register juveniles by tying federal funding to the degree to which state registries comply with the federal law 's classification system for sex offenders.
States apply differing sets of criteria dictating which offenders are made visible to public. Some states scientifically evaluate the future risk of the offender and hide low - risk offenders from public. In other states, offenders are categorized according to the tier level related to statute of conviction. Duration of registration vary usually from 10 years to life depending on the state legislation and tier / risk category. Some states exclude low tier offenders from public registries while in others, all offenders are publicly listed. Some states offer possibility to petition to be removed from the registry under certain circumstances.
A majority of states apply systems based on conviction offenses only, where sex offender registration is mandatory if person pleads or is found guilty of violating any of the listed offenses. Under these systems, the sentencing judge does not sentence the convict into sex offender registry and can not usually use judicial discretion to forgo registration requirement, even if s / he thinks the registration would be unreasonable, taking into account mitigating factors pertaining to individual cases. Instead, registration is a mandatory collateral consequence of criminal conviction. Due to this feature, laws target a wide range of behaviors and tend to treat all offenders the same. Civil right groups, law reform activists, academics, some child safety advocates, politicians and law enforcement officials think that current laws often target the wrong people, swaying attention away from high - risk sex offenders, while severely impacting lives of all registrants, and their families, attempting to re-integrate to society.
The Supreme Court of the United States has upheld sex offender registration laws twice, in two respects. Several challenges to some parts of state level sex offender laws have succeeded, however.
Sex offender registration has been applied to crimes other than rape, child molestation, and child pornography offenses and is sometimes applied to certain non-sexual offenses.
In Connecticut, those with state convictions for certain misdemeanors have to register, including: Public Indecency, in violation of C.G.S. § 53a - 186, provided the court finds the victim was under 18; and Sexual Assault, 4th Degree, in violation of C.G.S. § 53a - 73a.
In New York and various other states, crimes that society does not necessarily view as sexual in nature are also considered to be registerable sex offenses, such as kidnapping, "sexual misconduct '', unlawful imprisonment, and in some cases "sexually motivated offenses '' (such as assault, burglary, etc.) that are not categorized as sexual offenses unless the court determines that the offense was committed pursuant to the offender 's own sexual gratification. In New York specifically, kidnapping and unlawful imprisonment are registerable offenses only if the victim is under 17 and the offender is not a parent of the victim.
In Kentucky, all sex offenders who move into the state and are required to register in their previous home states are required to register with Kentucky for life, even if they were not required to register for life in their previous residence.
A few states have also created separate online registries for crimes other than sex offenses. Montana, for example, has a publicly accessible violent offender registry that includes crimes such as aggravated assault, robbery, assaulting a police officer, both deliberate and non-deliberate homicide and a third conviction for domestic violence. Kansas has publicly accessible registries of people convicted of both serious drug offenses and people convicted of crimes involving a weapon. Indiana, Illinois, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Montana all have publicly accessible registries for those convicted of murder. Florida requires all felons, regardless of the crime, to register with law enforcement for 5 years after release, although the Florida felon registry is not available to the general public. If a felon in Florida is convicted of enough non-sexual felonies in a certain period of time, however, they are required to register for the rest of their life on a "Habitual Offender '' registry that is available to the general public. Ohio has a publicly accessible registry for people convicted five or more times of drunken driving.
In 2014, a murder registry was proposed in Rhode Island and an animal abuser registry was proposed in Pennsylvania. A bill to create a publicly accessible registry for domestic violence offenders passed the Texas House of Representatives in 2013, but was not voted on in the Texas Senate.
Currently, only the United States allows, and more often than not requires public disclosure of offender information, regardless of individual risk. Other countries do not make sex offender information public, unless the risk assessment has been conducted and the offender has been determined to pose a high risk of re-offending.
In some localities in the United States, the lists of all sex offenders are made available to the public: for example, through the newspapers, community notification, or the Internet. However, in other localities, the complete lists are not available to the general public but are known to the police. In the United States offenders are often classified in three categories: Level (Tier) I, Level II, and Level III offenders, information is usually accessible related to that level (information being more accessible to the public for higher level offenders). In some US jurisdictions, the level of offender is reflecting the evaluated recidivism risk of the individual offender, while in others, the level is designated merely by the virtue of conviction, without assessing the risk level posed by the offender.
In general, in states applying risk - based registry schemes, low - risk (Tier I) offenders are often excluded from the public disclosure. In some states only the highest risk (Tier III) offenders are subject to public disclosure, while some states also include moderate - risk (Tier II) offenders in public websites.
In SORNA compliant states, only Tier I registrants may be excluded from public disclosure, but since SORNA merely sets the minimum set of rules that states must follow, many SORNA compliant states have adopted stricter system and have opted to disclose information of all tiers. Some states have disclosed some of Tier I offenders, while in some states all Tier I offenders are excluded from public disclosure.
Just like states differ with respect to disclosure of information regarding different Tiers / Levels, they also differ with respect to classifying offenses into tiers. Thus, identical offenses committed in different states could produce very different outcomes in terms of public disclosure and registration period. Offense classified as Tier I offense in one state with no public disclosure, might be classified as Tier II or Tier III offense in another, leading to considerably longer registration period and public disclosure. These disparities in state legislation have caused unexpected problems to some registrants when moving from state to another, finding themselves subject to public disclosure on their destination state 's sex offender website, and longer registration periods (sometimes for life), even though they originally were excluded from public registry and required to register for a shorter period. Some states appear to apply "catch - all '' statutes for former registrants moving into their jurisdiction, requiring registration and public posting of information, even when the person has completed their original registration period. At least one state (Illinois) reclassifies all registrants moving in the state into the highest possible tier (Sexual Predator), regardless of the original tier of the person, leading to a lifetime registration requirement and being publicly labelled as a "Sexual Predator ''. As noted previously, Kentucky requires lifetime registration for all currently registered individuals who move into the state.
Determining the tier level and whether or not a person would be subject to public disclosure, when relocating to another state, can be close to impossible without consulting an attorney or officials responsible for managing registration in the destination state, due to constantly changing laws and vagueness in some states legislative language.
While these disparities in level of public disclosure among different states might cause unexpected problems after registration, they have also caused some registrants to move into locations where public disclosure of lower level offenders is not permitted, in order to avoid public persecution and other adverse effects of public disclosure they were experiencing in their original location.
Sex offenders on parole or probation are generally subject to the same restrictions as other parolees and probationers.
Sex offenders who have completed probation or parole may also be subject to restrictions above and beyond those of most felons. In some jurisdictions, they can not live within a certain distance of places children or families gather. Such places are usually schools, worship centers, and parks, but could also include public venues (stadiums), airports, apartments, malls, major retail stores, college campuses, and certain neighborhoods (unless for essential business). In some states, they may also be barred from voting after a sentence has been completed and, at the federal level, barred from owning firearms, like all felons.
Some states have Civic Confinement laws, which allow very - high - risk sex offenders to be placed in secure facilities, "in many ways like prisons '', where they are supposed to be offered treatment and regularly reevaluated for possible release. In practice, most states with Civil Commitment centers rarely release anyone. Texas has not released anyone in the 15 years since the program was started. In 2015, in response to a class action lawsuit, a Federal judge ruled Minnesota 's Civil Commitment program to be unconstitutional, both for not providing effective treatment and for not fully releasing anyone since the program was started in 1994.
The state of Missouri now restricts the activities of registered sex offenders on Halloween, requiring them to avoid Halloween - related contact with children and remain at their registered home address from 5 p.m. to 10: 30 p.m., unless they are required to work that evening. Regardless of whether they are at work, offenders must extinguish all outside residential lighting and post a sign stating, "No candy or treats at this residence - sex offender at this residence ''.
In the United Kingdom, anyone convicted of any criminal offense can not work in the legal, medical, teaching, or nursing professions. List 99 includes people convicted of sex offenses barred from working in education and social work, though it also includes people convicted of theft, fraud, corruption, assault, and drugs offenses.
Facebook and Instagram prohibit any convicted sex offender from accessing or contributing to their websites.
The vast majority of sexual offense victims are known to the offender -- including friends, family, or other trusted adults such as teachers. This is contrary to media depictions of stranger assaults or child molesters who kidnap children unknown to them. Thus, despite the public awareness of the whereabouts of convicted sex offenders, there has been little evidence to back the claim that mandatory registration has made society safer. According to ATSA, only in the states that utilize empirically derived risk assessment procedures and publicly identify only high risk offenders, has community notification demonstrated some effectiveness. The majority of U.S states do not utilize risk assessment tools when determining ones inclusion on the registry, although studies have shown that actuarial risk assessment instruments, which are created by putting together risk factors found by research to correlate with re-offending, consistently outperform the offense based systems.
Studies almost always show that residency restrictions increase offender 's recidivism rates by increasing offender homelessness and increasing instability in a sex offender 's life. According to a Department of Justice study, 5.3 % of sex offenders who were released from prison in 1994 were arrested for a new sex offense after 3 years. Robbers, arsonists and property crime committers (all of which have a recidivism rate of 60 -- 70 percent after 3 years) were the most likely to re-offend group. Despite the public perception of sex offenders as having high recidivism, sex offenders had the second lowest recidivism rate, after only murderers, but sex offenders were about four times more likely than non-sex offenders to be arrested for another sex crime after their discharge from prison. A later study done by the Department of Justice showed an even lower sex offender recidivism rate of about 2.1 percent after 3 years. However, since sex crimes are the most under - reported crimes, whether or not the Department of Justice 's 5.3 % sex offender recidivism rate is deceptively low is unclear. Recidivism rates only measure how many people return to prison or are arrested for a new offense and do not measure how many people actually commit a new criminal offense (some criminals commit new offenses after release from prison but do not get caught.) In the late 2000s, a study showed that Indiana sex offenders have recidivism of about 1.03 % after 3 years. Studies consistently show sex offender recidivism rates of 1 -- 4 % after 3 years, recividism is usually at about 5 -- 10 % after a long follow up (such as a 10 -- 25 year follow up).
A study by professors from Columbia University and the University of Michigan found that having police - only sex offender registries (e.g., Britain, Canada, Australia) significantly reduces sex offender recidivism, but making information about sex offenders publicly available significantly increases recidivism rates. This is because making sex offender information public increases offender stress and also makes the thought of returning to prison less threatening, as some sex offenders may feel returning to prison is not significantly worse than being on the public registry. Some sex offenders may come to view their central identity as being that of a sex offender due to the registry, and the more a sex offender views themselves as being a criminal the more likely they are to reoffend. However, the study also found that making sex offender registration publicly available may deter some potential first time sex offenders from committing an offense that would get them on the registry in the first place. The thought of getting on the sex offender registry may or may not deter non-sex offenders from committing sex crimes.
A 2008 study found no evidence that New York 's registry or notification laws reduced sexual offenses by rapists, child molesters, sexual recidivists, or first - time sex offenders.
A study by University of Chicago graduate student Amanda Agan compared sex offender recidivism rates in states where sex offenders were required to register in 1994 with states where they were not required to register in 1994. The results of the study were that sex offender recidivism was, in fact, slightly lower in states where sex offenders were not required to register. This made Agan question whether creating sex offender registries was a rational idea. The study also showed that blocks in Washington DC where sex offenders lived did not have higher molestation rates than blocks where sex offenders did not live.
In at least two instances, convicted sex offenders were murdered after their information was made available over the Internet. The spouse, children and other family members of a sex offender often have negative consequences as a result of having a family member on the registry. For example, residency restrictions will make it harder for a sex offender 's spouse and children, not just a sex offender themselves, to find housing. Residency restrictions may even cause a sex offender 's family to be homeless. Sex offenders ' spouses and children can also face harassment and financial hardship as a result of their loved one 's sex offender status. More than half of the children of sex offenders say that fellow students treat them worse due to a parent 's RSO status.
The Human Rights Watch organization criticized these laws in a 146 - page report published in 2007, and in another report in 2013.
People who are registered in offender databases are usually required to notify the government when they change their place of residence. This notification requirement is problematic in cases where the registered offender is homeless.
The state of Washington is among those that have special provisions in their registration code covering homeless offenders, but not all states have such provisions. A November 2006 Maryland Court of Appeals ruling exempts homeless persons from that state 's registration requirements, which has prompted a drive to compose new laws covering this contingency.
News reports in 2007 revealed that some registered sex offenders were living outside or under the Julia Tuttle Causeway in Miami, Florida because Miami - Dade County ordinances, which are more restrictive than Florida 's state laws, made it virtually impossible for them to find housing. The colony at the causeway grew to as many as 140 registrants living there as of July 2009, but eventually became a political embarrassment and was disbanded in April 2010, when the residents moved into acceptable housing in the area. However, many have lapsed back into homelessness, sleeping alongside railroad tracks.
As of 2013 Suffolk County, New York, which had imposed onerous restrictions on sex offenders exceeding those required by New York state law, was faced with a situation where 40 sex offenders were living in two cramped trailers located in isolated locations. This situation had been created by the county in 2007 as a solution to the problem of housing sex offenders.
The question of how to appropriately deal with underage sex assault perpetrators has led to some of the most emotional appeals against sex offender registries.
In 2017, an Associated Press investigation found that for every adult - on - child offence, there are seven child - on - child sex offences. These crimes are rarely reported in the media or prosecuted. However, in Human Rights Watch 's 2013 investigation of strict U.S. laws, it was found that child perpetrators as young as 11 have, at times, been forced to register on long - term publicly searchable databases. In some U.S. jurisdictions, consenting teenage couples in possession of each other 's nude photographs have also been charged with possessing child pornography and forced to register as sex offenders under mandatory sentencing requirements.
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what does the song space bound by eminem mean | Space Bound - wikipedia
"Space Bound '' is a song by American rapper Eminem. It was released on June 18, 2011 as the fourth and final single from his seventh album Recovery. The song is produced by American hip - hop producer Jim Jonsin. "Space Bound '' features samples of "Drive '' by R.E.M. and "Song for Bob '' by Nick Cave and Warren Ellis.
The music video was shot in February 2011 by director Joseph Kahn. It features model and former pornographic actress Sasha Grey. The video was released to the iTunes Store on June 24, 2011. It is about a girl, played by Grey, who secretly cheats on her boyfriend, Eminem; this turns into a violent conflict. The video shows two sides of Eminem, one who is calm and loves his girlfriend and one who is aggressive and does not. The music video received attention and controversy for a scene in which Eminem shoots himself under the chin in frustration, with blood spurting from the exit wound.
"Space Bound '' was written by Eminem, British songwriter Steve McEwan, and Jim Jonsin, the latter having produced the track with keyboards from Danny Morris. The chorus is sung by McEwan, who also provided guitars. The song was recorded by Robert Marks in Parkland Playhouse and Mike Strange and Joe Strange in Effigy Studios. It was mixed by Eminem, Mike Strange and Marks. In July 2011, producer Jim Jonsin spoke about the making of the song and how its production came to be. He submitted a beat to Eminem for release on Recovery, not knowing if it was planned for official release as a single.
The song was complete with verses, B section, and a chorus by McEwan. Most of the original version was recorded in New York on guitar, with a guitar vocal on an iPhone. The concept was taken to Miami about three months later and was produced. The song was composed by McEwan and Jonsin. The chorus was used as a guide for writing the rapped verses. Eminem liked the song and its concept and wanted the sung verses removed and replaced with his own lyrics, as Jonsin revealed: "He had me strip down the verses (...) and make the track a little more hip hop, and he sent it out. I did n't really believe that it would end up on Eminem 's album, let alone be a single. '' Jonsin spoke about the theme of the chorus in "Space Bound '':
The chorus was based on a chase, a guy who 's chasing after a woman that he 's crazy about, he loves her; she 's everything to him. I 'm a rocket ship aiming at her heart, her heart 's the moon -- I 'm going full - on.
According to Jonsin, the hardest part of the making of the song was getting it to Eminem. Jonsin 's manager suggested it get sent to Eminem, but was concerned that Eminem would not do anything with it. Jonsin also confirmed in the interview that he would be working on Eminem 's next solo album.
"Space Bound '' features a sample of "Drive '' by R.E.M. and "Song for Bob '' by Nick Cave and Warren Ellis. The guitars were provided by Steve McEwan and additional keyboards were by Danny Morris.
In a largely negative review of Recovery for Slant Magazine, M.T. Richards described "Space Bound '' as "ugly '' and "wafer - thin '', going on to criticise the song 's macabre content: "Eminem ca n't talk to women and he never could, so when he threatens to strangle anyone who leaves him, the peril feels forced and wholly off - putting. '' AbsolutePunk writer Thomas Nassiff, in his review for Recovery, stated that "Space Bound '', along with five other songs, were "pure filler '' and "do n't require more than one listen. ''
The music video for "Space Bound '' was filmed over three days in February 2011, in Los Angeles, California, and was produced over approximately five months. It was directed by Joseph Kahn, who previously directed Eminem 's videos for "Without Me '', "We Made You '' and "Love the Way You Lie ''. Photos of the video shooting were released and two low quality snippets of the then - unfinished video leaked. A large portion of the music video was shot at a roadside diner. On June 18, 2011, Kahn tweeted that the "Space Bound '' video was finally complete and was to be released soon. The same day, Kahn tweeted, "When you see Space Bound, look for the uncensored version. You 'll ruin it for yourself if you do n't, '' confirming an uncensored version. Grey spoke about her acting and role in the video. "Before each take, Joseph and I would talk a lot about (my character 's) motives and attitude. Her ultimate moment does n't come until the end, so I had plenty of time to build the fear! '' The full video was released on June 24, 2011 at 5 pm EST for purchase on the iTunes Store, uncut.
The video starts as Eminem walks down a road at night. He is picked up by his lover (Grey). Two versions of him are shown: one alone in the back seat, who is frustrated, paranoid and "hurling insults at Grey '', and one sitting next to Grey who is calm. Grey lights a cigarette to smoke. The alternate Eminem disappears and the couple stop at a motel / diner.
Eminem has two personages again as he enters the diner. The original Eminem sits with Grey at a table, while the other is on a bar stool. Grey takes out her cell phone and sends a text message to someone, and leaves to go to the restroom. Meanwhile, Eminem curiously takes out Grey 's phone to see what she did, and is confused. He quickly puts the phone back as Grey comes back. Meanwhile, the alternate Eminem raps.
The couple go to a motel room and receive a knock on the door, which Eminem opens but does not see anyone. He has a flashback of the cell phone, which shows ' Unknown caller ', and a gun in Grey 's car along with the lighter and cigarette. He then tries to strangle his girlfriend, who suddenly disappears, leaving Eminem alone. He picks up Grey 's pistol and shoots himself under the chin, as blood spurts from the back of his head. This also affects the alternate Eminem, who is still in the roadside diner. The video then rewinds, from when Eminem shoots himself, to when the couple go to the diner. The beginning scene repeats itself and Eminem is picked up (probably implying that Eminem is in an endless loop) They drive off to end the video.
There is confusion surrounding the exact meaning and concept of the music video for "Space Bound ''. Grey explained her interpretation of the video to MTV, saying that Eminem was trying to depict the reality of relationships, that even the strongest of relationships can fall apart. "Eminem simply becomes company for (his girlfriend), and she mistakenly takes advantage of that. '' She said that the video could be interpreted "in many ways ''. Grey believed that the alternate Eminem who appears in the car is his subconscious.
Jonsin has explained what goes on in the "Space Bound '' video. He suggested that viewers watch it multiple times to figure out the concept and draw their own conclusion. He called the video ' tricky ', saying that the meaning is not obvious or completely clear in the video and one must watch it a few times to find it. Jonsin spoke about Eminem 's two egos seen in the video as well:
It reminded me of Alanis Morissette 's ' Ironic ' video, where she 's got her and her two other egos in the car... I think it was him living in the now as a person going through it and him living as a person who is witnessing it and can make other choices to not be in that scenario. Maybe he would 've chose differently, so now he 's watching himself.
The video received attention from reporters for its shock value owing to Eminem 's suicidal scene and the use of a gun for it. Jonsin dismissed the controversy surrounding the graphic suicidal scene, "Things happen in movies all the time... When my kids watch it, I like to explain to them in that manner: ' It 's like a movie, ya know? He is n't really killing himself. ' '' The video was harshly criticized by anti-violence campaigners in the United Kingdom. Anti-violence group, Mothers Against Violence, told the British Daily Mirror, "It 's all about the money with these videos. Eminem is n't thinking about the families affected. '' The music video was both praised by fans and noted for its graphic nature. Before the music video 's television premiere in July, editor Kathleen Perricone from the New York Daily News expressed her opinion on the censorship of the video, saying, "Despite the gruesome and violent nature, music networks like MTV and BET have yet to ban the video -- or even air it. '' Josh Grossberg from E! News reacted to the graphic suicide, saying it "sounds like an Eminem video, all right. '' According to British tabloid The Sun, the song and its music video are similar to the controversial Eminem song, "Kim '' from The Marshall Mathers LP (2000). The video was noted as "another dark fantasy and uncomfortable offering from the rapper. ''
Critics made note of the "Space Bound '' music video 's similarities with the Kahn - directed "Love the Way You Lie '', in which the couple was portrayed by actors. April Chieffo from The Celebrity Cafe said, "The video touches on the subject of domestic violence like ' Love the Way You Lie, ' but this time there were deadly consequences. '' Rob Markman quoted about the death scene, "Throughout the video, Eminem follows Grey like a lost puppy. It 's when they check into a motel room that the drama unfolds. ''
As of November 2016, the music video on YouTube has been watched more than 200 million times.
Credits adapted from the digital booklet of Recovery.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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when was if i had a hammer written | If I Had a Hammer - wikipedia
"If I Had a Hammer (The Hammer Song) '' is a song written by Pete Seeger and Lee Hays. It was written in 1949 in support of the progressive movement, and was first recorded by The Weavers, a folk music quartet composed of Seeger, Hays, Ronnie Gilbert, and Fred Hellerman. It was a number 10 hit for Peter, Paul and Mary in 1962 and then went to number three a year later when recorded by Trini Lopez.
The Weavers released the song under the title "The Hammer Song '' as a 78 single in March 1950 on Hootenanny Records, 101 - A, backed with "Banks of Marble ''.
The song was first performed publicly by Pete Seeger and Lee Hays on June 3, 1949, at St. Nicholas Arena in New York City at a testimonial dinner for the leaders of the Communist Party of the United States, who were then on trial in federal court, charged with violating the Smith Act by advocating the overthrow of the U.S. government. It was not particularly successful in commercial terms when it was first released. It was part of the three songs Seeger played as the warm - up act for Paul Robeson 's September 4 concert near Peekskill, New York, which subsequently erupted into a riot.
It fared notably better in commercial terms when it was recorded by Peter, Paul and Mary a dozen years later. Their cover of the song, released in July 1962 off the group 's debut self - titled album, became a Top 10 hit, and won the Grammy Awards for Best Folk Recording and Best Performance by a Vocal Group. Trini Lopez 's 1963 single went to number three on the same Billboard chart. It was included on his album, Trini Lopez at PJ 's (Reprise R / RS 6093).
The song "If I Had a Hammer '' was a Freedom Song of the Civil Rights Movement.
Wikileaks chose the song as its "Wikileaks song ''.
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billy idol they don't write like that anymore | The breakup song (they do n't write ' Em) - wikipedia
"The Breakup Song (They Do n't Write ' Em) '' is a song written by Greg Kihn and Steve Wright and recorded by American rock band The Greg Kihn Band. It is the first single from the band 's fourth studio album, RocKihnRoll (1981). The song 's musical style encompasses pop rock and power pop.
It celebrates the quality of break - up songs in rock 's earlier times, as the narrator laments both his recent breakup and the fact that they do n't write good breakup songs anymore.
The song reached # 15 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart and # 5 on the Billboard Top Tracks chart.
It has been featured in several films, including Let Me In (2010), The House of the Devil (2009), The Groomsmen (2006) and Beautiful Girls as well as the hit video game Grand Theft Auto V (2013). It was sampled in "Gone '' by Yelawolf on his Arena Rap EP.
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who plays bart millard and i can only imagine | I Can Only Imagine (film) - wikipedia
I Can Only Imagine is a 2018 American Christian drama film directed by the Erwin Brothers and written by Alex Cramer, Jon Erwin, and Brent McCorkle, based on the story behind the MercyMe song of the same name, the best - selling Christian single of all time. The film stars J. Michael Finley as Bart Millard, the lead singer who wrote the song about his relationship with his father (Dennis Quaid). Madeline Carroll, Priscilla Shirer, Cloris Leachman, and Trace Adkins also star.
I Can Only Imagine was released in the United States on March 16, 2018. It grossed $85 million worldwide against a production budget of $7 million, and is the third highest - grossing music biopic of all - time in the United States. Some critics praised it as inspiring and noted it as an improvement compared to other faith - based films, while others called it flat and by - the - numbers.
10 - year - old Bart Millard lives with his mother and abusive father Arthur in Texas. One day his mother drops him off at a Christian camp where he meets Shannon. Upon his return from camp, Bart finds his mother has left and movers are removing her belongings. He angrily confronts his father, who denies that his abusiveness was the reason she left.
Years later, in high school, Bart and Shannon are dating. Bart plays football to please his father, but is injured, breaking both ankles and ending his career. The only elective with openings is music class, so he reluctantly signs up. Initially, Bart is assigned to be a sound technician, but after overhearing him singing, the director casts him in the lead role in the school production of Oklahoma. Bart overcomes his reluctance and gives an impressive performance, but does not tell his father, who finds out the night of the show when he happens to see a flyer for the show in a diner. Arthur suddenly collapses in pain, and finds out he has cancer, which he hides from Bart. The following morning, Bart antagonizes his father, who smashes a plate over his head. At church, Shannon sees the blood and presses Bart to open up, but he responds by breaking up with her, and leaves town to seek his fortune in the city.
He joins a band in need of a singer, and convinces Christian music producer Scott Brickell to manage the band and secure a showcase in Nashville. Bart surprises Shannon and invites her to tour with the band, and is confused when she flatly refuses. In Nashville, Brickell introduces Bart to established artists Amy Grant and Michael W. Smith, but is unable to convince several record execs to sign the band, who do not believe the band, now performing as "MercyMe '', is good enough. Devastated, Bart quits the band, but Brickell perceives that Bart needs to resolve issues in his personal life, so Bart reconciles with the band and asks them to wait for him, and leaves to return home.
Bart returns home late at night and is confused to find that his father has prepared breakfast for him the next morning. His father claims to have become a Christian, but Bart is skeptical and refuses to forgive him, and leaves. In anger and despair, Arthur smashes his old Jeep, which he had asked Bart to help him restore. Bart attempts to drive away in his father 's pickup, but discovers the terminal cancer diagnosis, and returns to his father. He finally forgives his father, and the two form a deep bond, but Arthur soon dies of his illness.
After Arthur 's funeral, Bart rejoins the band and writes "I Can Only Imagine '', and also calls Shannon and apologizes for the first time since their breakup. Brickell sends the demo tape to several artists, including Grant, who, deeply moved by the song, asks to record it herself as her next single, and Bart, who just wants the song to be heard, accepts. Grant begins the song, but ca n't bring herself to sing it, and calls Bart on stage from the audience to sing it himself. Bart 's performance earns an enthusiastic ovation, and he reunites with Shannon, who was also in attendance. The band releases the song as their first single, achieving success on both Christian and mainstream radio.
The film was announced in December 2016. Dennis Quaid joined the cast in January 2017. Broadway actor J. Michael Finley makes his film debut as Bart Millard. The same month, it was announced that the film was slated for release in the spring of 2018. In August 2017, Lionsgate and Roadside Attractions signed on as distributors for the film for a nationwide release in the United States.
As of June 24, 2018, I Can Only Imagine has grossed $83.4 million in the United States, and Canada and $1.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $85.2 million, against a production budget of $7 million. It is the third - highest grossing music biopic of all - time in the United States, behind Straight Outta Compton and Walk the Line. It is also the highest - grossing independent film of 2018.
I Can Only Imagine was released on March 16, 2018, alongside Tomb Raider and Love, Simon, and was originally projected to gross $2 -- 4 million from 1,620 theaters in its opening weekend. However, after making $6.2 million on its first day (including $1.3 million from Thursday night previews), weekend estimates were increased to $14 million. It ended up grossing $17.1 million, exceeding expectations and finishing third at the box office behind Black Panther and Tomb Raider. 67 % of the opening weekend audience was female while 80 % was over the age of 35. It was the fourth best - ever opening for a faith - based film, following The Passion of the Christ ($83.8 million), Son of God ($25.6 million) and Heaven Is for Real ($22.5 million). In its second weekend the film was added to 624 additional theaters and dropped just 19 % to $13.8 million, again finishing third. It was added to another 395 venues and finished fourth in its third weekend, making $10.4 million (including $3 million on Easter Sunday).
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 65 % based on 26 reviews, and an average rating of 5.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "I Can Only Imagine 's message will have the most impact among Christian audiences, but overall, its performances and storytelling represent a notable evolution in faith - based cinema. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 30 out of 100, based on 8 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A + '' on an A+ to F scale, one of fewer than 80 films in the history of the service to earn such a score.
The Arizona Republic 's James Ward gave the film 4 / 5 stars and wrote, "Too often faith - based films -- say anything with Kirk Cameron or the terrible God 's Not Dead series -- tend to preach to the choir or hector their audience. The Erwins ' films -- I Can Only Imagine definitely among them -- are more inclusive, charitable of spirit and hopeful, all qualities that are always appreciated, be they rooted in Christian faith or otherwise. '' David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a "C -- '' saying: "There 's a reason why all of these movies are so amateurishly made; why they all end with links to religious websites; why they all look like they were shot on an iPhone by a Walmart - brand Janusz Kaminski who lit each interior like the white light of heaven was streaming through every window... Art can be affirmation, but affirmation can not be art. ''
The film was released on iTunes and Google Play on June 5, 2018, and on DVD and Blu - ray on June 12, 2018.
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who played mary poppins in the 1964 film | Mary Poppins (film) - wikipedia
Mary Poppins is a 1964 American musical - fantasy film directed by Robert Stevenson and produced by Walt Disney, with songs written and composed by the Sherman Brothers. The screenplay is by Bill Walsh and Don DaGradi, loosely based on P.L. Travers 's book series Mary Poppins. The film, which combines live - action and animation, stars Julie Andrews in her feature film debut as Mary Poppins, who visits a dysfunctional family in London and employs her unique brand of lifestyle to improve the family 's dynamic. Dick Van Dyke, David Tomlinson, and Glynis Johns are featured in supporting roles. The film was shot entirely at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, California using painted London background scenes.
Mary Poppins was released on August 27, 1964, to critical acclaim. It received a total of 13 Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture -- a record for any other film released by Walt Disney Studios -- and won five; Best Actress for Andrews, Best Film Editing, Best Original Music Score, Best Visual Effects, and Best Original Song for "Chim Chim Cher - ee ''. In 2013, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. Mary Poppins is widely considered to be Walt Disney 's crowning live - action achievement, his only film to gain a Best Picture nomination at the Oscars in his lifetime.
A sequel titled Mary Poppins Returns, directed by Rob Marshall is scheduled to be released on December 25, 2018.
In Edwardian London, 1910, Bert entertains a crowd as a one - man band when he senses a change in the wind. Afterwards, he directly addresses the audience, and gives them a tour of Cherry Tree Lane, stopping outside the Banks family 's home. George Banks returns home to learn from Winifred that Katie Nanna has left their service after Jane and Michael ran away again. They are returned shortly after by Constable Jones, who reveals the children were chasing a lost kite. The children ask their father to help build a better kite, but he dismisses them. Taking it upon himself to hire a new nanny, Mr. Banks advertises for a stern, no - nonsense nanny. Instead, Jane and Michael present their own advertisement for a kinder, sweeter nanny. Mr. Banks rips up the letter, and throws the scraps in the fireplace, but the remains of the advertisement magically float up, and out into the air.
The next day, a number of elderly, sour - faced nannies wait outside the Banks ' home, but a strong gust of wind blows them away, and Jane and Michael witness a young nanny descending from the sky using her umbrella. Presenting herself to Mr. Banks, Mary Poppins calmly produces the children 's restored advertisement, and agrees with its requests, but promises the astonished banker she will be firm with his children. As Mr Banks puzzles over the advertisement 's return, Mary Poppins hires herself, and convinces him it was originally his idea. She meets the children, then helps them tidy their nursery through song, before heading out for a walk in the park.
Outside, they meet Bert, working as a screever; Mary Poppins uses her magic to transport the group into one of the drawings. While the children ride on a carousel, Mary Poppins and Bert go on a leisurely stroll. Mary Poppins later enchants the carousel horses, and participates in a horse race, which she wins. While being asked to describe her victory, Mary Poppins announces the nonsense word "Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious ''. However, the outing is ruined when a thunderstorm demolishes Bert 's drawings, returning the group to London.
On another outing, the four meet Uncle Albert, who has floated up in the air due to his uncontrollable laughter; they join him for a tea party on the ceiling, telling jokes.
Mr. Banks becomes annoyed by the household 's cheery atmosphere, and threatens to fire Mary Poppins. Instead, Mary Poppins inverts his attempt by convincing him to take the children to the bank for a day. Mr. Banks takes Jane and Michael to the bank, where they meet Mr. Dawes Sr. and his son. Mr. Dawes aggressively attempts to have Michael invest his tuppence in the bank, snatching it from him. Michael demands it back, causing other customers to misinterpret, and all demand their own money back, causing a bank run.
Jane and Michael flee the bank, getting lost in the East End until they run into Bert, now working as a chimney sweep, who escorts them home. The three and Mary Poppins venture onto the rooftops, where they have a song - and - dance number with other chimney sweeps, which spills out into the Banks ' home. Mr. Banks returns, and receives a phone call from his employers. He speaks with Bert, who tells him he should spend more time with his children before growing up. Jane and Michael give their father Michael 's tuppence in the hope to make amends.
Mr. Banks walks through London to the bank, where he is given a humiliating cashiering, and is dismissed. Looking to the tuppence for words, he blurts out "Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious! '', tells one of Uncle Albert 's jokes, and happily heads home. Dawes mulls over the joke, but finally "gets '' it, and floats up into the air, laughing.
The next day, the wind changes, meaning Mary Poppins must leave. A happier Mr. Banks is found at home, having fixed his children 's kite, and takes the family out to fly it. In the park, the Banks meet Mr. Dawes Jr, who reveals his father died laughing from the joke, and re-employs Mr. Banks as a junior partner. With her work done, Mary Poppins flies away, with Bert bidding her farewell, telling her not to stay away too long.
The first book in the Mary Poppins book series was the film 's main basis. According to the 40th Anniversary DVD release of the film in 2004, Disney 's daughters fell in love with the Mary Poppins books and made him promise to make a film based on them. Disney first attempted to purchase the film rights to Mary Poppins from P.L. Travers as early as 1938 but was rebuffed because Travers did not believe a film version of her books would do justice to her creation. In addition, Disney was known at the time primarily as a producer of cartoons and had yet to produce any major live - action work. For more than 20 years, Disney periodically made efforts to convince Travers to allow him to make a Poppins film. He finally succeeded in 1961, although Travers demanded and got script approval rights. The Sherman Brothers composed the music score and were also involved in the film 's development, suggesting the setting be changed from the 1930s to the Edwardian era. Pre-production and song composition took about two years.
Travers was an adviser to the production. However, she disapproved of the dilution of the harsher aspects of Mary Poppins ' character, felt ambivalent about the music, and so hated the use of animation that she ruled out any further adaptations of the later Mary Poppins novels. She objected to a number of elements that actually made it into the film. Rather than original songs, she wanted the soundtrack to feature known standards of the Edwardian period in which the story is set. She also objected to the animated sequence. Disney overruled her, citing contract stipulations that he had final say on the finished print. Much of the Travers - Disney correspondence is part of the Travers collection of papers in the Mitchell Library of New South Wales, Australia. The relationship between Travers and Disney is detailed in Mary Poppins She Wrote, a biography of Travers, by Valerie Lawson. The biography is the basis for two documentaries on Travers, The Real Mary Poppins, and Lisa Matthews ' The Shadow of Mary Poppins. Their relationship during the development of the film was also dramatized in the 2013 film, Saving Mr. Banks.
Julie Andrews, who was making her feature film acting debut after a successful stage career, got the prime role of Mary Poppins soon after she was passed over by Jack L. Warner and replaced with Audrey Hepburn for the role of Eliza Doolittle in his screen adaptation of My Fair Lady, even though Andrews had originated the role on Broadway. When Disney first approached Andrews about taking on the role, Andrews was three months pregnant and therefore was not sure she should take it. Disney assured her that the crew would be fine with waiting to begin filming until after she had given birth so that she could play the part. Julie Andrews also provided the voice in two other sections of the film: during "A Spoonful of Sugar, '' she provided the whistling harmony for the robin, and she was also one of the Pearly singers during "Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious. '' David Tomlinson, besides playing Mr. Banks, provided the voice of Mary 's talking umbrella and numerous other voice - over parts (including that of Admiral Boom 's first mate). During the "Jolly Holiday '' sequence, the three singing Cockney geese were all voiced by Marni Nixon, a regular aural substitute for actresses with substandard singing voices. Nixon would later provide the singing voice for Hepburn in My Fair Lady and play one of Andrews ' fellow nuns in The Sound of Music. Andrews later beat Hepburn for the Best Actress Award at the Golden Globes for their respective roles. Andrews would also win the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role. Hepburn did not receive a nomination. Richard Sherman, one of the songwriters, also voiced a penguin as well as one of the Pearlies. Robert Sherman dubbed the speaking voice for Jane Darwell because Darwell 's voice was too weak to be heard in the soundtrack. Sherman 's voice is heard saying the only line: "Feed the Birds, Tuppence a bag. ''
Disney cast Dick Van Dyke in the key supporting role of Bert after seeing his work on The Dick Van Dyke Show. After winning the role of Bert, Van Dyke lobbied to also play the senior Mr. Dawes, but Disney originally felt he was too young for the part. Van Dyke eventually won Disney over after a screen test. Although he is fondly remembered for this film, Van Dyke 's attempt at a Cockney accent is regarded as one of the worst film accents in history, cited as an example by actors since as something that they wish to avoid. In a 2003 poll by Empire magazine of the worst film accents of all time, he came second. Van Dyke claims that his accent coach was the Irish J. Pat O'Malley, who "did n't do an accent any better than I did ''.
Filming took place between May and September 1963, with post-production and animation taking another 11 months.
The film changed the book 's storyline in a number of places. For example, Mary, when approaching the house, controlled the wind rather than the other way around. As another example, the father, rather than the mother, interviewed Mary for the nanny position. A number of other changes were necessary to condense the story into feature length. In the film, there are only two Banks children, Jane and Michael. The satirical and mysterious aspects of the original book gave way to a cheerful and "Disney - fied '' tone. Mary Poppins ' character as portrayed by Andrews in the film is somewhat less vain and more sympathetic towards the children compared to the rather cold and intimidating nanny of the original book. Bert, as played by Van Dyke, was a composite of several characters from Travers ' stories. Travers demanded that any suggestions of romance between Mary and Bert be eliminated, so lyrics were written for "Jolly Holiday '' that clearly indicated that their friendship was purely platonic; some subtle hints of romance, however, did remain in the finished film.
Buena Vista Records released the original motion picture soundtrack on LP and reel - to - reel tape. Due to time constraints, some songs were edited (such as "Step in Time '' and "Jolly Holiday '', "A Spoonful of Sugar ''), while songs also featured introductory passages ("Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious '') or completed endings ("Sister Suffragette '', "Fidelity Fiduciary Bank '', "A Man Has Dreams ''). Written by Richard and Robert Sherman, the songs were inspired by Edwardian British music hall music. The score won two Grammy Awards and two Academy Awards.
Walt Disney Records re-issued the soundtrack in 1997, including a 16 - minute track of unreleased songs and demo versions. In 2004, as part of the 40th Anniversary (also called Special Edition), a 28 - track disc (as part of a two - disc set) was released. In 2014 (the 50th anniversary of the film 's release), the soundtrack was released in a 3 - CD edition as part of the Walt Disney Records The Legacy Collection series; this edition includes demos of many "lost '' tracks.
All tracks are written by Richard M. Sherman and Robert B. Sherman.
A number of other songs were written for the film by the Sherman Brothers and either rejected or cut for time. Richard Sherman, on the 2004 DVD release, indicated that more than 30 songs were written at various stages of the film 's development. No cast recordings of any of these songs have been released to the public, only demos or later performances done by the songwriters -- with the exception of the rooftop reprise of "Chim Chim Cher - ee '' and the "smoke staircase yodel '' mentioned below.
The Compass Sequence, a precursor to "Jolly Holiday '', was to be a multiple - song sequence. A number of possible musical components have been identified:
Mary Poppins premiered on August 27, 1964, at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles. Travers was not extended an invitation to the event, but managed to obtain one from a Disney executive. It was at the after - party that Richard Sherman recalled her walking up to Disney and loudly announcing that the animated sequence had to go. Disney responded, "Pamela, the ship has sailed, '' and walked away.
Mary Poppins was first released in late 1980 on VHS, Betamax, CED and LaserDisc. On October 28, 1994, August 26, 1997, and March 31, 1998, it was re-released three times as part of the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection. In 1998, this film became Disney 's first DVD. On July 4, 2000, it was released on VHS and DVD as part of the Gold Classic Collection. On December 14, 2004, it had a 2 - Disc DVD release in a Digitally Restored 40th Anniversary Edition as well as its final issue in the VHS Format. The film 's audio track featured an "Enhanced Home Theater Mix '' consisting of replaced sound effects (to make the soundtrack more "modern '') and improved fidelity and mixing and some enhanced music (this version was also shown on 2006 -- 2012 ABC Family airings of the movie.) On January 27, 2009, the film was released on DVD again as a 45th anniversary edition, with more language tracks and special features (though the film 's "Enhanced Home Theater Mix '' was not included.) Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the film on Blu - ray as the 50th Anniversary Edition on December 10, 2013.
The film received universal acclaim from film critics. Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 100 % of critics gave the film a "fresh '' rating, based on 44 reviews with an average score of 8.3 / 10. The site 's consensus refers to it as "A lavish modern fairy tale celebrated for its amazing special effects, catchy songs, and Julie Andrews 's legendary performance in the title role. ''
Variety praised the film 's musical sequences and the performances of Julie Andrews and Dick Van Dyke, in particular. Time lauded the film, stating, "The sets are luxuriant, the songs lilting, the scenario witty but impeccably sentimental, and the supporting cast only a pinfeather short of perfection. ''
Critic Drew Casper summarized the impact of Mary Poppins in 2011:
Disney was the leader, his musical fantasies mixing animation and truly marvelous f / x with real - life action for children and the child in the adult. Mary Poppins (1964) was his plum... the story was elemental, even trite. But utmost sophistication (the chimney pot sequence crisply cut by Oscared "Cotton '' Warburton) and high - level invention (a tea party on the ceiling, a staircase of black smoke to the city 's top) characterized its handling.
The film earned $31 million in North American rentals during its initial run. The film was re-released theatrically in 1973, in honor of Walt Disney Productions ' 50th anniversary, and earned an estimated additional $9 million in North American rentals. It was released once more in 1980 and grossed $14 million. It returned a total lifetime rental of $45 million to Disney from a gross of over $102 million from its North American theatrical releases.
The film was the twentienth most popular sound film of the twentieth century in the UK with admissions of 14 million.
The film was very profitable for Disney. Made on an estimated budget of $4.4 -- 6 million, it was reported by Cobbett Steinberg to be the most profitable film of 1965, earning a net profit of $28.5 million. Walt Disney used his huge profits from the film to purchase land in central Florida and finance the construction of Walt Disney World.
Mary Poppins is widely considered to be one of the greatest films of all time and Walt Disney 's "crowning achievement ''. It was the only film of Disney 's to garner a "Best Picture '' nomination at the Oscars in his lifetime.
The film also inspired the eighth - season episode of The Simpsons entitled "Simpsoncalifragilisticexpiala (Annoyed Grunt) cious '', featuring a parody of Mary called "Shary Bobbins '' who helps out the Simpson family after Marge loses her hair due to stress, and spoofs of the songs "The Perfect Nanny '', "A Spoonful of Sugar '', "Feed The Birds '' and "The Life I Lead ''.
Never at ease with the handling of her property by Disney or the way she felt she had been treated, Travers would never again agree to another Poppins / Disney adaptation. So fervent was Travers ' dislike of the Disney adaptation and of the way she felt she had been treated during the production, that when producer Cameron Mackintosh approached her about the stage musical in the 1990s, she acquiesced on the condition that he used only English - born writers and no one from the film production were to be directly involved with creating the stage musical.
On September 14, 2015, it was reported that a new film was in development by Walt Disney Pictures. The film will take place 20 years after the first, featuring a standalone narrative based on the remaining seven books in the series. Rob Marshall has been hired to direct, while John DeLuca and Marc Platt will serve as producers.
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what comes first the endpoint or the equivalence point | Equivalence point - wikipedia
The equivalence point, or stoichiometric point, of a chemical reaction is the point at which chemically equivalent quantities of bases and acids have been mixed. In other words, the moles of acid are equivalent to the moles of base, according to the equation (this does not necessarily imply a 1: 1 molar ratio of acid: base, merely that the ratio is the same as in the equation). It can be found by means of an indicator, for example phenolphthalein or methyl orange.
The endpoint (related to, but not the same as the equivalence point) refers to the point at which the indicator changes colour in a colourimetric titration.
Different methods to determine the equivalence point include:
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king report on corporate governance for south africa 2002 | King report on Corporate governance - wikipedia
The great dsp
Report on Corporate Governance is a ground - breaking booklet of guidelines for the governance structures and operation of companies in South Africa. It is issued by the King Committee on Corporate Governance. Three reports were issued in 1994 (King I), 2002 (King II), and 2009 (King III) and a fourth revision (King IV) in 2016. The Institute of Directors in Southern Africa (IoDSA) owns the copyright of the King Report on Corporate Governance and the King Code of Corporate Governance. Compliance with the King Reports is a requirement for companies listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange. The King Report on Corporate Governance has been cited as "the most effective summary of the best international practices in corporate governance ''.
In July 1993 the Institute of Directors in South Africa asked retired Supreme Court of South Africa judge Mervyn E. King to chair a committee on corporate governance. He viewed this as an opportunity to educate the newly democratic South African public on the working of a free economy. The committee 's report was to be the first report of its kind in South Africa.
Committee members included Phillip Armstrong, Nigel Payne, and Richard Wilkinson.
Unlike other corporate governance codes such as Sarbanes - Oxley, the code is non-legislative and is based on principles and practices. It also espouses an apply or explain approach, unique to the Netherlands until King and now also found in the 2010 Combined Code from the United Kingdom.
The philosophy of the code consists of the three key elements of leadership, sustainability and good corporate citizenship. It views good governance as essentially being effective, ethical leadership. King believes that leaders should direct the company to achieve sustainable economic, social and environmental performance. It views sustainability as the primary moral and economic imperative of this century; the code 's view on corporate citizenship flows from a company 's standing as a juristic person under the South African constitution and should operate in a sustainable manner.
In 1994 the first King report on corporate governance (King 1) was published, the first corporate governance code for South Africa. It established recommended standards of conduct for boards and directors of listed companies, banks, and certain state - owned enterprises. It included not only financial and regulatory aspects, but also advocated an integrated approach that involved all stakeholders.
It was applicable to all companies listed on the main board of the Johannesburg Stock Exchange, large public entities as defined by the Public Entities Act of South Africa; banks, financial and insurance companies as defined by the Financial Services Acts of South Africa; and large unlisted companies. It defined "large '' as companies with shareholder equity over R50 million, but encouraged all companies to adopt the code.
The key principles from the first King report covered:
In 2002, when the Earth Summit was held in Johannesburg, King pushed for a revision of the report (King II), including new sections on sustainability, the role of the corporate board, and risk management. This revised code of governance was applicable from March 2002.
In addition to those types of organizations listed in King I, it was applicable to departments of State or national, provincial or local government administration falling under the Local Government: Municipal Finance Management Act, and public institution or functionary exercising a power or performing a function in terms of the constitution, or exercising a public power or performing a public function in terms of any legislation, excluding courts or judicial officers. As before, it encourages all companies to adopt the applicable principles from the code.
The key principles from the second King report covered the following areas:
As before, the code is not enforced through legislation. However, it co-exists with a number of laws that apply to companies and directors including the Companies Act. In addition further enforcement takes place by regulations such as the JSE Securities Exchange Listings Requirements.
In an interview with Mervin King, he considered the King II report was wrong to include sustainability as a separate chapter, leading companies to report on it separately from other factors. In the next version, the 2009 King III report, governance, strategy and sustainability were integrated. The report recommends that organisations produce an integrated report in place of an annual financial report and a separate sustainability report and that companies create sustainability reports according to the Global Reporting Initiative 's Sustainability Reporting Guidelines.
In contrast to the earlier versions, King III is applicable to all entities, public, private and non-profit. King encourages all entities to adopt the King III principles and explain how these have been applied or are not applicable. The code of governance was applicable from March 2010.
The report incorporated a number of global emerging governance trends:
It also incorporated a number of new principles to address elements not previously included in the King reports:
Again, the code of corporate governance is not enforced through legislation. However, due to evolutions in South African law many of the principles put forward in King II are now embodied as law in the Companies Act of South Africa of 2008. In addition to the Companies Act, there are additional applicable statutes that encapsulate some of the principles of King III such as the Public Finance Management Act and the Promotion of Access to Information Act.
"There have been significant corporate governance and regulatory developments, locally and internationally, since King III was issued in 2009 which need to be taken into account. The other consideration is that whilst listed companies are generally applying King III, non-profit organisations, private companies and entities in the public sector have experienced challenges in interpreting and adapting King III to their particular circumstances. The enhancement will aim to make King IV more accessible to all types of entities across sectors. ''
King IV was published on 1 November, 2016. Providing for a 2 - year period in respect of the drafting process and another year grace period to allow organisations to implement, King IV will probably become effective from middle 2017.
The Institute of Directors in Southern Africa (IoDSA) is the custodian of the King reports and the holder of their copyrights. Ansie Ramalho from the IoDSA, with the assistance of Parmi Natesan and Julie Dixon, leads the project management of the redrafting process and serves as the editor of the various drafts. The King Committee governs the drafting process and will ultimately approve of the King IV Report.
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breastfeeding reduces the risk of all but which of the following quizlet | Breastfeeding - Wikipedia
Breastfeeding, also known as nursing, is the feeding of babies and young children with milk from a woman 's breast. Health professionals recommend that breastfeeding begin within the first hour of a baby 's life and continue as often and as much as the baby wants. During the first few weeks of life babies may nurse roughly every two to three hours. The duration of a feeding is usually ten to fifteen minutes on each breast. Older children feed less often. Mothers may pump milk so that it can be used later when breastfeeding is not possible. Breastfeeding has a number of benefits to both mother and baby, which infant formula lacks.
Deaths of an estimated 820,000 children under the age of five could be prevented globally every year with increased breastfeeding. Breastfeeding decreases the risk of respiratory tract infections and diarrhea, both in developing and developed countries. Other benefits include lower risks of asthma, food allergies, celiac disease, type 1 diabetes, and leukemia. Breastfeeding may also improve cognitive development and decrease the risk of obesity in adulthood. Mothers may feel pressure to breastfeed, but in the developed world children generally grow up normally when bottle fed.
Benefits for the mother include less blood loss following delivery, better uterus shrinkage, and less postpartum depression. Breastfeeding delays the return of menstruation and fertility, a phenomenon known as lactational amenorrhea. Long term benefits for the mother include decreased risk of breast cancer, cardiovascular disease, and rheumatoid arthritis. Breastfeeding is less expensive than infant formula.
Health organizations, including the World Health Organization (WHO), recommend breastfeeding exclusively for six months. This means that no other foods or drinks other than possibly vitamin D are typically given. After the introduction of foods at six months of age, recommendations include continued breastfeeding until at least one to two years of age. Globally about 38 % of infants are only breastfed during their first six months of life. In the United States, about 75 % of women begin breastfeeding and about 13 % only breastfeed until the age of six months. Medical conditions that do not allow breastfeeding are rare. Mothers who take certain recreational drugs and medications should not breastfeed. Smoking, limited amounts of alcohol, or coffee are not reasons to avoid breastfeeding.
Changes early in pregnancy prepare the breast for lactation. Pre-birth hormone levels become altered after the birth and stimulate the production of milk. From around halfway through pregnancy, the breasts begin to produce colostrum. Colostrum, a thick yellowish fluid rich in protein, continues to be produced for the first few days after delivery. Around 30 to 40 hours after delivery, the composition of milk changes to mature milk and milk volume becomes copious, an event known as the milk "coming in ''. Sucking causes the pituitary to release oxytocin that causes to the contraction of the uterus. Progesterone is the hormone that influences the growth of breast tissue before the birth. The postpartum changes that occur in the endocrine system after the birth shift from hormones that prevent lactation to hormones that trigger milk production. This can be felt by the mother in the breasts. The crying of the infant can induce the release of oxytocin from the pituitary gland.
Not all of breast milk 's properties are understood, but its nutrient content is relatively consistent. Breast milk is made from nutrients in the mother 's bloodstream and bodily stores. Breast milk has an optimal balance of fat, sugar, water, and protein that is needed for a baby 's growth and development. Breastfeeding triggers biochemical reactions which allows for the enzymes, hormones, growth factors and immunologic substances to effectively defend against infectious diseases for the infant. The breastmilk also has long - chain polyunsaturated fatty acids which help with normal retinal and neural development.
The composition of breast milk changes depending on how long the baby nurses at each session, as well as on the child 's age. The first type, produced during the first days after childbirth, is called colostrum. Colostrum is easy to digest although it is more concentrated than mature milk. It has a laxative effect that helps the infant to pass early stools, aiding in the excretion of excess bilirubin, which helps to prevent jaundice. It also helps to seal the infants gastrointestional tract from foreign substances, which may sensitize the baby to foods that the mother has eaten. Although the baby has received some antibodies through the placenta, colostrum contains a substance which is new to the newborn, secretory immunoglobulin A (IgA). IgA works to attack germs in the mucous membranes of the throat, lungs, and intestines, which are most likely to come under attack from germs.
Breasts begin producing mature milk around the third or fourth day after birth. Early in a nursing session, the breasts produce foremilk, a thinner milk containing many proteins and vitamins. If the baby keeps nursing, then hindmilk is produced. Hindmilk has a creamier color and texture because it contains more fat.
Breastfeeding can begin immediately after birth. The baby is placed on the mother and feeding starts as soon as the baby shows interest.
According to some authorities, increasing evidence suggests that early skin - to - skin contact (also called kangaroo care) between mother and baby stimulates breastfeeding behavior in the baby. Newborns who are immediately placed on their mother 's skin have a natural instinct to latch on to the breast and start nursing, typically within one hour of birth. Immediate skin - to - skin contact may provide a form of imprinting that makes subsequent feeding significantly easier. In addition to more successful breastfeeding and bonding, immediate skin - to - skin contact reduces crying and warms the baby.
According to studies cited by UNICEF, babies naturally follow a process which leads to a first breastfeed. Initially after birth the baby cries with its first breaths. Shortly after, it relaxes and makes small movements of the arms, shoulders and head. The baby crawls towards the breast and begins to feed. After feeding, it is normal for a baby to remain latched to the breast while resting. This is sometimes mistaken for lack of appetite. Absent interruptions, all babies follow this process. Rushing or interrupting the process, such as removing the baby to weigh him / her, may complicate subsequent feeding. Activities such as weighing, measuring, bathing, needle - sticks, and eye prophylaxis wait until after the first feeding. ''
Children who are born preterm have difficulty in initiating breast feeds immediately after birth. By convention, such children are often fed on expressed breast milk or other supplementary feeds through tubes or bottles until they develop satisfactory ability to suck breast milk. Tube feeding, though commonly used, is not supported by scientific evidence as of October 2016. It has also been reported in the same systematic review that by avoiding bottles and using cups instead to provide supplementary feeds to preterm children, a greater extent of breast feeding for a longer duration can subsequently be achieved.
Newborn babies typically express demand for feeding every one to three hours (8 -- 12 times in 24 hours) for the first two to four weeks. A newborn has a very small stomach capacity. At one - day old it is 5 -- 7 ml, about the size of a marble; at day three it is 22 -- 30 ml, about the size of a "shooter '' marble; and at day seven it is 45 -- 60 ml, or about the size of a ping - pong ball. The amount of breast milk that is produced is timed to meet the infant 's needs in that the first milk, colostrum, is concentrated but produced in only very small amounts, gradually increasing in volume to meet the expanding size of the infant 's stomach capacity.
According to La Leche League International, "Experienced breastfeeding mothers learn that the sucking patterns and needs of babies vary. While some infants ' sucking needs are met primarily during feedings, other babies may need additional sucking at the breast soon after a feeding even though they are not really hungry. Babies may also nurse when they are lonely, frightened or in pain... Comforting and meeting sucking needs at the breast is nature 's original design. Pacifiers (dummies, soothers) are a substitute for the mother when she can not be available. Other reasons to pacify a baby primarily at the breast include superior oral - facial development, prolonged lactational amenorrhea, avoidance of nipple confusion, and stimulation of an adequate milk supply to ensure higher rates of breastfeeding success. ''
During the newborn period, most breastfeeding sessions take from 20 to 45 minutes. After one breast is empty, the mother may offer the other breast.
Most US states now have laws that allow a mother to breastfeed her baby anywhere. In hospitals, rooming - in care permits the baby to stay with the mother and simplifies the process. Some commercial establishments provide breastfeeding rooms, although laws generally specify that mothers may breastfeed anywhere, without requiring a special area. Breastfeeding in public remains controversial in many developed countries.
In 2014, newly elected Pope Francis drew worldwide commentary when he encouraged mothers to breastfeed babies in church. During a papal baptism, he said that mothers "should not stand on ceremony '' if their children were hungry. "If they are hungry, mothers, feed them, without thinking twice, '' he said, smiling. "Because they are the most important people here. ''
Correct positioning and technique for latching on are necessary to prevent nipple soreness and allow the baby to obtain enough milk.
Babies can successfully latch on to the breast from multiple positions. Each baby may prefer a particular position. The "football '' hold places the baby 's legs next to the mother 's side with the baby facing the mother. Using the "cradle '' or "cross-body '' hold, the mother supports the baby 's head in the crook of her arm. The "cross-over '' hold is similar to the cradle hold, except that the mother supports the baby 's head with the opposite hand. The mother may choose a reclining position on her back or side with the baby laying next to her.
Illustration depicting correct latch - on position during breastfeeding.
Breastfeeding -- Cradle hold.
Breastfeeding -- Cross cradle position.
Breastfeeding -- Football hold.
Breastfeeding -- Incorrect vs correct latch - on.
Breastfeeding -- Semi-reclining position.
Breastfeeding -- Side - lying position.
Breastfeeding -- Supine position.
Breastfeeding -- Tease lips or cheek.
Breastfeeding -- Twins, cross cradle position I.
Breastfeeding -- Twins, football or clutch hold.
Breastfeeding -- Twins, parallel position II.
Latching on refers to how the baby fastens onto the breast while breastfeeding. A good latch means that the bottom of the areola (the area around the nipple) is in the baby 's mouth and the nipple is back inside his or her mouth. A poor latch happens when the baby does not have enough of the breast in his / her mouth or is too close to the tip. This can cause cracked nipples and a reluctance to continue to breastfeed.
Weaning is the process of replacing breast milk with other foods; the infant is fully weaned after the replacement is complete. Psychological factors affect the weaning process for both mother and infant, as issues of closeness and separation are very prominent. If the baby is less than a year old substitute bottles are necessary; an older baby may accept milk from a cup. Unless a medical emergency necessitates abruptly stopping breastfeeding, it is best to gradually cut back on feedings to allow the breasts to adjust to the decreased demands without becoming engorged. La Leche League advises: "The nighttime feeding is usually the last to go. Make a bedtime routine not centered around breastfeeding. A good book or two will eventually become more important than a long session at the breast. ''
If breastfeeding is suddenly stopped a woman 's breasts are likely to become engorged with milk. Pumping small amounts to relieve discomfort helps to gradually train the breasts to produce less milk. There is presently no safe medication to prevent engorgement, but cold compresses and ibuprofen may help to relieve pain and swelling. Pain should go away in one to five days. If symptoms continue and comfort measures are not helpful a woman should consider the possibility that a blocked milk duct or infection may be present and seek medical intervention.
When weaning is complete the mother 's breasts return to their previous size after several menstrual cycles. If the mother was experiencing lactational amenorrhea her periods will return along with the return of her fertility. When no longer breastfeeding she will need to adjust her diet to avoid weight gain.
Almost all medicines pass into breastmilk in small amounts. Some have no effect on the baby and can be used while breastfeeding. Many medications are known to significantly suppress milk production, including pseudoephedrine, diuretics, and contraceptives that contain estrogen.
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) states that "tobacco smoking by mothers is not a contraindication to breastfeeding. '' Breastfeeding is actually especially recommended for mothers who smoke, because of its protective effects against SIDS.
With respect to alcohol, the AAP states that when breastfeeding, "moderation is definitely advised '' and recommends waiting for 2 hours after drinking before nursing or pumping. A 2014 review found that "even in a theoretical case of binge drinking, the children would not be subjected to clinically relevant amounts of alcohol (through breastmilk) '', and would have no adverse effects on children as long as drinking is "occasional ''.
Exclusive breastfeeding is defined as "an infant 's consumption of human milk with no supplementation of any type (no water, no juice, no nonhuman milk and no foods) except for vitamins, minerals and medications. '' Exclusive breastfeeding till six months of age helps to protect an infant from gastrointestinal infections in both developing and industrialized countries. The risk of death due to diarrhea and other infections increases when babies are either partially breastfed or not breastfed at all.
Measuring how many calories a breastfed baby consumes is complex, although babies normally attempt to meet their own requirements. Babies that fail to eat enough may exhibit symptoms of failure to thrive.
La Leche League says that mothers ' most often asked question is, "How can I tell if my baby is getting enough milk? '' They advise that for the first few days, while the baby is receiving mostly colostrum, one or two wet diapers per day is normal. Once the mother starts producing milk, usually on the third or fourth day, the baby should have 6 -- 8 wet cloth diapers (5 -- 6 wet disposable diapers) per day. In addition, most young babies have at least 2 -- 5 bowel movements every 24 hours for the first several months.
La Leache League offers the following additional signs that indicate a baby is receiving enough milk:
If the baby is latching and swallowing well but is not drinking enough milk, low milk supply in the mother can be suspected. Most cases of low milk supply are caused by not nursing feeding frequently enough or the baby not effectively taking milk, but medical conditions cause or contribute to low milk supply in some cases.
Predominant or mixed breastfeeding means feeding breast milk along with infant formula, baby food and even water, depending on the child 's age.
A mother can express (produce) her milk for storage and later use. Expression occurs with massage or a breast pump. It can be stored in freezer storage bags, containers made specifically for breastmilk, a supplemental nursing system, or a bottle ready for use. Using someone other than the mother / wet nurse to deliver the bottle maintains the baby 's association of nursing with the mother / wet nurse and bottle feeding with other people.
Breast milk may be kept at room temperature for up to six hours, refrigerated for up to eight days or frozen for six to twelve months. Research suggests that the antioxidant activity in expressed breast milk decreases over time, but remains at higher levels than in infant formula.
Mothers express milk for multiple reasons. Expressing breast milk can maintain a mother 's milk supply when she and her child are apart. A sick baby who is unable to nurse can take expressed milk through a nasogastric tube. Some babies are unable or unwilling to nurse. Expressed milk is the feeding method of choice for premature babies. Viral disease transmission can be prevented by expressing breast milk and subjecting it to Holder pasteurisation. Some women donate expressed breast milk (EBM) to others, either directly or through a milk bank. This allows mothers who can not breastfeed to give their baby the benefits of breast milk.
Babies feed differently with artificial nipples than from a breast. With the breast, the infant 's tongue massages the milk out rather than sucking, and the nipple does not go as far into the mouth. Drinking from a bottle takes less effort and the milk may come more rapidly, potentially causing the baby to lose desire for the breast. This is called nursing strike, nipple strike or nipple confusion. To avoid this, expressed milk can be given by means such as spoons or cups.
