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how many different color m&m's are there | M&M 's - wikipedia
M&M 's are "colorful button - shaped chocolates '', each of which has the letter "m '' printed in lower case on one side, surrounding a filling which varies depending upon the variety of M&M 's. The original candy had a milk chocolate filling which, upon introducing other variations, was branded as the "plain '' variety. "Peanut '' M&M 's, which feature a peanut coated in milk chocolate, and finally a candy shell, were the first variation to be introduced, and they remain a regular variety. Numerous other variations have been introduced, some of which are regular widespread varieties (such as "peanut butter '', "almond '', "pretzel '', "crispy '', "dark chocolate '', and "caramel '') while others are limited in duration or geographic availability.
M&M 's is the flagship product of the Mars Wrigley Confectionery division of Mars, Incorporated. The candy originated in the United States in 1941, and are sold in over 100 countries, since 2003. More than 400 million individual M&M 's are produced every day in the United States. They are produced in different colors, some of which have changed over the years. The candy - coated chocolate concept was inspired by a method used to allow soldiers to carry chocolate in warm climates without having it melt. The company 's longest - lasting slogan reflects this: "Melts in your mouth, not in your hand. '' A traditional milk chocolate M&M weighs about 0.91 grams / 0.032 ounces and has about 4.7 kilocalories (kcal) of food energy (1.7 kcal from fat).
Forrest Mars, Sr., son of the Mars Company founder, Frank C. Mars, copied the idea for the candy in the 1930s during the Spanish Civil War when he saw soldiers eating British - made Smarties, chocolate pellets with a colored shell of what confectioners call hard panning (essentially hardened sugar syrup) surrounding the outside, preventing the candies from melting. Mars received a patent for his own process on March 3, 1941. Production began in 1941 in a factory located at 285 Badger Avenue in Clinton Hill, Newark, New Jersey. When the company was founded it was M&M Limited. The two "Ms '' represent the names of Forrest E. Mars Sr., the founder of Newark Company, and Bruce Murrie, son of Hershey Chocolate 's president William F.R. Murrie, who had a 20 percent share in the product. The arrangement allowed the candies to be made with Hershey chocolate, as Hershey had control of the rationed chocolate at the time.
The company 's first big customer was the U.S. army, which saw the invention as a way to allow soldiers to carry chocolate in tropical climates without it melting. During World War II, the candies were exclusively sold to the military. The resulting demand for the candies caused an increase in production and the company moved its factory to bigger quarters at 200 North 12th Street in Newark, New Jersey, where it remained until 1958 when it moved to a bigger factory at Hackettstown. A second factory was opened in Cleveland, Tennessee in 1978. Today, about half of the production of M&Ms occurs at the New Jersey factory, and half at the Tennessee factory.
In 1949, the brand released the tagline "Melts in your mouth, not in your hand. ''
In 1950, a black "M '' was imprinted on the candies giving them a unique trademark. It was changed to white in 1954.
In the early 1950s, the Midwest Research Institute (now MRIGlobal) in Kansas City, Missouri, worked on behalf of M&M 's to perfect a process whereby 3,300 pounds (1,500 kg) of chocolate centers could be coated every hour.
Peanut M&M 's were introduced in 1954 but first appeared only in the color tan. In 1960, M&M 's added the yellow, red, and green colors.
In 1976, the color orange was added to the mix to replace red, which was discontinued in response to the "red dye scare '' over Red Dyes # 2 and # 4 having been evaluated to be carcinogenic in nature. Although M&M 's were made with the less controversial Red Dye # 40, the public was wary of any food being dyed red. Red M&M 's were re-introduced in 1987.
In the 1980s, M&M 's were introduced internationally to Australia, Canada, Europe, Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, and the United Kingdom.
Although they were marketed and then withdrawn in the 1960s, almond - centered M&M 's were available again in 1988 in limited release, with appearances only during Christmas and Easter times; they became a standard part of the product line in 1992.
Also in 1986, M&M 's launched Holidays Chocolate Candies for Easter and Christmas, with the Easter candies having bunny, chick, and egg symbols on pastel - colored shells, and the Christmas candies having pine tree, bell, and candle symbols on red and green shells; with the latter also having a special mint flavor. By 1993, the holiday symbols were replaced with the standard trademark "M ''.
In 1991, Peanut Butter M&M 's were released. These candies have peanut butter inside the chocolate center and the same color scheme as the other varieties. As of at least 2013, the size of the peanut butter M&M has become slightly smaller.
In 1995, tan M&Ms were discontinued to be replaced by blue.
In 1996, Mars introduced "M&M 's Minis '', smaller candies usually sold in plastic tubes instead of bags.
In 1999, Crispy M&M 's were released. They were slightly larger than the milk chocolate variety and also featured a crispy wafer center. They were discontinued in the United States in 2005 and remained available in Europe, and Southeast Asia. In January 2015, they returned to production in the United States.
In July 2001, Dulce de Leche M&M 's were introduced in five markets with large Hispanic populations: Los Angeles, California; San Diego, California; Miami, Florida; Mcallen - Brownsville, Texas; and San Antonio, Texas. The flavor never became popular with the Hispanic community, who preferred existing M&M 's flavors, and it was discontinued in most areas by early 2003.
In 2010, Pretzel M&M 's were released. They contain a crunchy, salty pretzel center inside of the chocolate coating and are about the same size as the Peanut M&M 's, but their shape tends to be more spherical.
In 2013, the M&M 's chocolate bar was re-released. It was originally released in 2004 and named M - Azing.
In 2014, Mega M&M 's were re-introduced. Before then, the ' Mega M&M 's ' had been released in 2007 promoting the Shrek Movies, being dubbed "Ogre - Sized M&M 's ''.
In 2015, Crispy M&M 's were re-introduced in the United States. They had remained available continuously in Europe and Australia.
In 2016, the M&M cookie was re-introduced in the United States.
Also in 2016, the M&M 's flavor vote was created in which the fans could vote for either honey, coffee, or chili nut M&M 's to go with peanut M&M 's. Coffee Nuts was announced as the winner by VEEP 's Tony Hale.
In April 2017, M&M 's chocolate blocks went on sale in Australia. Six varieties (milk chocolate, strawberry, crispy, hazelnut, crispy mint and almond) are available.
Also in 2017, Caramel M&M 's were released in the United States.
In May 2018, Variety Pack M&M 's were released. They consist of a combination of M&M 's, Peanut M&M 's, Caramel M&M 's, Pretzel M&M 's, and Peanut Butter M&M 's.
M&M 's varieties have included the following sizes and fillings. Note that some have only been made available for a limited time, such as white cheesecake for Easter, pumpkin spice or white candy corn for Halloween, and White Strawberry Shortcake for Valentine 's Day.
Over the years, marketing has helped build and expand the M&M 's brand. Computer - animated graphics, personification of the candies as characters with cartoon - like storytelling, and various merchandising techniques including the introduction of new flavors, colors and customizable merchandise have helped to increase the brand 's recognition as a candy icon.
In 1982, the Mars candy bar company rejected the inclusion of M&M 's in the new Steven Spielberg movie E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial. Competitor Hershey, on the other hand, took a chance with their Reese 's Pieces, which is similar to M&M 's but contains a peanut butter filling, and with the blockbuster success, its candy sales dramatically increased, perhaps by as much as 300 %.
In the early 1980s, its slogan was "All the World Loves M&M 's, '' accompanied by a TV jingle of the same name. Actor Joel Higgins, then co-starring in the NBC - TV sitcom Silver Spoons, co-wrote the song.
In 1990, M&M 's exhibited at New York 's Erie County Fair a life - size fiberglass cow covered with 66,000 M&M candies -- each adhered by hand with the "m '' logo on each candy facing outward. According to a website run by the cow 's designer, Michael Adams, the stunt earned M&M Mars $1 million in free publicity because it was reported on by Newsweek magazine, as well as the New York Post, UPI and WABC - TV, and Live with Regis.
In 1995, the company ran the M&M 's Color Campaign, a contest in which participants were given the choice of selecting purple, blue, or pink as the color of a new variety of M&M 's. The announcement of the winning color (blue) was carried on most of the television networks ' news programs as well as the talk shows of David Letterman and Jay Leno. As part of the contest results, the company had the Empire State Building lighted in blue. Although the financial details of these deals were not disclosed and neither was the campaign 's effect on sales, one marketing book estimated that the company "collected millions '' in free publicity and that the campaign "certainly '' resulted in an increasing of the brand 's awareness.
In 1998, M&M 's were styled as "The Official Candy of the New Millennium, '' as MM is the Roman numeral for 2000. This date was also the release of the rainbow M&M 's, which are multi-colored and filled with a variety of different fillings.
In 2000, "Plain '' M&M 's (a name created in 1954 when "Peanut '' M&M 's were introduced) were renamed "Milk Chocolate '' M&M 's, and pictures of the candy pieces were added to the traditional brown and white packaging.
In 2004, M&M 's adopted the 1967 Petula Clark song Colour My World for its TV ads, albeit using newly recorded versions with other singers.
In 1990, Mars Snackfood US signed up to be a sponsor for NASCAR in the Sprint Cup Series. Drivers for the M&M 's - sponsored car through the years have included Ernie Irvan (1999), Ken Schrader (2000 -- 02), Eliott Sadler (2003 -- 06), Ricky Rudd (2007), David Gilliland (2006 -- 07), Kyle Busch (2008 - current, won 2015 Sprint Cup Series Championship), and Michael McDowell.
The introduction of the blue M&M to Australia was promoted by the Australian Football League 's Carlton Football Club, which wore sky - blue colored guernseys in one of its matches in 1997 instead of its traditional navy blue -- a color which the successful and fiercely traditional club had worn since the 1870s. In 2010, Mars Snackfood Australia described it as the most successful promotional campaign it had ever engaged in.
In April 2005, M&M 's ran the "mPire '' promotion to tie in with the Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith movie release. M&M 's were offered in dark chocolate varieties (Regular and Peanut) for the first time after a string of Addams Family M&M 's commercials.
In May 2004, M&M 's ran a Shrek 2 promotion to tie in with the movie 's release. M&M 's were offered "ogre - sized '' (65 % larger) in swamp / ogre colors. They were sold at many stores displayed in huge cardboard - cutout ogre displays.
In the summer of 2005, Mars added "Mega M&M 's '' to the lineup. These candies, at 55 % larger than the traditional M&M 's, were a little smaller than the ogre - sized version. They were available in milk chocolate and peanut varieties. The colors for Mega M&M 's were changed to less - bright colors, ostensibly to appeal to older consumers: teal (replacing green), beige (replacing orange), maroon (replacing red), gold (replacing yellow), blue - gray (replacing blue), and brown.
In July 2006, Dark Chocolate M&M 's reappeared in a purple package, followed in 2007 by Dark Chocolate Peanut M&M 's. Also in 2006, the company piloted White Chocolate M&M 's as a tie - in with their "Pirates of the Caribbean '' promotion. The company also offered eight new flavors of M&M 's via online sales, as well as at M&M 's World locations: "All That Razz ''; "Eat, Drink, & Be Cherry ''; "A Day at the Peach ''; "Orange - U-Glad ''; "Mint Condition ''; "AlmonDeeLicious ''; "Nut What You Think ''; and "Cookie Monster ''. Mars also released a "Crispy Mint '' variety in Australia that year.
Also in 2006, M&M 's became the official chocolate of NASCAR.
In 2007, M&M 's introduced a limited - edition raspberry flavor called "M&M 's Razzberry Chocolate Candies ''.
Also in 2007, M&M 's produced a 50 - foot, smiling Lady Liberty M&M statue to kick off a campaign encouraging Americans to create their own M&M characters at mms.com. The website allows for people to log in and create their own character from scratch. They can choose features such as the color, shape, hair, and accessories.
In 2008, two limited - edition varieties of the candy were introduced -- "Wildly Cherry '' M&M 's, and, as a marketing tie - in with the film Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, "Mint Crisp '' M&M 's.
M&M 's also introduced another new product called "M&M 's Premiums '' in 2008. They come in five flavors -- chocolate almond, mint chocolate, mocha, raspberry almond, and triple chocolate (milk, dark, and white chocolate), which are sold in small upright cartons with a plastic bag inside. M&M 's Premiums do not have a candy shell but are coated with carnauba wax and color. Dark Chocolate was added in 2009, replacing Mocha.
During the summer of 2008, My M&M 's launched ' Faces, ' which allows consumers to print the faces of loved ones on M&M 's chocolate candies at mymms.com.
In February 2009, M&M 's launched the "M&M 's Colour Break - Up '' promotion in Australia where M&M 's were sold in separate packs (one for each color): the packs included a code to win prizes.
In Summer 2009, M&M 's launched a limited - edition "Strawberried Peanut Butter '' variant to tie in with the release of Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen. In addition, M&M 's launched a limited edition "Coconut M&M 's, '' which became a permanent item in 2010.
In early 2010, M&M 's Bare All were released as part of a competition in Australia and New Zealand. M&M 's Bare All winning packs were ordinary M&M 's, but without colored shells. An official website was launched, along with television advertisements. In April 2010, M&M 's launched a new pretzel variety.
In November 2011, Mars released M&M 's Cinnamon Milk Chocolate for Christmas.
About the time pretzel M&M 's came out, the M&M 's wrapper designs in the U.S. were redone, from the old design, used from 2004 - early 2010.
In 2012, M&M 's released two new Dark Chocolate flavors: Raspberry and Mint. Also that year, M&M 's released a White Chocolate flavor for the Easter season. From May 30, 2012, onwards, M&M 's will be launched in Macau. Its Macanese launch language is Portuguese. In 2012, Peanut M&M 's were produced in the UK in a limited edition "Red, White and Blues only '' pack, in connection with the country 's Diamond Jubilee and 2012 Summer Olympics. The ' M ' remains white on the white candies. The commercial advertising this promotional package had Yellow donning various outfits of British stereotypes to try to get into the limited edition pack. Similarly, to promote the 2014 FIFA World Cup, Peanut M&M 's were produced in a pack that contained only green, yellow, and blue candies, dubbed "Brazilian M&M 's '' in reference to the colors of the flag of Brazil. "Brazilian M&M 's '' were re-released in 2016 to promote the 2016 Summer Olympics, but are now available in both Chocolate and Peanut.
In 2013, M&M 's launched the "Better with M '' campaign, which included cause - related marketing. The campaign worked with Habitat for Humanity and encouraged fans to use a Facebook app to volunteer at the various sites where the homes were being built. The advertising campaign was one of the largest that Mars had ever executed. The 2013 "America Better With M '' initiative sough to provide money directly to Habitat for Humanity through offering limited versions of M&Ms in red, white and blue.
Related candy brands from Mars include Minstrels, Revels, Skittles, and Treets.
M&M 's World specialty shops have been established in some locations, including Las Vegas, Orlando, New York, London, and Shanghai.
Several M&Ms - themed video games have been created. The first was M&M 's: The Lost Formulas, released on September 28, 2000.
Early black - and - white adverts for the candy in 1954 featured two talking, anthropomorphic M&M characters -- one plain and one peanut -- diving into a swimming pool full of chocolate.
The first incarnation of the characters in CGI was a 1994 celebrity campaign which had the characters interacting with celebrities on which M&Ms candy color is their favorite. This campaign was created by Blue Sky Studios. Concurrent with 1995 's blue M&M campaign, M&M 's introduced second computer - animated "spokescandies '' in their television commercials. The depiction and campaign of the M&M 's were made by Will Vinton in 1995. Vinton previously created the clay - animation California Raisins in 1986. Around the time he worked on CGI projects, he made the depiction of the M&M 's as more mature than most food mascots. These include the team of the cynical and sardonic Red (originally voiced by Jon Lovitz, thereafter Billy West) who is the mascot for milk chocolate, peanut butter, and crispy M&M 's, and the happy and gullible Yellow (originally voiced by John Goodman, thereafter J.K. Simmons), who is the mascot for peanut M&M 's (he was originally known as "Peanut '' when first introduced). Other mascots include the "cool one '', Blue (voiced by Phil Hartman until his death in 1998, thereafter Robb Pruitt) who is the mascot for almond M&M 's; the seductive Green (voiced by Cree Summer), who is the mascot for both dark chocolate mint and peanut butter M&M 's, and the slightly neurotic Orange (voiced by Eric Kirchberger), who was introduced when Crispy M&M 's were first released and returned when Pretzel M&M 's debuted in 2010. Orange, upon his return, was joined by the second non-M&M mascot, Pretzel Guy (voiced by Maurice LaMarche), who "supports '' him and offers helpful advice as he hates the idea of having a pretzel put inside his body.
Other mascots that were introduced, but no longer used, are Almond, the original green guy; Orange, a female peanut character, Chocolate Bar; the first non-M&M character that always gets foiled or outdone by Red and Yellow by being melted when M&M 's ca n't, and the Swarmees for M&M 's Minis candies, which are portrayed as destructive yet crafty troublemakers who Red and Yellow are always trying unsuccessfully to contain.
Female M&M 's mascots were introduced in 1995. Green was the milk chocolate mascot and Tan was the peanut. Marketing discontinued Tan when they introduced the then - new Blue mascot. Green was the only female M&M 's mascot from her introduction in 1995 until 2012 when M&M 's unveiled a new additional spokescandy, the businesslike Ms. Brown (voiced by Miss America 1984 Vanessa Williams), the "Chief Chocolate Officer. '' She made her debut in a Super Bowl XLVI advertisement, where several people at a party assume she is naked because her shell is the same color as her insides, which causes Red to remove his outer shell thinking "it 's that kind of party '', and start dancing to the LMFAO song "Sexy And I Know It. ''
During a Super Bowl LII advertisement, Red was transformed into a human after finding a lucky penny and wishing he was inedible. As a human, he is portrayed by Danny DeVito.
The original colors of M&M 's candies were red, yellow, violet, green and brown.
In 1976, the Food and Drug Administration released a study that linked red dye 2 in food coloring to cancer. Though Mars did not use this dye, they decided to pull the red M&M 's from the market to avoid possible misunderstandings. The red candy were reintroduced to the market ten years later.
In early 1995, Mars ran a promotion in which consumers were invited to vote on which of blue, pink, or purple would replace the tan M&M 's. Blue was the winner with 54 % of the votes. It replaced tan in late 1995. Consumers could vote by calling 1 - 800 - FUN - COLOR. Ads for the new blue colors featured a plain and an almond blue M&M character as Red and Yellow take notice of trying to do takes in the commercial by painting themselves blue where they appear on stage with B.B. King singing the blues, but the filmmakers had to cut the scene as they were not the real blue M&M 's; another featured Red and Yellow holding their breath to look like the new blue M&M 's, where Steven Weber sees the three M&M 's, Red, Yellow, and Blue; and one more featuring Weber talking to the blue M&M if he had dived into the chocolate pool, but did not.
In 2002, Mars solicited votes in their first ever "M&M 's Global Color Vote '' to add a new color from three choices: aqua (turquoise), pink, and purple. Purple won and was featured for a limited time. To help the colors get votes, Ken Schrader and his MB2 Motorsports team, who was sponsored by M&M 's at the time, ran four paint schemes during the 2002 NASCAR Winston Cup Series season representing the promotion (one for aqua, one for pink, one for purple, and another one with all three colors on the car.) Specially marked packages of M&M 's were released in Japan. Finding a bag of all purple M&M 's entitled the customer to a prize of 100 million yen (equivalent to approximately USD $852,000).
On January 1, 2004, at the stroke of midnight, Mars removed all of the colors of M&M 's and made them black - and - white on both their candies and the packaging. It coincided with a commercial parodying The Wizard of Oz where Dorothy is home in bed and looks out of the window and sees what the colors of the four M&M 's were. The goal was to help the M&M 's find their colors in black - and - white packages of M&M 's, in this order: brown, orange, red, green, yellow, and blue. After all of the colors have been found, the colored packaging returned, and began carrying the theme "Chocolate is better in color ''.
Since 2004, M&M 's have been available online in 17 colors, with personalized phrases on each candy on the opposite side from the "m ''. Released around Christmas, these custom - printed M&M 's were originally intended for holiday greetings, but are now available all year round.
For the 2008 Valentine 's Day season, Mars introduced all - green bags of M&M 's. This was due to common urban folklore that says green M&M 's are an aphrodisiac. They were brought back for 2009 alongside the "Ms. Green Heats Up Valentine 's Day '' contest.
In October 2011, Mars released M&M 's White Chocolate Candy Corn exclusively in the United States for Halloween. These candies come in three candy corn inspired colors: white, bright yellow, and bright orange.
The following is a summary of the changes to the colors of the flagship (milk chocolate) flavor of M&M 's, the only filling manufactured continuously since the beginning of the brand. From 1941 until 1969, each package contained M&M 's in five different colors; when red M&M 's were reintroduced in 1987, they were added as a sixth color instead of replacing any of the existing colors.
Red candies were eliminated in 1976 because of health concerns over the dye amaranth (FD&C Red # 2), which was a suspected carcinogen, and were replaced with orange - colored candies. This was done despite the fact that M&M 's did not contain the dye; the action was purely to satisfy worried consumers. Red candies were reintroduced ten years later, but they also kept the orange colored M&M 's. Paul Hethmon, then a student at University of Tennessee, started the campaign to bring back red M&M 's as a joke that would eventually become a worldwide phenomenon.
In Europe, red M&M 's contain the red dye carmine (E120). Carmine, also known as cochineal, has had some campaigns launched against its use in food, because it is made from crushed insects. Notably, Starbucks in the UK had a campaign launched against it for using carmine.
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where was the last solar eclipse in the usa | List of Solar eclipses visible from the United states - wikipedia
This is an incomplete list of solar eclipses visible from the United States between 1901 and 2050. All eclipses whose path of totality or annularity passes through the land territory of the current fifty U.S. states are included. For lists of eclipses worldwide, see the list of 20th - century solar eclipses and 21st - century solar eclipses.
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when did the american federation of labor start | American Federation of Labor - wikipedia
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was a national federation of labor unions in the United States founded in Columbus, Ohio, in December 1886 by an alliance of craft unions disaffected from the Knights of Labor, a national labor association. Samuel Gompers of the Cigar Makers ' International Union was elected president at its founding convention and reelected every year, except one, until his death in 1924. The AFL was the largest union grouping in the United States for the first half of the 20th century, even after the creation of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) by unions which were expelled by the AFL in 1935 over its opposition to industrial unionism. The Federation was founded and dominated by craft unions throughout its first fifty years, after which many craft union affiliates turned to organizing on an industrial union basis to meet the challenge from the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in the 1940s.
In 1955, the AFL merged with the CIO to create the AFL - CIO, which has comprised the longest lasting and most influential labor federation in the United States to this day.
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) organized as an association of trade unions in 1886. The organization emerged from a dispute with the Knights of Labor (K of L) organization, in which the leadership of that organization solicited locals of various craft unions to withdraw from their International organizations and to affiliate with the K of L directly, an action which would have taken funds from the various unions and enriched the K of L 's coffers. The Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions also merged into what would become the American Federation of Labor.
One of the organizations embroiled in this controversy was the Cigar Makers ' International Union (CMIU), a group subject to competition from a dual union, a rival "Progressive Cigarmakers ' Union, '' organized by members suspended or expelled by the CMIU. The two cigar unions competed with one another in signing contracts with various cigar manufacturers, who were at this same time combining themselves into manufacturers ' associations of their own in New York City, Detroit, Cincinnati, Chicago, and Milwaukee.
In January 1886, the Cigar Manufacturers ' Association of New York City attempted to flex its muscle by announcing a 20 percent wage cut in factories around the city. The Cigar Makers ' International Union refused to accept the cut and 6,000 of its members in 19 factories were locked out by the owners. A strike lasting four weeks ensued. Just when it appeared that the strike might be won, the New York District Assembly of the Knights of Labor leaped into the breach, offering to settle with the 19 factories at a lower wage scale than that proposed by the CMIU, so long as only the Progressive Cigarmakers ' Union was employed.
The leadership of the CMIU was enraged and demanded that the New York District Assembly be investigated and punished by the national officials of the Knights of Labor. The committee of investigation was controlled by individuals friendly to the New York District Assembly, however, and the latter was exonerated. The American Federation of Labor was thus originally formed as an alliance of craft unions outside the Knights of Labor as a means of defending themselves against this and similar incursions.
On April 25, 1886, a circular letter was issued by Strasser of the Cigar Makers and P.J. McGuire of the Carpenters, addressed to all national trade unions and calling for their attendance of a conference in Philadelphia on May 18. The call stated that an element of the Knights of Labor was doing "malicious work '' and causing "incalculable mischief by arousing antagonisms and dissensions in the labor movement. '' The call was signed by Strasser and McGuire, along with representatives of the Granite Cutters, the Iron Molders, and the secretary of the Federation of Trades of North America, a forerunner of the AFL founded in 1881.
Forty - three invitations were mailed, which drew the attendance of 20 delegates and letters of approval from 12 other unions. At this preliminary gathering, held in Donaldson Hall on the corner of Broad and Filbert Streets, the K of L was charged with conspiring with anti-union bosses to provide labor at below going union rates and with making use of individuals who had crossed picket lines or defaulted on payment of union dues. The body authored a "treaty '' to be presented to the forthcoming May 24, 1886, convention of the Knights of Labor, which demanded that the K of L cease attempting to organize members of International Unions into its own assemblies without permission of the unions involved and that K of L organizers violating this provision should suffer immediate suspension.
For its part, the Knights of Labor considered the demand for the parcelling of the labor movement into narrow craft - based fiefdoms to be anathema, a violation of the principle of solidarity of all workers across craft lines. Negotiations with the dissident craft unions were nipped in the bud by the governing General Assembly of the K of L, however, with the organization 's Grand Master Workman, Terence V. Powderly refusing to enter into serious discussions on the matter. The actions of the New York District Assembly of the K of L were upheld.
Convinced that no accommodation with the leadership of the Knights of Labor was possible, the heads of the five labor organizations which issued the call for the April 1886 conference issued a new call for a convention to be held December 8, 1886 in Columbus, Ohio in order to construct "an American federation of alliance of all national and international trade unions. '' Forty - two delegates representing 13 national unions and various other local labor organizations responded to the call, agreeing to form themselves into an American Federation of Labor.
Revenue for the new organization was to be raised on the basis of a "per - capita tax '' of its member organizations, set at the rate of one - half cent per member per month (i.e. six cents per year). Governance of the organization was to be by annual conventions, with one delegate allocated for every 4,000 members of each affiliated union. The founding convention voted to make the President of the new federation a full - time official at a salary of $1,000 per year, and Samuel Gompers of the Cigar Makers ' International Union was elected to the position. Gompers would ultimately be re-elected to the position by annual conventions of the organization for every year save one until his death nearly four decades later.
Although the founding convention of the AFL had authorized the establishment of a publication for the new organization, Gompers made use of the existing labor press to generate support for the position of the craft unions against the Knights of Labor. Powerful opinion - makers of the American labor movement such as the Philadelphia Tocsin, Haverhill Labor, the Brooklyn Labor Press, and the Denver Labor Enquirer granted Gompers space in their pages, in which he made the case for the unions against the attacks of employers, "all too often aided by the K of L. ''
Headway was made in the form of endorsement by various local labor bodies. Some assemblies of the K of L supported the Cigar Makers ' position and departed the organization: in Baltimore, 30 locals left the organization, while the membership of the Knights in Chicago fell from 25,000 in 1886 to just 3,500 in 1887. Factional warfare broke out in the K of L, with Terence Powderly blaming the organization 's travails on "radicals '' in its ranks, while those opposing Powderly called for an end to what they perceived as "autocratic leadership. ''
In the face of the steady disintegration of its rival, the fledgling American Federation of Labor struggled to maintain itself, with the group showing very slow and incremental growth in its first years, only cracking the 250,000 member mark in 1892. The group from the outset concentrated upon the income and working conditions of its membership as its almost sole focus. The AFL 's founding convention declaring "higher wages and a shorter workday '' to be "preliminary steps toward great and accompanying improvements in the condition of the working people. '' Participation in partisan politics was avoided as inherently divisive, and the group 's constitution was structured to prevent the admission of political parties as affiliates.
This fundamentally conservative "pure and simple '' approach limited the AFL to matters pertaining to working conditions and rates of pay, relegating political goals to its allies in the political sphere. The Federation favored pursuit of workers ' immediate demands rather than challenging the property rights of owners, and took a pragmatic view of politics which favored tactical support for particular politicians over formation of a party devoted to workers ' interests. The AFL 's leadership believed the expansion of the capitalist system was seen as the path to betterment of labor, an orientation making it possible for the AFL to present itself as what one historian has called "the conservative alternative to working class radicalism. ''
The AFL faced its first major reversal when employers launched an open shop movement in 1903 designed to drive unions out of construction, mining, longshore and other industries. Membership in the AFL 's affiliated unions declined between 1904 and 1914 in the face of this concerted anti-union drive, which made effective use of legal injunctions against strikes, court rulings given force when backed with the armed might of the state. At its November 1907 Convention in Norfolk, Virginia the AFL founded the future North America 's Building Trades Unions (NABTU) as Department of Building Trades.
Ever the pragmatist, Gompers argued that labor should "reward its friends and punish its enemies '' in both major parties. However, in the 1900s (decade), the two parties began to realign, with the main faction of the Republican Party coming to identify with the interests of banks and manufacturers, while a substantial portion of the rival Democratic Party took a more labor - friendly position. While not precluding its members from belonging to the Socialist Party or working with its members, the AFL traditionally refused to pursue the tactic of independent political action by the workers in the form of the existing Socialist Party or the establishment of a new labor party. After 1908, the organization 's tie to the Democratic party grew increasingly strong.
Some unions within the AFL helped form and participated in the National Civic Federation. The National Civic Federation was formed by several progressive employers who sought to avoid labor disputes by fostering collective bargaining and "responsible '' unionism. Labor 's participation in this federation, at first tentative, created internal division within the AFL. Socialists, who believed the only way to help workers was to remove large industry from private ownership, denounced labor 's efforts at cooperation with the capitalists in the National Civic Federation. The AFL nonetheless continued its association with the group, which declined in importance as the decade of the 1910s drew to a close.
By the 1890s, Gompers was planning an international federation of labor, starting with the expansion of AFL affiliates in Canada, especially Ontario. He helped the Canadian Trades and Labour Congress with money and organizers, and by 1902, the AFL came to dominate the Canadian union movement.
The AFL vigorously opposed unrestricted immigration from Europe for moral, cultural, and racial reasons. The issue unified the workers who feared that an influx of new workers would flood the labor market and lower wages. Nativism was not a factor because upwards of half the union members were themselves immigrants or the sons of immigrants from Ireland, Germany and Britain. Nativism was a factor when the AFL even more strenuously opposed all immigration from Asia because it represented (to its Euro - American members) an alien culture that could not be assimilated into American society. The AFL intensified its opposition after 1906 and was instrumental in passing immigration restriction bills from the 1890s to the 1920s, such as the 1921 Emergency Quota Act and the Immigration Act of 1924, and seeing that they were strictly enforced.
Mink (1986) concludes that the link between the AFL and the Democratic Party rested in part on immigration issues, noting the large corporations, which supported the Republicans, wanted more immigration to augment their labor force.
Towards the beginning of World War I, the AFL was against prohibition as it was viewed as cultural right of the working class to drink.
During World War I, the AFL -- motivated by fear of government repression, and hope of aid (often in the form of pro-AFL labor policies) -- had worked out an informal agreement with the United States government, in which the AFL would coordinate with the government both to support the war effort and to join "into an alliance to crush radical labor groups '' such as the Industrial Workers of the World and Socialist Party of America.
In the pro-business environment of the 1920s, business launched a large - scale offensive on behalf of the so - called "open shop '', which meant that a person did not have to be a union member to be hired. AFL unions lost membership steadily until 1933. In 1924, following the death of Samuel Gompers, UMWA member and AFL vice president William Green became the president of the labor federation.
The organization endorsed pro-labor progressive Robert M. La Follette Sr. in the 1924 presidential election. He only carried his home state of Wisconsin. The campaign failed to establish a permanent independent party closely connected to the labor movement, however, and thereafter the Federation embraced ever more closely the Democratic Party, despite the fact that many union leaders remained Republicans. Herbert Hoover in 1928 won the votes of many Protestant AFL members.
The Great Depression were hard times for the unions, and membership fell sharply across the country. As the national economy began to recover in 1933, so did union membership. The New Deal of president Franklin D. Roosevelt, a Democrat, strongly favored labor unions. He made sure that relief operations like the Civilian Conservation Corps did not include a training component that would produce skilled workers who would compete with union members in a still glutted market. The major legislation was the National Labor Relations Act of 1935, called the Wagner Act. It greatly strengthened organized unions, especially by weakening the company unions that many workers belonged to. It was to the members advantage to transform a company union into a local of an AFL union, and thousands did so, dramatically boosting the membership. The Wagner Act also set up to the National Labor Relations Board, which used its powers to rule in favor of unions and against the companies. However, the NLRB was later taken over by leftist elements who favored the CIO over the AFL.