"Exclusively expressing '', "exclusively pumping '', and "EPing '' are terms for a mother who exclusively feeds her baby expressed milk. With good pumping habits, particularly in the first 12 weeks while establishing the milk supply, it is possible to express enough milk to feed the baby indefinitely. With the improvements in breast pumps, many women exclusively feed expressed milk, expressing milk at work. Women can leave their infants in the care of others while traveling, while maintaining a supply of breast milk.
Wet nursing was common throughout history. It remains popular in some developing nations, including those in Africa, for more than one woman to breastfeed a child. Shared breastfeeding is a risk factor for HIV infection in infants. A woman who is engaged to breastfeed another 's baby is known as a wet nurse. Shared nursing can sometimes provoke negative reactions in the English - speaking world.
Feeding two children at the same time who are not twins or multiples is called tandem nursing. Appetite and feeding habits of each baby may differ, so they may feed at the same or different times, which may involve feeding them simultaneously, one on each breast.
Breastfeeding triplets or larger broods is a challenge given babies ' varying appetites. Breasts can respond to the demand and produce larger milk quantities; mothers have breastfed triplets successfully.
Tandem nursing occurs when a woman gives birth while breastfeeding an older child. During the late stages of pregnancy, the milk changes to colostrum. While some children continue to breastfeed even with this change, others may wean. Breastfeeding a child while pregnant with another may be considered a form of tandem feeding for the nursing mother, as she provides nutrition for two.
Induced lactation, also called adoptive lactation, is the process of starting breastfeeding in a woman who did not give birth. This usually requires the adoptive mother to take hormones and other drugs to stimulate breast development and promote milk production. In some cultures, breastfeeding an adoptive child creates milk kinship that built community bonds across class and other hierarchal bonds.
Re-lactation is the process of restarting breastfeeding. In developing countries, mothers may restart breastfeeding after a weaning as part of an oral rehydration treatment for diarrhea. In developed countries, re-lactation is common after early medical problems are resolved, or because a mother changes her mind about breastfeeding.
Re-lactation is most easily accomplished with a newborn or with a baby that was previously breastfeeding; if the baby was initially bottle - fed, the baby may refuse to suckle. If the mother has recently stopped breastfeeding, she is more likely to be able to re-establish her milk supply, and more likely to have an adequate supply. Although some women successfully re-lactate after months - long interruptions, success is higher for shorter interruptions.
Techniques to promote lactation use frequent attempts to breastfeed, extensive skin - to - skin contact with the baby, and frequent, long pumping sessions. Suckling may be encouraged with a tube filled with infant formula, so that the baby associates suckling at the breast with food. A dropper or syringe without the needle may be used to place milk onto the breast while the baby suckles. The mother should allow the infant to suckle at least ten times during 24 hours, and more times if he or she is interested. These times can include every two hours, whenever the baby seems interested, longer at each breast, and when the baby is sleepy when he or she might suckle more readily. In keeping with increasing contact between mother and child, including increasing skin - to - skin contact, grandmothers should pull back and help in other ways. Later on, grandmothers can again provide more direct care for the infant.
These techniques require the mother 's commitment over a period of weeks or months. However, even when lactation is established, the supply may not be large enough to breastfeed exclusively. A supportive social environment improves the likelihood of success. As the mother 's milk production increases, other feeding can decrease. Parents and other family members should watch the baby 's weight gain and urine output to assess nutritional adequacy.
A WHO manual for physicians and senior health workers citing a 1992 source states: "If a baby has been breastfeeding sometimes, the breastmilk supply increases in a few days. If a baby has stopped breastfeeding, it may take 1 - 2 weeks or more before much breastmilk comes. ''
Extended breastfeeding means breastfeeding after the age of 12 or 24 months, depending on the source. In Western countries such as the United States, Canada, and Great Britain, extended breastfeeding is relatively uncommon and can provoke criticism.
In the United States, 22.4 % of babies are breastfed for 12 months, the minimum amount of time advised by the American Academy of Pediatrics. In India, mothers commonly breastfeed for 2 to 3 years.
Breastfeeding decreases the risk of a number of diseases in both mothers and babies. The US Preventive Services Task Force recommends efforts to promote breastfeeding.
Early breastfeeding is associated with fewer nighttime feeding problems. Early skin - to - skin contact between mother and baby improves breastfeeding outcomes and increases cardio - respiratory stability. Reviews from 2007 found numerous benefits. Breastfeeding aids general health, growth and development in the infant. Infants who are not breastfed are at mildly increased risk of developing acute and chronic diseases, including lower respiratory infection, ear infections, bacteremia, bacterial meningitis, botulism, urinary tract infection and necrotizing enterocolitis. Breastfeeding may protect against sudden infant death syndrome, insulin - dependent diabetes mellitus, Crohn 's disease, ulcerative colitis, lymphoma, allergic diseases, digestive diseases, obesity, develop diabetes, or childhood leukemia later in life. and may enhance cognitive development.
The average breastfed baby doubles its birth weight in 5 -- 6 months. By one year, a typical breastfed baby weighs about 2 - 1 / 2 times its birth weight. At one year, breastfed babies tend to be leaner than formula - fed babies, which improves long - run health.
The Davis Area Research on Lactation, Infant Nutrition and Growth (DARLING) study reported that breastfed and formula - fed groups had similar weight gain during the first 3 months, but the breastfed babies began to drop below the median beginning at 6 to 8 months and were significantly lower weight than the formula - fed group between 6 and 18 months. Length gain and head circumference values were similar between groups, suggesting that the breastfed babies were leaner.
Breast milk contains several anti-infective factors such as bile salt stimulated lipase (protecting against amoebic infections) and lactoferrin (which binds to iron and inhibits the growth of intestinal bacteria).
Infants who are exclusively breastfed for the first six months are less likely to die of gastrointestinal infections than infants who switched from exclusive to partial breastfeeding at three to four months.
During breastfeeding, approximately 0.25 -- 0.5 grams per day of secretory IgA antibodies pass to the baby via milk. This is one of the important features of colostrum. The main target for these antibodies are probably microorganisms in the baby 's intestine. The rest of the body displays some uptake of IgA, but this amount is relatively small.
Maternal vaccinations while breastfeeding is safe for almost all vaccines. Additionally, the mother 's immunity obtained by vaccination against tetanus, diphtheria, whooping cough and influenza can protect the baby from these diseases, and breastfeeding can reduce fever rate after infant immunization. However, smallpox and yellow fever vaccines increase the risk of infants developing vaccinia and encephalitis.
Babies who are not breastfed are almost six times more likely to die by the age of one month than those who receive at least some breastmilk.
The protective effect of breastfeeding against obesity is consistent, though small, across many studies. A 2013 longitudinal study reported less obesity at ages two and four years among infants who were breastfed for at least four months.
In children who are at risk for developing allergic diseases (defined as at least one parent or sibling having atopy), atopic syndrome can be prevented or delayed through 4 - month exclusive breastfeeding, though these benefits may not persist.
Breastfeeding may reduce the risk of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC).
Breastfeeding or introduction of gluten while breastfeeding do n't protect against celiac disease among at - risk children. Breast milk of healthy human mothers who eat gluten - containing foods presents high levels of non-degraded gliadin (the main gluten protein). Early introduction of traces of gluten in babies to potentially induce tolerance does n't reduce the risk of developing celiac disease. Delaying the introduction of gluten does not prevent, but is associated with a delayed onset of the disease.
About 19 % of leukemia cases may be prevented by breastfeeding for six months or longer.
Breastfeeding may decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease in later life, as indicated by lower cholesterol and C - reactive protein levels in breastfed adult women. Breastfed infants have somewhat lower blood pressure later in life, but it is unclear how much practical benefit this provides.
A 1998 study suggested that breastfed babies have a better chance of good dental health than formula - fed infants because of the developmental effects of breastfeeding on the oral cavity and airway. It was thought that with fewer malocclusions, breastfed children may have a reduced need for orthodontic intervention. The report suggested that children with a well rounded, "U-shaped '' dental arch, which is found more commonly in breastfed children, may have fewer problems with snoring and sleep apnea in later life. A 2016 review found that breastfeeding protected against malocclusions.
It is unclear whether breastfeeding improves intelligence later in life. Several studies found no relationship after controlling for confounding factors like maternal intelligence (smarter mothers were more likely to breastfeed their babies). However, other studies concluded that breastfeeding was associated with increased cognitive development in childhood, although the cause may be increased mother -- child interaction rather than nutrition.
Breastfeeding may improve a mothers physical and emotional health.
Hormones released during breastfeeding help to strengthen the maternal bond. Teaching partners how to manage common difficulties is associated with higher breastfeeding rates. Support for a breastfeeding mother can strengthen familial bonds and help build a paternal bond.
Exclusive breastfeeding usually delays the return of fertility through lactational amenorrhea, although it does not provide reliable birth control. Breastfeeding may delay the return to fertility for some women by suppressing ovulation. Mothers may not ovulate, or have regular periods, during the entire lactation period. The non-ovulating period varies by individual. This has been used as natural contraception, with greater than 98 % effectiveness during the first six months after birth if specific nursing behaviors are followed.
While breastfeeding soon after birth is believed to increases uterus contraction and reducing bleeding high quality evidence to support this is lacking.
It is unclear whether breastfeeding causes mothers to lose weight after giving birth. The National Institutes of Health states that it may help with weight loss.
For breastfeeding women, long - term health benefits include reduced risk of breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and endometrial cancer.
A 2011 review found unclear if breastfeeding affects the risk of postpartum depression. Other reviews found tentative evidence of a lower risk among mothers who successfully breastfeed.
Breastfeeding of babies is associated with a lower chance of developing diabetes mellitus type 1. Breastfed babies also appear to have a lower likelihood of developing diabetes mellitus type 2 later in life. Breastfeeding is also associated with a lower risk of type 2 diabetes among mothers who practice it.
The majority of mothers intend to breastfeed at birth. Many factors can disrupt this intent. Research done in the US shows that information about breastfeeding is rarely provided by a women 's obstetricians during their prenatal visits and some health professionals incorrectly believe that commercially prepared formula is nutritionally equivalent to breast milk. Many hospitals have instituted practices that encourage breastfeeding, however a 2012 survey in the US found that 24 % of maternity services were still providing supplements of commercial infant formula as a general practice in the first 48 hours after birth. The Surgeon General 's Call to Action to Support Breastfeeding attempts to educate practitioners.
Positive social support in essential relationships of new mothers plays a central role in the promotion of breastfeeding outside of the confines of medical centers. Social support can come in many incarnations, including tangible, affectionate, social interaction, and emotional and informational support. An increase in these capacities of support has shown to greatly positively effect breastfeeding rates, especially among women with education below a high school level. In the social circles surrounding the mother, support is most crucial from the male partner, the mother 's mother, and her family and friends. Research has shown that the closest relationships to the mother have the strongest impact on breastfeeding rates, while negative perspectives on breastfeeding from close relatives hinder its prevalence.
Work is the most commonly cited reason for not breastfeeding. In 2012 Save the Children examined maternity leave laws, ranking 36 industrialized countries according to their support for breastfeeding. Norway ranked first, while the United States came in last. Maternity leave in the US varies widely, including by state, despite the Family Medical Leave Act (FMLA), which guarantees most mothers up to 12 weeks unpaid leave. The majority of US mothers resume work earlier.
Infants that are otherwise healthy uniformly benefit from breastfeeding. "No known disadvantages '' stem from breastfeeding. However, extra precautions should be taken or breastfeeding be avoided in circumstances including certain infectious diseases, or use of certain medications. In some cases it may not be feasible for the mother to continue breastfeeding.
A number of hospital - employed procedures have been found to interfere with breastfeeding, including routine mother / baby separation, delayed initiation, vigorous routine suctioning, medications and mode of delivery. There are also racial disparities in access to maternity care practices that support breastfeeding. Primarily African - American neighborhoods are more likely to have facilities (such as hospitals and female healthcare clinics) that do not support breastfeeding, contributing to the low rate of breastfeeding in the African - American community. Comparing facilities in primarily African American neighborhoods to ones in primarily White neighborhoods, the rates of practices that support or discourage breastfeeding were: limited use of supplements (13.1 % compared with 25.8 %) and rooming - in (27.7 -- 39.4 %)
Pain caused from mis - positioning the baby on the breast or a tongue - tie in the infant can cause pain in the mother and discourage her. These problems are generally easy to correct (by re-positioning or clipping the tongue - tie).
Breast surgery, including breast implants or breast reduction surgery, reduces the chances that a woman will have sufficient milk to breastfeed. Women whose pregnancies are unintended are less likely to breast feed their babies.
A breastfeeding child can become infected with HIV. Factors such as the viral load in the mother 's milk complicate breastfeeding recommendations for HIV - positive mothers.
In mothers who are treated with antiretroviral drugs the risk of HIV transmission with breastfeeding is 1 -- 2 %. Therefore, of breastfeeding is still recommended in areas of the world with death from infectious diseases is common. Infant formula should only be given if this can be safely done.
WHO recommends that national authorities in each country decide which infant feeding practice should be promoted by their maternal and child health services to best avoid HIV transmission from mother to child. Other maternal infection of concern include active untreated tuberculosis or human T - lymphotropic virus.
Breastfeeding mothers should inform their healthcare provider about all of the medications they are taking, including herbal products. Nursing mothers can safely take many over-the - counter drugs and prescription drugs and receive immunizations, but certain drugs, including painkillers and psychiatric drugs, may pose a risk.
The US National Library of Medicine publishes "LactMed '', an up - to - date online database of information on drugs and lactation. Geared to both healthcare practitioners and nursing mothers, LactMed contains over 450 drug records with information such as potential drug effects and alternate drugs to consider.
Some substances in the mother 's food and drink are passed to the baby through breast milk, including mercury (found in some carnivorous fish), caffeine, and bisphenol A.
Undiagnosed maternal celiac disease may cause a short duration of the breastfeeding period. Treatment with the gluten - free diet can increase its duration and restore it to the average value of the healthy women.
Race, ethnicity and socioeconomic status affect choice and duration in the United States. A 2011 study found that on average, US women who breastfed had higher levels of education, were older and were more likely to be white.
The rates of breastfeeding in the African - American community remain much lower than any other race, for a variety of reasons. These include the legacy of Wet nursing during slavery, as well as systemic racism in the American healthcare system that does not offer adequate support to African - American breastfeeding mothers. While for other races as socio - economic class raises rates of breastfeeding also go up, for the African - American community breastfeeding rates remain consistently low regardless of socio - economic class. Within the African - American community, social stigma exists because of the association of breastfeeding with the legacy of wet - nursing during slavery. Because of breastfeeding 's well - documented benefits to both baby and mother, many blactavists -- Black Lactation Activists, such as Kimberly Seals Allers advocate and support breastfeeding in the African - American community. Resources such as the African - American Breastfeeding Project can provide cultural and social support to new African - American mothers, as well as Instagram pages such as Blactavist and Black Breastfeeding Week.
Although return to work is associated with early discontinuation, a supportive work environment may encourage mothers to continue.
Low - income mothers are more likely to have unintended pregnancies. Mothers whose pregnancies are unintended are less likely to breastfeed.
Some women feel discomfort when breastfeeding in public. Public breastfeeding may be forbidden in some places, not addressed by law in others, and a legal right in others. Even given a legal right, some mothers are reluctant to breastfeed, while others may object to the practice.
The use of infant formula was thought to be a way for western culture to adapt to negative perceptions of breastfeeding. The breast pump offered a way for mothers to supply breast milk with most of formula feeding 's convenience and without enduring possible disapproval of nursing. Some may object to breastfeeding because of the implicit association between infant feeding and sex. These negative cultural connotations may reduce breastfeeding duration. Maternal guilt and shame is often affected by how a mother feeds her infant. These emotions occur in both bottle - and breast - feeding mothers, although for different reasons. Bottle feeding mothers may feel that they should be breastfeeding. Conversely, breastfeeding mothers may feel forced to feed in uncomfortable circumstances. Some may see breastfeeding as, "indecent, disgusting, animalistic, sexual, and even possibly a perverse act. '' Advocates use "nurse - ins '' to show support for breastfeeding in public. Some advocates emphasize providing women with education on breastfeeding 's benefits as well as problem - solving skills.
Globally about 38 % of babies are just breastfeed during their first six months of life. In the United States as of 2012, 75 % of women started breastfeeding, 43 % breastfeed for six months though only 13 % exclusively breastfed, and 23 % breastfeed for twelve months. In the United States African - American women have persistently low rates of breastfeeding compared to White and Hispanic American women. 58.1 % of African - American women breastfeed in the early postpartum period, compared to 77.7 % of White women and 80.6 % of Hispanic women.
Breastfeeding rates in different parts of China vary considerably.
Breastfeeding rates in the United Kingdom were the lowest in the world in 2015 with only 0.5 % of mothers still breastfeeding at a year, while in Germany 23 % are doing so, 56 % in Brazil and 99 % in Senegal.
In Australia for children born in 2004, more than 90 % were initially breastfed. In Canada for children born in 2005 - 06, more than 50 % were only breastfed and more than 15 % received both breastmilk and other liquids, by the age of 3 months.
In the Egyptian, Greek and Roman empires, women usually fed only their own children. However, breastfeeding began to be seen as something too common to be done by royalty, and wet nurses were employed to breastfeed the children of the royal families. This extended over time, particularly in western Europe, where noble women often made use of wet nurses. Lower - class women breastfed their infants and used a wet nurse only if they were unable to feed their own infant. Attempts were made in 15th - century Europe to use cow or goat milk, but these attempts were not successful. In the 18th century, flour or cereal mixed with broth were introduced as substitutes for breastfeeding, but this was also unsuccessful.
The history of breastfeeding in Canada includes the description that societies considered it a low class and uncultured practice. This coincided with the appearance of improved infant formulas in the mid 19th century and its increased use, which accelerated after World War II. From the 1960s onwards, breastfeeding experienced a revival which continued into the 2000s, though negative attitudes towards the practice were still entrenched up to 1990s.
In languages around the world, the word for "mother '' is something like "mama ''. The cross-linguistic similarities between these terms are thought to result from the nature of language acquisition. These words are the first word - like sounds made by babbling babies, and parents tend to associate the first sound babies make with themselves and to employ them subsequently as part of their baby - talk lexicon.
The linguist Roman Jakobson hypothesized that the nasal sound in "mama '' comes from the nasal murmur that babies produce when breastfeeding:
Often the sucking activities of a child are accompanied by a slight nasal murmur, the only phonation which can be produced when the lips are pressed to mother 's breast or to the feeding bottle and the mouth full. Later, this phonatory reaction to nursing is reproduced as an anticipatory signal at the mere sight of food and finally as a manifestation of a desire to eat, or more generally, as an expression of discontent and impatient longing for missing food or absent nurser, and any ungranted wish. When the mouth is free from nutrition, the nasal murmur may be supplied with an oral, particularly labial release; it may also obtain an optional vocalic support.
In some cultures, people who have been breastfed by the same woman are milk - siblings who are equal in legal and social standing to a consanguineous sibling. Islam has a complex system of rules regarding this, known as Rada (fiqh). Like the Christian practice of godparenting, milk kinship established a second family that could take responsibility for a child whose biological parents came to harm. "Milk kinship in Islam thus appears to be a culturally distinctive, but by no means unique, institutional form of adoptive kinship. ''
Breastfeeding is less costly than alternatives, but the mother generally must eat more food than she would otherwise. In the US, the extra money spent on food (about US $14 each week) is usually about half as much money as the cost of infant formula.
Breastfeeding represents an opportunity cost. This is the cost of the mother having to spend hours each day breastfeeding instead of other activities, such as paid work or home production (such as growing food). In general, the higher the mother 's earning power, the less likely she is to save money by breastfeeding.
Breastfeeding reduces health care costs and the cost of caring for sick babies. Parents of breastfed babies are less likely to miss work and lose income because their babies are sick. Looking at three of the most common infant illnesses, lower respiratory tract illnesses, otitis media, and gastrointestinal illness, one study compared infants that had been exclusively breastfed for at least three months to those who had not. It found that in the first year of life there were 2033 excess office visits, 212 excess days of hospitalization, and 609 excess prescriptions for these three illnesses per 1000 never - breastfed infants compared with 1000 infants exclusively breastfed for at least 3 months.
Support for breastfeeding is universal among major health and children 's organizations. WHO states, "Breast milk is the ideal food for the healthy growth and development of infants; breastfeeding is also an integral part of the reproductive process with important implications for the health of mothers. ''. WHO 's guidelines recommend "continue (d) frequent, on - demand breastfeeding until two years of age or beyond. ''
The European Commission, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), UNICEF, AAP, Save The Children and the UK National Health Service (NHS), Australian Department of Health, Health Canada, Canadian Paediatric Society, Dietitians of Canada, and Breastfeeding Committee for Canada, recommend exclusive breastfeeding for six months following birth and continued nursing for an additional eighteen months or more. Save the Children states, "Six months of exclusive breastfeeding increases a child 's chance of survival at least six-fold. ''
International board certified lactation consultants (IBCLCs) are health care professionals certified in lactation management. They work with mothers to solve breastfeeding problems and educate families and health professionals. Exclusive and partial breastfeeding are more common among mothers who gave birth in IBCLC - equipped hospitals.
There are also controversies and ethical considerations surrounding the means used by public campaigns which attempt to increase breastfeeding rates, relating to pressure put on women, and potential feeling of guilt and shame of women who fail to breastfeed; and social condemnation of women who use formula. In addition to this, there is also the moral question as to what degree the state or medical community can interfere with the self - determination of a woman: for example in the United Arab Emirates the law requires a woman to breastfeed her baby for at least 2 years and allows her husband to sue her if she does not do so.
Social marketing is a marketing approach intended to change people 's behavior to benefit both individuals and society. When applied to breastfeeding promotion, social marketing works to provide positive messages and images of breastfeeding to increase visibility. Social marketing in the context of breastfeeding has shown efficacy in media campaigns such as Loving Support, Mother - Friendly Worksite Program, Fathers Supporting Breastfeeding, and Best for Babes: Champions for Moms. Some oppose the marketing of infant formula, especially in developing countries. They are concerned that mothers who use formula will stop breastfeeding and become dependent upon substitutes that are unaffordable or less safe. Through efforts including the Nestlé boycott, they have advocated for bans on free samples of infant formula and for the adoption of pro-breastfeeding codes such as the International Code of Marketing of Breast - milk Substitutes by the World Health Assembly in 1981 and the Innocenti Declaration by WHO and UNICEF policy - makers in August 1990. Additionally, formula companies have spent millions internationally on campaigns to promote the use of formula as an alternative to mother 's milk.
The Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative is a program launched by WHO in conjunction with UNICEF in order to promote infant feeding and maternal bonding through certified hospitals and birthing centers. BFHI was developed as a response to the influence held by formula companies in private and public maternal health care. The initiative has two core tenets: the Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding and the International Code of Marketing of Breast - milk Substitutes. These methods are intended to reduce practices detrimental to breastfeeding such as early mixed feeding, use of pacifiers, and separation of mother and child in the clinical setting. The BFHI has especially targeted hospitals and birthing centers in the developing world, as these facilities are most at risk to the detrimental effects of reduced breastfeeding rates. Currently, 468 hospitals in the United States hold the "Baby - Friendly '' title in all 50 states. Globally, there are more than 20,000 "Baby - Friendly '' hospitals worldwide in over 150 countries.
Studies have also shown a positive correlation of breastfeeding with increased professional education of care providers. 86 % of Americans rely on professional healthcare providers like doctors, midwives, and nurses for medical advice and recommendations. Classes are then offered in group and individual settings as "low - intensity intervention '' directed by trained medical professionals. Research conducted at large healthcare institutions in Massachusetts has demonstrated a statistically significant increase in breastfeeding rates for mothers who participate in breastfeeding and lactation training.
Breastfeeding research continues to assess prevalence, HIV transmission, pharmacology, costs, benefits, immunology, contraindications, and comparisons to synthetic breast milk substitutes. Factors related to the mental health of the nursing mother in the perinatal period have been studied. While cognitive behavior therapy may be the treatment of choice, medications are sometimes used. The use of therapy rather than medication reduces the infant 's exposure to medication that may be transmitted through the milk. In coordination with institutional organisms, researchers are also studying the social impact of brestfeeding throughout history. Accordingly, strategies have been developed to foster the increase of the breastfeeding rates in the different countries.
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when does the next mtg block come out | List of Magic: the Gathering sets - wikipedia
The trading card game Magic: The Gathering has released a large number of sets since it was first published by Wizards of the Coast. After the 1993 release of Limited Edition, also known as Alpha and Beta, roughly 3 - 4 major sets have been released per year, in addition to various spin - off products. Magic has made three types of sets since Alpha and Beta: base / core sets, expansion sets, and compilation sets. Expansion sets are the most numerous and prevalent type of expansion; they primarily consist of new cards, with few or no reprints, and either explore a new setting, or advance the plot in an existing setting. Ixalan is the most recent expansion set as of September, 2017. Base sets, later renamed core sets, are the successors to the original Limited Edition and are meant to provide a baseline Magic experience; they tended to consist either largely or entirely of reprints. Compilation sets also exist entirely of reprints, and tend to be made as either a special themed product, or as a way to increase supply of cards with small printings. Examples of compilation sets with randomized boosters include Chronicles and Modern Masters. There also exist compilation products with a pre-selected and fixed card pool, such as the Duel Decks and From The Vault series. Theme decks serve a similar function; however, they are always attached to a specific set or block, while compilations are free to pick and choose cards from any set.
All expansion sets, and all editions of the base set from Sixth Edition onward, are identified by an expansion symbol printed on the right side of cards, below the art and above the text box. From Exodus onward, the expansion symbols are also color - coded to denote rarity: black for common and basic land cards, silver for uncommon, and gold for rare. Beginning with the Shards of Alara set, a red - orange expansion symbol denotes a new rarity: "Mythic Rare '' (the Time Spiral set featured an additional purple coloration for "timeshifted '' cards). For the early expansion sets (from Arabian Nights to Alliances), the rarities of cards were often much more complicated than the breakdown into common, uncommon, and rare suggests. Cards in compilations are assigned rarity by Wizards, however, they do not necessarily match within the set, with some singletons rare and some mythic rare in a given set.
After the second version (Beta) of the first set, which contained two cards mistakenly excluded from the first version (Alpha), all subsequent base sets through 10th Edition consisted of cards that had been printed before in either the original base set or an expansion set. Alpha through Fifth Edition did not have set symbols printed on the actual cards, though those sets were retroactively given set symbols in Wizards of the Coast 's official Gatherer database of Magic cards.
Expansion sets from Ice Age to Rivals of Ixalan (with the exception of Homelands) came in groups called "blocks ''. (From 1997 -- 2008, Wizards of the Coast also used the term "cycle '' when describing the associated storyline.) Blocks were cohesive products: they centered around one plane, followed a particular storyline, and contained cards and mechanics that supported both. Blocks generally consisted of one large "stand - alone '' expansion set of 250 -- 300 cards, followed by one or two small expansion sets of 150 -- 200 cards which continue the themes introduced in the large set. Like the base set, stand - alone expansion sets contain basic land cards; other expansion sets do not. Beginning with Alliances, expansion sets were given codenames while in development; the code names of the expansions of a cycle usually fit together to form a phrase or common theme. Starting with Mirage in 1996, blocks were officially refined in form: they would consist of would be three sets, large - small - small. With Zendikar block in 2009, the traditional large - small - small block structure began to be varied, with some blocks including a second large set later in the block. Starting with the Battle for Zendikar block in 2015, the default structure of a block was changed to large - small, with each block consisting of only two sets and two blocks released per year.
Ice Age and Alliances were the first two sets to have a well - defined relationship, but were not created as a canonical block at the time of printing. Also beginning with Alliances in June 1996, expansion sets were released in a regular pattern: the base sets were released in October with the small expansion sets being released in February and June (Alliances was originally the third set of the block; it was retroactively made a second set with the release of Coldsnap in 2006). With the exceptions of Stronghold, a 1998 set released in March rather than February, and Scourge, a 2003 set which was released in May rather than June, this pattern of months was never broken, over a 10 - year period, until 2006, when Dissension was also released a month early in May instead of June, because of the July release of Coldsnap. The third set in a block has since been released in late April or early May. From 2005 -- 2015, there was a fourth release date each year in mid-July, usually reserved for Core Sets. Other summer releases included Coldsnap and Eventide.
Fallen Empires was an experimental expansion in which most card have three or four different pieces of artwork. You could see them as 121 common cards, by art, or 36 cards by the text. It was also a major expansion in the idea of tribes, especially Goblins and Merfolk.
Most early expansion sets did not have exact release dates; they were just shipped out within the space of a week, and retailers could start selling them as soon as the sets were received. By the time of Alliances in 1996, however, release dates were set as Mondays (the earliest set with an exact Monday release date might possibly have preceded Alliances, but Alliances is the earliest set with a cited and confirmed Monday release date). Beginning with Mirrodin in 2003, the release dates were changed from Monday to Friday. All sets beginning with Homelands also have a pre-release date, on which cards are sold in limited quantities in pre-release tournaments. These tournaments were formerly always held two weeks before the release date, but since Shards of Alara they are now held one week before the release date.
Premium foil cards have been inserted into booster packs since Urza 's Legacy. Originally 1 foil card was inserted for every 100 cards. The ratio was changed to 1 in 70 cards with the Torment expansion. Beginning with Tenth Edition the rate was increased to 1 in 56 cards.
Starting with Kaladesh block, sets sometimes also contain an entry in the Masterpiece Series.
The block model has evolved as time went on. In addition to a formalized structure (which was occasionally variated on), Wizards began to have trouble developing small sets that satisfied their own quality standards. Players also reported fatigue at playing in the same environment for a year at a time. The decision to remove one small set from each block, as showcased in Battle For Zendikar block, was a result of this dissatisfaction. It culminated in the decision to delete small sets entirely: After the Ixalan block concludes, forthcoming sets will all be large - sized sets. However, not all large - size sets will involve travel to a new plane; some will be sequels to the set prior to it, if the depth of the plane 's story and mechanics allows. Dominaria, to be released in 2018, will be the first set under this model.
These introductory sets were intended for novice Magic: The Gathering players. They were illegal in sanctioned tournaments until October 2005, when they became legal in Legacy and Vintage.
Reprint sets are sets of certain cards from previous sets that were re-released for different reasons. Some reasons include the cards were fan favorites and popular demand brought them back or in some cases, reprints were to commemorate certain events such as widely known matches or anniversary sets. Some reprint sets revolved around a certain theme; for example, Beatdown was themed around old, out - of - print, heavy - hitting creatures. Reprinting a card in one of these sets does not affect when it leaves Standard.
Deck Builder 's Toolkits are released at the same time as a core set and contain only cards from sets that are legal in Standard at that time; they are not sets as such. These boxed sets therefore have no symbol or code of their own.
Starting with Kaladesh block, some blocks and sets also include an entry in the Masterpiece Series. The Zendikar Expeditions from Battle for Zendikar were not released under the title of Masterpiece Series, but were retroactively included in the series. Cards in the Masterpiece Series entry for a given block appear in booster packs for that block 's sets at a rate lower than that of Mythic Rares, and consist of either reprints, or cards from the set whose packs they appear in. However, they are not considered part of that set, and instead get their own expansion symbol; moreover, as with reprint sets (see below), printing in a Masterpiece Series entry does not affect format legality. Note that entries in the Masterpiece Series do not have expansion codes, except for Zendikar Expeditions, which has code "EXP ''.
Starting with Planechase in 2009, Wizards of the Coast has occasionally printed sets intended primarily for multiplayer play, which do not necessarily consist entirely of reprints but are not legal in Standard; a card printed in one of these is legal only in Eternal formats, and reprinting a card in one of these sets does not affect when it leaves Standard. These sets usually consist of fixed decks.
These sets, though also published by Wizards of the Coast, are not legal for DCI - sanctioned tournament play.
These sets are exclusive to Magic: The Gathering Online.
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outspoken critic of the catholic church and french government | Voltaire - wikipedia
François - Marie Arouet (French: (fʁɑ̃swa maʁi aʁwɛ); 21 November 1694 -- 30 May 1778), known by his nom de plume Voltaire (French: (vɔltɛːʁ)), was a French Enlightenment writer, historian and philosopher famous for his wit, his attacks on Christianity as a whole, especially the established Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of speech and separation of church and state.
Voltaire was a versatile and prolific writer, producing works in almost every literary form, including plays, poems, novels, essays and historical and scientific works. He wrote more than 20,000 letters and more than 2,000 books and pamphlets. He was an outspoken advocate of civil liberties, despite the risk this placed him in under the strict censorship laws of the time. As a satirical polemicist, he frequently made use of his works to criticize intolerance, religious dogma and the French institutions of his day.
François - Marie Arouet was born in Paris, the youngest of the five children of François Arouet (19 August 1649 -- 1 January 1722), a lawyer who was a minor treasury official, and his wife, Marie Marguerite Daumard (c. 1660 -- 13 July 1701), whose family was on the lowest rank of the French nobility. Some speculation surrounds Voltaire 's date of birth, because he claimed he was born on 20 February 1694 as the illegitimate son of a nobleman, Guérin de Rochebrune or Roquebrune. Two of his older brothers -- Armand - François and Robert -- died in infancy, and his surviving brother Armand and sister Marguerite - Catherine were nine and seven years older, respectively. Nicknamed "Zozo '' by his family, Voltaire was baptized on 22 November 1694, with François de Castagnère, abbé de Châteauneuf (fr), and Marie Daumard, the wife of his mother 's cousin, standing as godparents. He was educated by the Jesuits at the Collège Louis - le - Grand (1704 -- 1711), where he was taught Latin, theology, and rhetoric; later in life he became fluent in Italian, Spanish, and English.
By the time he left school, Voltaire had decided he wanted to be a writer, against the wishes of his father, who wanted him to become a lawyer. Voltaire, pretending to work in Paris as an assistant to a notary, spent much of his time writing poetry. When his father found out, he sent Voltaire to study law, this time in Caen, Normandy. But the young man continued to write, producing essays and historical studies. Voltaire 's wit made him popular among some of the aristocratic families with whom he mixed. In 1713, his father obtained a job for him as a secretary to the new French ambassador in the Netherlands, the marquis de Châteauneuf (fr), the brother of Voltaire 's godfather. At The Hague, Voltaire fell in love with a French Protestant refugee named Catherine Olympe Dunoyer (known as ' Pimpette '). Their affair, considered scandalous, was discovered by de Châteauneuf and Voltaire was forced to return to France by the end of the year.
Most of Voltaire 's early life revolved around Paris. From early on, Voltaire had trouble with the authorities for critiques of the government. As a result, he was twice sentenced to prison and once to temporary exile to England. One satirical verse, in which Voltaire accused the Régent of incest with his daughter, resulted in an eleven - month imprisonment in the Bastille. The Comédie - Française had agreed in January 1717 to stage his debut play, Œdipe, and it opened in mid-November 1718, seven months after his release. Its immediate critical and financial success established his reputation. Both the Régent and King George I of Great Britain presented Voltaire with medals as a mark of their appreciation.
He mainly argued for religious tolerance and freedom of thought. He campaigned to eradicate priestly and aristo - monarchical authority, and supported a constitutional monarchy that protects people 's rights.
The author adopted the name Voltaire in 1718, following his incarceration at the Bastille. Its origin is unclear. It is an anagram of AROVET LI, the Latinized spelling of his surname, Arouet, and the initial letters of le jeune ("the young ''). According to a family tradition among the descendants of his sister, he was known as le petit volontaire ("determined little thing '') as a child, and he resurrected a variant of the name in his adult life. The name also reverses the syllables of Airvault, his family 's home town in the Poitou region.
Richard Holmes supports the anagrammatic derivation of the name, but adds that a writer such as Voltaire would have intended it to also convey connotations of speed and daring. These come from associations with words such as voltige (acrobatics on a trapeze or horse), volte - face (a spinning about to face one 's enemies), and volatile (originally, any winged creature). "Arouet '' was not a noble name fit for his growing reputation, especially given that name 's resonance with à rouer ("to be beaten up '') and roué (a débauché).
In a letter to Jean - Baptiste Rousseau in March 1719, Voltaire concludes by asking that, if Rousseau wishes to send him a return letter, he do so by addressing it to Monsieur de Voltaire. A postscript explains: "J'ai été si malheureux sous le nom d'Arouet que j'en ai pris un autre surtout pour n'être plus confondu avec le poète Roi '', (I was so unhappy under the name of Arouet that I have taken another, primarily so as to cease to be confused with the poet Roi.) This probably refers to Adenes le Roi, and the ' oi ' diphthong was then pronounced like modern ' ouai ', so the similarity to ' Arouet ' is clear, and thus, it could well have been part of his rationale. Voltaire is known also to have used at least 178 separate pen names during his lifetime.
Voltaire 's next play, Artémire (de), set in ancient Macedonia, opened on 15 February 1720. It was a flop and only fragments of the text survive. He instead turned to an epic poem about Henri IV of France that he had begun in early 1717. Denied a licence to publish, in August 1722 Voltaire headed north to find a publisher outside France. On the journey, he was accompanied by his mistress, Marie - Marguerite de Rupelmonde, a young widow.
At Brussels, Voltaire and Rousseau met up for a few days, before Voltaire and his mistress continued northwards. A publisher was eventually secured in The Hague. In the Netherlands, Voltaire was struck and impressed by the openness and tolerance of Dutch society. On his return to France, he secured a second publisher in Rouen, who agreed to publish La Henriade clandestinely. After Voltaire 's recovery from a month - long smallpox infection in November 1723, the first copies were smuggled into Paris and distributed. While the poem was an instant success, Voltaire 's new play, Mariamne, was a failure when it first opened in March 1724. Heavily reworked, it opened at the Comédie - Française in April 1725 to a much - improved reception. It was among the entertainments provided at the wedding of Louis XV and Marie Leszczyńska in September 1725.
In early 1726, a young French nobleman, the chevalier de Rohan - Chabot, taunted Voltaire about his change of name, and Voltaire retorted that his name would be honoured while de Rohan would dishonour his. Infuriated, de Rohan arranged for Voltaire to be beaten up by thugs a few days later. Seeking compensation, redress, or revenge, Voltaire challenged de Rohan to a duel, but the aristocratic de Rohan family arranged for Voltaire to be arrested and imprisoned in the Bastille on 17 April 1726 without a trial or an opportunity to defend himself. Fearing an indefinite prison sentence, Voltaire suggested that he be exiled to England as an alternative punishment, which the French authorities accepted. On 2 May, he was escorted from the Bastille to Calais, where he was to embark for Britain.
In England, Voltaire lived largely in Wandsworth, with acquaintances including Everard Fawkener. From December 1727 to June 1728 he lodged at Maiden Lane, Covent Garden, now commemorated by a plaque, to be nearer to his British publisher. Voltaire circulated throughout English high society, meeting Alexander Pope, John Gay, Jonathan Swift, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough, and many other members of the nobility and royalty. Voltaire 's exile in Great Britain greatly influenced his thinking. He was intrigued by Britain 's constitutional monarchy in contrast to French absolutism, and by the country 's greater support of the freedoms of speech and religion. He was influenced by the writers of the age, and developed an interest in earlier English literature, especially the works of Shakespeare, still relatively unknown in continental Europe. Despite pointing out his deviations from neoclassical standards, Voltaire saw Shakespeare as an example that French writers might emulate, since French drama, despite being more polished, lacked on - stage action. Later, however, as Shakespeare 's influence began growing in France, Voltaire tried to set a contrary example with his own plays, decrying what he considered Shakespeare 's barbarities. Voltaire may have been present at the funeral of Isaac Newton, and met Newton 's niece, Catherine Conduitt. In 1727, he published two essays in English, Upon the Civil Wars of France, Extracted from Curious Manuscripts and Upon Epic Poetry of the European Nations, from Homer Down to Milton.
After two and a half years in exile, Voltaire returned to France, and after a few months living in Dieppe, the authorities permitted him to return to Paris. At a dinner, French mathematician Charles Marie de La Condamine proposed buying up the lottery that was organized by the French government to pay off its debts, and Voltaire joined the consortium, earning perhaps a million livres. He invested the money cleverly and on this basis managed to convince the Court of Finances that he was of good conduct and so was able to take control of a capital inheritance from his father that had hitherto been tied up in trust. He was now indisputably rich.
Further success followed, in 1732, with his play Zaïre, which when published in 1733 carried a dedication to Fawkener that praised English liberty and commerce. At this time he published his views on British attitudes toward government, literature, religion and science in a collection of essays in letter form entitled Letters Concerning the English Nation (London, 1733). In 1734, they were published in French as Lettres philosophiques in Rouen. Because the publisher released the book without the approval of the royal censor and Voltaire regarded the British constitutional monarchy as more developed and more respectful of human rights (particularly religious tolerance) than its French counterpart, the French publication of Letters caused a huge scandal; the book was publicly burnt and banned, and Voltaire was forced again to flee Paris.
In 1733, Voltaire met Émilie du Châtelet, a married mother of three who was 12 years his junior and with whom he was to have an affair for 16 years. To avoid arrest after the publication of Letters, Voltaire took refuge at her husband 's château at Cirey - sur - Blaise, on the borders of Champagne and Lorraine. Voltaire paid for the building 's renovation, and Émilie 's husband, the Marquis du Châtelet, sometimes stayed at the château with his wife and her lover. The relationship had a significant intellectual element. Voltaire and the Marquise collected over 21,000 books, an enormous number for the time. Together, they studied these books and performed experiments in the natural sciences at Cirey, which included an attempt to determine the nature of fire.
Having learned from his previous brushes with the authorities, Voltaire began his habit of keeping out of personal harm 's way and denying any awkward responsibility. He continued to write plays, such as Mérope (or La Mérope française) and began his long research into science and history. Again, a main source of inspiration for Voltaire were the years of his British exile, during which he had been strongly influenced by the works of Sir Isaac Newton. Voltaire strongly believed in Newton 's theories; he performed experiments in optics at Cirey, and was one of the sources for the famous story of Newton and the apple falling from the tree, which he had learned from Newton 's niece in London and first mentioned in his Letters.
In the fall of 1735, Voltaire was visited by Francesco Algarotti, who was preparing a book about Newton in Italian. Partly inspired by the visit, the Marquise translated Newton 's Latin Principia into French in full, and it remained the definitive French translation into the 21st century. Both she and Voltaire were also curious about the philosophies of Gottfried Leibniz, a contemporary and rival of Newton. While Voltaire remained a firm Newtonian, the Marquise adopted certain aspects of Leibniz 's arguments against Newton. Voltaire 's own book Eléments de la philosophie de Newton (Elements of Newton 's Philosophy) made Newton accessible and understandable to a far greater public, and the Marquise wrote a celebratory review in the Journal des savants. Voltaire 's work was instrumental in bringing about general acceptance of Newton 's optical and gravitational theories in France.
Voltaire and the Marquise also studied history, particularly those persons who had contributed to civilization. Voltaire 's second essay in English had been "Essay upon the Civil Wars in France ''. It was followed by La Henriade, an epic poem on the French King Henri IV, glorifying his attempt to end the Catholic - Protestant massacres with the Edict of Nantes, and by a historical novel on King Charles XII of Sweden. These, along with his Letters on the English mark the beginning of Voltaire 's open criticism of intolerance and established religions. Voltaire and the Marquise also explored philosophy, particularly metaphysics, the branch of philosophy that deals with being and with what lies beyond the material realm, such as whether or not there is a God and whether people have souls. Voltaire and the Marquise analysed the Bible and concluded that much of its content was dubious. Voltaire 's critical views on religion are reflected in his belief in separation of church and state and religious freedom, ideas that he had formed after his stay in England.
In August 1736, Frederick the Great, then Crown Prince of Prussia and a great admirer of Voltaire, initiated a correspondence with him. That December, Voltaire moved to Holland for two months and became acquainted with the scientists Herman Boerhaave and ' s Gravesande. From mid-1739 to mid-1740 Voltaire lived largely in Brussels, at first with the Marquise, who was unsuccessfully attempting to pursue a 60 - year - old family legal case regarding the ownership of two estates in Limburg. In July 1740, he traveled to the Hague on behalf of Frederick in an attempt to dissuade a dubious publisher, van Duren, from printing without permission Frederick 's Anti-Machiavel. In September Voltaire and Frederick (now King) met for the first time in Moyland Castle near Cleves and in November Voltaire was Frederick 's guest in Berlin for two weeks; in September 1742 they met in Aix - la - Chapelle. Voltaire was sent to Frederick 's court in 1743 by the French government as an envoy and spy to gauge Frederick 's military intentions in the War of the Austrian Succession.
Though deeply committed to the Marquise, Voltaire by 1744 found life at the château confining. On a visit to Paris that year, he found a new love -- his niece. At first, his attraction to Marie Louise Mignot was clearly sexual, as evidenced by his letters to her (only discovered in 1957). Much later, they lived together, perhaps platonically, and remained together until Voltaire 's death. Meanwhile, the Marquise also took a lover, the Marquis de Saint - Lambert.
After the death of the Marquise in childbirth in September 1749, Voltaire briefly returned to Paris and in mid-1750 moved to Prussia at the invitation of Frederick the Great. The Prussian king (with the permission of Louis XV) made him a chamberlain in his household, appointed him to the Order of Merit, and gave him a salary of 20,000 French livres a year. He had rooms at Sanssouci and Charlottenburg Palace. Though life went well at first -- in 1751 he completed Micromégas, a piece of science fiction involving ambassadors from another planet witnessing the follies of humankind -- his relationship with Frederick the Great began to deteriorate after he was accused of theft and forgery by a Jewish financier, Abraham Hirschel, who had invested in Saxon government bonds, on behalf of Voltaire, at a time when Frederick was involved in sensitive diplomatic negotiations with Saxony.
He encountered other difficulties: an argument with Maupertuis, the president of the Berlin Academy of Science and a former rival for Émilie 's affections, provoked Voltaire 's Diatribe du docteur Akakia ("Diatribe of Doctor Akakia ''), which satirized some of Maupertuis 's theories and his abuse of power in his persecutions of a mutual acquaintance, Johann Samuel König. This greatly angered Frederick, who ordered all copies of the document burned. On 1 January 1752, Voltaire offered to resign as chamberlain and return his insignia of the Order of Merit; at first, Frederick refused until eventually permitting Voltaire to leave in March. On a slow journey back to France, Voltaire stayed at Leipzig and Gotha for a month each, and Kassel for two weeks, arriving at Frankfurt on 31 May. The following morning, he was detained at the inn where he was staying by Frederick 's agents, who held him in the city for over three weeks while they, Voltaire and Frederick argued by letter over the return of a satirical book of poetry Frederick had lent to Voltaire. Marie Louise joined him on 9 June. She and her uncle only left Frankfurt in July after she had defended herself from the unwanted advances of one of Frederick 's agents and Voltaire 's luggage had been ransacked and valuable items taken.
Voltaire 's attempts to vilify Frederick for his agents ' actions at Frankfurt were largely unsuccessful. Voltaire responded by composing Mémoires pour Servir à la Vie de M. de Voltaire, a work published after his death that paints a largely negative picture of his time spent with Frederick. However, the correspondence between them continued, and though they never met in person again, after the Seven Years ' War they largely reconciled.
Voltaire 's slow progress toward Paris continued through Mainz, Mannheim, Strasbourg, and Colmar, but in January 1754 Louis XV banned him from Paris, so instead he turned for Geneva, near which he bought a large estate (Les Délices) in early 1755. Though he was received openly at first, the law in Geneva, which banned theatrical performances, and the publication of The Maid of Orleans against his will soured his relationship with Calvinist Genevans. In late 1758, he bought an even larger estate at Ferney, on the French side of the Franco - Swiss border.
Early in 1759, Voltaire completed and published Candide, ou l'Optimisme (Candide, or Optimism). This satire on Leibniz 's philosophy of optimistic determinism remains the work for which Voltaire is perhaps best known. He would stay in Ferney for most of the remaining 20 years of his life, frequently entertaining distinguished guests, such as James Boswell, Adam Smith, Giacomo Casanova, and Edward Gibbon. In 1764, he published one of his best - known philosophical works, the Dictionnaire philosophique, a series of articles mainly on Christian history and dogmas, a few of which were originally written in Berlin.
From 1762, he began to champion unjustly persecuted people, the case of Huguenot merchant Jean Calas being the most celebrated. Calas had been tortured to death in 1763, supposedly because he had murdered his eldest son for wanting to convert to Catholicism. His possessions were confiscated and his two daughters were taken from his widow and were forced into Catholic convents. Voltaire, seeing this as a clear case of religious persecution, managed to overturn the conviction in 1765.
Voltaire was initiated into Freemasonry the month before his death. On 4 April 1778 Voltaire accompanied his close friend Benjamin Franklin into La Loge des Neuf Sœurs or Les Neuf Sœurs in Paris, France and became an Entered Apprentice Freemason. "Benjamin Franklin... urged Voltaire to become a freemason; and Voltaire agreed, perhaps only to please Franklin. ''
In February 1778, Voltaire returned for the first time in over 25 years to Paris, among other reasons to see the opening of his latest tragedy, Irene. The five - day journey was too much for the 83 - year - old, and he believed he was about to die on 28 February, writing "I die adoring God, loving my friends, not hating my enemies, and detesting superstition. '' However, he recovered, and in March saw a performance of Irene, where he was treated by the audience as a returning hero.
He soon became ill again and died on 30 May 1778. The accounts of his deathbed have been numerous and varying, and it has not been possible to establish the details of what precisely occurred. His enemies related that he repented and accepted the last rites given by a Catholic priest, or that he died under great torment, while his adherents told how he was defiant to his last breath. According to one story of his last words, his response to a priest at his deathbed urging him to renounce Satan was "Now is not the time for making new enemies. '' However, this appears to have originated from a joke first published in a Massachusetts newspaper in 1856, and was only attributed to Voltaire in the 1970s.
Because of his well - known criticism of the Church, which he had refused to retract before his death, Voltaire was denied a Christian burial in Paris, but friends and relations managed to bury his body secretly at the Abbey of Scellières in Champagne, where Marie Louise 's brother was abbé. His heart and brain were embalmed separately.
On 11 July 1791, he was enshrined in the Panthéon, after the National Assembly of France, which regarded him as a forerunner of the French Revolution, had his remains brought back to Paris. It is estimated that a million people attended the procession, which stretched throughout Paris. There was an elaborate ceremony, complete with an orchestra, and the music included a piece that André Grétry had composed especially for the event, which included a part for the "tuba curva '' (an instrument that originated in Roman times as the cornu but had recently been revived under a new name).
Voltaire had an enormous influence on the development of historiography through his demonstration of fresh new ways to look at the past. Guillaume de Syon argues:
Voltaire recast historiography in both factual and analytical terms. Not only did he reject traditional biographies and accounts that claim the work of supernatural forces, but he went so far as to suggest that earlier historiography was rife with falsified evidence and required new investigations at the source. Such an outlook was not unique in that the scientific spirit that 18th - century intellectuals perceived themselves as invested with. A rationalistic approach was key to rewriting history.
Voltaire 's best - known histories are History of Charles XII (1731), The Age of Louis XIV (1751), and his Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations (1756). He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events, and emphasized customs, social history and achievements in the arts and sciences. The Essay on Customs traced the progress of world civilization in a universal context, thereby rejecting both nationalism and the traditional Christian frame of reference. Influenced by Bossuet 's Discourse on the Universal History (1682), he was the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks, and emphasizing economics, culture and political history. He treated Europe as a whole, rather than a collection of nations. He was the first to emphasize the debt of medieval culture to Middle Eastern civilization, but otherwise was weak on the Middle Ages. Although he repeatedly warned against political bias on the part of the historian, he did not miss many opportunities to expose the intolerance and frauds of the church over the ages. Voltaire advised scholars that anything contradicting the normal course of nature was not to be believed. Although he found evil in the historical record, he fervently believed reason and educating the illiterate masses would lead to progress.
Voltaire explains his view of historiography in his article on "History '' in Diderot 's Encyclopédie: "One demands of modern historians more details, better ascertained facts, precise dates, more attention to customs, laws, mores, commerce, finance, agriculture, population. '' Voltaire 's histories imposed the values of the Enlightenment on the past, but at the same time he helped free historiography from antiquarianism, Eurocentrism, religious intolerance and a concentration on great men, diplomacy, and warfare. Yale professor Peter Gay says Voltaire wrote "very good history '', citing his "scrupulous concern for truths '', "careful sifting of evidence '', "intelligent selection of what is important '', "keen sense of drama '', and "grasp of the fact that a whole civilization is a unit of study ''.
From an early age, Voltaire displayed a talent for writing verse and his first published work was poetry. He wrote two book - long epic poems, including the first ever written in French, the Henriade, and later, The Maid of Orleans, besides many other smaller pieces.
The Henriade was written in imitation of Virgil, using the alexandrine couplet reformed and rendered monotonous for modern readers but it was a huge success in the 18th and early 19th century, with sixty - five editions and translations into several languages. The epic poem transformed French King Henry IV into a national hero for his attempts at instituting tolerance with his Edict of Nantes. La Pucelle, on the other hand, is a burlesque on the legend of Joan of Arc. Voltaire 's minor poems are generally considered superior to either of these two works.
Many of Voltaire 's prose works and romances, usually composed as pamphlets, were written as polemics. Candide attacks the passivity inspired by Leibniz 's philosophy of optimism through the character Pangloss 's frequent refrain that circumstances are the "best of all possible worlds ''. L'Homme aux quarante ecus (The Man of Forty Pieces of Silver), addresses social and political ways of the time; Zadig and others, the received forms of moral and metaphysical orthodoxy; and some were written to deride the Bible. In these works, Voltaire 's ironic style, free of exaggeration, is apparent, particularly the restraint and simplicity of the verbal treatment. Candide in particular is the best example of his style. Voltaire also has -- in common with Jonathan Swift -- the distinction of paving the way for science fiction 's philosophical irony, particularly in his Micromégas and the vignette Plato 's Dream (1756).
In general, his criticism and miscellaneous writing show a similar style to Voltaire 's other works. Almost all of his more substantive works, whether in verse or prose, are preceded by prefaces of one sort or another, which are models of his caustic yet conversational tone. In a vast variety of nondescript pamphlets and writings, he displays his skills at journalism. In pure literary criticism his principal work is the Commentaire sur Corneille, although he wrote many more similar works -- sometimes (as in his Life and Notices of Molière) independently and sometimes as part of his Siècles.
Voltaire 's works, especially his private letters, frequently contain the word "l'infâme '' and the expression "écrasez l'infâme '', or "crush the infamous ''. The phrase refers to abuses of the people by royalty and the clergy that Voltaire saw around him, and the superstition and intolerance that the clergy bred within the people. He had felt these effects in his own exiles, the burnings of his books and those of many others, and in the hideous sufferings of Jean Calas and François - Jean de la Barre. He stated in one of his most famous quotes that "Superstition sets the whole world in flames; philosophy quenches them. ''
The most oft - cited Voltaire quotation is apocryphal. He is incorrectly credited with writing, "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it. '' These were not his words, but rather those of Evelyn Beatrice Hall, written under the pseudonym S.G. Tallentyre in her 1906 biographical book The Friends of Voltaire. Hall intended to summarize in her own words Voltaire 's attitude towards Claude Adrien Helvétius and his controversial book De l'esprit, but her first - person expression was mistaken for an actual quotation from Voltaire. Her interpretation does capture the spirit of Voltaire 's attitude towards Helvetius; it had been said Hall 's summary was inspired by a quotation found in a 1770 Voltaire letter to an Abbot le Riche, in which he was reported to have said, "I detest what you write, but I would give my life to make it possible for you to continue to write. '' Nevertheless, scholars believe there must have again been misinterpretation, as the letter does not seem to contain any such quote.
Voltaire 's first major philosophical work in his battle against "l'infâme '' was the Traité sur la tolérance (Treatise on Tolerance), exposing the Calas affair, along with the tolerance exercised by other faiths and in other eras (for example, by the Jews, the Romans, the Greeks and the Chinese). Then, in his Dictionnaire philosophique, containing such articles as "Abraham '', "Genesis '', "Church Council '', he wrote about what he perceived as the human origins of dogmas and beliefs, as well as inhuman behavior of religious and political institutions in shedding blood over the quarrels of competing sects. Amongst other targets, Voltaire criticized France 's colonial policy in North America, dismissing the vast territory of New France as "a few acres of snow '' ("quelques arpents de neige '').
Voltaire also engaged in an enormous amount of private correspondence during his life, totalling over 20,000 letters. Theodore Besterman 's collected edition of these letters, completed only in 1964, fills 102 volumes. One historian called the letters "a feast not only of wit and eloquence but of warm friendship, humane feeling, and incisive thought. ''
In Voltaire 's correspondence with Catherine the Great he derided democracy. He wrote, "Almost nothing great has ever been done in the world except by the genius and firmness of a single man combating the prejudices of the multitude. ''
Like other key Enlightenment thinkers, Voltaire was a deist, expressing the idea: "What is faith? Is it to believe that which is evident? No. It is perfectly evident to my mind that there exists a necessary, eternal, supreme, and intelligent being. This is no matter of faith, but of reason. '' Voltaire held mixed views of the Abrahamic religions but had a favourable view of Hinduism.
In a 1763 essay, Voltaire supported the toleration of other religions and ethnicities: "It does not require great art, or magnificently trained eloquence, to prove that Christians should tolerate each other. I, however, am going further: I say that we should regard all men as our brothers. What? The Turk my brother? The Chinaman my brother? The Jew? The Siam? Yes, without doubt; are we not all children of the same father and creatures of the same God? ''
In one of his many denunciations of priests of every religious sect, Voltaire describes them as those who "rise from an incestuous bed, manufacture a hundred versions of God, then eat and drink God, then piss and shit God. ''
In a letter to Frederick II, King of Prussia, dated 5 January 1767, he wrote about Christianity:
La nôtre (religion) est sans contredit la plus ridicule, la plus absurde, et la plus sanguinaire qui ait jamais infecté le monde. "Our (religion) is assuredly the most ridiculous, the most absurd and the most bloody religion which has ever infected this world. Your Majesty will do the human race an eternal service by extirpating this infamous superstition, I do not say among the rabble, who are not worthy of being enlightened and who are apt for every yoke; I say among honest people, among men who think, among those who wish to think.... My one regret in dying is that I can not aid you in this noble enterprise, the finest and most respectable which the human mind can point out. ''
In La bible enfin expliquée, he expressed the following attitude to lay reading of the Bible:
It is characteristic of fanatics who read the holy scriptures to tell themselves: God killed, so I must kill; Abraham lied, Jacob deceived, Rachel stole: so I must steal, deceive, lie. But, wretch, you are neither Rachel, nor Jacob, nor Abraham, nor God; you are just a mad fool, and the popes who forbade the reading of the Bible were extremely wise.
Voltaire 's opinion of the Christian Bible was mixed. Although influenced by Socinian works such as the Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum, Voltaire 's skeptical attitude to the Bible separated him from Unitarian theologians like Fausto Sozzini or even Biblical - political writers like John Locke. His statements on religion also brought down on him the fury of the Jesuits and in particular Claude - Adrien Nonnotte. This did not hinder his religious practice, though it did win for him a bad reputation in certain religious circles. The deeply Christian Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote to his father the year of Voltaire 's death, saying, "The arch - scoundrel Voltaire has finally kicked the bucket... ''. Voltaire was later deemed to influence Edward Gibbon in claiming that Christianity was a contributor to the fall of the Roman Empire in his book The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire:
As Christianity advances, disasters befall the (Roman) empire -- arts, science, literature, decay -- barbarism and all its revolting concomitants are made to seem the consequences of its decisive triumph -- and the unwary reader is conducted, with matchless dexterity, to the desired conclusion -- the abominable Manicheism of Candide, and, in fact, of all the productions of Voltaire 's historic school -- viz., "that instead of being a merciful, ameliorating, and benignant visitation, the religion of Christians would rather seem to be a scourge sent on man by the author of all evil. ''
However, Voltaire also acknowledged the self - sacrifice of Christians. He wrote: "Perhaps there is nothing greater on earth than the sacrifice of youth and beauty, often of high birth, made by the gentle sex in order to work in hospitals for the relief of human misery, the sight of which is so revolting to our delicacy. Peoples separated from the Roman religion have imitated but imperfectly so generous a charity. '' Yet "His hatred of religion increased with the passage of years. The attack, launched at first against clericalism and theocracy, ended in a furious assault upon Holy Scripture, the dogmas of the Church, and even upon the person of Jesus Christ Himself, who was depicted now as a degenerate ''. The reasoning of which may be summed up in his well - known quote, "Those who can make you believe absurdities can make you commit atrocities ''.
According to Orthodox rabbi Joseph Telushkin, the most significant Enlightenment hostility against Judaism was found in Voltaire; thirty of the 118 articles in his Dictionnaire philosophique dealt with Jews and described them in consistently negative ways. For example in Voltaire 's A Philosophical Dictionary, he wrote of Jews: "In short, we find in them only an ignorant and barbarous people, who have long united the most sordid avarice with the most detestable superstition and the most invincible hatred for every people by whom they are tolerated and enriched. ''
On the other hand, Peter Gay, a contemporary authority on the Enlightenment, also points to Voltaire 's remarks (for instance, that the Jews were more tolerant than the Christians) in the Traité sur la tolérance and surmises that "Voltaire struck at the Jews to strike at Christianity ''. Whatever anti-semitism Voltaire may have felt, Gay suggests, derived from negative personal experience. Bertram Schwarzbach 's far more detailed studies of Voltaire 's dealings with Jewish people throughout his life concluded that he was anti-biblical, not anti-semitic. His remarks on the Jews and their "superstitions '' were essentially no different from his remarks on Christians.
Telushkin states that Voltaire did not limit his attack to aspects of Judaism that Christianity used as a foundation, repeatedly making it clear that he despised Jews. Arthur Hertzberg claims that Gay 's second suggestion is also untenable, as Voltaire himself denied its validity when he remarked that he had "forgotten about much larger bankruptcies through Christians ''.
Some authors link Voltaire 's anti-Judaism to his polygenism. According to Joxe Azurmendi this anti-Judaism has a relative importance in Voltaire 's philosophy of history. However, Voltaire 's anti-Judaism influences later authors like Ernest Renan.
According to the historian Will Durant, Voltaire had initially condemned the persecution of Jews on several occasions including in his work Henriade. As stated by Durant, Voltaire had praised the simplicity, sobriety, regularity, and industry of Jews. However, subsequently, Voltaire had become strongly anti-Semitic after some regrettable personal financial transactions and quarrels with Jewish financiers. In his Essai sur les moeurs Voltaire had denounced the ancient Hebrews using strong language; a Catholic priest had protested against this censure. The anti-Semitic passages in Voltaire 's Dictionnaire philosophique were criticized by Issac Pinto in 1762. Subsequently, Voltaire agreed with the criticism of his anti-Semitic views and stated that he had been "wrong to attribute to a whole nation the vices of some individuals ''; he also promised to revise the objectionable passages for forthcoming editions of the Dictionnaire philosophique, but failed to do so.
Voltaire 's views about Islam remained negative as he considered the Qur'an to be ignorant of the laws of physics. In a 1740 letter to Frederick II of Prussia, Voltaire ascribes to Muhammad a brutality that "is assuredly nothing any man can excuse '' and suggests that his following stemmed from superstition and lack of enlightenment. Voltaire continued in his letter, "But that a camel - merchant should stir up insurrection in his village; that in league with some miserable followers he persuades them that he talks with the angel Gabriel; that he boasts of having been carried to heaven, where he received in part this unintelligible book, each page of which makes common sense shudder; that, to pay homage to this book, he delivers his country to iron and flame; that he cuts the throats of fathers and kidnaps daughters; that he gives to the defeated the choice of his religion or death: this is assuredly nothing any man can excuse, at least if he was not born a Turk, or if superstition has not extinguished all natural light in him. '' -- Referring to Muhammad, in a letter to Frederick II of Prussia (December 1740), published in Oeuvres complètes de Voltaire, Vol. 7 (1869), edited by Georges Avenel, p. 105
In 1748, after having read Henri de Boulainvilliers and George Sale, he wrote again about Mohammed and Islam in an article, "De l'Alcoran et de Mahomet '' (On the Quran and on Mohammed). In the article, Voltaire maintained that Mohammed was a "sublime charlatan '' Drawing also on complementary information in the "Oriental Library '' of Herbelot, Voltaire, according to René Pomeau, had a judgement of the Qur'an where he found the book in spite of "the contradictions, the absurdities, the anachronisms '', "rhapsody, without connection, without order, and without art ''. Thus he "henceforward conceded '' that "if his book was bad for our times and for us, it was very good for his contemporaries, and his religion even more so. It must be admitted that he removed almost all of Asia from idolatry '' and that "it was difficult for such a simple and wise religion, taught by a man who was constantly victorious, could hardly fail to subjugate a portion of the earth. '' He considered that "its civil laws are good; its dogma is admirable which it has in common with ours '' but that "his means are shocking; deception and murder ''.
Essay on the Manners and Spirit of Nations (French: Essai sur les mœurs et l'esprit des nations) is a work of Voltaire, published for the first time in its entirety in 1756. In this work, Voltaire deals with the history of Europe before Charlemagne to the dawn of the age of Louis XIV, also evoking that of the colonies and the East. As a historian he devoted several chapters to Islam, Voltaire highlighted the Arabian, Turkish courts, and conducts. Here he called Mohammed a "poet '', and furthermore he was not an illiterate. As a "legislator '' who "changed the face of part of Europe, one half of Asia '', In the chapter VI, Voltaire finds similarities between Arabs and ancient Hebrews, that they both kept running to battle in the name of god, and sharing the passion for booty and spoils. Voltaire continues that, "It is to be believed that Mohammed, like all enthusiasts, violently struck by his ideas, first presented them in good faith, strengthened them with fantasy, fooled himself in fooling others, and supported through necessary deceptions a doctrine which he considered good. '' He thus compares "the genius of the Arab people '' with "the genius of the ancient Romans ''.
The tragedy Fanaticism, or Mahomet the Prophet (French: Le fanatisme, ou Mahomet le Prophete) was written in 1736 by Voltaire. The play is a study of religious fanaticism and self - serving manipulation. The character Muhammad orders the murder of his critics. Voltaire described the play as "written in opposition to the founder of a false and barbarous sect ''.
Voltaire described Muhammad as an "impostor '', a "false prophet '', a "fanatic '' and a "hypocrite ''. Defending the play, Voltaire said that he "tried to show in it into what horrible excesses fanaticism, led by an impostor, can plunge weak minds ''.
When Voltaire wrote in 1742 to César de Missy, he described Mohammed as a "deceitful character. ''
In his play, Mohammed was "whatever trickery can invent that is most atrocious and whatever fanaticism can accomplish that is most horrifying. Mahomet here is nothing other than Tartuffe with armies at his command. '' After later having judged that he had made Mohammed in his play "somewhat nastier than he really was '', Voltaire claims that Muhammad stole the idea of an angel weighing both men and women from Zoroastrians, who are often referred to as "Magi ''. Voltaire continues about Islam, saying:
"Nothing is more terrible than a people who, having nothing to lose, fight in the united spirit of rapine and of religion. ''
In a 1745 letter recommending the play to Pope Benedict XIV, Voltaire described Muhammad as "the founder of a false and barbarous sect '' and "a false prophet. '' Voltaire wrote: "Your holiness will pardon the liberty taken by one of the lowest of the faithful, though a zealous admirer of virtue, of submitting to the head of the true religion this performance, written in opposition to the founder of a false and barbarous sect. To whom could I with more propriety inscribe a satire on the cruelty and errors of a false prophet, than to the vicar and representative of a God of truth and mercy? ''. His view was modified slightly for Essai sur les Moeurs et l'Esprit des Nations, although they remained negative. In 1751, Voltaire performed his play Mohamet once again, with great success.
Commenting on the sacred texts of the Hindus, the Vedas, Voltaire observed:
The Veda was the most precious gift for which the West had ever been indebted to the East.
He regarded Hindus as "(a) peaceful and innocent people, equally incapable of hurting others or of defending themselves ''. Voltaire was himself a supporter of animal rights and was a vegetarian. He used the antiquity of Hinduism to land what he saw as a devastating blow to the Bible 's claims and acknowledged that the Hindus ' treatment of animals showed a shaming alternative to the immorality of European imperialists.
Voltaire rejected the biblical Adam and Eve story and was a polygenist who speculated that each race had entirely separate origins. According to William Cohen, like most other polygenists, Voltaire believed that because of their different origins blacks did not entirely share the natural humanity of whites. According to David Allen Harvey, Voltaire often invoked racial differences as a means to attack religious orthodoxy, and the Biblical account of creation.
His most famous remark on slavery is found in Candide, where the hero is horrified to learn "at what price we eat sugar in Europe '' after coming across a slave in French Guiana who has been mutilated for escaping, who opines that, if all human beings have common origins as the Bible taught, it makes them cousins, concluding that "no one could treat their relatives more horribly ''. Elsewhere, he wrote caustically about "whites and Christians (who) proceed to purchase negroes cheaply, in order to sell them dear in America ''. Voltaire has been accused of supporting the slave trade as per a letter attributed to him, although it has been suggested that this letter is a forgery "since no satisfying source attests to the letter 's existence. ''
In his Philosophical Dictionary, Voltaire endorses Montesquieu 's criticism of the slave trade:
Montesquieu was almost always in error with the learned, because he was not learned, but he was almost always right against the fanatics and the promoters of slavery.
According to Victor Hugo: "To name Voltaire is to characterize the entire eighteenth century. '' Goethe regarded Voltaire to be the greatest literary figure in modern times, and possibly of all times. According to Diderot, Voltaire 's influence on posterity would extend far into the future.
Napoleon commented that till he was sixteen he "would have fought for Rousseau against the friends of Voltaire, today it is the opposite... The more I read Voltaire the more I love him. He is a man always reasonable, never a charlatan, never a fanatic. '' Frederick the Great commented on his good fortune for having lived in the age of Voltaire, and corresponded with him throughout his reign until Voltaire 's death. Catherine the Great had been reading Voltaire for sixteen years prior to becoming Empress of Russia in 1762. In October 1763, she began a correspondence with the philosopher that continued till his death. The content of these letters has been described as being akin to a student writing to a teacher. Upon Voltaire 's death, the Empress purchased his library, which was then transported and placed in The Hermitage.
In England, Voltaire 's views influenced Godwin, Paine, Mary Wollstonecraft, Bentham, Byron and Shelley. Macaulay made note of the fear that Voltaire 's very name incited in tyrants and fanatics.
In his native Paris, Voltaire was viewed as the defender of Jean Calas and Pierre Sirven. Although he failed in securing the annulment of la Barre 's execution for "blasphemies '' against Christianity, despite a protracted campaign, the criminal code that sanctioned the execution was revised during Voltaire 's lifetime. In 1764, Voltaire successfully intervened and secured the release of Claude Chamont for the crime of attending Protestant services. When Comte de Lally was executed for treason in 1766, Voltaire wrote a 300 - page document absolving de Lally. Subsequently, in 1778, the judgment against de Lally was expunged just before Voltaire 's death. The Genevan Protestant minister Pomaret once said to Voltaire, "You seem to attack Christianity, and yet you do the work of a Christian. '' Frederick the Great noted the significance of a philosopher capable of influencing judges to change their unjust decisions, commenting that this alone is sufficient to ensure the prominence of Voltaire as a humanitarian.
Most architects of modern America were adherents of Voltaire 's views. According to Will Durant:
Italy had a Renaissance, and Germany had a Reformation, but France had Voltaire; he was for his country both Renaissance and Reformation, and half the Revolution. He was first and best in his time in his conception and writing of history, in the grace of his poetry, in the charm and wit of his prose, in the range of his thought and his influence. His spirit moved like a flame over the continent and the century, and stirs a million souls in every generation.
Voltaire 's junior contemporary Jean Jacques Rousseau commented on how Voltaire 's book Letters on the English played a great role in his intellectual development. Having written some literary works and also some music, in December 1745 Rousseau wrote a letter introducing himself to Voltaire, who was by then the most prominent literary figure in France, to which Voltaire replied with a polite response. Subsequently, when Rousseau sent Voltaire a copy of his book Discourse on Inequality, Voltaire replied, noting his disagreement with the views expressed in the book:
No one has ever employed so much intellect to persuade men to be beasts. In reading your work one is seized with a desire to walk on four paws (marcher à quatre pattes). However, as it is more than sixty years since I lost that habit, I feel, unfortunately, that it is impossible for me to resume it.
Subsequently, commenting on Rousseau 's romantic novel Julie, or the New Heloise, Voltaire stated:
No more about Jean - Jacques ' romance if you please. I have read it, to my sorrow, and it would be to his if I had time to say what I think of this silly book.
Voltaire speculated that the first half of Julie had been written in a brothel and the second half in a lunatic asylum. In his Lettres sur La Nouvelle Heloise, written under a pseudonym, Voltaire offered criticism highlighting grammatical mistakes in the book:
Paris recognized Voltaire 's hand and judged the patriarch to be bitten by jealousy.
In reviewing Rousseau 's book Emile after its publication, Voltaire dismissed it as "a hodgepodge of a silly wet nurse in four volumes, with forty pages against Christianity, among the boldest ever known. '' However, he expressed admiration for the section in this book titled Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar, calling it "fifty good pages... it is regrettable that they should have been written by... such a knave. '' He went on to predict that Emile would be forgotten after a month.
In 1764, Rousseau published Lettres de la montagne, containing nine letters on religion and politics. In the fifth letter he wondered why Voltaire had not been able to imbue the Genevan councilors, who frequently met him, "with that spirit of tolerance which he preaches without cease, and of which he sometimes has need ''. The letter continued with an imaginary speech delivered by Voltaire, imitating his literary style, in which he accepts authorship for the book Sermon of the Fifty -- a book whose authorship Voltaire had repeatedly denied because it contained many heresies.
In 1772, when a priest sent Rousseau a pamphlet denouncing Voltaire, Rousseau responded with a defense of Voltaire:
He has said and done so many good things that we should draw the curtain over his irregularities.
In 1778, when Voltaire was given unprecedented honors at the Théâtre - Français, an acquaintance of Rousseau ridiculed the event. This was met by a sharp retort from Rousseau:
How dare you mock the honors rendered to Voltaire in the temple of which he is the god, and by the priests who for fifty years have been living off his masterpieces?
On 2 July 1778, Rousseau died one month after Voltaire 's death. In October 1794, Rousseau 's remains were moved to the Panthéon, where they were placed near the remains of Voltaire.
Louis XVI, while incarcerated in the Temple, had remarked that Rousseau and Voltaire had "destroyed France '', by which he meant his dynasty.
Voltaire perceived the French bourgeoisie to be too small and ineffective, the aristocracy to be parasitic and corrupt, the commoners as ignorant and superstitious, and the Church as a static and oppressive force useful only on occasion as a counterbalance to the rapacity of kings, although all too often, even more rapacious itself. Voltaire distrusted democracy, which he saw as propagating the idiocy of the masses. Voltaire long thought only an enlightened monarch could bring about change, given the social structures of the time and the extremely high rates of illiteracy, and that it was in the king 's rational interest to improve the education and welfare of his subjects. But his disappointments and disillusions with Frederick the Great changed his philosophy somewhat, and soon gave birth to one of his most enduring works, his novella Candide, ou l'Optimisme (Candide, or Optimism, 1759), which ends with a new conclusion: "It is up to us to cultivate our garden. '' His most polemical and ferocious attacks on intolerance and religious persecutions indeed began to appear a few years later. Candide was also burned and Voltaire jokingly claimed the actual author was a certain ' Demad ' in a letter, where he reaffirmed the main polemical stances of the text.
He is remembered and honoured in France as a courageous polemicist who indefatigably fought for civil rights (as the right to a fair trial and freedom of religion) and who denounced the hypocrisies and injustices of the Ancien Régime. The Ancien Régime involved an unfair balance of power and taxes between the three Estates: clergy and nobles on one side, the commoners and middle class, who were burdened with most of the taxes, on the other. He particularly had admiration for the ethics and government as exemplified by the Chinese philosopher Confucius.
Voltaire is also known for many memorable aphorisms, such as "Si Dieu n'existait pas, il faudrait l'inventer '' ("If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him ''), contained in a verse epistle from 1768, addressed to the anonymous author of a controversial work on The Three Impostors. But far from being the cynical remark it is often taken for, it was meant as a retort to atheistic opponents such as d'Holbach, Grimm, and others. He has had his detractors among his later colleagues. The Scottish Victorian writer Thomas Carlyle argued that "Voltaire read history, not with the eye of devout seer or even critic, but through a pair of mere anti-catholic spectacles. ''
The town of Ferney, where Voltaire lived out the last 20 years of his life, was officially named Ferney - Voltaire in honour of its most famous resident in 1878. His château is a museum. Voltaire 's library is preserved intact in the National Library of Russia at Saint Petersburg, Russia. In the Zurich of 1916, the theatre and performance group who would become the early avant - garde movement Dada named their theater The Cabaret Voltaire. A late - 20th - century industrial music group then named themselves after the theater. Astronomers have bestowed his name to the Voltaire crater on Deimos and the asteroid 5676 Voltaire.
Voltaire was also known to have been an advocate for coffee, as he was reported to have drunk it 50 -- 72 times per day. It has been suggested that high amounts of caffeine acted as a mental stimulant to his creativity. His great - grand - niece was the mother of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, a Catholic philosopher and Jesuit priest. His book Candide was listed as one of The 100 Most Influential Books Ever Written, by Martin Seymour - Smith.
In the 1950s, the bibliographer and translator Theodore Besterman started to collect, transcribe and publish all of Voltaire 's writings. He founded the Voltaire Institute and Museum in Geneva where he began publishing collected volumes of Voltaire 's correspondence. On his death in 1976, he left his collection to the University of Oxford, where the Voltaire Foundation became established as a department. The Foundation has continued to publish the Complete Works of Voltaire, a complete chronological series which is expected to reach completion in 2018, reaching around 200 volumes, fifty years after the series began. It also publishes the series Oxford University Studies in the Enlightenment, begun by Bestermann as Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, which has reached more than 500 volumes.
Voltaire wrote between fifty and sixty plays, including a few unfinished ones. Among them are these:
Yet... he never for a moment supposed that in this "splendid outburst '' all France would accept enthusiastically the philosophy of this queer Jean - Jacques Rousseau who, from Geneva and Paris, was thrilling the world with sentimental romances and revolutionary pamphlets. The complex soul of France seemed to have divided itself into these two men, so different and yet so French. Nietzsche speaks of "la gaya scienza, the light feet, wit, fire, grace, strong logic, arrogant intellectuality, the dance of the stars '' -- surely he was thinking of Voltaire. Now beside Voltaire put Rousseau: all heat and fantasy, a man with noble and jejune visions, the idol of la bourgeois gentile - femme, announcing like Pascal that the heart has its reason which the head can never understand.
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who played tommy lee jones daughter in volcano | Volcano (1997 film) - wikipedia
Volcano is a 1997 American disaster film directed by Mick Jackson and produced by Andrew Z. Davis, Neal H. Moritz and Lauren Shuler Donner. The storyline was conceived from a screenplay written by Jerome Armstrong and Billy Ray. The film features Tommy Lee Jones, Anne Heche, and Don Cheadle. Jones is cast as the head of the Los Angeles County Office of Emergency Management (LAC OEM) which has complete authority in the event of an emergency or natural disaster. His character attempts to divert the path of a dangerous lava flow through the streets of Los Angeles following the formation of a volcano at the La Brea Tar Pits.
A joint collective effort to commit to the film 's production was made by the film studios of 20th Century Fox, Moritz Original and Shuler Donner / Donner Productions. It was commercially distributed by 20th Century Fox. Volcano explores civil viewpoints, such as awareness, evacuation and crisis prevention. Although the film used extensive special effects, it failed to receive any award nominations from mainstream motion picture organizations for its production merits.
Volcano premiered in theaters nationwide in the United States on April 25, 1997 grossing $49,323,468 in domestic ticket receipts, on a $90 million budget. It earned an additional $73.5 million in business through international release to top out at a combined $122,823,468 in gross revenue. Despite its release and recognition, Dante 's Peak (which was released 2 months before) gained more commercial success than Volcano. It was also met with mixed critical reviews before its initial screening in cinemas. The Region 1 code widescreen edition of the film featuring special features was released on DVD in the United States on March 9, 1999.
In Los Angeles, an earthquake strikes. Michael Roark, a member of the city 's Office of Emergency Management, insists on coming to work to help out with the crisis, although he has been on vacation with his daughter Kelly. His associate, Emmit Reese, notes that the quake caused no major damage, but seven utility workers are later burned to death in a storm drain at MacArthur Park; one escapes and survives, but is severely burned on one side of his face. As a precaution, Roark tries to halt the subway lines, which run parallel to where the deaths took place, but Los Angeles MTA Chairman Stan Olber opposes, feeling there is no threat to the trains. Against regulations, Roark and Gator Harris venture down the storm sewer in the park to investigate. They are nearly burned alive and barely escape with their lives when hot gases suddenly spew out of a crack in the concrete lining and floods the tunnel. Geologist Dr. Amy Barnes believes that an underground volcano may be forming beneath the city with magma flowing underground. Unfortunately, she has insufficient evidence to make Roark take action.
The next morning, at around 5: 15 A.M., Barnes, and her assistant, Rachel, venture in the storm sewer to investigate the scene of the incident, where they discover the crack in the ground, which released the gases earlier. While they are taking samples, a more powerful earthquake strikes, and Rachel is killed when she falls into the crack that is engulfed by a rush of the hot gases. Minutes later, in the La Brea Tar Pits, smoke billows out, with lightning crackling from it. Then, lava bombs burst out of the tar pits, which ignites several buildings. Steam explodes from the sewer system, while a subway train derails underground, trapping the passengers inside and exposing them to the severe heat and toxic gases, which causes them all to eventually lose consciousness.
Roark helps injured firefighters out of the area. Moments later, a newly formed volcano erupts from the tar pits, and lava begins to flow freely down Wilshire Boulevard, incinerating everything in its path, including Roark 's GMC Suburban, and an LAFD fire truck downed by a lava bomb, killing two firefighters who are trapped inside. Roark and his daughter become separated as she is injured when a nearby lava bomb sputters and burns her leg, and she is taken to Cedars - Sinai Medical Center by Dr. Jaye Calder. Meanwhile, Olber leads his team through the Red Line tunnel to the derailed train, searching for survivors. They manage to save everyone, but Olber notices that the train driver is still missing and goes back; he finds the driver still alive but unconscious, just as the lava reaches the train and begins to flow underneath it. Olber sacrifices his life to save the driver by jumping into the lava flow, throwing the driver to safety as Olber burns to death. Roark, Barnes, and police lieutenant Ed Fox devise a plan to stack concrete barriers at the intersection of Wilshire Boulevard and Fairfax Avenue, creating a cul - de-sac to pool the lava as helicopters dump water on it to form a crust, making the operation a success. Barnes later theorizes that the magma is still flowing underground through the Red Line subway extension, and calculates that the main eruption will occur at the end of the line at the Beverly Center near Cedars - Sinai. To prove this, Barnes and Roark lower a video camera into the tunnel to watch it, only for the camera to be incinerated by a fast - moving flow of lava. They calculate the speed and realize that they have thirty minutes until the lava hits the end of the Red Line.
Through Roark 's direction, explosives are used to create channels in the street to divert the flow of lava into Ballona Creek, which will later flow into the Pacific Ocean, but Barnes realizes that the street is sloping in the opposite direction and instead of going in to the creek the lava would flow right into the direction of the injured patients, much to the displeasure of Roark and Fox. Roark devises another plan to demolish a twenty - two story condominium building to block the lava 's path from flowing towards the patients and the rest of the Los Angeles West Side. Gator refuses to abandon an LAPD SWAT cop, who has gotten trapped under a core column while slotting explosive charges, just as the lava reaches the dead end of the Subway tunnel extension, and explodes out of the ground in a massive geyser; he sacrifices their lives to detonate the final explosive charge. Roark then spots Kelly nearby, trying to retrieve a small boy who wandered off, putting them in the direct path of the collapsing building. Roark barely manages to save both of them from being crushed as the building collapses. The plan is successful, and the lava flows directly to the ocean. Roark escapes from the wreckage with Kelly and the young child still alive. The death toll is nearly a hundred people, thousands injured, and damages in billions. It starts to rain, with surviving civilians having a sign a relief. Reese shows up with the family dog Max, along with a call from the Chief of the Los Angeles Police Department on how to rebuild the city. Roark tells Reese that he is on vacation after all, and to tell the chief that too, as he goes home with Kelly while Reese takes over to handle the situation.
The film ends with an epilogue displaying a graphic stating that the volcano, named "Mount Wilshire '', is still in an active state.
Filming was shot primarily on location in Los Angeles, California. Various filming sites included MacArthur Park, Cedars - Sinai Medical Center and the La Brea Tar Pits. Extensive special effects surrounding certain aspects of the film such as the lava flow, were created by ten separate digital effects companies including VIFX, Digital Magic Company, Light Matters Inc., Pixel Envy and Anatomorphex. An 80 % full - size replica of Wilshire Boulevard, which was one of the largest sets ever constructed in the U.S., was assembled in Torrance, California. The computer - generated imagery was coordinated and supervised by Dale Ettema and Mat Beck. Between visuals, miniatures, and animation, over 300 technicians were involved in the production aspects of the special effects.
The score for the film was originally composed and orchestrated by musical conductor Alan Silvestri. Recording artists James Newton Howard and Dillinger among others, contributed songs to the music listing. The audio soundtrack in Compact Disc format featuring 8 tracks, was officially released by the American recording label Varèse Sarabande on April 22, 1997. The sound effects in the film were supervised by Christopher Boyes. The mixing of the sound elements were orchestrated by Jim Tanenbaum and Dennis Sands.
Among mainstream critics in the US, the film received generally mixed reviews. Rotten Tomatoes reports that 44 % of 39 sampled critics gave the film a positive review, with an average score of 5.0 out of 10. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average out of 100 to critics ' reviews, the film received a score of 55 based on 22 reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale. In 1997, the film was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award in the category of "Worst Reckless Disregard for Human Life and Public Property '', but lost to Con Air.
Janet Maslin, writing in The New York Times, said, "Volcano begins so excitably and hurtles so quickly into fiery pandemonium, '' but noted that "in the disaster realm, it 's not easy to have it all. A film this technically clever ca n't get away with patronizing and familiar genre cliches. '' Roger Ebert in the Chicago Sun - Times called it a "surprisingly cheesy disaster epic '' while musing, "The lava keeps flowing for much of the movie, never looking convincing. I loved it when the firemen aimed their hoses way offscreen into the middle of the lava flow, instead of maybe aiming them at the leading edge of the lava -- which they could n't do, because the lava was a visual effect, and not really there. '' In the San Francisco Chronicle, Mick LaSalle wrote that "Things go bad after Volcano plays its last card -- the lava -- and from there it has nothing to show but more of the same. A host of characters is introduced in the opening scenes, but Volcano does n't know what to do with them. It ca n't make us care. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly said, "Volcano is cheese, all right, but it 's tangy cheese. I 'm not sure I 've ever seen a disaster movie in which special effects this realistic and accomplished were put to the service of a premise this outlandish. '' He declared: "Volcano is jittery in a clinical, self - important way. '' Walter Addiego of the San Francisco Examiner, felt "Volcano offers a bit of humor, a minimum of plot distraction and the joys of watching molten rock ooze down Wilshire Boulevard. '' Left equally impressed was James Berardinelli of ReelViews. Commenting on the character significance of Mike Roark, played by Jones, he said it was "a wonderfully heroic figure -- a man of action who never has time to rest. The fate of the city rests on his shoulders, and he knows it. Jones ' fierce, unflagging portrayal helps us accept Roark not only as the man to save L.A., but as a loving father who is more concerned about his daughter 's safety than that of every other citizen. '' In his summation, he wrote, "Volcano has opened the "summer '' movie season at an astoundingly early late - April date. But there 's no mistaking this as anything but a blockbuster trying to get a running jump on competition like The Fifth Element and The Lost World. This is n't the kind of film where it 's worth waiting for the video tape -- it 's too big and brash, and demands the speakers and atmosphere of a state - of - the - art theater. '' Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times added to the positive sentiment by saying the film "glows with heat. Lava heat. The coast may be toast, but it 's the lava, covering everything like a malevolent tide of melted butter, that makes this a disaster picture that 's tastier than usual. ''
Writing for Time Out, author TCh said, "The most striking aspect of this fun, old - fashioned disaster movie is the novelty of seeing the most familiar of backdrops used as a creative resource in its own right. '' He commended how "Jones and Heche work hard to dig up an emotional rapport from next to nothing '' while also praising how the "slow but inexorable progress of the lava makes for more suspense than the usual slam bang firework display. '' Not entirely impressed was Margaret McGurk writing for The Cincinnati Enquirer. She called the film "depreciating entertainment value of the natural - disaster trend '' while also mentioning how the "High - caliber special effects are still fun, but all this lock - step storytelling is wearing thin. '' But in a hint of commendation, McGurk thought "on its own escapist terms, Volcano dishes up a textbook serving of low - I.Q., high - energy entertainment. '' Describing a comical position on seismic activity, Marc Savlov of The Austin Chronicle said Volcano was a "laughably ridiculous take on what we all secretly dream of: Los Angeles, washed away in a huge, molten tide of cheese -- uh, lava, I mean. '' Savlov added, "Screenwriters Jerome Armstrong and Billy Ray have crammed the script with topical references to the L.A. riots, Rodney King, racial inequality, sexism, the ineffectuality of the 911 system, and reams of very, very bad dialogue. So bad, in fact, that the screening audience I viewed Volcano with seemed to enjoy it immensely, hooting and hollering and laughing as though it were an old episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000. ''
Rita Kempley of The Washington Post, openly wondered why "there 's no volcano in "Volcano ''?... The hokey disaster drama features towering plumes of smoke, a splendid display of fireworks and brimstone, and rivers of molten magma, but I 'll be darned if there 's a burning mountain. '' She concluded her review by declaring that "While disaster yarns are n't known for subtlety, there are limits, and Volcano giddily goes beyond them. Director Mick Jackson, who also made Steve Martin 's wry "L.A. Story, '' must have had his hands full with the logistics of this bombastic extravaganza. He sets a blistering pace, but the movie never generates any real thrills. '' Todd McCarthy of Variety was more positive, writing Volcano delivered "enough spectacular action to get it off to a hot B.O. start '' and that "first - time screenwriters Jerome Armstrong and Billy Ray waste no time with exposition or scene - setting, starting the fireworks with a nerve - jangling morning earthquake that puts city workers on alert for possible damage. ''
Volcano premiered in cinemas on April 25, 1997. At its widest distribution in the U.S., the film was screened at 2,777 theaters. The film grossed $14,581,740 in box office business averaging $5,256 in revenue per theater in its opening weekend. During that first weekend in release, the film opened in first place beating out the films Romy & Michelle 's High School Reunion and Anaconda. The film 's revenue dropped by 37 % in its second week of release, earning $9,099,743. In the month of June during its final weekend showing in theaters, the film came out in 12th place grossing $602,076. The film went on to top out domestically at $49,323,468 in total ticket sales through a 7 - week theatrical run. Internationally, the film took in an additional $73,500,000 in box office business for a combined total of $122,823,468. For 1997 as a whole, the film would cumulatively rank at a box office performance position of 39.
Following its cinematic release in theaters, the film was released in VHS video format on May 26, 1998. The Region 1 Code widescreen edition of the film was released on DVD in the United States on March 9, 1999. Special features for the DVD include interactive menus, scene selection and the original theatrical trailer. It is not enhanced for widescreen televisions. The film was released on Blu - ray Disc on October 1, 2013 by Starz / Anchor Bay.
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who played mrs garrett on the facts of life | Charlotte Rae - wikipedia
Charlotte Rae Lubotsky (known professionally as Charlotte Rae; born April 22, 1926) is an American character actress of stage, comedian, singer and dancer whose career spans six decades.
Rae is known for her portrayal of Edna Garrett in the sitcoms Diff'rent Strokes and its spin - off, The Facts of Life (in which she had the starring role from 1979 -- 1986). She received the Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Best Actress in a Comedy in 1982. She also appeared in two Facts of Life television movies: The Facts of Life Goes to Paris in 1982 and The Facts of Life Reunion in 2001. She voiced the character of "Nanny '' in 101 Dalmatians: The Series. She also appeared as Gammy Hart in Girl Meets World.
In 2015, she returned to the silver screen in the feature film Ricki and the Flash, with Meryl Streep, Kevin Kline, and Rick Springfield. In November 2015, Rae released her new autobiography, The Facts of My Life, which was co-written with her son, Larry Strauss.
She was born Charlotte Rae Lubotsky on April 22, 1926, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to Russian Jewish immigrants Esther (née Ottenstein), who was a childhood friend of Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir, and Meyer Lubotsky, a retail tire business owner. One of three sisters, her siblings are Miriam and the late Beverly (1921 -- 1998). For the first ten years or so of her life, Rae 's family lived in Milwaukee, then moved to Shorewood, Wisconsin. She graduated from Shorewood High School in 1944. She did radio work and was with the Wauwatosa Children 's Theatre. In 1942, at aged 16, she was an apprentice with the Port Players, a professional theater company that came for the summer to Milwaukee, with several established actors such as Morton DaCosta, who would eventually direct The Music Man on Broadway.
Rae attended Northwestern University, although she did not complete her studies, where she met Cloris Leachman, who many years later succeeded Rae on The Facts of Life for the show 's last two seasons. At Northwestern she met several unknown stars and producers, including Agnes Nixon, Charlton Heston, Paul Lynde, Gerald Freedman, Claude Akins and songwriter Sheldon Harnick. In a 2016 interview with Milwaukee Talks, she said about her decision in appearing in only dramatic television was, "When I started out, I wanted to be a serious actor, I never thought I 'd get into comedy. '' When a radio personality told her that her last name would n't do, she dropped it, to her father 's chagrin.
She moved to New York City in 1948, where she performed in the theater and nightclubs. During her early years in New York, she worked at the Village Vanguard (alongside up - and - coming talents such as singer Richard Dyer - Bennet) and at the posh Blue Angel, home to budding talents Barbra Streisand, Mike Nichols and Elaine May. She moved to Los Angeles in 1974.
A stage actress since the 1950s, she appeared in Three Wishes for Jamie, The Threepenny Opera, Li'l Abner, and Pickwick. In 1955 she released her first (and only) solo album, Songs I Taught My Mother, which featured "silly, sinful, and satirical '' songs by Sheldon Harnick, Vernon Duke, John La Touche, Cole Porter, Rodgers & Hart, and Marc Blitzstein (who reportedly wrote the song "Modest Maid '' especially for Rae), among others.
She appeared in Ben Bagley 's revue The Littlest Revue (and on its cast album) in 1956, appearing alongside Joel Grey and Tammy Grimes, among others, and singing songs by Sheldon Harnick ("The Shape of Things ''), Vernon Duke ("Summer is a-Comin ' In ''), and Charles Strouse & Lee Adams ("Spring Doth Let Her Colours Fly ''), a parody of opera singer Helen Traubel 's Las Vegas night club act), among others.
Rae would later record Rodgers & Hart Revisited with Dorothy Loudon, Cy Young, and Arthur Siegel, singing "Everybody Loves You (When You 're Asleep) '' and in several other duets and ensembles for Bagley 's studio. Rae received two Tony Award nominations during her Broadway career. The first was in 1966 for Best Featured Actress in a Musical in Pickwick; the second came in 1969 for Best Actress in a Play for Morning, Noon and Night.
In 1954, Rae made her TV debut on an episode of Look Up and Live. This led to roles on other shows such as The United States Steel Hour, Armstrong Circle Theatre, Kraft Television Theatre, NBC Television Opera Theatre, The Philco Television Playhouse, The Colgate Comedy Hour, The DuPont Show of the Week, The Phil Silvers Show, Car 54, Where Are You?, Way Out, The Defenders, Temperatures Rising, The Love Boat, The Partridge Family, Love, American Style, McMillan & Wife, Barney Miller, 227, Murder, She Wrote, St. Elsewhere, Diagnosis: Murder, All in the Family and Good Times. In 1993, Rae voiced the character "Aunt Pristine Figg '' in Tom and Jerry: The Movie.
In 1973, Rae played the role of Southern Comfort in Terrence McNally 's spoof Whiskey at Saint Clements ' Theatre off - Broadway. She appeared in The Vagina Monologues off - Broadway. In 2000, she starred as Berthe in the Paper Mill Playhouse production of Pippin. In 2007, she appeared in a cabaret show at the Plush Room in San Francisco for several performances. In the 2008 movie You Do n't Mess with the Zohan, Rae has a role as an older woman who has a fling with Adam Sandler 's character. On February 18, 2009 she appeared in a small role as Mrs. Ford in the Life episode "I Heart Mom ''.
Her first significant success was on the sitcom Car 54, Where Are You? (1961 -- 1963), in which she played Sylvia Schnauzer, the wife of Officer Leo Schnauzer (played by Al Lewis). She was nominated for an Emmy Award for her supporting role in the 1975 drama Queen of the Stardust Ballroom. In January 1975, Rae became a cast member on Norman Lear 's ABC television comedy Hot l Baltimore, wherein she played Mrs. Bellotti, whose dysfunctional adult son Moose, who was never actually seen, lived at the "hot l '' (the "E '' on the hotel 's neon sign was burnt out). Mrs. Bellotti, who was a bit odd herself, would visit Moose and then laugh about all the odd situations that Moose would get into with the others living at the hotel. Rae also appeared in an early season of Sesame Street as Molly the Mail Lady.
In 1978, NBC was losing to both CBS and ABC in sitcom ratings, and Fred Silverman, future producer and former head of CBS, ABC, and NBC, insisted that Norman Lear produce Diff'rent Strokes. Knowing that Rae was one of Lear 's favorite actresses (in addition to Hot l Baltimore, she also appeared in a 1974 episode of All in the Family) he hired her immediately for the role of housekeeper Edna Garrett, and she co-starred with Conrad Bain in all 24 episodes of the first season. Her character proved to be so popular that producers decided to do an episode that could lead to a spinoff. That episode (called "The Girls School '') was about girls attending a fictional school called Eastland. In July 1979, Rae proposed the idea for the spinoff. NBC approved the show, to be called The Facts of Life, which would portray a housemother in a prestigious private school and dealt with such issues facing teenagers as weight issues, depression, drugs, alcohol, and dating.
Rae said in a 2015 interview with Entertainment Tonight, about The Facts of Life series that had an off - stage scale to weigh the girls, when the pressure had the opposite effect that producers were hoping for; "The more they tried to pressure them and weigh them and threaten them, the more they would eat. It 's not the way you handle adolescence. You do n't do that. ''
After working as a character actress / comedian in supporting roles or in guest shots on television series and specials, The Facts Of Life gave Rae not only her best - known role but it finally made her a television star. The role of Edna Garrett was the unifying center of attention of the program as well as a warm, motherly figure for the girls.
The Facts of Life had marginal ratings at first but after a major restructuring and time change, the show became a ratings winner between 1980 and 1986. Midway throughout both the 1984 - 85 and 1985 - 86 seasons, she missed several episodes because she was planning on leaving the show, and the story lines focused more on the other characters. At the beginning of the eighth season, Rae left the show and Cloris Leachman was then brought in as Mrs. Garrett 's sister, Beverly Ann Stickle, for the show 's last two years. The part of Beverly was quite similar to Leachman 's character of Phyllis Lindstrom on The Mary Tyler Moore Show and Phyllis from the 1970s. Unfortunately, the character of Beverly was not as popular with viewers as Mrs. Garrett had been. Nevertheless, Leachman remained with the show until it was canceled in 1988.
In 2001, Rae, Lisa Whelchel, Mindy Cohn, and Kim Fields were reunited in a TV movie, The Facts of Life Reunion. In 2007, the entire cast was invited to attend the TV Land Awards where several members of the cast, including Rae, sang the show 's theme song.
On April 19, 2011, the entire cast was reunited again to attend the TV Land Awards, where the show was nominated and won the award for Pop Culture Icon. The same day, Nancy McKeon and Kim Fields (who played Jo & Tootie, respectively) also gave a speech in honor of her 85th birthday. The cast did likewise on ABC 's Good Morning America, where at the end of the segment, reporter, Cynthia McFadden wished Rae a happy birthday, and the cast sang the show 's theme song.
She married composer John Strauss on November 4, 1951. In the mid 1970s, he came out as bisexual, and the couple divorced in 1976.
Strauss died in 2011 at age 90 following a long battle with Parkinson 's disease. The couple had two sons, Larry and Andrew.
In 1982, Rae had a pacemaker implanted in her chest. In 2009, due to the frequency of pancreatic cancer in her own family, Rae was screened, diagnosed early, and became cancer - free after six months of chemotherapy. Her mother, an uncle, and her elder sister Beverly all reportedly died from pancreatic cancer. However, in 2017, aged 91, Rae was diagnosed with bone cancer.
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where did the tune for the star spangled banner come from | The Star - Spangled Banner - wikipedia
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is the national anthem of the United States of America. The lyrics come from "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', a poem written on September 14, 1814, by the 35 - year - old lawyer and amateur poet Francis Scott Key after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry by British ships of the Royal Navy in Baltimore Harbor during the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812. Key was inspired by the large American flag, the Star - Spangled Banner, flying triumphantly above the fort during the American victory.
The poem was set to the tune of a popular British song written by John Stafford Smith for the Anacreontic Society, a men 's social club in London. "To Anacreon in Heaven '' (or "The Anacreontic Song ''), with various lyrics, was already popular in the United States. Set to Key 's poem and renamed "The Star - Spangled Banner '', it soon became a well - known American patriotic song. With a range of 19 semitones, it is known for being difficult to sing. Although the poem has four stanzas, only the first is commonly sung today.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' was recognized for official use by the United States Navy in 1889, and by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, and was made the national anthem by a congressional resolution on March 3, 1931 (46 Stat. 1508, codified at 36 U.S.C. § 301), which was signed by President Herbert Hoover.
Before 1931, other songs served as the hymns of American officialdom. "Hail, Columbia '' served this purpose at official functions for most of the 19th century. "My Country, ' Tis of Thee '', whose melody is identical to "God Save the Queen '', the United Kingdom national anthem, also served as a de facto anthem. Following the War of 1812 and subsequent American wars, other songs emerged to compete for popularity at public events, among them "The Star - Spangled Banner '', as well as "America the Beautiful ''.
On September 3, 1814, following the Burning of Washington and the Raid on Alexandria, Francis Scott Key and John Stuart Skinner set sail from Baltimore aboard the ship HMS Minden, flying a flag of truce on a mission approved by President James Madison. Their objective was to secure an exchange of prisoners, one of whom was Dr. William Beanes, the elderly and popular town physician of Upper Marlboro and a friend of Key 's who had been captured in his home. Beanes was accused of aiding the arrest of British soldiers. Key and Skinner boarded the British flagship HMS Tonnant on September 7 and spoke with Major General Robert Ross and Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane over dinner while the two officers discussed war plans. At first, Ross and Cochrane refused to release Beanes, but relented after Key and Skinner showed them letters written by wounded British prisoners praising Beanes and other Americans for their kind treatment.
Because Key and Skinner had heard details of the plans for the attack on Baltimore, they were held captive until after the battle, first aboard HMS Surprise and later back on HMS Minden. After the bombardment, certain British gunboats attempted to slip past the fort and effect a landing in a cove to the west of it, but they were turned away by fire from nearby Fort Covington, the city 's last line of defense.
During the rainy night, Key had witnessed the bombardment and observed that the fort 's smaller "storm flag '' continued to fly, but once the shell and Congreve rocket barrage had stopped, he would not know how the battle had turned out until dawn. On the morning of September 14, the storm flag had been lowered and the larger flag had been raised.
During the bombardment, HMS Terror and HMS Meteor provided some of the "bombs bursting in air ''.
Key was inspired by the American victory and the sight of the large American flag flying triumphantly above the fort. This flag, with fifteen stars and fifteen stripes, had been made by Mary Young Pickersgill together with other workers in her home on Baltimore 's Pratt Street. The flag later came to be known as the Star - Spangled Banner and is today on display in the National Museum of American History, a treasure of the Smithsonian Institution. It was restored in 1914 by Amelia Fowler, and again in 1998 as part of an ongoing conservation program.
Aboard the ship the next day, Key wrote a poem on the back of a letter he had kept in his pocket. At twilight on September 16, he and Skinner were released in Baltimore. He completed the poem at the Indian Queen Hotel, where he was staying, and titled it "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''.
Much of the idea of the poem, including the flag imagery and some of the wording, is derived from an earlier song by Key, also set to the tune of "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song, known as "When the Warrior Returns '', was written in honor of Stephen Decatur and Charles Stewart on their return from the First Barbary War. Absent elaboration by Francis Scott Key prior to his death in 1843, some have speculated in modern times about the meaning of phrases or verses. According to British historian Robin Blackburn, the words "the hireling and slave '' allude to the thousands of ex-slaves in the British ranks organised as the Corps of Colonial Marines, who had been liberated by the British and demanded to be placed in the battle line "where they might expect to meet their former masters. '' Nevertheless, Professor Mark Clague, a professor of musicology at the University of Michigan, argues that the "middle two verses of Key 's lyric vilify the British enemy in the War of 1812 '' and "in no way glorifies or celebrates slavery. '' Clague writes that "For Key... the British mercenaries were scoundrels and the Colonial Marines were traitors who threatened to spark a national insurrection. '' This harshly anti-British nature of Verse 3 led to its omission in sheet music in World War I, when Britain and the U.S. were allies. Responding to the assertion of writer Jon Schwarz of The Intercept that the song is a "celebration of slavery, '' Clague said that: "The reference to slaves is about the use, and in some sense the manipulation, of black Americans to fight for the British, with the promise of freedom. The American forces included African - Americans as well as whites. The term ' freemen, ' whose heroism is celebrated in the fourth stanza, would have encompassed both. ''
Others suggest that "Key may have intended the phrase as a reference to the British Navy 's practice of impressment (kidnapping sailors and forcing them to fight in defense of the crown), or as a semi-metaphorical slap at the British invading force as a whole (which included a large number of mercenaries). ''
Key gave the poem to his brother - in - law Judge Joseph H. Nicholson who saw that the words fit the popular melody "The Anacreontic Song '', by English composer John Stafford Smith. This was the official song of the Anacreontic Society, an 18th - century gentlemen 's club of amateur musicians in London. Nicholson took the poem to a printer in Baltimore, who anonymously made the first known broadside printing on September 17; of these, two known copies survive.
On September 20, both the Baltimore Patriot and The American printed the song, with the note "Tune: Anacreon in Heaven ''. The song quickly became popular, with seventeen newspapers from Georgia to New Hampshire printing it. Soon after, Thomas Carr of the Carr Music Store in Baltimore published the words and music together under the title "The Star Spangled Banner '', although it was originally called "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''. Thomas Carr 's arrangement introduced the raised fourth which became the standard deviation from "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song 's popularity increased, and its first public performance took place in October, when Baltimore actor Ferdinand Durang sang it at Captain McCauley 's tavern. Washington Irving, then editor of the Analectic Magazine in Philadelphia, reprinted the song in November 1814.
By the early 20th century, there were various versions of the song in popular use. Seeking a singular, standard version, President Woodrow Wilson tasked the U.S. Bureau of Education with providing that official version. In response, the Bureau enlisted the help of five musicians to agree upon an arrangement. Those musicians were Walter Damrosch, Will Earhart, Arnold J. Gantvoort, Oscar Sonneck and John Philip Sousa. The standardized version that was voted upon by these five musicians premiered at Carnegie Hall on December 5, 1917, in a program that included Edward Elgar 's Carillon and Gabriel Pierné 's The Children 's Crusade. The concert was put on by the Oratorio Society of New York and conducted by Walter Damrosch. An official handwritten version of the final votes of these five men has been found and shows all five men 's votes tallied, measure by measure.
The song gained popularity throughout the 19th century and bands played it during public events, such as July 4th celebrations.
A plaque displayed at Fort Meade, South Dakota, claims that the idea of making "The Star Spangled Banner '' the national anthem began on their parade ground in 1892. Colonel Caleb Carlton, Post Commander, established the tradition that the song be played "at retreat and at the close of parades and concerts. '' Carlton explained the custom to Governor Sheldon of South Dakota who "promised me that he would try to have the custom established among the state militia. '' Carlton wrote that after a similar discussion, Secretary of War, Daniel E. Lamont issued an order that it "be played at every Army post every evening at retreat. ''
In 1899, the US Navy officially adopted "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson ordered that "The Star - Spangled Banner '' be played at military and other appropriate occasions. The playing of the song two years later during the seventh - inning stretch of Game One of the 1918 World Series, and thereafter during each game of the series is often cited as the first instance that the anthem was played at a baseball game, though evidence shows that the "Star - Spangled Banner '' was performed as early as 1897 at opening day ceremonies in Philadelphia and then more regularly at the Polo Grounds in New York City beginning in 1898. In any case, the tradition of performing the national anthem before every baseball game began in World War II.
On April 10, 1918, John Charles Linthicum, U.S. Congressman from Maryland, introduced a bill to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. The bill did not pass. On April 15, 1929, Linthicum introduced the bill again, his sixth time doing so. On November 3, 1929, Robert Ripley drew a panel in his syndicated cartoon, Ripley 's Believe it or Not!, saying "Believe It or Not, America has no national anthem ''.
In 1930, Veterans of Foreign Wars started a petition for the United States to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. Five million people signed the petition. The petition was presented to the United States House Committee on the Judiciary on January 31, 1930. On the same day, Elsie Jorss - Reilley and Grace Evelyn Boudlin sang the song to the Committee to refute the perception that it was too high pitched for a typical person to sing. The Committee voted in favor of sending the bill to the House floor for a vote. The House of Representatives passed the bill later that year. The Senate passed the bill on March 3, 1931. President Herbert Hoover signed the bill on March 4, 1931, officially adopting "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem of the United States of America. As currently codified, the United States Code states that "(t) he composition consisting of the words and music known as the Star - Spangled Banner is the national anthem. ''
The song is notoriously difficult for nonprofessionals to sing because of its wide range -- a 12th. Humorist Richard Armour referred to the song 's difficulty in his book It All Started With Columbus.
In an attempt to take Baltimore, the British attacked Fort McHenry, which protected the harbor. Bombs were soon bursting in air, rockets were glaring, and all in all it was a moment of great historical interest. During the bombardment, a young lawyer named Francis Off Key (sic) wrote "The Star - Spangled Banner '', and when, by the dawn 's early light, the British heard it sung, they fled in terror.
Professional and amateur singers have been known to forget the words, which is one reason the song is sometimes pre-recorded and lip - synced. Other times the issue is avoided by having the performer (s) play the anthem instrumentally instead of singing it. The pre-recording of the anthem has become standard practice at some ballparks, such as Boston 's Fenway Park, according to the SABR publication The Fenway Project.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is traditionally played at the beginning of public sports events and orchestral concerts in the United States, as well as other public gatherings. The National Hockey League and Major League Soccer both require venues in both the U.S. and Canada to perform both the Canadian and American national anthems at games that involve teams from both countries (with the "away '' anthem being performed first). It is also usual for both American and Canadian anthems (done in the same way as the NHL and MLS) to be played at Major League Baseball and National Basketball Association games involving the Toronto Blue Jays and the Toronto Raptors (respectively), the only Canadian teams in those two major U.S. sports leagues, and in All Star Games on the MLB, NBA, and NHL. The Buffalo Sabres of the NHL, which play in a city on the Canada -- US border and have a substantial Canadian fan base, play both anthems before all home games regardless of where the visiting team is based.
Two especially unusual performances of the song took place in the immediate aftermath of the United States September 11 attacks. On September 12, 2001, the Queen broke with tradition and allowed the Band of the Coldstream Guards to perform the anthem at Buckingham Palace, London, at the ceremonial Changing of the Guard, as a gesture of support for Britain 's ally. The following day at a St. Paul 's Cathedral memorial service, the Queen joined in the singing of the anthem, an unprecedented occurrence.
The 200th anniversary of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' occurred in 2014 with various special events occurring throughout the United States. A particularly significant celebration occurred during the week of September 10 -- 16 in and around Baltimore, Maryland. Highlights included playing of a new arrangement of the anthem arranged by John Williams and participation of President Obama on Defender 's Day, September 12, 2014, at Fort McHenry. In addition, the anthem bicentennial included a youth music celebration including the presentation of the National Anthem Bicentennial Youth Challenge winning composition written by Noah Altshuler.
The first popular music performance of the anthem heard by the mainstream U.S. was by Puerto Rican singer and guitarist José Feliciano. He created a nationwide uproar when he strummed a slow, blues - style rendition of the song at Tiger Stadium in Detroit before game five of the 1968 World Series, between Detroit and St. Louis. This rendition started contemporary "Star - Spangled Banner '' controversies. The response from many in the Vietnam War - era U.S. was generally negative. Despite the controversy, Feliciano 's performance opened the door for the countless interpretations of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' heard in the years since. One week after Feliciano 's performance, the anthem was in the news again when American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos lifted controversial raised fists at the 1968 Olympics while the "Star - Spangled Banner '' played at a medal ceremony.
Marvin Gaye gave a soul - influenced performance at the 1983 NBA All - Star Game and Whitney Houston gave a soulful rendition before Super Bowl XXV in 1991, which was released as a single that charted at number 20 in 1991 and number 6 in 2001 (along with José Feliciano, the only times the anthem has been on the Billboard Hot 100). In 1993, Kiss did an instrumental rock version as the closing track on their album, Alive III. Another famous instrumental interpretation is Jimi Hendrix 's version, which was a set - list staple from autumn 1968 until his death in September 1970, including a famous rendition at the Woodstock music festival in 1969. Incorporating sonic effects to emphasize the "rockets ' red glare '', and "bombs bursting in air '', it became a late - 1960s emblem. Roseanne Barr gave a controversial performance of the anthem at a San Diego Padres baseball game at Jack Murphy Stadium on July 25, 1990. The comedian belted out a screechy rendition of the song, and afterward she attempted a gesture of ball players by spitting and grabbing her crotch as if adjusting a protective cup. The performance offended some, including the sitting U.S. President, George H.W. Bush. Sufjan Stevens has frequently performed the "Star - Spangled Banner '' in live sets, replacing the optimism in the end of the first verse with a new coda that alludes to the divisive state of the nation today. David Lee Roth both referenced parts of the anthem and played part of a hard rock rendition of the anthem on his song, "Yankee Rose '' on his 1986 solo album, Eat ' Em and Smile. Steven Tyler also caused some controversy in 2001 (at the Indianapolis 500, to which he later issued a public apology) and again in 2012 (at the AFC Championship Game) with a cappella renditions of the song with changed lyrics. A version of Aerosmith 's Joe Perry and Brad Whitford playing part of the song can be heard at the end of their version of "Train Kept A-Rollin ' '' on the Rockin ' the Joint album. The band Boston gave an instrumental rock rendition of the anthem on their Greatest Hits album. The band Crush 40 made a version of the song as opening track from the album Thrill of the Feel (2000).
In March 2005, a government - sponsored program, the National Anthem Project, was launched after a Harris Interactive poll showed many adults knew neither the lyrics nor the history of the anthem.
O say can you see, by the dawn 's early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight 's last gleaming, Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight, O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming? And the rockets ' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there; O say does that star - spangled banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep, Where the foe 's haughty host in dread silence reposes, What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep, As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? Now it catches the gleam of the morning 's first beam, In full glory reflected now shines in the stream: ' Tis the star - spangled banner, O long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. And where is that band who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war and the battle 's confusion, A home and a country, should leave us no more? Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps ' pollution. No refuge could save the hireling and slave From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: And the star - spangled banner in triumph doth wave, O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. O thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand Between their loved homes and the war 's desolation. Blest with vict'ry and peace, may the Heav'n rescued land Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation! Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just, And this be our motto: ' In God is our trust. ' And the star - spangled banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!
In indignation over the start of the American Civil War, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. added a fifth stanza to the song in 1861, which appeared in songbooks of the era.
When our land is illumined with Liberty 's smile, If a foe from within strike a blow at her glory, Down, down with the traitor that dares to defile The flag of her stars and the page of her story! By the millions unchained who our birthright have gained, We will keep her bright blazon forever unstained! And the Star - Spangled Banner in triumph shall wave While the land of the free is the home of the brave.
In a version hand - written by Francis Scott Key in 1840, the third line reads "Whose bright stars and broad stripes, through the clouds of the fight ''.
Several films have their titles taken from the song 's lyrics. These include two films titled Dawn 's Early Light (2000 and 2005); two made - for - TV features titled By Dawn 's Early Light (1990 and 2000); two films titled So Proudly We Hail (1943 and 1990); a feature (1977) and a short (2005) titled Twilight 's Last Gleaming; and four films titled Home of the Brave (1949, 1986, 2004, and 2006). A 1936 short titled "The Song of a Nation '' from Warner Brothers shows a version of the origin of the song.
When the National Anthem was first recognized by law in 1932, there was no prescription as to behavior during its playing. On June 22, 1942, the law was revised indicating that those in uniform should salute during its playing, while others should simply stand at attention, men removing their hats. (The same code also required that women should place their hands over their hearts when the flag is displayed during the playing of the Anthem, but not if the flag was not present.) On December 23, 1942 the law was again revised instructing men and women to stand at attention and face in the direction of the music when it was played. That revision also directed men and women to place their hands over their hearts only if the flag was displayed. Those in uniform were required to salute. On July 7, 1976, the law was simplified. Men and women were instructed to stand with their hands over their hearts, men removing their hats, irrespective of whether or not the flag was displayed and those in uniform saluting. On August 12, 1998, the law was rewritten keeping the same instructions, but differentiating between "those in uniform '' and "members of the Armed Forces and veterans '' who were both instructed to salute during the playing whether or not the flag was displayed. Because of the changes in law over the years and confusion between instructions for the Pledge of Allegiance versus the National Anthem, throughout most of the 20th century many people simply stood at attention or with their hands folded in front of them during the playing of the Anthem, and when reciting the Pledge they would hold their hand (or hat) over their heart. After 9 / 11, the custom of placing the hand over the heart during the playing of the Anthem became nearly universal.
Since 1998, federal law (viz., the United States Code 36 U.S.C. § 301) states that during a rendition of the national anthem, when the flag is displayed, all present including those in uniform should stand at attention; Non-military service individuals should face the flag with the right hand over the heart; Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are present and not in uniform may render the military salute; Military service persons not in uniform should remove their headdress with their right hand and hold the headdress at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart; and Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are in uniform should give the military salute at the first note of the anthem and maintain that position until the last note. The law further provides that when the flag is not displayed, all present should face toward the music and act in the same manner they would if the flag were displayed. Military law requires all vehicles on the installation to stop when the song is played and all individuals outside to stand at attention and face the direction of the music and either salute, in uniform, or place the right hand over the heart, if out of uniform. The law was amended in 2008, and since allows military veterans to salute out of uniform, as well.
The text of 36 U.S.C. § 301 is suggestive and not regulatory in nature. Failure to follow the suggestions is not a violation of law. This behavioral requirement for the national anthem is subject to the same First Amendment controversies that surround the Pledge of Allegiance. For example, Jehovah 's Witnesses do not sing the national anthem, though they are taught that standing is an "ethical decision '' that individual believers must make based on their "conscience. ''
The 1968 Olympics Black Power salute was a political demonstration conducted by African - American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos during their medal ceremony at the 1968 Summer Olympics in the Olympic Stadium in Mexico City. After having won gold and bronze medals respectively in the 200 - meter running event, they turned on the podium to face their flags, and to hear the American national anthem, "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. Each athlete raised a black - gloved fist, and kept them raised until the anthem had finished. In addition, Smith, Carlos, and Australian silver medalist Peter Norman all wore human rights badges on their jackets. In his autobiography, Silent Gesture, Smith stated that the gesture was not a "Black Power '' salute, but a "human rights salute ''. The event is regarded as one of the most overtly political statements in the history of the modern Olympic Games.
Politically motivated protests of the national anthem began in the National Football League (NFL) after San Francisco 49ers quarterback (QB) Colin Kaepernick sat during the anthem, as opposed to the tradition of standing, in response to police brutality in America, before his team 's third preseason game of 2016. Kaepernick also sat during the first two preseason games, but he went unnoticed.
In November 2017, the California Chapter of the NAACP called on Congress to remove The Star - Spangled Banner as the national anthem. Alice Huffman, California NAACP president said "it 's racist; it does n't represent our community, it 's anti-black. '' The third stanza of the anthem, which is rarely sung and few know, contains the words, "No refuge could save the hireling and slave, From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: '', which some interpret as racist. The organization was still seeking a representative to sponsor the legislation in Congress at the time of their announcement.
As a result of immigration to the United States and the incorporation of non-English speaking people into the country, the lyrics of the song have been translated into other languages. In 1861, it was translated into German. The Library of Congress also has record of a Spanish - language version from 1919. It has since been translated into Hebrew and Yiddish by Jewish immigrants, Latin American Spanish (with one version popularized during immigration reform protests in 2006), French by Acadians of Louisiana, Samoan, and Irish. The third verse of the anthem has also been translated into Latin.
With regard to the indigenous languages of North America, there are versions in Navajo and Cherokee.
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who hit the first home run in kauffman stadium | Kauffman Stadium - wikipedia
Kauffman Stadium (/ ˈkɔːfmən /), often called "The K '', is a baseball park located in Kansas City, Missouri, that is home to the Kansas City Royals of Major League Baseball (MLB). It is part of the Truman Sports Complex together with the adjacent Arrowhead Stadium, home of the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League. The ballpark is named for Ewing Kauffman, the founder and first owner of the Royals. It opened in 1973 as Royals Stadium and was named for Kauffman on July 2, 1993. The ballpark 's listed seating capacity since 2009 is 37,903.
Kauffman Stadium was built specifically for baseball during an era when building multisport "cookie - cutter '' stadiums was commonplace. It is often held up along with Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles as one of the best examples of modernist stadium design. It is currently the only ballpark in the American League to be named after a person and is also one of ten stadiums in Major League Baseball that does not have a corporate - sponsored name. The stadium is the sixth - oldest stadium in Major League Baseball and has hosted the 1973 and the 2012 MLB All - Star Games, along with Royals home games during the 1980, 1985, 2014, and 2015 World Series. Between 2007 and 2009, Kauffman Stadium underwent a $250 million renovation, which included updates and upgrades in fan amenities, a new Royals hall of fame area, and other updates throughout the facility.
In 1967, voters in Jackson County approved the bonds for Truman Sports Complex, which featured a football stadium for the Kansas City Chiefs and a baseball stadium for the Kansas City Athletics, whose owner, Charles O. Finley, had just signed a new lease to remain in Kansas City. This was a very unusual proposal; conventional wisdom at the time held that separate football and baseball stadiums were not commercially viable. Before the 1968 season, however, Finley moved the A 's to Oakland, California, and their brand - new multi-purpose stadium.
After the move, Senator Stuart Symington of Missouri threatened to press for the revocation of baseball 's anti-trust exemption if they did not give Kansas City a new team. Baseball responded by hastily granting expansion franchises to four cities, including a Kansas City team owned by local pharmaceutical magnate Ewing Kauffman. The new teams were due to start play in 1971. However, Symington was not about to have Kansas City wait three years for the return of baseball, and forced MLB to move up the start date to 1969. (The other expansion team in the American League, the Seattle Pilots, were without a suitable stadium in 1969 and the accelerated schedule forced by Symington led to their bankruptcy after just one season; they became the Milwaukee Brewers during spring training in 1970. Seattle returned to the majors with the Mariners in 1977.)
Jackson County continued its plans to build a new ballpark. After playing their first four seasons in Municipal Stadium, on April 10, 1973, the Royals inaugurated Royals Stadium with a win over the Texas Rangers.
On May 15, 1973, the stadium, barely a month into its existence, saw Nolan Ryan, pitching for the California Angels, throw the first of his seven no - hitters, blanking the Royals 3 -- 0.
On July 24, 1973, Royals Stadium hosted its first of two Major League Baseball All - Star Games.
On October 9, 1976, the Royals competed in their first post-season game in franchise history, losing 4 -- 1 to the New York Yankees at Royals Stadium in the ALCS. The Royals came back to win the next game on October 10, 6 -- 3, for their first post-season win in Royals Stadium.
On October 17, 1980, the first World Series game held in Kansas City featured the hometown Royals against the Philadelphia Phillies. In his first at - bat, George Brett hit a home run down the right field line. The Royals would go on to record their first - ever World Series win, 4 -- 3 in 10 innings. However, the Royals would lose the World Series that year in six games.
On October 11, 1985, in Game 3 of the ALCS, George Brett hit two home runs off Toronto Blue Jays pitcher Doyle Alexander, made a back - handed stop at third base to throw out a runner at home, and recorded the final out to give the Royals a much - needed 6 -- 5 win. The Royals went on to win the American League pennant in seven games.
On October 27 of that same year, the Royals clinched their first World Series title in franchise history, winning Game 7 in Royals Stadium. Led by the pitching of Bret Saberhagen, Darryl Motley 's two - run home run, and George Brett 's four hits, the Royals beat the St. Louis Cardinals 11 -- 0. The Royals were the first team in the history of the World Series to lose the first two games of the series at home and come back to win.
In 2012, the stadium hosted its second All - Star Game, which the National League won 8 - 0.
The stadium hosted the Royals ' first playoff game in nearly 29 years when the city 's former team, the Athletics, came to town for the 2014 American League Wild Card Game. Despite trailing 7 - 3 in the eighth inning, Kansas City rallied to win the game, 9 - 8, and advance to the 2014 ALDS. They hosted Games 1, 2, 6, and 7 against the San Francisco Giants in the World Series but lost the series, 4 - 3.
In 2015, the stadium hosted playoff games as the Royals once again made the playoffs, this time as the highest ranked American League team. Games 1, 2, and 5 of the ALDS against the Houston Astros were played at the stadium, with the Royals winning Games 2 and 5, as well as Games 1, 2, and 6 of the ALCS against the Toronto Blue Jays, with the Royals winning all three games. The stadium hosted games 1 and 2 of the 2015 World Series against the New York Mets as a result of the American League winning the 2015 MLB All - Star Game 6 - 3. The Royals won game 1 (5 - 4 in 14 innings) and game 2 (7 - 1), as well as the entire series (4 - 1).
Kauffman Stadium was the last baseball - only park built in the majors (not counting temporary facilities) from 1966 to 1991. It was one of the few baseball - only facilities built in the majors during the heyday of the cookie - cutter stadium era, and is one of two such facilities (Dodger Stadium is the other) that are still active and were never converted for use as multi-purpose stadiums.
Although it is a baseball - only facility, its design took several stylistic cues from the multi-purpose stadiums of the day, plus the Googie style that was more prevalent in the decades prior. The main stadium itself is primarily concrete, with a smooth, uncovered concrete facade. The stands wrap around the infield and end at the foul poles, with smaller bleacher sections (or "outfield plazas '', as the Royals call them) in the outfield. In their book, The Ultimate Baseball Road Trip, Josh Pahigian and Kevin O'Connell wrote that it is essentially one - third of a cookie - cutter stadium, containing only the seats in a cookie - cutter stadium that provide the best views for baseball. The upper deck is quite steep, though not as high as other parks built during this time. Many minor - league stadiums built in the 1980s and early 1990s, as well as Guaranteed Rate Field in Chicago, employ a similar design.
By 2000, all of the seats were replaced by blue seats, the lower section seating also getting cupholders.
The park 's best - known feature is the fountain and waterfall display (known as the Water Spectacular) behind the right - field fence. At 322 feet (98 m), it is the largest privately funded fountain in the world. The fountains are on display before and after the game and in - between innings, while the waterfalls are constantly flowing.
When the stadium was originally built, Kansas City was the westernmost major league city other than those along the Pacific Coast (1,600 mi. (2,600 km) away), which was a major reason why the Royals initially decided to use a faster - draining AstroTurf surface. The Royals ' home territory included a large swath of the Great Plains and Rockies, and Kauffman did n't want fans who drove many hundreds of miles to go home without seeing the game completed. The Truman Sports Complex 's legendary groundskeeper, George Toma, best known as the head groundskeeper for every Super Bowl, thus had the job of maintaining two carpets for most of his career. He also maintained the surface at Arrowhead Stadium, which had AstroTurf from 1972 through 1993. However, Toma has said that artificial turf requires a good deal of maintenance as well; his crews were able to keep Royals Stadium 's original carpet for two decades, somewhat longer than the typical lifetime for a turf surface. This is also due to the fact that Kauffman Stadium has never hosted a football game, and has no movable seating, thus avoiding the wear and tear typical of cookie - cutter stadiums.