In the early 1930s AFL president William Green (president, 1924 -- 1952) experimented with an industrial approach to organizing in the automobile and steel industries. The AFL made forays into industrial unionism by chartering federal labor unions, which would organize across an industry and be chartered by the Federation, not through existing craft unions, guilds, or brotherhoods. As early as 1923, the AFL had chartered federal labor unions, including six news writer locals that had formerly been part of the International Typographical Union. However, in the 1930s the AFL began chartering these federal labor unions as an industrial organizing strategy. The dues in these federal labor unions (FLUs) were kept intentionally low to make them more accessible to low paid industrial workers; however, these low dues later allowed the Internationals in the Federation to deny members of FLUs voting membership at conventions. In 1933, Green sent William Collins to Detroit to organize automobile workers into a federal labor union. That same year workers at the Westinghouse plant in East Springfield MA, members of federal labor union 18476, struck for recognition. In 1933, the AFL received 1,205 applications for charters for federal labor unions, 1006 of which were granted. By 1934, the AFL had successfully organized 32,500 autoworkers using the federal labor union model. Most of the leadership of the craft union internationals that made up the federation, advocated for the FLU 's to be absorbed into existing craft union internationals and for these internationals to have supremacy of jurisdiction. At the 1933 AFL convention in Washington, DC John Frey of the Molders and Metal Trades pushed for craft union internationals to have jurisdictional supremacy over the FLU 's; the Carpenters headed by William Hutchenson and the IBEW also pushed for FLU 's to turn over their members to the authority of the craft internationals between 1933 and 1935. In 1934, one hundred FLUs met separately and demanded that the AFL continue to issue charters to unions organizing on an industrial basis independent of the existing craft union internationals. In 1935 the FLUs representing autoworkers and rubber workers both held conventions independent of the craft union internationals. By the 1935 AFL convention, Green and the advocates of traditional craft unionism faced increasing dissension led by John L. Lewis of the coal miners, Sidney Hillman of the Amalgamated, David Dubinsky of the Garment Workers, Charles Howard of the ITU, Thomas McMahon of the Textile Workers, and Max Zaritsky of the Hat, Cap, and Millinery Workers, in addition to the members of the FLU 's themselves. Lewis argued that the AFL was too heavily oriented toward traditional craftsmen, and was overlooking the opportunity to organize millions of semiskilled workers, especially those in industrial factories that made automobiles, rubber, glass and steel. In 1935 Lewis led the dissenting unions in forming a new Congress for Industrial Organization (CIO) within the AFL. Both the new CIO industrial unions, and the older AFL crafts unions grew rapidly after 1935. In 1936 union members enthusiastically supported Roosevelt 's landslide reelection. Proposals for the creation of an independent labor party were rejected.
The AFL retained close ties to the Democratic machines in big cities through the 1940s. Its membership surged during the war and it held on to most of its new members after wartime legal support for labor was removed. Despite its close connections to many in Congress, the AFL was not able to block the Taft -- Hartley Act in 1947.
In 1955, the AFL and CIO merged to form the AFL -- CIO, headed by George Meany.
During its first years, the AFL admitted nearly anyone. Gompers opened the AFL to radical and socialist workers and to some semiskilled and unskilled workers. Women, African Americans, and immigrants joined in small numbers. But by the 1890s, the Federation had begun to organize only skilled workers in craft unions and became an organization of mostly white men. Although the Federation preached a policy of egalitarianism in regard to African American workers, it actively discriminated against black workers. The AFL sanctioned the maintenance of segregated locals within its affiliates -- particularly in the construction and railroad industries -- a practice which often excluded black workers altogether from union membership and thus from employment in organized industries.
In 1901, the AFL lobbied Congress to reauthorize the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, and issued a pamphlet entitled "Some reasons for Chinese exclusion. Which shall survive? '' The AFL also began one of the first organized labor boycotts when they began putting white stickers on the cigars made by unionized white cigar rollers while simultaneously discouraging consumers from purchasing cigars rolled by Chinese workers.
In most ways, the AFL 's treatment of women workers paralleled its policy towards black workers. The AFL never adopted a strict policy of gender exclusion and, at times, even came out in favor of women 's unionism. But despite such rhetoric, the Federation only half - heartedly supported women 's attempts to organize and, more often, took pains to keep women out of unions and the workforce altogether. Only two national unions affiliated with the AFL at its founding openly included women, and others passed by - laws barring women 's membership entirely. The AFL hired its first female organizer, Mary Kenney O'Sullivan, only in 1892, released her after five months, and it did not replace her or hire another woman national organizer until 1908. Women who organized their own unions were often turned down in bids to join the Federation, and even women who did join unions found them hostile or intentionally inaccessible. AFL unions often held meetings at night or in bars when women might find it difficult to attend and where they might feel uncomfortable, and male unionists heckled women who tried to speak at meetings.
Generally the AFL viewed women workers as competition, as strikebreakers, or as an unskilled labor reserve that kept wages low. As such, the Federation often opposed women 's employment entirely. When it did organize women workers, most often it did so to protect men 's jobs and earning power and not to improve the conditions, lives, or wages of women workers. In response, most women workers remained outside the labor movement. In 1900, only 3.3 % of working women were organized into unions. In 1910, even as the AFL surged forward in membership, the number had dipped to 1.5 %. And while it improved to 6.6 % over the next decade, women remained mostly outside of unions and practically invisible inside of them into the mid-1920s.
Attitudes gradually changed within the AFL due to the pressure of organized female workers. Female - domination began to emerge in the first two decades of the 20th century, including particularly the International Ladies Garment Workers ' Union. Women organized independent locals among New York hat makers, in the Chicago stockyards, and among Jewish and Italian waist makers, to name only three examples. Through the efforts of middle class reformers and activists, often of the Women 's Trade Union League, these unions joined the AFL.
From the beginning, unions affiliated with the AFL found themselves in conflict when both unions claimed jurisdiction over the same groups of workers: both the Brewers and Teamsters claimed to represent beer truck drivers, both the Machinists and the International Typographical Union claimed to represent certain printroom employees, and the Machinists and a fledgling union known as the "Carriage, Wagon and Automobile Workers Union '' sought to organize the same employees -- even though neither union had made any effort to organize or bargain for those employees. In some cases the AFL mediated the dispute, usually favoring the larger or more influential union. The AFL often reversed its jurisdictional rulings over time, as the continuing jurisdictional battles between the Brewers and the Teamsters showed. In other cases the AFL expelled the offending union, as it did in 1913 in the case of the Carriage, Wagon and Automobile Workers Union (which quickly disappeared).
These jurisdictional disputes were most frequent in the building trades, where a number of different unions might claim the right to have work assigned to their members. The craft unions in this industry organized their own department within the AFL in 1908, despite the reservations of Gompers and other leaders about creation of a separate body within the AFL that might function as a federation within a federation. While those fears were partly borne out in practice, as the Building Trades Department did acquire a great deal of practical power gained through resolving jurisdictional disputes between affiliates, the danger that it might serve as the basis for schism never materialized.
Affiliates within the AFL formed "departments '' to help resolve these jurisdictional conflicts and to provide a more effective voice for member unions in given industries. The Metal Trades Department engaged in some organizing of its own, primarily in shipbuilding, where unions such as the Pipefitters, Machinists and Iron Workers joined together through local metal workers ' councils to represent a diverse group of workers. The Railway Employees Department dealt with both jurisdictional disputes between affiliates and pursued a common legislative agenda for all of them. Even that sort of structure did not prevent AFL unions from finding themselves in conflict on political issues. For example, the International Seamen 's Union opposed passage of a law applying to workers engaged in interstate transport that railway unions supported. The AFL bridged these differences on an ad hoc basis.
The AFL made efforts in its early years to assist its affiliates in organizing: it advanced funds or provided organizers or, in some cases, such as the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, the Teamsters and the American Federation of Musicians, helped form the union. The AFL also used its influence (including refusal of charters or expulsion) to heal splits within affiliated unions, to force separate unions seeking to represent the same or closely related jurisdictions to merge, or to mediate disputes between rival factions where both sides claimed to represent the leadership of an affiliated union. The AFL also chartered "federal unions '' -- local unions not affiliated with any international union -- in those fields in which no affiliate claimed jurisdiction.
The AFL also encouraged the formation of local labor bodies (known as central labor councils) in major metropolitan areas in which all of the affiliates could participate. These local labor councils acquired a great deal of influence in some cases. For example, the Chicago Federation of Labor spearheaded efforts to organize packinghouse and steel workers during and immediately after World War I. Local building trades councils also became powerful in some areas. In San Francisco, the local Building Trades Council, led by Carpenters official P.H. McCarthy, not only dominated the local labor council but helped elect McCarthy mayor of San Francisco in 1909. In a very few cases early in the AFL 's history, state and local bodies defied AFL policy or chose to disaffiliate over policy disputes.
Though Gompers had contact with socialists and such as AFL co-founder Peter J. McGuire, the AFL adopted a philosophy of "business unionism '' that emphasized unions ' contribution to businesses ' profits and national economic growth. The business unionist approach also focused on skilled workers ' immediate job - related interests, while refusing to "rush to the support of any one of the numerous society - saving or society destroying schemes '' involved in larger political issues. This approach was set by Gompers, who was influenced by a fellow cigar maker (and former socialist) Ferdinand Laurrel. Despite his socialist contacts, Gompers himself was not a socialist.
In some respects the AFL leadership took a pragmatic view toward politicians, following Gompers ' slogan to "reward your friends and punish your enemies '' without regard to party affiliation. Over time, after repeated disappointments with the failure of labor 's legislative efforts to protect workers ' rights, which the courts had struck down as unconstitutional, Gompers became almost anti-political, opposing some forms of protective legislation, such as limitations on working hours, because they would detract from the efforts of unions to obtain those same benefits through collective bargaining.
Employers discovered the efficacy of labor injunctions, first used with great effect by the Cleveland administration during the Pullman Strike in 1894. While the AFL sought to outlaw "yellow dog contracts, '' to limit the courts ' power to impose "government by injunction '' and to obtain exemption from the antitrust laws that were being used to criminalize labor organizing, the courts reversed what few legislative successes the labor movement won.
The AFL concentrated its political efforts during the last decades of the Gompers administration on securing freedom from state control of unions -- in particular an end to the court 's use of labor injunctions to block the right to organize or strike and the application of the anti-trust laws to criminalize labor 's use of pickets, boycotts and strikes. The AFL thought that it had achieved the latter with the passage of the Clayton Antitrust Act in 1914 -- which Gompers referred to as "Labor 's Magna Carta ''. But in Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deering, 254 U.S. 443 (1921), the United States Supreme Court narrowly read the Act and codified the federal courts ' existing power to issue injunctions rather than limit it. The court read the phrase "between an employer and employees '' (contained in the first paragraph of the Act) to refer only to cases involving an employer and its own employees, leaving the courts free to punish unions for engaging in sympathy strikes or secondary boycotts.
The AFL 's pessimistic attitude towards politics did not, on the other hand, prevent affiliated unions from pursuing their own agendas. Construction unions supported legislation that governed entry of contractors into the industry and protected workers ' rights to pay, rail and mass production industries sought workplace safety legislation, and unions generally agitated for the passage of workers ' compensation statutes.
At the same time, the AFL took efforts on behalf of women in supporting protective legislation. It advocated fewer hours for women workers, and based its arguments on assumptions of female weakness. Like efforts to unionize, most support for protective legislation for women came out of a desire to protect men 's jobs. If women 's hours could be limited, reasoned AFL officials, they would infringe less on male employment and earning potential. But the AFL also took more selfless efforts. Even from the 1890s, the AFL declared itself vigorously in favor of women 's suffrage. It often printed pro-suffrage articles in its periodical, and in 1918, it supported the National Union of Women 's Suffrage.
The AFL relaxed its rigid stand against legislation after the death of Gompers. Even so, it remained cautious. Its proposals for unemployment benefits (made in the late 1920s) were too modest to have practical value, as the Great Depression soon showed. The impetus for the major federal labor laws of the 1930s came from the New Deal. The enormous growth in union membership came after Congress passed the National Industrial Recovery Act in 1933 and National Labor Relations Act in 1935. The AFL refused to sanction or participate in the mass strikes led by John L. Lewis of the United Mine Workers and other left unions such as the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America. After the AFL expelled the CIO in 1936, the CIO undertook a major organizing effort. The AFL responded with its own massive organizing drive that kept its membership totals 50 percent higher than the CIO 's.
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what kind of mixture is the orange juice | Orange juice - wikipedia
Orange juice is the liquid extract of the orange tree fruit, produced by squeezing oranges. It comes in several different varieties, including blood orange, navel oranges, valencia orange, clementine, and tangerine. As well as variations in oranges used, some varieties include differing amounts of juice vesicles, known as "pulp '' in American English, and "juicy bits '' in British English. These vesicles contain the juice of the orange and can be left in or removed during the manufacturing process. How juicy these vesicles are depend upon many factors, such as species, variety, and season. In American English, the beverage name is often abbreviated as "OJ ''.
Due to the importance of oranges to the economy of the state of Florida, "the juice obtained from mature oranges of the species Citrus sinensis and hybrids thereof '' was adopted as the official beverage of Florida in 1967. Orange juice (along with grapefruit juice) is offered to every visitor at each of the state 's five Florida Welcome Centers. Commercial orange juice with a long shelf life is made by pasteurizing the juice and removing the oxygen from it. This removes much of the taste, necessitating the later addition of a flavor pack, generally made from orange products. Additionally, some juice is further processed by drying and later rehydrating the juice, or by concentrating the juice and later adding water to the concentrate.
The health value of orange juice is debatable: it has a high concentration of vitamin C, but also a very high concentration of simple sugars, comparable to soft drinks. As a result, some government nutritional advice has been adjusted to encourage substitution of orange juice with raw fruit, which is digested more slowly, and limit daily consumption.
During World War II, American soldiers rejected vitamin C - packed lemon crystals because of their unappetizing taste. Thus the government searched for a food that would fulfill the nutritional needs of the soldiers, have a desirable taste, and prevent diseases such as scurvy in a transportable vitamin C product. The federal government, the Florida department of Citrus, along with a group of scientists desired to develop a superior product to canned orange juice (which was the current orange juice on the market in the 1940s) and developed frozen concentrated orange juice. Unfortunately frozen concentrated orange juice was developed three years after the war had ended.
By 1949, orange juice processing plants in Florida were producing over 10 million gallons of concentrated orange juice. Consumers were captivated with the idea of concentrated canned orange juice as it was affordable, tasty, convenient, and a vitamin - C packed product. The preparation was simple, thaw the juice, add water, and stir. However, by the 1980s, food scientists developed a more fresh - tasting juice known as reconstituted ready to serve juice. Eventually in the 1990s, "not from concentrate '' (NFC) orange juice was developed and gave consumers an entirely new perspective of orange juice transforming the product from can to freshness in a carton.
A cup serving of raw, fresh orange juice, amounting to 248 grams or 8 ounces, has 124 mg of vitamin C (> 100 % RDI). It has 20.8 g of sugars and has 112 Calories. It also supplies potassium, thiamin, and folate.
Citrus juices contain flavonoids (especially in the pulp) that may have health benefits. Orange juice is also a source of the antioxidant hesperidin. Because of its citric acid content, orange juice is acidic, with a typical pH of around 3.5.
Commercial squeezed orange juice is pasteurized and filtered before being evaporated under vacuum and heat. After removal of most of the water, this concentrate, about 65 % sugar by weight, is then stored at about 10 ° F (− 12 ° C). Essences, Vitamin C, and oils extracted during the vacuum concentration process may be added back to restore flavor and nutrition (see below).
When water is added to freshly thawed concentrated orange juice, it is said to be reconstituted.
The product was developed in 1948 at the University of Florida 's Citrus Research and Education Center. Since, it has emerged as a commodity product, and futures contracts have traded in New York since 1966. Options on FCOJ were introduced in 1985. From the late 1950s to the mid-1980s, the product had the greatest orange juice market share, but not - from - concentrate juices surpassed FCOJ in the 1980s.
Orange juice that is pasteurized and then sold to consumers without having been concentrated is labeled as "not from concentrate ''. Just as "from concentrate '' processing, most "not from concentrate '' processing reduces the natural flavor from the juice. The largest producers of "not from concentrate '' use a production process where the juice is placed in aseptic storage, with the oxygen stripped from it, for up to a year.
Removing the oxygen also strips out flavor - providing compounds, and so manufactures add a flavor pack in the final step, which Cooks Illustrated magazine describes as containing "highly engineered additives. '' Flavor pack formulas vary by region, because consumers in different parts of the world have different preferences related to sweetness, freshness and acidity. According to the citrus industry, the Food and Drug Administration does not require the contents of flavor packs to be detailed on a product 's packaging.
One common component of flavor packs is ethyl butyrate, a natural aroma that people associate with freshness, and which is removed from juice during pasteurization and storage. Cooks Illustrated sent juice samples to independent laboratories, and found that while fresh - squeezed juice naturally contained about 1.19 milligrams of ethyl butyrate per liter, juice that had been commercially processed had levels as high as 8.53 milligrams per liter.
A small fraction of fresh orange juice is canned. Canned orange juice retains Vitamin C much better than bottled juice. The canned product loses flavor, however, when stored at room temperature for more than 12 weeks. In the early years of canned orange juice, the acidity of the juice caused the juice to have a metallic taste. In 1931, Dr. Philip Phillips developed a flash pasteurization process that eliminated this problem and significantly increased the market for canned orange juice.
Fresh - squeezed, the unpasteurized juice is the closest to consuming the orange itself. This version of the juice consists of oranges that are squeezed and then bottled without having any additives or flavor packs inserted. The juice is not subjected to pasteurization. Depending on storage temperature, freshly squeezed, unpasteurized orange juice can have a shelf life of 5 to 23 days.
In the U.S., the major orange juice brand is Tropicana Products (owned by PepsiCo Inc.), which possesses nearly 65 % of the market share. Tropicana also has a large presence in Latin America, Europe, and Central Asia. Competing products include Minute Maid (of The Coca - Cola Company) and Florida 's Natural (a Florida - based agricultural cooperative that differentiates itself from the competition by being locally owned and using only Florida grown oranges; Tropicana and Simply Orange use a mixture of domestic and foreign stock).
In Australia, Daily Juice (owned by National Foods) is a major brand of partially fresh, partially preserved, orange juice.
In the United Kingdom, major orange juice brands include Del Monte and Princes.
Some producers add citric acid or ascorbic acid to juice beyond what is naturally found in the orange. Some also include other nutrients. Often, additional vitamin C is added to replace that destroyed in pasteurization. Additional calcium may be added. Vitamin D, not found naturally in oranges, may be added as well. Sometimes Omega - 3 fatty acids from fish oils are added to orange juice. Low - acid varieties of orange juice also are available.
FCOJ producers generally use evaporators to remove much of the water from the juice in order to decrease its weight and decrease transportation costs. Other juice producers generally deaerate the juice so that it can be sold much later in the year.
Because such processes remove the distinct aroma compounds that give orange juice a fresh - squeezed taste, producers later add back these compounds in a proprietary mixture, called a "flavor pack '', in order to improve the taste and to ensure a consistent year - round taste. The compounds in the flavor packs are derived from orange peels. Producers do not mention the addition of flavor packs on the label of the orange juice.
Common orange juice is made from the sweet orange. Different cultivars (for example, Valencia, Hamlin) have different properties, and a producer may mix cultivar juices to get the desired taste. Orange juice usually varies between shades of orange and yellow, although some ruby red or blood orange varieties are a reddish - orange or even pinkish. This is due to different pigmentation in ruby red oranges.
The blood orange is a mutant of the sweet orange. Blood orange juice is popular in Italy and Hellas, but may be hard to find elsewhere. The Mandarin orange and varieties clementine and tangerine, are good for juice and are often used for sparkling juice drinks.
Recently, many brands of organic orange juices have become available on the market.
The processing of orange to frozen concentrated orange juice begins with testing the orange fruit for quality to ensure it is safe for the process. Then the fruit is cleaned and washed thoroughly and orange oil is taken from the peel of the orange. Next, the juice is extracted from the orange and is screened in order to remove seeds and large pieces of pulp. The juice is then heated to 190 to 200 ° F in order to inactivate natural enzymes found in the juice. The concentration step occurs in a high vacuum evaporator where the water content in the juice is evaporated while the juice sugar compounds and solids are concentrated. The vacuum evaporator is a low temperature falling - film mechanism, which operates at a temperature between 60 and 80 ° F. Evaporators work in a continuous manner in that fresh juice is added as concentrate is being constantly removed. The concentration process increases the soluble solid portion of the juice from 12 ° Brix to 60 - 70 ° Brix.
The concentrated juice is held in a cold wall tank and is stored at or below 35 ° F to prevent browning and development of undesired flavors. Next, a small amount of fresh juice is added to the concentrated juice to restore natural and fresh flavors of orange juice that have been lost through the concentration process. Specific cold - pressed orange oils are used to restore the lost aroma and volatile flavors. After the addition of fresh juice, the brix content is reduced to 42 ° F. The fresh juice is referred to as "cut - back '' in the industry and attributes to 7 - 10 % of the total juice. Orange peel oil is also added if the oil content is below the required level. The concentrate is then further cooled in a continuous cooler or cold wall tank to 20 to 25 ° F. The concentrate is canned using steam injection methods to sterilize the lid and develop a vacuum in the can. The cans then undergo final freezing where they are conveyed on a perforated belt in an air blast at - 40 ° F. After freezing, the product is stored at 0 ° F in a refrigerated warehouse.
Single strength orange juice (SSOJ) can either be "not from concentrate '' (NFC) orange juice or juice that is reconstituted from a concentrate with the addition of water to reach a specific single strength brix level. The processing of SSOJ also begins with the selection of orange. The most common types of orange used to produce orange juice are the Pineapple orange, Valencia orange, and Washington Navel oranges from Florida and California. The manufacturing journey begins when oranges are delivered to processing plants by trucks holding about 35,000 to 40,000 pounds of fruit. The fruit is unloaded at the plant for inspection and grading to remove unsuitable fruit before the oranges enter the storage bins. An automatic sampler contraption removes oranges for determination of acid and soluble solids. The bins are organized based on ratio of soluble solids to acids in order to blend oranges appropriate to produce juice with uniform flavor. After the fruit leaves the bins, they are scrubbed with detergent on a rotary brush washer and subsequently rinsed with potable water. Throughout the processing stages, there are multiple points with facilities that inspect oranges and discard damaged fruit.
The oranges then go through roller conveyors, which expose all sides of the fruit. The roller conveyors are efficiently built as they are well lighted, installed at a convenient height, and width to ensure all inspectors can reach the fruit to determine inadequacies. Some reasons why fruit may be rejected include indication of mold, rot, and ruptured peels. Afterwards, the oranges are separated based on size through machines prior to juice extraction. There are a number of different ways orange juice industry leaders extract their oranges. Some common methods include halving the fruit and pressing / reaming the orange to extract juice from the orange. One instrument inserts a tube through the orange peel and forces the juice out through the tube by squeezing the entire orange. Despite the variety of machines used to extract juices, all machines have commonalities in that they are rugged, fast, easy to clean and have the ability to reduce peel extractives into the juice. The extracted juice product does not contain the orange peel, but it may contain pulp and seeds, which are removed by finishers.
Finishers have a screw - type design that comprises a conical helical screw enclosed in a cylindrical screen with perforations the size of 0.020 to 0.045 inches. Thereafter, the finished orange juice flows through blending tanks where the juice is tested for acid and soluble solids. At this stage, sugar can be added to the juice depending on if the product will be a sweetened or unsweetened beverage. Following blending, the orange juice is deaerated where the air is incorporated into the juice during extraction. The benefits of deaeration include the elimination of foaming, which improves the uniformity of can fill and improvement regarding the efficiency of the heat exchanger. Orange peel oil is essential for maximum flavor, but according to U.S. standards for Grades of Canned Orange Juice, 0.03 % of recoverable oil is permitted. Deoiling through the use of vacuum distillation is the mechanism used to regulate the amount of peel oil in the juice. Condensation separates the oil and the aqueous distillate, which is returned to the juice.
The next step is one of the most vital in the processing of orange juice. Pasteurization is important in destroying naturally occurring enzymes that are associated with deterioration of the juice. Pectinesterase is infamous for its deteriorative activity in orange juice. In the pasteurization process, the juice is generally rapidly heated to 197 ° F for about 40 seconds. Several industry leaders use flash pasteurization, which is carried out by tubular or plate - type heat exchangers. In order to prevent overheating, turbulent flow is vital to heat the juice rapidly. Cans are filled with the pasteurized juice and inverted immediately to allow the juice to sterilize the inside parts of the lid. The orange juice filled can is sealed and cooled to 90 to 100 ° F by spinning on the conveyor belt under cool water sprays. Quality of storage is determined by time and temperature. Juice must be stored at cool temperatures to prevent deterioration.
For Canadian markets, orange juice must be the fruit juice obtained from clean, sound, and mature oranges. The juice must also contain a minimum of 1.20 milliequivalents of free amino acids per 100 millilitres, contain a minimum of 115 milligrams of potassium per 10 milliliters, and possess a minimum absorbance value for total polyphenolics of 0.380. Sweeteners such as sugar, invert sugar, dextrose or glucose solids may be added. The orange juice must have a Brix reading of at least 9.7, excluding the sweetening ingredients, and contain between 0.5 and 1.8 percent of acid by weight calculated as anhydrous citric acid. Added orange essences, orange oils and orange pulp adjusted in accordance with good manufacturing practice is permitted. Orange juice is also permitted to contain sugar, invert sugar, dextrose in dry form, glucose solids, a Class II preservative, amylase, cellulase and pectinase.
In the United States, orange juice is regulated and standardized by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA or USFDA) of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. According to the FDA, orange juice from concentrate is a mixture of water with frozen concentrated orange juice or concentrated orange juice for manufacturing. Additional ingredients into the mixture may include fresh / frozen / pasteurized orange juice from mature oranges, orange oil, and orange pulp. Furthermore, one or more of the following optional sweetening ingredients may be added: sugar, sugar syrup, invert sugar, invert sugar syrup, dextrose, corn syrup, dried corn syrup, glucose syrup, and dried glucose syrup. The orange juice must contain a minimum Brix level of 11.8, which indicates the percentage of orange juice soluble solids, excluding any added sweetening ingredients.
In the United Kingdom, orange juice from concentrate is a product of concentrated fruit juice with the addition of water. Any lost flavour or pulp of the orange juice during the initial concentration process may be restored in the final product to be equivalent to an average type of orange juice of the same kind. Any restored flavour or pulp must come from the same species of orange. Sugar may be added to the orange juice for regulating the acidic taste or sweetening, but must not exceed 150g per litre of orange juice. Across the UK, the final orange juice from concentrate product must contain a minimum Brix level of 11.2, excluding the additional sweetening ingredients. Vitamins and minerals may be added to the orange juice in accordance with Regulation (EC) 1925 / 2006.
On a molecular level, orange juice is composed of organic acids, sugars, and phenolic compounds. The main organic acids found in orange juice are citric, malic, and ascorbic acid. The major sugars found in orange juice are sucrose, glucose, and fructose. There are approximately 13 phenolic compounds in orange juice including hydroxycinnamic acids, flavanones, hydroxybenzoic acids, hesperidin, narirutin, and ferulic acid.
The cloud is the portion of suspended particles that range in size from 0.05 micrometers to a few hundred micrometers in orange juice. The cloud is responsible for several sensory attributes in orange juice including color, aroma, texture, and taste. The continuous medium of the cloud consists of a solution of sugars, pectin, and organic acids while the dispersed matter is formed through cellular tissue comminuted in fruit processing. Specifically, the cloudiness of the juice is caused by pectin, protein, lipid, hemicellulose, cellulose, hesperidin, chromoplastids, amorphous particles, and oil globules. In particular the chemical composition of the cloud consists of 4.5 - 32 % pectin, 34 - 52 % protein, 25 % lipids, 5.7 % nitrogen, 2 % hemicellulose, 2 % ash, and less than 2 % cellulose.
Orange juice is a suspension that consists of heterogeneous particles in a clear serum. A serum is the clear supernatant after the precipitation of the cloud through centrifugation. The previously mentioned cloud makes up a large part of the suspension.
If the suspension in orange juice is not stable, the cloud particles can flocculate which causes the suspension to physically decompose. The cloud can break apart and the citrus juice will clarify if the suspension becomes unstable. The activity of pectin methyl esterase increased the interaction between pectin and cloud proteins, which led to protein - pectin flocculation. The insoluble material of the cloud clumps in conditions above 70 ° C and at a pH of 3 - 4 at which proteins coagulate and flocculate. Cloud flocculation is enhanced at pH 3.5 and can result in clarification, which is undesirable in orange juice.
The suspension is unstable when the zeta potential is less than 25 mv in magnitude. Zeta potential is a measure of the magnitude of electrostatic forces between particles, which affect repulsion, and attraction between particles. A low zeta value signifies that the repulsive forces will not be able to overcome van der waals attractions between cloud particles and thus begin to agglomerate. Agglomeration of cloud particles will prevent free flow characteristics, which is essential in the juice. A high zeta potential will inhibit particle - particle agglomeration and maintain the free flowing nature as well as uniform dispersion in orange juice.
The oil globules adsorbed to the cloud particles stabilize the suspension by decreasing the average density of particles to bring it closer to that of the serum. However, large amounts of oil can be problematic as they cause complete breakdown of suspensions by causing cloud particles to float to the surface. The particles in the cloud have a negative charge that decreases with decreasing pH. In accordance with cloud stability, the hydration of particles is more significant than their electrical charge.
Heat treatment
When orange juice is heat treated there is an increase in the number of fine particles and decrease in that of coarse particles. The fine particles in particular are responsible for the appearance, color, and flavor of orange juice. Heat treatment plays a vital role on pulp volume, cloud stability, serum turbidity, and serum viscosity. Heat treatment stabilizes the cloud through enzyme inactivation and enhances the turbidity of a stable cloud formation. The increase in serum viscosity is due to the extraction of pectic substances into the serum. Based on Stoke 's law, the increase in serum viscosity is the cause for the enhanced cloud stability. In relation to pulp volume, the pulp from heated juices was finer and more compact than unheated juice pulp, which was voluminous and fluffy.
Properties of pulp
In orange juice, pulp is responsible for desirable flow properties, taste, flavor, and mouth feel. However, pulpy orange juice precipitates based on a rate dependent on the diameter, density, and viscosity of the suspended particles as well as the suspending juice. In order to remain suspended in orange juice, pulp particles must have appropriate particle size, charge, and specific gravity. Depending on type of processing method, the size of pulp particles ranges from 2 - 5 millimeters. Those that are smaller than 2mm are known to be more stable, so it is beneficial to reduce the size of particles by incorporating hydrocolloids to the juice product. Hydrocolloids would decrease the rate of sediment formation and decrease the falling rate of pulp particles.
Hydrocolloids
Hydrocolloids are long - chain polymers that form viscous dispersions and gels if dispersed in water. They have a number of functional properties in food products including emulsifying, thickening, coating, gelling, and stabilization. The main reason hydrocolloids are used in foods is their capability to modify the rheology of food systems. Hydrocolloids impact viscosity through flow behavior and mechanical solid properties like texture. Some common hydrocolloids that are used to stabilize juice products include Magellan, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, xanthan, guar gum, and gum Arabic. The aforementioned hydrocolloids are generally used in the production of imitation orange juices and are often referred to as synthetic hydrocolloids. Pectin is the hydrocolloid found in natural orange juices.
Properties of pectin
Pectin is the soluble polymeric material in the pulp of oranges, which contains 75 % of carboxyl of arabinose and galactose. Pectic compounds are complex heteropolysaccharides in that their chemical composition includes a chain structure of axial - axial α - 1.4 - linked d - galacturonic acid unit along with blocks of L - rhamnose regions that have side chains of arabinose, galactose, and xylose. Pectin methyl - esterase is the enzyme responsible for hydrolyzing carboxymethyl esters and liberating free carboxyl groups and methyl alcohols. The free carboxyl groups interact with cations to form insoluble pectic acid divalent metal ion complexes. These metal ion complexes precipitate in the juice and carry all the colloids in orange juice with it. The enzyme would flocculate the cloud and clarify the orange juice. Thus, in order to keep the orange juice cloud intact, it is vital to inactivate pectinesterase. Pectinesterase is inactivated by heating the juice for 1 minute at 90 ° C.