The arrival of the Colorado Rockies, however, removed virtually all of the western portion of the Royals ' once - vast home territory. Partly due to this, the stadium 's turf was replaced by grass for the 1995 season. When the Royals ripped out the turf, 4 inch (10 cm) perforated tiles were installed at 12.5 - foot (3.8 m) centers across the entire field. As a result, the current grass field drains very well. Many newer facilities (and some older facilities through retrofitting) have similar drainage systems to minimize downtime after rain delays.
In 2014, the Royals started placing a "W '' on the Hall of Fame wall for every home win, similar to the Chicago Cubs hoisting a white flag with a blue "W '' at Wrigley Field for every Cub home win.
On April 4, 2006, Jackson County, Missouri voters approved a 0.375 % sales tax increase to fund plans to renovate the Truman Sports Complex. As part of this measure, every Jackson County residential address was to receive vouchers good for 50 % off two tickets at Royals games on certain nights. The construction began with a ceremonial groundbreaking inside Kauffman Stadium on October 3, 2007, with completion of Kauffman Stadium in time for Opening Day in 2009, and full renovation of the complex (including nearby Arrowhead Stadium) by 2010, depending upon cost overruns. The team committed to a lease that will keep them in Kansas City until 2030, an extension of their current lease expiration of 2015. The improvements to Kauffman Stadium included the following:
The new high - definition scoreboard was one of the first features to be installed. It replaced both the old matrix board in the shape of the Royals logo that had been in the park since its opening, along with the video board that had been installed in 1989. The new scoreboard was ready for Opening Day 2008. It is 84 ft. wide and 105 ft. tall, and was, at the time it entered service, the largest high - definition LED display in the world. The Kauffman Stadium screen was eventually surpassed by the new scoreboard at Seattle 's Safeco Field in 2013. The display was assembled in 55 separate segments, including an active bottom taper to resemble the shield in the Royals logo. The video scoreboard alone cost $8.3 million, and the control room that operates it is staffed with 17 people on game days. It was adorned with a crown during the 2008 offseason. Strobe lights atop the scoreboard flash after every Royals home run.
A second proposal on the April 2006 ballot would have installed a rolling roof at the Truman Sports Complex. The roof could have been moved to cover either Kauffman Stadium or Arrowhead Stadium when needed. The measure failed at the polls.
Beginning with the 2007 season, the Royals had a red seat placed in the stadium amongst the all - blue seats behind home plate to honor Buck O'Neil. Every game, there will be a person who embodies the spirit of Buck O'Neil selected from community nominees to sit in that seat, formerly occupied by O'Neil. The seat is located behind home plate in what was Section 101, Row C, Seat 1, until 2008. Due to the stadium renovations and accompanying section renumbering in 2009, the seat number is now Section 127, Row C, Seat 9, and the seat bottom is now padded. O'Neil played for the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro League from 1937 to 1955.
4 statues lay out in the outfield concourse behind the fountains. Three of the statues are located in right field (George Brett, Dick Howser and Frank White) and in left is the former Royals owner Ewing Kauffman and his wife Muriel.
^ Note 1: Candlestick Park (1960), Anaheim Stadium (1966), and Jarry Park Stadium (1969) were all originally built as baseball - only facilities. Candlestick Park has closed and has since been demolished, and Jarry Park Stadium was renovated into Stade Uniprix, a tennis - specific stadium with only a small portion of the original stadium present. Both Candlestick Park and Anaheim Stadium were converted to multi-purpose facilities. Anaheim Stadium, now known as Angel Stadium of Anaheim, was re-converted into a baseball - only facility in 1996.
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where is this years superbowl going to be | Super Bowl LII - wikipedia
Super Bowl LII was an American football game played to determine the champion of the National Football League (NFL) for the 2017 season. The National Football Conference (NFC) champion Philadelphia Eagles defeated the American Football Conference (AFC) and defending Super Bowl LI champion New England Patriots, 41 -- 33, to win their first Super Bowl and their first NFL title since 1960. The game was played on February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota. This was the second time that a Super Bowl was played in Minneapolis, the northernmost city to ever host the event, after Super Bowl XXVI at the Metrodome during the 1991 season, and the sixth Super Bowl held in a cold - weather city.
New England finished the regular season with an AFC - best 13 -- 3 record, then extended their record Super Bowl appearances to ten, their third in four years, and their eighth under the leadership of head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady. Philadelphia also finished the regular season with an NFC - best 13 -- 3 record, a year after Dallas did it in 2016, but became underdogs entering the playoffs after starting quarterback Carson Wentz suffered a season - ending injury late in the regular season and was replaced by journeyman backup Nick Foles. Still, the Eagles advanced to their third Super Bowl appearance, having previously lost to the Oakland Raiders in Super Bowl XV and to the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXIX.
Several records were set during Super Bowl LII, including most yards gained in an NFL game by both teams combined (1,151), the fewest punts from both teams in a Super Bowl (one), and the most points scored by a Super Bowl losing team (33). The game was settled after the Eagles converted a fumble recovery deep within Patriots territory to a field goal with 1: 05 remaining to extend their lead to eight points, and Brady 's Hail Mary pass fell incomplete as time expired. Foles, who completed 28 of 43 pass attempts for 373 yards and three touchdowns with one interception, and caught a one - yard touchdown pass, was named Super Bowl MVP. Foles ' touchdown catch later became known as The Philly Special and joined NFL lore.
The broadcast of the game on NBC had the smallest Super Bowl audience in nine years, with an average of 103.4 million viewers. Average TV viewership for the halftime show, headlined by Justin Timberlake, was 106.6 million American television viewers, 9 percent less than the previous year.
On October 8, 2013, the league announced that three venues would vie to host Super Bowl LII:
On May 20, 2014, the league 's owners picked Minneapolis at their meeting in Atlanta, Georgia.
The NFC was represented by the number - one playoff seed Philadelphia Eagles, while the AFC was represented by the number - one playoff seed New England Patriots, marking the fourth time in the previous five years that the Super Bowl had featured the top team from each conference.
The Eagles finished the regular season with a record of 13 -- 3, the same as New England, Minnesota, and Pittsburgh, but the various tie - breaking provisions gave them the NFC 's top seed in the 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs. It was a substantial improvement for the team under second - year head coach Doug Pederson; the Eagles finished the two previous seasons with 7 -- 9 records. In the 2017 season, the team scored 457 points (third in the NFL), while giving up just 295 (fourth) points.
The offense was led by Pro Bowl quarterback Carson Wentz. In just his second season, he recorded a passer rating of 101.9, throwing for 3,296 yards and 33 touchdowns, with only seven interceptions. His top target was Pro Bowl tight end Zach Ertz, who caught 74 passes for 824 yards and eight touchdowns. Other contributors were two receivers acquired from off - season free agency: Alshon Jeffery, who caught 57 passes for 789 yards and nine scores; and Torrey Smith, who had 36 receptions for 430 yards. Meanwhile, third - year receiver Nelson Agholor had the best season of his career, hauling in 62 passes for 768 yards and eight touchdowns, a higher total in each category than in his previous two seasons combined. The Eagles rushing attack also benefited from two recently acquired players, LeGarrette Blount and Jay Ajayi. Blount, an off - season signing who won a Super Bowl with the Patriots, gained 776 rushing yards and two touchdowns, while Ajayi, picked up by a mid-season trade with the Miami Dolphins, rushed for 873 yards and caught 24 passes for 154 yards combined with the two teams. Philadelphia also had a superb offensive line, lead by two Pro Bowl selections: Tackle Lane Johnson and Guard Brandon Brooks.
The Eagles defense allowed the fourth - fewest yards in the league (4,904). Defensive tackle Fletcher Cox made the Pro Bowl for the third time in his career, recording 5 ⁄ sacks and two fumble recoveries, and he had plenty of help around him, such as former Patriots defensive end Chris Long, who had five sacks and forced four fumbles, and defensive end Brandon Graham, who led the team with 9 ⁄ sacks. Middle linebacker Nigel Bradham led the team in combined tackles with 88. The Eagles secondary featured Pro Bowl safety Malcolm Jenkins, who had 76 combined tackles and two interceptions, along with cornerback Patrick Robinson, who led the team with four interceptions.
Philadelphia had stormed to the top of the NFC by winning 10 of their first 12 games, but suffered a major setback on December 10, when Wentz went down with a season - ending ACL tear and was replaced by journeyman backup quarterback Nick Foles, who was playing for his third team in as many years and his second stint with the Eagles. Still, Foles was able to lead the team to victory in that game, as well as the next two. The Eagles lost a meaningless week 17 matchup with the Cowboys led by third - string quarterback Nate Sudfeld. Then in their two playoff games, Foles threw for a combined total of 598 yards, three touchdowns and no interceptions.
The Patriots entered the 2017 NFL season as defending Super Bowl champions. For the 16th time in their 18 seasons under 65 - year old coach Bill Belichick, they recorded a double - digit win season, finishing the regular season with a record of 13 -- 3, one of four teams (along with Philadelphia, Minnesota, and Pittsburgh) with that record. By virtue of the tie - breaking procedures, they were granted the AFC 's number one overall seed in the 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs. The previous season 's top wide receiver Julian Edelman went down in the preseason with a season - ending injury. Early season defensive struggles left the team with a 2 -- 2 record after four weeks, and the worst overall defense in the league at that point. The defense came together as a unit, and tighten up over the rest of the season however, with the Patriots going 11 -- 1 after week 4. Their sole loss in the latter part of the season came in Week 14 to the Miami Dolphins, a division rival, though they were without star tight end Rob Gronkowski due to a one - game suspension for an unnecessary roughness call the prior week. The Patriots ' defense was improved by several late - season free - agent signings, including Eric Lee, a defensive end, previously from the Buffalo Bills, whom the Patriots signed in Week 12, and James Harrison, a perennial All - Pro for the Pittsburgh Steelers, whom the Patriots picked up off waivers after Christmas. In just six games for New England, Lee recorded 3 ⁄ sacks, a safety, and an interception. In his only regular season game with the Patriots, Harrison recorded two sacks.
During the regular season, New England 's offense led the league in yards gained (6,307) and ranked second in points scored (458). The 40 - year - old Brady finished his 18th season with a league - leading 4,577 passing yards, 32 touchdowns and just eight interceptions, earning him his 13th selection to the Pro Bowl and his third league MVP award. One change that helped make up for the loss of Edelman was the acquisition of receiver Brandin Cooks, who caught 65 passes for 1,082 yards and seven touchdowns. Brady was also aided by the healthy return of Gronkowski, who had played just eight games in the previous season, finishing this year with 69 catches for 1,084 yards and eight scores. Receiver Danny Amendola added 61 receptions for 659 yards, as well as another 240 yards returning punts. With the loss of their previous season 's rushing leader LeGarrette Blount to free agency, Dion Lewis stepped up to take the lead, rushing for 896 yards and six touchdowns despite starting only eight games. He also caught 32 passes for 214 yards and two touchdowns and added 570 yards and another touchdown returning kickoffs. Rex Burkhead chipped in 518 all - purpose yards, 30 receptions, and eight touchdowns. In passing situations, the team relied heavily on running back James White, who caught 56 passes for 429 yards and rushed for 171 on the ground. These backs were aided by the blocking of fullback James Develin, who earned his first Pro Bowl selection. On special teams, kicker Stephen Gostkowski ranked second in the NFL with 156 points and fourth in field goals made with 37, while veteran special team ace Matthew Slater earned his seventh consecutive Pro Bowl selection.
The Patriots ' defense ranked only 29th in yards allowed (5,856), but ranked fifth in fewest points, giving up only 296. Defensive end Trey Flowers led the team with 6 ⁄ sacks while also forcing two fumbles. Linebacker Kyle Van Noy had 73 tackles and 5 ⁄ sacks. The Patriots also had a superb secondary, led by cornerbacks Malcolm Butler (two interceptions, three forced fumbles) and Stephon Gilmore (two interceptions, 47 solo tackles), as well as safeties Devin McCourty (97 combined tackles, one interception, one fumble recovery), Patrick Chung (84 tackles, one interception, two fumble recoveries) and Duron Harmon (four interceptions).
In the playoffs, the Patriots earned a first - round bye and home - field advantage due to their status as the AFC 's first overall seed. In the divisional round, they defeated the Tennessee Titans 35 -- 14, as Brady passed for 337 yards and three touchdowns. In that game, the defense amassed eight quarterback sacks of Marcus Mariota and held the Titans ' running game to 65 yards rushing. They then defeated the Jacksonville Jaguars 24 -- 20 in the AFC Championship Game, rallying from behind to win the game after the Jaguars jumped out to an early 14 -- 3 lead and whose league - best defense stymied Brady and the rest of the offense for most of the first half. Down 20 -- 10 in the fourth quarter, the Patriots comeback was sealed by two Brady - led drives, both resulting in touchdown passes to Danny Amendola, as well as a key defensive stop by Stephon Gilmore, whose acrobatic block of a Blake Bortles pass ended Jacksonville 's last chance to score. Rob Gronkowski was injured in the game with a concussion, leaving his status for the Super Bowl in doubt. Amendola was the breakout star for the Patriots during their two playoff wins, leading the team with 196 receiving yards, and serving as Brady 's primary target.
Meanwhile, Philadelphia started off the divisional round by narrowly defeating the Atlanta Falcons 15 -- 10, by stopping the Falcons on four consecutive plays after they had a first - down - and - goal situation on the Eagles 9 - yard line during their final drive. They then soundly defeated the Minnesota Vikings 38 -- 7 in the NFC Championship Game. Despite the Vikings scoring on their opening drive, the Eagles defense held them to three punts, two turnovers on downs, two interceptions, and one lost fumble in their remaining drives of the game. Meanwhile, Foles had a great game, in which he completed 26 of 33 passes for 353 yards and three touchdowns.
This game was a rematch of Super Bowl XXXIX. Only one player, Patriots starting quarterback Tom Brady, remained on either roster from that contest. Bill Belichick, the Patriots ' head coach in that contest, also remained in that position. Two Eagles, running back LeGarrette Blount and defensive lineman Chris Long, had been Patriots in 2017 's Super Bowl LI.
The Patriots were the designated home team for Super Bowl LII, because the AFC team is the designated home team in even - numbered years and the NFC team in odd - numbered years. As the designated home team, the Patriots chose to wear their road white jerseys with navy blue pants, becoming the sixth team to wear their white jerseys as the home team and the third team to wear white in back - to - back Super Bowls, following the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowls XII and XIII and again in Super Bowls XXVII and XXVIII. The Eagles therefore wore their standard home uniform of midnight green jerseys with white pants. Twelve of the previous 13 Super Bowls had been won by teams wearing white jerseys. The last team to win a Super Bowl while wearing their home uniforms was the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XLV (who, coincidentally, had also worn green jerseys).
To coordinate the game and 10 days of events, the National Football League temporarily operated an events office within the Minnesota Vikings office building next to U.S. Bank Stadium. More than 150,000 visitors were expected to attend events associated with the Super Bowl over ten days. Among them were some 5,000 - plus media members; media day events and press conferences were held at The Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota.
No sales tax was collected on admission tickets to the game and related events, including parking.
To increase security around U.S. Bank Stadium, the stadium 's light rail station was shut down for 48 hours before the game, and a nearby homeless shelter was temporarily moved beyond the security perimeter. The Blue Line of the light rail system was only open to ticketholders and passengers with a Gameday Pass, while the Green Line only ran to Stadium Village station on the University of Minnesota campus before continuing on with restricted access. Metro Transit ran shuttle buses between light rail stations, as well as regular bus service was moved for several weeks due to street closures. Thirty activist groups organized a rally and protest against police brutality, corporate greed, and racist practices. 17 people blocked the Green Line train for 90 minutes before the game, and 200 protesters blocked an entrance to the stadium 's security perimeter.
Under a 1998 agreement, the Patriots and Eagles owners split the tickets, and the league controlled the game presentation and entertainment in the stadium. The Patriots practiced at the Minnesota Vikings facilities in Eden Prairie while the Eagles used the University of Minnesota. The Eagles got the Vikings ' locker room and sideline. The Vikings had advanced to the NFC Championship Game before losing to the Eagles; until that point, the possibility of the Vikings advancing to the Super Bowl and thus becoming the first team to play the game in its home stadium was plausible. Had that happened, the Vikings would have used their own locker rooms and training facilities, while the AFC champion would have used the University of Minnesota.
The Minnesota Super Bowl Host Committee presented Super Bowl Live on Nicollet Mall in downtown Minneapolis. This ten - day free festival and concert series featured Sheila E., the Revolution, Morris Day and the Time, and the New Power Generation, musicians from Minnesota who collaborated with Prince, a Minneapolis native. Produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, Super Bowl Live also included performances by Idina Menzel, Soul Asylum, the Suburbs, Bob Mould, Sounds of Blackness, Dessa, VocalEssence, Mint Condition, and the Jets. In addition to the concert series, Super Bowl Live featured a 200 - foot (61 m) American Birkebeiner International Bridge on Nicollet Mall to showcase cross-country skiing, skijoring, fat - tire bicycle racing, and snow tubing demonstrations. There was also a snowmobile stunt show on February 3.
The NFL presented the Super Bowl Experience at the Minneapolis Convention Center from January 27 to February 3 with an entrance fee. Kelly Clarkson performed at the Minneapolis Armory and a U.S. Bank Stadium lounge on the day of the Super Bowl.
The Minneapolis Armory also hosted Jennifer Lopez, Imagine Dragons, and Pink concerts close to U.S. Bank Stadium. Pink also performed the national anthem before the Super Bowl. Halftime performer Justin Timberlake held a ticketed "listening session '' of his newest album at Prince 's Paisley Park. Dave Matthews Band will perform at Xcel Energy Center in Saint Paul. The Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community 's Mystic Lake Casino hosted Gwen Stefani, the Chainsmokers, Florida Georgia Line, and Kygo. Planners originally scheduled a 64,000 - square - foot (5,900 m) traveling nightclub for 9500 people, but cancelled, moving its concerts into the main casino. Ellie Goulding 's appearance with Kygo was cancelled at the same time. The Mystic Lake Casino in Prior Lake, Minnesota, has the second - largest hotel in the Twin Cities metropolitan area, and Prior Lake hosted Super Bowl - week events including winter activities, a hotdish competition, and fundraisers.
Other events were held at the Mall of America (including Radio Row as a home for national shows), Saint Paul 's RiverCentre and Xcel Energy Center, the Minnesota Vikings ' Winter Park location in Eden Prairie, and the University of Minnesota. "Taste of the NFL '' is a fundraiser for food banks and was held in Saint Paul. Minneapolis also offered a temporary zip - line across the Mississippi River near downtown. The Luminary Loppet around Lake of the Isles in Minneapolis featured fire dancing, an ice pyramid, and luminary candles at night.
The 2018 Saint Paul Winter Carnival took place leading up to, during and after the Super Bowl. Carnival organizers built a large ice palace to coincide with the Super Bowl festivities, as with Super Bowl XXVI in 1992. The ice palace was planned, cancelled for lack of funds, then re-announced with sponsors. Events in Saint Paul will also include an extreme sports demonstration, a "giant slide '', and a block party. Officials in the capital city hoped to attract Minneapolis Super Bowl visitors. The Minneapolis Institute of Art had a free 20 - by - 40 - foot (6.1 m × 12.2 m), 6 - foot - tall (1.8 m) ice maze.
The Great Northern was a winter festival in the Twin Cities from January 25 to February 4 that included the U.S. Pond Hockey Championships, an ice bar, and an "urban ski competition ''.
ESPN broadcast its studio programming from the IDS Center in downtown Minneapolis, while Golf Channel (a sister network of Super Bowl LII broadcaster NBC) aired two live episodes of David Feherty 's eponymous series from the State Theatre.
Native American communities of Minnesota performed nightly drum ceremonies. Various drumlines from around the state performed at different locations throughout the day.
NBC broadcast Super Bowl LII, as part of an annual cycle between the three main broadcast television partners of the NFL. NBC 's lead NFL team of play - by - play man Al Michaels and color analyst Cris Collinsworth called the game. Sister cable network Universo carried a full Spanish language broadcast produced by Telemundo Deportes, with Edgar Lopez and Rene Giraldo. The Universo Spanish audio was also available on NBC through the SAP channel, where available. NBC employed 73 cameras within the stadium, and introduced "volumetric - AR '' graphics featuring 3D body scanning of players.
This was the last game in Westwood One 's current national radio contract with the NFL. Each participating team 's flagship station (the Patriots Radio Network 's WBZ - FM / Boston, and the Eagles Radio Network 's WIP - FM / Philadelphia, along with WEMG / Camden, New Jersey for Spanish play - by - play) carried the game with local announcers. (For the second consecutive year, none of the local flagships are clear - channel stations, and thus the local commentators were only audible for free within each respective team 's immediate metropolitan area; listeners who live outside the flagship stations ' broadcast ranges were required to subscribe to Sirius XM Radio or TuneIn Premium to access the local broadcasts.) Under the terms of the Westwood One contract, any radio station that is not a local flagship, if it is to carry the game, is required to utilize the Westwood One feed. It was the first title win called by Eagles play - by - play announcer Merrill Reese, who has been the primary radio voice of the team since 1977.
Online streams of the game were provided by NBC. It was available on NBCSports.com, the NBC Sports app for mobile devices, tablets, connected - TV devices, and NBC.com without any required login. The Spanish - language broadcast was available on the Telemundo Deportes En Vivo app and TelemundoDeportes.com for desktop devices, connected TV devices, and tablets but not mobile devices. Under new digital rights deals that began with the 2017 -- 18 playoffs, Verizon still offers mobile streaming of games, but no longer holds exclusive rights to stream NFL games on smartphones or make them exclusive to Verizon Wireless subscribers. Instead, Verizon elected to use the deal to bolster its recent acquisition of Yahoo!; on January 9, 2018, Verizon announced that it would host streams of playoff games through the Yahoo! Sports and go90 app, including Super Bowl LII. As a result of the deal, the online stream was available to viewers on all Internet devices for the first time, regardless of network (because of Verizon 's previous exclusive rights deal, non-Verizon phones had previously been blocked from receiving any NFL telecasts, regardless of source). The game was also available through the NFL Mobile app with the aforementioned change to viewing through the app now being allowed on all mobile carriers.
Dan Patrick and Liam McHugh served as the lead hosts for NBC 's pre-game coverage. Mike Tirico, who replaced the retiring Bob Costas in 2017 as NBC 's lead studio host for both the NFL and the Olympic Games, did not participate in coverage of Super Bowl LII due to his commitments to prepare for the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea (which opened on the Friday following the game).
As NBC Sports Regional Networks operates regional sports networks in the markets of both teams which participated, the NBC Sports Boston and NBC Sports Philadelphia channels were used to provide additional coverage of the game from a local perspective. Both networks aired coverage from Minneapolis, including pre-game specials focusing on their respective team, followed by a joint broadcast immediately prior to the game.
Nielsen reported a 47.4 / 70 % overnight rating in metered markets, peaking at 52.2 / 74 during the fourth quarter. These numbers are about 3 % lower than early numbers from Super Bowl LI, and the lowest since Super Bowl XLIV in 2010.
Dan Lovinger, NBC Sports Group executive vice president of ad sales, stated to Variety in July 2017 that the network was seeking a price "north of $5 million '' (the price set for the previous two Super Bowls) for a 30 - second commercial during Super Bowl LII. As they began five days after the Super Bowl, NBC offered advertising packages that covered both Super Bowl LII and the 2018 Winter Olympics (which marked the first time since 1992 that a single broadcast network had aired both the Super Bowl and Winter Olympics in the same year); the network estimated that it would bring in at least $1 billion in advertising revenue from the two events. During the second quarter, an equipment failure caused NBC 's broadcast to experience dead air for 30 seconds during a commercial break. No actual commercial time was lost.
Anheuser - Busch has, as it has done in previous Super Bowls, purchased multiple commercials in the game, advertising Bud Light, Stella Artois and Michelob Ultra. For the first time since Super Bowl VIII, the company reduced the appearances of the Budweiser Clydesdales in a Super Bowl commercial. However, a Clydesdale was featured in a commercial for Tide detergent and the Budweiser Clydesdales only appeared in a 5 - second Budweiser commercial to remind viewers of the "ClydesdaleCam '' livestreaming event. Other signed advertisers included The Coca - Cola Company and Avocados from Mexico. Cellphone carrier T - Mobile aired a minute long ad with actress Kerry Washington narrating, featuring babies of various ethnic backgrounds. The commercial also features Nirvana 's song "All Apologies '' played as a lullaby. In the ad, Washington talks about the babies being born with natural instincts of love and not racism calling them "unstoppable '' and that they will demand fair and equal pay. T - Mobile CEO John Legere posted to his Twitter account afterwards saying, "This year, we wanted to use our # SuperBowl airtime to share that @ TMobile believes we all started in the same place. We are more alike than different. And we are unstoppable. ''
Fiat Chrysler subsidiary Ram Trucks was met with swift and harsh criticism for its use of Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr 's sermon "The Drum Major Instinct ''. Major news outlets and social media erupted in the controversy. Particularly disturbing to many viewers was the selective exploitation of King 's anti-consumerist, anti-advertising speech in an attempt to sell trucks.
NBC 's lead - out program was an episode of This Is Us, titled "Super Bowl Sunday '', alongside a special episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon from Minneapolis ' Orpheum Theatre, with halftime performer Justin Timberlake, Dwayne Johnson, Chris Stapleton and the cast of This Is Us as guests.
In a surprise move, Netflix used its advertising time to announce it had acquired the rights to The Cloverfield Paradox, the third film in the Cloverfield series, and would make it available immediately after the game, potentially undercutting viewership of the lucrative post-game slot on NBC.
On RDS, the announcer was David Arsenault with Pierre Vercheval as analyst and Didier Orméjuste on the sidelines.
Pink performed "The Star - Spangled Banner '', while Leslie Odom Jr. sang "America the Beautiful ''. Pink spit out a throat lozenge shortly before singing the anthem, later verified after many commentators thought she had spit out a piece of gum. She reported being ill with flu symptoms during her performance. No players were observed kneeling during the national anthem, in contrast to the protests that happened earlier in the 2016 and 2017 seasons.
Fifteen Medal of Honor recipients participated in the coin toss ceremony. World War II hero Hershel W. Williams was the honorary captain and had the honors of flipping the coin.
Justin Timberlake headlined the Super Bowl LII halftime show, along with his band "The Tennessee Kids '' and featuring the University of Minnesota Marching Band. Timberlake performed in two previous Super Bowls: Super Bowl XXXV in 2001 as a member of NSYNC, and Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004 with Janet Jackson.
Timberlake 's performance drew criticism for not being "spectacular '', looking to be safe and avoid incidents such as the infamous "wardrobe malfunction '' encountered during his performance with Jackson, and for incorporating a video of Prince, who opposed performances combining the dead and the living.
The New England Patriots won the opening coin toss and elected to defer to the second half. The Patriots kicked off to the Eagles, who opened the game with a 14 - play, 67 - yard drive that took 7: 05 off the clock and resulted in a 25 - yard Jake Elliott field goal, giving the Eagles a 3 -- 0 lead. The drive was controlled by the arm of Eagles quarterback Nick Foles, who completed 6 of 9 passes to five different receivers for 61 yards, with a few short runs by LeGarrette Blount and Jay Ajayi mixed in. Foles also made two critical completions on third down plays, hitting Alshon Jeffery for a 17 - yard gain on third - and - 4, and later found Torrey Smith for a 15 - yard completion on third - and - 12. The Patriots responded with a drive of their own, almost with the exact same results; quarterback Tom Brady completed 6 of 8 passes for 60 yards to four different receivers, the longest a 28 - yard strike to Chris Hogan. The drive stalled out on the Eagles 8 - yard line, where they had to settle for Stephen Gostkowski 's 26 - yard field goal, which tied the game at 3 -- 3. The game 's first touchdown was scored by the Eagles on the next drive, taking only three plays: a short pass from Foles to Nelson Agholor, a 36 - yard run up the middle by Blount, and a 34 - yard touchdown pass from Foles to Jeffery to the left side of the field. The ensuing extra point attempt from Elliott was missed wide right, which made the score 9 -- 3 in favor of the Eagles. The Patriots responded by advancing the ball to the Philadelphia 11 - yard line on their next drive, which was set up by a 50 - yard completion from Brady to Danny Amendola, where the quarter ended.
With the second quarter under way, the Patriots came away empty - handed on the drive, as Gostkowski missed a 26 - yard field goal attempt after holder Ryan Allen mishandled the snap. New England 's defense forced the game 's only punt on the next drive. On the following drive, Brady completed a 23 - yard pass to Brandin Cooks, but a hard hit by defender Malcolm Jenkins knocked the receiver out of the game with a concussion. On third down from near mid-field, the Patriots attempted a trick play that involved two handoffs and a pass downfield to Tom Brady. Brady was open, but dropped the throw from Amendola. They went for it on fourth down, and a pass intended for tight end Rob Gronkowski fell incomplete, giving the Eagles the ball on their own 35 - yard line on a turnover - on - downs. The Eagles capitalized on a drive featuring two key completions, a 19 - yard catch by Zach Ertz on third - and - 7, and a 22 - yard reception by Jeffery on the Patriots 21 - yard line. On the next play, a 21 - yard rumble by Blount gave the Eagles another touchdown. They attempted a two - point conversion, which failed and brought the score to 15 -- 3. The Patriots quickly struck back, as Brady completed a 46 - yard pass to Rex Burkhead on the first play after the kickoff. But the team could only gain two more yards, resulting in Gostkowski 's 45 - yard field goal that got the score to 15 -- 6. The Eagles got the ball back with 7: 24 on the clock and looked poised to score another touchdown, when a 26 - yard run by Ajayi gave them a first down on the Patriots 43 - yard line. But on the next play, Foles threw a pass that bounced off Jeffery as he tried to make a one - handed catch, and went into the hands of Patriots safety Duron Harmon for an interception, which he returned eight yards to the 10 - yard line. The Patriots took advantage of the turnover with a seven - play, 90 - yard drive, featuring a 43 - yard completion from Brady to Hogan. On the next play, James White scored with a 26 - yard touchdown run. Gostkowski missed the ensuing extra point, but the score was now 15 -- 12. Eagles running back Kenjon Barner returned the ensuing kickoff 27 yards to his own 30 - yard line as time ran down to the two - minute warning. Two plays later, on third down - and - 3, Foles completed a short pass to running back Corey Clement, who took off for a 55 - yard gain to the New England 8 - yard line. Clement then ran the ball six yards to the two - yard line on the next play. Two plays later, Philadelphia faced fourth - and - goal on the 1 - yard line with 38 seconds left on the clock. Deciding to go for the touchdown, they attempted a similar trick play to the one that had failed for the Patriots earlier. As Foles stepped up to the running back position, Clement took a direct snap and pitched the ball to tight end Trey Burton, who then threw the ball perfectly to Foles, who was wide open in the right side of the end zone. Foles caught the football, making him the first quarterback ever to catch a touchdown pass in a Super Bowl, and the ensuing extra point was good, giving the Eagles a 22 -- 12 lead, which was taken into the locker room following a short drive by the Patriots.
The first half resulted in numerous Super Bowl records from both teams, including most total yards combined (673). This was also the first time two quarterbacks had thrown for over 200 yards in the first half of a Super Bowl, with Brady throwing for 276 yards and Foles throwing for 215 yards.
The Patriots received the second - half kickoff and Brady led New England 75 yards in eight plays. Gronkowski, who only caught one pass for nine yards in the first half, caught five passes for 68 yards on the drive, the last a 5 - yard touchdown reception to make the score 22 -- 19. The Eagles responded by moving the ball 85 yards in 11 plays on a drive that consumed less than five minutes and featured three critical third down conversions by Foles. The first was a 17 - yard pass to Agholor on third - and - 6 from the Eagles 19 - yard line. Later in the drive, he threw a 14 - yard completion to Ertz on third - and - 1 from the New England 40 - yard line. Finally, he finished the possession with a 22 - yard touchdown pass to Clement on third - and - 6. The touchdown was held up by a replay review, but replay officials confirmed that Clement kept both feet inbounds and controlled the ball. An Elliott extra point brought the score to 29 -- 19 in favor of the Eagles. Brady responded with a 10 - play, 75 - yard drive, completing all three of his passes for 61 yards, the last one a 26 - yard touchdown pass to Hogan that brought the score to 29 -- 26. The Eagles followed with an 8 - play, 51 - yard drive featuring a 24 - yard completion from Foles to Agholor on the first play. By the end of the third quarter, the team had made it to the New England 16 - yard line.
The Eagles opened the fourth quarter scoring with a Jake Elliott field goal to bring the score to 32 -- 26. However, Brady came back with another 75 - yard drive featuring a 30 - yard reception by Amendola and ending with a four - yard pass to Gronkowski, his second touchdown of the game, giving the Patriots their first lead of the game with the score at 33 -- 32. On their next drive, the Eagles faced third - and - 6 after two plays, but were able to keep the ball with a 7 - yard catch by Ertz. Eventually, they faced a fourth - and - 1 on their own 45 - yard line with 5: 39 left in the game. Deciding to go for the conversion rather than punt, Foles completed a 2 - yard pass to Ertz that kept the drive alive. Then after a 1 - yard Blount run, he picked up three consecutive first downs with three passes to Agholor for gains of 10, 18, and 10 yards, respectively, moving the ball to the New England 14 - yard line. Following a 3 - yard run by Ajayi, Foles threw a 9 - yard touchdown pass to Ertz with 2: 21 remaining in the game. The play was held up on review, as Ertz lost the ball after touching the ground in the end zone; it was however determined that he established himself as a runner and also maintained control of the ball as he broke the plane of the goal line. However, a failed two - point conversion left the Eagles with a 38 -- 33 lead. On the Patriots ' next drive, Eagles defensive end Brandon Graham stripped the ball from Brady on the drive 's second play for the only sack of the game for either team. Defensive end Derek Barnett of the Eagles recovered the ball, allowing the Eagles to run the clock down to 1: 05 and forcing New England to use up all their remaining timeouts. Elliott then kicked a 46 - yard field goal, putting Philadelphia ahead by eight points, with the score at 41 -- 33, and New England needing a touchdown and a two - point conversion to tie the game and send it into overtime. After nine plays (one of them a 13 - yard catch by Amendola on fourth - and - 10), Brady reached the 49 - yard line, and with only nine seconds remaining, he threw a Hail Mary pass to the end zone, to no avail as time expired. The Eagles had won their first Vince Lombardi Trophy in franchise history, and their first league championship since 1960, ending what was the third - longest championship drought in the NFL at 57 years.
The combined 74 points scored by both teams was one point shy of the Super Bowl record of 75, set in Super Bowl XXIX in 1995; it and this game marked only the second time in the game 's history where the two teams combined for 70 + points. The game also set a record for most yardage by both teams (combined) with 1,151 yards, the most for any single game, regular season or postseason. The game had many other Super Bowl records set as well, including fewest punts from both teams (one), most yards gained by a team (613 for New England) and most points scored by a losing team (33).
Foles completed 28 - of - 43 passes for 373 yards and three touchdowns, with one interception, and caught a touchdown pass. Clement, who caught only 10 passes for 123 yards and two touchdowns during the season, was the Eagles leading receiver with four receptions for 100 yards and a touchdown, while also rushing for eight yards. Agholor had nine receptions for 84 yards. Blount was the game 's top rusher with 90 yards and a touchdown. Brady completed 28 - of - 48 passes for 505 yards and three touchdowns, breaking the record for most passing yards in a Super Bowl that he had set in the previous season. Amendola was his top target with eight receptions for 152 yards, while Hogan had six for 128 yards and a touchdown and Gronkowski caught nine passes for 116 yards and two scores.
at U.S. Bank Stadium, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions
Source:
Super Bowl LII had eight officials. The numbers in parentheses below indicate their uniform numbers.
This was Steratore 's first Super Bowl as a referee, though he had been previously selected as an alternate for Super Bowl XLIV.
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when does daylight savings time end in europe | Daylight saving time by country - wikipedia
Most areas in North America and Europe, and some areas in the Middle East, observe daylight saving time (DST), while most areas of Africa and Asia do not. In South America, most countries in the north of the continent near the equator do not observe DST, while Paraguay and southern parts of Brazil do. The practice of observing daylight saving time in Oceania is also mixed, with New Zealand and parts of southeastern Australia observing DST, while most other areas do not.
DST used only in Australian Capital Territory, Jervis Bay Territory, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and Lord Howe Island.
DST end delays one week during Carnival week. Only these south and central states use DST: São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Federal District Brasilia, Santa Catarina, Paraná, Goiás, Rio Grande do Sul, Mato Grosso do Sul, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais and Mato Grosso (some exceptions).
Some regions in Quebec, east of 63 ° west longitude, most of Saskatchewan, and some areas in British Columbia and Nunavut (Southampton Island) do not observe DST. Saskatchewan, however, observes Central Time even though it is located in the Mountain Time Zone, meaning it effectively observes DST year round.
Follows European Union practice as part of the Kingdom of Denmark, hence start & end times correspond to 01: 00 UTC on the respective Sunday. See Daylight saving time in the Americas -- Greenland Qaanaaq uses US and Canada rules. Danmarkshavn does not use DST.
The government considered to abolish DST in 2017, moving Hungary to the UTC + 2 (EET) year - round, but there are no official plans to do so yet. This would be problematic considering DST switch is coordinated on an EU level.
The time zone in Malaysia has changed and varied a lot in the past
DST was removed in 2017.
Follows European Union practice, although not a member.
Observed DST since 1980. 1980 first Sunday of April to last Sunday of September. 1981 -- 1995 last Sunday of March to last Sunday of September. Since 1996 last Sunday of March to last Sunday of October.
Follows European Union practice, although not a member.
Followed European Union practice, although was not a member. In 2016, Turkey joined the UTC + 3 timezone.
Year - round Summer Time (BST) + Double Summer Time (BDST) 1940 -- 1945. Two - stage Double Summer Time (BDST) 1947. Year - round Summer Time (BST) 1968 -- 1971.
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belt for a sword with a similar name to a blackadder character | Baldric - wikipedia
A baldric (also baldrick, bawdrick, bauldrick as well as other rare or obsolete variations) is a belt worn over one shoulder that is typically used to carry a weapon (usually a sword) or other implement such as a bugle or drum. The word may also refer to any belt in general, but this usage is poetic or archaic.
Baldrics have been used since ancient times, usually as part of military dress. The early Islamic Arabs wore baldrics with their armor. The design offers more support for weight than a standard waist belt, without restricting movement of the arms, and while allowing easy access to the object carried. For example, the late 18th - century British Army 's distinctive "Red coat '' uniform pattern featured a pair of white baldrics crossed at the chest, with a soldier 's bayonet sheath suspended from one and his canteen suspended from the other. Alternatively, and especially in modern times, the baldric may fill a ceremonial role rather than a practical one.
During ancient Roman times the balteus (plural baltei) was a type of baldric commonly used to suspend a sword. It was a belt generally worn over the shoulder, passing obliquely down to the side, typically made of leather, often ornamented with precious stones, metals or both. There was also a similar belt worn by the Romans, particularly by soldiers, called a cintus (pl. cinti) that fastened around the waist. The word accintus meaning a soldier (literally, "girt '' as for battle) attests to this differing usage.
Many non-military or paramilitary organisations include baldrics as part of ceremonial dress. The Knights of Columbus 4th Degree Colour Corps uses a baldric as part of their uniform; it supports a ceremonial sword.
The University of Illinois Marching Illini wore two baldrics as a part of their uniform until 2009, with one over each shoulder. They crossed in the front and back and were buttoned onto the jacket beneath a cape and epaulets. Today, the current Marching Illini wears one baldric with two sides: ILLINI is on one side and the traditional orange and white baldric from the previous uniform.
A crossed pair of baldrics is often worn as part of uniform of Morris dance sides; different colours of baldric help to distinguish different sides.
The baldric appears in the literary canon. Britomart, in Edmund Spenser 's Faerie Queene, clothes herself in a borrowed armour "with brave bauldrick garnished '' before embarking on her quest (Book III, canto iii). Benedick, from William Shakespeare 's Much Ado About Nothing, says "But that I will have a recheat winded in my forehead or hang my bugle in an invisible baldric all women shall pardon me. '' A baldric features prominently in Chapter 4 of Alexandre Dumas 's The Three Musketeers. The yeoman in Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales is described as wearing a "baldrick of bright green. '' The baldric of Pallas plays a key part in the Aeneid, leading Aeneas to kill Turnus. In The Fellowship of the Ring, Boromir is described: "On a baldric he wore a great horn tipped with silver that now was laid upon his knees. '' In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Gawain returns from his battle with the Green Knight wearing the green girdle "obliquely, like a baldric, bound at his side, / below his left shoulder, laced in a knot, in betokening the blame he had borne for his fault. ''
Some Klingons wear baldrics in Star Trek, such as Kor, Koloth, Kang or Worf although sometimes they are referred to as a sash. The character Worf does so in almost every one of his appearances through two series and four films. In The Next Generation episode "Conundrum '', Worf, due to amnesia, mistakenly believes that the baldric indicates his rank or authority, so he briefly assumes command of the Enterprise.
Baldrick is a character in the BBC comedy series Blackadder played by Tony Robinson.
A baldrick is also mentioned in the epic poem by Alfred, Lord Tennyson; The Lady of Shallot; in the tenth stanza: ' And from his blazon 'd baldric slung, A mighty silver bugle hung '
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who sings the song na na na goodbye | Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye - wikipedia
"Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye '' is a song written and recorded by Paul Leka, Gary DeCarlo and Dale Frashuer, attributed to a then - fictitious band they named "Steam ''. It was released under the Mercury subsidiary label Fontana and became a number one pop single on the Billboard Hot 100 in late 1969, and remained on the charts in early 1970. In 1977, Chicago White Sox organist Nancy Faust began playing the song when White Sox sluggers knocked out the opposing pitcher. The fans would sing and a sports ritual was born. The song 's chorus remains well - known, and is still frequently used as a crowd chant at many sporting events. It is generally directed at the losing side in an elimination contest when the outcome is all but certain or when an individual player is ejected or disqualified. It has also been observed by crowds in political rallies to drown out and mock disruptive protesters who are being escorted out by security.
Paul Leka, Gary DeCarlo and Dale Frashuer wrote a blues shuffle version of the song in the early 1960s when they were members of a doo - wop group from Bridgeport, Connecticut, called the Glenwoods, the Citations, and the Chateaus, of which Leka was the piano player. The group disbanded when Leka talked Frashuer into going into New York City with him to write and possibly produce. In 1968, DeCarlo recorded four songs at Mercury Records in New York with Leka as producer. The singles impressed the company 's executives, who wanted to issue all of them as A-side singles. In need of a B - side, Leka and DeCarlo resurrected an old song from their days as the Glenwoods, "Kiss Him Goodbye '', with their old bandmate, Frashuer.
With DeCarlo as lead vocalist, they recorded the song in one recording session. Instead of using a full band, Leka played keyboards himself and had engineer Warren Dewey splice together a drum track from one of DeCarlo 's four singles and a conga drum solo by Ange DiGeronimo recorded in Mr. Leka 's Bridgeport, Conn. studio for an entirely different session. "I said we should put a chorus to it (to make it longer) '', Leka told Fred Bronson in The Billboard Book of Number One Hits. "I started writing while I was sitting at the piano going ' na, na, na, na, na, na, na, na '... Everything was ' na na ' when you did n't have a lyric. '' Gary added "hey hey ''. The group that is seen on the album cover and in the old black and white video was a road group that had nothing to do with the recording. The road group was lip syncing to DeCarlo 's vocal in the video.
"Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye '' reached number one in the United States for two weeks, on December 6 and 13, 1969; it was Billboard 's final multi-week number 1 hit of the 1960s and also peaked at number twenty on the soul chart. In Canada, the song reached number six. By the beginning of the 21st century, sales of "Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye '' had exceeded 6.5 million records, attaining gold record status.
The Supremes included a cover of the song on their 1970 album New Ways but Love Stays.
The Belmonts recorded an acappella version, which can be found as a track on their 1972 album Cigars, Acappella, Candy.
Dave Clark & Friends released the song in October 1973 under the title "Sha - Na - Na - Na (Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye) '' (EMI 2082), but the single did n't chart.
In 1987, Canadian quartet The Nylons released an a cappella version of this song as a single under the shortened title "Kiss Him Goodbye ''. It became their biggest hit on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number twelve that summer.
The Donna Summer compilation album Gold (a 1995 release exclusively for the Netherlands) contains a 3: 42 disco cover of the song.
In 2014 the Norwegian artist Adelén used the chorus line of the song on her World Cup song "Olé. '' The song was one of the tracks on the One Love, One Rhythm - The 2014 FIFA World Cup Official Album. The song peaked at number # 3 in Norway.
The song "Chillin '' by rapper Wale featuring singer Lady Gaga samples the chorus.
"Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye '' bears a resemblance to the coda of the 1968 Beatles ' "Na Na Hey Jude ''.
In February 1983, UK girl group Bananarama released the song as a single from their album Deep Sea Skiving. This version became a top ten hit in the United Kingdom (# 5), but only a minor hit in the US (Billboard # 101) later that year.
This was the fifth single released from their first album in 1983. It peaked at number five in the UK singles chart, and number 38 in Australia on the Kent Music Report chart.
UK: London Records NANA 4; USA: London Records 810 115 - 7
London Records NANX 4
The music video features the band playing in a school playground and then being made to move by a group of lads. They then decide to join a boxing club so the video features them singing the song whilst boxing. By the end of the video they return to the playground wearing leathers and this time make the group of lads move away. They then ride off into the night on motorbikes.
The song is sang acapella by the crowd in hockey games in Canada (specially in Montreal) by the end of games in order to say goodbye to the losing team.
On January 23, 2006, Paul Martin was defeated by Stephen Harper as Prime Minister of Canada. Martin had acceded to the prime ministry following the ouster of Jean Chrétien. The next day 's issue of La Voix de l'Est, a French newspaper in Granby, Quebec, included a cartoon by Paquette showing Chrétien calling Martin and singing Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye. This cartoon demonstrates that the impact of the song did not stop at the U.S. border, and its impact also went beyond the English - speaking world.
At the 2009 and 2017 Presidential Inaugurations, some audiences were chanting ' Na na na na ' to the departing Presidents, respectively George W. Bush and Barack Obama.
On May 4, 2017, after the House of Representatives voted to pass the American Health Care Act which partially repealed Obamacare, Democratic representatives chanted "Na na na na, hey hey, goodbye '' to Republican representatives, implying that in voting for the bill, they would lose their House seats in the next election. DeCarlo was happy to hear of the song getting renewed exposure, but said he opposed Obamacare. It was not the first time the song had been sung in Congress; in 1993, after Democrats voted for then - President Bill Clinton 's tax bill, House Republicans sung "Goodbye ''.
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when does o'malley die in grey's anatomy | George O'Malley - wikipedia
Louise O'Malley (mother)
George O'Malley is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy, which airs on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States. The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes, and was portrayed by actor T.R. Knight from 2005 to 2009. Introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, O'Malley worked his way up to resident level, while his relationships with his colleagues Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl) and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) formed a focal point of the series. O'Malley married Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) whom he later separated with to pursue a relationship with Izzie Stevens. O'Malley also had entertained a romantic interest with Meredith Grey and Olivia Harper (Sarah Utterback).
Knight auditioned for the show, expecting a one - season run. In 2007, Knight 's co-star Isaiah Washington (Preston Burke) insulted him with a homophobic slur, which resulted in the termination of Washington 's Grey 's Anatomy contract. In 2009, after the conclusion of the fifth season, it was confirmed that Knight would not be returning for the show 's sixth season. The actor stated the reason for his departure was due to a "breakdown in communication '' with Rhimes, his character 's lack of screen time, as well as his decision to come out as openly gay. Knight received generally positive reviews for his performance as O'Malley, and garnered a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards. Despite this, his death received mixed feedback.
George O'Malley is introduced as a fellow surgical intern to Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl) and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers); the five of them working under Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson). O'Malley and Stevens move in with Meredith, for whom he has romantic feelings but did not express them due to his fear of rejection and the fact that she and one of the attendings Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) had a mutual interest in one another. On the first day of internship, O'Malley is selected by chief of cardiothoracic surgery Preston Burke (Isaiah Washington) as the first intern to perform surgery. He freezes in the operating room, and is mocked by his peers, and earns the nickname "007 '' because of almost killing a patient in such a simple operation (referring to James Bond 's "licence to kill ''). O'Malley dates nurse Olivia Harper (Sarah Utterback), breaking up with her when he contracts syphilis from her, which she in turn contracted from Karev. His friendship with Karev is further strained when the two become trapped in an elevator with a patient who begins to bleed out. Karev freezes, and O'Malley is able to save the patient single - handedly. He goes on to admit his feelings to Meredith, and the two have a one - night stand. When Meredith tells him that sleeping together was a mistake, O'Malley begins avoiding her and starts dating orthopedic surgeon Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez).
During a camping trip, O'Malley learns that Torres has slept with chief of plastic surgery Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), and also discovers that Burke is experiencing tremors in his hand. When O'Malley's father is diagnosed with esophageal cancer and a leaking aortic valve, he refuses to allow Burke to operate on him, instead contacting Erica Hahn (Brooke Smith), Burke 's medical school rival. His relationship with Torres is strained when he confronts her about sleeping with Sloan, but he allows her to support him through his father 's deteriorating health. Complications from his father 's surgery leave him in multi-system organ failure, and his life support is turned off. In an attempt to overcome his grief, O'Malley elopes with Callie to Las Vegas. He later begins to feel that he was mistaken to marry her, and sleeps with Stevens while intoxicated. Stevens confesses that she is in love with him, so O'Malley considers transferring to a different hospital so he can be faithful to his wife. However, he is ineligible to transfer after failing the intern exams. O'Malley decides to repeat his intern year, and confesses to Torres that he slept with Stevens, leading the two to separate. O'Malley and Stevens embark on a short - lived relationship, only to discover there is no real chemistry between them.
O'Malley moves in with new intern Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh), Meredith 's half - sister. Lexie and O'Malley discover that he only failed his exam by a single point, leading him to confront Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.), the chief of surgery, to ask for a chance to retake the exam. He passes the second attempt, and begins to distance himself from Lexie, who has fallen in love with him. O'Malley supports Stevens when she discovers she has melanoma, and walks her down the aisle as she marries Karev. O'Malley begins to display a talent for trauma surgery, and is told by the chief of trauma surgery Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) that it is definitely his specialty. He then abruptly and inexplicably decides to join the U.S. Army. While his friends at the hospital prepare an intervention to convince O'Malley to stay, they all work on a severely disfigured John Doe, brought in after a horrible bus accident, in which he pushed a woman out of the way and saved her life. When Meredith goes to check on John Doe, he seems to recognize her and will not let go of her hand. After several attempts at trying, he succeeds in tracing "007 '' on Meredith 's hand. Shocked, she realizes "John Doe '' is in fact O'Malley. She informs the other surgeons and they rush him to surgery. However, he flatlines and is ultimately declared braindead. His organs are donated after Stevens confirms that is what O'Malley would have wanted, and he is buried a week later.
T.R. Knight signed on for the pilot as O'Malley, expecting that the role might be short - lived, because he liked that the character was multi-faceted. In October 2006, news reports surfaced that Washington had insulted Knight with a homophobic slur, during an argument with Patrick Dempsey (Derek Shepherd). Shortly after, the details of the argument became public, and Knight later disclosed that the slur made him come out as gay. "I was under no delusions, '' Knight said at the time. "My friends on the set knew. We talked about it. Publicly it 's not my thing to call up People magazine and be like, ' Hey, you want to know something about me? '... I could 've just let it slide and not said anything, but it became important. It became important to make the statement. '' The situation seemed somewhat resolved when Washington issued a statement, apologizing for his "unfortunate use of words during the recent incident on - set ''.
At the 64th Golden Globe Awards, while being interviewed on the red carpet, Washington joked, "I love gay. I wanted to be gay. Please let me be gay. '' Later, Washington claimed he never used the slur, labeling it "vile ''. In June 2007, it was reported that the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) and Shonda Rhimes had chosen not to renew Washington 's contract with the show, not immediately specifying a reason. In a subsequent interview, Washington claimed that "they fired the wrong guy '' (referring to Knight), and said he was considering filing a lawsuit as a result. He accused Knight of using the controversy to bolster his own career and increase his salary on Grey 's Anatomy.
On July 2, 2007, Washington appeared on Larry King Live, to present his side of the controversy. According to Washington, he never used the "F Word '' in reference to Knight, but rather blurted it out in an unrelated context in the course of an argument "provoked '' by Dempsey, who he felt was treating him like a "B - word '', a "P - word '', and the "F - word '', which Washington said conveyed "somebody who is being weak and afraid to fight back ''. In 2009, Rhimes told Entertainment Weekly that she may not have handled the incident correctly, stating: "I was n't interested in what anybody thought publicly. I was interested in what was going on right here on the ground... with the people I work with every day. Did I do it perfectly? Of course not. This is my first television show. It was a learning experience. '' Knight said that Rhimes was among those for discouraging him to come out, however Rhimes said: "I remember saying (to fellow executive producer), ' This is our proudest day here. T.R. got to come out and I got to say to him that it would n't affect his character ' because he was concerned he was going to come out and George would suddenly be gay. (...) The idea that a gay actor ca n't play a straight man is insulting. ''
In December 2008, reports speculated that Knight requested to be released from his contract and that "they were working out the details '' at that time. In June 2009, after the conclusion of the fifth season of Grey 's Anatomy, it was confirmed that Knight would not be returning for the show 's sixth season. The actor stated the reason for his departure was due to a "breakdown in communication '' with Rhimes, O'Malley's lack of screen time, as well as his decision to be openly gay. Prior to the official announcement of his departure, there was speculation that the role of O'Malley would be recast, but Rhimes labeled it as a "hilarious, ridiculous rumor ''. After the confirmation of his exit, Knight told TV Guide: "Leaving Grey 's Anatomy was not an easy decision for me to make. I am extremely grateful to have had the opportunity to play this character and will miss my fellow cast and crew very much. I continue to wish them the very best, and wholeheartedly thank all of the fans who have supported me and the show with such passion and enthusiasm. '' In a statement confirming Knight 's departure, Rhimes said: "I think I speak for the entire Grey 's Anatomy family when I say we wish T.R. Knight the best in his future endeavors. He is an incredibly talented actor and a person whose strength of character is admired by all of us. ''
In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Rhimes said she tried to talk him out of quitting, explaining: "I looked in his face and he was really sure. It felt like the right thing for him. '' However, in another interview, Knight said of his exit: "My five - year experience proved to me that I could not trust any answer that was given (about O'Malley). '' Knight was "at peace '' with his departure, saying: "There just comes a time when it 's so clear that moving on is the best decision. '' However, Heigl tried to talk Knight out of leaving, saying: "I did n't think it was the right decision. I felt like some of the problems could be worked through. But by the time it came to fruition, I was (glad) for him because he was ready to go. '' On the topic of losing a US $14 million contract, Knight commented: "From an outsider 's perspective, I get the (impression that) ' He 's just a spoiled actor, he does n't know how good he has it. ' There are a lot of people who would like to be in my position. But in the end, I need to be fulfilled in my work. ''
O'Malley was characterized a "hapless naif ''. On the topic of O'Malley's longtime crush on Meredith in the second season, Knight said: "What 's going to be very interesting to see is what he 's going to do with Meredith. It 's getting close to time. Whatever he chooses to do will inform who he is the rest of his life. '' After their sexual encounter occurred onscreen, Knight said in an interview with Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune: "George was n't really paying full attention. He was letting his own feelings override his respect for Meredith. A person really clued in would get that there was n't anything coming back, but he was so in his head about it and caught up in his own feelings that he was n't listening. It 's not just that he loves her... it 's a kind of selfish love he had for her. '' He also added that, "I think George has a lot of growing up to do. Part of that is making horrible, stupid mistakes. He 's been pretty sheltered. ''
Series writer Stacy McKee said of the sexual encounter: "There 's no turning back. There 's nothing George and Meredith can do. The damage is done -- things will never be the same. They 've just changed something important in their lives forever. '' When asked if O'Malley was becoming more assertive, Knight said:
Knight also commented that the character does not appreciate himself and his positive traits. On the topic of O'Malley performing open heart surgery in an elevator, Knight said: "It 's a slow change but he 's starting to realize, ' The way I have been doing things is not working. ' The big thing about the open - heart surgery in the elevator was he was forced into it. He needs to be kind of kicked in the (butt) to do these things. ''
Knight felt a parallel to George in that his "confidence is n't always at its absolute highest '', but overall he sees more differences than similarities. However, when the actor starts to think he is so different from O'Malley, an awkward move can suggest otherwise. "I was walking, doing a scene with Katherine Heigl. I finished my line with her, and then I walked straight into the light stand. '' Critical of her affair with O'Malley, Knight 's co-star Heigl explained: "They really hurt somebody, and they did n't seem to be taking a lot of responsibility for it. I have a really hard time with that kind of thing. I 'm maybe a little too black and white about it. '' Speaking of O'Malley's relationship with Lexie, Rhimes offered her insight: "I love them as friends. They make good friends. We all have that friend we met in school or the gym or somewhere -- we just hit it off right away. And right away there was no pretense or airs. Just pure honesty. That 's Lexie and George. They 're really good friends and I can see the friendship evolving into something even greater. '' When asked what his "favorite George moment '' was, Knight said his relationships with Stevens and Bailey.
Fans were "widely against '' O'Malley's affair with Meredith in the second season, however certain fans who supported their relationship were critical when Torres was introduced as a love interest for him. Fans and critics were also against O'Malley's relationship with Stevens in the fourth season; Maclean 's said: "George must die. He 's slept with virtually everyone except the male cast and has been in love with virtually everyone except the male cast. And he 's not that great of a doctor. Evolve or die. '' Christopher Monfette of IGN said O'Malley and Stevens were a "mismatch '', adding: "Unfortunately, while it 's refreshing to see a plotline driven by activity versus apathy, the idea of these two ever - affable, best - friend characters suddenly discovering their potential, out - of - nowhere love for each other quickly feels both force - fed and emotionally - incorrect. '' Similarly, DVD Verdict stated that George and Izzie were "one of the strongest ' best friend ' vibes on television '' for the first three seasons, explaining "they were perfect as friends (while) George and Callie made a good couple. '' UGO.com put the two on their list of "Character Couples Who Should Have Never Happened ''.
Jennifer Armstrong of Entertainment Weekly said that when O'Malley told Torres about his affair with Stevens, the scene was too "melodramatic ''. Laura Burrows, also of IGN, said that the fourth - season premiere "introduced a new side of George ''. Armstrong said of O'Malley and Stevens ' reconciliation: "George and Izzie are finally on the old Grey 's Anatomy road to ruin. And I admit this is a good lesson in Grey 's viewing as well as life: Sit tight if you hate something, as nothing is permanent. '' Armstrong also commented that the "sparkling '' friendship development between Lexie and O'Malley "won her over ''. The following year, Monfette observed of O'Malley's lack of screen time: "His growing interest in trauma surgery at the side of Owen leads to an interesting development in the finale, but the character is virtually side - lined this season. '' Carina MacKenzie of the Los Angeles Times said of the character 's death: "The time - lapse episode was an interesting choice, and though we sped through six weeks of mourning in two hours, it did n't feel rushed to me. I 'm not sure the show could have held my attention for another season of crippling sadness. ''
The Huffington Post 's Michael Pascua commented that O'Malley's funeral did not live up to his expectations, writing that it "was n't as sad as (he) thought it would be ''. In 2006, Knight and the other cast of Grey 's Anatomy were nominated for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series, at the 12th Screen Actors Guild Awards. Also in 2006, the cast won the award for Best Cast -- Television Series at the 11th Satellite Awards. The cast won the award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series at the 13th Screen Actors Guild Awards, and were nominated again the following year. Knight 's performance in season three earned him a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards.
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what was the number one song on august 24 2002 | List of Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles of 2002 - wikipedia
The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best - performing singles of the United States. Published by Billboard magazine, the data are compiled by Nielsen SoundScan based collectively on each single 's weekly physical sales and airplay. In 2002, there were seven singles that topped the chart, the lowest number of singles to top the chart in a single year ever (if the two songs which peaked in 2001 are included, 2002 would have the second lowest number of chart - topping singles in a year, behind 2005). Although nine singles reached number one in fifty - two issues of the magazine in the calendar year, two songs began their peak position in 2001 and are thus excluded.
In 2002, five acts earned their first U.S. number one single, either as a lead artist or featured guest. Singer Ashanti was the first act to achieve the feat with rapper Ja Rule 's "Always on Time ''. She later scored her first number - one single as a lead artist with "Foolish ''. Singer Kelly Rowland, then - member of the girl group Destiny 's Child, earned her first number - one solo single with "Dilemma '', a song by rapper Nelly, who received his first number - one with "Hot in Herre '' during this year. The ascent of "Lose Yourself '' to number one gave rapper Eminem his first chart - topping single since he began releasing albums in 1999. Kelly Clarkson gained her first number - one single with "A Moment Like This ''. Clarkson and Ashanti were the only acts to have topped the chart this year with a debut single. In 2002, Ja Rule, Ashanti, and Nelly had two number - one singles in the Billboard Hot 100.
Most of the number - one singles in 2002 were extended chart - toppers. "Lose Yourself '' is the longest - running single, topping the Billboard Hot 100 for 12 consecutive weeks, eight of which were in this calendar year. "Foolish '' and "Dilemma '' both stayed at number one for 10 weeks, the latter of which was non-consecutive. "Ai n't It Funny '' by Jennifer Lopez peaked at number one for seven weeks.
Rock band Nickelback 's "How You Remind Me '', which first peaked at number one in 2001, is the best - performing single of 2002. "Lose Yourself '', which is the soundtrack to the 2002 film 8 Mile, is the second most - successful soundtrack song in the entire rock era. It is behind Whitney Houston 's version of "I Will Always Love You '', having topped the chart for 14 weeks. "Lose Yourself '' is also the longest - running Oscar - winning number - one song since singer - actor Bing Crosby 's "White Christmas '' had 14 weeks on top in the 1940s. "A Moment Like This '' is noted for its fifty - two - to - one leap in 2002, breaking the 38 - year - old record set by The Beatles ' "Ca n't Buy Me Love '', which jumped from number twenty - seven to one.
Nelly became the first act to have consecutive number - one singles since 1995, when Boyz II Men had consecutive number - ones.
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the first time the united states enacted a temporary income tax was | Legal history of income tax in the United States - wikipedia
Taxation of income in the United States has been practised since colonial times. Some southern states imposed their own taxes on income from property, both before and after Independence. The Constitution empowered the federal government to raise taxes at a uniform rate throughout the nation, and required that "direct taxes '' be imposed only in proportion to the Census population of each state. Federal income tax was first introduced under the Revenue Act of 1861 to help pay for the Civil War. It was renewed in later years and reformed in 1894 in the form of the Wilson - Gorman tariff.
Legal challenges centered on whether the income tax then in force constituted a "direct tax ''. In the Springer v. United States case of 1881, the Supreme Court upheld the tax regime then in force. An 1894 statute was ruled unconstitutional in the case of Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan and Trust Company. In response, the Sixteenth Amendment, proposed in 1909 and becoming law in 1913, cancelled the "apportionment '' requirement for income taxes. Federal income tax was thereupon reintroduced in the Revenue Act of 1913. In the case of Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Company (1916), the 1913 Act was ruled to be constitutional. A separate excise tax was also imposed on corporations.
Subsequent legal actions were concerned with what should be counted as "income '' under the 1913 Act. In Eisner v. Macomber (1920), the Supreme Court ruled that proportionate stock dividends were not taxable as income, on the grounds that the dividend income was not "severable '' from the capital holding from which it was derived. Later decisions, however, have tended to limit this view of "severability, '' and to uphold the federal statutes as exertions of the power of Congress to tax.
The first attempt to tax income in the United States was in 1643 when several colonies instituted a "faculties and abilities '' tax. Tax collectors would literally go door to door and ask if the individual had income during the year. If so, the tax was computed on the spot. The income tax raised little revenue, and was viewed as a supplement to more traditional forms of property taxation.
Article I, Section 8, Clause 1 of the United States Constitution (the "Taxing and Spending Clause ''), specifies Congress 's power to impose "Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, '' but Article I, Section 8 requires that, "Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States. ''
In addition, the Constitution specifically limited Congress ' ability to impose direct taxes, by requiring that direct taxes be imposed in proportion to each state 's census population. It was thought that head taxes and property taxes (slaves could be taxed as either or both) were likely to be abused, and that they bore no relation to the activities in which the federal government had a legitimate interest. The fourth clause of section 9 therefore specifies that, "No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. ''
Taxation was also the subject of Federalist No. 33 penned secretly by the Federalist Alexander Hamilton under the pseudonym Publius. In it, he explains that the wording of the "Necessary and Proper '' clause should serve as guidelines for the legislation of laws regarding taxation. The legislative branch is to be the judge, but any abuse of those powers of judging can be overturned by the people, whether as states or as a larger group.
In the early 18th century and well into the 19th century, a number of the southern colonies and states adopted an income tax modeled on the tax instituted in England. The British theory was that you tax the income from property, and not the property itself; thus, sales of property were not subject to taxation.
In order to help pay for its war effort in the American Civil War, the United States government imposed its first personal income tax, on August 5, 1861, as part of the Revenue Act of 1861. Tax rates were 3 % on income exceeding $600 and less than $10,000, and 5 % on income exceeding $10,000. This tax was repealed and replaced by another income tax in the Revenue Act of 1862.
After the war when the need for federal revenues decreased, Congress (in the Revenue Act of 1870) let the tax law expire in 1873. However, one of the challenges to the validity of this tax reached the United States Supreme Court in 1880. In Springer v. United States, the taxpayer contended that the income tax on his professional earnings and interest income on bonds violated the "direct tax '' requirement of the Constitution. The Supreme Court concluded that the tax of which Mr. Springer complained (i.e. a tax on professional earnings and on interest from bonds) was within the category of an excise or duty, and was neither a capitation tax (based on population) nor a property tax. The court also concluded that direct taxes, within the meaning of the Constitution, were only capitation taxes and taxes on real estate.
In 1894, a Democratic - led Congress passed the Wilson - Gorman tariff. This imposed the first peacetime income tax. The rate was 2 % on income over $4000, which meant fewer than 10 % of households would pay any. The purpose of the income tax was to make up for revenue that would be lost by tariff reductions. This was a controversial provision, and the law actually passed without the signature of President Grover Cleveland.
Once again, a taxpayer challenged the legality of the income tax. In Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan and Trust Company (1895), Charles Pollock sued the corporation in which he owned stock, contending that the corporation should never have paid the income tax because the tax was unconstitutional. In this case, the tax was paid on income from land. Pollock argued that since a tax on real estate is a direct tax, a tax on the income from such property should be a direct tax as well. Because the Constitution prohibited a "direct tax '' unless the tax is apportioned, Pollock argued that the unapportioned income tax should be declared unconstitutional. The "direct tax '' argument had also been used by Springer in 1880, but now the Court focused more closely on the wording in the Constitution. The provisions were Article I, Section 8, Clause 1, which provides that "all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States '' and Article I, Section 9, Clause 4, which provides: "No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken.
In effect, the latter clause required any direct tax to be based on a census. For example, if the government desired to raise $10 million and New York had 20 % of the total U.S. population at that time, then New York would be required to raise $2 million. If New York had 1 million residents, each resident would owe $2 in taxes. Obviously, a tax based on income could not achieve such proportionality, since incomes differed across individuals.
This time, the Court stated that "although there have been, from time to time, intimations that there might be some tax which was not a direct tax, nor included under the words ' duties, imposts, and excises, ' such a tax, for more than 100 years of national existence, has as yet remained undiscovered, notwithstanding the stress of particular circumstances has invited thorough investigation into sources of revenue. '' In other words, the federal taxing power consists of four categories: direct taxes, duties, imposts and excises (with the latter three categories sometimes called simply "indirect taxes '').
In a 5 - 4 decision on April 8, 1895, the Court ruled that the unapportioned income tax on income from land was unconstitutional. On May 20, 1895, the Court expanded its holding to rule that the unapportioned income tax on income from personal property (such as interest income and dividend income) was also unconstitutional. This decision partially overturned the ruling in Springer v. United States.
The Court held that taxes on the rents or income of real estate, on personal property, or on the income of personal property (e.g. interest and dividends), were direct taxes within the meaning of the Constitution, and therefore had to be apportioned. In Springer, the Court had held that direct taxes within the meaning of the Constitution were only capitation taxes and taxes on real estate. Therefore in Pollock, the Court overruled a portion of the Springer decision by expanding the definition of direct taxes. The portion of the Springer decision that was not overruled by the Court in Pollock was the portion of the holding that applied to taxes on professional earnings. Since apportionment of income taxes is impractical, the Court 's decision had the effect of prohibiting a federal tax on income from property. The power to tax real and personal property, or that such was a direct tax, was not denied by the Constitution. Due to the political difficulties of taxing individual wages without taxing income from property, a federal income tax was impractical from the time of the Pollock decision until the time of ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment (below).
Thus, the 1894 tax law was ruled unconstitutional and was effectively repealed.
In 1909, fifteen years after Pollock, Congress took two actions to deal with their increasing revenue needs.
1. Corporate excise tax. First, Congress passed a corporate excise tax. The amount of the excise was set at 1 % of each corporation 's income exceeding $5,000. In 1911, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld this corporate excise as constitutional in Flint v. Stone Tracy Company, in which the court ruled that the tax was an excise upon the privilege of doing business in corporate form.
2. Sixteenth Amendment. More importantly, in 1909 Congress proposed the Sixteenth Amendment. This amendment reads as follows:
The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.
By February 1913, the required three - fourths of the states ratified the Sixteenth Amendment, thus adding the amendment to the constitution.
Later that year, Congress enacted the Revenue Act of 1913. The tax ranged from 1 % on income exceeding $3,000 to 7 % on incomes exceeding $500,000.
Subsequently, the U.S. Supreme Court in 1916 upheld the constitutionality of the Revenue Act of 1913 in the case of Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Company, 240 U.S. 1 (1916). The Court held that the Act was constitutional based on the following: 1) there was power by virtue of the Sixteenth Amendment to levy the tax without apportionment; 2) the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment is not a limitation upon Congress 's taxing power; and 3) the statute did not violate the uniformity clause of Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution.
The term "income '' is not defined in the Internal Revenue Code. The closest that Congress comes to defining income is found in the definition of "gross income '' in Internal Revenue Code section 61, which is largely unchanged from its predecessor, the original Section 22 (a) definition of income in the Revenue Act of 1913:
One of the earliest attempts to define income occurred in the case of Eisner v. Macomber, in which the U.S. Supreme Court addressed the taxability of a proportionate stock dividend (as opposed to a monetary or cash dividend on stock). This case provided the Court with a forum to try to interpret exactly what Congress intended to include in the sparse Section 22 definition of "income. '' This was not the first time the Court had addressed the issue: the case had been argued in the previous term of the Court, and was being reargued with additional oral and written briefs.
The Court stated that it needed to examine the boundaries of the definition of income for several reasons. First, the Revenue Act of 1916 expressly stated that a "stock dividend shall be considered income, to the amount of the cash value. '' In a previous case, Towne v. Eisner, the Court had ruled, however, that a stock dividend made in 1914 against surplus earned prior to January 1, 1913 was not taxable under the Act of October 3, 1913, which provided that net income included "dividends. '' The district court in that case had noted that: "It is manifest that the stock dividend in question can not be reached by the Income Tax Act, and could not, even though Congress expressly declared it to be taxable as income, unless it is in fact income. '' The Court had held, however, that the stock dividend was the equivalent of income. The Supreme Court in Towne v. Eisner then reversed the lower court, finding that the dividend was not income because the "proportional interest of each shareholder remains the same... and the stockholder is no richer than they were before. ''
As a result, the Court decided in Eisner v. Macomber to address the larger constitutional question of whether or not a stock dividend was gross income within the meaning of "income '' as used in the Sixteenth Amendment. As noted by the Court:
As a starting point, the Court defined income succinctly by reference to the dictionary and to two earlier cases as follows: "Income may be defined as the gain derived from capital, from labor, or from both combined, provided it be understood to include profit gained through a sale or conversion of capital assets. '' The Court then went into a lengthy explanation as to how this definition applies to a stock dividend. In the end, the Court decided that the stock dividend was not taxable, because it was merely a book adjustment and was not "severable '' from the underlying stock. In other words, income would not be realized until the stock itself was sold.
A number of commentators contended that the Court in Eisner v. Macomber had gone too far in overturning a statute taxing stock dividends (the 1916 Act) that many perceived as being fair and equitable. Henry Simons, a noted tax scholar of the time, in his treatise, observed the following:
Despite this criticism, a number of decisions subsequent to Eisner v. Macomber relied on this simplistic definition of income. This in turn led to the question of whether or not this formulation was an "exclusive '' definition of income, with any income not clearly covered by its terms deemed to be nontaxable.
In Hawkins v. Commissioner, the Internal Revenue Service argued that compensatory damages received by the taxpayer by way of settlement of a suit for injury to personal reputation and health caused by defamatory statements constituting libel or slander were taxable. While noting that "there may be cases in which taxable income will be judicially found although outside the precise scope of the description already given, '' the Board of Tax Appeals concluded that such damages would not be taxable. The Board noted that the injury was "wholly personal and nonpecuniary, '' and that the remedy simply attempts to make the individual whole. Thus, even though the payment was "severable '' and lead to a demonstrable increase in net wealth, the Board nonetheless concluded that the payment was not income.
Other commentators noted that if "severability '' were to be considered a touchstone for the definition of income, it followed that a number of sales or exchanges of property that did not involve immediate realization through severance would not be taxable. Realizing that the "one size fits all '' definition of income in Eisner v. Macomber was too broad, the U.S. Supreme Court reconsidered the idea of severability in Helvering v. Bruun. In this case, the Court addressed the question of whether or not a lessor recognizes income from the receipt of a leasehold improvement made by a lessee during the lease when the improvement reverts to the lessor at the end of the lease. In ruling that the value of the improvement was taxable, the Court noted that not every gain need be realized in cash to be taxable. There was a clear increase in the taxpayer 's wealth, and this increase did not have to be severed to recognize such increase as income for federal income tax purposes.
In subsequent cases, the U.S. Supreme Court distanced itself further from the Eisner v. Macomber definition of income and dependence of that definition on the concept of severability. For example, in Commissioner v. Glenshaw Glass Co., the Court ruled that punitive damages recovered under a violation of anti-trust laws were included in gross income, and that the language of Section 22 (now Internal Revenue Code Section 61) clearly showed the intent of Congress to exert "the full measure of its taxing power. '' In referencing its previous definition of income in Eisner v. Macomber, the Court noted that "in distinguishing gain from capital, the definition had served a useful purpose. But it was not meant to provide a touchstone to all future gross income questions. ''
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black shield in the nigeria coat of arm | Coat of arms of Nigeria - Wikipedia
The coat of arms of Nigeria has a black shield with two white lines that form in a "Y '' shape. The black shield represents Nigeria 's fertile soil, while the two horses or chargers on each side represent dignity. The eagle represents strength, while the green and white bands on the top of the shield represent the rich soil.
The red flowers at the base are Costus spectabilis, Nigeria 's national flower. This flower was chosen for inclusion in the coat of arms as it is found all over Nigeria and also stand for the beauty of the nation. The white wavy pall represents the Niger and the Benue. On the banderole around the base is Nigeria 's national motto since 1978: "Unity and Faith, Peace and Progress '' (formerly "Peace, Unity, Freedom '').
Sable a Pall wavy argent, supported by two horses Argent, and set for a crest on a wreath, Argent and Vert, an eagle displayed Gules.
Seal of the President
Seal of the Vice President
Seal of the House of Representatives
Seal of the Senate
Badge of the British West African Settlements
Badge of the Lagos Colony
Badge of the Oil Rivers Protectorate
Badge of the Niger Coast Protectorate
Badge of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate
Badge of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate
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the american mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency was | Frederick Winslow Taylor - wikipedia
Frederick Winslow Taylor (March 20, 1856 -- March 21, 1915) was an American mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency. He was one of the first management consultants. Taylor was one of the intellectual leaders of the Efficiency Movement and his ideas, broadly conceived, were highly influential in the Progressive Era (1890s - 1920s). Taylor summed up his efficiency techniques in his 1911 book The Principles of Scientific Management, which in 2001 Fellows of the Academy of Management voted the most influential management book of the twentieth century. His pioneering work in applying engineering principles to the work done on the factory floor was instrumental in the creation and development of the branch of engineering that is now known as industrial engineering. Taylor made his name in, and was most proud of his work in, scientific management; however, he made his fortune patenting steel - process improvements. Taylor was also an athlete who competed nationally in tennis and golf.
Taylor was born in 1856 to a Quaker family in Germantown, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Taylor 's father, Franklin Taylor, a Princeton - educated lawyer, built his wealth on mortgages. Taylor 's mother, Emily Annette Taylor (née Winslow), was an ardent abolitionist and a coworker with Lucretia Mott. His father 's ancestor, Samuel Taylor, settled in Burlington, New Jersey, in 1677. His mother 's ancestor, Edward Winslow, was one of the fifteen original Mayflower Pilgrims who brought servants or children, and one of eight who had the honorable distinction of Mister. Winslow served for many years as the Governor of the Plymouth colony.
Educated early by his mother, Taylor studied for two years in France and Germany and traveled Europe for 18 months. In 1872, he entered Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter, New Hampshire, with the plan of eventually going to Harvard and becoming a lawyer like his father. In 1874, Taylor passed the Harvard entrance examinations with honors. However, due allegedly to rapidly deteriorating eyesight, Taylor chose quite a different path.
Instead of attending Harvard University, Taylor became an apprentice patternmaker and machinist, gaining shop - floor experience at Enterprise Hydraulic Works in Philadelphia (a pump - manufacturing company whose proprietors were friends of the Taylor family). He left his apprenticeship for six months and represented a group of New England machine - tool manufacturers at Philadelphia 's centennial exposition. Taylor finished his four - year apprenticeship and in 1878 became a machine - shop laborer at Midvale Steel Works. At Midvale, he was quickly promoted to time clerk, journeyman machinist, gang boss over the lathe hands, machine shop foreman, research director, and finally chief engineer of the works (while maintaining his position as machine shop foreman). Taylor 's fast promotions reflected both his talent and his family 's relationship with Edward Clark, part owner of Midvale Steel. (Edward Clark 's son Clarence Clark, who was also a manager at Midvale Steel, married Taylor 's sister.)
Early on at Midvale, working as a laborer and machinist, Taylor recognized that workmen were not working their machines, or themselves, nearly as hard as they could (which at the time was called "soldiering '') and that this resulted in high labor costs for the company. When he became a foreman he expected more output from the workmen. In order to determine how much work should properly be expected, he began to study and analyze the productivity of both the men and the machines (although the word "productivity '' was not used at the time, and the applied science of productivity had not yet been developed). His focus on the human component of production Taylor labeled scientific management.
While Taylor worked at Midvale, he and Clarence Clark won the first tennis doubles tournament in the 1881 US National Championships, the precursor of the US Open. Taylor became a student of Stevens Institute of Technology, studying via correspondence and obtaining a degree in mechanical engineering in 1883. On May 3, 1884, he married Louise M. Spooner of Philadelphia.
From 1890 until 1893 Taylor worked as a general manager and a consulting engineer to management for the Manufacturing Investment Company of Philadelphia, a company that operated large paper mills in Maine and Wisconsin. He was a plant manager in Maine. In 1893, Taylor opened an independent consulting practice in Philadelphia. His business card read "Consulting Engineer - Systematizing Shop Management and Manufacturing Costs a Specialty ''. Through these consulting experiences, Taylor perfected his management system. His first paper, A Piece Rate System, was presented to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in June 1895.
In 1898 he joined Bethlehem Steel to solve an expensive machine - shop capacity problem. While at Bethlehem, his discovered the best known and most profitable of his many patents: between 1898 and 1900 Taylor and Maunsel White conducted comprehensive empirical tests, and concluded that tungsten cutting - steel doubled or quadrupled cutting speeds; the inventors received $100,000 (equivalent to $2.5 million today) for the English patents alone, although the U.S. patent was eventually nullified.
Taylor was forced to leave Bethlehem Steel in 1901 after discord with other managers. Now a wealthy man, Taylor focused the remainder of his career promoting his management and machining methods through lecturing, writing, and consulting. In 1910, owing to the Eastern Rate Case, Frederick Winslow Taylor and his Scientific Management methodologies become famous worldwide. In 1911, Taylor introduced his The Principles of Scientific Management paper to the ASME, eight years after his Shop Management paper.
On October 19, 1906, Taylor was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Science by the University of Pennsylvania. Taylor eventually became a professor at the Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth College. In early spring of 1915 Taylor caught pneumonia and died, one day after his fifty - ninth birthday, on March 21, 1915. He was buried in West Laurel Hill Cemetery, in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania.
Taylor was a mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency. Taylor is regarded as the father of scientific management, and was one of the first management consultants and director of a famous firm. In Peter Drucker 's description,
Frederick W. Taylor was the first man in recorded history who deemed work deserving of systematic observation and study. On Taylor 's ' scientific management ' rests, above all, the tremendous surge of affluence in the last seventy - five years which has lifted the working masses in the developed countries well above any level recorded before, even for the well - to - do. Taylor, though the Isaac Newton (or perhaps the Archimedes) of the science of work, laid only first foundations, however. Not much has been added to them since -- even though he has been dead all of sixty years.
Taylor 's scientific management consisted of four principles:
Future US Supreme Court justice Louis Brandeis coined the term scientific management in the course of his argument for the Eastern Rate Case before the Interstate Commerce Commission in 1910. Brandeis argued that railroads, when governed according to Taylor 's principles, did not need to raise rates to increase wages. Taylor used Brandeis 's term in the title of his monograph The Principles of Scientific Management, published in 1911. The Eastern Rate Case propelled Taylor 's ideas to the forefront of the management agenda. Taylor wrote to Brandeis "I have rarely seen a new movement started with such great momentum as you have given this one. '' Taylor 's approach is also often referred to as Taylor 's Principles, or, frequently disparagingly, as Taylorism.
Taylor had very precise ideas about how to introduce his system:
It is only through enforced standardization of methods, enforced adoption of the best implements and working conditions, and enforced cooperation that this faster work can be assured. And the duty of enforcing the adoption of standards and enforcing this cooperation rests with management alone.
Workers were to be selected appropriately for each task.
one of the very first requirements for a man who is fit to handle pig iron as a regular occupation is that he shall be so stupid and so phlegmatic that he more nearly resembles in his mental make - up the ox than any other type. The man who is mentally alert and intelligent is for this very reason entirely unsuited to what would, for him, be the grinding monotony of work of this character.
Taylor believed in transferring control from workers to management. He set out to increase the distinction between mental (planning work) and manual labor (executing work). Detailed plans, specifying the job and how it was to be done, were to be formulated by management and communicated to the workers.
The introduction of his system was often resented by workers and provoked numerous strikes. The strike at Watertown Arsenal led to the congressional investigation in 1912. Taylor believed the laborer was worthy of his hire, and pay was linked to productivity. His workers were able to earn substantially more than those under conventional management, and this earned him enemies among the owners of factories where scientific management was not in use.
Taylor promised to reconcile labor and capital.
With the triumph of scientific management, unions would have nothing left to do, and they would have been cleansed of their most evil feature: the restriction of output. To underscore this idea, Taylor fashioned the myth that ' there has never been a strike of men working under scientific management ', trying to give it credibility by constant repetition. In similar fashion he incessantly linked his proposals to shorter hours of work, without bothering to produce evidence of "Taylorized '' firms that reduced working hours, and he revised his famous tale of Schmidt carrying pig iron at Bethlehem Steel at least three times, obscuring some aspects of his study and stressing others, so that each successive version made Schmidt 's exertions more impressive, more voluntary and more rewarding to him than the last. Unlike (Harrington) Emerson, Taylor was not a charlatan, but his ideological message required the suppression of all evidence of worker 's dissent, of coercion, or of any human motives or aspirations other than those his vision of progress could encompass.
Debate about Taylor 's Bethlehem study of workers, particularly the stereotypical laborer named "Schmidt '' continues to this day. One 2009 study contributes evidence of the truth of the assertions Taylor made regarding the quite substantial increase in productivity, for even the most basic task of picking up, carrying and dropping pigs of iron.
Taylor thought that by analyzing work, the "one best way '' to do it would be found. He is most remembered for developing the stopwatch time study, which combined with Frank Gilbreth 's motion study methods, later became the field of time and motion study. He broke a job into its component parts and measured each to the hundredth of a minute. One of his most famous studies involved shovels. He noticed that workers used the same shovel for all materials. He determined that the most effective load was 211⁄2 lb, and found or designed shovels that for each material would scoop up that amount. He was generally unsuccessful in getting his concepts applied, and was dismissed from Bethlehem Iron Company / Bethlehem Steel Company. Nevertheless, Taylor was able to convince workers who used shovels and whose compensation was tied to how much they produced to adopt his advice about the optimum way to shovel by breaking the movements down into their component elements and recommending better ways to perform these movements. It was largely through the efforts of his disciples (most notably H.L. Gantt) that industry came to implement his ideas. Moreover, the book he wrote after parting company with the Bethlehem company, Shop Management, sold well.
Taylor 's own written works were designed for presentation to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). These include Notes on Belting (1894), A Piece - Rate System (1895), Shop Management (1903), Art of Cutting Metals (1906), and The Principles of Scientific Management (1911).
Taylor was president of the ASME from 1906 to 1907. While president, he tried to implement his system into the management of the ASME but was met with much resistance. He was only able to reorganize the publications department and then only partially. He also forced out the ASME 's long - time secretary, Morris L. Cooke, and replaced him with Calvin W. Rice. His tenure as president was trouble - ridden and marked the beginning of a period of internal dissension within the ASME during the Progressive Age.
In 1911, Taylor collected a number of his articles into a book - length manuscript, which he submitted to the ASME for publication. The ASME formed an ad hoc committee to review the text. The committee included Taylor allies such as James Mapes Dodge and Henry R. Towne. The committee delegated the report to the editor of the American Machinist, Leon P. Alford. Alford was a critic of the Taylor system and his report was negative. The committee modified the report slightly, but accepted Alford 's recommendation not to publish Taylor 's book. Taylor angrily withdrew the book and published Principles without ASME approval. Taylor published the trade book himself in 1912.
In France, Le Chatelier translated Taylor 's work and introduced scientific management throughout government owned plants during World War I. This influenced the French theorist Henri Fayol, whose 1916 Administration Industrielle et Générale emphasized organizational structure in management. In the classic General and Industrial Management Fayol wrote that "Taylor 's approach differs from the one we have outlined in that he examines the firm from the ' bottom up. ' He starts with the most elemental units of activity -- the workers ' actions -- then studies the effects of their actions on productivity, devises new methods for making them more efficient, and applies what he learns at lower levels to the hierarchy... '' He suggests that Taylor has staff analysts and advisors working with individuals at lower levels of the organization to identify the ways to improve efficiency. According to Fayol, the approach results in a "negation of the principle of unity of command. '' Fayol criticized Taylor 's functional management in this way: In Shop Management, Taylor said "... the most marked outward characteristics of functional management lies in the fact that each workman, instead of coming in direct contact with the management at one point only,... receives his daily orders and help from eight different bosses... these eight were (1) route clerks, (2) instruction card men, (3) cost and time clerks, (4) gang bosses, (5) speed bosses, (6) inspectors, (7) repair bosses, and the (8) shop disciplinarian. '' Fayol said that this was an unworkable situation and that Taylor must have reconciled the differences in some way not described in Taylor 's works.
Around 1922 the journalist Paulette Bernège became interested in Taylor 's theories, which were popular in France in the post-war period. Bernège became the faithful disciple of the Domestic Sciences Movement that Christine Frederick had launched earlier in the United States, which Bernège adapted to French homes. Frederick had transferred the concepts of Taylorism from the factory to domestic work. These included suitable tools, rational study of movements and timing of tasks. Scientific standards for housework were derived from scientific standards for workshops, intended to streamline the work of a housewife. The Comité national de l'organisation française (CNOF) was founded in 1925 by a group of journalists and consulting engineers who saw Taylorism as a way to expand their client base. Founders included prominent engineers such as Henry Louis Le Châtelier and Léon Guillet. Bernège 's Institute of Housekeeping Organization participated in various congresses on the scientific organization of work that led up to the founding of the CNOF, and in 1929 led to a section in CNOF on domestic economy.
Older historical accounts used to suggest that British industry had less interest in Taylor 's teachings than in similarly - sized countries. More recent research has revealed that British engineers and managers were as interested as in other countries. This disparity was largely due to what historians have been analysing: recent research has revealed that Taylor 's practices diffused to Britain more through consultancies, in particular the Bedaux consultancy, than through institutions, as in Germany and to a lesser extent France, where a mixture was most effective.
Particularly enthusiastic were the Cadbury family, Seebohm Rowntree, Oliver Sheldon and Lyndall Urwick. In addition to establishing a consultancy to implement Taylor 's system, Urwick, Orr & Partners, Urwick was also a key historian of F.W. Taylor and scientific management, publishing The Making of Scientific Management trilogy in the 1940s and The Golden Book of Management in 1956.
In Switzerland, the American Edward Albert Filene established the International Management Institute to spread information about management techniques. Lyndall Urwick was its Director until the IMI closed in 1933.
In the Soviet Union, Vladimir Lenin was very impressed by Taylorism, which he and Joseph Stalin sought to incorporate into Soviet manufacturing. Taylorism and the mass production methods of Henry Ford thus became highly influential during the early years of the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, "(...) Frederick Taylor 's methods have never really taken root in the Soviet Union. '' The voluntaristic approach of the Stakhanovite movement in the 1930s of setting individual records was diametrically opposed to Taylor 's systematic approach and proved to be counter-productive. The stop - and - go of the production process -- workers having nothing to do at the beginning of a month and ' storming ' during illegal extra shifts at the end of the month -- which prevailed even in the 1980s had nothing to do with the successfully taylorized plants e.g., of Toyota which are characterized by continuous production processes (heijunka) which are continuously improved (kaizen).
"The easy availability of replacement labor, which allowed Taylor to choose only ' first - class men, ' was an important condition for his system 's success. '' The situation in the Soviet Union was very different. "Because work is so unrhythmic, the rational manager will hire more workers than he would need if supplies were even in order to have enough for storming. Because of the continuing labor shortage, managers are happy to pay needed workers more than the norm, either by issuing false job orders, assigning them to higher skill grades than they deserve on merit criteria, giving them ' loose ' piece rates, or making what is supposed to be ' incentive ' pay, premia for good work, effectively part of the normal wage. As Mary Mc Auley has suggested under these circumstances piece rates are not an incentive wage, but a way of justifying giving workers whatever they ' should ' be getting, no matter what their pay is supposed to be according to the official norms. ''
Taylor and his theories are also referenced (and put to practice) in the 1921 dystopian novel We by Yevgeny Zamyatin.
In the early 1920s, the Canadian textile industry was re-organized according to scientific management principles. In 1928, workers at Canada Cotton Ltd. in Hamilton, Ontario went on strike against newly introduced Taylorist work methods. Also, Henry Gantt, who was a close associate of Taylor, re-organized the Canadian Pacific Railway.
With the prevalence of US branch plants in Canada and close economic and cultural ties between the two countries, the sharing of business practices, including Taylorism, has been common.
The Taylor Society was founded in 1912 by Taylor 's allies to promote his values and influence. A decade after Taylor 's death in 1915 the Taylor Society had 800 members including many leading U.S. industrialists and managers. In 1936 the Society merged with the Society of Industrial Engineers, forming the Society for Advancement of Management, which still exists today.
One of the most famous critiques of Taylor came from Antonio Gramsci in his Prison Notebooks (1937), where Gramsci argued that Taylorism attempts to subordinate workers to management. He also argued that the repetitive work produced by Taylorism might actually give rise to revolutionary thoughts in workers ' minds.
Harry Braverman 's work, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century, published in 1974, was critical of scientific management and of Taylor in particular. This work pioneered the field of Labor Process Theory as well as contributing to the historiography of the workplace.
Management theorist Henry Mintzberg is highly critical of Taylor 's methods. Mintzberg states that an obsession with efficiency allows measureable benefits to overshadow less quantifiable social benefits completely, and social values get left behind.
Taylor 's methods have also been challenged by socialist intellectuals. The arguments put forward relate to progressive defanging of workers in the workplace and the subsequent degradation of work as management, powered by capital, uses Taylor 's methods to render work repeatable, precise yet monotonous and skill - reducing. James W. Rinehart argued that Taylor 's methods of transferring control over production from workers to management, and the division of labor into simple tasks, intensified the alienation of workers that had begun with the factory system of production around the period 1870 to 1890.
Taylor was an accomplished tennis and golf player. He and Clarence Clark won the inaugural United States National tennis doubles championship at Newport Casino in 1881, defeating Alexander Van Rensselaer and Arthur Newbold in straight sets. In the 1900 Summer Olympics, Taylor finished fourth in golf.
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Articles, a selection:
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where was a sky full of stars filmed | A Sky Full of Stars - wikipedia
"A Sky Full of Stars '' is a song by the British rock band Coldplay. It was released in 2014 as the third single from their sixth album, Ghost Stories (2014). The band co-wrote and co-produced the song with Avicii and received production assistance from Paul Epworth, Daniel Green and Rik Simpson. It was recorded at The Bakery and The Beehive in North London, England.
Upon its release, "A Sky Full of Stars '' garnered mostly positive reviews from music critics and charted inside the top 10 in over 16 countries such as Australia, Canada, Ireland, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and United States. A music video for the song was directed by Mat Whitecross and was released on 19 June 2014. The single peaked at number one in Italy, Israel, Luxembourg, Portugal, Lebanon, and the Walloon region of Belgium. It also topped the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart. It was nominated for Best Pop Duo / Group Performance at the 57th Grammy Awards.
"A Sky Full of Stars '' marks the band 's first dance track, being outlined as an EDM track with house influences. A piano - centric song which is written in the key of G ♭ major, the track opens as a piano ballad, with progressive house - influenced electronic music that plays out in between verses. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com, the song follows a chord progression of E ♭ m7 -- Bmaj9 -- G ♭ -- B ♭ m (♭ 6) with a tempo of 125 beats per minute, and the vocals span from A ♭ to G ♭. The track has been described as "(falling) in line with the synth - heavy soundscapes of ' Midnight ', but with more danceable flavor ''. The song 's repeating chord sequence and varied melody was inspired by the work of American pop singer Katy Perry and Nirvana 's "Smells Like Teen Spirit '' (1991).
"A Sky Full of Stars '' was recorded during the sessions for the band 's sixth studio album, at their purpose - built studios The Bakery and The Beehive in North London, England. The studios were both originally constructed for work on their two previous studio albums, 2008 's Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends and 2011 's Mylo Xyloto.
Swedish record producer Avicii was invited by the band to collaborate on "A Sky Full of Stars ''. In addition to producing the track, he was also asked by lead singer Chris Martin to play and record the piano parts. However, Martin later stated in a BBC Radio 1 interview with Zane Lowe that he felt that he had "cheated '' on the band by asking Avicii to play the piano instead of playing it himself.
On 2 May 2014, "A Sky Full of Stars '' was released early through Ghost Stories on the iTunes Store worldwide, and on Spotify. On 5 May 2014, the single was released on Google Play store in Australia. On 26 June, Coldplay announced the A Sky Full of Stars EP. It would feature the radio edit of the song, as well as the three bonus tracks from the deluxe version of Ghost Stories: "All Your Friends '', the title track "Ghost Story '' and "O (Reprise) '', sold by Target. The extended play was available worldwide, with the exception of the United States, as the deluxe version of the album was only available in the U.S. The EP was released on 29 June 2014.
The single art for "A Sky Full of Stars '' was etched by UK - based, Czech etching artist Mila Fürstová. The artwork continues the motif of artworks in the Ghost Stories album cycle, which feature a scene occurring in a larger, enclosed body. Multiple figures such as angels with wings like of the Ghost Stories artwork, buildings such as a church, and objects such as a maze and a chair, also alluding to those in the Ghost Stories artwork, are depicted encased in a three - dimensional star chart. The artwork is reminiscent of Fürstová 's earlier work, Other Skies, which also features various figures, buildings and objects imposed onto a star map.
"A Sky Full of Stars '' was met with positive reception upon its release. Carl Williott of Idolator gave the track a positive review, stating: "Quite honestly it sounds more like a Zedd or Avicii offering than a Coldplay one, and it 's certainly the loudest and most joyful cut we 've heard from the album so far ''. Melinda Newman of HitFix had similar thoughts, calling the song "the most commercial and dance - y track so far '' from the album. Chris De Ville of Stereogum gave "A Sky Full of Stars '' an overwhelmingly positive comment, stating that the song is "the most energetic and classically Coldplay song we 've heard from the album so far ''. Chris Martins of Spin magazine also commented relatively positively, writing that "The big - tent EDM offering is pretty satisfying in all of the ways that those things are ''.
Consequence of Sound 's wrote the song "starts off as a heartfelt piano ballad before flourishes of pounding electronics take over the chorus '' and noted that it "falls in line with the synth - heavy soundscapes of ' Midnight ', but with more danceable flavor. '' Zane Lowe of BBC Radio 1 named the track his ' Hottest Record ' for 29 April 2014. However, a negative review came from Carolyn Menyes of Music Times who criticized the song for "lack (ing) a personality or heart, something that the best Coldplay songs are chock full of. '' Josh Modell of The A.V. Club panned it as a "blatantly pandering, album - interrupting, mood - f * cking - up (track) which is destined to be a hit and also instantly dated. ''
Within 24 hours of its iTunes release, the track had sold 121,690 units worldwide, peaking at number one in 86 countries on the iTunes Store Charts. As of July 2014, the song reached the Top 10 of nearly every country it charted in, including the bands ' homeland country, the United Kingdom where it reached number 9 on UK Singles Chart. The single enjoyed massive commercial success in Australia and New Zealand. In Australia, the song reached number two on the ARIA Charts, their highest - charting single since 2008 's "Viva La Vida '', and became one of their three highest - charting singles in the country. In New Zealand, the song reached number two on New Zealand Singles Chart, becoming the band 's highest - charting single to date and their fifth top - ten single in the country.
On the issue dated 21 May 2014, the song reached number ten on the Billboard Hot 100, making it their third top 10 hit and first since their number - one single "Viva la Vida '' in 2008. It also became their first number - one single on the Billboard Hot Rock Songs chart. "A Sky Full of Stars '' was the band 's second number one on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart. The song has sold over a million digital copies in the U.S. as of November 2014.
The official music video was directed by Mat Whitecross and the shooting took place on King Street in the inner Sydney suburb of Newtown, on 17 June 2014. It was released on 19 June 2014.
At the beginning of the video, Coldplay 's lead singer, Chris Martin, walks through Sydney 's streets dressed as a one - man band, singing the first verse of the song. Then he reaches the other members of the band (also dressed as one - man bands) and, together, they play the instrumental refrain. Martin is then seen walking through the street, without the other members, while he sings the second verse. At the end of the video the band reunites in a square, singing and playing the final part of the song with a crowd of fans. While Martin is singing the final part, many paper - made stars are blown into the square.
An alternate music video leaked onto the internet in late 2014. No further information was given about it. However, snippets from the alternate video can be seen in the first video, playing on the TVs in a shop 's showcase, proving the former video is a scrapped version.
"A Sky Full of Stars '' was first played in closed - audience performances. The band, when performing the song before the release of the "A Sky Full of Stars '' single, would routinely ask the audience not to record their performance of the song, in an attempt to prevent the song from leaking ahead of its release. Despite their intentions, the song was leaked after their performance of the song during the opening night of their Ghost Stories Promotional Tour at E-Werk in Cologne, Germany on 25 April 2014. The song was premiered live on the 29 April 2014 airing of BBC Two music television show Later... with Jools Holland. The band then performed the song on Saturday Night Live on 3 May 2014. The band also performed the song on The Graham Norton Show, in the UK, on 30 May 2014.
The song was also played during the 3 - Point Shootout of the 2015 NBA All - Star Game weekend.
All tracks written by Chris Martin, Jonny Buckland, Guy Berryman, and Will Champion, except "A Sky Full of Stars '' (co-written with Avicii).
Adapted from Ghost Stories liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who was the last nhl player to wear a helmet | Craig MacTavish - wikipedia
Craig MacTavish (born August 15, 1958) is a Canadian professional ice hockey executive and former player. He is the current Vice President of Hockey Operations for the Edmonton Oilers, and has also served as the team 's head coach and general manager. He played centre for 17 seasons in the National Hockey League with the Boston Bruins, Edmonton Oilers, New York Rangers, Philadelphia Flyers and St. Louis Blues, winning the Stanley Cup four times (1987, 1988, 1990, 1994). MacTavish later coached the Oilers from 2000 to 2009 and also served as assistant coach with the Rangers and Oilers.
He is notable as the last NHL player to not wear a helmet during games.
MacTavish played two years of NCAA hockey with the University of Lowell Chiefs (now UMass Lowell) from 1977 to 1979. He was drafted by the Boston Bruins in the 1978 NHL Entry Draft with their ninth pick, 153rd overall, and spent the next several years splitting time between the Bruins and various American Hockey League teams. He finally made the Bruins for good in 1982 -- 83 and played two full seasons with them.
During his early days with the Bruins, the young MacTavish was involved in the infamous brawl between several Boston players and a group of New York Rangers fans in 1979.
MacTavish missed the 1984 -- 85 season after being convicted of vehicular homicide, having struck and killed a young woman while he was driving under the influence of alcohol. MacTavish pleaded guilty to vehicular homicide and driving under the influence of alcohol the night of January 25, 1984, in Peabody, Massachusetts. Kim Radley, 26, of West Newfield, Maine, died four days later of injuries sustained in the crash. MacTavish was sentenced to a year 's imprisonment for the offence. While incarcerated, he watched most of the games that were televised.
Widely viewed at the time as a personal favour from Edmonton general manager Glen Sather to his best friend, then - Bruins general manager Harry Sinden (who felt that MacTavish ought to have a fresh start away from Boston and had offered to let him out of his contract, which MacTavish had accepted), the Oilers took a chance on MacTavish and signed him for the 1985 -- 86 season. Sather 's intuition turned out to be good, as MacTavish spent eight full seasons with the Oilers, helping them to win three Stanley Cups in 1987, 1988, 1990 and serving as team captain from 1992 to 1994. MacTavish was traded to the New York Rangers in 1994, just in time to help several other former Oilers (including Kevin Lowe, Glenn Anderson, Adam Graves, Jeff Beukeboom, Esa Tikkanen and Mark Messier) win the Stanley Cup.
The next season MacTavish signed with the Philadelphia Flyers as a free agent, and was traded to the St. Louis Blues during the 1995 -- 96 season. MacTavish retired following the 1996 -- 97 season. He was the last helmetless player, having signed a professional contract with the Bruins before the mandatory cutoff date in 1979 (then - current players were allowed to remain bare - headed under a grandfather clause); incidentally, MacTavish had worn a helmet in his earliest days as he can be seen wearing one during the aforementioned fight with Rangers fans in 1979.
MacTavish turned to coaching immediately after retiring as a player, signing on as an assistant with the Rangers. After two seasons in New York, he returned to the Oilers as an assistant coach in the 1999 -- 2000 season under former teammate Kevin Lowe. He was subsequently promoted to the top job when Lowe succeeded Sather as general manager.
In the 2005 -- 06 season, MacTavish led the Oilers on their run to the Stanley Cup Finals. In the first round of the playoffs, MacTavish shocked the hockey world by utilizing a trapping defensive system to neutralize a potent Detroit Red Wings offence. This closed defensive system, while popular in the pre-2004 lockout NHL, had been deemed by many to be unworkable under the league 's new anti-obstruction regulations. The Oilers were able to deny scoring chances by blocking shots with their bodies -- something for which MacTavish was known for during his playing career. This proved effective; the eighth - seeded Oilers won the opening round 4 -- 2, against the no. 1 seed, the Detroit Red Wings. Along the way the Oilers defeated the San Jose Sharks and the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, 4 -- 2 and 4 -- 1 respectively. The Oilers could not complete their run, losing a thrilling seven - game final series to the Carolina Hurricanes, though they rallied from a 3 -- 1 series deficit to even it. The Oilers had not reached the Stanley Cup finals since their championship season of 1990 during MacTavish 's playing tenure in Edmonton.
On November 4, 2006, one day after the Oilers lost to the Dallas Stars due to an apparent blown call in the last five seconds of the third period by referee Mick McGeough, MacTavish was fined $10,000 for expressing his anger after the game, referring to the call as "retarded ''. After this incident, Oilers fans collected over $10,000 and gave it to MacTavish, who subsequently donated the money to charity.
On April 15, 2009, Oilers general manager Steve Tambellini announced that MacTavish had been relieved of his duties as head coach of the club. The Oilers had failed to reach the playoffs for the third year in a row. He finished his tenure with the Oilers at 36th on the all - time NHL list with 301 wins, and second on the Oilers ' all - time wins list behind only Sather.
During the 2011 -- 12 season, MacTavish coached the Chicago Wolves, the American Hockey League affiliate of the Vancouver Canucks. After the season, MacTavish left the Canucks organization, returned to the Oilers as Sr VP of Hockey operations and was named GM on Apr 15 2013.
On December 15, 2014, MacTavish fired head coach Dallas Eakins from his duties as head coach of the Oilers. MacTavish named himself Interim coach with the intention of transitioning minor league coach Todd Nelson in to the role of interim head coach in the near future.
Failing to be picked up by another team in the coaching department, on September 21, 2009, MacTavish began the first of twenty - five in - studio appearances with TSN as a hockey commentator.
On June 11, 2012, Edmonton Oilers general manager Steve Tambellini announced that Craig McTavish was added to the club 's hockey operations management team as senior vice-president of hockey operations.
On April 15, 2013, general manager Steve Tambellini was relieved of his position, and the Oilers named MacTavish as the new general manager. Former Columbus Blue Jackets GM Scott Howson replaced MacTavish as the vice-president of hockey operations. After two seasons, MacTavish was relieved of his position as general manager, and the Oilers named Peter Chiarelli the new general manager and president of hockey operations.
On April 24, 2015, Oilers Entertainment Group CEO, Bob Nicholson announced that Peter Chiarelli had been hired as the new general manager and president of hockey operations. Nicholson did not provide details on what MacTavish 's new position would be within the Oilers organization.
On September 12, 2015, general manager Peter Chiarelli revealed in an interview with TSN 's Bob McKenzie that MacTavish had been given the title of Vice President of Hockey Operations; most of his duties would circulate around the Oilers ' new affiliate team the Bakersfield Condors, his other main focus will be on pro scouting.
While playing with the Flyers, MacTavish was a resident of Voorhees Township, New Jersey.
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who won the first women's world series | All - American Girls Professional Baseball league - wikipedia
The All - American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL) was a professional women 's baseball league founded by Philip K. Wrigley which existed from 1943 to 1954. The AAGPBL is the forerunner of women 's professional league sports in the United States. Over 600 women played in the league. In 1948, league attendance peaked at over 900,000 spectators. The most successful team, the Rockford Peaches, won a league - best four championships. The 1992 motion picture A League of Their Own is a mostly fictionalized account of the early days of the league and its stars.
With America 's entry into World War II, several major league baseball executives started a new professional league with women players in order to maintain baseball in the public eye while the majority of able men were away. The founders included Philip K. Wrigley, Branch Rickey and Paul V. Harper. They feared that Major League Baseball might even temporarily cease due to the war because of the loss of talent, as well as restrictions on team travel due to gasoline rationing.
The women 's initial tryouts were held at Wrigley Field in Chicago. Scouted from amateur softball games across the country, over 200 women were invited to try - out, and about 60 were selected for the league roster. Like the male major - league, the ' girls ' league was also informally segregated, thus no African Americans were recruited or hired. Women were selected for their skilled play, but the player also needed to fit what was seen by marketers as a wholesome feminine ideal. The first league game was played on May 30, 1943.
The league went through three periods of ownership. It was owned by chewing gum mogul, Wrigley from 1943 to 1945, wealthy publicist Arthur Meyerhoff from 1945 to 1951, and the teams were individually owned from 1951 to 1954. The teams generally played in Midwestern cities. The South Bend Blue Sox and the Rockford Peaches were the only two teams that stayed in their home cities for the full period of the AAGPBL 's existence.
In the first season, the league played a game that was a hybrid of baseball and softball. The ball was 12 inches in circumference, the size of a regulation softball (regulation baseballs are 9 to 9 ⁄ inches). The pitcher 's mound was only forty feet from home plate, closer even than in regulation softball and much closer than the baseball distance of 60 feet, 6 inches. Pitchers threw underhand windmill, like in softball, and the distance between bases was 65 feet, five feet longer than in softball but 25 feet shorter than in baseball. Major similarities between the AAGPBL and baseball included nine player teams and the use of a pitcher 's mound (softball pitchers throw from flat ground). By 1948 the ball had shrunk to 10 3 / 8 inches, overhand pitching was allowed, and the mound was moved back to 50 feet. Over the history of the league, the rules continued to gradually approach those of baseball. By the final season in 1954, the ball was regulation baseball size, the mound was moved back to 60 feet, and the basepaths were extended to 85 feet (still five feet shorter than in regulation baseball). Teams were generally managed by men who knew competitive athletics and were former major league players, in part to demonstrate to fans that the league was serious.
Salaries were above average for women and ranged from $45 -- $85 (or $636 -- $1202 in 2017 dollars) a week during the first years of play to about $125 (or $1179 in 2017 dollars) per week in later years. The women 's league generally went along with the men 's late spring to early autumn season.
The uniforms worn by the female ballplayers consisted of a belted, short - sleeved tunic dress with a slight flare of the skirt. Rules stated that skirts were to be worn no more than six inches above the knee, but the regulation was most often ignored in order to facilitate running and fielding. A circular team logo was sewn on the front of each dress, and baseball caps featured elastic bands in the back so that they were one - size - fits - all
During spring training the girls were required to attend Helena Rubinstein 's evening charm school classes. The proper etiquette for every situation was taught, and every aspect of personal hygiene, mannerisms and dress code was presented to all the players. In an effort to make each player as physically attractive as possible, each received a beauty kit and instructions on how to use it. As a part of the leagues ' Rules of Conduct ', the ' girls ' were not permitted to have short hair, smoke or drink in public places, and they were required to wear lipstick at all times. Fines for not following the leagues rules of conduct were five dollars for the first offense, ten for the second, and suspension for the third. In 1944, Josephine "JoJo '' D'Angelo was fired for cutting her hair short. The women 's contracts were much stricter about behavior than in the men 's league, and each team was also assigned its own chaperone by the league.
The AAGPBL peaked in attendance during the 1948 season, when 10 teams attracted 910,000 paid fans. The Rockford Peaches won the most league championships with four (1945, 1948, 1949, 1950). The Milwaukee / Grand Rapids Chicks were second with three (1944 in Milwaukee, 1947 and 1953 in Grand Rapids). The Racine Belles (1943 and 1946) and the South Bend Blue Sox (1951 and 1952) each won two, and the Kalamazoo Lassies won in the league 's final season (1954).
The 1992 film A League of Their Own, although fictionalized, covers the founding and play of this league. Geena Davis, Lori Petty, Rosie O'Donnell, Madonna, and Tom Hanks were the stars of the film, which was directed by Penny Marshall. The league is the forerunner of later - day professional league sports played by women.
Lois Siegel documented the All - American Girls Professional Baseball League in her film Baseball Girls, which was produced by the National Film Board of Canada. Olive Little threw the first no - hitter in team and league history.
Several histories of the AAGPBL have been published in book form.
Although the AAGPBL was the first recorded professional women 's baseball league, women had played baseball since the nineteenth century. The first known women 's baseball team played at Vassar College in 1866, while barnstorming Bloomer Girls teams (sometimes including men)
Baseball Hall of Fame members Max Carey and Jimmie Foxx managed teams in the AAGPBL.
The league went through a series of name changes during its history. It was founded as the All - American Girls Softball League., but midway through its first season of 1943, the name was changed to the All - American Girls Baseball League (AAGBBL). After the 1943 season, the official League name was again changed, to the All - American Girls Professional Ball League (AAGPBL), reflecting that players were paid from the start and further separate it from existing amateur leagues. This name was used until the end of the 1945 season, when the league reverted to All - American Girls Baseball League (AAGBBL), which it would use through 1950. When teams were sold to independent owners at the end of the 1950 season, the official League name was changed to the American Girls Baseball League (AGBL), although it continued to be popularly identified as the All - American League or the All - American Girls Baseball League (AAGBBL). When the Players ' Association organized in 1986, and gained recognition by the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1988, the name All - American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL) was chosen to represent the league, and that is the name commonly used to refer to it to this day.
The uniform was a one - piece short - skirted flared tunic with a team patch in the center of the chest. The base uniform was designed by Wrigley Company art director Otis Shepard, who was also the longtime art director for the Chicago Cubs and spearheaded a series of innovative uniforms beginning in 1937. Shepard modeled the uniform after the figure skating, field hockey, and tennis outfits of the period. The uniforms included satin shorts, knee - high baseball socks, and a baseball cap. The team patches were modeled after each respective city 's seal.
The theme song made famous in the 1992 film A League of Their Own was the official song of the All - American Girls Baseball League, co-written by Pepper Paire and Nalda Bird (although in the movie, the word "Irishmen '' was changed to "Irish ones '').
Victory Song Batter up! Hear that call! The time has come for one and all To play ball.
We are the members of the All - American League We come from cities near and far We 've got Canadians, Irishmen and Swedes, We 're all for one, we 're one for all We 're all Americans!!
Each girl stands, her head so proudly high, Her motto ' Do or Die ' She 's not the one to use or need an alibi.
Our chaperones are not too soft, They 're not too tough, Our managers are on the ball. We 've got a president who really knows his stuff, We 're all for one, we 're one for all, We 're All - Americans!
In their annual reunions since 1998, it is usual to hear the original AAGPBL players singing the song.
When the All - American Girls Professional Baseball League was unable to continue in 1955, its history and its significance was forgotten by Baseball Historians. Many people in the 1950s thought that women were not supposed to play baseball, so most female athletes competed on other fields of endeavor. Finally, in 1980, former pitcher June Peppas launched a newsletter project to get in touch with friends, teammates and opponents, that resulted in the league 's first reunion in Chicago, Illinois in 1982. The Players Association was formed after a 1986 Reunion held in Fort Wayne as part of Run, Jane Run a local Women 's Bureau event. Historian and Baseball card publisher Sharon Roepke (author of Diamond Gals) who was circulating a petition to get the Baseball Hall of Fame to recognize the All American Girls Baseball League asked the players at the Reunion to organize to help the effort. A meeting was held at the South Bend home of Fran Janssen and the Player 's Association was born. June Peppas was nominated President.
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what is the name of first computer virus | Brain (computer virus) - wikipedia
Brain is the industry standard name for a computer virus that was released in its first form in January 1986, and is considered to be the first computer virus for MS - DOS. It infects the boot sector of storage media formatted with the DOS File Allocation Table (FAT) file system. Brain was written by brothers, Basit Farooq Alvi and Amjad Farooq Alvi, from Lahore, Pakistan.
Brain affects the IBM PC computer by replacing the boot sector of a floppy disk with a copy of the virus. The real boot sector is moved to another sector and marked as bad. Infected disks usually have five kilobytes of bad sectors. The disk label is usually changed to © Brain, and the following text can be seen in infected boot sectors:
There are many minor and major variations to that version of the text. The virus slows down the floppy disk drive and makes seven kilobytes of memory unavailable to DOS. Brain was written by Basit Farooq Alvi and Amjad Farooq Alvi, who at the time lived in Chah Miran, near Lahore Railway Station, in Lahore, Pakistan. The brothers told TIME magazine they had written it to protect their medical software from piracy, and it was supposed to target copyright infringement only. The cryptic message "Welcome to the Dungeon '', a safeguard and reference to an early programming forum on Dungeon BBS, appeared after a year because the brothers licensed a beta version of the code. The brothers could not be contacted to receive the final release of this version of the program.
Brain lacks code for dealing with hard disk partitioning, and avoids infecting hard disks by checking the most significant bit of the BIOS drive number being accessed. Brain does not infect the disk if the bit is clear, unlike other viruses at the time, which paid no attention to disk partitioning and consequently destroyed data stored on hard disks by treating them in the same way as floppy disks. Brain often went undetected, partially due to this deliberate non-destructiveness, especially when the user paid little to no attention to the slow speed of floppy disk access.
The virus came complete with the brothers ' address and three phone numbers, and a message that told the user that their machine was infected and to call them for inoculation:
This program was originally used to track a heart monitoring program for the IBM PC, and pirates were distributing illicit copies of the disks. This tracking program was supposed to stop and track illegal copies of the disk, however the program also sometimes used the last 5k on an Apple floppy, making additional saves to the disk by other programs impossible.
When the brothers began to receive a large number of phone calls from people in United Kingdom, the United States, and elsewhere, demanding that they disinfect their machines, they were stunned and tried to explain to the outraged callers that their motivation had not been malicious. Their phone lines were overloaded. The brothers, with another brother, Shahid Farooq Alvi, are still in business in Pakistan, as Brain NET Internet service providers with a company called Brain Telecommunication Limited.
In 2011, 25 years after Brain was released, Mikko Hyppönen of F - Secure traveled to Pakistan to interview Basit and Amjad for a documentary. Being inspired by this documentary and its wide spread, a group of Pakistani bloggers interviewed Basit and Amjad, under the banner of Bloggerine.
Ashar is an older version of Brain. There are six variants, each with a different message.
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when does the new season of wentworth premiere | Wentworth (TV series) - Wikipedia
Wentworth is an Australian television drama program. It was first broadcast on SoHo on 1 May 2013. The series serves as a contemporary reimagining of Prisoner, which ran on Network Ten from 1979 to 1986. Lara Radulovich and David Hannam developed Wentworth from Reg Watson 's original concept. The series is set in the modern day and initially focuses on Bea Smith 's (Danielle Cormack) early days in prison and her subsequent rise to the top of the prison 's hierarchy. Following Cormack 's departure from the show at the end of the fourth season, the series shifted its focus onto a more ensemble format.
For the first three seasons, Wentworth was filmed on purpose - built sets in the suburbs of Clayton, Victoria. Production moved to Newport, Victoria, starting with the fourth season. The show has received a mostly positive reception from critics, and the first episode became the most watched Australian drama series premiere in Foxtel history. The series was picked up by several countries, including New Zealand and the UK, where it has been retitled Wentworth Prison.
A sixth season was commissioned by Foxtel on 9 May 2017, which premiered on 19 June 2018. A seventh season was commissioned in April 2018, before the sixth season premiere, with filming commencing the following week and a premiere set for 2019.
Wentworth is set in modern - day Australia and focuses on Bea Smith (Danielle Cormack) when she first enters prison after being charged with the attempted murder of her husband. Bea is separated from her daughter and sent to Wentworth on remand, where she lives in "an uncertain limbo '' until she is sentenced. Starting at the bottom of Wentworth 's hierarchy, Bea is forced to learn how to survive in prison.
In March 2012, it was announced that a contemporary re-imagining of Prisoner had been commissioned by Foxtel. Brian Walsh, the executive director of television at Foxtel, stated that Wentworth would not be a remake of Prisoner, which ran for 692 episodes on Network Ten from 1979 to 1986. He continued: "Wentworth will be a dynamic and very confronting drama series, developed and stylised specifically for subscription television audiences. We have told producers to push all boundaries and honestly depict life on the inside as it is in 2012. '' Lara Radulovich and David Hannam have developed Wentworth from Reg Watson 's original concept. FremantleMedia and director of drama Jo Porter will produce Wentworth. The first episode, and several subsequent episodes, were written by Pete McTighe. Television critic Michael Idato acted as series consultant and Kerry Tucker acted as consultant on authenticity.
Porter commented that the series would explore "the politics of women in a world with few men, and how the experience both challenges and changes them, sometimes for the better. '' Wentworth is set in the modern - day and centres on Bea Smith 's early days in prison. The storylines include a mix of original inmates and staff from Prisoner with characters developed especially for Wentworth. Foxtel told a reporter from The Sydney Morning Herald that the original characters from Prisoner would be a contemporary interpretation in the new series. It was initially reported that none of the original cast from Prisoner would appear in the first season of Wentworth, however Anne Charleston, who had a number of small roles in the original series, made a cameo appearance as Liz Birdsworth 's mother - in - law, also Alex Menglet and Gloria Ajenstat who played Ray Proctor and Tammy Fisher in the original series will have guest roles in the new series. Foxtel revealed that the producers were looking at how they might incorporate the Prisoner theme tune, "On The Inside '', into the new series.
On 5 June 2013, it was confirmed that Wentworth had been renewed for a second season. A reporter for the Australian Associated Press said production would begin later in the year, and the season would air in 2014. Porter stated: "We have assembled an extraordinary team of writers who ca n't wait to get started on series two. We have so many more stories to tell. '' In January 2014, it was announced that a third season of Wentworth had been ordered, before the second had aired. In a similar manner, a 12 - episode fourth season was announced before the airing of the third season on 27 February 2015. It began airing from 10 May 2016. Cormack confirmed a fifth season had been commissioned on 19 July. The twelve - part series premiered on 4 April 2017. On 9 May 2017, Showcase announced that the series has been renewed for a sixth season, which premiered on 19 June 2018. A seventh season was commissioned in April 2018, before the sixth season premiere, with filming commencing the following week and a premiere set for 2019.
On 4 October 2012, a reporter for The West Australian revealed that Celia Ireland and Kate Atkinson had joined the cast of Wentworth, while Shareena Clanton would make her acting debut as Doreen Anderson. Danielle Cormack was cast in the role of Beatrice "Queen Bea '' Smith and she stated "I am absolutely rapt to be part of the reboot of such an iconic drama. Prisoner left an indelible mark on fans and I really hope that the re-imagining of this series will be just as popular with viewers now as it was back then. '' Actors Robbie Magasiva and Aaron Jeffery play corrections officers in the detention centre. David Knox from TV Tonight revealed that Nicole da Silva, Kris McQuade, Catherine McClements and Leeanna Walsman had also joined the cast.
Following the end of the first season, it was revealed that iconic Prisoner character Joan "The Freak '' Ferguson, a sadistic, lesbian prison officer, would be introduced in the second season. Porter commented "Prisoner offered up a very rich well of amazing characters to draw upon and the Wentworth writers are very excited about revisiting the character of prison officer Joan ' The Freak ' Ferguson in our second season. '' Erin McWhirter from TV Week reported that former All Saints actress Tammy MacIntosh was one actress rumoured to have been offered the role. On 21 September 2013, it was confirmed that Pamela Rabe had been cast as "The Freak ''. McQuade, McClements and Walsman did not reprise their respective roles of Jacs Holt, Meg Jackson and Erica Davidson for the second season. Katrina Milosevic, who portrays Boomer Jenkins, was upgraded to the main cast.
Actresses Pia Miranda, Libby Tanner and Tammy MacIntosh joined the cast from the third season as inmate Jodie Spiteri, psychologist Bridget Westfall and vigilante Karen Proctor respectively. Sigrid Thornton, who played Ros Coulson on Prisoner, will be joining the cast for season four. She will not be reprising her former role, but will play another Prisoner based character Sonia Stevens. In November 2015, Kate Jenkinson and Bernard Curry were announced to be appearing in the show as Allie Novak, an inmate, and Jake Stewart, a correctional officer, respectively.
In April 2018, it was announced that Indigenous Australian actress Leah Purcell had joined the cast as Rita Connors, a role originally played by Glenda Linscott in Prisoner. Also joining the cast were Susie Porter as criminal matriarch Marie Winter, a role originally played by Maggie Millar in Prisoner, and Rarriwuy Hick as young boxer Ruby Mitchell.
Foxtel confirmed that Wentworth would not be shot at the original ATV - 10 studios in Nunawading, Victoria where Prisoner was filmed. Wentworth was instead filmed on a purpose built set in the suburb of Clayton. The shoot employed 300 cast and crew. The ten - part season began filming for four months from 10 October 2012. Wentworth began airing on Foxtel 's SoHo channel from 1 May 2013. Filming for the second season began on 23 September 2013 and wrapped on 13 February 2014. The second season began airing on 20 May 2014. Production for the third season resumed in March and filming was completed in late July. In the same month, it was announced that the property in which Wentworth was filmed had been sold, and the set would be knocked down. A new alternative was being sought and a TV Week reporter commented that it was unclear if the loss of the set would be written into future storylines. The third season began airing on 7 April 2015. Production on the fourth season began in the second half of 2015. The fifth season was filmed in Melbourne from August 2016. On 9 May 2017, Showcase announced that the series has been renewed for a sixth season, which began filming a week later.
Wentworth has been sold to more than 90 countries. On 2 April 2013, it was confirmed that TVNZ had signed a deal to broadcast Wentworth in New Zealand. Later that month, it was announced that Wentworth would be broadcast on Channel 5 in the UK. The head of acquisitions for the channel, Kate Keenan, commented "Wentworth will be a great addition to Channel 5 's drama output this autumn. This compelling cast of female characters packs an emotional punch and will appeal to the Channel 5 viewers who love our range of crime output from dramas to factual series. ''
A trailer for the series began airing on the channel and its website in August 2013 and premiered on Channel 5 on 28 August. Channel 5 also re-titled the show, Wentworth Prison. The second season began on Channel 5 on 3 September 2014 and season Three, which commenced broadcast on 22 July 2015, concluded with a two - hour season finale which consisted of episodes 11 and 12 of the season on 30 September 2015. Season four of Wentworth premiered on Channel 5 on 27 June 2016. In July, following declining ratings, the series was moved from its Monday night timeslot on Channel 5 to Tuesday 's on sister channel 5Star.
The series premiered in the Republic of Ireland broadcasting as Wentworth on TV3 from June 2014. Season 2 premiered on TV3 on 15 January 2015. In Canada the first two seasons broadcast on Aboriginal Peoples Television Network in late 2015.
Although the series has a strong fan base in many countries, Angela Perez of Australia Network News said Foxtel was considering cancelling the show due to audiences viewing new episodes via pirate websites following the Australian premiere. Foxtel stated that the piracy is "a serious problem in terms of recouping money to help pay for future seasons ''.
ABC 1 started broadcasting Wentworth from season 1 in April 2018.
In December 2014, Wentworth first premiered on Netflix in the United States and added seasons one and two to its streaming service. In April 2016 the third season was released to US audiences via the platform. Season 4 was released on Netflix in July 2016. The show features on the "50 Best TV Shows on Netflix '' list according to Netflix Life. Seasons one to three are available to view via Amazon Video in the U.S.
In the United Kingdom, all five seasons are available for streaming on Amazon Video, while additional services include Google Play and Youtube.
In Australia, Foxtel Now provides a catch - up service for the Wentworth, while the series is made available for catch - up viewing via TVNZ OnDemand in New Zealand and My5 in the United Kingdom for a limited time.
The show has received critical acclaim throughout its run. Following a screening of the pilot episode for the media in February 2013, Ben Pobjie from The Age called Wentworth "a triumph ''. He praised the writing and the cast, saying "So rarely in Australian TV do we see well - written characters collide with dead - on casting and tense, atmospheric direction as they have here. '' He added that Wentworth is "a powerful, almost cinematic drama '' with its own identity, that incorporates "echoes '' of the original Prisoner series. Holly Byrnes, writing for the Herald Sun, quipped "this brilliant retelling picks up where the pioneering series left off and then takes the kind of shocking plot detours contemporary TV viewers would expect from award - winning US dramas like Breaking Bad or Sons of Anarchy. '' Byrnes also praised the cast 's performances, particularly Cormack.
Following its North American debut the critics drew comparisons with US prison dramedy Orange Is the New Black, though Liz Raftery of TV Guide said she believed the show was more gritty and did not "sugarcoat '' prison life. They branded it "edge - of - your - seat television '' and singled out Sue ' Boomer ' Jenkins as one of the show 's standout characters and reasons to watch. Margaret Lyons from New York magazine called it a "ruthlessly dark drama '' similar to Breaking Bad, a comparison which TV Guide 's critics also made. Lyons added that Wentworth 's careful plotting of storylines gave meaningful payoffs and triumphed into making it a "smart and competent '' series.