Interactions of pectin
The solution behavior of pectin is strongly influenced by a number of factors including hydrogen bonding, ionic character, and hydrophobic character. Hydrogen bonding is favored when pH is less than pKa while the ionic character is favored when pH is greater than pKa. Ionic character relies on free carboxyl content, the presence of cations, and is favored at a high water activity. Charge - charge repulsions along with the presence of neutral side chains are essential in inhibiting intermolecular association among pectin molecules. The methyl ester content in orange juice determines hydrophobic character, which is favored at low water activity.
There is a specific interaction between pectin and hesperidin through the sugar moieties in the hesperidin molecule. Through acid hydrolysis, the rhamnose and glucose sugar moieties are removed from hesperidin, which breaks the interaction between hesperidin and pectin. Hydrogen bonding plays a role in the specific interaction of neutral sugars of pectin and the sugar moiety of hesperidin. A polymer that has a high structural content of neutral sugar branches interacts with hesperidin more tightly and strongly than that of a low content of neutral sugar branches. The interaction between pectin and hesperidin is one of the factors that enable the colloidal suspension in orange juice to be stable.
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which of these is not a result of regional conflicts and civil war | List of conflicts related to the Cold War - wikipedia
While the Cold War itself never escalated into direct confrontation, there were a number of conflicts related to the Cold War around the globe, spanning the entirety of the period usually prescribed to it (March 12, 1947 to December 26, 1991, a total of 44 years, 9 months, and 2 weeks).
Part of a series on the History of the Cold War
History of Communism (September 3, 1945 - December 31, 1992)
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which of the following is considered earth's largest inland lake | List of lakes by volume - wikipedia
This article lists lakes with a water volume of more than 100 km3, ranked by volume. The volume of a lake is a difficult quantity to measure. Generally, the volume must be inferred from bathymetric data by integration. Lake volumes can also change dramatically over time and during the year, especially for salt lakes in arid climates. For these reasons, and because of changing research, information on lake volumes can vary considerably from source to source. The base data for this article are from The Water Encyclopedia (1990). Where volume data from more recent surveys or other authoritative sources has been used, it is referenced in each entry.
The volume of the lakes by varies little by season. This list does not include reservoirs; if it did, six reservoirs would appear on the list: Lake Kariba at 26th, Bratsk Reservoir, Lake Volta, Lake Nasser, Manicouagan Reservoir, and Lake Guri.
Two bodies of water at times considered to be lakes are hydrologically ocean (Maracaibo) or geologically ocean (the Caspian Sea).
The following are geological as well as geographical lakes.
In 1960, the Aral Sea was the world 's twelfth - largest known lake by volume, at 1,100 km (260 cu mi). However, by 2007 it had shrunk to 10 % of its original volume and was divided into three lakes; none of them is large enough to appear on this list.
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when did ned stark die in game of thrones | Ned Stark - wikipedia
Eddard "Ned '' Stark is a fictional character in the 1996 fantasy novel A Game of Thrones by George R.R. Martin, and the first season of Game of Thrones, HBO 's adaptation of Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series. In the storyline, Ned is the lord of Winterfell, an ancient fortress in the North of the fictional continent of Westeros. Though the character is established as a primary character in the novel and the TV adaptation, Martin 's plot twist at the end involving Ned shocked both readers of the book and viewers of the TV series.
Ned is portrayed by Sean Bean in the first season of Game of Thrones, and as a child and young man by Sebastian Croft and Robert Aramayo respectively in the sixth season. Bean was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Actor on Television and a Scream Award for Best Fantasy Actor for the role. He and the rest of the cast were nominated for Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2011.
In A Game of Thrones (1996), Ned Stark is introduced as the virtuous and honorable patriarch of House Stark and the father of six children. The moral compass of the story, he is content to remain far from courtly intrigues and is unwavering in his view of loyalty and honor. His family name, Stark, serves as an indication of his resistance to moral compromise, but his boundaries are increasingly tested over the course of the novel. Finding himself a key player in the escalating political intrigue of King 's Landing, Ned struggles as his own sense of honor draws him into corrupt goings - on at court. As the story progresses, he begins to see the importance of moral and practical compromises to achieve a just end, and is ultimately forced to choose between the safety of his family and doing what is right.
Sean Bean said of the character, "he 's a good man trying to do his best in the middle of this corruption, he 's a fish out of water, he 's used to being up north in Winterfell where people are pretty straight and pragmatic, and he comes down to a place where people are playing games and backstabbing... he 's a principled man who tries to hold things together. This is a journey that he makes where ultimately his loyalty causes his downfall. ''
Publishers Weekly noted in 1996 that, despite the honest Ned Stark 's intervention in court politics, "no amount of heroism or good intentions can keep the realm under control. '' From his very first introduction, Ned is portrayed as a noble hero and set up to be the heart of the story. With fifteen chapters devoted to his point of view, more than any single character in the novel, he is presented as a primary character in the series, and the main storyline of A Game of Thrones, the drama in King 's Landing, is told entirely from his perspective. In the London Review of Books, John Lanchester writes that everything about Ned is designed to gain audience sympathy, from his strong sense of honor and moral compass to his compassion towards his wife and children. Readers are led to believe that Ned will be the main character of the series, but ultimately he is, from a literary perspective, a classic decoy protagonist. After struggling to keep himself and the kingdom on a moral path for the entire novel, the only option that remains to save his family is to put aside his honor; he does it, but is betrayed anyway. Calling Ned 's execution "shocking '', The New York Times noted in 2011 that the novel was "famous for dispatching a thoroughly admirable major character with whom readers have been identifying for most of the book. '' In an interview for Entertainment Weekly, author George R.R. Martin commented on this misdirection:
I knew it almost from the beginning. Not the first day, but very soon. I 've said in many interviews that I like my fiction to be unpredictable. I like there to be considerable suspense. I killed Ned in the first book and it shocked a lot of people. I killed Ned because everybody thinks he 's the hero and that, sure, he 's going to get into trouble, but then he 'll somehow get out of it.
David Benioff, executive producer and writer of the HBO adaptation, told Entertainment Weekly that when he read the novel:
I was in shock. From your training in seeing so many movies and reading books, you know your hero is going to be saved... Someone has something planned, because they 're not really going to chop off his head -- right up until the moment when they chopped off his head. I was shocked, and then admiring of George 's ruthlessness. It 's a tough thing to build up a character and make somebody as memorable and impressive as Ned and then get rid of him. But at the same time it leads to a story that is so much more suspenseful because you truly have no idea what is going to happen and who is going to survive.
In a review of the Game of Thrones TV episode "Baelor '', James Poniewozik wrote in Time that "the execution of Eddard Stark is crucial to the story and its themes and everything that follows, but it 's also a meta - message to the reader: do n't take anything for granted here. '' James Hibberd of Entertainment Weekly stated that tricking the audience into thinking Ned is the hero and then killing him makes the series ' story better. Writing that "the big twist here is n't that Ned Stark dies, but who the true protagonists of Game of Thrones are, '' Hibberd pointed out that the series ' focus proves to be the "new generation '' of leaders, in particular the Stark children but also Daenerys and even Tyrion. He noted:
Ned Stark does n't die in vain... It takes the Stark kids -- who are all too young to face these responsibilities -- and thrusts them into a struggle where they 're forced to quickly grow as characters. Martin busts many cliches in his writing, but this move is traditional Heroes Journey stuff if you consider the kids to be the true protagonists of this story -- only by sacrificing the fatherly mentor figure can our heroes come into their own.
As established in A Game of Thrones, Eddard "Ned '' Stark is the second son of Rickard Stark, the Lord of Winterfell. Years before the events of the novel, the quiet and shy young Ned is fostered in the Vale by Jon Arryn. During this time Ned becomes close friends with Robert Baratheon, heir to the Stormlands and another ward of Arryn 's. Robert is eventually betrothed to Ned 's sister Lyanna, but before he can marry her, Crown Prince Rhaegar Targaryen (who is already married and has two young children) absconds with Lyanna. Ned 's father and older brother Brandon go to King Aerys II Targaryen and demand that Lyanna be freed; the so - called "Mad King '' executes both Rickard and Brandon, convinced that the Starks seek to usurp him. Ned, Robert and Arryn then rise in revolt, securing the support of House Tully with Ned marrying Catelyn Tully. Ned leaves for war the next morning.
At the decisive Battle of the Trident, Robert manages to kill Prince Rhaegar and scatter the Targaryen army. Robert is injured in the battle, so Ned takes command and marches on the capital. In King 's Landing, Ned finds that House Lannister has -- through treachery -- already sacked the city, and murdered Aerys and the royal family. Disgusted by the dishonorable massacre, Ned departs to lift the siege of the Baratheon stronghold Storm 's End, and later attempts to rescue Lyanna but finds his sister dying; her last words are "Promise me Ned. '' Ned returns to Winterfell with his bastard son Jon Snow in tow; meanwhile Catelyn has delivered their son and Ned 's heir, Robb, conceived on their wedding night.
Six years after the end of Robert 's Rebellion, Balon Greyjoy, the Lord of the Iron Islands, declares independence from the Iron Throne. Ned aids King Robert in putting down "Greyjoy 's Rebellion. '' Balon surrenders, and his sole surviving heir, Theon, is taken back to Winterfell as Stark 's ward and hostage. Ned rules the North for nine more years before the events of the novel.
As A Game of Thrones begins, Catelyn informs Ned that his mentor Jon Arryn has died, and that King Robert intends to offer Ned Jon 's old position as Hand of the King. Content to be far from court intrigue, Ned is reluctant to accept the offer until he receives a letter from Arryn 's widow, who believes that her husband had been poisoned by the Lannisters. Ned subsequently agrees to the appointment to protect Robert. He then travels south to King 's Landing with his daughters Sansa and Arya. Catelyn later comes to the capital in secret, under the protection of her childhood friend Petyr "Littlefinger '' Baelish, to tell Ned of an assassination attempt on their young son Bran. Ned 's longstanding mistrust of the Lannisters is further fueled by Littlefinger 's confirmation that the dagger used by the would - be assassin once belonged to Tyrion Lannister. Increasingly disgusted by the political intrigues at court, Ned finally resigns his position when Robert insists on having Aerys ' only surviving child, the young Daenerys Targaryen, assassinated in exile. Meanwhile, Catelyn has taken Tyrion hostage at the Eyrie, and in retaliation Jaime Lannister attacks and seriously injures Ned in the street before he and his daughters can depart King 's Landing. Visiting a wounded Ned, Robert reappoints him as Hand.
Ned eventually concludes that all of Robert 's heirs with Cersei are illegitimate, the product of her incest with her twin brother Jaime. Further, Ned suspects that Arryn had been poisoned to conceal the truth. Ned confronts Cersei with his discovery and gives her the chance to escape with her children into exile. Before Ned can tell the king, Robert is fatally wounded while hunting and names Ned Protector of the Realm, to function as regent until his "son '' Joffrey comes of age. Ned alters Robert 's will, replacing Joffrey 's name with "my rightful heir '' to make the succession ambiguous. With the palace in chaos, Ned rebuffs multiple offers to increase his own power, instead opting to crown Robert 's brother, Stannis Baratheon, as king. Cersei, however, outmaneuvers Ned, and the duplicitous Littlefinger has the city watch arrest Ned instead of Cersei. With all of his entourage slaughtered, Sansa a hostage and Arya escaped but alone, Ned is charged with treason. A deal is struck in which Ned will be spared and sent into exile if he declares Joffrey the rightful king. Fearing for his daughters, Ned makes a public confession of his "treason ''. The sadistic Joffrey, however, has Ned executed anyway.
Ned 's arrest pits the Stark and Lannister forces against each other, and his execution causes a civil war later called the War of Five Kings. Tyrion Lannister eventually returns Ned 's bones to Catelyn, but it is not confirmed whether they ever arrived at Winterfell.
In January 2007 HBO secured the rights to adapt Martin 's series for television. When the pilot went into production in 2009, one of the first casting announcements was Sean Bean as the "lead '' Eddard Stark. As the show premiered in 2011, the Los Angeles Times called Bean 's Ned "the strong and brooding headliner of the series. ''
As in the source novel, Ned is beheaded in the ninth episode of season 1, "Baelor ''. Though praising the character 's demise for its role in propelling the story, James Hibberd of Entertainment Weekly later noted that:
This is probably the first time a U.S. drama series has ever killed off its main character in the first season as part of its master creative plan... it 's just... not done. You do n't cast a star, put him on bus stops and magazine ads marketing the show, get viewers all invested in his story, and then dump him nine episodes later just because it arguably makes the story a bit more interesting.
Hibberd echoed the show 's producers ' statement that "the move lays down a dramatic precedent for the show: Nobody is safe. '' He called it a "risky '' move that would probably lose the show viewers who had tuned in for Bean, but would hopefully attract others impressed by the boldness of it. Executive producer and writer D.B. Weiss told Entertainment Weekly in 2011 that when he and Benioff pitched the series to HBO, the fact that "main character '' Ned was slated to die "was a selling point for them. '' Noting that the network has killed off characters in other successful series, he said that this sense of jeopardy "completely ups the ante for any moment when a character is in a dire situation if you know another character did n't survive a similar situation. '' HBO programming president Sue Naegle concurred, saying that Ned 's death made the show creatively more attractive, adding that "The book series was filled with unexpected twists and turns. I loved this idea we 'd bring together the group of characters, then once you started to believe all the tropes of heroes, you pull the rug out from under them. It 's the opposite of feeling manipulated. '' Noting that the story and world of the series is bigger than any one character, Naegle said, "Sean brings a giant following, but Thrones is not just about the promise you 're going to see one of your favorite actors week in and week out. The star is the story. '' Bean noted that Ned 's death "was as much a surprise to me as anyone '' and called it "a very courageous move for a television company. ''
The image of Bean as Ned Stark sitting in the Iron Throne is featured on the covers of the 2011 Season 1 DVD and Blu - ray Disc sets, released in March 2012.
In season 1, King Robert Baratheon asks his old friend Eddard "Ned '' Stark, Lord of Winterfell and Warden of the North, to assume the position of Hand of the King after the sudden death of their mentor, Jon Arryn. Not interested in politics or the intrigues of the court, Ned accepts out of duty, as well as to discover how Arryn died. Robert is killed just as Ned discovers that his three children by Cersei were actually fathered by the queen 's twin, Jaime. Before Ned is able to neutralize Cersei and place Robert 's brother Stannis on the throne, he is betrayed by Littlefinger, and the queen has him imprisoned for treason. Ned makes a public confession to save his daughters from Cersei 's wrath, but Joffrey has Ned beheaded anyway.
In the season 6 episode "Home '', Bran sees a vision of Ned (Sebastian Croft) as a child with his sister and brother, Lyanna and Benjen. In the following episode, "Oathbreaker '', Bran witnesses the battle between a young Ned (Robert Aramayo) and the knight Ser Arthur Dayne at the Tower of Joy. Finally, in the season finale episode "The Winds of Winter '', Bran sees Ned reuniting with a dying Lyanna (Aisling Franciosi) in the tower. She makes him swear to protect her son -- Jon Snow.
Bean was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Actor on Television, a Scream Award for Best Fantasy Actor, and an EWwy Award for Best Actor, Drama for the role. IGN named Ned its Best TV Hero of 2011, and Bean won the Portal Award for Best Actor.
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when does robin become nightwing in batman the animated series | Nightwing - Wikipedia
Nightwing is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character has appeared in various incarnations, with the Nightwing identity most prominently being adopted by Dick Grayson when he moves on from his role as Batman 's vigilante partner Robin.
Although Nightwing is commonly associated with Batman, the title and concept have origins in classic Superman stories. The original Nightwing in DC Comics was an identity assumed by alien superhero Superman when stranded on the Kryptonian city of Kandor with his pal Jimmy Olsen. Drawing inspiration from Batman and Robin, the two protect Kandor as the superheroes Nightwing and Flamebird. Following the Crisis on Infinite Earths continuity reboot in 1985, Nightwing was re-imagined as a legendary vigilante from Krypton whose story inspires Dick Grayson 's choice of name when he leaves behind his Robin identity.
Other stories set among the Batman family of characters have seen acquaintances and friends of Dick Grayson briefly assume the title, including his fellow Robin alumnus Jason Todd. Meanwhile, Superman stories have seen Power Girl and Superman 's adopted son Chris Kent take up the name for brief turns as Nightwing. Various other characters have taken the name in stories set outside DC 's main continuity as well, and at times the role has been unoccupied, such as when Dick Grayson operated as Batman and after faking his death.
Nightwing book. In 2013, Nightwing placed 5th on IGN 's Top 25 Heroes of DC Comics and Grayson as Nightwing was ranked the # 1 Sexiest Male Character in Comics by ComicsAlliance in 2013.
Nightwing is first depicted in the story "Superman in Kandor '' in Superman # 158 (January 1963). It is an alias used by Superman in pre-Crisis stories. The story is set in Kandor, a Kryptonian city that was shrunken and preserved in a bottle by Brainiac. In Kandor, Superman has no superpowers, and is branded an outlaw there due to a misunderstanding.
To disguise themselves, Superman and Jimmy Olsen create vigilante identities inspired by Batman and Robin. Because neither bats nor robins lived on Krypton, Superman chooses the names of two birds owned by his Kandorian friend Nor - Kan: Nightwing for himself, and Flamebird for Jimmy. Nightwing and Flamebird rename Nor - Kan 's underground laboratory as the "Nightcave '', and use it as their secret headquarters. They also convert Nor - Kan 's automobile into their "Nightmobile '', and use "jet - belts '' to fly into battle.
In Jimmy Olsen # 69 (June 1963), "The Dynamic Duo of Kandor '' introduces Nightwing 's dog Nighthound. In "The Feud Between Batman and Superman '' in World 's Finest # 143 (August 1964), Batman and Robin themselves visit Kandor with Superman and Olsen and the two Dynamic Duos team up.
In Superman Family # 183 (May / June 1977), Superman 's look - alike second cousin Van - Zee and his niece 's husband Ak - Var take up the Nightwing and Flamebird identities. The vigilantes take on crime in their city as had Superman and Olsen before them.
Both Nightwing and Flamebird team up with Batman and Robin for an adventure in Kandor that proves important to the young Dick Grayson. When Dick later gives up his role as Robin in 1984, he recalls the Kandorian adventure and renames himself Nightwing, in homage to both Batman and Superman. After the events of the Crisis on Infinite Earths re-boot of the DC Universe, Superman no longer has knowledge of Kandor; instead, he remembers Nightwing as an urban legend of Krypton, which he shares with a young Dick Grayson.
Post-Crisis, there is a different originator of the Nightwing identity. Several hundred years before the birth of Kal - El, there was a Kryptonian man who was cast out from his family and decided to take on crime as the vigilante Nightwing. When Superman tells Dick Grayson of this story, Dick takes the name for himself.
Dick Grayson became Nightwing after he was dismissed from the role of Robin as a teenager. Grayson 's Flamebird was Bette Kane. He was featured in a Nightwing series from 1995 to 2009; after Wayne 's apparent death, Grayson became the new Batman, subsequently retiring his Nightwing mantle temporarily.
Grayson 's Nightwing costume was a high - tech suit specially designed for his high - flying acrobatic style. His gauntlets and boots each contained eight compartments in which he could store items. They had a self - destruct feature built into them, similar to the ones in Batman 's utility belt, and, as another security measure, the suit contained a one - use - only taser charge, which automatically emitted a high - voltage electrical shock when someone attempted to tamper with either the boots or gauntlets.
Each gauntlet 's sections could contain a wide array of equipment, such as sonic or smoke pellets, modified batarangs ("Wing - Dings ''), knockout gas capsules, throwable tracers, and a sedative - tipped dart launcher. The right gauntlet was also equipped with a 100,000 - volt stun gun. Like the gauntlets, his boot compartments could carry vital equipment such as flares, a rebreather as protection against any airborne non-contact toxins, a mini-computer equipped with fax, modem, GPS, and a minidisk re-writable drive. Other items were lock picks, a first - aid kit, a mini-cellphone, flexi - cuffs, antitoxin assortment, wireless listening devices, and a small flashlight. After coming to New York, Dick added a black utility belt to his costume, eliminating the need for his boots and gauntlets.
Held in spring - loaded pouches in the back of his costume, Dick carried a pair of eskrima clubs made from an unbreakable polymer that were wielded as both offensive and defensive weapons. Some depictions display these tools with the mechanism to shoot a grappling hook attached to a swing line, while, in other instances, they can act as "line guns '' similar to the ones Batman uses. The clubs could also be thrown with such skill by Grayson (and possibly due to their design) that they would ricochet off walls and objects to hit multiple targets, then return to his hands. These clubs also have the capability to be linked together as well as grow in size to make a staff, as depicted in many series, such as Teen Titans and Young Justice (Robin uses these weapons).
In 2001 's Superman: The Man of Steel # 111, Superman and Lois Lane travel to a version of Krypton later revealed to have been created by the villainous Brainiac 13 and based on Jor - El 's favorite period in Kryptonian history. Labeled as criminals, Superman and Lois become fugitives, adopting the Nightwing and Flamebird identities to survive, just as had Superman and Olsen in Superman # 158.
In Blüdhaven, a sociopath named Tad Ryerstad becomes a superhero, inspired by the retired hero Tarantula. He takes his name, "Nite - Wing '', from an all - night deli specializing in chicken wings. Unstable, Nite - Wing beats people for minor offenses. Nite - Wing is shot on his first night out and Dick Grayson, as Blüdhaven 's protector Nightwing, defends him from Blockbuster 's gang, who think it is Nightwing who has been injured. After Nite - Wing is released from the hospital, he kills the gang who put him there. Not realizing how violent Ryerstad is, Grayson agrees to train him. The two attack Blockbuster 's organization, but are captured and separated. After an undercover FBI agent frees Nite - Wing, Ryerstad beats him to death, and when he realizes what he has done, Ryerstad flees. Nightwing subsequently tracks down and incarcerates Nite - Wing. In prison, Ryerstad is cell - mates with Torque (Dudley Soames), but the two escape by drugging the prison guard Amygdala.
Nightwing # 118 - 122 run features Jason Todd prowling the streets of New York City under the guise of Nightwing, copying Grayson 's costume.
The "One Year Later '' storyline features a metahuman fashion designer named Cheyenne Freemont donning a modified Nightwing costume to help Grayson.
Cheyenne first met Dick when they had a one - night stand together. They only exchanged first names the next morning, Cheyenne stating she 's superstitious. The two had breakfast together and then he left. When he left another man walked into her apartment. He assaulted her for getting her "plumbing '' fixed in her bath robe. She hit him with a telekinetic blast.
Dick found out Cheyenne was a fashion designer from a friend of his from Bludhaven. She ran into Dick again after he accidentally became a model for her. After seeing newspaper clippings of Nightwing (Jason Todd) she started creating superhero themed designs. Cheyenne wore a Nightwing costume to help Dick and Jason from a metahuman monster named Jakob. He ate her, but she used her powers to blow him up from the inside. Due to recent events she was left broke and soon left New York City.
In Supergirl # 6, Power Girl and Supergirl assume the identities of Nightwing and Flamebird in a story set in Kandor, just as in the original pre-Crisis stories featuring Superman.
Chris Kent, son of General Zod, was Nightwing during Superman: New Krypton. In that storyline, Superman was coming to terms with the death of his adoptive father; he was also dealing with 100,000 Kryptonians now living on Earth, which he had released from the bottled cities on Brainiac 's ship (the same ship that contained the lost Kryptonian city of Kandor). At the end of the fourth issue of the arc, a new Nightwing and Flamebird appear in Superman 's Fortress of Solitude to stop two of Zod 's followers (who were living in Kandor) from releasing the Kryptonian General from his Phantom Zone imprisonment. While guarding the projector in order to prevent any Zod loyalists from freeing him from the Phantom Zone, both Flamebird and Nightwing exhibit powers that are not inherent to normal Kryptonians. Flamebird projects flames from her hands, and Nightwing uses "natural tactile telekinesis ''.
The pair seems to be stronger than normal Kryptonians: they knock out the two Zod loyalists with one blow apiece. In a later appearance, the duo is seen in Gotham City. Unlike previous portrayals, it seems Flamebird believes herself to be the dominant partner. When the Kryptonians led by Zod and Alura flee to a new Krypton orbiting the Sun, Nightwing and Flamebird stay in Gotham. In Action Comics # 875, that Nightwing is revealed as the son of Zod and Ursa, Chris Kent. The "Nightwing '' identity is revealed to be based on a mythical Kryptonian creature, whose existence is intertwined with that of its partner beast, the Flamebird. Inside the Phantom Zone Chris ' mind interfaced with a piece of Brainiac technology, awakening a long - dormant connection to the Nightwing, and linking his mind to that of Thara Ak - Var, who had a connection to the Flamebird.
Based on Nightwing 's increasing popularity, DC Comics decided to test the character 's possibilities with a one - shot book and then a miniseries.
First, in Nightwing: Alfred 's Return # 1 (1995), Grayson travels to England to find Alfred, who resigns from Bruce Wayne 's service following the events of KnightSaga. Before returning to Gotham City together, they prevent a plot by British terrorists to destroy the undersea "Channel Tunnel '' in the English Channel.
Later on, with the Nightwing miniseries (September 1995 to December 1995, written by Dennis O'Neil with Greg Land as artist), Dick briefly considers retiring from being Nightwing forever before family papers uncovered by Alfred reveal a possible link between the murder of the Flying Graysons and the Crown Prince of Kravia. Journeying to Kravia, Nightwing (in his third costume) helps to topple the murderous Kravian leader and prevent an ethnic cleansing, while learning his parents ' true connection to the Prince.
In 1996, following the success of the miniseries, DC Comics launched a monthly solo series featuring Nightwing (written by Chuck Dixon, with art by Scott McDaniel), in which he patrols Gotham 's neighboring municipality of Blüdhaven.
At Batman 's request, Dick journeys to this former whaling town - turned - industrial center to investigate a number of murders linked to Gotham City gangster Black Mask. Instead, he finds a city racked by police corruption and in the grips of organized crime consolidated by Roland Desmond, the gargantuan genius Blockbuster.
With a defenseless city to call his own, Nightwing decides to remain in Blüdhaven until Blockbuster 's cartel is broken. This allows him to be close enough to Gotham to still be part of the Batman family, and far enough as well to have his own city, adventures and enemies. He takes a job as a bartender to keep his ear to the ground and worked closely with Oracle (Barbara Gordon) in an effort to clean up the town. Blockbuster places a sizable contract on Nightwing 's head shortly thereafter, while Grayson plies the unscrupulous Blüdhaven Police Inspector Dudley Soames for information on the kingpin 's dealings. Also during his time in Blüdhaven, Nightwing helps train a violent but enthusiastic street fighter called Nite - wing, who later kills an undercover FBI agent.
When the Joker is told he is dying by his doctor, he unleashes Joker juice on the inmates at the Slab, causing a breakout. At the end of the arc, Nightwing is responsible for killing the Joker against the wishes of Batman and Oracle. Nightwing becomes depressed and Oracle tries to bring him out of it. Soon after, Batman manages to revive the Joker.
Sometime after "No Man 's Land '' ends, the JLA disappears on a mission to locate Aquaman and Atlantis (The Obsidian Age). Before they vanish, Batman instigates a contingency plan, in which a handful of heroes would be assembled to create a new JLA, consisting of Nightwing, Green Arrow, the Atom, Hawkgirl, Major Disaster, Faith, Firestorm and Jason Blood. Nightwing is chosen to be leader until the original JLA are found, leading the group against the powerful Atlantean sorceress Gamemnae and helping to revive Aquaman to ask for his help in sinking Atlantis, but subsequently returns to the reserve list.
For several years, Nightwing leads various incarnations of the Titans and becomes the most respected former sidekick in the DC Universe. However, in the Titans / Young Justice: Graduation Day crossover, a rogue Superman android kills Lilith and Troia, an event that tears apart both Young Justice and the Titans. At Troia 's funeral, Dick declares he is tired of seeing friends die and disbands the team, officially ending the Titans. A few months later, Arsenal persuades Nightwing to join a new pro-active crime - fighting team: the Outsiders, who would hunt villains, acting as co-workers rather than an extended family. He reluctantly accepts.
Dick plays a key role in exposing the corruption in the Blüdhaven Police Department. Despite reaching his original goals, Dick continues as a police officer during the day while spending nights as Nightwing, pushing himself to his limits and straining his relationships. The line between his police work and his vigilantism began to blur, and ultimately Amy Rohrbach (his friend and superior officer, who knew his secret identity) fires him rather than let him continue using questionable methods.
Wrongfully blaming Nightwing for the death of his mother, the mob boss Blockbuster bombs Dick Grayson 's apartment complex and promises to kill anyone in Dick 's life. When the vigilante Tarantula arrives, Nightwing chooses not to stop her when she shoots the villain dead. He enters in a catatonic state after this action, and Tarantula takes advantage of his emotional trauma to rape him. At length, Nightwing shakes himself from his depression and takes responsibility for his inaction. He captures Tarantula and turns her and himself in to the police. Amy, however, feels the world needs Nightwing free and so prevents him from being charged.
Though, Dick has destroyed the police corruption and removed the greater part of organized crime from this city, but his role in Blockbuster 's death is still a source of tremendous guilt for him. He retires from crime fighting, with Tim Drake and Cassandra Cain as his replacements.
Grayson moves to New York, where he works closely with the Outsiders. After "insiders '' threaten both the Outsiders and the newest incarnation of Teen Titans, however, Nightwing realizes that the team has gotten "too personal '' and quits.
Due to a crisis of conscience, Dick adopts the new villainous persona of Renegade in order to infiltrate Lex Luthor 's Secret Society of Super-Villains. This ruse includes Nightwing aligning himself with his long - time enemy Deathstroke in order to track the manufacturing and distribution of Bane 's venom serum and to keep tabs on the Society 's activities in Gotham and Blüdhaven. He also begins training (and subtly converting) Deathstroke 's daughter, Ravager.
Deathstroke takes revenge on Nightwing when Blüdhaven is destroyed by the Society. The Society drops the super villain Chemo on the city, killing 100,000 people. Dick tries to rescue survivors but is overcome by radiation poisoning; only to be rescued himself by Batman. Nightwing confides that he let Blockbuster die and asks Batman to forgive him. Batman tells him that his forgiveness does n't matter; Dick has to move beyond Blockbuster 's death. Inspired by his mentor, he proposes to Barbara Gordon, who accepts his proposal with a kiss.
Batman then entrusts Nightwing to alert other heroes about the danger that the Crisis poses. Dick flies to Titans Tower, but due to the chaos resulting from the Blüdhaven disaster, the OMAC onslaught and other Crisis related events, the only hero who answers his call is Conner Kent. Together, they locate and attack Alexander Luthor 's tower, the center of the Crisis, only to be repelled by Superboy - Prime. Prime is ready to kill Nightwing when Conner intervenes, sacrificing himself to destroy the tower, ending the destruction of the Universe.
During the Battle of Metropolis, Nightwing suffers a near - fatal injury from Alexander Luthor when he attempts to save Batman 's life. Originally, the editors at DC intended to have Dick Grayson killed in Infinite Crisis as Newsarama revealed from the DC Panel at WizardWorld Philiadelphia:
Saved by the Justice Society, Nightwing recovers with Barbara at his side. As soon as he 's able to walk again, Batman asks him to join him and Robin in retracing Bruce 's original journey in becoming the Dark Knight. While Nightwing is hesitant, due to his engagement with Barbara, she encourages him to go and returns his engagement ring so he can make an honest decision for himself. Barbara feels that it is important he rediscover himself, and until he does they 're not yet ready to be married. They part on good terms, though before he departs Dick leaves her an envelope containing a photograph of them as Robin and Batgirl, along with the engagement ring on a chain and a note promising he 'll come back to her one day.
Soon after his journey with Batman and Robin ends, Nightwing returns to Gotham, following Intergang 's trail. He works with the new Batwoman and Renee Montoya to stop Intergang from destroying Gotham, shutting off dozens of fire - spewing devices spread across the city.
One year later, Dick Grayson returns to New York City (his previous home base with the Teen Titans) in order to find out who has been masquerading as Nightwing. The murderous impostor turns out to be the former Robin, Jason Todd. Grayson leads the Outsiders once again, operating undercover and globally.
Nightwing follows an armored thief named Raptor, whom he suspects is responsible for series of murders. Later, Raptor himself is murdered in a manner similar to the other victims by an unseen contract killer, who proceeds to bury Grayson alive. Nightwing frees himself, wondering the relation between his experience and a mysterious voice who tells him that he is "supposed to be dead ''. Nightwing is having trouble finding things to keep him busy during the day due to the cast on his right arm. Incapacitated from his injuries, he tries without luck to find jobs and continues to research into the mysterious assassin.