Gerard O'Donovan from The Daily Telegraph opined that the show has a cast of "fabulously strong, variably humane female characters. '' They believed it did not try to appeal to "mainstream tastes '', adding "the series sticks more closely to its violent, soapy, sexploitation Prisoner: Cell Block H roots than is strictly necessary in 2016. '' O'Donovan branded it a rare example of fictional work portraying lesbianism as "not only normal, but the norm. '' He concluded the show depicts a world in which "women hold virtually all the power, albeit to no obviously edifying ends. '' Matt Baylis from the Daily Express criticised the show for not being original and having a "mandatory number of unnecessary scenes ''. They preferred the original series Prisoner and accused Wentworth of being everything the original was not.
The first episode of Wentworth attracted 244,000 viewers, making it the most watched Australian drama series premiere in Foxtel history. The UK premiere of the show attracted 1.67 million viewers, a 10.3 % share of the audience for the 10pm time slot.
In Australia, Wentworth is available on both DVD and Blu - ray formats, where in 2013 the first season was released via Shock Records. The series was however acquired by Roadshow Entertainment in 2014 for distribution of subsequent seasons, and a re-release of the first season in 2016. Fremantle Home Entertainment initially held the rights for distribution in the United Kingdom, where the series is only available on DVD, and under the "Wentworth Prison '' title. The first season was made available in a standard set and a Deluxe Edition, for which it included special features; both the second and third seasons received Deluxe Edition releases, after which, Network distribution acquired ownership of all home media rights for all previous seasons, and were the first company to release the fourth season in the United Kingdom. In the United States, the series commenced releasing on DVD in 2016 in which the first three seasons currently available from Acorn Media. Furthermore, multiple season sets are available on DVD and Blu - ray in Australia and on DVD in the United Kingdom. DVD and Blu - ray sets commenced releasing in Germany from early 2017. From Season 4 onwards, the series will only receive DVD sets in Germany.
(See individual releases for additional information)
(See individual releases for additional information)
(See individual releases for additional information)
(See individual releases for additional information)
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who does weekend update on saturday night live | Weekend Update - wikipedia
1975 -- 80 (seasons 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) 1980 -- 85 (seasons 6, 7, 8, 9, 10) 1985 -- 90 (seasons 11, 12, 13, 14, 15) 1990 -- 95 (seasons 16, 17, 18, 19, 20) 1995 -- 2000 (seasons 21, 22, 23, 24, 25) 2000 -- 05 (seasons 26, 27, 28, 29, 30) 2005 -- 10 (seasons 31, 32, 33, 34, 35) 2010 -- 15 (seasons 36, 37, 38, 39, 40) 2015 -- present (seasons 41, 42, 43, 44)
Weekend Update
Weekend Update is a Saturday Night Live sketch and fictional news program that comments on and parodies current events. It is the show 's longest - running recurring sketch, having been on since the show 's first broadcast, and is typically presented in the middle of the show immediately after the first musical performance. One or two of the players are cast in the role of news anchor, presenting gag news items based on current events and acting as hosts for occasional editorials, commentaries, or other performances by other cast members or guests. Chevy Chase has claimed that Weekend Update -- which he started as anchor in 1975 -- paved the way for comedic news shows like The Daily Show and The Colbert Report.
Weekend Update was created by original anchor Chevy Chase and SNL writer Herb Sargent, and appeared on the first SNL broadcast on October 11, 1975. Chase popularized several catchphrases during the segment, such as his "I 'm Chevy Chase... and you 're not '' greeting; and his repeated announcement that "Generalissimo Francisco Franco is still dead ''. When Weekend Update began, Chase was consistently on the phone presumably talking to his lover, and would talk until realizing he was "on air ''. Chase would always end Weekend Update with "That 's the news. Good night, and have a pleasant tomorrow. ''
In addition, Garrett Morris parodied the practice of a picture insert of a person simultaneously giving the news read in sign language for the hearing impaired in "The News for the Hard of Hearing ''. Chase would sometimes repeat the top story at the end of the segment, while Morris simply cupped his mouth and shouted the headline loudly.
Jane Curtin substituted for Chase during Season 2 for a few shows due to Chase 's injury and replaced him when he left in the fall of 1976 and stayed as anchor until the end of Season 5 in 1980. Curtin finished Season 2 solo, but was then paired with co-anchors Dan Aykroyd (1977 -- 1978) and Bill Murray (1978 -- 1980), with Aykroyd being "promoted '' to "Station Manager '' in September 1978.
A frequent feature of Weekend Update during this time was "Point / Counterpoint '', a send - up of the then - current 60 Minutes segment of the same name with James J. Kilpatrick and Shana Alexander. SNL 's version of "Point / Counterpoint '' featured Curtin and Aykroyd as debaters, making personal attacks on each other 's positions, with Aykroyd announcing the topic, Curtin making an opening statement, then Aykroyd typically retorting with, "Jane, you ignorant slut '' (becoming a SNL catch phrase), and Curtin frequently replying "Dan, you pompous ass ''.
Other popular running features were John Belushi giving editorials that usually ended with him working himself into a frenzy and stating "But Noooooo... '' When Curtin would try to calm him down, Belushi would promptly raise a fist at her and scream, "Do n't push me, Curtin! '' Also included was Gilda Radner 's character Emily Litella. Radner 's Litella character was prone to misinterpreting topics (leading her to present editorials on such things as the Eagle Rights Amendment) and not being aware of her error until Curtin would correct her, after which Litella would cheerfully say "Never mind. '' Litella was later replaced by another Radner character, consumer affairs reporter Roseanne Roseannadanna, who would attempt to answer a viewer question, but would ultimately digress into a graphic story involving some gross bodily function -- often featuring an interaction with a celebrity figure -- which Curtin would finally interrupt, tersely pointing out to her, "Roseanne, you 're making me sick. '' During Curtin 's tenure as host, she opened each Weekend Update segment with Roger Grimsby 's "Here now the news '' sign - on, and closed with Chase 's "That 's the news. Goodnight and have a pleasant tomorrow ''.
Charles Rocket (later teamed with Gail Matthius) anchored during the one - season (1980 -- 1981) tenure of new executive producer Jean Doumanian. Rocket is notable as being the only Weekend Update anchor to have experience as a real news anchor, having served as anchorman at KOAA - TV in Pueblo, Colorado under his birth name Charles Claverie and WTVF Nashville under the name Charles Kennedy.
Rocket 's final appearance was on the penultimate episode of the season, airing on March 7, 1981 and hosted by Bill Murray. For that episode, Weekend Update received a one - time name and set change to "Saturday Night NewsLine '', and featured three segments: science edition, hosted by Dr. Jonathan Lear (Mark King), arts and leisure correspondent Bill Murray, and news by Rocket. Rocket signed off each week by saying "Good night and watch out. ''
Prior to the final episode of the season, Jean Doumanian and most of the cast, including Rocket, were fired. Chase hosted the last episode and anchored Weekend Update, as he had on his previous appearances as host.
The anchor position changed hands frequently under Dick Ebersol, executive producer of SNL from 1981 to 1985. Brian Doyle - Murray was teamed first with Mary Gross, then going solo for three months, then back with Gross for one more month before finally being teamed with Christine Ebersole for the remainder of the season. Doyle - Murray signed off each week with "Good night, and good news. ''
Brad Hall took over the desk of the retitled "Saturday Night News '' in 1982 through most of the 1983 season. For the rest of the 1983 -- 1984 season, and into the next, there were no regular anchors whatsoever -- both cast members and SNL guest - hosts took turns at the chair (Hall himself left the show at the end of the 1983 -- 1984 season). In December 1984, Christopher Guest became the new anchor.
In 1985, Lorne Michaels returned to produce the show, bringing the Weekend Update name with him. The new anchor was Dennis Miller, who remained in the chair for six years, the longest run for a solo Weekend Update anchor. Miller opened the segments by saying "Good evening, and what can I tell ya? '' and signed off by saying "Guess what, folks? That 's the news, and I am outta here! '' He would then scribble nonsense on his script, sometimes throwing it into the air. Miller left in 1991.
Kevin Nealon took over with his "Mr. Subliminal '' character and as the straight man in many highlights such as "Operaman '' and "Cajun Man '' (with both characters being played by Adam Sandler), and Chris Farley 's "Bennett Brauer '' character. Nealon had a three - year stint at the "Update '' desk before requesting his departure, as he felt his time behind the desk was drawing away from other acting opportunities on the show. Nealon signed off with the tagline "I 'm Kevin Nealon, and that 's news to me ''.
Norm Macdonald, whom Chase called "the only other guy who did (the segment) funny '', took over the role for Season 20. Al Franken, whose history with SNL dated back to 1975, had been lobbying to replace Nealon as Weekend Update host -- and left the show after losing the anchor spot. Although Nealon no longer anchored Weekend Update, he still remained on the show until the end of Season 20. Macdonald would open each segment with "I 'm Norm Macdonald, and now the fake news ''.
Running gags by Macdonald included punchlines involving Frank Stallone and Germans loving David Hasselhoff. In his last two seasons, he introduced another recurring gag where he would read a news story and then record a "note to self '' on a tape recorder, regarding the story he had just read. One of the most frequent guest correspondents during Macdonald 's run was Joe Blow (played by Colin Quinn), a blue - collar guy who would rant about things that bother him. He would often make Macdonald uncomfortable and always ask when they were "gon na go for a beer together '', to which Macdonald would always end up turning him down. His sign off was usually "And that 's the way it is '', emulating Walter Cronkite 's famous sign off.
Another common topic of Macdonald 's jokes was O.J. Simpson after his arrest and trial for murder; one example was "A down - and - out O.J. Simpson... has decided to go back to doing what he does best: killing people. '' SNL writer Jim Downey recalled that "we did, like three solid years of, like, 60 shows of O.J. jokes in a row ''. Macdonald made his final appearance as Weekend Update anchor in December 1997, after NBC executive Don Ohlmeyer -- a longtime friend of Simpson, who had previously told Michaels to not let his friendship affect the show -- demanded his dismissal from the segment, despite Michaels 's protest that making the change in the middle of the season would be difficult for the show. Macdonald himself stated that he did not believe that the Simpson jokes were the cause for his firing.
Macdonald was replaced by Colin Quinn, who started on the first episode after Macdonald had been removed, and served through the 1999 -- 2000 season. His first edition of Weekend Update began with "Have you ever gone to a bar and found that your favorite bartender was replaced with a guy named Steve? - pause - Well I 'm Steve, what can I get you? '' His sign - off was "I 'm Colin Quinn, that 's my story and I 'm sticking to it '' (a line from the Collin Raye song "That 's My Story '').
For the first half of the 1998 -- 1999 season, Quinn would do a pre-desk monologue, where he would provide commentary and rant about the week 's biggest news stories. This feature was discontinued after the January 16, 1999 episode.
Quinn stepped down from Weekend Update after 1999 -- 2000, when he left SNL at the end of the season. He anchored the segment for two - and - a-half seasons.
Over the summer of 2000, cast members auditioned to be replacements. Among the candidates were stand - up comics Kevin Brennan and Jeffrey Ross, and two duos -- Ana Gasteyer and Chris Parnell; and Jimmy Fallon and writer Tina Fey. The latter duo were chosen, and they made their first on - air appearance that October. Fallon ended each Weekend Update sketch by throwing his pencil at the camera and cheering if he managed to hit it. Fey often signed off with Chase and Curtin 's "Good night, and have a pleasant tomorrow ''.
Recurring features of the Fallon / Fey era included the "Update Door '', a door on the left of the set where celebrities, as impersonated by SNL cast members (and at one time the Land Shark) would walk through to do a commentary; a segment called "Terrible ReEnactments '', in which Chris Kattan would do an intentionally bad re-enactment of a news story that had occurred during the week (usually the story involved a celebrity being injured); and regular appearances from Jeff Richards 's Drunk Girl character.
Fallon left to pursue a film career in 2004, and was replaced by fellow cast member Amy Poehler as co-anchor, giving the sketch its first two - woman anchor team.
The 2005 -- 2006 season began with Poehler returning to her seat behind the desk.
The segment is featured in the 2006 film Man of the Year in which Robin Williams appears on "Weekend Update '' alongside Poehler and Fey.
Fey temporarily left the show after giving birth to her first child and was replaced briefly by Horatio Sanz as co-anchor (Sanz wore horn - rimmed glasses during Fey 's absence). Fey returned to the show in October for the season 's third live episode.
After the departure of Fey, Poehler continued as co-anchor along with new co-anchor Seth Meyers for the 2006 -- 2007 season. The duo began a string of running gags, including "Really!?! with Seth and Amy '', in which the pair lambast celebrities for lack of common sense. Poehler left SNL in fall 2008 to give birth to her first child.
During the 2007 -- 2008 season, two previous hosts returned to the Weekend Update desk for one - off appearances -- Chevy Chase, as "Senior Political Correspondent ''; and Tina Fey, as "Special Women 's News Correspondent ''. Women 's News was a running segment during the Fey / Poehler era. Alaska Governor Sarah Palin also appeared on Weekend Update once during the 2008 -- 2009 season, and ended the segment with the traditional "Good night and have a pleasant tomorrow '', as Poehler had left her seat to perform a "Sarah Palin rap ''.
Beginning October 25, 2008, Meyers anchored the segment alone with Poehler still being credited, but not appearing. On December 6, 2008, Poehler returned, four weeks after the birth of her child, to do Weekend Update with Meyers, but on the December 13, 2008, Weekend Update segment, she announced to the audience that the show was her last one.
After that, Meyers continued anchoring Weekend Update solo. The "Really!?! '' celebrity - mocking gag (retitled "Really!?! with Seth '') remained, featuring various hosts and guests including Tracy Morgan and Jerry Seinfeld in March 2009 and Kermit the Frog in November 2011. In May 2010, Poehler returned to do it once more, alongside Tina Fey as well.
A running gag of this era was Bobby Moynihan 's portrayal of Snooki from Jersey Shore. Moynihan displays a certain attraction to Meyers, who makes fun of the general attitude of the cast members of Jersey Shore as well as Snooki 's own personal attributes. Another popular segment was city correspondent Stefon, played by Bill Hader.
During his time in office, New York Governor David Paterson (played by Fred Armisen) often appeared as a guest on the segment. In the premiere episode of SNL 's 36th season, Paterson, himself, made a guest appearance on Weekend Update next to Armisen. Amy Poehler, who had returned to host the episode, co-anchored Weekend Update as she traditionally did before her departure.
On the December 17, 2011, episode, which was hosted by Jimmy Fallon, multiple former anchors returned for a "Weekend Update Joke - Off ''. Along with Meyers, the anchors included Fallon, Poehler, and Fey.
Seth Meyers signed off with "For ' Weekend Update ', I 'm Seth Meyers! Good night! ''
Entertainment Weekly confirmed that Amy Poehler would appear on Saturday Night Live Weekend Update Thursday for at least two broadcasts as co-anchor in fall 2009. For the third episode of Weekend Update Thursday, Seth Meyers anchored solo. After each episode, the anchor (s) would throw to Parks and Recreation. Lorne Michaels had stated that there would be six more episodes of Weekend Update Thursday; however, the spring 2010 episodes were scrapped.
Poehler returned on both the February 18, 2012, and May 18, 2013, episodes to perform "Really!?! with Seth and Amy '' twice more. In both instances, Meyers asked her if she would like to co-anchor with him again for the rest of that segment; he was barely able to finish asking before she accepted.
On May 12, 2013, NBC announced that Seth Meyers would become the new host of Late Night in 2014, succeeding Jimmy Fallon, who would take over as the new host of The Tonight Show. In September 2013, Lorne Michaels confirmed that Meyers, who would stay on at SNL for at least the first half of the show 's 39th season, would be joined at the "Weekend Update '' anchor desk by a new co-anchor, Cecily Strong, beginning with the show 's season premiere on September 28, 2013. Strong, who joined SNL the previous season, was no stranger to the segment, making visits to the Weekend Update desk as her recurring character "The Girl You Wish You Had n't Started a Conversation With at a Party ''. Michaels, who also produces Late Night, hinted at Meyers potentially dropping in as Weekend Update co-anchor, noting that Meyers 's Late Night will not tape on Friday nights. Meyers and Strong sign off with "For ' Weekend Update ', I 'm Seth Meyers! '' "And I 'm Cecily Strong, good night! '' before performing a fist bump or blowing kisses to the audience.
On February 1, 2014, Meyers performed his final episode of SNL and was joined at the Weekend Update desk by Strong, Poehler, Hader in character as Stefon, Andy Samberg, and Armisen as Governor Paterson.
On January 23, 2014, it was announced that, starting March 1, 2014, SNL writer Colin Jost would replace Meyers as co-anchor of Weekend Update. Jost made his debut as co-anchor as scheduled on the March 1 episode, which was hosted by Jim Parsons. For the duration of this tenure, Strong stayed to the right side while Jost went to the left. Strong led off each broadcast except for the May 3, 2014 episode hosted by Andrew Garfield, when Jost led off.
On September 11, 2014, it was announced that comedian and SNL writer Michael Che would replace Cecily Strong as the new Weekend Update anchor. His first episode was the season 40 premiere, hosted by Chris Pratt. Che 's pairing with Colin Jost is the first in which both anchors are male.
Che led off the broadcast on his premiere episode. Starting with the October 4, 2014, episode hosted by Sarah Silverman, each anchor tells at least one extended joke per segment.
So far, this era has a lot of appearances from cast members, most notably Pete Davidson and Leslie Jones appearing as themselves.
These segments have also sometimes included weatherwoman Dawn Lazarus, played by Vanessa Bayer. Dawn would always speak in gibberish and have no idea about what she was supposed to do at her job.
A total of 32 people have anchored the Weekend Update desk. Below is a complete list of any and all who have served as an anchor at one time or another, and the season (s) in which they served. Note that throughout most of 1984, different cast members, special guests, or the weekly host handled the task. Those individuals (denoted in italics) are also listed below.
Season 1 (1975 -- 1976)
Season 2 (1976 -- 1977)
Season 3 (1977 -- 1978)
Seasons 4 -- 5 (1978 -- 1980)
Season 6 (1980 -- 1981)
Season 7 (1981 -- 1982)
Season 8 (1982 -- 1983)
Season 9 (1983 -- 1984)
Season 10 (1984 -- 1985):
Seasons 11 -- 16 (1985 -- 1991):
Seasons 17 -- 19 (1991 -- 1994):
Seasons 20 -- 22 (1994 -- 1997):
Season 23 (1997 -- 1998):
Seasons 24 -- 25 (1998 -- 2000):
Seasons 26 -- 29 (2000 -- 2004):
Season 30 (2004 -- 2005):
Season 31 (2005 -- 2006)
Seasons 32 -- 33 (2006 -- 2008)
Season 34 (2008 -- 2009)
Seasons 35 -- 38 (2009 -- 2013)
Season 39 (2013 -- 2014)
Season 40 -- present (2014 -- present)
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when were the great pyramids of giza discovered | Great pyramid of Giza - wikipedia
The Great Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of Khufu or the Pyramid of Cheops) is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza pyramid complex bordering what is now El Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely intact.
Based on a mark in an interior chamber naming the work gang and a reference to fourth dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu, Egyptologists believe that the pyramid was built as a tomb over a 10 to 20 - year period concluding around 2560 BC. Initially at 146.5 metres (481 feet), the Great Pyramid was the tallest man - made structure in the world for more than 3,800 years. Originally, the Great Pyramid was covered by casing stones that formed a smooth outer surface; what is seen today is the underlying core structure. Some of the casing stones that once covered the structure can still be seen around the base. There have been varying scientific and alternative theories about the Great Pyramid 's construction techniques. Most accepted construction hypotheses are based on the idea that it was built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.
There are three known chambers inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was built and was unfinished. The so - called Queen 's Chamber and King 's Chamber are higher up within the pyramid structure. The main part of the Giza complex is a setting of buildings that included two mortuary temples in honour of Khufu (one close to the pyramid and one near the Nile), three smaller pyramids for Khufu 's wives, an even smaller "satellite '' pyramid, a raised causeway connecting the two temples, and small mastaba tombs surrounding the pyramid for nobles.
It is believed the pyramid was built as a tomb for Fourth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu (often Hellenicised as "Cheops '') and was constructed over a 20 - year period. Khufu 's vizier, Hemiunu (also called Hemon), is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid. It is thought that, at construction, the Great Pyramid was originally 280 Egyptian cubits tall (146.5 metres (480.6 ft)), but with erosion and absence of its pyramidion, its present height is 138.8 metres (455.4 ft). Each base side was 440 cubits, 230.4 metres (755.9 ft) long. The mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tonnes. The volume, including an internal hillock, is roughly 2,500,000 cubic metres (88,000,000 cu ft).
Based on these estimates, building the pyramid in 20 years would involve installing approximately 800 tonnes of stone every day. Additionally, since it consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks, completing the building in 20 years would involve moving an average of more than 12 of the blocks into place each hour, day and night. The first precision measurements of the pyramid were made by Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie in 1880 -- 82 and published as The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh. Almost all reports are based on his measurements. Many of the casing stones and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid fit together with extremely high precision. Based on measurements taken on the northeastern casing stones, the mean opening of the joints is only 0.5 millimetre wide (1 / 50 of an inch).
The pyramid remained the tallest man - made structure in the world for over 3,800 years, unsurpassed until the 160 - metre - tall (520 ft) spire of Lincoln Cathedral was completed c. 1300. The accuracy of the pyramid 's workmanship is such that the four sides of the base have an average error of only 58 millimetres in length. The base is horizontal and flat to within ± 15 mm (0.6 in). The sides of the square base are closely aligned to the four cardinal compass points (within four minutes of arc) based on true north, not magnetic north, and the finished base was squared to a mean corner error of only 12 seconds of arc.
The completed design dimensions, as suggested by Petrie 's survey and subsequent studies, are estimated to have originally been 280 royal cubits high by 440 cubits long at each of the four sides of its base. The ratio of the perimeter to height of 1760 / 280 royal cubits equates to 2 π to an accuracy of better than 0.05 % (corresponding to the well - known approximation of π as 22 / 7). Some Egyptologists consider this to have been the result of deliberate design proportion. Verner wrote, "We can conclude that although the ancient Egyptians could not precisely define the value of π, in practice they used it ''. Petrie, author of Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh concluded: "but these relations of areas and of circular ratio are so systematic that we should grant that they were in the builder 's design ''. Others have argued that the Ancient Egyptians had no concept of pi and would not have thought to encode it in their monuments. They believe that the observed pyramid slope may be based on a simple seked slope choice alone, with no regard to the overall size and proportions of the finished building. In 2013 rolls of papyrus called The diary of Merer were discovered written by some of those who delivered stone and other construction materials to Khufu 's brother at Giza.
The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks which most believe to have been transported from nearby quarries. The Tura limestone used for the casing was quarried across the river. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found in the "King 's '' chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tonnes and were transported from Aswan, more than 800 km (500 mi) away. Traditionally, ancient Egyptians cut stone blocks by hammering into them some wooden wedges, which were then soaked with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, causing the rock to crack. Once they were cut, they were carried by boat either up or down the Nile River to the pyramid. It is estimated that 5.5 million tonnes of limestone, 8,000 tonnes of granite (imported from Aswan), and 500,000 tonnes of mortar were used in the construction of the Great Pyramid.
At completion, the Great Pyramid was surfaced by white "casing stones '' -- slant - faced, but flat - topped, blocks of highly polished white limestone. These were carefully cut to what is approximately a face slope with a seked of 51⁄2 palms to give the required dimensions. Visibly, all that remains is the underlying stepped core structure seen today. In AD 1303, a massive earthquake loosened many of the outer casing stones, which were then carted away by Bahri Sultan An - Nasir Nasir - ad - Din al - Hasan in 1356 to build mosques and fortresses in nearby Cairo. Many more casing stones were removed from the great pyramids by Muhammad Ali Pasha in the early 19th century to build the upper portion of his Alabaster Mosque in Cairo not far from Giza. These limestone casings can still be seen as parts of these structures. Later explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of the casing stones, which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site.
Nevertheless, a few of the casing stones from the lowest course can be seen to this day in situ around the base of the Great Pyramid, and display the same workmanship and precision that has been reported for centuries. Petrie also found a different orientation in the core and in the casing measuring 193 centimetres ± 25 centimetres. He suggested a redetermination of north was made after the construction of the core, but a mistake was made, and the casing was built with a different orientation. Petrie related the precision of the casing stones as to being "equal to opticians ' work of the present day, but on a scale of acres '' and "to place such stones in exact contact would be careful work; but to do so with cement in the joints seems almost impossible ''. It has been suggested it was the mortar (Petrie 's "cement '') that made this seemingly impossible task possible, providing a level bed, which enabled the masons to set the stones exactly.
Many alternative, often contradictory, theories have been proposed regarding the pyramid 's construction techniques. Many disagree on whether the blocks were dragged, lifted, or even rolled into place. The Greeks believed that slave labour was used, but modern discoveries made at nearby workers ' camps associated with construction at Giza suggest that it was built instead by tens of thousands of skilled workers. Verner posited that the labour was organized into a hierarchy, consisting of two gangs of 100,000 men, divided into five zaa or phyle of 20,000 men each, which may have been further divided according to the skills of the workers.
One mystery of the pyramid 's construction is its planning. John Romer suggests that they used the same method that had been used for earlier and later constructions, laying out parts of the plan on the ground at a 1 - to - 1 scale. He writes that "such a working diagram would also serve to generate the architecture of the pyramid with precision unmatched by any other means ''. He also argues for a 14 - year time span for its construction. A modern construction management study, in association with Mark Lehner and other Egyptologists, estimated that the total project required an average workforce of about 14,500 people and a peak workforce of roughly 40,000. Without the use of pulleys, wheels, or iron tools, they used critical path analysis methods, which suggest that the Great Pyramid was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years.
The original entrance to the Great Pyramid is on the north, 17 metres (56 ft) vertically above ground level and 7.29 metres (23.9 ft) east of the centre line of the pyramid. From this original entrance, there is a Descending Passage 0.96 metres (3.1 ft) high and 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide, which goes down at an angle of 26 ° 31'23 '' through the masonry of the pyramid and then into the bedrock beneath it. After 105.23 metres (345.2 ft), the passage becomes level and continues for an additional 8.84 metres (29.0 ft) to the lower Chamber, which appears not to have been finished. There is a continuation of the horizontal passage in the south wall of the lower chamber; there is also a pit dug in the floor of the chamber. Some Egyptologists suggest that this Lower Chamber was intended to be the original burial chamber, but Pharaoh Khufu later changed his mind and wanted it to be higher up in the pyramid.
28.2 metres (93 ft) from the entrance is a square hole in the roof of the Descending Passage. Originally concealed with a slab of stone, this is the beginning of the Ascending Passage. The Ascending Passage is 39.3 metres (129 ft) long, as wide and high as the Descending Passage and slopes up at almost precisely the same angle to reach the Grand Gallery. The lower end of the Ascending Passage is closed by three huge blocks of granite, each about 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) long. One must use the Robbers ' Tunnel (see below) to access the Ascending Passage. At the start of the Grand Gallery on the right - hand side there is a hole cut in the wall. This is the start of a vertical shaft which follows an irregular path through the masonry of the pyramid to join the Descending Passage. Also at the start of the Grand Gallery there is the Horizontal Passage leading to the "Queen 's Chamber ''. The passage is 1.1 m (3'8 ") high for most of its length, but near the chamber there is a step in the floor, after which the passage is 1.73 metres (5.7 ft) high.
The "Queen 's Chamber '' is exactly halfway between the north and south faces of the pyramid and measures 5.75 metres (18.9 ft) north to south, 5.23 metres (17.2 ft) east to west, and has a pointed roof with an apex 6.23 metres (20.4 ft) above the floor. At the eastern end of the chamber there is a niche 4.67 metres (15.3 ft) high. The original depth of the niche was 1.04 metres (3.4 ft), but has since been deepened by treasure hunters.
In the north and south walls of the Queen 's Chamber there are shafts, which unlike those in the King 's Chamber that immediately slope upwards (see below), are horizontal for around 2 m (6.6 ft) before sloping upwards. The horizontal distance was cut in 1872 by a British engineer, Waynman Dixon, who believed a shaft similar to those in the King 's Chamber must also exist. He was proved right, but because the shafts are not connected to the outer faces of the pyramid or the Queen 's Chamber, their purpose is unknown. At the end of one of his shafts, Dixon discovered a ball of black diorite (a type of rock) and a bronze implement of unknown purpose. Both objects are currently in the British Museum.
The shafts in the Queen 's Chamber were explored in 1993 by the German engineer Rudolf Gantenbrink using a crawler robot he designed, Upuaut 2. After a climb of 65 m (213 ft), he discovered that one of the shafts was blocked by limestone "doors '' with two eroded copper "handles ''. Some years later the National Geographic Society created a similar robot which, in September 2002, drilled a small hole in the southern door, only to find another door behind it. The northern passage, which was difficult to navigate because of twists and turns, was also found to be blocked by a door.
Research continued in 2011 with the Djedi Project. Realizing the problem was that the National Geographic Society 's camera was only able to see straight ahead of it, they instead used a fiber - optic "micro snake camera '' that could see around corners. With this they were able to penetrate the first door of the southern shaft through the hole drilled in 2002, and view all the sides of the small chamber behind it. They discovered hieroglyphs written in red paint. They were also able to scrutinize the inside of the two copper "handles '' embedded in the door, and they now believe them to be for decorative purposes. They also found the reverse side of the "door '' to be finished and polished, which suggests that it was not put there just to block the shaft from debris, but rather for a more specific reason.
The Grand Gallery continues the slope of the Ascending Passage, but is 8.6 metres (28 ft) high and 46.68 metres (153.1 ft) long. At the base it is 2.06 metres (6.8 ft) wide, but after 2.29 metres (7.5 ft) the blocks of stone in the walls are corbelled inwards by 7.6 centimetres (3.0 in) on each side. There are seven of these steps, so, at the top, the Grand Gallery is only 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide. It is roofed by slabs of stone laid at a slightly steeper angle than the floor of the gallery, so that each stone fits into a slot cut in the top of the gallery like the teeth of a ratchet. The purpose was to have each block supported by the wall of the Gallery rather than resting on the block beneath it, which would have resulted in an unacceptable cumulative pressure at the lower end of the Gallery.
At the upper end of the Gallery on the right - hand side there is a hole near the roof that opens into a short tunnel by which access can be gained to the lowest of the Relieving Chambers. The other Relieving Chambers were discovered in 1837 - 1838 by Colonel Howard Vyse and J.S. Perring, who dug tunnels upwards using blasting powder.
The floor of the Grand Gallery consists of a shelf or step on either side, 51 centimetres (20 in) wide, leaving a lower ramp 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide between them. In the shelves there are 54 slots, 27 on each side matched by vertical and horizontal slots in the walls of the Gallery. These form a cross shape that rises out of the slot in the shelf. The purpose of these slots is not known, but the central gutter in the floor of the Gallery, which is the same width as the Ascending Passage, has led to speculation that the blocking stones were stored in the Grand Gallery and the slots held wooden beams to restrain them from sliding down the passage. This, in turn, has led to the proposal that originally many more than 3 blocking stones were intended, to completely fill the Ascending Passage.
At the top of the Grand Gallery, there is a step giving onto a horizontal passage some metres long and approximately 1.02 metres (3.3 ft) in height and width, in which can be detected four slots, three of which were probably intended to hold granite portcullises. Fragments of granite found by Petrie in the Descending Passage may have come from these now - vanished doors.
The "King 's Chamber '' is 20 cubits or 10.47 metres (34.4 ft) from east to west and 10 cubits or 5.234 metres (17.17 ft) north to south. It has a flat roof 11 cubits and 5 digits or 5.852 metres (19 feet 2 inch) above the floor. 0.91 m (3.0 ft) above the floor there are two narrow shafts in the north and south walls (one is now filled by an extractor fan in an attempt to circulate air inside the pyramid). The purpose of these shafts is not clear: they appear to be aligned towards stars or areas of the northern and southern skies, yet one of them follows a dog - leg course through the masonry, indicating no intention to directly sight stars through them. They were long believed by Egyptologists to be "air shafts '' for ventilation, but this idea has now been widely abandoned in favour of the shafts serving a ritualistic purpose associated with the ascension of the king 's spirit to the heavens.
The King 's Chamber is entirely faced with granite. Above the roof, which is formed of nine slabs of stone weighing in total about 400 tons, are five compartments known as Relieving Chambers. The first four, like the King 's Chamber, have flat roofs formed by the floor of the chamber above, but the final chamber has a pointed roof. Vyse suspected the presence of upper chambers when he found that he could push a long reed through a crack in the ceiling of the first chamber. From lower to upper, the chambers are known as "Davison 's Chamber '', "Wellington 's Chamber '', "Nelson 's Chamber '', "Lady Arbuthnot 's Chamber '', and "Campbell 's Chamber ''. It is believed that the compartments were intended to safeguard the King 's Chamber from the possibility of a roof collapsing under the weight of stone above the Chamber. As the chambers were not intended to be seen, they were not finished in any way and a few of the stones still retain masons ' marks painted on them. One of the stones in Campbell 's Chamber bears a mark, apparently the name of a work gang.
The only object in the King 's Chamber is a rectangular granite sarcophagus, one corner of which is broken. The sarcophagus is slightly larger than the Ascending Passage, which indicates that it must have been placed in the Chamber before the roof was put in place. Unlike the fine masonry of the walls of the Chamber, the sarcophagus is roughly finished, with saw marks visible in several places. This is in contrast with the finely finished and decorated sarcophagi found in other pyramids of the same period. Petrie suggested that such a sarcophagus was intended but was lost in the river on the way north from Aswan and a hurriedly made replacement was used instead.
Today tourists enter the Great Pyramid via the Robbers ' Tunnel, a tunnel purportedly created around AD 820 by Caliph al - Ma'mun 's workmen using a battering ram. The tunnel is cut straight through the masonry of the pyramid for approximately 27 metres (89 ft), then turns sharply left to encounter the blocking stones in the Ascending Passage. It is believed that their efforts dislodged the stone fitted in the ceiling of the Descending Passage to hide the entrance to the Ascending Passage and it was the noise of that stone falling and then sliding down the Descending Passage, which alerted them to the need to turn left. Unable to remove these stones, however, the workmen tunnelled up beside them through the softer limestone of the Pyramid until they reached the Ascending Passage. It is possible to enter the Descending Passage from this point, but access is usually forbidden.
The Great Pyramid is surrounded by a complex of several buildings including small pyramids. The Pyramid Temple, which stood on the east side of the pyramid and measured 52.2 metres (171 ft) north to south and 40 metres (130 ft) east to west, has almost entirely disappeared apart from the black basalt paving. There are only a few remnants of the causeway which linked the pyramid with the valley and the Valley Temple. The Valley Temple is buried beneath the village of Nazlet el - Samman; basalt paving and limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated. The basalt blocks show "clear evidence '' of having been cut with some kind of saw with an estimated cutting blade of 15 feet (4.6 m) in length, capable of cutting at a rate of 1.5 inches (38 mm) per minute. John Romer suggests that this "super saw '' may have had copper teeth and weighed up to 300 pounds (140 kg). He theorizes that such a saw could have been attached to a wooden trestle and possibly used in conjunction with vegetable oil, cutting sand, emery or pounded quartz to cut the blocks, which would have required the labour of at least a dozen men to operate it.
On the south side are the subsidiary pyramids, popularly known as Queens ' Pyramids. Three remain standing to nearly full height but the fourth was so ruined that its existence was not suspected until the recent discovery of the first course of stones and the remains of the capstone. Hidden beneath the paving around the pyramid was the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, sister - wife of Sneferu and mother of Khufu. Discovered by accident by the Reisner expedition, the burial was intact, though the carefully sealed coffin proved to be empty.
The Giza pyramid complex, which includes among other structures the pyramids of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, is surrounded by a cyclopean stone wall, the Wall of the Crow. Mark Lehner has discovered a worker 's town outside of the wall, otherwise known as "The Lost City '', dated by pottery styles, seal impressions, and stratigraphy to have been constructed and occupied sometime during the reigns of Khafre (2520 -- 2494 BC) and Menkaure (2490 -- 2472 BC). Recent discoveries by Mark Lehner and his team at the town and nearby, including what appears to have been a thriving port, suggest the town and associated living quarters consisting of barracks called "galleries '' may not have been for the pyramid workers after all, but rather for the soldiers and sailors who utilized the port. In light of this new discovery, as to where then the pyramid workers may have lived Lehner now suggests the alternative possibility they may have camped on the ramps he believes were used to construct the pyramids or possibly at nearby quarries.
In the early 1970s, the Australian archaeologist Karl Kromer excavated a mound in the South Field of the plateau. This mound contained artefacts including mudbrick seals of Khufu, which he identified with an artisans ' settlement. Mudbrick buildings just south of Khufu 's Valley Temple contained mud sealings of Khufu and have been suggested to be a settlement serving the cult of Khufu after his death. A worker 's cemetery used at least between Khufu 's reign and the end of the Fifth Dynasty was discovered south of the Wall of the Crow by Zahi Hawass in 1990.
There are three boat - shaped pits around the pyramid, of a size and shape to have held complete boats, though so shallow that any superstructure, if there ever was one, must have been removed or disassembled. In May 1954, the Egyptian archaeologist Kamal el - Mallakh discovered a fourth pit, a long, narrow rectangle, still covered with slabs of stone weighing up to 15 tons. Inside were 1,224 pieces of wood, the longest 23 metres (75 ft) long, the shortest 10 centimetres (0.33 ft). These were entrusted to a boat builder, Haj Ahmed Yusuf, who worked out how the pieces fit together. The entire process, including conservation and straightening of the warped wood, took fourteen years.
The result is a cedar - wood boat 43.6 metres (143 ft) long, its timbers held together by ropes, which is currently housed in a special boat - shaped, air - conditioned museum beside the pyramid. During construction of this museum, which stands above the boat pit, a second sealed boat pit was discovered. It was deliberately left unopened until 2011 when excavation began on the boat.
Although succeeding pyramids were smaller, pyramid building continued until the end of the Middle Kingdom. However, as authors Briar and Hobbs claim, "all the pyramids were robbed '' by the New Kingdom, when the construction of royal tombs in a desert valley, now known as the Valley of the Kings, began. Joyce Tyldesley states that the Great Pyramid itself "is known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom '', before the Arab caliph Abdullah al - Mamun entered the pyramid around AD 820.
I.E.S. Edwards discusses Strabo 's mention that the pyramid "a little way up one side has a stone that may be taken out, which being raised up there is a sloping passage to the foundations ''. Edwards suggested that the pyramid was entered by robbers after the end of the Old Kingdom and sealed and then reopened more than once until Strabo 's door was added. He adds: "If this highly speculative surmise be correct, it is also necessary to assume either that the existence of the door was forgotten or that the entrance was again blocked with facing stones '', in order to explain why al - Ma'mun could not find the entrance.
He also discusses a story told by Herodotus. Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BC and recounts a story that he was told concerning vaults under the pyramid built on an island where the body of Cheops lies. Edwards notes that the pyramid had "almost certainly been opened and its contents plundered long before the time of Herodotus '' and that it might have been closed again during the Twenty - sixth Dynasty of Egypt when other monuments were restored. He suggests that the story told to Herodotus could have been the result of almost two centuries of telling and retelling by Pyramid guides.
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what type of memory does reid have on criminal minds | Spencer Reid - wikipedia
Diana Reid (mother) William Reid (father) Ethel (aunt) Gordon (uncle) Daniel (uncle, deceased) Henry LaMontagne (godson, via JJ) Michael LaMontagne (godson, via JJ) Hank Spencer Morgan (godson, via Morgan)
Dr. Spencer Reid is a fictional character from the CBS crime drama Criminal Minds, portrayed by Matthew Gray Gubler. Reid is a genius with an IQ of 187 and can read 20,000 words per minute with an eidetic memory. He is the youngest member of the FBI 's Behavioral Analysis Unit, has three BAs and three PhDs, and specializes in statistics and geographic profiling.
Reid was born in 1981 and is a genius and autodidact who graduated from a Las Vegas public high school at age 12. He has an IQ of 187, an eidetic memory, and can read 20,000 words per minute (an average American adult reads prose text at 200 -- 300 words per minute). He holds B.A.s in Psychology, Sociology, and Philosophy, a Ph. D. in Chemistry and Engineering as well as a Ph. D. in Mathematics from Caltech.
Reid is 23 in the pilot episode, having joined the unit when he was 22. His fellow team members almost always introduce him as Dr. Reid. Hotch reveals in the first season that Gideon insists on introducing him as Dr. Reid because Gideon fears that, because of his age, Reid will not be taken seriously as an FBI agent. This was a genuine concern, both for in - universe and for audience acceptance, since in real life the minimum age to become an FBI Special Agent is 23, with at least three more years to obtain Supervisory Special Agent status, and appointments to the BAU do not usually occur until after at least eight to ten years in the FBI. While filming the pilot, the show 's FBI consultant informed Matthew Gray Gubler that there was nothing realistic about his character.
Before Gubler was cast in the role, the character was envisioned as more like Data from Star Trek. However, the producers liked Gubler 's softer interpretation, despite telling the actor he was wrong for the part. After several callbacks, he was hired.
During October 2012, series creator Jeff Davis tweeted that Reid was originally envisioned to be bisexual, but the network shut the idea down by the fourth episode when Reid develops a crush on his colleague, Jennifer "JJ '' Jareau.
As is characteristic of people with Asperger 's syndrome, Reid is socially awkward. He often fixates on things (prompting Morgan and other team members to have to tell him to be quiet), and misses social cues at times (for example, unknowingly changing the subject of a conversation). The Unknown Subject ("UnSub '') in "Broken Mirror '' notes this, and Gubler stated in an interview in the show 's second season "(Reid) 's an eccentric genius, with hints of schizophrenia and minor autism, Asperger 's syndrome. Reid is 24 years old with three Ph. D.s and one can not usually achieve that without some form of autism. '' Writer Sharon Lee Watson stated in a Twitter chat that Reid 's Asperger traits make the character more lovable.
Gubler has commented on the differences between Reid and similarly odd character Penelope Garcia: "She represents everything he 's not, she 's very tech oriented and I would like to imagine he is more like 1920s smart, books and reading etc ''. Kirsten Vangsness agreed, adding that Garcia is more extroverted and available emotionally, whereas Reid struggles with his emotions. Reid is a technophobe, using neither email nor the new iPads. Gubler tweeted that Reid is also germaphobic. In general, Reid dislikes shaking hands, and shows adverse reactions when touched by strangers. It is speculated the character may also have slight obsessive compulsive disorder, particularly from a scene in "Out of the Light '' where Derek Morgan slightly moves an item in the home of an UnSub afflicted with OCD, and Reid immediately places it back to its previous spot.
Reid is a good map - reader, and therefore does geographic profiling and map - related activities for the team. He also has a talent with words, and is the team 's go - to linguistic profiler, as well as their unofficial discourse analyst. He is rarely seen behind the wheel -- one time when Morgan hands him the keys, JJ and Emily exchange horrified expressions -- but in "Lo - Fi '' he is seen getting into the driver 's side of a vehicle and even driving that same vehicle in one scene, as well as driving to Gideon 's cabin in "In Name and Blood, '' and in "Nelson 's Sparrow. '' However, he is usually seen as a backseat passenger during car scenes, and he commutes to work using the Metro, and presumably the VRE.
Spencer Walter Reid was born in Las Vegas, Nevada to William Reid (Taylor Nichols), a lawyer, and Diana Reid (Jane Lynch), a former professor of 15th century literature. Diana also has paranoid schizophrenia, and went off her medication during her pregnancy. Reid and his mother have a very close relationship, despite her condition.
At age four, Spencer was approached by a man, Gary Michaels, while playing chess at a local park. Although Spencer was unharmed, Diana insisted the family move because she believed her son was in danger. Shortly thereafter, Spencer 's six - year - old neighbor, Riley Jenkins, was sexually abused and murdered. Diana told Lou Jenkins, Riley 's father, about the park incident. Diana then followed Jenkins and witnessed him beat Michaels to death with a baseball bat, getting blood on her clothes in the process. In order to protect his wife, William burned Diana 's clothes, which Spencer inadvertently witnessed. Jenkins avoided arrest because Michaels "disappeared '', and as he had a criminal history as a sexual predator, the police did n't look very hard into the case. Years later, Reid starts having nightmares about the incident, initially leading him to believe his own father was Riley 's killer. Rossi and Morgan help him investigate. After undergoing hypnosis to recover his memories, Reid mistakenly believes he saw his father burning Riley 's clothes, not Diana 's. He pursues his father as a suspect, even after it becomes clear that Michaels is the more likely perpetrator. Michaels ' body is found, and DNA confirms his killer was Lou Jenkins, who is arrested. While Reid is interviewing Jenkins, demanding to know how his father was involved, his parents interrupt and confess to their son the whole story.
At ten years old, Reid 's father abandoned the family. The Michaels incident had already started the rift, and as Diana 's mental state continued to deteriorate due to her paranoid schizophrenia, William left, refusing to take Spencer with him. He moved ten miles away, and never contacted his son. Reid finds out his father 's address from Lou Jenkins seventeen years later, as well as the fact that his father never changed jobs. William later states that the reason he never returned was because he was too ashamed, and felt too much time had passed for him to re-enter Reid 's life, although he did keep electronic tabs on his son. When his father was leaving, young Spencer tried to convince him to stay by using a statistic that children of parents who remain together receive more education. This angered William: "We 're not statistics. '' Reid states that one way he gets back at his father is to collect more educational degrees.
Due to his young age and genius IQ, Reid was a victim of severe bullying in high school. In "Elephant 's Memory '', he recounts one instance where he was stripped naked and tied to a goalpost in front of other students, remaining there for hours. In "L.D.S.K. '', Hotchner is forced to kick Reid in order to allow him access to a gun in order to shoot a suspect. When Hotch says he is sorry if he hurt him, Reid points out that he was a child prodigy in a Las Vegas school and tells Hotch, "you kick like a nine - year - old girl ''. Reid 's social standing as a child increased when he started winning games as the coach of his high school 's basketball team, using statistics to break down the opposing teams ' shooting strategies.
At age twelve, Reid graduated from high school. He attended Caltech, where he rode his bike to classes. He finished his undergraduate degree at sixteen, and received his first doctorate (in Mathematics) the following year. It has also been stated that he attended MIT, but episode writer Breen Frazier admitted the MIT line was a mistake, although it has not yet been corrected onscreen. Yale University was Reid 's "safety school ''. Between the ages of 17 and 21, he completed two more doctorates (Chemistry and Engineering), and two more Bachelor 's degrees (psychology and sociology).
When Reid was eighteen, he realized his mother 's condition had deteriorated to the point where she could no longer take care of herself and had her committed involuntarily to a psychiatric institution, Bennington Sanitarium. Diana still resides in the same institution, and Reid says that he sends her letters every day, in part because of the guilt he feels for not visiting her. He worries about the fact that his mother 's illness can be passed on genetically; telling Morgan: "I know what it 's like to be afraid of your own mind ''.
Currently, Reid resides in an apartment in the District of Columbia, possibly near the Van Ness - UDC Metro stop.
Reid joined the FBI at either the age 21 or 22, depending upon what age he entered the FBI Academy. While there was "no psychological exam or test the FBI could put in front of him he could not ace inside of an hour '', he did struggle with the more physical aspects of training, and ultimately received waivers for those requirements. Even after a year in the field, Reid still struggles to pass his gun qualifications. He is often left behind during takedowns, has never given chase, and jokes that it 's Morgan 's job to kick down the doors. This does not bother the team, because while he has shown an ability to physically disarm unsubs, his true talent is psychologically disarming them, as well as his abilities to solve the cases behind the scenes.
Profiling is the only profession Reid considered, and he was groomed specifically for the BAU. Upon graduation from the Academy, he was placed in the BAU at age 22, and given the title Supervisory Special Agent. His first case in the field was the Blue Ridge Strangler.
Gideon is Reid 's closest confidante on the team during the first two seasons, and often serves as a mentor to Reid. Gideon 's departure affects Reid deeply. He tries playing all possible chess moves in order to understand.
Reid is close to JJ, Morgan, and Emily Prentiss. JJ asks him to be godfather to her new born son Henry, and is the only one on the team who calls him "Spence. '' It is implied in "Plain Sight '' that Reid may have a slight crush on JJ, and Gideon even prods him to ask out JJ after giving him Washington Redskins football tickets for his birthday, but nothing comes from it, and they continue with their brother - sister relationship. However, Reid is very protective of her, and often blames himself if she is injured; even if there was nothing he could have done to prevent it. In "Closing Time '', after she arrests an unsub, but gets hurt in the process, Spencer is seen counting her injuries as she sits in the ambulance and tells the paramedic that she should be going to get a CAT scan. Reid also shares a brotherly friendship with Derek Morgan. In season seven, he is comfortable enough to start a joke war with him, something that he probably would never do with anyone else, and he occasionally confides his secrets to Morgan. It is suggested in the episode "Epilogue '' that Reid told Derek details about what Tobias Hankel did to him when he makes a remark about seeing the afterlife before Tobias saved him. Morgan looks surprised and says "You never told me that. '' In the episode "Elephant 's Memory '', when approached by a fully armed Owen Savage, the unsub whom Reid identifies with, Reid gives Prentiss his gun and trusts her enough to back him up and not shoot at Owen as he tries talking Owen down. Although not shown, it is implied Reid and Prentiss spend time together outside of work heavily, along with riding the train home together when they return from cases. Prentiss is the only one who has beat Reid at poker, even correcting his statistic about her particular poker move. Reid and Prentiss are held hostage by a cult led by Benjamin Cyrus (portrayed by Luke Perry). Though he is not injured, Reid struggles with guilt over "allowing '' Prentiss 's beating at the hands of Cyrus in "Minimal Loss ''. Reid later becomes close to Alex Blake, whose forensic linguistics class he guest lectures in. Blake serves as a maternal figure within the BAU.
Reid contracts anthrax during an outbreak in Maryland, and is later shot in the leg protecting a doctor whose life is being threatened.
During "Corazon '', Reid begins to suffer from severe headaches and hallucinations. He goes to see a doctor in order to find out the source of his headaches, but the doctor says there is no physical cause for his headaches, and they may be psychosomatic. Reid refuses to believe this, afraid that he may be suffering from the same illness as his mother. It is not mentioned again until "Coda '', when he is seen once again wearing sunglasses and is carrying a book on migraines. In the same episode, Reid bonds with a young autistic boy, Sammy Sparks. A cut line from the episode has Rossi stating that Sammy and Reid are two of the most fascinating minds he 's ever encountered. In the episode "Valhalla '', Reid tells Prentiss about his headaches. By then, Reid has gone to several doctors, but no one has been able to diagnose what is wrong with him. He tells Prentiss that he has not told any of the team members because he is afraid that they will "make him feel like a baby. ''
In "Lauren '', it is Reid and Garcia who react most strongly to the news of Emily 's death. Reid 's reaction is to run out of the room, and he ends up sobbing into JJ 's shoulder telling her that he "never got a chance to say goodbye. '' In season seven, when Emily returns and Reid discovers Hotch and JJ faked her death, he is upset, especially with JJ. He tells her he feels betrayed because he came to her house "for 10 weeks in a row, crying over losing a friend '' and "not once did you have the decency to tell me the truth. '' She does n't say anything. He asks J.J. "what if '' he had started using Dilaudid again after Emily "died. ''.
In "True Genius '', Reid doubts his reasons for being in the BAU and wonders if he should be doing more with his ' genius '. This is caused by the unsub sending him taunting messages and challenging Reid to find him. In this episode, he also reveals that the team missed his 30th birthday. At the end of the episode, the team throw him a mini birthday party.
After being kidnapped by a serial killer with multiple personalities, Tobias Hankel (James Van Der Beek), Reid is tortured and drugged over the course of two days in "Revelations ''. This leads him to develop an addiction to the narcotic painkiller Dilaudid. While the BAU team members have their suspicions about Spencer 's addiction, none of them confront him about it. An old friend of Reid 's in New Orleans is also aware that Reid suffers from ' problems ' in "Jones ''.
Reid gets clean and attends a support group meeting for addicts in law enforcement in "Elephant 's Memory '', at which he admits struggling with cravings as well as with traumatic memories, including a young adult suspect 's shooting death in his presence. When he contracts anthrax in "Amplification '', he strictly refused to take any narcotic painkillers in an attempt to remain clean. Memories of his torture under Hankel later allow him to empathize with other victims.
Showrunner Erica Messer has stated that the writers considered having Reid relapse and start abusing Dilaudid again. However, it has been confirmed that Reid will not relapse and that he will be wiser about it. in season 12, however, he is found with heroin.
Throughout the show, Reid shows a lack of interest when interacting with women. The only three exceptions are Lila Archer, a young actress he is assigned to protect; Austin (Courtney Ford), a bartender he "woos '' with magic tricks while showing her a sketch of a potential suspect; and Maeve, a geneticist he first meets through correspondence, then later weekly phone calls. In "Memoriam '', a prostitute hits on Reid in a Las Vegas casino, but he is oblivious to her intentions.
In "Somebody 's Watching '', with the team on a case to protect a TV starlet, Reid saves Lila Archer (Amber Heard) from being harmed by a serial killer. Reid and Lila kindle a short - lived romance, beginning when Lila pulls Reid, fully clothed, into her pool for a kiss. At the end of the episode, they go their separate ways, and Lila is not seen in further episodes.
In another episode, Reid and Morgan are in a nightclub trying to find a serial murderer who picks up women in nightclubs. Reid is having trouble talking to the women in these clubs, especially since he is spouting facts about club - related deaths, but Morgan helps him out. Reid starts a conversation with the female bartender, and proceeds to do a magic trick in which he appears to jab a pen through the eye of a police sketch, but pulls it through, leaving the paper unscathed. She expresses interest in him, and he gives her his business card in case she hears something about the killer. Later, she sees the killer with another potential victim and intentionally spills her drink on the lady, pulling her away. The killer seems to disappear, and while the bartender goes outside to phone Reid, he grabs her. The team responds quickly and saves her before she is harmed. At the end of the episode, she and Reid are talking over the phone, and he opens a package at his desk that contains the card that he gave her -- with a lipstick kiss on the back.
In "God Complex '', Reid begins calling a mystery woman on a pay phone and they talk about his progress with his headaches and sleep deprivation. It is revealed that she is in danger and does n't want someone to know about her and Reid. While on a case in New Mexico, Alex Blake drops Reid off at a phone booth, unaware that he is going to call the mystery woman. Blake later returns and questions his motives. The two agents have a heated discussion, and he tells her the mystery woman is a geneticist he contacted about his headaches during season six, whom he believes can help on the case. Thanks to her, they are able to find the unsub and save his latest victim. At the end of the episode, Reid thanks her for her help and tells her that he and the BAU can help her in her situation. However, she refuses because she does n't want him to hurt Reid. She ends the phone call by telling him that she loves him. Left shocked and speechless, he starts walking to his left but then turns around and walks to his right. Sometime after "The Lesson '', Reid continues calling his mystery woman, and it is revealed that her name is Maeve (portrayed by Beth Riesgraf). She tells Reid that her stalker might be gone and because of this, she wants to meet him. During a case in Arizona, Blake confronts him about "phone booth girl ''. Reid tells Blake that he 's nervous to meet her because he already believes she 's the most beautiful girl in the world, and he is afraid that she wo n't like him because of his looks. Blake encourages him to meet her. After Reid gets back from the case, they plan to meet at a fancy restaurant until Reid sees a man gazing over at him. Thinking him to be Maeve 's stalker, Reid calls her to cancel while she is right outside. Spencer realizes that the man is not the stalker, and Maeve has already left. The hostess gives him a bag that she left for him. It turns out to be the very same book he was going to give to her by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Inside, she has written a quote by Thomas Merton; "Love is our true destiny. We do not find the meaning of life by ourselves alone. We find it with another. ''
In "Zugzwang '', Reid discovers that Maeve has been kidnapped by her stalker. In the investigation, he meets Maeve 's former fiance, the man he believed to be her stalker. Reid becomes more and more distressed by the situation and discovers that her kidnapper is not her ex-fiance, but the man 's girlfriend. Reid searches excessively to find her, and even offers to take her place. He discovers that the stalker wants attention from him and to be seen as an equal. He gets a clue from the stalker leading him to her location, where he tricks the unsub into believing that he is in love with her. Reid finally meets Maeve face - to - face during the situation and is able to briefly subdue the stalker, only to have her hold Maeve at gunpoint. He once again offers to take Maeve 's place, but the unsub kills herself and Maeve in one shot.
Reid spends two weeks alone in his apartment after Maeve 's death. The team constantly tries to help him, but he refuses to answer the door. While Reid remains at home, the team travel to another case. They call him for help a few times before he joins the team in person. Once the case is complete, Reid asks Morgan, Penelope, and JJ to help clean up his apartment. He picks up The Narrative of John Smith (given to him by Maeve) with the Thomas Merton quote and places it on the bookshelf.
In the months following, Reid throws himself into his work when he is not able to sleep because of a recurring dream where Maeve asks him to dance with her, but forces himself to wake up before he answers. By the end of "Alchemy '', Reid is able to complete the dream by accepting Maeve 's request to dance with her. In "The Inspiration '', Reid admits that, had Maeve not died, he might have had kids. In the season nine finale, it is revealed that he still carries a copy of The Narrative of John Smith in his bag.
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when was the last time iraq had an earthquake | List of earthquakes in 2017 - wikipedia
This is a list of earthquakes in 2017. Only earthquakes of magnitude 6 or above are included, unless they result in damage and / or casualties, or are notable for some other reason. All dates are listed according to UTC time. Maximum intensities are indicated on the Mercalli intensity scale and are sourced from United States Geological Survey (USGS) ShakeMap data. Major events took place in Iran and Mexico, with the latter experiencing two such events.
An increase in detected earthquake numbers does not necessarily represent an increase in earthquakes per se. Population increase, habitation spread, and advances in earthquake detection technology all contribute to higher earthquake numbers being recorded over time.
Listed are earthquakes with at least 10 dead.
Listed are earthquakes with at least 7.0 magnitude.
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where was life of the party music video filmed | Life of the Party (Shawn Mendes song) - wikipedia
"Life of the Party '' is a song recorded by Canadian singer Shawn Mendes from his extended play (EP) The Shawn Mendes EP and debut studio album Handwritten (2015). Written by Ido Zmishlany and Scott Harris, it was recorded in Toronto, Ontario and released on June 26, 2014.
A lyric video, released on June 30, 2014, is a long, one - shot zoom - in on Shawn Mendes in the George Street diner, who occasionally converses with the waitress of the diner as he is singing. Lyrics from the song appear in spots such as tables and hanging lights. It ends with the waitress reading a note left from Shawn, smiling as the scene fades.
The title of the song, "Life of the Party '', may give the impression that it 's an upbeat dance song, but in an interview, Mendes described the song as not "super happy, but it 's also not depressing ''. The lyrics represent being happy with yourself and figuring out who you are and who you want to be. It was written by two writers from New York, Ido Zmishlany and Scott Harris, though Mendes felt a strong connection to it.
The song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart of July 12, 2014, at number 24, making it his first entry in the chart and first top 40 hit. Mendes became the youngest artist to debut in the top 25 with a debut song on the Billboard Hot 100 at 15 years, 11 months and 4 days of age. The song debuted at number five on the Hot Digital Songs chart with 148,000 downloads.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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what are the steps of the sulfur cycle | Sulfur cycle - Wikipedia
The sulfur cycle is the collection of processes by which sulfur moves to and from rock, waterways and living systems. Such biogeochemical cycles are important in geology because they affect many minerals. Biochemical cycles are also important for life because sulfur is an essential element, being a constituent of many proteins and cofactors.
Steps of the sulfur cycle are:
These are often termed as follows:
Sulfur is found in oxidation states ranging from + 6 in SO to - 2 in sulfides. Thus elemental sulfur can either give or receive electrons depending on its environment. Minerals such as pyrite (FeS) comprise the original pool of sulfur on earth. Owing to the sulfur cycle, the amount of mobile sulfur has been continuously increasing through volcanic activity as well as weathering of the crust in an oxygenated atmosphere. Earth 's main sulfur sink is the oceans SO, where it is the major oxidizing agent.
When SO is assimilated by organisms, it is reduced and converted to organic sulfur, which is an essential component of proteins. However, the biosphere does not act as a major sink for sulfur, instead the majority of sulfur is found in seawater or sedimentary rocks including: pyrite rich shales, evaporite rocks (anhydrite and baryte), and calcium and magnesium carbonates (i.e. carbonate - associated sulfate). The amount of sulfate in the oceans is controlled by three major processes:
There is no significant amount of sulfur held in the atmosphere with all of it coming from either sea spray or windblown sulfur rich dust, neither of which is long lived in the atmosphere. In recent times the large annual input of sulfur from the burning of coal and other fossil fuels adds a substantial amount SO which acts as an air pollutant. In the geologic past, igneous intrusions into coal measures have caused large scale burning of these measures, and consequential release of sulfur to the atmosphere. This has led to substantial disruption to the climate system, and is one of the proposed causes of the great dying.
Dimethylsulfide ((CH) S or DMS) is produced by the decomposition of dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) from dying phytoplankton cells in the shallow levels of the ocean, and is the major biogenic gas emitted from the sea, where it is responsible for the distinctive "smell of the sea '' along coastlines. DMS is the largest natural source of sulfur gas, but still only has a residence time of about one day in the atmosphere and a majority of it is redeposited in the oceans rather than making it to land. However, it is a significant factor in the climate system, as it is involved in the formation of clouds.
Sulfur can be reduced both biologically and thermochemically. Dissimilatory sulfate reduction has two different definitions:
Sulfide and thiosulfate are the most abundant reduced inorganic sulfur species in the environments and are converted to sulfate, primarily by bacterial action, in the oxidative half of the sulfur cycle. Bacterial sulfate reduction (BSR) can only occur at temperature from 0 up to 60 -- 80 ° C because above that temperature almost all sulfate - reducing microbes can no longer metabolize. Few microbes can form H S at higher temperatures but appear to be very rare and do not metabolize in settings where normal bacterial sulfate reduction is occurring. BSR is geologically instantaneous happening on the order of hundreds to thousands of years. Thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR) occurs at much higher temperatures (160 -- 180 ° C) and over longer time intervals, several tens of thousands to a few million years.
The main difference between these two reactions is obvious, one is organically driven and the other is chemically driven. Therefore, the temperature for thermochemical sulfate reduction is much higher due to the activation energy required to reduce sulfate. Bacterial sulfate reductions requires lower temperatures because the sulfur reducing bacteria can only live at relatively low temperature (below 60 ° C). BSR also requires a relatively open system; otherwise the bacteria will poison themselves when the sulfate levels rise above 5 -- 10 %.
The organic reactants involved in BSR are organic acids which are distinctive from the organic reactants needed for TSR. In both cases sulfate is usually derived from the dissolution of gypsum or taken directly out of the seawater. The factors that control whether BSR or TSR will occur are temperature, which is generally a product of depth, with BSR occurring in shallower levels than TSR. Both can occur within the oil window. Their solid products are similar but can be distinguished from one another petrographically, due to their differing crystal sizes, shapes and reflectivity.
Although 25 isotopes are known for sulfur, only four are stable and of geochemical importance. Of those four, two (S, light and S, heavy) comprise (99.22 %) of S on Earth. The vast majority (95.02 %) of S occurs as S with only 4.21 % in S. The ratio of these two isotopes is fixed in our solar system and has been since its formation. The bulk Earth sulfur isotopic ratio is thought to be the same as the ratio of 22.22 measured from the Canyon Diablo troilite (CDT), a meteorite. That ratio is accepted as the international standard and is therefore set at δ0. 00. Deviation from 0.00 is expressed as the δ S which is a ratio in per mill (‰). Positive values correlate to increased levels of S, whereas negative values correlate with greater S in a sample.
Formation of sulfur minerals through non-biogenic processes does not substantially differentiate between the light and heavy isotopes, therefore sulfur values in gypsum or baryte should be the same as the overall ratio in the water column at their time of precipitation. Sulfate reduction through biologic activity strongly differentiates between the two isotopes because of the more rapid enzymic reaction with S. Sulfate metabolism results in an isotopic depletion of - 18 ‰, and repeated cycles of oxidation and reduction can result in values up to - 50 ‰. Average present day seawater values of δ S are on the order of + 21 ‰.
Throughout geologic history the sulfur cycle and the isotopic ratios have coevolved with the biosphere becoming overall more negative with the increases in biologically driven sulfate reduction, but also show substantial positive excursion. In general positive excursions in the sulfur isotopes mean that there is an excess of pyrite deposition rather than oxidation of sulfide minerals exposed on land.
The isotopic composition of sedimentary sulfides provides primary information on the evolution of the sulfur cycle.
The total inventory of sulfur compounds on the surface of the Earth (nearly 7019100000000000000 ♠ 10 g S) represents the total outgassing of sulfur through geologic time. Rocks analyzed for sulfur content are generally organic - rich shales meaning they are likely controlled by biogenic sulfur reduction. Average seawater curves are generated from evaporites deposited throughout geologic time because again, since they do not discriminate between the heavy and light sulfur isotopes, they should mimic the ocean composition at the time of deposition.
4.6 billion years ago (Ga) the Earth formed and had a theoretical δ S value of 0. Since there was no biologic activity on early Earth there would be no isotopic fractionation. All sulfur in the atmosphere would be released during volcanic eruptions. When the oceans condensed on Earth, the atmosphere was essentially swept clean of sulfur gases, owing to their high solubility in water. Throughout the majority of the Archean (4.6 -- 2.5 Ga) most systems appeared to be sulfate - limited. Some small Archean evaporite deposits require that at least locally elevated concentrations (possibly due to local volcanic activity) of sulfate existed in order for them to be supersaturated and precipitate out of solution.
3.8 -- 3.6 Ga marks the beginning of the exposed geologic record because this is the age of the oldest rocks on Earth. Metasedimentary rocks from this time still have an isotopic value of 0 because the biosphere was not developed enough (possibly at all) to fractionate sulfur.
3.5 Ga anoxyogenic photosynthesis is established and provides a weak source of sulfate to the global ocean with sulfate concentrations incredibly low the δ S is still basically 0. Shortly after, at 3.4 Ga the first evidence for minimal fractionation in evaporitic sulfate in association with magmatically derived sulfides can be seen in the rock record. This fractionation shows possible evidence for anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria.
2.8 Ga marks the first evidence for oxygen production through photosynthesis. This is important because there can not be sulfur oxidation without oxygen in the atmosphere. This exemplifies the coevolution of the oxygen and sulfur cycles as well as the biosphere.
2.7 -- 2.5 Ga is the age of the oldest sedimentary rocks to have a depleted δ S which provide the first compelling evidence for sulfate reduction.
2.3 Ga sulfate increases to more than 1 mM; this increase in sulfate is coincident with the "Great Oxygenation Event '', when redox conditions on Earth 's surface are thought by most workers to have shifted fundamentally from reducing to oxidizing. This shift would have led to an incredible increase in sulfate weathering which would have led to an increase in sulfate in the oceans. The large isotopic fractionations that would likely be associated with bacteria reduction are produced for the first time. Although there was a distinct rise in seawater sulfate at this time it was likely still only less than 5 -- 15 % of present - day levels.
At 1.8 Ga, Banded iron formations (BIF) are common sedimentary rocks throughout the Archean and Paleoproterozoic; their disappearance marks a distinct shift in the chemistry of ocean water. BIFs have alternating layers of iron oxides and chert. BIFs only form if the water is allowed to supersaturate in dissolved iron (Fe) meaning there can not be free oxygen or sulfur in the water column because it would form Fe (rust) or pyrite and precipitate out of solution. Following this supersaturation, the water must become oxygenated in order for the ferric rich bands to precipitate it must still be sulfur poor otherwise pyrite would form instead of Fe. It has been hypothesized that BIFs formed during the initial evolution of photosynthetic organisms that had phases of population growth, causing over production of oxygen. Due to this over production they would poison themselves causing a mass die off, which would cut off the source of oxygen and produce a large amount of CO through the decomposition of their bodies, allowing for another bacterial bloom. After 1.8 Ga sulfate concentrations were sufficient to increase rates of sulfate reduction to greater than the delivery flux of iron to the oceans.
Along with the disappearance of BIF, the end of the Paleoproterozoic also marks the first large scale sedimentary exhalative deposits showing a link between mineralization and a likely increase in the amount of sulfate in sea water. In the Paleoproterozoic the sulfate in seawater had increased to an amount greater than in the Archean, but was still lower than present day values. The sulfate levels in the Proterozoic also act as proxies for atmospheric oxygen because sulfate is produced mostly through weathering of the continents in the presence of oxygen. The low levels in the Proterozoic simply imply that levels of atmospheric oxygen fell between the abundances of the Phanerozoic and the deficiencies of the Archean.
750 million years ago (Ma) there is a renewed deposition of BIF which marks a significant change in ocean chemistry. This was likely due to snowball earth episodes where the entire globe including the oceans was covered in a layer of ice cutting off oxygenation. In the late Neoproterozoic high carbon burial rates increased the atmospheric oxygen level to > 10 % of its present - day value. In the Latest Neoproterozoic another major oxidizing event occurred on Earth 's surface that resulted in an oxic deep ocean and possibly allowed for the appearance of multicellular life.
During the last 600 million years, seawater SO has varied between + 10 and + 30 ‰ in δ S, with an average value close to that of today. This coincides with atmospheric O levels reaching something close to modern values around the Precambrian -- Cambrian boundary.
Over a shorter time scale (ten million years) changes in the sulfur cycle are easier to observe and can be even better constrained with oxygen isotopes. Oxygen is continually incorporated into the sulfur cycle through sulfate oxidation and then released when that sulfate is reduced once again. Since different sulfate sources within the ocean have distinct oxygen isotopic values it may be possible to use oxygen to trace the sulfur cycle. Biological sulfate reduction preferentially selects lighter oxygen isotopes for the same reason that lighter sulfur isotopes are preferred. By studying oxygen isotopes in ocean sediments over the last 10 million years were able to better constrain the sulfur concentrations in sea water through that same time. They found that the sea level changes due to Pliocene and Pleistocene glacial cycles changed the area of continental shelves which then disrupted the sulfur processing, lowering the concentration of sulfate in the sea water. This was a drastic change as compared to preglacial times before 2 million years ago.
Sulfur is intimately involved in production of fossil fuels and a majority of metal deposits because of its ability to act as an oxidizing or reducing agent. The vast majority of the major mineral deposits on Earth contain a substantial amount of sulfur including, but not limited to: sedimentary exhalative deposits (SEDEX), Mississippi Valley - Type (MVT) and copper porphyry deposits. Iron sulfides, galena and sphalerite will form as by - products of hydrogen sulfide generation, as long as the respective transition or base metals are present or transported to a sulfate reduction site. If the system runs out of reactive hydrocarbons economically viable elemental sulfur deposits may form. Sulfur also acts as a reducing agent in many natural gas reservoirs and generally ore forming fluids have a close relationship with ancient hydrocarbon seeps or vents.
Important sources of sulfur in ore deposits are generally deep - seated, but they can also come from local country rocks, sea water, or marine evaporites. The presence or absence of sulfur is one of the limiting factors on both the concentration of precious metals and its precipitation from solution. pH, temperature and especially redox states determine whether sulfides will precipitate. Most sulfide brines will remain in concentration until they reach reducing conditions, a higher pH or lower temperatures.
Ore fluids are generally linked to metal rich waters that have been heated within a sedimentary basin under the elevated thermal conditions typically in extensional tectonic settings. The redox conditions of the basin lithologies exert an important control on the redox state of the metal - transporting fluids and deposits can form from both oxidizing and reducing fluids. Metal - rich ore fluids tend to be by necessity comparatively sulfide deficient, so a substantial portion of the sulfide must be supplied from another source at the site of mineralization. Bacterial reduction of seawater sulfate or a euxinic (anoxic and H S - containing) water column is a necessary source of that sulfide. When present, the δ S values of barite are generally consistent with a seawater sulfate source, suggesting barite formation by reaction between hydrothermal barium and sulfate in ambient seawater.
Once fossil fuels or precious metals are discovered and either burned or milled, the sulfur become a waste product which must be dealt with properly or it can become a pollutant. There has been a great increase in the amount of sulfur in our present day atmosphere because of the burning of fossil fuels. Sulfur acts as a pollutant and an economic resource at the same time.
Human activities have a major effect on the global sulfur cycle. The burning of coal, natural gas, and other fossil fuels has greatly increased the amount of S in the atmosphere and ocean and depleted the sedimentary rock sink. Without human impact sulfur would stay tied up in rocks for millions of years until it was uplifted through tectonic events and then released through erosion and weathering processes. Instead it is being drilled, pumped and burned at a steadily increasing rate. Over the most polluted areas there has been a 30-fold increase in sulfate deposition.
Although the sulfur curve shows shifts between net sulfur oxidation and net sulfur reduction in the geologic past, the magnitude of the current human impact is probably unprecedented in the geologic record. Human activities greatly increase the flux of sulfur to the atmosphere, some of which is transported globally. Humans are mining coal and extracting petroleum from the Earth 's crust at a rate that mobilizes 150 x 10 gS / yr, which is more than double the rate of 100 years ago. The result of human impact on these processes is to increase the pool of oxidized sulfur (SO) in the global cycle, at the expense of the storage of reduced sulfur in the Earth 's crust. Therefore, human activities do not cause a major change in the global pools of S, but they do produce massive changes in the annual flux of S through the atmosphere.
When SO is emitted as an air pollutant, it forms sulfuric acid through reactions with water in the atmosphere. Once the acid is completely dissociated in water the pH can drop to 4.3 or lower causing damage to both man - made and natural systems. According to the EPA, acid rain is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition (deposited material) from the atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. Distilled water (water without any dissolved constituents), which contains no carbon dioxide, has a neutral pH of 7. Rain naturally has a slightly acidic pH of 5.6, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a very weak acid. Around Washington, D.C., however, the average rain pH is between 4.2 and 4.4. Since pH is on a log scale dropping by 1 (the difference between normal rain water and acid rain) has a dramatic effect on the strength of the acid. In the United States, roughly 2 / 3 of all SO and 1 / 4 of all NO come from electric power generation that relies on burning fossil fuels, like coal.
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what were the causes of the argentine revolution | Causes of the may Revolution - wikipedia
The May Revolution (Spanish: Revolución de Mayo) was a series of revolutionary political and social events that took place during the early nineteenth century in the city of Buenos Aires, capital of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a colony of the Spanish Crown which at the time contained the present - day nations of Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay. The consequence of the revolution was that the head of the Viceroyalty, Viceroy Cisneros, was ousted from office, and role of government was assumed by the Primera Junta. There are many reasons, both local and international, that promoted such developments.
The United States had emancipated themselves from the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1776, which provided a tangible example that led Criollos to believe that revolution and independence from Spain could be realistic aims. In the time between 1775 and 1783 the Thirteen Colonies started the American Revolution, first rejecting the governance of the Parliament of Great Britain, and later the British monarchy itself, and waged the American Revolutionary War against their former rulers. The changes were not only political, but also intellectual and social, combining both a strong government with personal liberties. The text of the Declaration of Independence stated that all men are created equal (and thus become equal before the law), and had unalienable rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. They had also chosen a republican form of government, instead of keeping a monarchic one. Even more, the fact that Spain aided the colonies in their struggle against Britain weakened the argument that ending allegiance to the mother country could be considered a crime.
The ideals of the French Revolution of 1789 were spreading as well. During the Revolution, centuries of monarchy were ended with the overthrow and execution of the King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette, and the removal of the privileges of the nobility. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was highly popular among the young Criollos. The French Revolution also boosted liberal ideals in political and economic fields. Some of the most notable political liberal authors, who opposed monarchies and absolutism, were Voltaire, Jean - Jacques Rousseau, Montesquieu, Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d'Alembert, while the most notorious economic liberal was Adam Smith. Liberal ideas also reached the church, and the concept of the divine right of kings started to be questioned. Francisco Suárez claimed that political power did not pass directly from God to the governor, but to the population and through it to the governor. According to Suarez, such power belongs to the people and is delegated to the governor, but if such governors did not serve the public good as they should, they would become tyrants and the people would have the right to fight them and choose new governors. The falling consensus about the divine right being legitimate gave room to monarchies being replaced by republics in France and the United States, but also to constitutional monarchies, such as in Great Britain.
However, the spread of such idea was mainly forbidden in the Spanish territories, as well as the traffic in related books or their unauthorized possession. Such blockades started when Spain declared war on France after the execution of Louis XVI, but remained after the peace treaty of 1796. Nevertheless, the events of 1789 and the statements of the French Revolution spread around Spain despite the efforts to keep them at bay. Even more, the National Convention declared that France would give shelter and aid to all populations aiming to become free, and made many plans to disrupt the power of Spain over their overseas colonies. Many enlightened Criollos came into contact with those authors and their works during university studies. such as Manuel Belgrano in Spain or Mariano Moreno, Juan José Castelli or Bernardo Monteagudo at the American university in Chuquisaca. Books from the US also found their way into the Spanish colonies through Caracas, due to the closeness of Venezuela to the United States and West Indies.
The Industrial Revolution started in Britain, with manual labour and horse - drawn vehicles being replaced by machine - based manufacturing and transportation aided by railways and steam power. This led to dramatic increases in the productive capabilities of Britain, and the need of new markets to sell the surplus of coal, steel and clothes. The Napoleonic Wars, where Britain was at war with France, made this a difficult task, after Napoleon countered the British naval blockade with the Continental System, not allowing Britain to trade with any other European country. Thus, England needed to be able to trade with the Spanish colonies, but could not do so because they were restricted to trade only with their own metropoli. For this end they tried to conquer key cities during the British invasions, and after it to promote their emancipation. The Industrial Revolution also gave room to authors who proposed a liberal economy, like Adam Smith. François Quesnay compared the worldwide economy with a living organism, stating that economics worked beyond political power and should not be affected by it.
The Napoleonic wars were taking place in Europe, involving France, Great Britain and most European countries. Portugal broke the blockade imposed on British trade and, as a result, was invaded by France. However, the Royal Family and the bulk of the kingdom 's administration fled to colonial Brazil, in a move to preserve Portuguese sovereignty. Under the pretext of reinforcing the Franco - Spanish army occupying Portugal, French Imperial troops began filing into Spain. Shortly before the Spanish King Charles IV abdicated due to the mutiny of Aranjuez and gave the throne to his son, Ferdinand VII. Feeling that he was forced to abdicate, Charles IV requested that Napoleon restore him to power. Napoleon helped remove Ferdinand VII from power, but did not return the crown to the former king: instead, he crowned his own brother Joseph Bonaparte, as the new Spanish King. This whole process is known as the Abdications of Bayonne. Joseph 's designation found severe resistance in Spain, and the Junta of Seville took power in the absence of the King. Until then, Spain had been an ally of France against Britain, but at this point the Spanish resistance changed sides and allied with Britain against France. The Junta of Seville was eventually defeated as well, being replaced by another one located in Cádiz.
During colonial times Spain was the only buyer of goods from the viceroyalty, and by law it was forbidden to trade with other nations. This situation damaged the viceroyalty, as Spain 's economy was not powerful enough to buy and sell the quantities of goods that the Americas required. and many of them were even brought by Spain to France or Britain and then resold in the Americas at a higher price. Buenos Aires was even more damaged, as Spain did not send enough ships to the city. To prevent the risk of piracy the trade ships had to be followed by war ships, which made the journey very expensive. Lacking any gold or silver resources, or established indigenous populations to employ systems of encomienda, it was more profitable for Spain to send them all to Mexico or Lima. This led Buenos Aires to develop a system of smuggling to obtain, by illegal means, the products that could not be received otherwise. This smuggling was allowed by most local authorities, and developed similar amounts of traffic as the legal commerce with Spain. This whole situation developed two antagonistic groups: the ones who made leather products and wanted free commerce to be able to sell them, and the ones who benefited from the prices of the smuggled products, which would have to sell them at lower prices if such commerce was allowed.
In the political structure most authoritative positions were filled by people designated by the Spanish monarchy, most of them Spanish people from Europe, without strong compromises with American problems or interests. This created a growing rivalry between the Criollos, people born in America, and the peninsulares, people arrived from Europe (the term "Criollo '' is usually translated to English as "Creole '', despite being unrelated to most other Creole peoples). Despite the fact that all of them were considered Spanish, and that there was no legal distinction between Criollos and Peninsulares, most Criollos thought that Peninsulares had undue weight in political conflicts and expected a higher intervention in them, sentiment shared by the lower clergy. This practice was mainly the result of social prejudice. Criollos were also angered by the ease of immigrants from Spain, regardless of having humble origins, to acquire properties and social distinction that was negated to them. This rivalry evolved later into a rivalry between supporters of becoming autonomous from Spain and supporters of keeping things the way they were. However, this process was much slower than the one experimented by the British colonies in North America, in part because the educative system was managed almost exclusively by the clergy, influencing the development of a population as conservative as in the mother country.
Unlike the European countries and, to some degree, the United States, the Spanish colonies lacked a sense of peoplehood, a needed factor for the development of a nation. The Spanish colonies were carefully designed as extensions of Spain itself, being completely dependent in economic, cultural and political terms from the mother country.
Buenos Aires and Montevideo had successfully resisted two British invasions. The first one was in 1806, when a British army led by William Carr Beresford took control of Buenos Aires, until it was defeated by an army from Montevideo, led by Santiago de Liniers. The following year a bigger army took Montevideo, but failed to take Buenos Aires, being forced to surrender and leave both cities. There was no Spanish aid from Europe either time, and to prepare for the second invasion Liniers formed militias with Criollos, despite regulations prohibiting such militias. This gave them military power and political influence they did not have before, with the biggest Criollo army being the Patricios Regiment led by Cornelio Saavedra. This victory achieved without help also boosted confidence in independence, by showing that Spanish aid was not needed. The prestige earned by Buenos Aires before the other cities of the viceroyalty was exploited by Juan José Paso during the open cabildo to justify taking immediate action and hearing the opinions of other cities afterwards.
By the ending of 1808 the whole Royal Family of Portugal left Europe, with the country being attacked by Napoleon, and settled in Brazil. The regent prince arrived with his wife, Charlotte Joaquina, daughter of Charles IV and sister of Ferdinand VII. When the news of the imprisonment of Ferdinand VII arrived in South America, Charlotte tried to take control of the viceroyalties as regent, a project known as Carlotism. She could do so due to the derogation of the salic law by Charles IV in 1789, and she intended to prevent a French invasion in the Americas. Some Criollos like Castelli, Beruti, Vieytes and Belgrano supported the project, considering it a chance to get a local government instead of one in Europe, or a medium for a later declaration of independence. Other Criollos like Moreno, Paso or Saavedra were critics of it, as well as most peninsular Spaniards and Viceroy Liniers. They suspected the whole project of concealing Portuguese ambitions in the region, and her public image was n't positive: the people around her in Brazil (like the infant Pedro Carlos de Bourbon), and her relations with her husband, caused strong public dislike. Charlotte also rejected her supporters, as they intended her to lead a constitutional monarchy, while she wanted to retain an absolute monarchy. Britain, with strong presence in Portugal, also opposed the project: they did not want to let Spain, now allied with them against France, be split into many kingdoms, and did not consider Charlotte able to prevent separatism.
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who sings don't tell me what to do | You Do n't Own Me - wikipedia
"You Do n't Own Me '' is a popular song written by Philadelphia songwriters John Madara and David White and recorded by Lesley Gore in 1963, when Gore was 17 years old. The song was Gore 's second most successful recording and her last top - ten single. On November 27, 2016, the Grammy Hall of Fame announced its induction, along with that of another 24 songs.
The song expresses a threatened emancipation, as the singer tells a lover that he does not own her, that he is not to tell her what to do or what to say, and that he is not to put her on display. The song 's lyrics became an inspiration for younger women and are sometimes cited as a factor in the second wave feminist movement. Gore said, "My take on the song was: I 'm 17, what a wonderful thing, to stand up on a stage and shake your finger at people and sing you do n't own me. '' In Gore 's obituary, The New York Times referred to "You Do n't Own Me '' as "indelibly defiant ''.
The song reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States. The song remained at number two for three consecutive weeks on 1 February 1964, unable to overcome the Beatles ' hit, "I Want to Hold Your Hand '' and it became Gore 's second most successful hit, next to "It 's My Party ''. The song was Gore 's last top - ten single.
The song was covered by Australian singer and songwriter Grace and was released as her debut single. It features American rapper G - Eazy. Grace 's version was produced by Quincy Jones, who also produced the original recording by Lesley Gore, and Parker Ighile. It was released on 17 March 2015 one month after Lesley Gore died, and peaked at number one on the ARIA Charts, later being certified 3 × Platinum by the ARIA. The song was also a success in New Zealand, peaking at number five for two consecutive weeks, and in the United Kingdom, peaking at number four.
In an interview with House of Fraser, Grace said "(Quincy Jones) told me how the song came out during the feminist movement and how it was such a strong statement. I loved the song, started researching Lesley Gore and fell in love with her as an artist. (You Do n't Own Me) really inspired me. ''
The song was released worldwide on 17 March 2015. It grew to prominence in the UK when it was used in the 2015 House of Fraser Christmas advert. It was also performed by The X Factor contestant Lauren Murray on 28 November 2015 and Matt Terry on 8 October 2016... The increased exposure for the song helped it rise to a peak of number four on the UK Singles Chart. The song was featured in the third trailer for the 2016 film Suicide Squad and appeared on the film 's soundtrack album.
The song was featured in the opening of Riverdale 's eighth episode in March 2017.
A music video directed by Taylor Cohen was released on 1 June 2015.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
The song has been covered by The Tremeloes, Dusty Springfield on her debut album, A Girl Called Dusty, cello rock group Rasputina on their album How We Quit the Forest, Elaine Paige on her album Love Can Do That, Joan Jett on her debut album Bad Reputation, The Blow Monkeys on the Dirty Dancing soundtrack, Jack Killed Jill on their album Hello Neighbor, by Poliça on their Raw Exit EP, and by Quintron on The Unmasked Organ Light - Year of Inifinity Man.
At the time the song was originally released, versions were recorded in several other languages, both by Lesley Gore herself, and by other artists. The German version was "Goodbye Tony '', recorded by Lesley Gore. The Italian version was "Va... Tu Sei Libero '', recorded by Lesley Gore, Isabella Iannetti, and Dalida. The French version was "Je Ne Sais Plus '', recorded by Lesley Gore, Dalida, and Jacqueline Boyer. An alternate French version, "Je Suis Libre '', was performed by the Canadian singer Michèle Richard. It was also recorded in Swedish, as "Jag Vill Ha Dig '' by Marianne Kock, and in Dutch, as "Ik Wil Vrij Zijn '', by Liliane Saint - Pierre, as the B - side to her first hit record, "We Gotta Stop '', as well as having been recorded in Japanese by Mieko Hirota.
André Hazes recorded a Dutch - language version of the song in 1981 for his album Gewoon André; "Zeg Maar Niets Meer '' was popular in Europe, and reached number 2 in the Dutch charts in early 1982. In 1998, Eva Pilarová sung a Czech version under the name "Cesta končí '' on the album Requiem.
German countertenor Klaus Nomi included the song on his self - titled debut album in English, emphasizing the song 's original gender and, with a few minor lyric adjustments, gave the song a gay theme.
American rapper Eminem sampled this song for his song "Untitled '' as a hidden bonus final track from his 2010 album, Recovery.
Selena Gomez covered the song during her 2015 Revival World tour.
The X Factor UK finalist Matt Terry performed the song on the first week of the show.
The American The Voice contestant Darby Walker performed it on Week 10 of season 11 of the show on November 21, 2016.
Bette Midler, Goldie Hawn, and Diane Keaton covered the song in the movie The First Wives Club in 1996.
Klaus Nomi version, like most of Nomi 's recordings, was fairly obscure in Nomi 's lifetime, but it later gained exposure through posthumous airplay on The Rush Limbaugh Show as the theme to Limbaugh 's "Gay Updates. ''
In the second season of American Horror Story Asylum (2012 - 13), the song is used in a scene where Lily Rabe 's character Sister Mary Eunice, who was possessed by the devil, danced around in red lingerie.
In 2012, Tavi Gevinson and Petra Collins, along with many other celebrities, starred in a music video lipsynching to the song. These videos were later made into a public service announcement (PSA) addressing Mitt Romney 's 2012 presidential campaign and his intentions regarding abortion and Planned Parenthood. The PSA was directed by musician Sarah Sophie Flicker of The Citizens Band and filmmaker Maximilla Lukacs, and produced by Rebecca Fernandez. Other celebrities in the video include Carrie Brownstein, Alexa Chung, Karen Elson, Zoe Kravitz, Natasha Lyonne, Tracee Ellis Ross, Lena Dunham, Sia, Becky Stark, and Miranda July. The online video included spoken commentary by Gore.
Filipina singer Lani Misalucha covered the song as the theme song for the movie Etiquette for Mistresses in 2015.
It was also covered by Arielle Dombasle on the album French Kiss, released in 2015 with The Hillbilly Moon Explosion.
The song was featured in the 2016 film Suicide Squad, on Harley Quinn (Margot Robbie) 's debut scene.
The song was featured in a Toyota television ad campaign in the United States in 2016 - 2017.
The song is featured during the credits of the pilot episode of The Handmaid 's Tale.
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who plays the solo on sympathy for the devil | Sympathy for the Devil - wikipedia
"Sympathy for the Devil '' is a samba rock song by the Rolling Stones, written by Mick Jagger and Keith Richards. Sung by Jagger, the song is an homage to the Devil, written in the first - person narrative from his point of view, recounting atrocities committed throughout the history of humanity. It is performed in a rock arrangement with a samba rhythm. It first appeared as the opening track on their 1968 album Beggars Banquet. Rolling Stone magazine placed it at number 32 in its list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''.
"Sympathy for the Devil '' is credited to Jagger and Richards, though the song was largely a Jagger composition. The working title of the song was "The Devil Is My Name '', having earlier been called "Fallen Angels '', and it is sung by Jagger as a first - person narrative from the point of view of the Devil, recounting his control over the events of human existence.
In the 2012 documentary Crossfire Hurricane, Jagger stated that his influence for the song came from Baudelaire and from the Russian author Mikhail Bulgakov 's novel The Master and Margarita (which had just appeared in English translation in 1967). The book was given to him by Marianne Faithfull.
In a 1995 interview with Rolling Stone, Jagger said, "I think that was taken from an old idea of Baudelaire 's, I think, but I could be wrong. Sometimes when I look at my Baudelaire books, I ca n't see it in there. But it was an idea I got from French writing. And I just took a couple of lines and expanded on it. I wrote it as sort of like a Bob Dylan song. '' It was Richards who suggested changing the tempo and using additional percussion, turning the folk song into a samba.
Backed by an intensifying rock arrangement, the narrator, with narcissistic relish, recounts his exploits over the course of human history and warns the listener: "If you meet me, have some courtesy, have some sympathy, and some taste; use all your well - learned politesse, or I 'll lay your soul to waste. '' Further more, Jagger stated in the Rolling Stone interview: "it 's a very long historical figure -- the figures of evil and figures of good -- so it is a tremendously long trail he 's made as personified in this piece. '' By the time Beggars Banquet was released, the Rolling Stones had already raised some hackles for sexually forward lyrics such as "Let 's Spend the Night Together '' and for allegedly dabbling in Satanism (their previous album, while containing no direct Satanic references in its music or lyrics, was titled Their Satanic Majesties Request), and "Sympathy '' brought these concerns to the fore, provoking media rumours and fears among some religious groups that the Stones were devil - worshippers and a corrupting influence on youth.
The lyrics focus on atrocities in the history of mankind from Satan 's point of view including the trial and death of Jesus Christ ("Made damn sure that Pilate washed his hands to seal his fate ''), European wars of religion ("I watched with glee while your kings and queens fought for ten decades for the gods they made ''), the violence of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the 1918 shooting of the Romanov family ("I stuck around St. Petersburg when I saw it was a time for a change / Killed the Tsar and his ministers / Anastasia screamed in vain ''), and World War II ("I rode a tank, held a general 's rank when the blitzkrieg raged, and the bodies stank ''). The song was originally written with the line "I shouted out ' Who killed Kennedy? ' '' After Robert F. Kennedy 's death on 6 June 1968, the line was changed to "I shouted out ' Who killed the Kennedys? ' ''
Jagger sings the final lines of the coda, before the fade, in a high falsetto.
The song may have been spared further controversy when the first single from the album, "Street Fighting Man '', became even more controversial in view of the race riots and student protests occurring in many cities in Europe and in the United States.
The recording of "Sympathy for the Devil '' began at London 's Olympic Sound Studios on 4 June 1968 and continued into the next day; overdubs were done on 8, 9 and 10 June. Personnel included on the recording include Nicky Hopkins on piano, Rocky Dijon on congas and Bill Wyman on maracas.
It is often mentioned that Marianne Faithfull, Anita Pallenberg, Brian Jones, Charlie Watts, producer Jimmy Miller, Wyman and Richards performed backup vocals, singing the "woo woos '', repeatedly, as this can be seen in the film Sympathy for the Devil (see below) by Jean - Luc Godard. Richards plays bass on the original recording, and also electric guitar. Jones is seen playing an acoustic guitar in the film, but it is not audible in the finished mix.
In the 2003 book According to the Rolling Stones, Watts said: "' Sympathy ' was one of those sort of songs where we tried everything. The first time I ever heard the song was when Mick was playing it at the front door of a house I lived at in Sussex... He played it entirely on his own... and it was fantastic. We had a go at loads of different ways of playing it; in the end I just played a jazz Latin feel in the style of Kenny Clarke would have played on ' A Night in Tunisia ' -- not the actual rhythm he played, but the same styling. ''
On the overall power of the song, Jagger continued in Rolling Stone: "It has a very hypnotic groove, a samba, which has a tremendous hypnotic power, rather like good dance music. It does n't speed up or slow down. It keeps this constant groove. Plus, the actual samba rhythm is a great one to sing on, but it is also got some other suggestions in it, an undercurrent of being primitive -- because it is a primitive African, South American, Afro - whatever - you - call - that rhythm (candomblé). So to white people, it has a very sinister thing about it. But forgetting the cultural colors, it is a very good vehicle for producing a powerful piece. It becomes less pretentious because it is a very unpretentious groove. If it had been done as a ballad, it would n't have been as good. ''
In an interview with Creem, Jagger said, "(When people started taking us as devil worshippers), I thought it was a really odd thing, because it was only one song, after all. It was n't like it was a whole album, with lots of occult signs on the back. People seemed to embrace the image so readily, (and) it has carried all the way over into heavy metal bands today. Some people have made a living out of doing this; for example, Jimmy Page. ''
Of the change in public perception the band experienced after the song 's release, Richards said in a 1971 interview with Rolling Stone, "Before, we were just innocent kids out for a good time, they 're saying, ' They 're evil, they 're evil. ' Oh, I 'm evil, really? So that makes you start thinking about evil... What is evil? Half of it, I do n't know how much people think of Mick as the devil or as just a good rock performer or what? There are black magicians who think we are acting as unknown agents of Lucifer and others who think we are Lucifer. Everybody 's Lucifer. ''
Contrary to a widespread misconception, it was "Under My Thumb '' and not "Sympathy for the Devil '' that the Rolling Stones were performing when Meredith Hunter was killed at the Altamont Free Concert. Rolling Stone magazine 's early articles on the incident misreported that the killing took place during "Sympathy for the Devil '', but the Stones in fact played "Sympathy for the Devil '' earlier in the concert; it was interrupted by a fight and restarted, Jagger commenting, "We 're always having -- something very funny happens when we start that number. '' Several other songs were performed before Hunter was killed.
Sympathy for the Devil is also the title of a producer 's edit of a 1968 film by Jean - Luc Godard whose own original version is called One Plus One. The film, a depiction of the late 1960s American counterculture, also featured the Rolling Stones in the process of recording the song in the studio. On the filming, Jagger said in Rolling Stone: "(it was) very fortuitous, because Godard wanted to do a film of us in the studio. I mean, it would never happen now, to get someone as interesting as Godard. And stuffy. We just happened to be recording that song. We could have been recording ' My Obsession. ' But it was ' Sympathy for the Devil ', and it became the track that we used. ''
Guns N ' Roses recorded a cover in 1994 which reached number 55 on the Billboard Hot 100; it was featured in the closing credits of Neil Jordan 's film adaptation of Anne Rice 's Interview with the Vampire (except the 4K cut of the film) and was included on their Greatest Hits album. This cover is noteworthy for causing an incident involving incoming guitarist, Paul "Huge '' Tobias, that was partially responsible for guitarist Slash departing from the band in 1996. Slash has described the Guns N ' Roses version of the song as "the sound of the band breaking up ''.
Rhythm guitarist Gilby Clarke, who does not appear on the recording, noted that the recording foreshadowed his departure from the band, stating: "They did that while I was on the road touring for my solo record. (...) I knew that that was the ending because nobody told me about it. Officially I was in the band at that time, and they did that song without me. That was one of the last straws for me, because nobody had said anything to me, and they recorded a song by one of my favorite bands. It was pretty clear I 'm a big Rolling Stones fan, and they recorded the song without me. So I knew that was it. ''
shipments figures based on certification alone
Jane 's Addiction as Sympathy on 1987 album Jane 's Addiction
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who are the mascots for the winter olympics 2018 | Soohorang and Bandabi - wikipedia
Soohorang (Korean: 수 호랑) is the official mascot of the 2018 Winter Olympics, and Bandabi (Korean: 반 다비) is the official mascot of the 2018 Winter Paralympics, with both events to be held in Pyeongchang, Gangwon, South Korea. Soohorang is a white tiger and Bandabi is an Asiatic black bear. The mascots were selected through a national tender process held in 2014 and were approved of by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) on June 2, 2016.
On June 27, 2014, the Pyeongchang Organizing Committee notified the public of their mascot selection contest. The selection process took place from September 15, 2014 to September 30, 2014. On June 2, 2016, the International Olympic Committee approved the mascots for the games.
Soohorang is the mascot of the 2018 Winter Olympics. "Sooho '' means "protection '' in Korean, symbolizing the protection offered to the athletes, participants and spectators at the Winter Olympics, as well as preserving the world peace that is the spirit of the Olympic Games. "Rang '' derives from "Ho - rang - i '', the Korean word for "tiger ''; it is also the last letter of "Jeongseon Arirang '', a cherished traditional Korean folk song of Gangwon Province.
Soohorang took its motif from the white tiger, known as "baekho '' in Korean, which is considered to be Korea 's sacred guardian animal. Its colour is also indicative of the snow and ice of winter sports.
Tigers have long been a notable aspect of Korean folklore and culture. Baekho, the white tiger, is described in myths and narratives as a divine imaginary animal that watches over the mountains and nature. A cultural symbol for prosperity and protection, Baekho is revered as a god who cares for humanity, praying for the peace and well - being of the village in Korean folklore, while maintaining the continuity of Hodori which was the mascot of the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. It has also been noted that Baekho is in harmony with the Winter Games that take place in "the white fields of snow ''.
In summary, Soohorang is full of "passion and enthusiasm '' and "a strong personality that protects the people who participate in the Olympics. ''
Bandabi is the mascot of the 2018 Winter Paralympics. It is a symbol of will and courage. "Banda '' means "half - moon '' or a "half - moon beast '', and "bi '' means to celebrate the competition.
Van Derby is a warm - hearted friend who "has strong will and courage, is at the forefront of equality and harmony, '' and supports the enthusiasm of the players in the Paralympics so that they can overcome their limitations.
Bandabi also has a continuity with Gomduri, which was a mascot at the 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul.
Soohorang and Bandabi are available as animated emoticons in KakaoTalk, a popular messaging, texting, or communication application in South Korea.
Mascots
Torch & Mascots
Olympic materials
Mascots souvenir
Olympic promotion materials
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if you're going to san francisco be sure to wear a flower in your hair | San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair) - wikipedia
"San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair) '' is an American pop music song, written by John Phillips of The Mamas & the Papas, and sung by Scott McKenzie. The song was produced and released in May 1967 by Phillips and Lou Adler, who used it to promote their Monterey International Pop Music Festival held in June of that year.
John Phillips played guitar on the recording and session musician Gary L. Coleman played orchestra bells and chimes. The bass line of the song was supplied by session musician Joe Osborn. Hal Blaine played drums. The song became one of the best - selling singles of the 1960s in the world, reaching the fourth position on the US charts and the number one spot on the UK charts. In Ireland, the song was number one for one week, in New Zealand the song spent five weeks at number one, and in Germany it was six weeks at number one.
McKenzie 's version of the song has been called "the unofficial anthem of the counterculture movement of the 1960s, including the Hippie, Anti-Vietnam War and Flower power movements. ''
"... local authorities in Monterey were starting to get cold feet over the prospect of their town being overrun by hippies. To smooth things over, Phillips wrote a song, "San Francisco (Be Sure To Wear Flowers In Your Hair). ''
Phillips reported writing the song in about 20 minutes.
The song, which tells the listeners, "If you 're going to San Francisco, be sure to wear some flowers in your hair '', is credited with bringing thousands of young people to San Francisco, California, during the late 1960s.
Released on May 13, 1967, the song was an instant hit. By the week ending July 1, 1967, it reached the number four spot on the Billboard Hot 100 in the US, where it remained for four consecutive weeks. Meanwhile, the song rose to number one in the UK Singles Chart, and most of Europe. The single is purported to have sold over seven million copies worldwide. In Central Europe, young people adopted "San Francisco '' as an anthem for freedom, and it was widely played during Czechoslovakia 's 1968 Prague Spring uprising.
The song has been featured in several films, including Frantic, The Rock, and Forrest Gump. It was also played occasionally by Led Zeppelin as part of the improvised section in the middle of "Dazed and Confused ''. U2 's Bono also led the audience in singing this song during their PopMart performances in the San Francisco Bay Area on June 18 and 19, 1997. New Order covered the song on July 11, 2014, at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium in San Francisco.
The Bee Gees song "Massachusetts '' is a reaction to this song. The Bee Gees ' song is about someone who has been to San Francisco but is now homesick for Massachusetts.
The song was featured in the final story scene of the 2016 game Watch Dogs 2.
2 successive missions in Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, namely "Are You Going To San Fierro? '' and "Wear Flowers in Your Hair '' are inspired by the song.
French singer Johnny Hallyday recorded the song in French, with the title "San Francisco ''. His version reached number five in Wallonia (French Belgium) in 1967.
7 '' single Philips B 370.454 F (1967)
7 '' EP Philips 437.380 BE (1967)
Bovic Shamar sang a cover in pidgin English, released by African Fiesta Sukisa as Sukisa 88b in 1967.
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who is the youngest recipient of bharat ratna award | Bharat Ratna - wikipedia
1954
2015
The Bharat Ratna (Hindi pronunciation: (bhaːrət̪ rət̪nə); Jewel of India) is the highest civilian award of the Republic of India. Instituted in 1954, the award is conferred "in recognition of exceptional service / performance of the highest order '', without distinction of race, occupation, position, or sex. The award was originally limited to achievements in the arts, literature, science, and public services, but the government expanded the criteria to include "any field of human endeavour '' in December 2011. The recommendations for the Bharat Ratna are made by the Prime Minister to the President, with a maximum of three nominees being awarded per year. Recipients receive a Sanad (certificate) signed by the President and a peepal - leaf -- shaped medallion; there is no monetary grant associated with the award. Bharat Ratna recipients rank seventh in the Indian order of precedence.
The first recipients of the Bharat Ratna were politician C. Rajagopalachari, philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and scientist C.V. Raman, who were honoured in 1954. Since then, the award has been bestowed upon 45 individuals, including 12 who were awarded posthumously. The original statutes did not provide for posthumous awards but were amended in January 1955 to permit them. Former Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri became the first individual to be honoured posthumously. In 2014, cricketer Sachin Tendulkar, then aged 40, became the youngest recipient; while social reformer Dhondo Keshav Karve was awarded on his 100th birthday. Though usually conferred on India - born citizens, the Bharat Ratna has been awarded to one naturalised citizen, Mother Teresa, and to two non-Indians, Pakistan national Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and former South African President Nelson Mandela. On 24 December 2014, the Indian government announced the award to independence activist Madan Mohan Malaviya (posthumously) and former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
The Bharat Ratna, along with other personal civil honours, was briefly suspended from July 1977 to January 1980, during the change in the national government; and for a second time from August 1992 to December 1995, when several public - interest litigations challenged the constitutional validity of the awards. In 1992, the government 's decision to confer the award posthumously on Subhas Chandra Bose was opposed by those who had refused to accept the fact of his death, including some members of his extended family. Following a 1997 Supreme Court decision, the press communiqué announcing Bose 's award was cancelled; it is the only time when the award was announced but not conferred.
Several bestowals of the award have met with criticism. The posthumous award for M.G. Ramachandran (1988) was considered to have been aimed at placating the voters for the upcoming assembly election and posthumous awards of Madan Mohan Malaviya (2015) and Vallabhbhai Patel (1991) drew criticism for they died before the award was instituted.
On 2 January 1954, a press communiqué was released from the office of the secretary to the President announcing the creation of two civilian awards -- Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award, and the three - tier Padma Vibhushan, classified into "Pahela Warg '' (Class I), "Dusra Warg '' (Class II), and "Tisra Warg '' (Class III), which rank below the Bharat Ratna. On 15 January 1955, the Padma Vibhushan was reclassified into three different awards; the Padma Vibhushan, the highest of the three, followed by the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Shri.
There is no formal provision that recipients of the Bharat Ratna should be Indian citizens. It has been awarded to a naturalised Indian citizen, Mother Teresa in 1980, and to two non-Indians, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan of Pakistan in 1987 and the former South African president Nelson Mandela in 1990. Sachin Tendulkar, at the age of 40, became the youngest person and first athlete to receive the honour. In a special ceremony on 18 April 1958, Dhondo Keshav Karve was awarded on his 100th birthday. As of 2015, the award has been conferred upon 45 people with 12 posthumous declarations.
The award was briefly suspended twice in its history. The first suspension occurred after Morarji Desai was sworn in as the fourth Prime Minister in 1977. His government withdrew all personal civil honours on 13 July 1977. The suspension was rescinded on 25 January 1980, after Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister. The civilian awards were suspended again in mid-1992, when two Public - Interest Litigations were filed, one in the Kerala High Court and another in the Madhya Pradesh High Court, challenging the "constitutional validity '' of the awards. The awards were reintroduced by the Supreme Court in December 1995, following the conclusion of the litigation.
The Bharat Ratna is conferred "in recognition of exceptional service / performance of the highest order '', without distinction of race, occupation, position, or sex. The award was originally confined to the arts, literature, science, and public services, as per the 1954 regulations. In December 2011, the rules were changed to include "any field of human endeavour ''. The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous awards, but this was subsequently modified in the January 1955 statute, and Lal Bahadur Shastri became the first recipient to be honoured posthumously in 1966.
Although there is no formal nomination process, recommendations for the award can only be made by the Prime Minister to the President with a maximum number of three nominees being awarded per year. However, in 1999, four individuals were awarded the honour. The recipient receives a Sanad (certificate) signed by the President and a medallion without any monetary grant. Under the terms of Article 18 (1) of the Constitution, the recipients can not use the award as a prefix or suffix to their name, although recipients may use either the expressions "Awarded Bharat Ratna by the President '' or "Recipient of Bharat Ratna Award '' to indicate that they have been honoured with the award. The holders of the Bharat Ratna rank seventh in the Indian order of precedence.
As with many official announcements, recipients are announced and registered in The Gazette of India, a publication released by the Department of Publication, Ministry of Urban Development used for official government notices; without publication in the Gazette, conferral of the award is not considered official. Recipients whose awards have been revoked or restored, both of which require the authority of the President, are registered in the Gazette. Recipients whose awards have been revoked are required to surrender their medals, and their names are struck from the register.
The original 1954 specifications of the award was a circle made of gold 1 ⁄ inches (35 mm) in diameter with a centred sun burst design on the obverse side. The text "Bharat Ratna '', in Devanagari Script, is inscribed on the upper edge in silver gilt with a wreath set along on the lower edge. A platinum State Emblem of India was placed in the centre of the reverse side with the national motto, "Satyameva Jayate '' (Truth alone triumphs) in Devanagari Script, inscribed in silver - gilt on the lower edge.
A year later, the design was modified. The current medal is in the shape of a peepal leaf, approximately 2 ⁄ inches (59 mm) long, 1 ⁄ inches (48 mm) wide and ⁄ inch (3.2 mm) thick and rimmed in platinum. The embossed sun burst design, made of platinum, on the obverse side of the medal has a diameter of ⁄ inch (16 mm) with rays spreading out from ⁄ inch (21 mm) to ⁄ inch (13 mm) from the center of the Sun. The words "Bharat Ratna '' on the obverse side remained the same as the 1954 design as did the emblem of India and "Satyameva Jayate '' on the reverse side. A 2 - inch - wide (51 mm) white ribbon is attached to the medal so it can be worn around the neck. In 1957, the silver - gilt decoration was changed to burnished bronze. The Bharat Ratna medals are produced at Alipore Mint, Kolkata along with the other civilian and military awards like Padma Vibushan, Padma Bhushan, Padma Shri, and Param Veer Chakra.
The Bharat Ratna has been surrounded by several controversies and multiple Public - Interest Litigations (PIL) had been filed against the conferral of the award.
On 23 January 1992, a press release was published by the President 's Secretariat to confer the award posthumously on Subhash Chandra Bose. The decision triggered much criticism and a PIL was filed in the Calcutta High Court to revoke the award. The petitioner took objection to the conferral of the award and its posthumous mention of Bose, saying that honouring a personality higher than the award is "ridiculous '', and it was an act of "carelessness '' to classify such a person with past and future recipients. It said that the award can not be conferred to Bose posthumously as the Government had not officially accepted his death on 18 August 1945. The petitioner requested the whereabouts of Bose from 18 August 1945 till date, based on the information collected by the 1956 Shah Nawaz Committee and the 1970 Khosla Commission. Bose 's family members expressed their unwillingness to accept the award.
To deliver the judgement, the Supreme Court formed a Special Division Bench with Judge Sujata V. Manohar and G.B. Pattanaik. The Solicitor General noted that to confer the award per the appropriate regulations pertaining to the Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Shri, the name of the recipient must be published in The Gazette of India and entered in the recipients register maintained under the direction of the President. It was noted that only an announcement had been made by press communiqué, but the government had not proceeded to confer the award by publishing the name in the Gazette and entering the name in the register. Furthermore, the then presidents, R. Venkataraman (1987 -- 92) and Shankar Dayal Sharma (1992 -- 97), had not conferred a Sanad (certificate) with their signature and seal.
On 4 August 1997, the Supreme Court delivered an order that since the award had not been officially conferred, it can not be revoked and declared that the press communiqué be treated as cancelled. The court declined to pass any judgement on the posthumous mention of Bose and his death.
In 1992, two PILs were filed in the High Courts; one in the Kerala High Court on 13 February 1992 by Balaji Raghavan and another in the Madhya Pradesh High Court (Indore Bench) on 24 August 1992 by Satya Pal Anand. Both petitioners questioned the civilian awards being "Titles '' per an interpretation of Article 18 (1) of the Constitution. On 25 August 1992, the Madhya Pradesh High Court issued a notice temporarily suspending all civilian awards. A Special Division Bench of the Supreme Court was formed comprising five judges; A.M. Ahmadi C.J., Kuldip Singh, B.P. Jeevan Reddy, N.P. Singh, and S. Saghir Ahmad. On 15 December 1995, the Special Division Bench restored the awards and delivered a judgement that the "Bharat Ratna and Padma awards are not titles under Article 18 of the Constitution ''.
Following the announcement, in November 2013, that C.N.R. Rao and Sachin Tendulkar were to be awarded the Bharat Ratna, multiple PILs were filed challenging the conferring of the award. The PIL filed against Rao declared that other Indian scientists, such as Homi Bhabha and Vikram Sarabhai, had contributed more than Rao and his claim of publishing 1400 research papers was "physically impossible ''. The suit stated that as Rao had proven cases of plagiarism, he should not be presented with the award but rather should be annulled. The PIL filed against Tendulkar to the Election Commission under the Right to Information Act indicated that the awarding him the Bharat Ratna was a violation of the model code of conduct. The petitioner noted that as Tendulkar was an Indian National Congress nominated Member of Rajya Sabha, the decision to award him the Bharat Ratna would influence the voters of Delhi, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Mizoram where the election process was underway at the time. Another PIL was filed against Tendulkar and a few ministers, "alleging a conspiracy to ignore '' an Indian field hockey player Dhyan Chand. ''
On 4 December 2013, the Election Commission rejected the petition stating that conferring the award on people from non-polling states did not amount to a violation of the code. Other High Courts as well rejected the petitions raised against Rao and Tendulkar.
In 1988, then Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi (1984 -- 89) conferred the Bharat Ratna posthumously on film actor and former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, M.G. Ramachandran, in a bid to influence voters prior to the Tamil Nadu assembly elections in 1989. The decision was criticised for awarding Ramachandran before independence activist B.R. Ambedkar and Vallabhbhai Patel, who were bestowed the honour in 1990 and 1991 respectively. While Ravi Shankar was accused of lobbying for the award, the decision by Indira Gandhi to posthumously honour K. Kamaraj was considered to have been aimed at placating Tamil voters for the Tamil Nadu assembly elections in 1977. The seventh Prime Minister V.P. Singh was criticised for posthumously honouring B.R. Ambedkar to please Dalits.
The posthumous conferments of the award on the recipients who died before the Indian independence in 1947 or the award was instituted in 1954 have been criticised by historians. It was noted that such conferments could lead to more demands to honour people like Maurya Emperor Ashoka, Mughal Emperor Akbar, Maratha Emperor Shivaji, Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore, Hindu spiritualist Swami Vivekananda, and independence activist Bal Gangadhar Tilak. The then Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao (1991 -- 96) was criticised for bestowing the award upon Vallabhbhai Patel in 1991, 41 years after his death in 1950; and upon Subhas Chandra Bose in 1992, who went missing since 18 August 1945. Similarly in 2015, the incumbent Prime Minister Narendra Modi 's decision to award Madan Mohan Malaviya, who died in 1946, met with criticism. Janardan Dwivedi, politician of the Indian National Congress, said that Malaviya, who worked predominantly in Varanasi, was "deliberately chosen '' by the Prime Minister Modi, who is the incumbent Member of Parliament from Varanasi.
A few of the conferments have been criticised for honouring personalities only after they received global recognition. The award for Mother Teresa was announced in 1980, a year after she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Satyajit Ray received an Academy Honorary Award in 1992 followed by the Bharat Ratna the same year. In 1999, Amartya Sen was awarded the Bharat Ratna, a year after his 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. The award was proposed by President K.R. Narayanan to Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee who agreed to the proposal.
Though, as per the statutes for the Bharat Ratna, the recommendations for the award can only be made by the Prime Minister to the President, there have been several demands from various political parties to honour their leaders. In January 2008, Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) leader L.K. Advani wrote to the then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh recommending Singh 's predecessor Atal Bihari Vajpayee for the award. This was immediately followed by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) lobbying for their leader, Jyoti Basu, former Chief Minister of West Bengal. Basu, India 's longest - serving chief minister, said that he would decline the honour, even if awarded. Similar demands were made by Telugu Desam Party, Bahujan Samaj Party, and Shiromani Akali Dal for their respective leaders N.T. Rama Rao, Kanshi Ram, and Parkash Singh Badal. In September 2015, regional political party Shiv Sena demanded the award for the independence activist Vinayak Damodar Savarkar stating that he had been "deliberately neglected by previous governments '' but his family clarified that they are not making such demand and that the freedom fighter is known for his contribution towards independence movement and did not need an award for recognition.
Per the original statutes, sportspersons were not eligible for the Bharat Ratna; however, a revision of the rules in December 2011 made eligible "any field of human endeavour ''. Subsequently, several sportspersons ' names were discussed; among the most talked - about of these was field - hockey player Dhyan Chand, who was recommended multiple times for the posthumous honour. In 2011, 82 members of parliament recommended Chand 's name for the award to the Prime Minister 's Office. In January 2012, the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports forwarded his name again, this time along with 2008 Summer Olympics gold medallist shooter Abhinav Bindra and mountaineer Tenzing Norgay. Bindra had earlier been recommended for the award in May 2013 by the National Rifle Association of India. In July 2013, the ministry again recommended Dhyan Chand. However, in November 2013, cricketer Sachin Tendulkar became the first sports - person to receive the honour and this garnered much criticism for the government.
A PIL was filed in the Karnataka High Court where in the petitioner requested the court to issue a direction to the Ministry of Home Affairs to consider their representation dated 26 October 2012 and confer the Bharat Ratna upon Mahatma Gandhi. On 27 January 2014, a counsel appearing for the petitioner noted that after multiple representations from the petitioner, they were provided with the information under RTI that the recommendations to confer the award on Gandhi have been received multiple times in the past and were forwarded to the Prime Minister 's Office. A Division bench comprising Chief Justice D.H. Waghela and Justice B.V. Nagarathna dismissed the petition stating that the subject is not amenable to any adjudication process and the nominations and conferment process is stated to be informal and in the discretion of the highest authority in the Government.
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who sang the who the boss theme song | Who 's the Boss? - Wikipedia
Who 's the Boss? was an American sitcom created by Martin Cohan and Blake Hunter, which aired on ABC from September 20, 1984, to April 25, 1992. Produced by Embassy Television (later Embassy Communications and ELP Communications), in association with Hunter - Cohan Productions and Columbia Pictures Television, the series starred Tony Danza as an Italian - American retired major league baseball player who relocates to Fairfield, Connecticut to work as a live - in housekeeper for a divorced advertising executive, played by Judith Light. Also featured were Alyssa Milano, Danny Pintauro and Katherine Helmond.
The show received positive reviews throughout most of its run, becoming one of the most popular sitcoms of the mid-to - late 1980s. The series was nominated for more than forty awards, including ten Primetime Emmy Award and five Golden Globe Award nominations, winning one of each. Also very successful in the ratings, Who 's the Boss? consistently ranked in the top ten in the final primetime ratings between the years of 1985 and 1989, and has since continued in syndication worldwide.
Widower Anthony Morton "Tony '' Micelli is a former baseball player who was forced to retire due to a shoulder injury. He wants to move out of Brooklyn to find a better environment for his daughter, Samantha. He ends up taking a job in upscale Fairfield, Connecticut, as a live - in housekeeper for divorced advertising executive Angela Bower and her son Jonathan. The Micellis moved into the Bower residence. Also frequenting is Angela 's feisty, sexually progressive mother Mona Robinson. Mona dates all kinds of men, from college age to silver - haired CEOs. This portrayal of an "older woman '' with an active social and sexual life was unusual for television at the time.
The title of the show refers to the clear role reversal of the two lead actors, where a woman was the breadwinner and a man (although he was not her husband) stayed at home and took care of the house. It challenged contemporary stereotypes of Italian - American young males as macho and boorish and wholly ignorant of life outside of urban working - class neighborhoods, as Tony was depicted as sensitive, intelligent and domestic with an interest in intellectual pursuits.
The easy - going, spontaneous Tony and the driven, self - controlled Angela are attracted to each other, though both are uncomfortable with the notion for much of the run of the show. While there is playful banter and many hints of attraction, Tony and Angela do their best to avoid facing this aspect of their developing relationship, and date other people. Angela has a steady romantic interest in Geoffrey Wells (Robin Thomas), while Tony has a variety of girlfriends who come and go, including Kathleen Sawyer (Kate Vernon) in seasons six and seven. In the meantime, however, they become best friends, relying on each other frequently for emotional support. In addition, Tony provides a male role model for Jonathan, while Angela and Mona give Samantha the womanly guidance she had been missing.
Keeping ties with Tony 's and Samantha 's Brooklyn roots, motherly former neighbor Mrs. Rossini (Rhoda Gemignani), who ends up becoming a thorn in Mona 's side, and several other friends turn up a few times each season, sometimes in New York, sometimes in Connecticut.
Angela eventually strikes out on her own and opens her own ad firm in season three, while Tony decides to go back to school, enrolling in the same college that daughter Samantha would later attend in 1990. Samantha 's best friend Bonnie (Shana Lane - Block) is a recurring character during these seasons, while romance comes into her life in the form of boyfriend Jesse Nash (Scott Bloom) during her senior year of high school and into college.
At the start of season eight, Tony and Angela finally acknowledge their love for each other. However, the series does not end with the widely expected marriage but on a more ambiguous note. This was due primarily to concerns by the network that a marriage, representing a definitive ending, could hurt syndication. Tony Danza also vehemently opposed the marriage, saying it would contradict the original purpose of the show.
During the final season, Samantha finds a new love in Hank Thomopoulous (Curnal Achilles Aulisio), who became a full - time character in January 1992. A fellow college student, Hank was originally poised to enter a medical program, but soon decides to become a puppeteer. Sam and Hank were engaged in a matter of weeks, and in February, they were married.
Delta Burke appeared in the first season as next door neighbor, Diane Wilmington. Comic James Coco was a frequent guest, beginning in season one as Tony 's father - in - law, visiting from New York, Nick Milano. People have credited his appearances on Who 's the Boss? as a prime example of his comedic abilities on TV, despite the fact that he was not a regular and had never starred in a successful TV series of his own. When Coco died in February 1987, prior to the conclusion of season three, his character was written out as having died as well (with a funeral episode and tribute).
By the fall of 1990, with Samantha beginning college and Jonathan in high school, Who 's the Boss?, like other series getting on in years, added a new younger cast member. Producers brought in five - year - old Billy (Jonathan Halyalkar), a kid from the Micellis ' old Brooklyn neighborhood, whose grandmother left Billy in Tony 's care. He moved in with the Bower family in season 7. Billy was a comic foil to Tony, but also attempted to get into the mix in other characters ' storylines. He only lasted that season, however. In the E! True Hollywood Story about the series, Katherine Helmond remarked that Halyalkar was a gifted performer, but had difficulty catching up to the pace of the acting and timing the senior cast members had long established with each other. He was written out of the show at the end of the season. In the beginning of season 8, it was briefly explained that Billy had gone to live with another foster family.
Frank Sinatra made a guest appearance in a 1989 episode, as well as Ray Charles, Mike Tyson and Thomas Hearns. Betty White also made a guest appearance in the first season as a local TV director. Leslie Nielsen played Max, who was engaged to Mona in a 1988 episode. Matthew Perry played Benjamin Dawson, a roommate of Samantha 's in a 1990 episode.
Who 's the Boss? was created by television producers and business partners Martin Cohan and Blake Hunter in 1983. In early development, the series was titled You 're the Boss, in reference to Angela employing Tony and the gender role reversal. Before the fall 1984 premiere, the producers changed it to Who 's the Boss?, an open ended title which hinted that any one of the leads could get their own way and be the "boss ''. Unlike Danza, who had served as the Tony prototype from the beginning, Judith Light was one of many who auditioned for the role of Angela. She was eventually cast based on her performance, which Hunter commented as "class (...) Jean Harlow type, or more of a Meryl Streep. '' The character of Mona was initially created as an older sister to Angela, but as Cohan and Hunter struggled to handle the casting of the role, they decided on re-writing the role into "a free spirit with a quick tongue, '' who they envisioned Katherine Helmond to play. Danny Pintauro and Alyssa Milano were also cast based on their auditions.
The series ' pilot was shot in November 1983, a full 10 months before the show actually went on the air. ABC originally was planning to put it on mid-season in January 1984, but due to creative differences between the producers and the network, the show was delayed until the next season. The show debuted on September 20, 1984. While the show was shelved for an extended amount of time in early 1984, Danza was arrested for fighting in a New York bar after a fellow patron made a rude remark about his female companion. A few months later, Who 's the Boss? resumed taping. During his court date that July, Danza faced a choice of jail time or community service as a result of battery and other charges. Danza opted for community service, which was still ongoing when the series premiered. < reference needed >
Later in the show 's run, it was reported that Danza was exhibiting erratic behavior on the set. These stories ranged from Danza getting after the directors, to arguments with the writers over minor script revisions. While it was uncovered that only the writing became an issue for Danza, his frustrations to have the show be a "well - oiled machine '' boiled over at the start of the 1989 -- 90 season, when he staged a walkout for two weeks until he calmed down. In the meantime, the remainder of the cast filmed scenes without him. Upon his return, Danza offered an apology to everyone on the set and resumed work. However, the crew then monitored Danza 's mood and a few weeks later made light of the whole incident by issuing shirts on set that said "I survived week six, '' according to E! True Hollywood Story.
In the fall of 1991, after seven years on its established Tuesday night slot, Who 's the Boss? was moved to Saturday nights at 8: 00 p.m. (against NBC 's The Golden Girls), along with fellow long - running sitcom Growing Pains. In February 1992, ABC added the long - running Perfect Strangers and the new cartoon Capitol Critters to the night. It was promoted as the new I Love Saturday Night lineup, an equivalent to the hit Friday TGIF block. Who 's the Boss? moved to 8: 30 p.m., with Capital Critters as its lead - in. The I Love Saturday Night banner proved to be short - lived, folding on February 29, 1992; Who 's the Boss? moved back into the Saturday 8 / 7c slot in early March.
The series ' ratings dropped significantly in its new time slot, and the decision was made to end the series that spring. The hour - long series finale aired on Saturday, April 25, 1992, along with the finales for Growing Pains and MacGyver. Who 's the Boss? reruns continued to air through the summer. < reference needed >
Early reviews of the series were lukewarm. Jerry Buck, writing for Ocala Star - Banner, noted that while the series "does n't have the same impact (as The Cosby Show), it 's not bad, either. '' He compared Danza and Light 's on - screen chemistry to Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy. The Pittsburgh Press criticized that "the show may have a universal theme (but) it 's hard to find, '' while Duane Dudek of Milwaukee Journal Sentinel summed the series as a "pleasant little sitcom '' which was not a "struggle for mastery (but) in some ways, a rather old - fashioned love story. '' John J. O'Connor of The New York Times was complimentary of the female leads, Light and Helmond, but was concerned if Danza, who "spends a good deal of time with his shirt off and his thick weight - lifted physique '' would "keep this sitcom in ratings shape. ''
Who 's the Boss? was nominated for more than forty awards, including ten Primetime Emmy Award and five Golden Globe Award nominations, winning one each; Katherine Helmond received the 1989 Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film, while Mark J. Levin was awarded the 1989 Emmy Award for Outstanding Lighting Direction for a Comedy Series for his work on the episode "Two on a Billboard. '' Frequently nominated at the annual Young Artist Awards, Milano earned three awards for her portrayal of Samantha. Danny Pintauro and recurring guest Scott Bloom received one award each.
The show 's theme song, "Brand New Life '', was written by series creators and executive producers Cohan and Hunter, with music composed by Larry Carlton and Robert Kraft. Three versions were used throughout the series ' run, which were performed by Larry Weiss (1984 -- 86), Steve Wariner (1986 -- 89), and Jonathan Wolff (1989 -- 92). The third version was first used for the last eight episodes of season six, and a very minor revision of that particular version of the theme was used during seasons seven and eight.
ABC aired reruns of Who 's the Boss? at 11: 00 A.M. (EST) during its daytime schedule from June 1, 1987 until July 1, 1988, after which the show entered into its first local syndication run (September 1988). It was replaced by Growing Pains on the daytime schedule.
Who 's the Boss? aired on TBS Superstation in the 1990s after it was canceled, and was also added to the ABC Family lineup in the late 1990s and early 2000s (decade). Nick at Nite broadcast the show between 2004 and 2006. In 2005, TV Land broadcast the show as part of Nick at Nite 's 20th Anniversary Celebration. The series also aired on Ion Television from July 2007 to February 2008, airing Monday - Thursdays at 9: 00 and 9: 30 p.m. ET. It began airing on the Hallmark Channel in an early afternoon weekday block beginning on May 17, 2010 and ran until April 2, 2011. The series began airing on TVGN in July 2012, and on Hub Network from April 2 until August 30, 2013. On June 1, 2014, the show joined the regular TV Land schedule.
Several episodes from seasons one, two, and eight can be viewed for free in Minisode format on Crackle, which is owned by Sony Pictures Television.
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the first season of Who 's the Boss? on DVD in Region 1 on June 8, 2004.
The first attempted Who 's the Boss? spin - off had its origins in the final episode of season two, "Charmed Lives '', a backdoor pilot for a program about two women up for the same job as well as overall being a series about the lives of single career women in the ' 80s. Starring Fran Drescher and Donna Dixon, it was not picked up as a series.