At one point, Dick agrees to attend a party for Bruce and their relationship seems to flourish. Bruce praises Dick for his success on the Raptor case, and also mentions to look into the Landman Building which hosted ex-Lexcorp scientists; most likely those who worked on the Raptor project. Dick also continues to keep a close brotherly relationship with Tim Drake, and helps Tim deal with his many losses during the last year.
After dealing with the Raptor issue, NYC is plagued by a villainous duo called Bride and Groom. Nightwing begins pursuit of these two after some grisly murders, including that of the Lorens family (close friends of his after the Raptor incident). Dick began to get obsessed with finding them, not knowing how far he was willing to go to take them down. Eventually, he formed a makeshift team with some "villains '' to find them. They located them, and after killing some of his "team '', Nightwing chased them to a cave, where Bride began a cave - in and the two are trapped there.
Nightwing, along with a group of former Titans, are summoned again by Raven to aid the current group of Teen Titans battle against Deathstroke, who was targeting the latest team in order to get at his children, Ravager and the resurrected Jericho. Nightwing and the other former Titans continue to work with the current team soon after the battle with Deathstroke so as to investigate the recent murder of Duela Dent.
When the Outsiders were targeted by Checkmate, Nightwing agrees that his team will work with the organization, so long as their actions in Africa are not used against them in the future. The mission however does not go as well as intended, resulting in Nightwing, the Black Queen and Captain Boomerang being captured by Chang Tzu. Later, Batman is called in by Mister Terrific who then rescues Nightwing and the others. Afterwards, Nightwing admits to Batman, that while he accepts that he is an excellent leader, he is not suited to lead a team like the Outsiders, and offers the leadership position to Batman.
Batman accepts the position; however he feels that the team needs to be remade, in order to accomplish the sorts of missions that he intends them to undertake. As such, he holds a series of try outs for the team. The first audition involves Nightwing and Captain Boomerang who are sent to a space station under attack by Chemo. During the mission, a confrontation erupts between Nightwing and Boomerang, who has grown tired of fighting for redemption from people like Batman and Nightwing. After taking a beating from Nightwing, he manages to throw him into a shuttle heading for Earth and quits the team. Afterwards, Nightwing furiously confronts Batman. Batman does not deny his actions, and states that this is the sort of thing that the new Outsiders will have to deal with. At this, Nightwing resigns completely from the Outsiders, which Batman feels is best, judging Nightwing too good for that sort of life.
In order to help himself regain a sense of purpose, Nightwing opted to stay in New York City again, and play the role of the city 's protector. He takes on a job as a museum curator; and uses the museum as his new base of operations. During his short time there, Dick finds himself once again confronted with Two - Face, who years ago delivered Dick 's greatest defeat. This time however, Dick soundly defeats Two - Face.
Nightwing joins a new team of Titans, with the same roster of the New Teen Titans, to stop an offspring of Trigon, which has not yet been named, from enacting his vengeance over Raven and the Titans, of every generation. Nightwing yet again leads the team, and they manage to stop the sons of Trigon from accomplishing their first attempt at global destruction and again a few days later.
Following the defeat of Trigon 's sons, the Titans are approached by Jericho who had been stuck inhabiting the body of Match, Superboy 's clone. The Titans managed to free Jericho, but found themselves once again in trouble, due to the fact the Jericho 's mind had become splintered due to all the bodies he had possessed in the past. Torn between evil and good, Jericho possesses Nightwing 's body in order to keep from being captured. During this time, Jericho forces Nightwing to relive all of his greatest pains. Soon after the JLA arrived intent on taking Jericho in. Unfortunately they fail to apprehend him.
Following this, Nightwing decides to leave the team again, due to the events of the "Batman R.I.P. '' storyline, and due to Batman 's apparent death, Nightwing feels his attention should be better aimed at protecting Gotham City.
As a precursor to "Batman R.I.P. '', at the New York Comic Con 2008, DC Comics gave away pins featuring Nightwing, Jason Todd, and Hush with the words "I Am Batman '' beneath them. During the storyline, Nightwing is ambushed by the International Club of Villains. He is later seen in Arkham Asylum, frothing at the mouth and presumably drugged, believed by the staff to be Pierrot Lunaire, a member of the Club. Scheduled for an experimental lobotomy by Arkham himself, he 's spared by the ICoV taking hold of the Asylum, wanting to use him and Jezebel Jet, Bruce 's fianceè at the time, as bait.
As Jezebel 's capture is revealed to be a red herring, due to her being a part of the Black Glove, Nightwing 's lobotomy is still pending, but he manages to escape by besting Le Bossu, and joining the fray between the Batman Family, the International Club of Heroes and the Black Glove itself. While he 's forced to witness Batman 's dragging down Simon Hurt 's helicopter and seemingly die in a fiery explosion with his foe, he 's shown holding Batman 's cape, discarded during the fight.
Following the events of Batman 's apparent death during Final Crisis, Nightwing has closed down shop in New York so as to return to Gotham. He has opted to give up on having a normal job, and instead intends to put all his effort into protecting the city. After his returns he confronts Two - Face and Ra 's al Ghul, proving two of his mentor 's greatest enemies that he is an equal to Batman after he defeated them. He also finds himself being tasked to raise Bruce 's biological son Damian with Alfred.
During the events of the Battle for the Cowl, Nightwing is said to have become unapproachable and less emotional. He is seen by the Bat - Suit display cases, still mourning the loss of Batman. Nightwing is said to be resisting the idea that someone needs to take up the mantle of Batman, in spite of arguments from Robin and Alfred Pennyworth that it is necessary. It is later revealed he has no objections to becoming the new Batman, but was ordered not to in Bruce 's prerecorded message for him, saying that Nightwing and Robin could carry the torch.
Robin later informs Grayson that someone is masquerading as Batman, using similar weaponry to their own. Nightwing is later forced to rescue Damian after he is ambushed by Killer Croc and Poison Ivy. However, Nightwing 's glider is shot down, and the two are forced to crash land into a skyscraper. In order to give Damian time to escape, Nightwing offers himself up to the hit squad that is after them. He is about to be shot when he is rescued in a hail of gunfire by the Batman impersonator.
This eventually leads to Dick confronting Jason Todd, who has been posing as Batman. After a long battle between the two, Jason refuses Dick 's help, while hanging on to a protruding ledge over Gotham 's bay, Jason lets himself fall into the water. After returning to the cave, Dick assumes the identity of Batman, with Damian as the new Robin.
For the New 52 DC Comics reboot, Grayson 's new costume changed the color of the "Nightwing symbol '' from blue to red, and the emblem rolled over the shoulders, rather than traveling down the arm onto the middle and ring fingers. The costume also shifted from a skin - tight unitard look to an armored, full body suit, with spiked gauntlets such as Batman 's rather than simply long gloves. Dick, along with all other members of the Batfamily, were a few years younger than previous incarnations. Despite being in his early twenties as opposed to his mid-late twenties, he was drawn a bit shorter than in his pre-relaunch frame. Starting with issue 19 there was a change in the suit.
After the events of Flashpoint as part of The New 52, Nightwing was relaunched with issue # 1. Grayson resumes the role of Nightwing following the return of Bruce Wayne. The new series, written by Kyle Higgins, opens with Grayson having returned to Gotham, when Haly 's Circus comes to town. Through a series of events, Grayson inherits the circus and is working through internal struggles with his past as he investigates the secrets the circus has brought about.
During the events of Death of the Family, a Batman Family crossover, Haly 's circus is targeted by the Joker. As a result, the circus is burnt down and the circus members leave. Dick is left feeling depressed and lost as a result of this and the death of Damian Wayne, the new Robin, and is at a loss for what to do with his life. However, when Sonia Branch reveals to him that she believes her father, Tony Zucco, is alive and living in Chicago, Dick makes the decision to take him down. Therefore, in 2013 Nightwing relocated to Chicago to hunt down Tony Zucco and also take down The Prankster, a new supervillain hacker in Chicago.
As part of the Forever Evil storyline, Nightwing 's identity is revealed on every electronic device in the world when Superwoman takes his mask off. Nightwing was captured prior when bringing Zsasz to Arkham Asylum and mistakes Owlman for Batman, which leads to Owlman knocking Grayson out. Currently, Grayson is being held captive by the Crime Syndicate. Owlman plans to ask Grayson to join them to fill in the spot of Earth - 3 Richard Grayson who was Owlman 's sidekick Talon who died when the Earth - 3 vigilante Joker killed him and put his dismembered body parts in boxes for Owlman to find.
During his captivity, Nightwing is imprisoned in a containment unit built to hold Doomsday, with his heart monitored to set off a bomb should he attempt to escape. The alliance of Batman, Lex Luthor, Catwoman, Captain Cold, Bizarro, Sinestro, Black Manta and Black Adam break into the fallen Watchtower in order to free him but also to sabotage the Syndicate. When they are detected, the bomb is triggered to detonate in minutes. Batman tries to free Nightwing, but Luthor, believing there is no time, incapacitates Batman and Catwoman before suffocating Grayson until his vitals drop and he appears dead. The bomb is deactivated. An enraged Batman begins to brutalize Luthor, while Luthor tries to tell him that there may still be time to revive Dick before he is gone for good -- and so they do. However, with his secret identity compromised, he gives up the Nightwing persona and is persuaded by Batman to fake his death and infiltrate the Spyral organization.
On January 21, 2014, DC Comics announced that the series would end in April with issue 30. It was succeeded by Grayson, a solo series focusing on Dick 's exploits as an agent of Spyral. The series lasted until June 2016 and was succeeded by a new Nightwing series with DC Rebirth.
Following the erasure of the knowledge regarding his secret identity from most of the world in the final issue of Grayson, Dick went back to the Nightwing identity in the DC Rebirth era solo series, and the costume 's colors were changed back to the traditional black and blue.
After a 4 - issue miniseries, and as commented above, in 1996 DC launched a monthly solo series featuring Dick Grayson as Nightwing that ended in February 2009. During DC 's Infinite Crisis, DC considered killing Dick Grayson, but at the last minute reconsidered this decision. An attempt to revitalize the character by bringing back the writer who wrote the original Robin - to - Nightwing story, Marv Wolfman, had mixed response. The final change to writer Peter Tomasi and artist Rags Morales did much to reassert the character, with him operating in New York as a respected solo hero, and taking full advantage of the fact that his early start makes him one of the most experienced superheroes, and one of the best connected thanks to his many former teammates and the friends he has established in his career. Nightwing has now been canceled, with Dick Grayson having become the new Batman. With his new position, this leaves the Nightwing name available to Christopher Kent, Superman 's foster son. In the New 52 reboot, Dick Grayson returned to his Nightwing identity, and a new monthly series began under writer Kyle Higgins.
Nightwing has also starred in several miniseries and one - shots. This material has been collected in several trade paperbacks.
Issues # 19 - 20 are collected in Batman: Cataclysm. Issue # 53 is collected in Batman: Officer Down. Most of the issues of Nightwing # 61 - 100 have yet to be compiled into a trade paperback. Issues # 65 - 66 are collected in Bruce Wayne: Murderer? Issues # 68 - 69 are collected in Bruce Wayne: Fugitive, Vol. 1. Issues # 96 - 98 are part of the "Batman: War Games '' story arc. Issues # 138 - 139 are collected in The Resurrection of Ra 's al Ghul. The last issue in the series is # 153. Nightwing Rebirth # 5 and # 6 are collected in Batman: Night of the Monster Men.
In the character 's second appearance within the film series, Batman & Robin, Dick Grayson pursues being a vigilante on his own and wears the Nightwing costume design. With Chris O'Donnell reprising the role from the previous film, the character continues to go by his Robin alias.
On February 23, 2017, it was reported that Warner Bros. Pictures was developing a film centered on the character, set in the DC Extended Universe, with Bill Dubuque writing the script and The LEGO Movie director Chris McKay signed on as director for the movie
Discussing why he likes the character and signed on for the project, McKay cited the character 's showman personality and background as an entertainer and expressed his excitement for depicting that in the film. He later stated that he wants to introduce a complete adaptation of the character, something that has n't been done in previous film interpretations of him before. McKay continued to state that the director - driven approach is why he loves Warner Bros., and how the franchise is differentiating itself from other popular shared universes. In an interview with Cinemablend the director confirmed that the film would acknowledge the titular character 's past from the source material, including his time as a part of Haly 's Circus, and also reaffirmed that the film will be a straight - forward action movie with minimal use of CGI special effects and grounded realism
A Nightwing ride was in operation at Six Flags New England.
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where are the photosynthesis electron transfer system proteins located | Photosynthetic reaction centre - wikipedia
A photosynthetic reaction centre is a complex of several proteins, pigments and other co-factors that together execute the primary energy conversion reactions of photosynthesis. Molecular excitations, either originating directly from sunlight or transferred as excitation energy via light - harvesting antenna systems, give rise to electron transfer reactions along the path of a series of protein - bound co-factors. These co-factors are light - absorbing molecules (also named chromophores or pigments) such as chlorophyll and phaeophytin, as well as quinones. The energy of the photon is used to excite an electron of a pigment. The free energy created is then used to reduce a chain of nearby electron acceptors, which have subsequently higher redox - potentials. These electron transfer steps are the initial phase of a series of energy conversion reactions, ultimately resulting in the conversion of the energy of photons to the storage of that energy by the production of chemical bonds.
Reaction centers are present in all green plants, algae, and many bacteria. Although these species are separated by billions of years of evolution, the reaction centers are homologous for all photosynthetic species. In contrast, a large variety in light - harvesting complexes exist between the photosynthetic species. Green plants and algae have two different types of reaction centers that are part of larger supercomplexes known as photosystem I P700 and photosystem II P680. The structures of these supercomplexes are large, involving multiple light - harvesting complexes. The reaction center found in Rhodopseudomonas bacteria is currently best understood, since it was the first reaction center of known structure and has fewer polypeptide chains than the examples in green plants.
A reaction center is laid out in such a way that it captures the energy of a photon using pigment molecules and turns it into a usable form. Once the light energy has been absorbed directly by the pigment molecules, or passed to them by resonance transfer from a surrounding light - harvesting complex, they release two electrons into an electron transport chain.
Light is made up of small bundles of energy called photons. If a photon with the right amount of energy hits an electron, it will raise the electron to a higher energy level. Electrons are most stable at their lowest energy level, what is also called its ground state. In this state, the electron is in the orbit that has the least amount of energy. Electrons in higher energy levels can return to ground state in a manner analogous to a ball falling down a staircase. In doing so, the electrons release energy. This is the process that is exploited by a photosynthetic reaction center.
When an electron rises to a higher energy level, there is a corresponding decrease in the reduction potential of the molecule in which the electron resides occurs. This means that the molecule has a greater tendency to donate electrons, which is key to the conversion of light energy to chemical energy. In green plants, the electron transport chain has many electron acceptors including phaeophytin, quinone, plastoquinone, cytochrome bf, and ferredoxin, which result finally in the reduced molecule NADPH and the storage of energy. The passage of the electron through the electron transport chain also results in the pumping of protons (hydrogen ions) from the chloroplast 's stroma and into the lumen, resulting in a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane that can be used to synthesise ATP using the ATP synthase molecule. Both the ATP and NADPH are used in the Calvin cycle to fix carbon dioxide into triose sugars.
The bacterial photosynthetic reaction center has been an important model to understand the structure and chemistry of the biological process of capturing light energy. In the 1960s, Roderick Clayton was the first to purify the reaction center complex from purple bacteria. However, the first crystal structure was determined in 1984 by Hartmut Michel, Johann Deisenhofer and Robert Huber for which they shared the Nobel Prize in 1988. This was also significant, since it was the first structure for any membrane protein complex.
Four different subunits were found to be important for the function of the photosynthetic reaction center. The L and M subunits, shown in blue and purple in the image of the structure, both span the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane. They are structurally similar to one another, both having 5 transmembrane alpha helices. Four bacteriochlorophyll b (BChl - b) molecules, two bacteriophaeophytin b molecules (BPh) molecules, two quinones (Q and Q), and a ferrous ion are associated with the L and M subunits. The H subunit, shown in gold, lies on the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane. A cytochrome subunit, here not shown, contains four c - type haems and is located on the periplasmic surface (outer) of the membrane. The latter sub-unit is not a general structural motif in photosynthetic bacteria. The L and M subunits bind the functional and light - interacting cofactors, shown here in green.
Reaction centers from different bacterial species may contain slightly altered bacterio - chlorophyll and bacterio - phaeophytin chromophores as functional co-factors. These alterations cause shifts in the colour of light that can be absorbed, thus creating specific niches for photosynthesis. The reaction center contains two pigments that serve to collect and transfer the energy from photon absorption: BChl and Bph. BChl roughly resembles the chlorophyll molecule found in green plants, but, due to minor structural differences, its peak absorption wavelength is shifted into the infrared, with wavelengths as long as 1000 nm. Bph has the same structure as BChl, but the central magnesium ion is replaced by two protons. This alteration causes both an absorbance maximum shift and a lowered redox - potential.
The process starts when light is absorbed by two BChl molecules (a dimer) that lie near the periplasmic side of the membrane. This pair of chlorophyll molecules, often called the "special pair '', absorbs photons between 870 nm and 960 nm, depending on the species and, thus, is called P870 (for the species rhodobacter sphaeroides) or P960 (for rhodopseudomonas viridis), with P standing for "pigment ''). Once P absorbs a photon, it ejects an electron, which is transferred through another molecule of Bchl to the BPh in the L subunit. This initial charge separation yields a positive charge on P and a negative charge on the BPh. This process takes place in 10 picoseconds (10 seconds).
The charges on the specialpair and the BPh could undergo charge recombination in this state. This would waste the high - energy electron and convert the absorbed light energy into heat. Several factors of the reaction center structure serve to prevent this. First, the transfer of an electron from BPh to P960 is relatively slow compared to two other redox reactions in the reaction center. The faster reactions involve the transfer of an electron from BPh (BPh is oxidised to BPh) to the electron acceptor quinone (Q), and the transfer of an electron to P960 (P960 is reduced to P960) from a heme in the cytochrome subunit above the reaction center.
The high - energy electron that resides on the tightly bound quinone molecule Q is transferred to an exchangeable quinone molecule Q. This molecule is loosely associated with the protein and is fairly easy to detach. Two of the high - energy electrons are required to fully reduce Q to QH, taking up two protons from the cytoplasm in the process. The reduced quinone QH diffuses through the membrane to another protein complex (cytochrome bc - complex) where it is oxidised. In the process the reducing power of the QH is used to pump protons across the membrane to the periplasmic space. The electrons from the cytochrome bc - complex are then transferred through a soluble cytochrome c intermediate, called cytochrome c, in the periplasm to the cytochrome subunit. Thus, the flow of electrons in this system is cyclical.
In 1772, the chemist Joseph Priestley carried out a series of experiments relating to the gases involved in respiration and combustion. In his first experiment, he lit a candle and placed it under an upturned jar. After a short period of time, the candle burned out. He carried out a similar experiment with a mouse in the confined space of the burning candle. He found that the mouse died a short time after the candle had been extinguished. However, he could revivify the foul air by placing green plants in the area and exposing them to light. Priestley 's observations were some of the first experiments that demonstrated the activity of a photosynthetic reaction center.
In 1779, Jan Ingenhousz carried out more than 500 experiments spread out over 4 months in an attempt to understand what was really going on. He wrote up his discoveries in a book entitled Experiments upon Vegetables. Ingenhousz took green plants and immersed them in water inside a transparent tank. He observed many bubbles rising from the surface of the leaves whenever the plants were exposed to light. Ingenhousz collected the gas that was given off by the plants and performed several different tests in attempt to determine what the gas was. The test that finally revealed the identity of the gas was placing a smouldering taper into the gas sample and having it relight. This test proved it was oxygen, or, as Joseph Priestley had called it, ' de-phlogisticated air '.
In 1932, Professor Robert Emerson and an undergraduate student, William Arnold, used a repetitive flash technique to precisely measure small quantities of oxygen evolved by chlorophyll in the algae Chlorella. Their experiment proved the existence of a photosynthetic unit. Gaffron and Wohl later interpreted the experiment and realized that the light absorbed by the photosynthetic unit was transferred. This reaction occurs at the reaction center of photosystem II and takes place in cyanobacteria, algae and green plants.
Photosystem II is the photosystem that generates the two electrons that will eventually reduce NADP in Ferredoxin - NADP - reductase. Photosystem II is present on the thylakoid membranes inside chloroplasts, the site of photosynthesis in green plants. The structure of Photosystem II is remarkably similar to the bacterial reaction center, and it is theorized that they share a common ancestor.
The core of photosystem II consists of two subunits referred to as D1 and D2. These two subunits are similar to the L and M subunits present in the bacterial reaction center. Photosystem II differs from the bacterial reaction center in that it has many additional subunits that bind additional chlorophylls to increase efficiency. The overall reaction catalysed by photosystem II is:
l i g h t 2 Q + 2 H 2 O ⟹ O 2 + 2 Q H 2 (\ displaystyle (\ begin (matrix) \ &light& \ \ \ 2Q + 2H_ (2) O& \ Longrightarrow &O_ (2) + 2QH_ (2) \ end (matrix)))
Q represents plastoquinone, the oxidized form of Q. QH represents plastoquinol, the reduced form of Q. This process of reducing quinone is comparable to that which takes place in the bacterial reaction center. Photosystem II obtains electrons by oxidizing water in a process called photolysis. Molecular oxygen is a byproduct of this process, and it is this reaction that supplies the atmosphere with oxygen. The fact that the oxygen from green plants originated from water was first deduced by the Canadian - born American biochemist Martin David Kamen. He used a natural, stable isotope of oxygen, O to trace the path of the oxygen, from water to gaseous molecular oxygen. This reaction is catalysed by a reactive center in photosystem II containing four manganese ions.
The reaction begins with the excitation of a pair of chlorophyll molecules similar to those in the bacterial reaction center. Due to the presence of chlorophyll a, as opposed to bacteriochlorophyll, photosystem II absorbs light at a shorter wavelength. The pair of chlorophyll molecules at the reaction center are often referred to as P680. When the photon has been absorbed, the resulting high - energy electron is transferred to a nearby phaeophytin molecule. This is above and to the right of the pair on the diagram and is coloured grey. The electron travels from the phaeophytin molecule through two plastoquinone molecules, the first tightly bound, the second loosely bound. The tightly bound molecule is shown above the phaeophytin molecule and is coloured red. The loosely bound molecule is to the left of this and is also coloured red. This flow of electrons is similar to that of the bacterial reaction center. Two electrons are required to fully reduce the loosely bound plastoquinone molecule to QH as well as the uptake of two protons.
The difference between photosystem II and the bacterial reaction center is the source of the electron that neutralizes the pair of chlorophyll a molecules. In the bacterial reaction center, the electron is obtained from a reduced compound haem group in a cytochrome subunit or from a water - soluble cytochrome - c protein.
Once photoinduced charge separation has taken place, the P680 molecule carries a positive charge. P680 is a very strong oxidant and extracts electrons from two water molecules that are bound at the manganese center directly below the pair. This center, below and to the left of the pair in the diagram, contains four manganese ions, a calcium ion, a chloride ion, and a tyrosine residue. Manganese is efficient because it is capable of existing in four oxidation states: Mn, Mn, Mn and Mn. Manganese also forms strong bonds with oxygen - containing molecules such as water.
Every time the P680 absorbs a photon, it emits an electron, gaining a positive charge. This charge is neutralized by the extraction of an electron from the manganese center, which sits directly below it. The process of oxidizing two molecules of water requires four electrons. The water molecules that are oxidized in the manganese center are the source of the electrons that reduce the two molecules of Q to QH. To date, this water - splitting catalytic center can not be reproduced by any man - made catalyst.
After the electron has left photosystem II it is transferred to a cytochrome b6f complex and then to plastocyanin, a blue copper protein and electron carrier. The plastocyanin complex carries the electron that will neutralize the pair in the next reaction center, photosystem I.
As with photosystem II and the bacterial reaction center, a pair of chlorophyll a molecules initiates photoinduced charge separation. This pair is referred to as P700. 700 Is a reference to the wavelength at which the chlorophyll molecules absorb light maximally. The P700 lies in the center of the protein. Once photoinduced charge separation has been initiated, the electron travels down a pathway through a chlorophyll α molecule situated directly above the P700, through a quinone molecule situated directly above that, through three 4Fe - 4S clusters, and finally to an interchangeable ferredoxin complex. Ferredoxin is a soluble protein containing a 2Fe - 2S cluster coordinated by four cysteine residues. The positive charge left on the P700 is neutralized by the transfer of an electron from plastocyanin. Thus the overall reaction catalysed by photosystem I is:
l i g h t P c (C u +) + F d o x ⟹ P c (C u 2 +) + F d r e d (\ displaystyle (\ begin (matrix) \ &light& \ \ \ Pc (Cu ^ (+)) + Fd_ (ox) & \ Longrightarrow &Pc (Cu ^ (2 +)) + Fd_ (red) \ end (matrix)))
The cooperation between photosystems I and II creates an electron flow from H O to NADP. This pathway is called the ' Z - scheme ' because the redox diagram from P680 to P700 resembles the letter z.
Footnotes
General references
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during which naval battle did the allies severely crippled japan’s navy | Battle of the Coral Sea - wikipedia
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The Battle of the Coral Sea, fought from 4 to 8 May 1942, was a major naval battle between the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and naval and air forces from the United States and Australia, taking place in the Pacific Theatre of World War II. The battle is historically significant as the first action in which aircraft carriers engaged each other, as well as the first in which neither side 's ships sighted or fired directly upon the other.
In an attempt to strengthen their defensive position in the South Pacific, the Japanese decided to invade and occupy Port Moresby (in New Guinea) and Tulagi (in the southeastern Solomon Islands). The plan to accomplish this was called Operation MO, and involved several major units of Japan 's Combined Fleet. These included two fleet carriers and a light carrier to provide air cover for the invasion forces. It was under the overall command of Japanese Admiral Shigeyoshi Inoue.
The U.S. learned of the Japanese plan through signals intelligence, and sent two United States Navy carrier task forces and a joint Australian - U.S. cruiser force to oppose the offensive. These were under the overall command of U.S. Admiral Frank J. Fletcher.
On 3 -- 4 May, Japanese forces successfully invaded and occupied Tulagi, although several of their supporting warships were sunk or damaged in surprise attacks by aircraft from the U.S. fleet carrier Yorktown. Now aware of the presence of U.S. carriers in the area, the Japanese fleet carriers advanced towards the Coral Sea with the intention of locating and destroying the Allied naval forces. Beginning on 7 May, the carrier forces from the two sides engaged in airstrikes over two consecutive days. On the first day, the U.S. sank the Japanese light carrier Shōhō; meanwhile, the Japanese sank a U.S. destroyer and heavily damaged a fleet oiler (which was later scuttled). The next day, the Japanese fleet carrier Shōkaku was heavily damaged, the U.S. fleet carrier Lexington critically damaged (and later scuttled), and Yorktown damaged. With both sides having suffered heavy losses in aircraft and carriers damaged or sunk, the two forces disengaged and retired from the battle area. Because of the loss of carrier air cover, Inoue recalled the Port Moresby invasion fleet, intending to try again later.
Although a tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk, the battle would prove to be a strategic victory for the Allies for several reasons. The battle marked the first time since the start of the war that a major Japanese advance had been checked by the Allies. More importantly, the Japanese fleet carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku -- the former damaged and the latter with a depleted aircraft complement -- were unable to participate in the Battle of Midway the following month, while Yorktown did participate, ensuring a rough parity in aircraft between the two adversaries and contributing significantly to the U.S. victory in that battle. The severe losses in carriers at Midway prevented the Japanese from reattempting to invade Port Moresby from the ocean and helped prompt their ill - fated land offensive over the Kokoda trail. Two months later, the Allies took advantage of Japan 's resulting strategic vulnerability in the South Pacific and launched the Guadalcanal Campaign; this, along with the New Guinea Campaign, eventually broke Japanese defenses in the South Pacific and was a significant contributing factor to Japan 's ultimate surrender in World War II.
On 7 December 1941, using aircraft carriers, Japan attacked the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The attack destroyed or crippled most of the Pacific Fleet 's battleships and brought the United States into the war. In launching this war, Japanese leaders sought to neutralize the U.S. fleet, seize territory rich in natural resources, and obtain strategic military bases to defend their far - flung empire. At the same time that they were attacking Pearl Harbor, the Japanese attacked Malaya, causing the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand to join the United States in the war against Japan. In the words of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) Combined Fleet 's "Secret Order Number One '', dated 1 November 1941, the goals of the initial Japanese campaigns in the impending war were to "(eject) British and American strength from the Netherlands Indies and the Philippines, (and) to establish a policy of autonomous self - sufficiency and economic independence. ''
To support these goals, during the first few months of 1942, besides Malaya, Japanese forces attacked and successfully took control of the Philippines, Singapore, the Dutch East Indies, Wake Island, New Britain, the Gilbert Islands and Guam, inflicting heavy losses on opposing Allied land, naval and air forces. Japan planned to use these conquered territories to establish a perimeter defense for its empire from which it expected to employ attritional tactics to defeat or exhaust any Allied counterattacks.
Shortly after the war began, Japan 's Naval General Staff recommended an invasion of Northern Australia to prevent Australia from being used as a base to threaten Japan 's perimeter defences in the South Pacific. The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) rejected the recommendation, stating that it did not have the forces or shipping capacity available to conduct such an operation. At the same time, Vice Admiral Shigeyoshi Inoue, commander of the IJN 's Fourth Fleet (also called the South Seas Force) which consisted of most of the naval units in the South Pacific area, advocated the occupation of Tulagi in the southeastern Solomon Islands and Port Moresby in New Guinea, which would put Northern Australia within range of Japanese land - based aircraft. Inoue believed the capture and control of these locations would provide greater security and defensive depth for the major Japanese base at Rabaul on New Britain. The navy 's general staff and the IJA accepted Inoue 's proposal and promoted further operations, using these locations as supporting bases, to seize New Caledonia, Fiji, and Samoa and thereby cut the supply and communication lines between Australia and the United States.
In April 1942, the army and navy developed a plan that was titled Operation MO. The plan called for Port Moresby to be invaded from the sea and secured by 10 May. The plan also included the seizure of Tulagi on 2 -- 3 May, where the navy would establish a seaplane base for potential air operations against Allied territories and forces in the South Pacific and to provide a base for reconnaissance aircraft. Upon the completion of MO, the navy planned to initiate Operation RY, using ships released from MO, to seize Nauru and Ocean Island for their phosphate deposits on 15 May. Further operations against Fiji, Samoa and New Caledonia (Operation FS) were to be planned once MO and RY were completed. Because of a damaging air attack by Allied land - and carrier - based aircraft on Japanese naval forces invading the Lae - Salamaua area in New Guinea in March, Inoue requested Japan 's Combined Fleet send carriers to provide air cover for MO. Inoue was especially worried about Allied bombers stationed at air bases in Townsville and Cooktown, Australia, beyond the range of his own bombers, based at Rabaul and Lae.
Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, commander of the Combined Fleet, was concurrently planning an operation for June that he hoped would lure the U.S. Navy 's carriers, none of which had been damaged in the Pearl Harbor attack, into a decisive showdown in the central Pacific near Midway Atoll. In the meantime Yamamoto detached some of his large warships, including two fleet carriers, a light carrier, a cruiser division, and two destroyer divisions, to support MO, and placed Inoue in charge of the naval portion of the operation.
Unknown to the Japanese, the U.S. Navy, led by the Communication Security Section of the Office of Naval Communications, had for several years enjoyed some success with penetrating Japanese communication ciphers and codes. By March 1942, the U.S. was able to decipher up to 15 % of the IJN 's Ro or Naval Codebook D code (called "JN - 25B '' by the U.S.), which was used by the IJN for approximately half of its communications. By the end of April, the U.S. was reading up to 85 % of the signals broadcast in the Ro code.
In March 1942, the U.S. first noticed mention of the MO operation in intercepted messages. On 5 April, the U.S. intercepted an IJN message directing a carrier and other large warships to proceed to Inoue 's area of operations. On 13 April, the British deciphered an IJN message informing Inoue that the Fifth Carrier Division, consisting of the fleet carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku, was en route to his command from Formosa via the main IJN base at Truk. The British passed the message to the U.S., along with their conclusion that Port Moresby was the likely target of MO.
Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, the new commander of U.S. forces in the Central Pacific, and his staff discussed the deciphered messages and agreed that the Japanese were likely initiating a major operation in the Southwest Pacific in early May with Port Moresby as the probable target. The Allies regarded Port Moresby as a key base for a planned counteroffensive, under General Douglas MacArthur, against Japanese forces in the South West Pacific area. Nimitz 's staff also concluded that the Japanese operation might include carrier raids on Allied bases in Samoa and at Suva. Nimitz, after consultation with Admiral Ernest King, Commander in Chief of the United States Fleet, decided to contest the Japanese operation by sending all four of the Pacific Fleet 's available aircraft carriers to the Coral Sea. By 27 April, further signals intelligence confirmed most of the details and targets of the MO and RY plans.
On 29 April, Nimitz issued orders that sent his four carriers and their supporting warships towards the Coral Sea. Task Force 17 (TF 17), commanded by Rear Admiral Fletcher and consisting of the carrier Yorktown, escorted by three cruisers and four destroyers and supported by a replenishment group of two oilers and two destroyers, was already in the South Pacific, having departed Tongatabu on 27 April en route to the Coral Sea. TF 11, commanded by Rear Admiral Aubrey Fitch and consisting of the carrier Lexington with two cruisers and five destroyers, was between Fiji and New Caledonia. TF 16, commanded by Vice Admiral William F. Halsey and including the carriers Enterprise and Hornet, had just returned to Pearl Harbor from the Doolittle Raid in the central Pacific. TF16 immediately departed but would not reach the South Pacific in time to participate in the battle. Nimitz placed Fletcher in command of Allied naval forces in the South Pacific area until Halsey arrived with TF 16. Although the Coral Sea area was under MacArthur 's command, Fletcher and Halsey were directed to continue to report to Nimitz while in the Coral Sea area, not to MacArthur.
Based on intercepted radio traffic from TF 16 as it returned to Pearl Harbor, the Japanese assumed that all but one of the U.S. Navy 's carriers were in the central Pacific. The Japanese did not know the location of the remaining carrier, but did not expect a U.S. carrier response to MO until the operation was well under way.
During late April, the Japanese submarines Ro - 33 and Ro - 34 reconnoitered the area where landings were planned. The submarines investigated Rossel Island and the Deboyne Group anchorage in the Louisiade Archipelago, Jomard Channel, and the route to Port Moresby from the east. They did not sight any Allied ships in the area and returned to Rabaul on 23 and 24 April respectively.
The Japanese Port Moresby Invasion Force, commanded by Rear Admiral Kōsō Abe, included 11 transport ships carrying about 5,000 soldiers from the IJA 's South Seas Detachment plus approximately 500 troops from the 3rd Kure Special Naval Landing Force (SNLF). Escorting the transports was the Port Moresby Attack Force with one light cruiser and six destroyers under the command of Rear Admiral Sadamichi Kajioka. Abe 's ships departed Rabaul for the 840 nmi (970 mi; 1,560 km) trip to Port Moresby on 4 May and were joined by Kajioka 's force the next day. The ships, proceeding at 8 kn (9.2 mph; 15 km / h), planned to transit the Jomard Channel in the Louisiades to pass around the southern tip of New Guinea to arrive at Port Moresby by 10 May. The Allied garrison at Port Moresby numbered around 5,333 men, but only half of these were infantry and all were badly equipped and undertrained.
Leading the invasion of Tulagi was the Tulagi Invasion Force, commanded by Rear Admiral Kiyohide Shima, consisting of two minelayers, two destroyers, six minesweepers, two subchasers and a transport ship carrying about 400 troops from the 3rd Kure SNLF. Supporting the Tulagi force was the Covering Group with the light carrier Shōhō, four heavy cruisers, and one destroyer, commanded by Rear Admiral Aritomo Gotō. A separate Cover Force (sometimes referred to as the Support Group), commanded by Rear Admiral Kuninori Marumo and consisting of two light cruisers, the seaplane tender Kamikawa Maru and three gunboats, joined the Covering Group in providing distant protection for the Tulagi invasion. Once Tulagi was secured on 3 or 4 May, the Covering Group and Cover Force were to reposition to help screen the Port Moresby invasion. Inoue directed the MO operation from the cruiser Kashima, with which he arrived at Rabaul from Truk on 4 May.
Gotō 's force left Truk on 28 April, cut through the Solomons between Bougainville and Choiseul and took station near New Georgia Island. Marumo 's support group sortied from New Ireland on 29 April headed for Thousand Ships Bay, Santa Isabel Island, to establish a seaplane base on 2 May to support the Tulagi assault. Shima 's invasion force departed Rabaul on 30 April.
The Carrier Strike Force, with the carriers Zuikaku and Shōkaku, two heavy cruisers, and six destroyers, sortied from Truk on 1 May. The strike force was commanded by Vice Admiral Takeo Takagi (flag on cruiser Myōkō), with Rear Admiral Chūichi Hara, on Zuikaku, in tactical command of the carrier air forces. The Carrier Strike Force was to proceed down the eastern side of the Solomon Islands and enter the Coral Sea south of Guadalcanal. Once in the Coral Sea, the carriers were to provide air cover for the invasion forces, eliminate Allied air power at Port Moresby, and intercept and destroy any Allied naval forces which entered the Coral Sea in response.
En route to the Coral Sea, Takagi 's carriers were to deliver nine Zero fighter aircraft to Rabaul. Bad weather during two attempts to make the delivery on 2 -- 3 May compelled the aircraft to return to the carriers, stationed 240 nmi (280 mi; 440 km) from Rabaul, and one of the Zeros was forced to ditch in the sea. In order to try to keep to the MO timetable, Takagi was forced to abandon the delivery mission after the second attempt and direct his force towards the Solomon Islands to refuel.
To give advance warning of the approach of any Allied naval forces, the Japanese sent submarines I - 22, I - 24, I - 28 and I - 29 to form a scouting line in the ocean about 450 nmi (520 mi; 830 km) southwest of Guadalcanal. Fletcher 's forces had entered the Coral Sea area before the submarines took station, and the Japanese were therefore unaware of their presence. Another submarine, I - 21, which was sent to scout around Nouméa, was attacked by Yorktown aircraft on 2 May. The submarine took no damage and apparently did not realize that it had been attacked by carrier aircraft. Ro - 33 and Ro - 34 were also deployed in an attempt to blockade Port Moresby, arriving off the town on 5 May. Neither submarine engaged any ships during the battle.
On the morning of 1 May, TF 17 and TF 11 united about 300 nmi (350 mi; 560 km) northwest of New Caledonia (16 ° 16 ′ S 162 ° 20 ′ E / 16.267 ° S 162.333 ° E / - 16.267; 162.333). Fletcher immediately detached TF11 to refuel from the oiler Tippecanoe, while TF 17 refueled from Neosho. TF 17 completed refueling the next day, but TF 11 reported that they would not be finished fueling until 4 May. Fletcher elected to take TF 17 northwest towards the Louisiades and ordered TF 11 to meet TF 44, which was en route from Sydney and Nouméa, on 4 May once refueling was complete. TF 44 was a joint Australia -- U.S. warship force under MacArthur 's command, led by Australian Rear Admiral John Crace and made up of the cruisers HMAS Australia, Hobart, and USS Chicago, along with three destroyers. Once it completed refueling TF 11, Tippecanoe departed the Coral Sea to deliver its remaining fuel to Allied ships at Efate.
Early on 3 May, Shima 's force arrived off Tulagi and began disembarking the naval troops to occupy the island. Tulagi was undefended: the small garrison of Australian commandos and a Royal Australian Air Force reconnaissance unit evacuated just before Shima 's arrival. The Japanese forces immediately began construction of a seaplane and communications base. Aircraft from Shōhō covered the landings until early afternoon, when Gotō 's force turned towards Bougainville to refuel in preparation to support the landings at Port Moresby.
At 17: 00 on 3 May, Fletcher was notified that the Japanese Tulagi invasion force had been sighted the day before, approaching the southern Solomons. Unknown to Fletcher, TF 11 completed refueling that morning ahead of schedule and was only 60 nmi (69 mi; 110 km) east of TF 17, but was unable to communicate its status because of Fletcher 's orders to maintain radio silence. TF 17 changed course and proceeded at 27 kn (31 mph; 50 km / h) towards Guadalcanal to launch airstrikes against the Japanese forces at Tulagi the next morning.
On 4 May, from a position 100 nmi (120 mi; 190 km) south of Guadalcanal (11 ° 10 ′ S 158 ° 49 ′ E / 11.167 ° S 158.817 ° E / - 11.167; 158.817), a total of 60 aircraft from TF 17 launched three consecutive strikes against Shima 's forces off Tulagi. Yorktown 's aircraft surprised Shima 's ships and sank the destroyer Kikuzuki (09 ° 07 ′ S 160 ° 12 ′ E / 9.117 ° S 160.200 ° E / - 9.117; 160.200) and three of the minesweepers, damaged four other ships, and destroyed four seaplanes which were supporting the landings. The U.S. lost one torpedo bomber and two fighters in the strikes, but all of the aircrew were eventually rescued. After recovering its aircraft late in the evening of 4 May, TF 17 retired towards the south. In spite of the damage suffered in the carrier strikes, the Japanese continued construction of the seaplane base and began flying reconnaissance missions from Tulagi by 6 May.
Takagi 's Carrier Striking Force was refueling 350 nmi (400 mi; 650 km) north of Tulagi when it received word of Fletcher 's strike on 4 May. Takagi terminated refueling, headed southeast, and sent scout planes to search east of the Solomons, believing that the U.S. carriers were in that area. Since no Allied ships were in that area, the search planes found nothing.
At 08: 16 on 5 May, TF 17 rendezvoused with TF 11 and TF 44 at a predetermined point 320 nmi (370 mi; 590 km) south of Guadalcanal (15 ° S 160 ° E / 15 ° S 160 ° E / - 15; 160). At about the same time, four Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters from Yorktown intercepted a Kawanishi H6K reconnaissance flying boat from the Yokohama Air Group of the 25th Air Flotilla based at the Shortland Islands and shot it down 11 nmi (13 mi; 20 km) from TF 11. The aircraft failed to send a report before it crashed, but when it did n't return to base the Japanese correctly assumed that it had been shot down by carrier aircraft.
A message from Pearl Harbor notified Fletcher that radio intelligence deduced the Japanese planned to land their troops at Port Moresby on 10 May and their fleet carriers would likely be operating close to the invasion convoy. Armed with this information, Fletcher directed TF 17 to refuel from Neosho. After the refueling was completed on 6 May, he planned to take his forces north towards the Louisiades and do battle on 7 May.
In the meantime, Takagi 's carrier force steamed down the east side of the Solomons throughout the day on 5 May, turned west to pass south of San Cristobal (Makira), and entered the Coral Sea after transiting between Guadalcanal and Rennell Island in the early morning hours of 6 May. Takagi commenced refueling his ships 180 nmi (210 mi; 330 km) west of Tulagi in preparation for the carrier battle he expected would take place the next day.
On 6 May, Fletcher absorbed TF 11 and TF 44 into TF 17. Believing the Japanese carriers were still well to the north near Bougainville, Fletcher continued to refuel. Reconnaissance patrols conducted from the U.S. carriers throughout the day failed to locate any of the Japanese naval forces, because they were located just beyond scouting range.
At 10: 00, a Kawanishi reconnaissance flying boat from Tulagi sighted TF 17 and notified its headquarters. Takagi received the report at 10: 50. At that time, Takagi 's force was about 300 nmi (350 mi; 560 km) north of Fletcher, near the maximum range for his carrier aircraft. Takagi, whose ships were still refueling, was not yet ready to engage in battle. He concluded, based on the sighting report, TF 17 was heading south and increasing the range. Furthermore, Fletcher 's ships were under a large, low - hanging overcast which Takagi and Hara felt would make it difficult for their aircraft to find the U.S. carriers. Takagi detached his two carriers with two destroyers under Hara 's command to head towards TF 17 at 20 kn (23 mph; 37 km / h) in order to be in position to attack at first light the next day while the rest of his ships completed refueling.
U.S. B - 17 bombers based in Australia and staging through Port Moresby attacked the approaching Port Moresby invasion forces, including Gotō 's warships, several times during the day on 6 May without success. MacArthur 's headquarters radioed Fletcher with reports of the attacks and the locations of the Japanese invasion forces. MacArthur 's fliers ' reports of seeing a carrier (Shōhō) about 425 nmi (489 mi; 787 km) northwest of TF17 further convinced Fletcher fleet carriers were accompanying the invasion force.
At 18: 00, TF 17 completed fueling and Fletcher detached Neosho with a destroyer, Sims, to take station further south at a prearranged rendezvous (16 ° S 158 ° E / 16 ° S 158 ° E / - 16; 158). TF 17 then turned to head northwest towards Rossel Island in the Louisiades. Unbeknownst to the two adversaries, their carriers were only 70 nmi (130 km) away from each other by 20: 00 that night. At 20: 00 (13 ° 20 ′ S 157 ° 40 ′ E / 13.333 ° S 157.667 ° E / - 13.333; 157.667), Hara reversed course to meet Takagi who completed refueling and was now heading in Hara 's direction.
Late on 6 May or early on 7 May, Kamikawa Maru set up a seaplane base in the Deboyne Islands in order to help provide air support for the invasion forces as they approached Port Moresby. The rest of Marumo 's Cover Force then took station near the D'Entrecasteaux Islands to help screen Abe 's oncoming convoy.
At 06: 25 on 7 May, TF 17 was 115 nmi (132 mi; 213 km) south of Rossel Island (13 ° 20 ′ S 154 ° 21 ′ E / 13.333 ° S 154.350 ° E / - 13.333; 154.350). At this time, Fletcher sent Crace 's cruiser force, now designated Task Group 17.3 (TG 17.3), to block the Jomard Passage. Fletcher understood that Crace would be operating without air cover since TF 17 's carriers would be busy trying to locate and attack the Japanese carriers. Detaching Crace reduced the anti-aircraft defenses for Fletcher 's carriers. Nevertheless, Fletcher decided the risk was necessary to ensure the Japanese invasion forces could not slip through to Port Moresby while he engaged the carriers.
Believing Takagi 's carrier force was somewhere north of him, in the vicinity of the Louisiades, beginning at 06: 19, Fletcher directed Yorktown to send 10 Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers as scouts to search that area. Hara in turn believed Fletcher was south of him and advised Takagi to send the aircraft to search that area. Takagi, approximately 300 nmi (350 mi; 560 km) east of Fletcher (13 ° 12 ′ S 158 ° 05 ′ E / 13.200 ° S 158.083 ° E / - 13.200; 158.083), launched 12 Nakajima B5Ns at 06: 00 to scout for TF 17. Around the same time, Gotō 's cruisers Kinugasa and Furutaka launched four Kawanishi E7K2 Type 94 floatplanes to search southeast of the Louisiades. Augmenting their search were several floatplanes from Deboyne, four Kawanishi H6Ks from Tulagi, and three Mitsubishi G4M bombers from Rabaul. Each side readied the rest of its carrier attack aircraft to launch immediately once the enemy was located.
At 07: 22 one of Takagi 's carrier scouts, from Shōkaku, reported U.S. ships bearing 182 ° (just west of due south), 163 nmi (188 mi; 302 km) from Takagi. At 07: 45, the scout confirmed that it had located "one carrier, one cruiser, and three destroyers ''. Another Shōkaku scout aircraft quickly confirmed the sighting. The Shōkaku aircraft actually sighted and misidentified the oiler Neosho and destroyer Sims, which had earlier been detailed away from the fleet to a southern rendezvous point. Believing that he had located the U.S. carriers, Hara, with Takagi 's concurrence, immediately launched all of his available aircraft. A total of 78 aircraft -- 18 Zero fighters, 36 Aichi D3A dive bombers, and 24 torpedo aircraft -- began launching from Shōkaku and Zuikaku at 08: 00 and were on their way by 08: 15 towards the reported sighting.
At 08: 20, one of the Furutaka aircraft found Fletcher 's carriers and immediately reported it to Inoue 's headquarters at Rabaul, which passed the report on to Takagi. The sighting was confirmed by a Kinugasa floatplane at 08: 30. Takagi and Hara, confused by the conflicting sighting reports they were receiving, decided to continue with the strike on the ships to their south, but turned their carriers towards the northwest to close the distance with Furutaka 's reported contact. Takagi and Hara considered that the conflicting reports might mean that the U.S. carrier forces were operating in two separate groups.
At 08: 15, a Yorktown SBD piloted by John L. Nielsen sighted Gotō 's force screening the invasion convoy. Nielsen, making an error in his coded message, reported the sighting as "two carriers and four heavy cruisers '' at 10 ° 3 ′ S 152 ° 27 ′ E / 10.050 ° S 152.450 ° E / - 10.050; 152.450, 225 nmi (259 mi; 417 km) northwest of TF17. Fletcher concluded that the Japanese main carrier force was located and ordered the launch of all available carrier aircraft to attack. By 10: 13, the U.S. strike of 93 aircraft -- 18 Grumman F4F Wildcats, 53 Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers, and 22 Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo bombers -- was on its way. At 10: 19, Nielsen landed and discovered his coding error. Although Gotō 's force included the light carrier Shōhō, Nielsen thought that he saw two cruisers and four destroyers and thus the main fleet. At 10: 12, Fletcher received a report of an aircraft carrier, ten transports, and 16 warships 30 nmi (35 mi; 56 km) south of Nielsen 's sighting at 10 ° 35 ′ S 152 ° 36 ′ E / 10.583 ° S 152.600 ° E / - 10.583; 152.600. The B - 17s actually saw the same thing as Nielsen: Shōhō, Gotō 's cruisers, plus the Port Moresby Invasion Force. Believing that the B - 17 's sighting was the main Japanese carrier force (which was in fact well to the east), Fletcher directed the airborne strike force towards this target.
At 09: 15, Takagi 's strike force reached its target area, sighted Neosho and Sims, and searched in vain for the U.S. carriers. Finally, at 10: 51 Shōkaku scout aircrews realized they were mistaken in their identification of the oiler and destroyer as aircraft carriers. Takagi now realized the U.S. carriers were between him and the invasion convoy, placing the invasion forces in extreme danger. Takagi ordered his aircraft to immediately attack Neosho and Sims and then return to their carriers as quickly as possible. At 11: 15, the torpedo bombers and fighters abandoned the mission and headed back towards the carriers with their ordnance while the 36 dive bombers attacked the two U.S. ships.
Four dive bombers attacked Sims and the rest dived on Neosho. The destroyer was hit by three bombs, broke in half, and sank immediately, killing all but 14 of her 192 - man crew. Neosho was hit by seven bombs. One of the dive bombers, hit by anti-aircraft fire, crashed into the oiler. Heavily damaged and without power, Neosho was left drifting and slowly sinking (16 ° 09 ′ S 158 ° 03 ′ E / 16.150 ° S 158.050 ° E / - 16.150; 158.050). Before losing power, Neosho was able to notify Fletcher by radio that she was under attack and in trouble, but garbled any further details as to just who or what was attacking her and gave wrong coordinates (16 ° 25 ′ S 157 ° 31 ′ E / 16.417 ° S 157.517 ° E / - 16.417; 157.517) for its position.
The U.S. strike aircraft sighted Shōhō a short distance northeast of Misima Island at 10: 40 and deployed to attack. The Japanese carrier was protected by six Zeros and two Mitsubishi A5M fighters flying combat air patrol (CAP), as the rest of the carrier 's aircraft were being prepared below decks for a strike against the U.S. carriers. Gotō 's cruisers surrounded the carrier in a diamond formation, 3,000 -- 5,000 yd (2,700 -- 4,600 m) off each of Shōhō 's corners.
Attacking first, Lexington 's air group, led by Commander William B. Ault, hit Shōhō with two 1,000 lb (450 kg) bombs and five torpedoes, causing severe damage. At 11: 00, Yorktown 's air group attacked the burning and now almost stationary carrier, scoring with up to 11 more 1,000 lb (450 kg) bombs and at least two torpedoes. Torn apart, Shōhō sank at 11: 35 (10 ° 29 ′ S 152 ° 55 ′ E / 10.483 ° S 152.917 ° E / - 10.483; 152.917). Fearing more air attacks, Gotō withdrew his warships to the north, but sent the destroyer Sazanami back at 14: 00 to rescue survivors. Only 203 of the carrier 's 834 - man crew were recovered. Three U.S. aircraft were lost in the attack: two SBDs from Lexington and one from Yorktown. All of Shōhō 's aircraft complement of 18 was lost, but three of the CAP fighter pilots were able to ditch at Deboyne and survived. At 12: 10, using a prearranged message to signal TF 17 on the success of the mission, Lexington SBD pilot and squadron commander Robert E. Dixon radioed "Scratch one flat top! Signed Bob. ''
The U.S. aircraft returned and landed on their carriers by 13: 38. By 14: 20, the aircraft were rearmed and ready to launch against the Port Moresby Invasion Force or Gotō 's cruisers. Fletcher was concerned that the locations of the rest of the Japanese fleet carriers were still unknown. He was informed that Allied intelligence sources believed that up to four Japanese carriers might be supporting the MO operation. Fletcher concluded that by the time his scout aircraft found the remaining carriers it would be too late in the day to mount a strike. Thus, Fletcher decided to hold off on another strike this day and remain concealed under the thick overcast with fighters ready in defense. Fletcher turned TF 17 southwest.
Apprised of the loss of Shōhō, Inoue ordered the invasion convoy to temporarily withdraw to the north and ordered Takagi, at this time located 225 nmi (259 mi; 417 km) east of TF 17, to destroy the U.S. carrier forces. As the invasion convoy reversed course, it was bombed by eight U.S. Army B - 17s, but was not damaged. Gotō and Kajioka were told to assemble their ships south of Rossel Island for a night surface battle if the U.S. ships came within range.
At 12: 40, a Deboyne - based seaplane sighted and reported Crace 's detached cruiser and destroyer force on a bearing of 175 °, 78 nmi (90 mi; 144 km) from Deboyne. At 13: 15, an aircraft from Rabaul sighted Crace 's force but submitted an erroneous report, stating the force contained two carriers and was located, bearing 205 °, 115 nmi (213 km) from Deboyne. Based on these reports, Takagi, who was still awaiting the return of all of his aircraft from attacking Neosho, turned his carriers due west at 13: 30 and advised Inoue at 15: 00 that the U.S. carriers were at least 430 nmi (490 mi; 800 km) west of his location and that he would therefore be unable to attack them that day.
Inoue 's staff directed two groups of attack aircraft from Rabaul, already airborne since that morning, towards Crace 's reported position. The first group included 12 torpedo - armed G4M bombers and the second group comprised 19 Mitsubishi G3M land attack aircraft armed with bombs. Both groups found and attacked Crace 's ships at 14: 30 and claimed to have sunk a "California - type '' battleship and damaged another battleship and cruiser. In reality, Crace 's ships were undamaged and shot down four G4Ms. A short time later, three U.S. Army B - 17s mistakenly bombed Crace, but caused no damage.
Crace at 15: 26 radioed Fletcher he could not complete his mission without air support. Crace retired southward to a position about 220 nmi (250 mi; 410 km) southeast of Port Moresby to increase the range from Japanese carrier - or land - based aircraft while remaining close enough to intercept any Japanese naval forces advancing beyond the Louisiades through either the Jomard Passage or the China Strait. Crace 's ships were low on fuel, and as Fletcher was maintaining radio silence (and had not informed him in advance), Crace had no idea of Fletcher 's location, status, or intentions.
Shortly after 15: 00, Zuikaku monitored a message from a Deboyne - based reconnaissance aircraft reporting (incorrectly) Crace 's force altered course to 120 ° true (southeast). Takagi 's staff assumed the aircraft was shadowing Fletcher 's carriers and determined if the Allied ships held that course, they would be within striking range shortly before nightfall. Takagi and Hara were determined to attack immediately with a select group of aircraft, minus fighter escort, even though it meant the strike would return after dark.
To try to confirm the location of the U.S. carriers, at 15: 15 Hara sent a flight of eight torpedo bombers as scouts to sweep 200 nmi (230 mi; 370 km) westward. About that same time, the dive bombers returned from their attack on Neosho and landed. Six of the weary dive bomber pilots were told they would be immediately departing on another mission. Choosing his most experienced crews, at 16: 15 Hara launched 12 dive bombers and 15 torpedo planes with orders to fly on a heading of 277 ° to 280 nmi (320 mi; 520 km). The eight scout aircraft reached the end of their 200 nmi (230 mi; 370 km) search leg and turned back without seeing Fletcher 's ships.
At 17: 47, TF 17 -- operating under thick overcast 200 nmi (230 mi; 370 km) west of Takagi -- detected the Japanese strike on radar heading in their direction, turned southeast into the wind, and vectored 11 CAP Wildcats, including one piloted by James H. Flatley, to intercept. Taking the Japanese formation by surprise, the Wildcats shot down seven torpedo bombers and one dive bomber, and heavily damaged another torpedo bomber (which later crashed), at a cost of three Wildcats lost.
Having taken heavy losses in the attack, which also scattered their formations, the Japanese strike leaders canceled the mission after conferring by radio. The Japanese aircraft all jettisoned their ordnance and reversed course to return to their carriers. The sun set at 18: 30. Several of the Japanese dive bombers encountered the U.S. carriers in the darkness, around 19: 00, and briefly confused as to their identity, circled in preparation for landing before anti-aircraft fire from TF 17 's destroyers drove them away. By 20: 00, TF 17 and Takagi were about 100 nmi (120 mi; 190 km) apart. Takagi turned on his warships ' searchlights to help guide the 18 surviving aircraft back and all were recovered by 22: 00.
In the meantime, at 15: 18 and 17: 18 Neosho was able to radio TF 17 she was drifting northwest in a sinking condition. Neosho 's 17: 18 report gave wrong coordinates, which hampered subsequent U.S. rescue efforts to locate the oiler. More significantly, the news informed Fletcher his only nearby available fuel supply was gone.
As nightfall ended aircraft operations for the day, Fletcher ordered TF 17 to head west and prepared to launch a 360 ° search at first light. Crace also turned west to stay within striking range of the Louisiades. Inoue directed Takagi to make sure he destroyed the U.S. carriers the next day, and postponed the Port Moresby landings to 12 May. Takagi elected to take his carriers 120 nmi (140 mi; 220 km) north during the night so he could concentrate his morning search to the west and south and ensure that his carriers could provide better protection for the invasion convoy. Gotō and Kajioka were unable to position and coordinate their ships in time to attempt a night attack on the Allied warships.
Both sides expected to find each other early the next day, and spent the night preparing their strike aircraft for the anticipated battle as their exhausted aircrews attempted to get a few hours ' sleep. In 1972, U.S. Vice Admiral H.S. Duckworth, after reading Japanese records of the battle, commented, "Without a doubt, May 7, 1942, vicinity of Coral Sea, was the most confused battle area in world history. '' Hara later told Yamamoto 's chief of staff, Admiral Matome Ugaki, he was so frustrated with the "poor luck '' the Japanese experienced on 7 May that he felt like quitting the navy.
At 06: 15 on 8 May, from a position 100 nmi (120 mi; 190 km) east of Rossel Island (10 ° 25 ′ S 154 ° 5 ′ E / 10.417 ° S 154.083 ° E / - 10.417; 154.083), Hara launched seven torpedo bombers to search the area bearing 140 -- 230 °, out to 250 nmi (290 mi; 460 km) from the Japanese carriers. Assisting in the search were three Kawanishi H6Ks from Tulagi and four G4M bombers from Rabaul. At 07: 00, the carrier striking force turned to the southwest and was joined by two of Gotō 's cruisers, Kinugasa and Furutaka, for additional screening support. The invasion convoy, Gotō, and Kajioka steered towards a rendezvous point 40 nmi (46 mi; 74 km) east of Woodlark Island to await the outcome of the carrier battle. During the night, the warm frontal zone with low clouds which had helped hide the U.S. carriers on 7 May moved north and east and now covered the Japanese carriers, limiting visibility to between 2 and 15 nmi (2.3 and 17.3 mi; 3.7 and 27.8 km).
At 06: 35, TF 17 -- operating under Fitch 's tactical control and positioned 180 nmi (210 mi; 330 km) southeast of the Lousiades, launched 18 SBDs to conduct a 360 ° search out to 200 nmi (230 mi; 370 km). The skies over the U.S. carriers were mostly clear, with 17 nmi (20 mi; 31 km) visibility.
At 08: 20, a Lexington SBD piloted by Joseph G. Smith spotted the Japanese carriers through a hole in the clouds and notified TF 17. Two minutes later, a Shōkaku search plane commanded by Kenzō Kanno sighted TF 17 and notified Hara. The two forces were about 210 nmi (240 mi; 390 km) apart. Both sides raced to launch their strike aircraft.
At 09: 15, the Japanese carriers launched a combined strike of 18 fighters, 33 dive bombers, and 18 torpedo planes, commanded by Lieutenant Commander Kakuichi Takahashi. The U.S. carriers each launched a separate strike. Yorktown 's group consisted of six fighters, 24 dive bombers, and nine torpedo planes and was on its way by 09: 15. Lexington 's group of nine fighters, 15 dive bombers, and 12 torpedo planes was off at 09: 25. Both the U.S. and Japanese carrier warship forces turned to head directly for each other 's location at high speed in order to shorten the distance their aircraft would have to fly on their return legs.
Yorktown 's dive bombers, led by William O. Burch, reached the Japanese carriers at 10: 32, and paused to allow the slower torpedo squadron to arrive so that they could conduct a simultaneous attack. At this time, Shōkaku and Zuikaku were about 10,000 yd (9,100 m) apart, with Zuikaku hidden under a rain squall of low - hanging clouds. The two carriers were protected by 16 CAP Zero fighters. The Yorktown dive bombers commenced their attacks at 10: 57 on Shōkaku and hit the radically maneuvering carrier with two 1,000 lb (450 kg) bombs, tearing open the forecastle and causing heavy damage to the carrier 's flight and hangar decks. The Yorktown torpedo planes missed with all of their ordnance. Two U.S. dive bombers and two CAP Zeros were shot down during the attack.
Lexington 's aircraft arrived and attacked at 11: 30. Two dive bombers attacked Shōkaku, hitting the carrier with one 1,000 lb (450 kg) bomb, causing further damage. Two other dive bombers dove on Zuikaku, missing with their bombs. The rest of Lexington 's dive bombers were unable to find the Japanese carriers in the heavy clouds. Lexington 's TBDs missed Shōkaku with all 11 of their torpedoes. The 13 CAP Zeros on patrol at this time shot down three Wildcats.
With her flight deck heavily damaged and 223 of her crew killed or wounded, Shōkaku was unable to conduct further aircraft operations. Her captain, Takatsugu Jōjima, requested permission from Takagi and Hara to withdraw from the battle, to which Takagi agreed. At 12: 10, Shōkaku, accompanied by two destroyers, retired to the northeast.
At 10: 55, Lexington 's CXAM - 1 radar detected the inbound Japanese aircraft at a range of 68 nmi (78 mi; 126 km) and vectored nine Wildcats to intercept. Expecting the Japanese torpedo bombers to be at a much lower altitude than they actually were, six of the Wildcats were stationed too low, and thus missed the Japanese aircraft as they passed by overhead. Because of the heavy losses in aircraft suffered the night before, the Japanese could not execute a full torpedo attack on both carriers. Lieutenant Commander Shigekazu Shimazaki, commanding the Japanese torpedo planes, sent 14 to attack Lexington and four to attack Yorktown. A Wildcat shot down one and 8 patrolling Yorktown SBDs destroyed three more as the Japanese torpedo planes descended to take attack position. Four SBDs were shot down by Zeros escorting the torpedo planes.
The Japanese attack began at 11: 13 as the carriers, stationed 3,000 yd (2,700 m) apart, and their escorts opened fire with anti-aircraft guns. The four torpedo planes which attacked Yorktown all missed. The remaining torpedo planes successfully employed a pincer attack on Lexington, which had a much larger turning radius than Yorktown, and, at 11: 20, hit her with two Type 91 torpedoes. The first torpedo buckled the port aviation gasoline stowage tanks. Undetected, gasoline vapors spread into surrounding compartments. The second torpedo ruptured the port water main, reducing water pressure to the three forward firerooms and forcing the associated boilers to be shut down. The ship could still make 24 kn (28 mph; 44 km / h) with her remaining boilers. Four of the Japanese torpedo planes were shot down by anti-aircraft fire.