In 1987, producers had planned a spin - off entitled Mona, which focused on Mona 's character leaving Angela to help her brother Cornelius run a seedy hotel in Manhattan. The third season featured this plot in a two - part episode, but when ABC changed their mind about the spinoff, fearing what Mona 's departure could mean to the show, the ending was rewritten to feature Mona returning to Angela 's home.
The third attempted spin - off, which did make it to series, was titled Living Dolls. Premiering and ending in 1989, the show starred Leah Remini, Michael Learned, and Halle Berry. The show featured Remini, who had appeared in two Who 's the Boss? episodes as a friend of Samantha 's, as a homeless model taken under the wing of an agent played by Learned. In those same Who 's the Boss? episodes, Jonathan Ward played Learned 's son Rick; in the Living Dolls series, David Moscow took over the role.
Several versions of Who 's the Boss? have been produced for foreign television markets. Some are dubbed and others are remakes. In many cases the names of the lead characters were changed:
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who died on nov. 23rd 1985 who lived | EgyptAir flight 648 - wikipedia
EgyptAir Flight 648 was a regularly scheduled international flight between Athens (Ellinikon) Int'l Airport in Greece and Cairo International Airport in Egypt. On 23 November 1985, a Boeing 737 - 200 airliner, registered SU - AYH, servicing the flight was hijacked by the terrorist organization Abu Nidal. The subsequent raid on the aircraft by Egyptian troops resulted in dozens of deaths, making the hijacking of Flight 648 one of the deadliest such incidents in history. Coincidentally, the same aircraft was diverted by U.S. navy F - 14 Tomcat Fighter jets one month earlier, after the Achille Lauro hijacking on 7 October.
On 23 November 1985, Flight 648 took off at 8pm on its Athens - to - Cairo route. Ten minutes after takeoff, three Palestinian members of Abu Nidal hijacked the aircraft. The terrorists, calling themselves the Egypt Revolution, were heavily armed with guns and grenades. The terrorist leader, Omar Rezaq, proceeded to check all passports. At this point, an Egyptian Security Service agent, Mustafa Kamal, aboard opened fire, killing one terrorist before being wounded along with two flight attendants. In the exchange of fire the fuselage was punctured, causing a rapid depressurization. The aircraft was forced to descend to 14,000 feet (4,300 m) to allow the crew and passengers to breathe.
Libya was the original destination for the hijackers, but due to negative publicity the hijacking would have had if flown to Libya and the fact that the plane did not have enough fuel, Malta was chosen as a more suitable option. The aircraft was running dangerously low on fuel, experiencing serious pressurization problems and carrying a number of wounded passengers. However, Maltese authorities did not give permission for the aircraft to land; the Maltese government had previously refused permission to other hijacked aircraft, including on 23 September 1982 when an Alitalia aircraft was hijacked on its way to Italy. The EgyptAir 648 hijackers insisted, and forced the pilot, Hani Galal, to land at Luqa Airport. As a last - ditch attempt to stop the landing, the runway lights were switched off, but the pilot managed to land the damaged aircraft safely.
Nationalities of the passengers included the following:
The Mexican passengers were actress Lupita Pallás and her daughter Laila Ortiz de Pinedo, mother and sister of Mexican actor Jorge Ortiz de Pinedo.
At first, Maltese authorities were optimistic they could solve the crisis. Malta had good relations with the Arab world, and 12 years earlier had successfully resolved a potentially more serious situation when a KLM Boeing 747 landed there under similar circumstances. The Maltese Prime Minister, Karmenu Mifsud Bonnici, rushed to the airport 's control tower and assumed responsibility for the negotiations. Aided by an interpreter, he refused to refuel the aircraft, or to withdraw Maltese armed forces which had surrounded the plane, until all passengers were released. Eleven passengers and two injured flight attendants were allowed off the plane. The hijackers then started shooting hostages, starting with Tamar Artzi, an Israeli woman. She was grazed on the ear, but pretended to be dead. Rezaq, the chief hijacker, threatened to kill a passenger every 15 minutes until his demands were met. His next victim was Nitzan Mendelson, another Israeli woman. He then shot three Americans -- Patrick Scott Baker, Scarlett Marie Rogenkamp and Jackie Nink Pflug. Of the five passengers shot, Artzi, Baker and Pflug survived; Mendelson died in a Maltese hospital a week after the hijacking. A British passenger commented that he saw that Rezaq had to raise his gun in order to shoot Baker, who was about 6 ' 5 '' tall.
France, the United Kingdom and the United States all offered to send anti-hijack forces. Bonnici was under heavy pressure from both the hijackers and from the United States and Egypt, whose ambassadors were at the airport. The non-aligned Maltese government feared that the Americans or the Israelis would arrive and take control of the area, as the U.S. Naval Air Station Sigonella was only 20 minutes away. A U.S. Air Force C - 130 Hercules with an aeromedical evacuation team from Rhein - Main Air Base (2nd Aeromedical Evacuation Squadron) near Frankfurt, Germany, and rapid - deploying surgical teams from Wiesbaden Air Force Medical Center were on standby at the U.S. Navy Hospital at Naples. When the U.S. told Maltese authorities that Egypt had a special forces counterterrorism team trained by the U.S. Delta Force ready to move in, they were granted permission to come. The Egyptian Unit 777 under the command of Major - General Kamal Attia was flown in, led by four American officers. Negotiations were prolonged as much as possible, and it was agreed that the plane should be attacked on the morning of 25 November when food was to be taken into the aircraft. Soldiers dressed up as caterers would jam the door open and attack.
Without warning, around an hour and a half before the planned time of the raid, Egyptian commandos attacked the passenger doors and luggage compartment doors with explosives. Bonnici claimed that these unauthorized explosions caused the internal plastic of the plane to catch fire, causing widespread suffocation. On the other hand, the Times of Malta, quoting sources at the airport on the day, held that when the hijackers realized that they were being attacked, they lobbed hand grenades into the passenger area, killing people and starting the fire aboard.
The storming of the aircraft killed 54 of the remaining 87 passengers, as well as two crew members and one hijacker. Only one hijacker -- Omar Rezaq, who had survived -- remained undetected by the Maltese government. The terrorist leader, who was injured during the storming of the aircraft, had removed his hood and ammunition and pretended to be an injured passenger. Egyptian commandos tracked Rezaq to St. Luke 's General Hospital and, holding the doctors and medical staff at gunpoint, entered the casualty ward looking for him. He was arrested when some of the passengers in the hospital recognized him.
A total of 58 of the 95 passengers and crew had died, as well as two of the three hijackers, by the time the crisis was over. Maltese medical examiners estimated that eight passengers were shot dead by the commandos.
Rezaq faced trial in Malta, but with no anti-terrorism legislation, he was tried on other charges. There was widespread fear that terrorists would hijack a Maltese plane or carry out a terrorist attack in Malta as an act of retribution. Rezaq received a 25 - year sentence, of which he served eight. His release caused a diplomatic incident between Malta and the U.S. because Maltese law strictly prohibited trying a person twice, in any jurisdiction, on charges connected to the same series of events (having wider limitations compared to classic double jeopardy). Following his immediate expulsion on release, he was captured on arrival in Nigeria. After three months he was handed over to the U.S., brought before a U.S. court and, on 7 October 1996, sentenced to life imprisonment with a no - parole recommendation.
In his 1989 book Massacre in Malta, John A. Mizzi writes:
Mizzi adds:
Mizzi also mentions how Maltese soldiers positioned in the vicinity of the aircraft were equipped with rifles but were not issued ammunition. An Italian secret service report on the incident showed how the fire inside the aircraft was caused by the Egyptian commandos who placed explosives in the aircraft cargo hold -- the most vulnerable part of the aircraft, as it held the oxygen tanks which blew up. During the hijacking, only the Socialist Party media and state - controlled television were given information on the incident. Such was the censorship of the media, that the Maltese people first heard of the disaster through RAI TV, when its correspondent Enrico Mentana spoke live on the air via a direct phone call: "Parlo da Malta. Qui c'è stato un massacro... '' ("I 'm speaking from Malta. Here there 's just been a massacre... '') Shortly before this broadcast, a news bulletin on the Maltese national television had erroneously stated that all passengers had been released and were safe.
Decisions taken by the Maltese government drew criticism from overseas. The United States protested to Malta about U.S. personnel sent to resolve the issue having been confined to Air Squadron HQ and the U.S. Embassy in Floriana. The United States had seen the situation as so ' hot ' that it had ordered a number of its naval ships, including an aircraft carrier, to move toward Malta for contingency purposes.
EgyptAir still flies the Athens -- Cairo route, now assigned flight numbers 748 and 750 and is now performed by Boeing 737 - 800. The flight number 648 is now on its Riyadh -- Cairo route.
The events of the hijacking were related in an account by American survivor Jackie Nink Pflug, who had been shot in the head, on the Biography Channel television program I Survived..., which was broadcast on 13 April 2009. Laurence Zrinzo, the neurologist and neurosurgeon who established neurosurgery as a sub-speciality in the Maltese islands, performed Ms Pflug 's neurosurgical procedure. Ms Pflug also related details about the flight and the attack in her 2001 book, Miles to Go Before I Sleep. The incident was chronicled and reenacted in an Interpol Investigates episode, "Terror in the Skies '', broadcast by the National Geographic Channel.
The hijacking is also the subject of the book Valinda, Our Daughter, written by Canadian author Gladys Taylor.
The events of the hijacking are described in and used to further the plot in Brad Thor 's novel Path of the Assassin.
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what are the 5 major divisions of the old testament | Old Testament - wikipedia
Outline of Bible - related topics
The Old Testament (abbreviated OT) is the first part of Christian Bibles, based primarily upon the Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh), a collection of ancient religious writings by the Israelites believed by most Christians and religious Jews to be the sacred Word of God. The second part of the Christian Bible is the New Testament.
The books that comprise the Old Testament canon, as well as their order and names, differ between Christian denominations. The Catholic canon comprises 46 books, and the canons of the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches comprise up to 51 books and the most common Protestant canon comprises 39 books. The 39 books in common to all the Christian canons correspond to the 24 books of the Tanakh, with some differences of order, and there are some differences in text. The additional number reflects the splitting of several texts (Kings, Samuel and Chronicles, Ezra -- Nehemiah and the minor prophets) into separate books in Christian bibles. The books which are part of a Christian Old Testament but which are not part of the Hebrew canon are sometimes described as deuterocanonical. In general, Protestant Bibles do not include the deuterocanonical books in their canon, but some versions of Anglican and Lutheran bibles place such books in a separate section called Apocrypha. These extra books are ultimately derived from the earlier Greek Septuagint collection of the Hebrew scriptures and are also Jewish in origin. Some are also contained in the Dead Sea Scrolls.
The Old Testament consists of many distinct books by various authors produced over a period of centuries. Christians traditionally divide the Old Testament into four sections: (1) the first five books or Pentateuch (Torah); (2) the history books telling the history of the Israelites, from their conquest of Canaan to their defeat and exile in Babylon; (3) the poetic and "Wisdom books '' dealing, in various forms, with questions of good and evil in the world; and (4) the books of the biblical prophets, warning of the consequences of turning away from God.
The Old Testament contains 39 (Protestant), 46 (Catholic), or more (Orthodox and other) books, divided, very broadly, into the Pentateuch (Torah), the historical books, the "wisdom '' books and the prophets.
The table uses the spellings and names present in modern editions of the Christian Bible, such as the Catholic New American Bible Revised Edition and the Protestant Revised Standard Version and English Standard Version. The spelling and names in both the 1609 -- 10 Douay Old Testament (and in the 1582 Rheims New Testament) and the 1749 revision by Bishop Challoner (the edition currently in print used by many Catholics, and the source of traditional Catholic spellings in English) and in the Septuagint differ from those spellings and names used in modern editions which are derived from the Hebrew Masoretic text.
For the Orthodox canon, Septuagint titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. For the Catholic canon, the Douaic titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. Likewise, the King James Version references some of these books by the traditional spelling when referring to them in the New Testament, such as "Esaias '' (for Isaiah).
In the spirit of ecumenism more recent Catholic translations (e.g. the New American Bible, Jerusalem Bible, and ecumenical translations used by Catholics, such as the Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition) use the same "standardized '' (King James Version) spellings and names as Protestant Bibles (e.g. 1 Chronicles as opposed to the Douaic 1 Paralipomenon, 1 -- 2 Samuel and 1 -- 2 Kings instead of 1 -- 4 Kings) in those books which are universally considered canonical, the protocanonicals.
The Talmud (the Jewish commentary on the scriptures) in Bava Batra 14b gives a different order for the books in Nevi'im and Ketuvim. This order is also cited in Mishneh Torah Hilchot Sefer Torah 7: 15. The order of the books of the Torah is universal through all denominations of Judaism and Christianity.
The disputed books, included in one canon but not in others, are often called the Biblical apocrypha, a term that is sometimes used specifically to describe the books in the Catholic and Orthodox canons that are absent from the Jewish Masoretic Text and most modern Protestant Bibles. Catholics, following the Canon of Trent (1546), describe these books as deuterocanonical, while Greek Orthodox Christians, following the Synod of Jerusalem (1672), use the traditional name of anagignoskomena, meaning "that which is to be read. '' They are present in a few historic Protestant versions; the German Luther Bible included such books, as did the English 1611 King James Version.
Empty table cells indicate that a book is absent from that canon.
Several of the books in the Eastern Orthodox canon are also found in the appendix to the Latin Vulgate, formerly the official bible of the Roman Catholic Church.
The first five books -- Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, book of Numbers and Deuteronomy -- reached their present form in the Persian period (538 -- 332 BC), and their authors were the elite of exilic returnees who controlled the Temple at that time. The books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings follow, forming a history of Israel from the Conquest of Canaan to the Siege of Jerusalem c. 587 BC. There is a broad consensus among scholars that these originated as a single work (the so - called "Deuteronomistic history '') during the Babylonian exile of the 6th century BC. The two Books of Chronicles cover much the same material as the Pentateuch and Deuteronomistic history and probably date from the 4th century BC. Chronicles, and Ezra -- Nehemiah, were probably finished during the 3rd century BC. Catholic and Orthodox Old Testaments contain two (Catholic Old Testament) to four (Orthodox) Books of Maccabees, written in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC.
These history books make up around half the total content of the Old Testament. Of the remainder, the books of the various prophets -- Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel and the twelve "minor prophets '' -- were written between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, with the exceptions of Jonah and Daniel, which were written much later. The "wisdom '' books -- Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Psalms, Song of Solomon -- have various dates: Proverbs possibly was completed by the Hellenistic time (332 - 198 BC), though containing much older material as well; Job completed by the 6th Century BC; Ecclesiastes by the 3rd Century BC.
God is consistently depicted as the one who created the world. Although the God of the Old Testament is not consistently presented as the only God who exists, he is always depicted as the only God whom Israel is to worship, or the one "true God '', that only Yahweh is Almighty, and both Jews and Christians have always interpreted the Bible (both the "Old '' and "New '' Testaments) as an affirmation of the oneness of Almighty God.
The Old Testament stresses the special relationship between God and his chosen people, Israel, but includes instructions for proselytes as well. This relationship is expressed in the biblical covenant (contract) between the two, received by Moses. The law codes in books such as Exodus and especially Deuteronomy are the terms of the contract: Israel swears faithfulness to God, and God swears to be Israel 's special protector and supporter.
Further themes in the Old Testament include salvation, redemption, divine judgment, obedience and disobedience, faith and faithfulness, among others. Throughout there is a strong emphasis on ethics and ritual purity, both of which God demands, although some of the prophets and wisdom writers seem to question this, arguing that God demands social justice above purity, and perhaps does not even care about purity at all. The Old Testament 's moral code enjoins fairness, intervention on behalf of the vulnerable, and the duty of those in power to administer justice righteously. It forbids murder, bribery and corruption, deceitful trading, and many sexual misdemeanors. All morality is traced back to God, who is the source of all goodness.
The problem of evil plays a large part in the Old Testament. The problem the Old Testament authors faced was that a good God must have had just reason for bringing disaster (meaning notably, but not only, the Babylonian exile) upon his people. The theme is played out, with many variations, in books as different as the histories of Kings and Chronicles, the prophets like Ezekiel and Jeremiah, and in the wisdom books like Job and Ecclesiastes.
The process by which scriptures became canons and Bibles was a long one, and its complexities account for the many different Old Testaments which exist today. Timothy H. Lim, a professor of Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Judaism at the University of Edinburgh, identifies the Old Testament as "a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing. '' He states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. By about the 5th century BC Jews saw the five books of the Torah (the Old Testament Pentateuch) as having authoritative status; by the 2nd century BC the Prophets had a similar status, although without quite the same level of respect as the Torah; beyond that, the Jewish scriptures were fluid, with different groups seeing authority in different books.
Hebrew texts commenced to be translated into Greek in Alexandria in about 280 and continued until about 130 BC. These early Greek translations -- supposedly commissioned by Ptolemy Philadelphus -- were called the Septuagint (Latin: "Seventy '') from the supposed number of translators involved (hence its abbreviation "LXX ''). This Septuagint remains the basis of the Old Testament in the Eastern Orthodox Church.
It varies in many places from the Masoretic Text and includes numerous books no longer considered canonical in some traditions: 1 and 2 Esdras, Judith, Tobit, 3 and 4 Maccabees, the Book of Wisdom, Sirach, and Baruch. Early modern Biblical criticism typically explained these variations as intentional or ignorant corruptions by the Alexandrian scholars, but most recent scholarship holds it is simply based on early source texts differing from those later used by the Masoretes in their work.
The Septuagint was originally used by Hellenized Jews whose knowledge of Greek was better than Hebrew. But the texts came to be used predominantly by gentile converts to Christianity and by the early Church as its scripture, Greek being the lingua franca of the early Church. The three most acclaimed early interpreters were Aquila of Sinope, Symmachus the Ebionite, and Theodotion; in his Hexapla, Origen placed his edition of the Hebrew text beside its transcription in Greek letters and four parallel translations: Aquila 's, Symmachus 's, the Septuagint 's, and Theodotion 's. The so - called "fifth '' and "sixth editions '' were two other Greek translations supposedly miraculously discovered by students outside the towns of Jericho and Nicopolis: these were added to Origen 's Octapla.
In 331, Constantine I commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus are examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta and Codex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles. There is no evidence among the canons of the First Council of Nicaea of any determination on the canon, however, Jerome (347 -- 420), in his Prologue to Judith, makes the claim that the Book of Judith was "found by the Nicene Council to have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures ''.
In Western Christianity or Christianity in the Western half of the Roman Empire, Latin had displaced Greek as the common language of the early Christians, and in 382 AD Pope Damasus I commissioned Jerome, the leading scholar of the day, to produce an updated Latin bible to replace the Vetus Latina, which was a Latin translation of the Septuagint. Jerome 's work, called the Vulgate, was a direct translation from Hebrew, since he argued for the superiority of the Hebrew texts in correcting the Septuagint on both philological and theological grounds. His Vulgate Old Testament became the standard bible used in the Western Church, specifically as the Sixto - Clementine Vulgate, while the Churches in the East continued, and still continue, to use the Septuagint.
Jerome, however, in the Vulgate 's prologues describes some portions of books in the Septuagint not found in the Hebrew Bible as being non-canonical (he called them apocrypha); for Baruch, he mentions by name in his Prologue to Jeremiah and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon ''. The Synod of Hippo (in 393), followed by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419), may be the first council that explicitly accepted the first canon which includes the books that did not appear in the Hebrew Bible; the councils were under significant influence of Augustine of Hippo, who regarded the canon as already closed.
In the 16th century, the Protestant reformers sided with Jerome; yet although most Protestant Bibles now have only those books that appear in the Hebrew Bible, they have them in the order of the Greek Bible.
Rome then officially adopted a canon, the Canon of Trent, which is seen as following Augustine 's Carthaginian Councils or the Council of Rome, and includes most, but not all, of the Septuagint (3 Ezra and 3 and 4 Maccabees are excluded); the Anglicans after the English Civil War adopted a compromise position, restoring the 39 Articles and keeping the extra books that were excluded by the Westminster Confession of Faith, but only for private study and for reading in churches, while Lutherans kept them for private study, gathered in an appendix as Biblical Apocrypha.
While the Hebrew, Greek and Latin versions of the Hebrew Bible are the best known Old Testaments, there were others. At much the same time as the Septuagint was being produced, translations were being made into Aramaic, the language of Jews living in Palestine and the Near East and likely the language of Jesus: these are called the Aramaic Targums, from a word meaning "translation '', and were used to help Jewish congregations understand their scriptures.
For Aramaic Christians there was a Syriac translation of the Hebrew Bible called the Peshitta, as well as versions in Coptic (the everyday language of Egypt in the first Christian centuries, descended from ancient Egyptian), Ethiopic (for use in the Ethiopian church, one of the oldest Christian churches), Armenian (Armenia was the first to adopt Christianity as its official religion), and Arabic.
Christianity is based on the belief that the historical Jesus is also the Christ, as in the Confession of Peter. This belief is in turn based on Jewish understandings of the meaning of the Hebrew term messiah, which, like the Greek "Christ '', means "anointed ''. In the Hebrew Scriptures it describes a king anointed with oil on his accession to the throne: he becomes "The LORD 's anointed '' or Yahweh 's Anointed. By the time of Jesus, some Jews expected that a flesh and blood descendant of David (the "Son of David '') would come to establish a real Jewish kingdom in Jerusalem, instead of the Roman province.
Others stressed the Son of Man, a distinctly other - worldly figure who would appear as a judge at the end of time; and some harmonised the two by expecting a this - worldly messianic kingdom which would last for a set period and be followed by the other - worldly age or World to Come. Some thought the Messiah was already present, but unrecognised due to Israel 's sins; some thought that the Messiah would be announced by a fore - runner, probably Elijah (as promised by the prophet Malachi, whose book now ends the Old Testament and precedes Mark 's account of John the Baptist). None predicted a Messiah who suffers and dies for the sins of all the people. The story of Jesus ' death therefore involved a profound shift in meaning from the tradition of the Old Testament.
The name "Old Testament '' reflects Christianity 's understanding of itself as the fulfillment of Jeremiah 's prophecy of a New Covenant (which is similar to "testament '' and often conflated) to replace the existing covenant between God and Israel (Jeremiah 31: 31). The emphasis, however, has shifted from Judaism 's understanding of the covenant as a racially or tribally - based contract between God and Jews to one between God and any person of faith who is "in Christ ''.
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2018 african u 20 women's world cup qualifying tournament | 2018 African U-20 Women 's World Cup qualifying tournament - wikipedia
The 2018 African U-20 Women 's World Cup Qualifying Tournament was the 9th edition of the African U-20 Women 's World Cup Qualifying Tournament, the biennial international youth football competition organised by the Confederation of African Football (CAF) to determine which women 's under - 20 national teams from Africa qualify for the FIFA U-20 Women 's World Cup.
Players born on or after 1 January 1998 are eligible to compete in the tournament. Two teams qualify from this tournament for the 2018 FIFA U-20 Women 's World Cup in France as the CAF representatives.
A total of 19 (out of 54) CAF member national teams entered the qualifying rounds. The draw was announced by the CAF on 15 June 2017.
If the aggregate score is tied after the second leg, the away goals rule is applied, and if still tied, extra time is not played, and the penalty shoot - out is used to determine the winner.
The two winners of the third round qualify for the FIFA U-20 Women 's World Cup.
The schedule of the qualifying rounds is as follows.
Burundi v Djibouti
Djibouti v Burundi
Burundi won 8 -- 1 on aggregate.
Libya v Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone v Libya
Sierra Leone won on walkover after Libya withdrew.
Botswana v Kenya
Kenya v Botswana
Kenya won on walkover after Botswana withdrew prior to the second leg for financial reasons.
Burundi v Rwanda
Rwanda v Burundi
Burundi won on walkover after Rwanda withdrew.
South Africa v Namibia
Namibia v South Africa
South Africa won 9 -- 0 on aggregate.
Morocco v Senegal
Senegal v Morocco
Morocco won 3 -- 2 on aggregate.
Nigeria v Tanzania
Tanzania v Nigeria
Nigeria won 9 -- 0 on aggregate.
Tunisia v Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone v Tunisia
Sierra Leone won on walkover after Tunisia withdrew.
Guinea v Cameroon
Cameroon v Guinea
Cameroon won on walkover after Guinea withdrew prior to the second leg.
Algeria v Ghana
Ghana v Algeria
Ghana won 10 -- 0 on aggregate.
Ethiopia v Kenya
Kenya v Ethiopia
Kenya won 4 -- 3 on aggregate.
Burundi v South Africa
South Africa v Burundi
South Africa won 5 -- 2 on aggregate.
Morocco v Nigeria
Nigeria v Morocco
Nigeria won 6 -- 2 on aggregate.
Sierra Leone v Cameroon
Cameroon v Sierra Leone
Cameroon won on walkover after Sierra Leone withdrew.
Ghana v Kenya
Kenya v Ghana
Ghana won 10 -- 1 on aggregate.
Winners qualify for 2018 FIFA U-20 Women 's World Cup.
South Africa v Nigeria
Nigeria v South Africa
Nigeria won 8 -- 0 on aggregate.
Cameroon v Ghana
Ghana v Cameroon
Ghana won 4 -- 1 on aggregate.
The following two teams from CAF qualify for the 2018 FIFA U-20 Women 's World Cup.
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who played the dad on my three sons | My Three Sons - wikipedia
My Three Sons is an American sitcom. The series ran from 1960 to 1965 on ABC, and moved to CBS until its end on April 13, 1972. My Three Sons chronicles the life of widower and aeronautical engineer Steven Douglas (Fred MacMurray) as he raises his three sons.
The series originally featured William Frawley as the boys ' live - in maternal grandfather, William Michael Francis "Bub '' O'Casey. William Demarest, playing Bub 's brother, "Charley '', replaced Frawley in 1965 due to Frawley 's illness. In September 1965, eldest son Mike married, and his character was written out of the show. To keep the emphasis on "three sons '', a new son named Ernie was adopted. In the program 's final years, Steven Douglas remarried and adopted his new wife 's young daughter Dorothy ("Dodie '').
The series was a cornerstone of the ABC and CBS lineups in the 1960s. With 380 episodes produced, it is second only to The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet (14 seasons, 1952 - 1966, 434 episodes) and tied with It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia (12 seasons) as television 's longest - running live - action sitcom. Disney producer Bill Walsh often mused on whether the concept of the show was inspired by the movie The Shaggy Dog, as in his view they shared "the same dog, the same kids, and Fred MacMurray ''.
The show began on ABC in black - and - white. The first season, consisting of 36 episodes, was directed in its entirety by Peter Tewksbury, who produced and occasionally scripted the programs.
These early episodes held to no specific generic type, so that any episode from one week to the next might be either comedic or dramatic. Tewksbury 's episodes are also unusual for their use of cross-talk (a way of having the voices of off - screen characters heard in the background of the soundtrack, just under the voices of the main characters). Using this clever directorial twist, Tewksbury realistically portrayed the chaotic, fast - paced, and ever - changing sequence of events; coordinate and conflicting, that was the daily routine of living in the Douglas household.
An example of Tewksbury 's use of cross-talk is the fourth episode, "Countdown '', written by David Duncan, which chronicles the Douglas family 's attempts to wake up, prepare for the day, have breakfast, and get out of the house by a common, agreed - upon time, all carefully synchronized to a televised rocket launch countdown -- to comical and often ironic effect. Tewksbury returned to directing feature films after concluding the season because the producers could not handle his perfectionist attitude, which was costing thousands of dollars in lost time and reshoots.
During the 1964 fall season, William Frawley, who played Bub, was declared too ill to work by Desilu Studios, as the company was informed that insuring the actor would be too costly. Frawley continued in the role until a suitable replacement could be found at midseason. He was replaced by William Demarest, who had played his hard - nosed brother (great) Uncle Charley part way through the 1964 - 1965 season (the last on ABC). According to the storyline, Bub returns to Ireland to help his Auntie Kate celebrate her 104th birthday. Soon after, brother Charley visits and stays on. Charley, a cello - playing merchant sailor, was a soft - hearted curmudgeon, who proved to be a responsible caregiver. Frawley left the series before the end of the 1964 - 1965 season.
Peter Tewksbury directed the first season. The succeeding director, Richard Whorf, took over the reins for one season and was in turn followed by former actor - turned - director Gene Reynolds from 1962 to 1964. James V. Kern, an experienced Hollywood television director who had previously helmed the "Hollywood '' and "Europe '' episodes of I Love Lucy, continued in this role for two years until his untimely death in late 1966, aged 57. Director James Sheldon was also contracted to finish episodes that had been partly completed by Kern to complete that season. Fred De Cordova was the show 's longest and most consistent director of the series (108 episodes) until he left in 1971 to produce The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. Earl Bellamy rounded out the series as director of the show 's final year.
My Three Sons moved to the CBS television network for the 1965 - 1966 season after ABC declined to commit to underwriting the expense of producing the program in color. Along with the change in networks and the transition to color, Tim Considine (who had earlier worked with Fred MacMurray on The Shaggy Dog), playing eldest son Mike, had chosen not to renew his contract due to a clash with executive producer Don Fedderson over Considine 's wish to direct but not co-star in the series. (Considine did, however, direct one of the last black - and - white episodes for ABC.) In an August 1989 interview on the Pat Sajak Show, he explained that he was also devoted to automobile racing, which his contract forbade. His character was written out, along with Meredith MacRae, who had played his fiancee Sally, in a wedding episode that was the premiere of the 1965 -- 1966 season on CBS. After this episode, which was the program 's first in color, Mike is mentioned briefly in only four succeeding episodes (including one in which Ernie becomes adopted), and is never seen again, even at Robbie and Steve 's weddings. In the episode "Steve and the Huntress '' (first aired January 27, 1966), Mike is specifically mentioned as teaching at a college. MacRae joined Petticoat Junction the following year, the last of three actresses to play Billie Jo Bradley.
To keep the show 's title plausible, the show 's head writer, George Tibbles, fashioned a three - part story arc in which an orphaned friend of youngest brother Richard (Chip, played by Stanley Livingston), Ernie Thompson (played by his real - life brother, Barry Livingston), awaits adoption when his current foster parents are transferred to the Orient. Steve offers to adopt Ernie, but faces antagonism from Uncle Charley, who finds Ernie a bit grating, and forecasts major headaches over both the boy and his dog. It also transpires that a law requires a woman to live in the home of an adoptive family. A likable female social worker supervises the case, and the Douglases speculate that Steve might marry the woman, to make the adoption possible, but they both agree this is not reason enough for them to be married. The family also does not need to hire a housekeeper, since Uncle Charley already has things running smoothly. The family soon appears before a judge who researches the law, and determines that its intent is to ensure a full - time caregiver is in the household. With Charley meeting that role, and having had a change of heart about Ernie, Charley assents to a legal fiction declaring him "housemother '' to the Douglas family.
While the three sons were always central to the storyline, several major changes took place by the late 1960s. In the spring of 1967, the ratings for the series began to sag and My Three Sons finished its seventh season in 31st place in the Nielsen ratings. It was decided that the 1967 - 1968 season would bring the program not only a new time slot, but also new storylines to spice up the ratings. In the fall of 1967, CBS moved My Three Sons to Saturday night at 8: 30 pm. In the season - premiere episode, "Moving Day '', the Douglas family and Uncle Charley relocate from the fictional town of Bryant Park in the Midwest to Los Angeles. Robbie (Don Grady) marries his classmate / girlfriend, Katie Miller (Tina Cole). Tina Cole, in fact, had appeared in different roles on three previous episodes of My Three Sons: "House For Sale '' from the fourth season (February 13, 1964), "The Coffee House Set '' from the fifth season (November 19, 1964), and "Robbie and the Little Stranger '' from the sixth season (February 17, 1966). At the end of the 1967 - 1968 season, the ratings had improved from the previous year with the series placing at 24th in the Nielsens. The following season, the newlyweds discover that Katie is pregnant, and she gives birth to triplets named Robert, Steven, and Charles. Although originally played by sets of uncredited twins, these babies were played uncredited by Guy, Gunnar, and Garth Swanson. The most familiar triplets in the show 's last two seasons are played by Michael, Daniel, and Joseph Todd.
The following year in the tenth season, 1969 - 1970, Steve remarries, taking widowed teacher Barbara Harper (Beverly Garland) as his wife; she brings with her a 5 - year - old daughter, Dorothy "Dodie '' (Dawn Lyn), so Steven now had a stepdaughter whom he also subsequently adopts. Also, the last year - and - a-half of the series feature fewer appearances of both Don Grady and Stanley Livingston. Grady 's character was written out of the show at the end of the 11th season, which allowed for his wife Katie and their triplet sons to remain within the Douglas household the following season (as a structural engineer Robbie was working on a bridge construction in Peru). Chip and his teen wife Polly (Ronne Troup) (who eloped after Polly 's disciplinarian father refused to sanction the marriage) move into their own apartment.
At the end of the 1970 - 1971 season (the show 's 11th year), My Three Sons was still garnering healthy ratings. By the spring of 1971, it had finished in 19th place. A 1971 television pilot with Don Grady and Tina Cole called Three of a Kind, then retitled Robbie -- about Robbie, Katie, and the triplets moving to San Francisco -- was filmed but not picked up as a series.
The final episode of the 1970 - 1971 season, "After the Honeymoon '', actually set up the premise for this pilot. The guest stars were Richard X. Slattery and Pat Carroll, who were featured as the landlords of the apartment block into which Robbie and Katie move. However, Don Grady had informed the producers of his intention to leave the series and pursue a new full - time career as a composer, which he ultimately did.
For the series ' 12th season, CBS moved My Three Sons to Monday nights at 10: 00 pm. In addition to the time changes for the 12th season, a new four - part story arc is introduced with MacMurray in a second role, that of his cousin, the Laird (Lord) Fergus McBain Douglas of Sithian Bridge. The voice of English actor Alan Caillou is awkwardly dubbed over MacMurray 's. The plot centers around Lord Douglas 's arrival in Los Angeles from the family 's native Scotland, in search of a first lady to marry and return with him to Scotland.
He finds Terri Dowling (Anne Francis), a waitress at the Blue Berry Bowling Alley. While initially reluctant to give up her life in America and return to Scotland as royalty, she finally accepts. This storyline is a continuation of a plot idea that originally began in the fourth season, when the Douglases visit Scotland on the pretense of having been told they had inherited a castle in the highlands.
With a later time slot, the show finished the season outside the top 30. To save the series, CBS moved it in midseason back to Thursday nights at 8: 30 pm, its old time slot. Nevertheless, My Three Sons ended its primetime run in the spring of 1972 after 12 years on the air. CBS also aired daytime reruns starting in September 1971 (only the CBS color shows), for about one season.
The series ' cast had several music connections. MacMurray began his career as a saxophone player during the 1930s, and sometimes played it on the series, as well as clarinet. Actress Tina Cole (Katie) was born into the King Family, a popular 1950s -- 1960s group. Ronne Troup (Polly) was the step - daughter of singer Julie London and daughter of musician / composer Bobby Troup (who wrote the song Route 66 and also starred in the TV program Emergency! along with wife London), and Dawn Lyn is the younger sister of 1970s pop idol Leif Garrett. Don Grady (Robbie) composed and produced music, having created successful Las Vegas venues for Phantom of the Opera star Michael Crawford and pop star David Cassidy.
Grady also played drums in the ' 60s pop group Yellow Balloon. Musical arranger Frank De Vol, who did the toe - tapping theme, scored over thirty motion pictures and arranged for such vocalists as Sarah Vaughan, Jack Jones, Nat King Cole, Ella Fitzgerald, Tony Bennett, Vic Damone, Dinah Shore, Doris Day, and Jaye P. Morgan.
My Three Sons had 36 episodes each in the first two seasons. The series had more than thirty episodes in each of the first eight seasons; the episode output then decreased by two episodes until the eleventh season, which had twenty - four episodes, along with the twelfth season. The first five seasons were filmed in black & white, then after the move to CBS, it was filmed in color for the remainder of its run.
The series was initially filmed at Desilu Studios in Hollywood, but at the start of the 1967 -- 68 season, the cast and crew began filming the series at the CBS Studio Center in Studio City, California. The reasons behind this move concerned the sale of actress - comedian Lucille Ball ' s studios to the Gulf + Western conglomerate, which owned Paramount Pictures, so Don Fedderson Productions, who produced My Three Sons (along with Family Affair starring Brian Keith), had to quickly make other arrangements for filming. The move also necessitated moves in the show 's storyline as well, hence the family 's move from the fictitious town of Bryant Park (in the Midwestern United States) to North Hollywood, California, although the town is never officially mentioned, simply just the city of Los Angeles.
Fred MacMurray was the only actor to appear in every episode of the series. Reportedly, MacMurray 's contract stipulated that he work only 65 days per year. His scenes for each season were produced in two blocks of filming. He would report to the Desilu - Gower lot in late May and work 35 days (five days per week, weekends off), then take off for 10 weeks. He would then return to complete his remaining 30 days of shooting and was finished altogether around Thanksgiving. MacMurray 's ten - week hiatus in the middle of each season 's production schedule freed up the actor to follow other pursuits, while the filming of scenes with the other cast members continued. In short, all episodes were filmed out of sequence. Evidence of this is very apparent in several episodes, where plotlines had MacMurray 's character on a business trip (e.g. "Small Adventure '') or spending much of his time at the office (e.g. "Soap Box Derby ''). This allowed him to seemingly take part in the entire episode with limited or no interaction with the other regulars during filming. This sometimes produced noticeable continuity problems onscreen, especially as the boys grew and changed styles.
Although Don Fedderson gets the credit, My Three Sons was created by George Tibbles and produced by Don Fedderson Productions throughout the show 's run, with MCA Television co-distributing the series during its 1960 -- 65 ABC airing. When the series moved to CBS in 1965, the latter network assumed full production responsibilities (in association with Fedderson Productions) until the end of the series in 1972. CBS now holds the series ' copyright. CBS Television Distribution presently owns distribution rights to the entire series (including the more widely seen and aforementioned 1965 -- 72 CBS episodes). The show did not get syndicated until September 1976 (although CBS did air reruns of the show in its daytime lineup from December 1971 until the fall of 1972), and even then, only the CBS color episodes aired, while the black and white ABC episodes did not air on broadcast TV at all.
Nick at Nite aired My Three Sons from November 3, 1985 to October 28, 1991 with episodes from Seasons 1 - 5, the second half of season 11, and season 12. The Family Channel also aired only the black and white episodes from September 7, 1992 to July 30, 1993. The Seasons 1 - 3 episodes had the original Chevrolet closing credits. The Seasons 6 -- 10 (and the first half of season 11) episodes were later aired on TV Land in the late 1990s. Odyssey ran all of the color episodes in the early 2000s. They also briefly aired the black and white episodes. In 2000, TV Land briefly aired the black & white episodes again, using the same syndication episode rights that were on Nick at Nite during the 1980s. In 2006 the Retro Television Network broadcast the show, airing only the color episodes.
Since fall 2004, only Seasons 6 - 10 are being distributed for syndication in the US - Domestic market, though very few stations air the show anymore.
In 2009, FamilyNet began airing the program as a lead - in for its Happy Days and Family Ties program block, which ended in February 2010. From 2012 - 14, and also from October 2015 - February 2016, MeTV aired the Season 6 - 10 episodes in heavy rotation, and most closing credits included the original sponsor tags, such as those for Kellogg 's. In 2016, Decades began airing the CBS (color) episodes in its "binge '' blocks on some week - ends.
MeTV began airing the black and white episodes on May 29, 2017.
MacMurray and most of the cast took part in Thanksgiving Reunion with The Partridge Family & My Three Sons, which aired on ABC on November 25, 1977. The retrospective special looked back at the history of My Three Sons and The Partridge Family (other than featuring single parents with a large family, the two series had no narrative, or even a studio link). The special was notable for featuring footage from early black and white episodes of My Three Sons that, at this point in time, were not in syndication. While most of the collected casts gathered in a studio to reminisce, Demarest appeared in a brief pre-taped segment.
CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) has released the first two seasons of My Three Sons on DVD in Region 1. It is unknown if the remaining seasons will be released.
In most episodes, the soundtrack was edited to remove the background musical score, which were originally stock music from the Capitol Records library; the licensing agreement with Capitol only covered broadcast rights, not home video rights, and clearing the music for home video release with the individual composers who worked on the Capitol recordings was deemed cost - prohibitive. The Capitol scores were replaced instead with more modern, synthesized music. The original theme tune by Frank DeVol has been left unaltered; his musical scores in later seasons of the show, written specifically for the series, would less - likely be affected by licensing problems if the later seasons were released on DVD.
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where did the story of jack and the beanstalk come from | Jack and the Beanstalk - wikipedia
"Jack and the Beanstalk '' is an English fairy tale. It appeared as "The Story of Jack Spriggins and the Enchanted Bean '' in 1734 and as Benjamin Tabart 's moralised "The History of Jack and the Bean - Stalk '' in 1807. Henry Cole, publishing under pen name Felix Summerly popularised the tale in The Home Treasury (1845), and Joseph Jacobs rewrote it in English Fairy Tales (1890). Jacobs ' version is most commonly reprinted today and it is believed to be closer to the oral versions than Tabart 's because it lacks the moralising.
"Jack and the Beanstalk '' is the best known of the "Jack tales '', a series of stories featuring the archetypal Cornish and English hero and stock character Jack.
According to researchers at the universities in Durham and Lisbon, the story originated more than 5,000 years ago, based on a widespread archaic story form which is now classified by folklorists as ATU 328 The Boy Who Stole Ogre 's Treasure.
Jack is a young, poor boy living with his widowed mother and a dairy cow, on a farm cottage, the cow 's milk was their only source of income. When the cow stops giving milk, Jack 's mother tells him to take her to the market to be sold. On the way, Jack meets a bean dealer who offers magic beans in exchange for the cow, and Jack makes the trade. When he arrives home without any money, his mother becomes angry and disenchanted, throws the beans on the ground, and sends Jack to bed without dinner.
During the night, the magic beans cause a gigantic beanstalk to grow outside Jack 's window. The next morning, Jack climbs the beanstalk to a land high in the sky. He finds an enormous castle and sneaks in. Soon after, the castle 's owner, a giant, returns home. He senses that Jack is nearby by smell, and speaks a rhyme:
In the versions in which the giant 's wife (the giantess) features, she persuades him that he is mistaken. When the giant falls asleep. Jack steals a bag of gold coins and makes his escape down the beanstalk.
Jack climbs the beanstalk twice more. He learns of other treasures and steals them when the giant sleeps: first a goose that lays golden eggs, then a magic harp that plays by itself. The giant wakes when Jack leaves the house with the harp and chases Jack down the beanstalk. Jack calls to his mother for an axe and before the giant reaches the ground, cuts down the beanstalk, causing the giant to fall to his death.
Jack and his mother live happily ever after with the riches that Jack acquired.
"The Story of Jack Spriggins and the Enchanted Bean '' was published in the 1734 second edition of Round About Our Coal - Fire. In 1807, Benjamin Tabart published The History of Jack and the Bean Stalk, but the story is certainly older than these accounts. According to researchers at Durham University and the Universidade Nova de Lisboa, the story originated more than 5,000 years ago.
In some versions of the tale, the giant is unnamed, but many plays based on it name him Blunderbore. (One giant of that name appears in the 18th - century "Jack the Giant Killer ''.) In "The Story of Jack Spriggins '' the giant is named Gogmagog.
The giant 's cry "Fee! Fie! Foe! Fum! I smell the blood of an Englishman '' appears in William Shakespeare 's early - 17th - century King Lear in the form "Fie, foh, and fum, I smell the blood of a British man. '' (Act 3, Scene 4), and something similar also appears in "Jack the Giant Killer ''.
"Jack and the Beanstalk '' is an Aarne - Thompson tale - type 328, The Treasures of the Giant, which includes the Italian "Thirteenth '' and the French "How the Dragon was Tricked '' tales. Christine Goldberg argues that the Aarne -- Thompson system is inadequate for the tale because the others do not include the beanstalk, which has analogies in other types (a possible reference to the genre anomaly.)
The Brothers Grimm drew an analogy between this tale and a German fairy tale, "The Devil With the Three Golden Hairs ''. The devil 's mother or grandmother acts much like the giant 's wife, a female figure protecting the child from the evil male figure.
"Jack and the Beanstalk '' is unusual in some versions in that the hero, although grown up, does not marry at the end but returns to his mother. In other versions he is said to have married a princess. This is found in few other tales, such as some variants of "Vasilisa the Beautiful ''.
The original story portrays a "hero '' gaining the sympathy of a man 's wife, hiding in his house, robbing, and finally killing him. In Tabart 's moralised version, a fairy woman explains to Jack that the giant had robbed and killed his father justifying Jack 's actions as retribution. (Andrew Lang follows this version in the Red Fairy Book of 1890.)
Jacobs gave no justification because there was none in the version he had heard as a child and maintained that children know that robbery and murder are wrong without being told in a fairy tale, but did give a subtle retributive tone to it by making reference to the giant 's previous meals of stolen oxen and young children.
Many modern interpretations have followed Tabart and made the giant a villain, terrorising smaller folk and stealing from them, so that Jack becomes a legitimate protagonist. For example, the 1952 film starring Abbott and Costello the giant is blamed for poverty at the foot of the beanstalk, as he has been stealing food and wealth and the hen that lays golden eggs originally belonged to Jack 's family. In other versions it is implied that the giant had stolen both the hen and the harp from Jack 's father. Brian Henson 's 2001 TV miniseries Jack and the Beanstalk: The Real Story not only abandons Tabart 's additions but vilifies Jack, reflecting Jim Henson 's disgust at Jack 's unscrupulous actions.
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where does the last name camacho come from | Camacho - wikipedia
Camacho is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
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how many expansion teams have won a championship | FIFA World Cup - Wikipedia
The FIFA World Cup, often simply called the World Cup, is an international association football competition contested by the senior men 's national teams of the members of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport 's global governing body. The championship has been awarded every four years since the inaugural tournament in 1930, except in 1942 and 1946 when it was not held because of the Second World War. The current champion is France, which won its second title at the 2018 tournament in Russia.
The current format of the competition involves a qualification phase, which currently takes place over the preceding three years, to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase, which is often called the World Cup Finals. After this, 32 teams, including the automatically qualifying host nation (s), compete in the tournament phase for the title at venues within the host nation (s) over a period of about a month.
The 21 World Cup tournaments have been won by eight national teams. Brazil have won five times, and they are the only team to have played in every tournament. The other World Cup winners are Germany and Italy, with four titles each; Argentina, France and inaugural winner Uruguay, with two titles each; and England and Spain with one title each.
The World Cup is the most prestigious association football tournament in the world, as well as the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world, exceeding even the Olympic Games; the cumulative audience of all matches of the 2006 World Cup was estimated to be 26.29 billion with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the final match, a ninth of the entire population of the planet.
17 countries have hosted the World Cup. Brazil, France, Italy, Germany and Mexico have each hosted twice, while Uruguay, Switzerland, Sweden, Chile, England, Argentina, Spain, the United States, Japan and South Korea (jointly), South Africa and Russia have each hosted once. Qatar are planned as hosts of the 2022 finals, and 2026 will be a joint hosted finals between Canada, the United States and Mexico, which will give Mexico the distinction of being the first country to have hosted games in three different finals.
The world 's first international football match was a challenge match played in Glasgow in 1872 between Scotland and England, which ended in a 0 -- 0 draw. The first international tournament, the inaugural British Home Championship, took place in 1884. As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the start of the 20th century, it was held as a demonstration sport with no medals awarded at the 1900 and 1904 Summer Olympics (however, the IOC has retroactively upgraded their status to official events), and at the 1906 Intercalated Games.
After FIFA was founded in 1904, it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906. These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA describes the competition as having been a failure.
At the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, football became an official competition. Planned by The Football Association (FA), England 's football governing body, the event was for amateur players only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition. Great Britain (represented by the England national amateur football team) won the gold medals. They repeated the feat at the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm.
With the Olympic event continuing to be contested only between amateur teams, Sir Thomas Lipton organised the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy tournament in Turin in 1909. The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national teams) from different nations, each one of which represented an entire nation. The competition is sometimes described as The First World Cup, and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to send a professional team. Lipton invited West Auckland, an amateur side from County Durham, to represent England instead. West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title.
In 1914, FIFA agreed to recognise the Olympic tournament as a "world football championship for amateurs '', and took responsibility for managing the event. This paved the way for the world 's first intercontinental football competition, at the 1920 Summer Olympics, contested by Egypt and 13 European teams, and won by Belgium. Uruguay won the next two Olympic football tournaments in 1924 and 1928. Those were also the first two open world championships, as 1924 was the start of FIFA 's professional era.
Due to the success of the Olympic football tournaments, FIFA, with President Jules Rimet as the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics. On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress in Amsterdam decided to stage a world championship itself. With Uruguay now two - time official football world champions and to celebrate their centenary of independence in 1930, FIFA named Uruguay as the host country of the inaugural World Cup tournament.
The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides. Indeed, no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams from Belgium, France, Romania, and Yugoslavia to make the trip. In total, 13 nations took part: seven from South America, four from Europe and two from North America.
The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won by France and the USA, who defeated Mexico 4 -- 1 and Belgium 3 -- 0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France. In the final, Uruguay defeated Argentina 4 -- 2 in front of a crowd of 93,000 people in Montevideo, and in doing so became the first nation to win the World Cup.
After the creation of the World Cup, FIFA and the IOC disagreed over the status of amateur players, and so football was dropped from the 1932 Summer Olympics. Olympic football returned at the 1936 Summer Olympics, but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup.
The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel, and war. Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the 1934 World Cup and all North and South American nations except Brazil and Cuba boycotted the 1938 tournament. Brazil was the only South American team to compete in both. The 1942 and 1946 competitions, which Germany and Brazil sought to host, were cancelled due to World War II and its aftermath.
The 1950 World Cup, held in Brazil, was the first to include British participants. British teams withdrew from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football, but rejoined in 1946 following FIFA 's invitation. The tournament also saw the return of 1930 champions Uruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups. Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil, in the match called "Maracanazo '' (Portuguese: Maracanaço).
In the tournaments between 1934 and 1978, 16 teams competed in each tournament, except in 1938, when Austria was absorbed into Germany after qualifying, leaving the tournament with 15 teams, and in 1950, when India, Scotland, and Turkey withdrew, leaving the tournament with 13 teams. Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America, with a small minority from North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams. Until 1982, the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were: USA, semi-finalists in 1930; Cuba, quarter - finalists in 1938; North Korea, quarter - finalists in 1966; and Mexico, quarter - finalists in 1970.
The tournament was expanded to 24 teams in 1982, and then to 32 in 1998, also allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part. Since then, teams from these regions have enjoyed more success, with several having reached the quarter - finals: Mexico, quarter - finalists in 1986; Cameroon, quarter - finalists in 1990; South Korea, finishing in fourth place in 2002; Senegal, along with USA, both quarter - finalists in 2002; Ghana, quarter - finalists in 2010; and Costa Rica, quarter - finalists in 2014. Nevertheless, European and South American teams continue to dominate, e.g., the quarter - finalists in 1994, 1998, 2006 and 2018 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far.
Two hundred teams entered the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification rounds; 198 nations attempted to qualify for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, while a record 204 countries entered qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
In October 2013, Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing the Caribbean Football Union 's region a position in the World Cup. In the edition of 25 October 2013 of the FIFA Weekly Blatter wrote that: "From a purely sporting perspective, I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously, and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup. It can not be that the European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup. '' Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re-election to the FIFA Presidency.
Following the magazine 's publication, Blatter 's would - be opponent for the FIFA Presidency, UEFA President Michel Platini, responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations, increasing the number of participants by eight. Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth to UEFA, two to the Asian Football Confederation and the Confederation of African Football, two shared between CONCACAF and CONMEBOL, and a guaranteed place for the Oceania Football Confederation. Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup. He said: "(The World Cup is) not based on the quality of the teams because you do n't have the best 32 at the World Cup... but it 's a good compromise... It 's a political matter so why not have more Africans? The competition is to bring all the people of all the world. If you do n't give the possibility to participate, they do n't improve. ''
In October 2016 FIFA president Gianni Infantino stated his support for a 48 - team World Cup in 2026. On 10 January 2017, FIFA confirmed the 2026 World Cup will have 48 finalist teams.
By May 2015, the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case, allegations and criminal charges of bribery, fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights (rigged bids) for FIFA games, with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than $150 million over 24 years. In late May, the U.S. Justice Department announced a 47 - count indictment with charges of racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people. Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time, particularly on 29 May and 3 December. By the end of May 2015, a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption. At the time, FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016.
On 4 June 2015 Chuck Blazer while co-operating with the FBI and the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA 's then - executive committee were bribed in order to promote the 1998 and 2010 World Cups. On 10 June 2015 Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices of Sepp Blatter. The same day, FIFA postponed the bidding process for the 2026 FIFA World Cup in light of the allegations surrounding bribery in the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments. Then - secretary general Jérôme Valcke stated, "Due to the situation, I think it 's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being. '' On 28 October 2015, Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini, a potential candidate for presidency, were suspended for 90 days; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media.
On 3 December 2015 two FIFA vice-presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May. An additional 16 indictments by the U.S. Department of Justice were announced on the same day.
An equivalent tournament for women 's football, the FIFA Women 's World Cup, was first held in 1991 in China. The women 's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men 's, but is growing; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120, more than double that of 1991.
Men 's football has been included in every Summer Olympic Games except 1896 and 1932. Unlike many other sports, the men 's football tournament at the Olympics is not a top - level tournament, and since 1992, an under - 23 tournament with each team allowed three over-age players. Women 's football made its Olympic debut in 1996.
The FIFA Confederations Cup is a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation (s) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup. It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships, along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country.
FIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football (FIFA U-20 World Cup, FIFA U-17 World Cup, FIFA U-20 Women 's World Cup, FIFA U-17 Women 's World Cup), club football (FIFA Club World Cup), and football variants such as futsal (FIFA Futsal World Cup) and beach soccer (FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup). The latter three do not have a women 's version, although a FIFA Women 's Club World Cup has been proposed.
The FIFA U-20 Women 's World Cup is held the year before each Women 's World Cup and both tournaments are awarded in a single bidding process. The U-20 tournament serves as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition.
From 1930 to 1970, the Jules Rimet Trophy was awarded to the World Cup winning team. It was originally simply known as the World Cup or Coupe du Monde, but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA president Jules Rimet who set up the first tournament. In 1970, Brazil 's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. However, the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered, apparently melted down by the thieves.
After 1970, a new trophy, known as the FIFA World Cup Trophy, was designed. The experts of FIFA, coming from seven countries, evaluated the 53 presented models, finally opting for the work of the Italian designer Silvio Gazzaniga. The new trophy is 36 cm (14.2 in) high, made of solid 18 carat (75 %) gold and weighs 6.175 kg (13.6 lb). The base contains two layers of semi-precious malachite while the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since 1974. The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was: "The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory. ''
This new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently. World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post-match celebration is finished. They are awarded a gold - plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards.
Currently, all members (players, coaches, and managers) of the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of the World Cup Trophy; winners ' (gold), runners - up ' (silver), and third - place (bronze). In the 2002 edition, fourth - place medals were awarded to hosts South Korea. Before the 1978 tournament, medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third - place match. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup - winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners ' medals.
Since the second World Cup in 1934, qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament. They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa, Asia, North and Central America and Caribbean, South America, Oceania, and Europe), overseen by their respective confederations. For each tournament, FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations ' teams.
The qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two - year period. The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations. Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinental play - offs. For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth - placed team from the Asian zone entered a play - off for a spot in the 2010 World Cup. From the 1938 World Cup onwards, host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament. This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002, but was withdrawn from the 2006 FIFA World Cup onward, requiring the champions to qualify. Brazil, winners in 2002, were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches.
The current final tournament has been used since 1998 and features 32 national teams competing over the course of a month in the host nation (s). There are two stages: the group stage followed by the knockout stage.
In the group stage, teams compete within eight groups of four teams each. Eight teams are seeded, including the hosts, with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on the FIFA World Rankings and / or performances in recent World Cups, and drawn to separate groups. The other teams are assigned to different "pots '', usually based on geographical criteria, and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups. Since 1998, constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation.
Each group plays a round - robin tournament, in which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group. This means that a total of six matches are played within a group. The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams. The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage. Points are used to rank the teams within a group. Since 1994, three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before, winners received two points).
If one considers all possible outcomes (win, draw, loss) for all six matches in a group, there are 729 (= 3) outcome combinations possible. However, 207 of these combinations lead to ties between the second and third places. In such case, the ranking among these teams is determined as follows:
The knockout stage is a single - elimination tournament in which teams play each other in one - off matches, with extra time and penalty shootouts used to decide the winner if necessary. It begins with the round of 16 (or the second round) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner - up of another group. This is followed by the quarter - finals, the semi-finals, the third - place match (contested by the losing semi-finalists), and the final.
On 10 January 2017, FIFA approved a new format, the 48 - team World Cup (to accommodate more teams), which consists of 16 groups of three teams each, with two teams qualifying from each group, to form a round of 32 knockout stage, to be implemented by 2026.
Early World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA 's congress. The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat. The decision to hold the first World Cup in Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing. The next two World Cups were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed, as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the 1938 FIFA World Cup.
Since the 1958 FIFA World Cup, to avoid future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the 1998 FIFA World Cup. The 2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, was the first one held in Asia, and the first tournament with multiple hosts. South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in 2010. The 2014 FIFA World Cup was hosted by Brazil, the first held in South America since Argentina 1978, and was the first occasion where consecutive World Cups were held outside Europe.
The host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA 's Council. This is done under an exhaustive ballot system. The national football association of a country desiring to host the event receives a "Hosting Agreement '' from FIFA, which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid. The bidding association also receives a form, the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy. After this, a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced. The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament. However, there have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time, as was the case for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups, which were awarded to Russia and Qatar, with Qatar becoming the first Middle Eastern country to host the tournament.
For the 2010 and 2014 World Cups, the final tournament is rotated between confederations, allowing only countries from the chosen confederation (Africa in 2010, South America in 2014) to bid to host the tournament. The rotation policy was introduced after the controversy surrounding Germany 's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the 2006 tournament. However, the policy of continental rotation will not continue beyond 2014, so any country, except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments, can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from 2018. This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament, where Brazil was the only official bidder.
The 2026 FIFA World Cup was chosen to be held in the United States, Canada and Mexico, marking the first time a World Cup has been shared by three host nations. The 2026 tournament will be the biggest World Cup ever held, with 48 teams playing 80 matches. Sixty matches will take place in the US, including all matches from the quarter - finals onward, while Canada and Mexico will host 10 games each.
Six of the eight champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland, the exceptions being Brazil, who finished as runners - up after losing the deciding match on home soil in 1950 and lost their semi-final against Germany in 2014, and Spain, which reached the second round on home soil in 1982. England (1966) won its only title while playing as a host nation. Uruguay (1930), Italy (1934), Argentina (1978) and France (1998) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again, while Germany (1974) won their second title on home soil.
Other nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament. Switzerland (quarter - finals 1954), Sweden (runners - up in 1958), Chile (third place in 1962), South Korea (fourth place in 2002), and Mexico (quarter - finals in 1970 and 1986) all have their best results when serving as hosts. So far, South Africa (2010) has been the only host nation to fail to advance beyond the first round.
The best - attended single match, shown in the last three columns, has been the final in half of the 20 World Cups as of 2014. Another match or matches drew more attendance than the final in 1930, 1938, 1958, 1962, 1970 -- 1982, 1990 and 2006.
The World Cup was first televised in 1954 and is now the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world. The cumulative audience of all matches of the 2006 World Cup is estimated to be 26.29 billion. 715.1 million individuals watched the final match of this tournament (a ninth of the entire population of the planet). The 2006 World Cup draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, was watched by 300 million viewers. The World Cup attracts many sponsors such as Coca - Cola, McDonald 's and Adidas. For these companies and many more, being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands. Host countries typically experience a multimillion - dollar revenue increase from the month - long event. The governing body of the sport, FIFA, generated $4.8 billion in revenue from the 2014 tournament.
Each FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its own mascot or logo. World Cup Willie, the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the first World Cup mascot. World Cups have also featured official match balls specially designed for each tournament.
The World Cup even has a statistically significant effect on birth rates, the male / female sex ratio of newborns, and heart attacks in nations whose national teams are competing.
In all, 79 nations have played in at least one World Cup. Of these, eight national teams have won the World Cup, and they have added stars to their badges, with each star representing a World Cup victory. (Uruguay, however, choose to display four stars on their badge, representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950).
With five titles, Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to have played in every World Cup (21) to date. Brazil were also the first team to win the World Cup for the third (1970), fourth (1994) and fifth (2002) time. Italy (1934 and 1938) and Brazil (1958 and 1962) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. West Germany (1982 -- 1990) and Brazil (1994 -- 2002) are the only nations to appear in three consecutive World Cup finals. Germany has made the most top - four finishes (13), medals (12), as well as the most finals (8).
To date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by teams from the UEFA (Europe) and CONMEBOL (South America) confederations. European nations have won twelve titles, while South American have won nine. Only two teams from outside these two continents have ever reached the semi-finals of the competition: United States (North, Central America and Caribbean) in 1930 and South Korea (Asia) in 2002. The best result of an African team is reaching the quarter - finals: Cameroon in 1990, Senegal in 2002 and Ghana in 2010. Only one Oceanian qualifier, Australia in 2006, has advanced to the second round.
Brazil, Argentina, Spain and Germany are the only teams to win a World Cup outside their continental confederation; Brazil came out victorious in Europe (1958), North America (1970 and 1994) and Asia (2002). Argentina won a World Cup in North America in 1986, while Spain won in Africa in 2010. In 2014, Germany became the first European team to win in the Americas. Only on five occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent, and currently it is the first time with four champions in a row from the same continental confederation. Italy and Brazil successfully defended their titles in 1938 and 1962 respectively, while Italy 's triumph in 2006 has been followed by wins for Spain in 2010, Germany in 2014 and France in 2018. Currently, it is also the first time that one of the currently winning continents (Europe) is ahead of the other (South America) by more than one championship.
At the end of each World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament. There are currently six awards:
An All - Star Team consisting of the best players of the tournament has also been announced for each tournament since 1998.
Three players share the record for playing in the most World Cups; Mexico 's Antonio Carbajal (1950 -- 1966) and Rafael Márquez (2002 - 2018); and Germany 's Lothar Matthäus (1982 -- 1998) all played in five tournaments. Matthäus has played the most World Cup matches overall, with 25 appearances. Brazil 's Djalma Santos (1954 -- 1962), West Germany 's Franz Beckenbauer (1966 -- 1974) and Germany 's Philipp Lahm (2006 -- 2014) are the only players to be named to three Finals All - Star Teams.
Miroslav Klose of Germany (2002 -- 2014) is the all - time top scorer at the finals, with 16 goals. He broke Ronaldo of Brazil 's record of 15 goals (1998 -- 2006) during 2014 semi-final match against Brazil. West Germany 's Gerd Müller (1970 -- 1974) is third, with 14 goals. The fourth placed goalscorer, France 's Just Fontaine, holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup; all his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament.
In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup - winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners ' medals. This made Brazil 's Pelé the only player to have won three World Cup winners ' medals (1958, 1962, and 1970, although he did not play in the 1962 final due to injury), with 20 other players who have won two winners ' medals. Seven players have collected all three types of World Cup medals (winners ', runner - ups ', and third - place); five players were from West Germany 's squad of 1966 -- 1974 including Franz Beckenbauer, Jürgen Grabowski, Horst - Dieter Höttges, Sepp Maier and Wolfgang Overath (1966 -- 1974), Italy 's Franco Baresi (1982, 1990, 1994) and the most recent has been Miroslav Klose of Germany (2002 -- 2014) with four consecutive medals.
Brazil 's Mário Zagallo, West Germany 's Franz Beckenbauer and France 's Didier Deschamps are the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach. Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach. Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach, and Deschamps repeated the feat in 2018. Italy 's Vittorio Pozzo is the only head coach to ever win two World Cups (1934 and 1938). All World Cup winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory.
Among the national teams, Germany and Brazil have played the most World Cup matches (109), Germany appeared in the most finals (8), semi-finals (13), quarter - finals (16), while Brazil has appeared in the most World Cups (21), has the most wins (73) and has scored the most goals (229). The two teams have played each other twice in the World Cup, in the 2002 final and in the 2014 semi-final.
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