The 33 Japanese dive bombers circled to attack from upwind, and thus did not begin their dives from 14,000 ft (4,300 m) until three to four minutes after the torpedo planes began their attacks. The 19 Shōkaku dive bombers, under Takahashi, lined up on Lexington while the remaining 14, directed by Tamotsu Ema, targeted Yorktown. Escorting Zeros shielded Takahashi 's aircraft from four Lexington CAP Wildcats which attempted to intervene, but two Wildcats circling above Yorktown were able to disrupt Ema 's formation. Takahashi 's bombers damaged Lexington with two bomb hits and several near misses, causing fires which were contained by 12: 33. At 11: 27, Yorktown was hit in the centre of her flight deck by a single 250 kg (550 lb), semi-armour - piercing bomb which penetrated four decks before exploding, causing severe structural damage to an aviation storage room and killing or seriously wounding 66 men. Up to 12 near misses damaged Yorktown 's hull below the waterline. Two of the dive bombers were shot down by a CAP Wildcat during the attack.
As the Japanese aircraft completed their attacks and began to withdraw, believing that they inflicted fatal damage to both carriers, they ran a gauntlet of CAP Wildcats and SBDs. In the ensuing aerial duels, three SBDs and three Wildcats for the U.S., and three torpedo bombers, one dive bomber, and one Zero for the Japanese were downed. By 12: 00, the U.S. and Japanese strike groups were on their way back to their respective carriers. During their return, aircraft from the two adversaries passed each other in the air, resulting in more air - to - air altercations. Kanno 's and Takahashi 's aircraft were shot down, killing both of them.
The strike forces, with many damaged aircraft, reached and landed on their respective carriers between 12: 50 and 14: 30. In spite of damage, Yorktown and Lexington were both able to recover aircraft from their returning air groups. During recovery operations, for various reasons the U.S. lost an additional five SBDs, two TBDs, and a Wildcat, and the Japanese lost two Zeros, five dive bombers, and one torpedo plane. Forty - six of the original 69 aircraft from the Japanese strike force returned from the mission and landed on Zuikaku. Of these, three more Zeros, four dive bombers and five torpedo planes were judged damaged beyond repair and were immediately jettisoned into the sea.
As TF 17 recovered its aircraft, Fletcher assessed the situation. The returning aviators reported they heavily damaged one carrier, but that another had escaped damage. Fletcher noted that both his carriers were hurt and that his air groups had suffered high fighter losses. Fuel was also a concern due to the loss of Neosho. At 14: 22, Fitch notified Fletcher that he had reports of two undamaged Japanese carriers and that this was supported by radio intercepts. Believing that he faced overwhelming Japanese carrier superiority, Fletcher elected to withdraw TF17 from the battle. Fletcher radioed MacArthur the approximate position of the Japanese carriers and suggested that he attack with his land - based bombers.
Around 14: 30, Hara informed Takagi that only 24 Zeros, eight dive bombers, and four torpedo planes from the carriers were currently operational. Takagi was worried about his ships ' fuel levels; his cruisers were at 50 % and some of his destroyers were as low as 20 %. At 15: 00, Takagi notified Inoue his fliers had sunk two U.S. carriers -- Yorktown and a "Saratoga - class '' -- but heavy losses in aircraft meant he could not continue to provide air cover for the invasion. Inoue, whose reconnaissance aircraft sighted Crace 's ships earlier that day, recalled the invasion convoy to Rabaul, postponed MO to 3 July, and ordered his forces to assemble northeast of the Solomons to begin the RY operation. Zuikaku and her escorts turned towards Rabaul while Shōkaku headed for Japan.
Aboard Lexington, damage control parties put out the fires and restored her to operational condition, but at 12: 47, sparks from unattended electric motors ignited gasoline fumes near the ship 's central control station. The resulting explosion killed 25 men and started a large fire. Around 14: 42, another large explosion occurred, starting a second severe fire. A third explosion occurred at 15: 25 and at 15: 38 the ship 's crew reported the fires as uncontrollable. Lexington 's crew began abandoning ship at 17: 07. After the carrier 's survivors were rescued, including Admiral Fitch and the ship 's captain, Frederick C. Sherman, at 19: 15 the destroyer Phelps fired five torpedoes into the burning ship, which sank in 2,400 fathoms at 19: 52 (15 ° 15 ′ S 155 ° 35 ′ E / 15.250 ° S 155.583 ° E / - 15.250; 155.583). Two hundred and sixteen of the carrier 's 2,951 - man crew went down with the ship, along with 36 aircraft. Phelps and the other assisting warships left immediately to rejoin Yorktown and her escorts, which departed at 16: 01, and TF17 retired to the southwest. Later that evening, MacArthur informed Fletcher that eight of his B - 17s had attacked the invasion convoy and that it was retiring to the northwest.
That evening, Crace detached Hobart, which was critically low on fuel, and the destroyer Walke, which was having engine trouble, to proceed to Townsville. Crace overheard radio reports saying the enemy invasion convoy had turned back, but, unaware Fletcher had withdrawn, he remained on patrol with the rest of TG17. 3 in the Coral Sea in case the Japanese invasion force resumed its advance towards Port Moresby.
On 9 May, TF 17 altered course to the east and proceeded out of the Coral Sea via a route south of New Caledonia. Nimitz ordered Fletcher to return Yorktown to Pearl Harbor as soon as possible after refueling at Tongatabu. During the day, U.S. Army bombers attacked Deboyne and Kamikawa Maru, inflicting unknown damage. In the meantime, having heard nothing from Fletcher, Crace deduced that TF17 had departed the area. At 01: 00 on 10 May, hearing no further reports of Japanese ships advancing towards Port Moresby, Crace turned towards Australia and arrived at Cid Harbor, 130 nmi (150 mi; 240 km) south of Townsville, on 11 May.
At 22: 00 on 8 May, Yamamoto ordered Inoue to turn his forces around, destroy the remaining Allied warships, and complete the invasion of Port Moresby. Inoue did not cancel the recall of the invasion convoy, but ordered Takagi and Gotō to pursue the remaining Allied warship forces in the Coral Sea. Critically low on fuel, Takagi 's warships spent most of 9 May refueling from the fleet oiler Tōhō Maru. Late in the evening of 9 May, Takagi and Gotō headed southeast, then southwest into the Coral Sea. Seaplanes from Deboyne assisted Takagi in searching for TF 17 on the morning of 10 May. Fletcher and Crace were already well on their way out of the area. At 13: 00 on 10 May, Takagi concluded that the enemy was gone and decided to turn back towards Rabaul. Yamamoto concurred with Takagi 's decision and ordered Zuikaku to return to Japan to replenish her air groups. At the same time, Kamikawa Maru packed up and departed Deboyne. At noon on 11 May, a U.S. Navy PBY on patrol from Nouméa sighted the drifting Neosho (15 ° 35 ′ S 155 ° 36 ′ E / 15.583 ° S 155.600 ° E / - 15.583; 155.600). The U.S. destroyer Henley responded and rescued 109 Neosho and 14 Sims survivors later that day, then scuttled the tanker with gunfire.
On 10 May, Operation RY commenced. After the operation 's flagship, minelayer Okinoshima, was sunk by the U.S. submarine S - 42 on 12 May (05 ° 06 ′ S 153 ° 48 ′ E / 5.100 ° S 153.800 ° E / - 5.100; 153.800), the landings were postponed until 17 May. In the meantime, Halsey 's TF 16 reached the South Pacific near Efate and, on 13 May, headed north to contest the Japanese approach to Nauru and Ocean Island. On 14 May, Nimitz, having obtained intelligence concerning the Combined Fleet 's upcoming operation against Midway, ordered Halsey to make sure that Japanese scout aircraft sighted his ships the next day, after which he was to return to Pearl Harbor immediately. At 10: 15 on 15 May, a Kawanishi reconnaissance aircraft from Tulagi sighted TF 16 445 nmi (512 mi; 824 km) east of the Solomons. Halsey 's feint worked. Fearing a carrier air attack on his exposed invasion forces, Inoue immediately canceled RY and ordered his ships back to Rabaul and Truk. On 19 May, TF 16 -- which returned to the Efate area to refuel -- turned towards Pearl Harbor and arrived there on 26 May. Yorktown reached Pearl the following day.
Shōkaku reached Kure, Japan, on 17 May, almost capsizing en route during a storm due to her battle damage. Zuikaku arrived at Kure on 21 May, having made a brief stop at Truk on 15 May. Acting on signals intelligence, the U.S. placed eight submarines along the projected route of the carriers ' return paths to Japan, but the submarines were not able to make any attacks. Japan 's Naval General Staff estimated that it would take two to three months to repair Shōkaku and replenish the carriers ' air groups. Thus, both carriers would be unable to participate in Yamamoto 's upcoming Midway operation. The two carriers rejoined the Combined Fleet on 14 July and were key participants in subsequent carrier battles against U.S. forces. The five I - class submarines supporting the MO operation were retasked to support an attack on Sydney Harbour three weeks later as part of a campaign to disrupt Allied supply lines. En route to Truk the submarine I - 28 was torpedoed on 17 May by the U.S. submarine Tautog and sunk with all hands.
The battle was the first naval engagement in history in which the participating ships never sighted or fired directly at each other. Instead, manned aircraft acted as the offensive artillery for the ships involved. Thus, the respective commanders were participating in a new type of warfare, carrier - versus - carrier, with which neither had any experience. In H.P. Willmot 's words, the commanders "had to contend with uncertain and poor communications in situations in which the area of battle had grown far beyond that prescribed by past experience but in which speeds had increased to an even greater extent, thereby compressing decision - making time. '' Because of the greater speed with which decisions were required, the Japanese were at a disadvantage as Inoue was too far away at Rabaul to effectively direct his naval forces in real time, in contrast to Fletcher who was on - scene with his carriers. The Japanese admirals involved were often slow to communicate important information to one another.
Research has examined how commanders ' choices affected the battle 's outcome. Two studies used mathematical models to estimate the impact of various alternatives. For example, suppose the U.S. carriers had chosen to sail separately (though still nearby), rather than together. The models indicated the Americans would have suffered slightly less total damage, with one ship sunk but the other unharmed. However, the battle 's overall outcome would have been similar. By contrast, suppose one side had located its opponent early enough to launch a first strike, so that only the opponent 's survivors could have struck back. The modeling suggested striking first would have provided a decisive advantage, even more beneficial than having an extra carrier.
The experienced Japanese carrier aircrews performed better than those of the U.S., achieving greater results with an equivalent number of aircraft. The Japanese attack on the U.S. carriers on 8 May was better coordinated than the U.S. attack on the Japanese carriers. The Japanese suffered much higher losses to their carrier aircrews, losing ninety aircrew killed in the battle compared with thirty - five for the U.S. side. Japan 's cadre of highly skilled carrier aircrews with which it began the war were, in effect, irreplaceable because of an institutionalised limitation in its training programs and the absence of a pool of experienced reserves or advanced training programs for new airmen. Coral Sea started a trend which resulted in the irreparable attrition of Japan 's veteran carrier aircrews by the end of October 1942.
The U.S. did not perform as expected, but they learned from their mistakes in the battle and made improvements to their carrier tactics and equipment, including fighter tactics, strike coordination, torpedo bombers and defensive strategies, such as anti-aircraft artillery, which contributed to better results in later battles. Radar gave the U.S. a limited advantage in this battle, but its value to the U.S. Navy increased over time as the technology improved and the Allies learned how to employ it more effectively. Following the loss of Lexington, improved methods for containing aviation fuel and better damage control procedures were implemented by the U.S. Coordination between the Allied land - based air forces and the U.S. Navy was poor during this battle, but this too would improve over time.
Japanese and U.S. carriers faced off against each other again in the battles of Midway, the Eastern Solomons, and the Santa Cruz Islands in 1942, and the Philippine Sea in 1944. Each of these battles was strategically significant, to varying degrees, in deciding the course and ultimate outcome of the Pacific War.
Both sides publicly claimed victory after the battle. In terms of ships lost, the Japanese won a tactical victory by sinking a U.S. fleet carrier, an oiler, and a destroyer -- 41,826 long tons (42,497 t) -- versus a light carrier, a destroyer, and several smaller warships -- 19,000 long tons (19,000 t) -- sunk by the U.S. side. Lexington represented, at that time, 25 % of U.S. carrier strength in the Pacific. The Japanese public was informed of the victory with overstatement of the U.S. damage and understatement of their own.
In strategic terms, the Allies won because the seaborne invasion of Port Moresby was averted, lessening the threat to the supply lines between the U.S. and Australia. Although the withdrawal of Yorktown from the Coral Sea conceded the field, the Japanese were forced to abandon the operation that had initiated the Battle of Coral Sea in the first place.
The battle marked the first time that a Japanese invasion force was turned back without achieving its objective, which greatly lifted the morale of the Allies after a series of defeats by the Japanese during the initial six months of the Pacific Theatre. Port Moresby was vital to Allied strategy and its garrison could well have been overwhelmed by the experienced Japanese invasion troops. The U.S. Navy also exaggerated the damage it inflicted, which was to cause the press to treat its reports of Midway with more caution.
The results of the battle had a substantial effect on the strategic planning of both sides. Without a hold in New Guinea, the subsequent Allied advance, arduous though it was, would have been more difficult. For the Japanese, who focused on the tactical results, the battle was seen as merely a temporary setback. The results of the battle confirmed the low opinion held by the Japanese of U.S. fighting capability and supported their overconfident belief that future carrier operations against the U.S. were assured of success.
One of the most significant effects of the Coral Sea battle was the loss of Shōkaku and Zuikaku to Yamamoto for his planned battle in the air with the U.S. carriers at Midway (Shōhō was to have been employed at Midway in a tactical role supporting the Japanese invasion ground forces). The Japanese believed that they sank two carriers in the Coral Sea, but this still left at least two more U.S. Navy carriers, Enterprise and Hornet, which could help defend Midway. The aircraft complement of the U.S. carriers was larger than that of their Japanese counterparts, which, when combined with the land - based aircraft at Midway, meant that the Combined Fleet no longer enjoyed a significant numerical aircraft superiority over the U.S. Navy for the impending battle. In fact, the U.S. would have three carriers to oppose Yamamoto at Midway, because, despite the damage the ship suffered during the Coral Sea battle, Yorktown was able to return to Hawaii. Although estimates were that the damage would take two weeks to repair, Yorktown put to sea only 48 hours after entering drydock at Pearl Harbor, which meant that she was available for the next confrontation with the Japanese. At Midway, Yorktown 's aircraft played crucial roles in sinking two Japanese fleet carriers. Yorktown also absorbed both Japanese aerial counterattacks at Midway which otherwise would have been directed at Enterprise and Hornet.
In contrast to the strenuous efforts by the U.S. to employ the maximum forces available for Midway, the Japanese apparently did not even consider trying to include Zuikaku in the operation. No effort appears to have been made to combine the surviving Shōkaku aircrews with Zuikaku 's air groups or to quickly provide Zuikaku with replacement aircraft so she could participate with the rest of the Combined Fleet at Midway. Shōkaku herself was unable to conduct further aircraft operations, with her flight deck heavily damaged, and she required almost three months of repair in Japan.
Historians H.P. Willmott, Jonathan Parshall, and Anthony Tully believe Yamamoto made a significant strategic error in his decision to support MO with strategic assets. Since Yamamoto had decided the decisive battle with the U.S. was to take place at Midway, he should not have diverted any of his important assets, especially fleet carriers, to a secondary operation like MO. Yamamoto 's decision meant Japanese naval forces were weakened just enough at both the Coral Sea and Midway battles to allow the Allies to defeat them in detail. Willmott adds, if either operation was important enough to commit fleet carriers, then all of the Japanese carriers should have been committed to each in order to ensure success. By committing crucial assets to MO, Yamamoto made the more important Midway operation dependent on the secondary operation 's success.
Moreover, Yamamoto apparently missed the other implications of the Coral Sea battle: the unexpected appearance of U.S. carriers in exactly the right place and time to effectively contest the Japanese, and U.S. Navy carrier aircrews demonstrating sufficient skill and determination to do significant damage to the Japanese carrier forces. These would be repeated at Midway, and as a result, Japan lost four fleet carriers, the core of her naval offensive forces, and thereby lost the strategic initiative in the Pacific War. Parshall and Tully point out that, due to U.S. industrial strength, once Japan lost its numerical superiority in carrier forces as a result of Midway, Japan could never regain it. Parshall and Tully add, "The Battle of the Coral Sea had provided the first hints that the Japanese high - water mark had been reached, but it was the Battle of Midway that put up the sign for all to see. ''
The Australians and U.S. forces in Australia were initially disappointed with the outcome of the Battle of the Coral Sea, fearing the MO operation was the precursor to an invasion of the Australian mainland and the setback to Japan was only temporary. In a meeting held in late May, the Australian Advisory War Council described the battle 's result as "rather disappointing '' given that the Allies had advance notice of Japanese intentions. General MacArthur provided Australian Prime Minister John Curtin with his assessment of the battle, stating that "all the elements that have produced disaster in the Western Pacific since the beginning of the war '' were still present as Japanese forces could strike anywhere if supported by major elements of the IJN.
Because of the severe losses in carriers at Midway, the Japanese were unable to support another attempt to invade Port Moresby from the sea, forcing Japan to try to take Port Moresby by land. Japan began its land offensive towards Port Moresby along the Kokoda Track on 21 July from Buna and Gona. By then, the Allies had reinforced New Guinea with additional troops (primarily Australian) starting with the Australian 14th Brigade which embarked at Townsville on 15 May. The added forces slowed, then eventually halted the Japanese advance towards Port Moresby in September 1942, and defeated an attempt by the Japanese to overpower an Allied base at Milne Bay.
In the meantime, the Allies learned in July that the Japanese had begun building an airfield on Guadalcanal. Operating from this base the Japanese would threaten the shipping supply routes to Australia. To prevent this from occurring, the U.S. chose Tulagi and nearby Guadalcanal as the target of their first offensive. The failure of the Japanese to take Port Moresby, and their defeat at Midway, had the effect of dangling their base at Tulagi and Guadalcanal without effective protection from other Japanese bases. Tulagi and Guadalcanal were four hours flying time from Rabaul, the nearest large Japanese base.
Three months later, on 7 August 1942, 11,000 United States Marines landed on Guadalcanal, and 3,000 U.S. Marines landed on Tulagi and nearby islands. The Japanese troops on Tulagi and nearby islands were outnumbered and killed almost to the last man in the Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu -- Tanambogo and the U.S. Marines on Guadalcanal captured an airfield under construction by the Japanese. Thus began the Guadalcanal and Solomon Islands campaigns that resulted in a series of attritional, combined - arms battles between Allied and Japanese forces over the next year which, in tandem with the New Guinea campaign, eventually neutralized Japanese defenses in the South Pacific, inflicted irreparable losses on the Japanese military -- especially its navy -- and contributed significantly to the Allies ' eventual victory over Japan.
The delay in the advance of Japanese forces also allowed the Marine Corps to land on Funafuti on 2 October 1942, with a Naval Construction Battalion (Seabees) building airfields on three of the atolls of Tuvalu from which USAAF B - 24 Liberator bombers of the Seventh Air Force operated. The atolls of Tuvalu acted as a staging post during the preparation for the Battle of Tarawa and the Battle of Makin that commenced on 20 November 1943, which was the implementation of Operation Galvanic.
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where did the story happen in the lottery | The Lottery - wikipedia
"The Lottery '' is a short story written by Shirley Jackson first published in the June 26, 1948 issue of The New Yorker. The story describes a fictional small town which observes an annual ritual known as "the lottery ''.
"The Lottery '' has been described as "one of the most famous short stories in the history of American literature ''. It initially received a negative response, which surprised both Jackson and The New Yorker. Readers cancelled subscriptions and sent hate mail throughout the summer. The Union of South Africa banned the story.
Details of contemporary small - town American life are embroidered upon a description of an annual ritual known as "the lottery ''. In a small village in New England of about 300 residents, the locals are in an excited yet nervous mood on June 27. Children gather stones as the adult townsfolk assemble for their annual event, which in the local tradition is practiced to ensure a good harvest (Old Man Warner quotes an old proverb: "Lottery in June, corn be heavy soon ''), though there are some rumors that nearby communities in the north are talking about giving up the lottery, and some have done so.
The lottery preparations start the night before with Mr. Summers and Mr. Graves making the paper slips and the list of all the families. Once the slips are finished, they are put into a black box, which is stored overnight in a safe place at the coal company. The story briefly mentions how the ballot box has been stored over the years in various places in the town, including a grocery store shelf, a barn, and in the post office basement.
On the morning of the lottery, the townspeople gather close to 10 a.m. in order to have everything done in time for lunch. First, the heads of the extended families draw slips until every family has a slip. Bill Hutchinson gets the one slip with a black spot, meaning that his family has been chosen. The second round would ordinarily be to select one household within the family, but since there is only one Hutchinson household (Bill 's adult sister and daughter are counted with their husbands ' families), the second round is skipped.
The final round is for the individual family members within the winning household to draw, no matter their age. Bill 's wife Tessie gets the marked slip. After the drawing is over and Tessie is picked, the slips are allowed to fly off into the wind. In keeping with tradition, each villager obtains a stone and begins to surround Tessie. The story ends as Tessie is stoned to death while she bemoans the unfairness of the situation.
One of the major ideas of "The Lottery '' is that of a scapegoat. The act of stoning someone to death yearly purges the town of the bad and allows for the good. This is hinted in the references to agriculture.
The story also speaks of mob psychology and the idea that people can abandon reason and act cruelly if they are part of a large group of people behaving in the same manner. The idyllic setting of the story also demonstrates that violence and evil can take place anywhere and in any context. This also shows how people can turn on each other so easily.
Alongside the mob mentality, the story speaks about people who blindly follow traditions without thinking of the consequences of those traditions.
The New Yorker received a "torrent of letters '' inquiring about the story -- "the most mail the magazine had ever received in response to a work of fiction ''. Many readers demanded an explanation of the situation in the story, and a month after the initial publication, Jackson responded in the San Francisco Chronicle (July 22, 1948):
Explaining just what I had hoped the story to say is very difficult. I suppose, I hoped, by setting a particularly brutal ancient rite in the present and in my own village to shock the story 's readers with a graphic dramatization of the pointless violence and general inhumanity in their own lives.
Jackson lived in North Bennington, Vermont, and her comment reveals that she had Bennington in mind when she wrote "The Lottery ''. In a 1960 lecture (printed in her 1968 collection, Come Along with Me), Jackson recalled the hate mail she received in 1948:
One of the most terrifying aspects of publishing stories and books is the realization that they are going to be read, and read by strangers. I had never fully realized this before, although I had of course in my imagination dwelt lovingly upon the thought of the millions and millions of people who were going to be uplifted and enriched and delighted by the stories I wrote. It had simply never occurred to me that these millions and millions of people might be so far from being uplifted that they would sit down and write me letters I was downright scared to open; of the three - hundred - odd letters that I received that summer I can count only thirteen that spoke kindly to me, and they were mostly from friends. Even my mother scolded me: "Dad and I did not care at all for your story in The New Yorker, '' she wrote sternly; "it does seem, dear, that this gloomy kind of story is what all you young people think about these days. Why do n't you write something to cheer people up? ''
The New Yorker kept no records of the phone calls, but letters addressed to Jackson were forwarded to her. That summer she regularly took home 10 to 12 forwarded letters each day. She also received weekly packages from The New Yorker containing letters and questions addressed to the magazine or editor Harold Ross, plus carbon copies of the magazine 's responses mailed to letter writers.
Curiously, there are three main themes which dominate the letters of that first summer -- three themes which might be identified as bewilderment, speculation and plain old - fashioned abuse. In the years since then, during which the story has been anthologized, dramatized, televised, and even -- in one completely mystifying transformation -- made into a ballet, the tenor of letters I receive has changed. I am addressed more politely, as a rule, and the letters largely confine themselves to questions like what does this story mean? The general tone of the early letters, however, was a kind of wide - eyed, shocked innocence. People at first were not so much concerned with what the story meant; what they wanted to know was where these lotteries were held, and whether they could go there and watch.
Helen E. Nebeker 's essay, "' The Lottery ': Symbolic Tour de Force '', in American Literature (March 1974), claims that every major name in the story has a special significance.
By the end of the first two paragraphs, Jackson has carefully indicated the season, time of ancient excess and sacrifice, and the stones, most ancient of sacrificial weapons. She has also hinted at larger meanings through name symbolism. "Martin '', Bobby 's surname, derives from a Middle English word signifying ape or monkey. This, juxtaposed with "Harry Jones '' (in all its commonness) and "Dickie Delacroix '' (of - the - Cross) urges us to an awareness of the Hairy Ape within us all, veneered by a Christianity as perverted as "Delacroix, '' vulgarized to "Dellacroy '' by the villagers. Horribly, at the end of the story, it will be Mrs. Delacroix, warm and friendly in her natural state, who will select a stone "so large she had to pick it up with both hands '' and will encourage her friends to follow suit... "Mr. Adams, '' at once progenitor and martyr in the Judeo - Christian myth of man, stands with "Mrs. Graves '' -- the ultimate refuge or escape of all mankind -- in the forefront of the crowd.
Fritz Oehlshlaeger, in "The Stoning of Mistress Hutchinson Meaning of Context in ' The Lottery ' '' (Essays in Literature, 1988), wrote:
The name of Jackson 's victim links her to Anne Hutchinson, whose Antinomian beliefs, found to be heretical by the Puritan hierarchy, resulted in her banishment from Massachusetts in 1638. While Tessie Hutchinson is no spiritual rebel, to be sure, Jackson 's allusion to Anne Hutchinson reinforces her suggestions of a rebellion lurking within the women of her imaginary village. Since Tessie Hutchinson is the protagonist of "The Lottery, '' there is every indication that her name is indeed an allusion to Anne Hutchinson, the American religious dissenter. She was excommunicated despite an unfair trial, while Tessie questions the tradition and correctness of the lottery as well as her humble status as a wife. It might as well be this insubordination that leads to her selection by the lottery and stoning by the angry mob of villagers.
The 1992 episode of The Simpsons, "Dog of Death '', features a scene referencing "The Lottery ''. During the peak of the lottery fever in Springfield, news anchor Kent Brockman announces on television that people hoping to get tips on how to win the jackpot have borrowed every available copy of Shirley Jackson 's book The Lottery at the local library. One of them is Homer, who throws the book into the fireplace after Brockman reveals that, "Of course, the book does not contain any hints on how to win the lottery. It is, rather, a chilling tale of conformity gone mad. '' In her book Shirley Jackson: Essays on the Literary Legacy, Bernice Murphy comments that this scene displays some of the most contradictory things about Jackson: "It says a lot about the visibility of Jackson 's most notorious tale that more than 50 years after its initial creation it is still famous enough to warrant a mention in the world 's most famous sitcom. The fact that Springfield 's citizenry also miss the point of Jackson 's story completely... can perhaps be seen as an indication of a more general misrepresentation of Jackson and her work. ''
In addition to numerous reprints in magazines, anthologies and textbooks, "The Lottery '' has been adapted for radio, live television, a 1953 ballet, films in 1969 and 1997, a TV movie, an opera, and a one - act play by Thomas Martin.
A radio adaptation by NBC was broadcast March 14, 1951, as an episode of the anthology series NBC Presents: Short Story. Writer Ernest Kinoy expanded the plot to include scenes at various characters ' homes before the lottery and a conversation between Bill and Tessie Hutchinson (Bill suggests leaving town before the lottery happens, but Tessie refuses because she wants to go shopping at Floyd Summers 's store after the lottery is over). Kinoy deleted certain characters, including two of the Hutchinsons ' three children, and added at least one character, John Gunderson, a schoolteacher who publicly objects to the lottery being held, and at first refuses to draw. Finally, Kinoy included an ending scene describing the townspeople 's post-lottery activities, and an afterword in which the narrator suggested, "Next year, maybe there wo n't be a Lottery. It 's up to all of us. Chances are, there will be, though. '' The production was directed by Andrew C. Love.
Ellen M. Violett wrote the first television adaptation, seen on Albert McCleery 's Cameo Theatre (1950 -- 55).
Larry Yust 's short film, The Lottery (1969), produced as part of Encyclopædia Britannica 's ' Short Story Showcase ' series, was ranked by the Academic Film Archive "as one of the two bestselling educational films ever ''. It has an accompanying ten - minute commentary film, Discussion of "The Lottery '' by University of Southern California English professor James Durbin. Featuring the film debut of Ed Begley Jr., Yust 's adaptation has an atmosphere of naturalism and small town authenticity with its shots of pickup trucks and townspeople in Fellows, California.
Anthony Spinner 's feature - length TV film, The Lottery, which premiered September 29, 1996, on NBC, is a sequel loosely based on the original Shirley Jackson story. It was nominated for a 1997 Saturn Award for Best Single Genre Television Presentation.
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who nicknamed the coast of west africa the gold coast | Gold Coast (British colony) - wikipedia
The Gold Coast was a British colony on the Gulf of Guinea in west Africa from 1867 to its independence as the nation of Ghana in 1957.
The first Europeans to arrive at the coast were the Portuguese in 1471. They encountered a variety of African kingdoms, some of which controlled substantial deposits of gold in the soil. The kingdoms had a tradition of enslaving captives taken in warfare. Some were sold to Arab traders from North Africa and transported to Islamic Mediterranean civilizations.
In 1482, the Portuguese came to the continent for increased trade. They built the Castle of Elmina, the first European settlement on the Gold Coast. From here they acquired slaves and gold in trade for European goods, such as metal knives, beads, mirrors, rum, and guns. News of the successful trading spread quickly, and British, Dutch, Danish, Prussian and Swedish traders arrived as well. The European traders built several forts along the coastline. The Gold Coast had long been a name for the region used by Europeans because of the large gold resources found in the area. The slave trade was the principal exchange and major part of the economy for many years. In this period, European nations began to explore and colonize the Americas. Soon the Portuguese and Spanish began to export African slaves to the Caribbean, and North and South America. The Dutch and British also entered the slave trade, at first supplying markets in the Caribbean and on the Caribbean coast of South America.
The Royal Trading Company was established by the Crown in 1752 to lead its trading in Africa. It was replaced by the African Company of Merchants, which led the British trading efforts into the early 19th century. In 1821 the British government withdrew their charter and seized privately held lands along the coast. In 1867 the government formed the British Gold Coast colony, after having taken over the remaining interests of other European countries. They purchased and incorporated the Danish Gold Coast in 1850 and the Dutch Gold Coast, including Fort Elmina, in 1872. Britain steadily expanded its colony through the invasion and subjection of local kingdoms as well, particularly the Ashanti and Fante confederacies.
The Ashanti people had controlled much of the territory of Ghana before the Europeans arrived and were often in conflict with them. In the 21st century they continue to constitute the largest ethnic community in Ghana. Four wars, the Anglo - Ashanti Wars, were fought between the Ashanti (Asante) and the British, who were sometimes allied with the Fante.
During the First Anglo - Ashanti War (1822 -- 24), the two groups fought because of a disagreement over an Ashanti chief and slavery. The British had abolished the Atlantic slave trade but kept the institution in its colonies until 1834. Tensions increased in 1874 during the Second Ashanti War (1873 -- 74) when the British sacked the Ashanti capital of Kumasi. The Third Ashanti War (1893 -- 94) occurred because the new Ashanti ruler Asantehene wanted to exercise his new title. From 1895 -- 96 the British and Ashanti fought in the Fourth and final Ashanti War, where the Ashanti fought for and lost their independence. In 1900 the Ashanti Uprising took place. The British suppressed the violence and captured of the city of Kumasi. At the end of this last Ashanti War, the territory of the Ashanti people became a British protectorate on 1 January 1902.
By 1901, British had established a colony incorporating all of the Gold Coast, with its kingdoms and tribes considered a single unit. The British exploited and exported a variety of natural resources such as gold, metal ores, diamonds, ivory, pepper, timber, grain and cocoa. The British colonists built railways and a complex transport infrastructure to support the shipment of such commodity goods. This has formed the basis for the transport infrastructure in modern - day Ghana. They also built Western - style hospitals and schools to provide modern amenities to the people of the empire. Promising Ashanti and Fante young men often completed their higher education in Britain at some of its top universities.
By 1945, in the wake of the end of the Second World War, the native population was demanding more autonomy. It was a period of decolonisation across Africa and Asia. By 1956, British Togoland, the Ashanti protectorate, and the Fante protectorate were merged with the Gold Coast to create one colony, which became known as the Gold Coast. In 1957, the colony gained independence under the name of Ghana.
By the late 19th century, the British, through conquest or purchase, occupied most of the forts along the coast. Two major factors laid the foundations of British rule and the eventual establishment of a colony on the Gold Coast: British reaction to the Asante wars and the resulting instability and disruption of trade, and Britain 's increasing preoccupation with the suppression and elimination of the slave trade.
During most of the 19th century, Asante, the most powerful state of the Akan interior, sought to expand its rule and to promote and protect its trade. The first Asante invasion of the coastal regions took place in 1807; the Asante moved south again in the Ga - Fante War of 1811 and in the Ashanti -- Akim -- Akwapim War of 1814 -- 16. These invasions, though not decisive, disrupted trade in such products as feathers, ivory, rubber and palm oil, and threatened the security of the European forts. Local British, Dutch, and Danish authorities were all forced to come to terms with the Asante. In 1817 the African Company of Merchants signed a treaty of friendship that recognised Asante claims to sovereignty over large areas of the coast and its peoples. The assets of the African Company of Merchants consisted primarily of nine trading posts or factories: Fort William, Fort James, Fort Sekondi, Fort Winneba, Fort Apollonia, Fort Tantumquery, Fort Metal Cross, Fort Komenda, and Cape Coast Castle, the last of which was the administrative centre.
The coastal people, primarily some of the Fante and the inhabitants of the new town of Accra, who were chiefly Ga, came to rely on British protection against Asante incursions. But the merchant companies had limited ability to provide such security. The British Crown dissolved the company in 1821, giving authority over British forts on the Gold Coast to Charles MacCarthy, governor of the colony of Sierra Leone. The British forts and Sierra Leone remained under common administration for the first half of the century. MacCarthy 's mandate was to impose peace and to end the slave trade. He sought to do this by encouraging the coastal peoples to oppose Kumasi rule and by closing the great roads to the coast. Incidents and sporadic warfare continued, however. In 1824 MacCarthy was killed and most of his force was wiped out in a battle with Asante forces. The British were able to defeat an Asante invasion of the coast in 1826 with a combined force of British and local forces, including the Fante and the people of Accra.
When the British government allowed control of the Gold Coast settlements to revert to the British African Company of Merchants in the late 1820s, relations with Asante were still problematic. From the Asante point of view, the British had failed to control the activities of their local coastal allies. Had this been done, Asante might not have found it necessary to attempt to impose peace on the coastal peoples. MacCarthy 's encouragement of coastal opposition to Asante and the subsequent 1824 British military attack further indicated to Asante leaders that the Europeans, especially the British, did not respect Asante.
In 1830 a London committee of merchants chose Captain George Maclean to become president of a local council of merchants. Although his formal jurisdiction was limited, Maclean 's achievements were substantial; for example, he arranged a peace treaty with Asante in 1831. Maclean also supervised the coastal people by holding regular court in Cape Coast, where he sentenced and punished those found guilty of disturbing the peace. Between 1830 and 1843, while Maclean was in charge of affairs on the Gold Coast, no confrontations occurred with Asante. The volume of trade reportedly increased threefold.
Maclean 's exercise of limited judicial power on the coast was so effective that a parliamentary committee recommended that the British government permanently administer its settlements and negotiate treaties with the coastal chiefs to define Britain 's relations with them. The government did so in 1843, the same year crown government was reinstated. Commander H. Worsley Hill was appointed first governor of the Gold Coast. Under Maclean 's administration, several coastal tribes had submitted voluntarily to British protection. Hill proceeded to define the conditions and responsibilities of his jurisdiction over the protected areas. He negotiated a special treaty with a number of Fante and other local chiefs that became known as the Bond of 1844. This document obliged local leaders to submit serious crimes, such as murder and robbery, to British jurisdiction; it laid the legal foundation for subsequent British colonisation of the coastal area.
Additional coastal states as well as other states farther inland eventually signed the bond, and British influence was accepted, strengthened, and expanded. Under the terms of the 1844 arrangement, the British appeared to provide security to the coastal areas; thus, an informal protectorate came into being. As responsibilities for defending local allies and managing the affairs of the coastal protectorate increased, the administration of the Gold Coast was separated from Sierra Leone in 1850.
At about the same time, growing acceptance of the advantages offered by the British presence led to the initiation of another important step. In April 1852, local chiefs and elders met at Cape Coast to consult with the governor on means of raising revenue. With the governor 's approval, the council of chiefs constituted itself as a legislative assembly. In approving its resolutions, the governor indicated that the assembly of chiefs should become a permanent fixture of the protectorate 's constitutional machinery, but the assembly was given no specific constitutional authority to pass laws or to levy taxes without the consent of the people.
In 1872 British influence over the Gold Coast increased further when Britain purchased the Dutch Gold Coast. The Asante, who for years had considered the Dutch at Elmina as their allies, thereby lost their last trade outlet to the sea. To prevent this loss and to ensure that revenue received from that post continued, the Asante staged their last invasion of the coast in 1873. After early successes, they finally came up against well - trained British forces who compelled them to retreat beyond the Pra River. Later attempts to negotiate a settlement with the British were rejected by the commander of their forces, Major General Sir Garnet Wolseley. To settle the Asante problem permanently, the British invaded Asante with a sizeable military force. The attack, launched in January 1874 by 2,500 British soldiers and large numbers of African auxiliaries, resulted in the occupation and burning of Kumasi, the Asante capital.
The subsequent peace treaty required the Asante to renounce any claim to many southern territories. The Asante also had to keep the road to Kumasi open to trade. From this point on, Asante power steadily declined. The confederation slowly disintegrated as subject territories broke away and as protected regions defected to British rule. Enforcement of the treaty led to recurring difficulties and outbreaks of fighting. In 1896 the British dispatched another expedition that occupied Kumasi and forced Asante to become a protectorate of the British Crown. The British abolished the position of asantehene and exiled the incumbent from the colony.
The core of the Asante federation accepted these terms grudgingly. In 1900 the Asante rebelled in the War of the Golden Stool but were defeated the next year. In 1902 the British proclaimed Asante a colony under the jurisdiction of the governor of the Gold Coast. The annexation was made with misgivings and recriminations on both sides. With Asante subdued and annexed, British colonisation of the region became a reality.
Military confrontations between Asante and the Fante contributed to the growth of British influence on the Gold Coast. It was concern about Asante activities on the coast that had compelled the Fante states to sign the Bond of 1844. In theory, the bond allowed the British quite limited judicial powers -- the trying of murder and robbery cases only. Also, the British could not acquire further judicial rights without the consent of the kings, chiefs, and people of the protectorate. In practice, however, British efforts to usurp more and more judicial authority were so successful that in the 1850s they considered establishing European courts in place of traditional African ones.
As a result of the exercise of ever - expanding judicial powers on the coast and also to ensure that the coastal peoples remained firmly under control, the British, following their defeat of Asante in 1874, proclaimed the former coastal protectorate a crown colony. The Gold Coast Colony, established on 24 July 1874, comprised the coastal areas and extended inland as far as the ill - defined borders of Asante.
The coastal peoples did not greet this move with enthusiasm. They were not consulted about this annexation, which arbitrarily set aside the Bond of 1844 and treated its signatories like conquered territories. The British, however, made no claim to any rights to the land, a circumstance that probably explains the absence of popular resistance. Shortly after declaring the coastal area a colony, the British moved the colonial capital from Cape Coast to the former Danish castle at Christiansborg in Accra.
The British sphere of influence was eventually extended to include Asante. Following the defeat of Asante in 1896, the British proclaimed a protectorate over the kingdom. Once the asantehene and his council had been exiled, the British appointed a resident commissioner to Asante, who was given both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the territories. Each Asante state was administered from Kumasi as a separate entity and was ultimately responsible to the governor of the Gold Coast. As noted above, Asante became a colony following its final defeat in 1901.
In the meantime, the British became interested in the broad areas north of Asante, known generally as the Northern Territories. This interest was prompted primarily by the need to forestall the French and the Germans, who had been making rapid advances in the surrounding areas. British officials had first penetrated the area in the 1880s, and after 1896 protection was extended to northern areas whose trade with the coast had been controlled by Asante. In 1898 and 1899, European colonial powers amicably demarcated the boundaries between the Northern Territories and the surrounding French and German colonies. The Northern Territories were proclaimed a British protectorate in 1902.
Like the Asante protectorate, the Northern Territories were placed under the authority of a resident commissioner who was responsible to the governor of the Gold Coast. The governor ruled both Asante and the Northern Territories by proclamations until 1946.
With the north under British control, the three territories of the Gold Coast -- the Colony (the coastal regions), Asante, and the Northern Territories -- became, for all practical purposes, a single political unit, or crown colony, known as "the dependency '' or simply as the Gold Coast. The borders of present - day Ghana were realised in May 1956 when the people of the Volta region, known as British Mandated Togoland, voted in a plebiscite to become part of modern Ghana.
Beginning in 1850, the coastal regions increasingly came under control of the governor of the British fortresses, who was assisted by the Executive Council and the Legislative Council. The Executive Council was a small advisory body of European officials that recommended laws and voted taxes, subject to the governor 's approval. The Legislative Council included the members of the Executive Council and unofficial members initially chosen from British commercial interests. After 1900 three chiefs and three other Africans were added to the Legislative Council, these being chosen from the Europeanized communities of Accra, Cape Coast, and Sekondi. The inclusion of Africans from Asante and the Northern Territories did not take place until much later. Prior to 1925, all members of the Legislative Council were appointed by the governor. Official members always outnumbered unofficial members.
The gradual emergence of centralised colonial government brought about unified control over local services, although the actual administration of these services was still delegated to local authorities. Specific duties and responsibilities came to be clearly delineated, and the role of traditional states in local administration was also clarified.
The structure of local government had its roots in traditional patterns of government. Village councils of chiefs and elders were almost exclusively responsible for the immediate needs of individual localities, including traditional law and order and the general welfare. The councils, however, ruled by consent rather than by right. Chiefs were chosen by the ruling class of the society; a traditional leader continued to rule not only because he was the choice of what may be termed the nobility, but also because he was accepted by his people. The unseating or destooling of a chief by tribal elders was a fairly common practice if the chief failed to meet the desires or expectations of the community.
Traditional chiefs figured prominently in the system of indirect rule adopted by British authorities to administer their colonies in Africa. According to Frederick Lugard, architect of the policy, indirect rule was cost effective because it reduced the number of European officials in the field. By allowing local rulers to exercise direct administrative control over their people, opposition to European rule from the local population would be minimised. The chiefs, however, were to take instructions from their European supervisors. The plan, according to Lugard, had the further advantage of civilising the natives, because it exposed traditional rulers to the benefits of European political organisation and values. This "civilizing '' process notwithstanding, indirect rule had the ultimate advantage of guaranteeing the maintenance of law and order.
The application of indirect rule in the Gold Coast became essential, especially after Asante and the Northern Territories were brought under British rule. Before the effective colonisation of these territories, the intention of the British was to use both force and agreements to control chiefs in Asante and the north. Once indirect rule was implemented, the chiefs became responsible to the colonial authorities who supported them. In many respects, therefore, the power of each chief was greatly enhanced. Although Lugard pointed to the civilising influence of indirect rule, critics of the policy argued that the element of popular participation was removed from the traditional political system. Despite the theoretical argument in favour of decentralisation, indirect rule in practice caused chiefs to look to Accra (the capital) rather than to their people for all decisions.
Many chiefs and elders came to regard themselves as a ruling aristocracy. Their councils were generally led by government commissioners, who often rewarded the chiefs with honours, decorations, and knighthoods. Indirect rule tended to preserve traditional forms and sources of power, however, and it failed to provide meaningful opportunities for the growing number of educated young men anxious to find a niche in their country 's development. Other groups were dissatisfied because there was not sufficient co-operation between the councils and the central government and because some felt that the local authorities were too dominated by the British district commissioners.
In 1925 provincial councils of chiefs were established in all three territories of the colony, partly to give the chiefs a colony - wide function. This move was followed in 1927 by the promulgation of the Native Administration Ordinance, which replaced an 1883 arrangement that had placed chiefs in the Gold Coast Colony under British supervision. The purpose was to clarify and to regulate the powers and areas of jurisdiction of chiefs and councils. Councils were given specific responsibilities over disputed elections and the unseating of chiefs; the procedure for the election of chiefs was set forth; and judicial powers were defined and delegated. Councils were entrusted with the role of defining customary law in their areas (the government had to approve their decisions), and the provincial councils were empowered to become tribunals to decide matters of customary law when the dispute lay between chiefs in different hierarchies. Until 1939, when the Native Treasuries Ordinance was passed, however, there was no provision for local budgets. In 1935 the Native Authorities Ordinance combined the central colonial government and the local authorities into a single governing system. New native authorities, appointed by the governor, were given wide powers of local government under the supervision of the central government 's provincial commissioners, who assured that their policies would be those of the central government.
In the year 1948 native Ghanaians decided to fight for their independence.
The provincial councils and moves to strengthen them were not popular. Even by British standards, the chiefs were not given enough power to be effective instruments of indirect rule. Some Ghanaians believed that the reforms, by increasing the power of the chiefs at the expense of local initiative, permitted the colonial government to avoid movement toward any form of popular participation in the colony 's government.
The years of British administration of the Gold Coast during the 20th century were an era of significant progress in social, economic, and educational development. Communications were greatly improved. For example, the Sekondi - Tarkwa railroad, begun in 1898, was extended until it connected most of the important commercial centres of the south, and by 1937, there were 9,700 kilometres of roads. Telecommunication and postal services were initiated as well.
New crops were also introduced and gained widespread acceptance. Cacao trees, introduced in 1878, brought the first cash crop to the farmers of the interior; it became the mainstay of the nation 's economy in the 1920s when disease wiped out Brazil 's trees. The production of cocoa was largely in the hands of Africans. The Cocoa Marketing Board was created in 1947 to assist farmers and to stabilise the production and sale of their crop. By the end of that decade, the Gold Coast was exporting more than half of the world 's cocoa supply.
The colony 's earnings increased further from the export of timber and gold. Gold, which initially brought Europeans to the Gold Coast, remained in the hands of Africans until the 1890s. Traditional techniques of panning and shaft mining, however, yielded only limited output. The development of modern modes of extracting minerals made gold mining an exclusively foreign - run enterprise. For example, the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation, which was organised in 1897, gained a concession of about 160 square kilometres in which to prospect commercially for gold. Although certain tribal authorities profited greatly from the granting of mining concessions, it was the European mining companies and the colonial government that accumulated much of the wealth. Revenue from export of the colony 's natural resources financed internal improvements in infrastructure and social services. The foundation of an educational system more advanced than any other else in West Africa also resulted from mineral export revenue.
Many of the economic and civil improvements in the Gold Coast in the early part of the current century have been attributed to Frederick Gordon Guggisberg, governor from 1919 to 1927. Born in Galt (near Toronto), Canada, Guggisberg joined the British army in 1889. During the first decade of the 20th century, he worked as a surveyor in the British colonies of the Gold Coast and Nigeria, and later, during World War I, he served in France.
At the beginning of his governorship of the Gold Coast, Guggisberg presented a 10 - year development program to the Legislative Council. He suggested first the improvement of transportation. Then, in order of priority, his prescribed improvements included water supply, drainage, hydroelectric projects, public buildings, town improvements, schools, hospitals, prisons, communication lines, and other services. Guggisberg also set a goal of filling half of the colony 's technical positions with Africans as soon as they could be trained. His program has been described as the most ambitious ever proposed in West Africa up to that time. Another of the governor 's programs led to the development of an artificial harbour at Takoradi, which then became Ghana 's first port. Achimota College, which developed into one of the nation 's finest secondary schools, was also a Guggisberg idea.
It was through British - style education that a new Ghanaian elite gained the means and the desire to strive for independence. During the colonial years, the country 's educational institutions improved markedly. From beginnings in missionary schools, the early part of the 20th century saw significant advances in many fields, and, although the missions continued to participate, the government steadily increased its interest and support. In 1909 the government established a technical school and a teachers ' training college at Accra; several other secondary schools were set up by the missions. The government steadily increased its financial backing for the growing number of both state and mission schools. In 1948 the country opened its first centre of higher learning, the University College.
The colony assisted Britain in both World War I and World War II. From 1914 to 1918, the Gold Coast Regiment served with distinction in battles against German forces in Cameroon and in the long East Africa campaign. In World War II, troops from the Gold Coast emerged with even greater prestige after outstanding service in such places as Ethiopia and Burma. In the ensuing years, however, postwar problems of inflation and instability severely hampered readjustment for returning veterans, who were in the forefront of growing discontent and unrest. Their war service and veterans ' associations had broadened their horizons, making it difficult for them to return to the humble and circumscribed positions set aside for Africans by the colonial authorities. (See also Gold Coast in World War II).
As the country developed economically, the focus of government power gradually shifted from the hands of the governor and his officials into those of Ghanaians. The changes resulted from the gradual development of a strong spirit of nationalism and were to result eventually in independence. The development of national consciousness accelerated quickly after World War II, when, in addition to ex-servicemen, a substantial group of urban African workers and traders emerged to lend mass support to the aspirations of a small educated minority. Once the movement had begun, events moved rapidly -- not always fast enough to satisfy the nationalist leaders, but still at a pace that surprised not only the colonial government but many of the more conservative African elements as well.
As early as the latter part of the 19th century, a growing number of educated Africans increasingly found unacceptable an arbitrary political system that placed almost all power in the hands of the governor through his appointment of council members. In the 1890s, some members of the educated coastal elite organised themselves into the Aborigines ' Rights Protection Society to protest a land bill that threatened traditional land tenure. This protest helped lay the foundation for political action that would ultimately lead to independence. In 1920 one of the African members of the Legislative Council, Joseph E. Casely - Hayford, convened the National Congress of British West Africa, which sent a delegation to London to urge the Colonial Office to consider the principle of elected representation. The group, which claimed to speak for all British West African colonies, represented the first expression of political solidarity between intellectuals and nationalists of the area. Even though the delegation was not received in London (on the grounds that it represented only the interests of a small group of urbanised Africans), its actions aroused considerable support among the African elite at home.
Notwithstanding their call for elected representation as opposed to a system whereby the governor appointed council members, these nationalists insisted that they were loyal to the British Crown and that they merely sought an extension of British political and social practices to Africans. Notable leaders included Africanus Horton, Jr.; J.M. Sarbah; and S.R.B. Attah - Ahoma. Such men gave the nationalist movement a distinctly elitist flavour that was to last until the late 1940s.
The constitution of 1925, promulgated by Gordon Guggisberg, created provincial councils of paramount chiefs for all but the northern provinces of the colony. These councils in turn elected six chiefs as unofficial members of the Legislative Council. Although the new constitution appeared to recognise African sentiments, Guggisberg was concerned primarily with protecting British interests. For example, he provided Africans with a limited voice in the central government; yet, by limiting nominations to chiefs, he drove a wedge between chiefs and their educated subjects. The intellectuals believed that the chiefs, in return for British support, had allowed the provincial councils to fall completely under control of the government. By the mid-1930s, however, a gradual rapprochement between chiefs and intellectuals had begun.
Agitation for more adequate representation continued. Newspapers owned and managed by Africans played a major part in provoking this discontent -- six were being published in the 1930s. As a result of the call for broader representation, two more unofficial African members were added to the Executive Council in 1943. Changes in the Legislative Council, however, had to await a different political climate in London, which came about only with the postwar election of a British Labour Party government.
The new Gold Coast constitution of 1946 (also known as the Burns constitution after the governor of the time) was a bold document. For the first time, the concept of an official majority was abandoned. The Legislative Council was now composed of six ex officio members, six nominated members, and eighteen elected members. The 1946 constitution also admitted representatives from Asante into the council for the first time. Even with a Labour Party government in power, however, the British continued to view the colonies as a source of raw materials that were needed to strengthen their crippled economy. Change that would place real power in African hands was not a priority among British leaders until after rioting and looting in Accra and other towns and cities in early 1948 over issues of pensions for ex-servicemen, the dominant role of foreigners in the economy, the shortage of housing, and other economic and political grievances.
With elected members in a decisive majority, Ghana had reached a level of political maturity unequaled anywhere in colonial Africa. The constitution did not, however, grant full self - government. Executive power remained in the hands of the governor, to whom the Legislative Council was responsible. Hence, the constitution, although greeted with enthusiasm as a significant milestone, soon encountered trouble. World War II had just ended, and many Gold Coast veterans who had served in British overseas expeditions returned to a country beset with shortages, inflation, unemployment, and black - market practices. There veterans, along with discontented urban elements, formed a nucleus of malcontents ripe for disruptive action. They were now joined by farmers, who resented drastic governmental measures required to cut out diseased cacao trees to control an epidemic, and by many others who were unhappy that the end of the war had not been followed by economic improvements.
Although political organisations had existed in the British colony, the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) was the first nationalist movement with the aim of self - government "in the shortest possible time. '' Founded in August 1947 by educated Africans who included J.B. Danquah, G.A. Grant (known as Paa Grant), R.A. Awoonor - Williams, Edward Akufo - Addo (all lawyers except for Grant, who was a wealthy businessman), and others, the leadership of the organisation called for the replacement of chiefs on the Legislative Council with educated persons. For these political leaders, traditional governance, exercised largely via indirect rule, was identified with colonial interests and the past. They believed that it was their responsibility to lead their country into a new age. They also demanded that, given their education, the colonial administration should respect them and accord them positions of responsibility. As one writer on the period reported, "The symbols of progress, science, freedom, youth, all became cues which the new leadership evoked and reinforced. '' In particular, the UGCC leadership criticised the government for its failure to solve the problems of unemployment, inflation, and the disturbances that had come to characterise the society at the end of the war.
Their opposition to the colonial administration notwithstanding, UGCC members were conservative in the sense that their leadership did not seek drastic or revolutionary change. This was probably a result of their training in the British way of doing things. The manner in which politics were then conducted was to change after Kwame Nkrumah created his Convention People 's Party (CPP) in June 1949.
Nkrumah was born at Nkroful in the Nzema area and educated in Catholic schools at Half Assini and at Achimota School. He received further training in the United States at Lincoln University and at the University of Pennsylvania. Later, in London, Nkrumah became active in the West African Students ' Union and the Pan-African Congress. He was one of the few Africans who participated in the Fifth Pan-African Congress held at Manchester in 1945. During his time in Britain, Nkrumah came to know such outspoken anti-colonialists and intellectuals as the West Indian George Padmore, and the African - American W.E.B. Du Bois. In 1947 when the UGCC was created in the Gold Coast to oppose colonial rule, Nkrumah was invited from London to become the movement 's general secretary.
Nkrumah 's tenure with the UGCC was a stormy one. In March 1948, he was arrested and detained with other leaders of the UGCC for political activism. They were known as the Big Six of Ghana Politics. Later, after the other members of the UGCC were invited to make recommendations to the Coussey Committee, which was advising the governor on the path to independence, Nkrumah broke with the UGCC and founded the CPP. Unlike the UGCC call for self - government "in the shortest possible time, '' Nkrumah and the CPP asked for "self - government now. '' The party leadership, made up of Nkrumah, Kojo Botsio, Komla A. Gbedemah, and a group of mostly young political professionals known as the "Verandah Boys '', identified itself more with ordinary working people than with the UGCC and its intelligentsia.
Nkrumah 's style and the promises he made appealed directly to the majority of workers, farmers, and youths who heard him; he seemed to be the national leader on whom they could focus their hopes. He also won the support of, among others, influential market women who, through their domination of small - scale trade, served as effective channels of communication at the local level.
The majority of the politicised population, stirred in the postwar years by outspoken newspapers, was separated from both the tribal chiefs and the Anglophile elite nearly as much as from the British by economic, social, and educational factors. This majority consisted primarily of ex-servicemen, literate persons who had some primary schooling, journalists, and elementary school teachers, all of whom had developed a taste for populist conceptions of democracy. A growing number of uneducated but urbanised industrial workers also formed part of the support group. Nkrumah was able to appeal to them on their own terms. By June 1949, when the CPP was formed with the avowed purpose of seeking immediate self - governance, Nkrumah had a mass following.
The constitution of 1951 resulted from the report of the Coussey Committee, created because of disturbances in Accra and other cities in 1948. In addition to giving the Executive Council a large majority of African ministers, it created an assembly, half the elected members of which were to come from the towns and rural districts and half from the traditional councils, including, for the first time, the Northern Territories. Although it was an enormous step forward, the new constitution still fell far short of the CPP 's call for full self - government. Executive power remained in British hands, and the legislature was tailored to permit control by traditionalist interests.
With increasing popular backing, the CPP in early 1950 initiated a campaign of "positive action, '' intended to instigate widespread strikes and nonviolent resistance. When some violent disorders occurred, Nkrumah, along with his principal lieutenants, was promptly arrested and imprisoned for sedition. But this merely increased his prestige as leader and hero of the cause and gave him the status of martyr. In February 1951, the first elections were held for the Legislative Assembly under the new constitution. Nkrumah, still in jail, won a seat, and the CPP won an impressive victory with a two - thirds majority of the 104 seats.
The governor, Sir Charles Arden - Clarke, released Nkrumah and invited him to form a government as "leader of government business, '' a position similar to that of prime minister. Nkrumah accepted. A major milestone had been passed on the road to independence and self - government. Nonetheless, although the CPP agreed to work within the new constitutional order, the structure of government that existed in 1951 was certainly not what the CPP preferred. The ministries of defence, external affairs, finance, and justice were still controlled by British officials who were not responsible to the legislature. Also, by providing for a sizeable representation of traditional tribal chiefs in the Legislative Assembly, the constitution accentuated the cleavage between the modern political leaders and the traditional authorities of the councils of chiefs.
The start of Nkrumah 's first term as "leader of government business '' was marked by cordiality and co-operation with the British governor. During the next few years, the government was gradually transformed into a full parliamentary system. The changes were opposed by the more traditionalist African elements, particularly in Asante and the Northern Territories. This opposition, however, proved ineffective in the face of continuing and growing popular support for a single over-riding concept -- independence at an early date.
In 1952 the position of prime minister was created and the Executive Council became the cabinet. The prime minister was made responsible to the assembly, which duly elected Nkrumah prime minister. The constitution of 1954 ended the election of assembly members by the tribal councils. The Legislative Assembly increased in size, and all members were chosen by direct election from equal, single - member constituencies. Only defence and foreign policy remained in the hands of the governor; the elected assembly was given control of virtually all internal affairs of the colony.
The CPP pursued a policy of political centralisation, which encountered serious opposition. Shortly after the 1954 election, a new party, the Asante - based National Liberation Movement (NLM), was formed. The NLM advocated a federal form of government, with increased powers for the various regions. NLM leaders criticised the CPP for perceived dictatorial tendencies. The new party worked in co-operation with another regionalist group, the Northern People 's Party. When these two regional parties walked out of discussions on a new constitution, the CPP feared that London might consider such disunity an indication that the colony was not yet ready for the next phase of self - government.
The British constitutional adviser, however, backed the CPP position. The governor dissolved the assembly to test popular support for the CPP demand for immediate independence. The Crown agreed to grant independence if so requested by a two - thirds majority of the new legislature. New elections were held in July 1956. In keenly contested elections, the CPP won 57 per cent of the votes cast, but the fragmentation of the opposition gave the CPP every seat in the south as well as enough seats in Asante, the Northern Territories, and the Trans - Volta Region to hold a two - thirds majority of the 104 seats.
Prior to the July 1956 general elections in the Gold Coast, a plebiscite was conducted under United Nations (UN) auspices to decide the future disposition of British Togoland and French Togoland. The British trusteeship, the western portion of the former German colony, had been linked to the Gold Coast since 1919 and was represented in its parliament. A clear majority of British Togoland inhabitants voted in favour of union with their western neighbours, and the area was absorbed into the Gold Coast. There was, however, vocal opposition to the incorporation from some of the Ewe in southern British Togoland.
On 6 March 1957, the story of the Gold Coast colony came to an end, and so began the story of the territory as the independent country of Ghana.
Coordinates: 5 ° 33 ′ 00 '' N 0 ° 13 ′ 00 '' W / 5.5500 ° N 0.2167 ° W / 5.5500; - 0.2167
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where was the historic battle in which the ottomans defeated the serbs | Battle of Kosovo - wikipedia
The Battle of Kosovo took place on 15 June 1389 between an army led by the Serbian Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović and an invading army of the Ottoman Empire under the command of Sultan Murad Hüdavendigâr. The army under Prince Lazar consisted of his own troops, a contingent led by Serbian nobleman Vuk Branković, and a contingent sent from Bosnia by King Tvrtko I, commanded by Vlatko Vuković. Prince Lazar was the ruler of Moravian Serbia and the most powerful among the Serbian regional lords of the time, while Vuk Branković ruled District of Branković located in Kosovo and other areas, recognizing Lazar as his overlord. The battle was fought on the Kosovo field in the territory ruled by Branković, in what is today Kosovo. Its site is about 5 kilometers (3.1 mi) northwest of the modern city of Pristina.
Reliable historical accounts of the battle are scarce. The bulk of both armies were wiped out in the battle, and both Lazar and Murad were killed. Although the Ottomans managed to annihilate the Serbian army, they also suffered huge casualties that delayed their progress. The Serbs were left with too few men to effectively defend their lands, while the Turks had many more troops in the east. Consequently, one after the other, the Serbian principalities that were not already Ottoman vassals became so in the following years.
Emperor Stefan Uroš IV Dušan "the Mighty '' (r. 1331 -- 55) was succeeded by his son Stefan Uroš V "the Weak '' (r. 1355 -- 71), whose reign was characterized by the decline of central power and the rise of numerous virtually independent principalities; this period is known as the fall of the Serbian Empire. Uroš V was neither able to sustain the great empire created by his father nor repulse foreign threats and limit the independence of the nobility; he died childless on 4 December 1371, after much of the Serbian nobility had been destroyed by the Ottomans in the Battle of Maritsa earlier that year. Prince Lazar, ruler of the northern part of the former empire of (Moravian Serbia), was aware of the Ottoman threat and began diplomatic and military preparations for a campaign against them.
After the defeat of the Ottomans at Pločnik (1386) and Bileća (1388), Murad I, the reigning Ottoman sultan, moved his troops from Philippoupolis to Ihtiman (modern Bulgaria) in the spring of 1388. From there they traveled across Velbužd and Kratovo (modern R. Macedonia). Though longer than the alternative route through Sofia and the Nišava Valley, this led the Ottoman forces to Kosovo, one of the most important crossroads in the Balkans. From Kosovo they could attack the lands of either Prince Lazar or Vuk Branković. Having stayed in Kratovo for a time, Murad and his troops marched through Kumanovo, Preševo and Gnjilane to Priština, where he arrived on June 14.
While there is less information about Lazar 's preparations, he gathered his troops near Niš, on the right bank of the South Morava. His forces likely remained there until he learned that Murad had moved to Velbužd, whereupon he moved across Prokuplje to Kosovo. This was the best place he could choose as a battlefield, as it gave him control of all the routes that Murad could take.
Reliable historical accounts of the battle are scarce; however, a critical comparison with historically contemporaneous battles (such as Ankara or Nikopolis) enables reliable reconstruction.
Murad 's army numbered between 27,000 and 40,000 men. These 40,000 included no more than 2,000 Janissaries, 2,500 of Murad 's cavalry guard, 6,000 sipahis, 20,000 azaps and akincis, and 8,000 troops from his vassals. Marko and Dragaš, although Ottoman vassals, did not participate in the battle. The Ottoman army was supported by the forces of the Anatolian Turkoman Beylik of Isfendiyar.
Lazar 's army numbered between 12,000 and 30,000. According to a Yugoslav encyclopaedia (1972), there were approximately 30,000 fighters present; 12,000 - 15,000 were under Lazar 's command, with 5,000 - 10,000 under Vuk Branković, a Serbian nobleman from Kosovo, and just as many under the nobleman Vlatko Vuković, who had been sent by the Bosnian king Tvrtko I Kotromanić. Also present were Knights Hospitaller led by the Croatian knight John of Palisna. Several thousand were knights. Furthermore, there have been several anachronistic accounts that have mentioned the "Christian army '' of Lazar was far greater, and that it also included contingents of other nations, although these can not be verified.
The armies met at the Kosovo field. Murad headed the Ottoman army, with his sons Bayezid on his right and Yakub on his left. Around 1,000 archers were in the front line in the wings, backed up by azap and akinci; in the front center were janissaries, behind whom was Murad, surrounded by his cavalry guard; finally, the supply train at the rear was guarded by a small number of troops. One of the Ottoman commanders was Pasha Yiğit Bey.
The Serbian army had Prince Lazar at its center, Vuk on the right and Vlatko on the left. At the front of the army were the heavy cavalry and archer cavalry on the flanks, with the infantry to the rear. While parallel, the dispositions of the armies were not symmetrical, as the Serbian center had a broader front than the Ottoman center.
Serbian and Turkish accounts of the battle differ, making it difficult to reconstruct the course of events. It is believed that the battle commenced with Ottoman archers shooting at Serbian cavalry, who then made ready for the attack. After positioning in a wedge formation, the Serbian cavalry managed to break through the Ottoman left wing, but were not as successful against the center and the right wing.
The Serbs had the initial advantage after their first charge, which significantly damaged the Ottoman wing commanded by Yakub Çelebi. When the knights ' charge was finished, light Ottoman cavalry and light infantry counterattacked and the Serbian heavy armor became a disadvantage. In the center, Serbian troops managed to push back Ottoman forces, except for Bayezid 's wing, which barely held off the forces commanded by Vlatko Vuković. Vuković thus inflicted disproportionately heavy losses on the Ottomans. The Ottomans, in a ferocious counterattack led by Bayezid, pushed the Serbian forces back and then prevailed later in the day, routing the Serbian infantry. Both flanks still held, with Vuković 's drifting toward the center to compensate for the heavy losses inflicted on the Serbian infantry.
Historical facts say that Vuk Branković saw that there was no hope for victory and fled to save as many men as he could after Lazar was captured. In traditional songs, however, it is said that he betrayed Lazar and left him to die in the middle of battle, rather than after Lazar was captured and the center suffered heavy losses.
Sometime after Branković 's retreat from the battle, the remaining Bosnian and Serb forces yielded the field, believing that a victory was no longer possible.
As the battle turned against the Serbs, it is said that one of their knights, later identified as Miloš Obilić, pretended to have deserted to the Ottoman forces. When brought before Murad, Obilić pulled out a hidden dagger and killed the Sultan by slashing him, after which the Sultan 's bodyguards immediately killed him.
The earliest preserved record, a letter from the Florentine senate to King Tvrtko I of Bosnia dated 20 October 1389, says that Murad was killed during the battle. The killer is not named, but it was one of 12 Serbian noblemen who managed to break through the Ottoman lines:
Fortunate, most fortunate are those hands of the twelve loyal lords who, having opened their way with the sword and having penetrated the enemy lines and the circle of chained camels, heroically reached the tent of Murat himself. Fortunate above all is that one who so forcefully killed such a strong vojvoda by stabbing him with a sword in the throat and belly. And blessed are all those who gave their lives and blood through the glorious manner of martyrdom as victims of the dead leader over his ugly corpse.
Another Italian account, Mignanelli 's work of 1416, asserted that it was Lazar who killed the Ottoman sultan.
Both armies were annihilated in the battle; both Lazar and Murad lost their lives, and the remnants of their armies eventually retreated from the battlefield. Murad 's son Bayezid strangled his younger brother Yakub Çelebi upon hearing that their father had died, thus becoming the sole heir to the Ottoman throne. The Serbs were left with too few men to defend their lands effectively, while the Turks had many more troops in the east. Consequently, the Serbian principalities that were not already Ottoman vassals became so in the following years, yielding one by one. Furthermore, in response to Ottoman pressure, some Serbian noblemen wed their daughters, including the daughter of Prince Lazar, to Bayezid. In the wake of these marriages, Stefan Lazarević became a loyal ally of Bayezid, going on to contribute significant forces to many of Bayezid 's future military engagements, including the Battle of Nicopolis. Eventually the Serbian Despotate would, on numerous occasions, attempt to defeat the Ottomans in conjunction with the Hungarians until its final defeat in 1459.
The Battle of Kosovo is particularly important to Serbian history, tradition and national identity.
The day of the battle, known in Serbian as Vidovdan (St. Vitus ' day), is an important part of Serb ethnic and national identity, with notable events in Serbian history falling on that day: in 1876 Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire (Serbian -- Ottoman War (1876 -- 78)); in 1881 Austria - Hungary and the Principality of Serbia signed a secret alliance; in 1914 the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was carried out by the Serbian Gavrilo Princip (although a coincidence that his visit fell on that day, Vidovdan added nationalist symbolism to the event); in 1921 Serbian King Alexander I proclaimed the Vidovdan Constitution; in 1989, on the 600th anniversary of the battle, Serbian political leader Slobodan Milošević delivered the Gazimestan speech on the site of the historic battle, etc.
The Tomb of Sultan Murad, a site in Kosovo Polje where Murad I 's internal organs were buried, has gained a religious significance for local Muslims. A monument was built by Murad I 's son Bayezid I at the tomb, becoming the first example of Ottoman architecture in the Kosovo territory.
Thus since the Turks also withdrew, one can conclude that the battle was a draw.
Surprisingly enough, it is not even possible to know with certainty from the extant contemporary material whether one or the other side was victorious on the field. There is certainly little to indicate that it was a great Serbian defeat; and the earliest reports of the conflict suggest, on the contrary, that the Christian forces had won.
Coordinates: 42 ° 37 ′ 48 '' N 21 ° 7 ′ 12 '' E / 42.63000 ° N 21.12000 ° E / 42.63000; 21.12000
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the eightfold path which is the middle path in buddhism is between the extremes of | Middle Way - wikipedia
The Middle Way or Middle Path (Pali: Majjhimāpaṭipadā; Sanskrit: Madhyamāpratipad; Tibetan: དབུ ་ མའི ་ ལམ །, THL: Umélam; Chinese: 中 道; Vietnamese: Trung đạo; Thai: มัชฌิมาปฏิปทา) is the term that Gautama Buddha used to describe the character of the Noble Eightfold Path he discovered that leads to liberation.
In the Pāli Canon of Theravada Buddhism, the term "Middle Way '' was used in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, which the Buddhist tradition regards to be the first teaching that the Buddha delivered after his awakening. In this sutta, the Buddha describes the Noble Eightfold Path as the middle way of moderation, between the extremes of sensual indulgence and self - mortification:
Monks, these two extremes ought not to be practiced by one who has gone forth from the household life. There is addiction to indulgence of sense - pleasures, which is low, coarse, the way of ordinary people, unworthy, and unprofitable; and there is addiction to self - mortification, which is painful, unworthy, and unprofitable.
Avoiding both these extremes, the Tathagata (the Perfect One) has realized the Middle Path; it gives vision, gives knowledge, and leads to calm, to insight, to enlightenment and to Nibbana. And what is that Middle Path realized by the Tathagata...? It is the Noble Eightfold path, and nothing else, namely: right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.
According to the scriptural account, when the Buddha delivered the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, he was addressing five ascetics with whom he had previously practiced severe austerities. Thus, it is this personal context as well as the broader context of Indian shramanic practices that gives particular relevancy to the caveat against the extreme (Pali: antā) of self - mortification (Pali attakilamatha).
Later Pali literature has also used the phrase Middle Way to refer to the Buddha 's teaching of dependent origination as a view between the extremes of eternalism and annihilationism.
Pratītyasamutpāda, or "dependent origination '', describes the existence of objects and phenomena as the result of causes. When one of these causes changes or disappears, the resulting object or phenomena will also change or disappear, as will the objects or phenomena depending on the changing object or phenomena. Thus, there is nothing with an eternal self or atman, only mutually dependent origination and existence. However, the absence of an eternal atman does not mean there is nothing at all. Early Buddhism adheres to a realistic approach which does not deny existence as such, but denies the existence of eternal and independent substances. This view is the Middle Way between eternalism and annihilationism:
The understanding that sees a "person '' as subsisting in the causal connectedness of dependent arising is often presented in Buddhist thought as "the middle '' (madhyama / majjhima) between the views of "eternalism '' (śaśvata - / sassata - vāda) and "annihilationism '' (uccheda - vāda).
Dependent origination views human persons too as devoid of a personal essence or atman. In Theravadin literature, this usage of the term "Middle Way '' can be found in 5th century CE Pali commentaries:
The Tathāgata teaches the Dhamma by the middle without veering to either of these extremes -- eternalism or annihilationism -- having abandoned them without reservation. He teaches while being established in the middle way. What is that Dhamma? By the formula of dependent origination, the effect is shown to occur through the cause and to cease with the cessation of the cause, but no agent or experiencer (...) is described.
In the Visuddhimagga, the following is found:
"Dependent origination '' (paticca - samuppada) represents the middle way, which rejects the doctrines, ' He who acts is he who reaps ' and ' One acts while another reaps ' (S. ii. 20)... ''
In the Pali Canon itself, this view is not explicitly called the "Middle Way '' but is literally referred to as "teaching by the middle '' (majjhena dhamma).
Paticcasamuppāda "dependent origination '' also gives a rationale for rebirth:
Conditioned Arising is (...) a ' Middle Way ' which avoids the extremes of ' eternalism ' and ' annihilationism ': the survival of an eternal self, or the total annihilation of a person at death.
In Theravadin soteriology, the principle of anattā means there is neither a permanent self nor complete annihilation of the person at death; there is only the arising and ceasing of causally related phenomena. Paticcasamuppāda also describes the Twelve Nidānas of dukkha "suffering '' that lead to rebirth, from avijjā "ignorance '' to jarāmaraṇa "aging and death '', and the parallel reverse - order interdependent cessation of these factors.
In Theravada Buddhism, only nibbana is unconditioned; nonetheless, even the arahant or tathāgata, upon passing, neither exists nor non-exists according to the Pāli Canon.
In Mahayana Buddhism, the Middle Way refers to the insight into śūnyatā "emptiness '' that transcends the extremes of existence and non-existence, the two truths doctrine. According to Kalupahana,
Two aspects of the Buddha 's teachings, the philosophical and the practical, which are mutually dependent, are clearly enunciated in two discourses, the Kaccāyanagotta - sutta and the Dhammacakkappavattana - sutta, both of which are held in high esteem by almost all schools of Buddhism in spite of their sectarian rivalries. The Kaccāyanagotta - sutta, quoted by almost all the major schools of Buddhism, deals with the philosophical "middle path '', placed against the backdrop of two absolutistic theories in Indian philosophy, namely, permanent existence (atthitaa) propounded in the early Upanishads and nihilistic non-existence (natthitā) suggested by the Materialists.
In Mahayana Buddhism, the Madhyamaka ("Middle Way '') school portrays a "middle way '' position between metaphysical claims that things ultimately either exist or do not exist. Nagarjuna 's influential Mūlamadhyamakakārikā deconstructs the usage of terms describing reality, leading to the insight into śūnyatā "emptiness ''. It contains only one reference to a sutta, the Kaccāyanagotta Sutta from the Samyutta Nikaya:
"Everything exists '': That is one extreme. "Everything does n't exist '': That is a second extreme. Avoiding these two extremes, The Tathagata teaches the Dhamma via the middle.
In the Tendai school, the Middle Way refers to the synthesis of the thesis that all things are śūnyatā and the antithesis that all things have phenomenal existence.
In Chan Buddhism, the Middle Way describes the realization of being free of the one - sidedness of perspective that takes the extremes of any polarity as objective reality. In chapter ten of the Platform Sutra, Huineng gives instructions for the teaching of the Dharma. Huineng enumerates 36 basic oppositions of consciousness and explains how the Way is free from both extremes:
If one asks about the worldly, use the paired opposite of the saintly; if asking about the saintly use the paired opposite of the worldly. The mutual causation of the Way of dualities, gives birth to the meaning of the Middle Way. So, for a single question, a single pair of opposites, and for other questions the single (pair) that accords with this fashion, then you do not lose the principle.
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what are the main purposes of the gastrointestinal | Gastrointestinal tract - wikipedia
The gastrointestinal tract (digestive tract, digestional tract, GI tract, GIT, gut, or alimentary canal) is an organ system within humans and other animals which takes in food, digests it to extract and absorb energy and nutrients, and expels the remaining waste as feces. The mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines are part of the gastrointestinal tract. Gastrointestinal is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the stomach and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs.
All bilaterians have a gastrointestinal tract, also called a gut or an alimentary canal. This is a tube that transfers food to the organs of digestion. In large bilaterians, the gastrointestinal tract generally also has an exit, the anus, by which the animal disposes of feces (solid wastes). Some small bilaterians have no anus and dispose of solid wastes by other means (for example, through the mouth).
The gastrointestinal tract contains thousands of different bacteria in its gut flora, that play an important role in the immune system.
The human gastrointestinal tract consists of the esophagus, stomach, and intestines, and is divided into the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts. The GI tract includes all structures between the mouth and the anus, forming a continuous passageway that includes the main organs of digestion, namely, the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. However, the complete human digestive system comprises the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). The tract may also be divided into foregut, midgut, and hindgut, reflecting the embryological origin of each segment.
The whole human GI tract is about nine metres (30 feet) long at autopsy. It is considerably shorter in the living body because the intestines, which are tubes of smooth muscle tissue, maintain constant muscle tone, somewhat like a Slinky that maintains itself in a halfway - tense state but can relax in spots to allow for local distention, peristalsis, and so on.
The GI tract releases hormones from enzymes to help regulate the digestive process. These hormones, including gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin, and ghrelin, are mediated through either intracrine or autocrine mechanisms, indicating that the cells releasing these hormones are conserved structures throughout evolution.
The structure and function can be described both as gross anatomy and as microscopic anatomy or histology. The tract itself is divided into upper and lower tracts, and the intestines small and large parts.
The upper gastrointestinal tract consists of the buccal cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and duodenum. The exact demarcation between the upper and lower tracts is the suspensory muscle of the duodenum. This delineates the embryonic borders between the foregut and midgut, and is also the division commonly used by clinicians to describe gastrointestinal bleeding as being of either "upper '' or "lower '' origin. Upon dissection, the duodenum may appear to be a unified organ, but it is divided into four segments based upon function, location, and internal anatomy. The four segments of the duodenum are as follows (starting at the stomach, and moving toward the jejunum): bulb, descending, horizontal, and ascending. The suspensory muscle attaches the superior border of the ascending duodenum to the diaphragm.
The suspensory muscle is an important anatomical landmark which shows the formal division between the duodenum and the jejunum, the first and second parts of the small intestine, respectively. This is a thin muscle which is derived from the embryonic mesoderm.
The lower gastrointestinal tract includes most of the small intestine and all of the large intestine. In human anatomy, the intestine (bowel, or gut. Greek: éntera) is the segment of the gastrointestinal tract extending from the pyloric sphincter of the stomach to the anus and, as in other mammals, consists of two segments, the small intestine and the large intestine. In humans, the small intestine is further subdivided into the duodenum, jejunum and ileum while the large intestine is subdivided into the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal.
The small intestine begins at the duodenum and is a tubular structure, usually between 6 and 7 m long. Its mucosal area in an adult human is about 30 m. Its main function is to absorb the products of digestion (including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and vitamins) into the bloodstream. There are three major divisions:
The large intestine also called the colon, consists of the cecum, rectum, and anal canal. It also includes the appendix, which is attached to the cecum. The colon is further divided into:
The main function of the large intestine is to absorb water. The area of the large intestinal mucosa of an adult human is about 2 m.
The gut is an endoderm - derived structure. At approximately the sixteenth day of human development, the embryo begins to fold ventrally (with the embryo 's ventral surface becoming concave) in two directions: the sides of the embryo fold in on each other and the head and tail fold toward one another. The result is that a piece of the yolk sac, an endoderm - lined structure in contact with the ventral aspect of the embryo, begins to be pinched off to become the primitive gut. The yolk sac remains connected to the gut tube via the vitelline duct. Usually this structure regresses during development; in cases where it does not, it is known as Meckel 's diverticulum.
During fetal life, the primitive gut is gradually patterned into three segments: foregut, midgut, and hindgut. Although these terms are often used in reference to segments of the primitive gut, they are also used regularly to describe regions of the definitive gut as well.
Each segment of the gut is further specified and gives rise to specific gut and gut - related structures in later development. Components derived from the gut proper, including the stomach and colon, develop as swellings or dilatations in the cells of the primitive gut. In contrast, gut - related derivatives -- that is, those structures that derive from the primitive gut but are not part of the gut proper, in general develop as out - pouchings of the primitive gut. The blood vessels supplying these structures remain constant throughout development.
The gastrointestinal tract has a form of general histology with some differences that reflect the specialization in functional anatomy. The GI tract can be divided into four concentric layers in the following order:
The mucosa is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract. that is surrounding the lumen, or open space within the tube. This layer comes in direct contact with digested food (chyme). The mucosa is made up of:
The mucosae are highly specialized in each organ of the gastrointestinal tract to deal with the different conditions. The most variation is seen in the epithelium.
The submucosa consists of a dense irregular layer of connective tissue with large blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves branching into the mucosa and muscularis externa. It contains the submucosal plexus, an enteric nervous plexus, situated on the inner surface of the muscularis externa.
The muscular layer consists of an inner circular layer and a longitudinal outer layer. The circular layer prevents food from traveling backward and the longitudinal layer shortens the tract. The layers are not truly longitudinal or circular, rather the layers of muscle are helical with different pitches. The inner circular is helical with a steep pitch and the outer longitudinal is helical with a much shallower pitch.
Between the two muscle layers is the myenteric plexus. This controls peristalsis. Activity is initiated by the pacemaker cells, (myenteric interstitial cells of Cajal). The gut has intrinsic peristaltic activity (basal electrical rhythm) due to its self - contained enteric nervous system. The rate can be modulated by the rest of the autonomic nervous system.
The coordinated contractions of these layers is called peristalsis and propels the food through the tract. Food in the GI tract is called a bolus (ball of food) from the mouth down to the stomach. After the stomach, the food is partially digested and semi-liquid, and is referred to as chyme. In the large intestine the remaining semi-solid substance is referred to as faeces.
The outermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract consists of several layers of connective tissue.
Intraperitoneal parts of the GI tract are covered with serosa. These include most of the stomach, first part of the duodenum, all of the small intestine, caecum and appendix, transverse colon, sigmoid colon and rectum. In these sections of the gut there is clear boundary between the gut and the surrounding tissue. These parts of the tract have a mesentery.
Retroperitoneal parts are covered with adventitia. They blend into the surrounding tissue and are fixed in position. For example, the retroperitoneal section of the duodenum usually passes through the transpyloric plane. These include the esophagus, pylorus of the stomach, distal duodenum, ascending colon, descending colon and anal canal. In addition, the oral cavity has adventitia.
Approximately 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 75 % of these genes are expressed in at least one of the different parts of the digestive organ system. Over 600 of these genes are more specifically expressed in one or more parts of the GI tract and the corresponding proteins have functions related to digestion of food and uptake of nutrients. Examples of specific proteins with such functions are pepsinogen PGC and the lipase LIPF, expressed in chief cells, and gastric ATPase ATP4A and gastric intrinsic factor GIF, expressed in parietal cells of the stomach mucosa. Specific proteins expressed in the stomach and duodenum involved in defence include mucin proteins, such as mucin 6 and intelectin - 1.
The time taken for food or other ingested objects to transit through the gastrointestinal tract varies depending on many factors, but roughly, it takes less than an hour after a meal for 50 % of stomach contents to empty into the intestines while total emptying takes around 2 hours. Subsequently, 50 % emptying of the small intestine takes between 1 and 2 hours. Finally, transit through the colon takes 12 to 50 hours with wide variation between individuals.
The gastrointestinal tract forms an important part of the immune system. The surface area of the digestive tract is estimated to be about 32 square meters, or about half a badminton court. With such a large exposure (more than three times larger than the exposed surface of the skin), these immune components function to prevent pathogens from entering the blood and lymph circulatory systems. Fundamental components of this protection are provided by the intestinal mucosal barrier which is composed of physical, biochemical, and immune elements elaborated by the intestinal mucosa. Microorganisms also are kept at bay by an extensive immune system comprising the gut - associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)
There are additional factors contributing to protection from pathogen invasion. For example, low pH (ranging from 1 to 4) of the stomach is fatal for many microorganisms that enter it. Similarly, mucus (containing IgA antibodies) neutralizes many pathogenic microorganisms. Other factors in the GI tract contribution to immune function include enzymes secreted in the saliva and bile.
Beneficial bacteria also can contribute to the homeostasis of the gastrointestinal immune system. For example Clostridia, one of the most predominant bacterial groups in the GI tract, play an important role in influencing the dynamics of the gut 's immune system. It has been demonstrated that the intake of a high fiber diet could be the responsible for the induction of T - regulatory cells (Tregs). This is due to the production of short - chain fatty acids during the fermentation of plant - derived nutrients such as butyrate and propionate. Basically, the butyrate induces the differentiation of Treg cells by enhancing histone H3 acetylation in the promoter and conserved non-coding sequence regions of the FOXP3 locus, thus regulating the T cells, resulting in the reduction of the inflammatory response and allergies.
The large intestine hosts several kinds of bacteria that can deal with molecules that the human body can not otherwise break down. This is an example of symbiosis. These bacteria also account for the production of gases at host - pathogen interface, inside our intestine (this gas is released as flatulence when eliminated through the anus). However the large intestine is mainly concerned with the absorption of water from digested material (which is regulated by the hypothalamus) and the re absorption of sodium, as well as any nutrients that may have escaped primary digestion in the ileum.
Health - enhancing intestinal bacteria of the gut flora serve to prevent the overgrowth of potentially harmful bacteria in the gut. These two types of bacteria compete for space and "food, '' as there are limited resources within the intestinal tract. A ratio of 80 - 85 % beneficial to 15 -- 20 % potentially harmful bacteria generally is considered normal within the intestines.
Enzymes such as CYP3A4, along with the antiporter activities, are also instrumental in the intestine 's role of drug metabolism in the detoxification of antigens and xenobiotics.
There are many diseases and conditions that can affect the gastrointestinal system, including infections, inflammation and cancer.
Various pathogens can cause gastroenteritis an inflammation of the stomach and small intestine. These can include those organisms that cause foodborne illnesses. Gastroenteritis is the most common disease of the GI tract.
Diverticular disease is a condition that is very common in older people in industrialized countries. It usually affects the large intestine but has been known to affect the small intestine as well. Diverticulosis occurs when pouches form on the intestinal wall. Once the pouches become inflamed it is known as diverticulitis.
Inflammatory bowel disease is an inflammatory condition affecting the bowel walls, and includes the subtypes Crohn 's disease and ulcerative colitis. While Crohn 's can affect the entire gastrointestinal tract, ulcerative colitis is limited to the large intestine. Crohn 's disease is widely regarded as an autoimmune disease. Although ulcerative colitis is often treated as though it were an autoimmune disease, there is no consensus that it actually is such.
Functional gastrointestinal disorders the most common of which is irritable bowel syndrome. Functional constipation and chronic functional abdominal pain are other functional disorders of the intestine that have physiological causes, but do not have identifiable structural, chemical, or infectious pathologies.
Several symptoms are used to indicate problems with the gastrointestinal tract:
Gastrointestinal surgery can often be performed in the outpatient setting. In the United States in 2012, operations on the digestive system accounted for 3 of the 25 most common ambulatory surgery procedures and constituted 9.1 percent of all outpatient ambulatory surgeries.
Various methods of imaging the gastrointestinal tract include the upper and lower gastrointestinal series:
Animal intestines have multiple uses. From each species of livestock that is a source of milk, a corresponding rennet is obtained from the intestines of milk - fed calves. Pig and calf intestines are eaten, and pig intestines are used as sausage casings. Calf intestines supply calf - intestinal alkaline phosphatase (CIP), and are used to make goldbeater 's skin. Other uses are:
Many birds and other animals have a specialised stomach in the digestive tract called a gizzard used for grinding up food.
Another feature not found in the human but found in a range of other animals is the crop. In birds this is found as a pouch alongside the esophagus.
Other animals including amphibians, birds, reptiles, and egg - laying mammals have a major difference in their GI tract in that it ends in a cloaca and not an anus.
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declaration on the conduct of parties in the south china sea wiki | Territorial disputes in the South China Sea - wikipedia
The South China Sea disputes involve both island and maritime claims among several sovereign states within the region, namely Brunei, the People 's Republic of China (PRC), the Republic of China (ROC), Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Vietnam. An estimated US $5 trillion worth of global trade passes through the South China Sea and many non-claimant states want the South China Sea to remain international waters. To promote this, several states, including the United States, conduct "freedom of navigation '' operations.
The disputes include the islands, reefs, banks, and other features of the South China Sea, including the Spratly Islands, Paracel Islands, and various boundaries in the Gulf of Tonkin. There are further disputes, including the waters near the Indonesian Natuna Islands, which many do not regard as part of the South China Sea. Claimant states are interested in retaining or acquiring the rights to fishing areas, the exploration and potential exploitation of crude oil and natural gas in the seabed of various parts of the South China Sea, and the strategic control of important shipping lanes.
In July 2016, an arbitration tribunal constituted under Annex VII of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) ruled against the PRC 's maritime claims in Philippines v. China. The PRC does not recognise the tribunal and, its ruling being unenforceable, ignored it, insisting that the matter should be resolved through bilateral negotiations with other claimants.
The disputes involve both maritime boundaries and islands. There are several disputes, each of which involves a different collection of countries:
The area may be rich in oil and natural gas deposits; however, the estimates are highly varied. The Ministry of Geological Resources and Mining of the People 's Republic of China estimated that the South China Sea may contain 17.7 billion tons of crude oil (compared to Kuwait with 13 billion tons). In the years following the announcement by the PRC ministry, the claims regarding the South China Sea islands intensified. However, other sources claim that the proven reserves of oil in the South China Sea may only be 7.5 billion barrels, or about 1.1 billion tons. According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) 's profile of the South China Sea region, a US Geological Survey estimate puts the region 's discovered and undiscovered oil reserves at 11 billion barrels, as opposed to a PRC figure of 125 billion barrels. The same EIA report also points to the wide variety of natural gas resource estimations, ranging from 190 trillion cubic feet to 500 trillion cubic feet, likely located in the contested Reed Bank ".
The South China Sea is dubbed by the PRC as the "second Persian Sea. '' The state - owned China Offshore Exploration Corp. planned to spend 200 billion RMB (US $30 billion) in the next 20 years to exploit oil in the region, with the estimated production of 25 million metric tons of crude oil and natural gas per annum, at a depth of 2000 meters within the next five years.
The Philippines began exploring the areas west of Palawan for oil in 1970. Exploration in the area began in Reed Bank / Tablemount. In 1976, gas was discovered following the drilling of a well. However, the PRC 's complaints halted the exploration.
On 27 March 1984, the first Philippine oil company discovered an oil field off Palawan, which is an island province bordering the South China Sea and the Sulu Sea. These oil fields supply 15 % of annual oil consumption in the Philippines.
The nine - dash line was originally an "eleven - dashed - line, '' first indicated by the then Kuomintang government of the Republic of China in 1947, for its claims to the South China Sea. After, the Communist Party of China took over mainland China and formed the People 's Republic of China in 1949. The line was adopted and revised to nine dashes / dots as endorsed by Zhou Enlai.
The legacy of the nine - dash line is viewed by some PRC government officials, and by the PRC military, as providing historical support for their claims to the South China Sea.
In the 1970s, however, the Philippines, Malaysia and other countries began referring to the Spratly Islands as included in their own territory. On 11 June 1978, President Ferdinand Marcos of the Philippines issued Presidential decree No. 1596, declaring the north - western part of the Spratly Islands (referred to therein as the Kalayaan Island Group) as Philippine territory.
The once abundant fishing opportunities within the region are another motivation for claims. In 1988, the South China Sea was believed to have accounted for 8 % of world fishing catches, a figure that has grown since then. There have been many clashes in the Philippines with foreign fishing vessels (including those of the PRC) in disputed areas. The PRC believes that the value in fishing and oil from the sea has risen to a trillion dollars.
The area is also one of the busiest shipping routes in the world. In the 1980s, at least 270 merchant ships used the route each day. Currently, more than half the tonnage of the world 's crude oil transported by sea passes through the South China Sea, a figure rising steadily with the growth of the PRC consumption of oil. This traffic is three times greater than that passing through the Suez Canal and five times more than the Panama Canal.
Since 1996, Vietnam and the Philippines, and to a lesser degree Malaysia and Brunei, have asserted claims within the area covered by the Chinese (PRC & ROC) nine - dotted line.
Since 1974, when PRC troops confronted and expelled Vietnamese troops, most of the Paracel Islands have been occupied by the PRC, and all have been under PRC control.
Similarly, although there have been a small number of notable changes in influence or occupation, the occupation and / or control of most parts of the Spratly Islands has not changed significantly since the mid 1990s - see List of maritime features in the Spratly Islands for details. Vietnamese troops control the greatest number of islands, reefs, etc. (approx 29.) Eight islands are controlled by the Philippines, five by Malaysia, one by Taiwan, and all of those mentioned have various degrees of "control '' over other features. Although the Paracels are completely under PRC control, the PRC have no control of any natural feature above sea level. The significance of this situation has changed dramatically since 2014 whence the PRC embarked on a truly remarkable program of land reclamation and artificial island building - see Great wall of sand and List of maritime features in the Spratly Islands for details.
In 2012 the Indian Ambassador to Vietnam, while expressing concern over rising tension in the area, said that 50 per cent of its trade passes through the area and called for peaceful resolution of the disputes in accordance with international law.
On 17 March 2016, in accordance with Memorandum Circular No. 94 s. 2016, President Aquino created the National Task Force for the West Philippine Sea, to secure the State 's sovereignty and national territory and preserve marine wealth in its waters and exclusive economic zone, reserving use and enjoyment of the West Philippine Sea exclusively for Filipino citizens.
On 20 July 2011, the PRC, Brunei, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam agreed to a set of preliminary guidelines which would help resolve the dispute. The agreement was described by the PRC 's assistant foreign minister, Liu Zhenmin, as "an important milestone document for cooperation among China and ASEAN countries ''. Some of the early drafts acknowledged aspects such as "marine environmental protection, scientific research, safety of navigation and communication, search and rescue and combating transnational crime '', although the issue of oil and natural gas drilling remains unresolved.
On 22 July 2011, the INS Airavat, an Indian amphibious assault vessel on a friendly visit to Vietnam, was reportedly contacted 45 nautical miles from the Vietnamese coast in the disputed South China Sea by a party identifying itself as the PLA Navy and stating that the ship was entering PRC waters. A spokesperson for the Indian Navy explained that as no ship or aircraft was visible, the INS Airavat proceeded on her onward journey as scheduled. The Indian Navy further clarified that "(t) here was no confrontation involving the INS Airavat. India supports freedom of navigation in international waters, including in the South China Sea, and the right of passage in accordance with accepted principles of international law. These principles should be respected by all. ''
In September 2011, shortly after the PRC and Vietnam signed an agreement seeking to contain a dispute over the South China Sea, India 's state - run explorer, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) said that its overseas investment arm, ONGC Videsh Limited, had signed a three - year agreement with PetroVietnam for developing long - term co-operation in the oil sector, and that it had accepted Vietnam 's offer of exploration in certain specified blocks in the South China Sea. In response, PRC Foreign Ministry spokesperson Jiang Yu, without referring to India by name, stated:
"China enjoys indisputable sovereignty over the South China Sea and the island. China 's stand is based on historical facts and international law. China 's sovereign rights and positions are formed in the course of history and this position has been held by Chinese Government for long. On the basis of this China is ready to engage in peaceful negotiations and friendly consultations to peacefully solve the disputes over territorial sovereignty and maritime rights so as to positively contribute to peace and tranquillity in the South China Sea area. We hope that the relevant countries respect China 's position and refrain from taking unilateral action to complicate and expand the issue. We hope they will respect and support countries in the region to solve the bilateral disputes through bilateral channels. As for oil and gas exploration activities, our consistent position is that we are opposed to any country engaging in oil and gas exploration and development activities in waters under China 's jurisdiction. We hope the foreign countries do not get involved in South China Sea dispute. ''
An Indian foreign ministry spokesman responded, "The Chinese had concerns, but we are going by what the Vietnamese authorities have told us and (we) have conveyed this to the Chinese. '' The Indo - Vietnamese deal was also denounced by the Chinese state - run newspaper Global Times.
In Spring 2010, PRC officials reportedly communicated to US officials that the South China Sea is "an area of ' core interest ' that is as non-negotiable '' and on par with Taiwan and Tibet on the national agenda. but may have backed away from that assertion in 2011.
In October 2011, the PRC 's Global Times newspaper, published by the Communist Party, People 's Daily, editorialised on South China Sea territorial disputes under the banner "Do n't take peaceful approach for granted ''. The article referenced recent incidents involving Philippines and South Korea detaining PRC fishing boats in the region:
Alan Dupont of the University of New South Wales has said that the Chinese government appears to be directing its fishing fleet into disputed waters as a matter of policy.
Vietnam and Japan reached an agreement early in 1978 on the development of oil in the South China Sea. By 2012 Vietnam had concluded some 60 oil and gas exploration and production contracts with various foreign companies. In 1986, the "White Tiger '' oil field in the South China Sea came into operation, producing over 2,000 tons of crude oil per year, followed by "The Bear '' and "Dragon '' oil fields. In 2011 Vietnam was the sixth - largest oil producer in the Asia - Pacific region, although the country is a net oil importer. In 2009 petroleum accounted for 14 percent of Vietnamese government income, down from 24 percent in 2004.
China 's first independently designed and constructed oil drilling platform in the South China Sea is the Ocean Oil 981 (海洋 石油 981). The major shareholders are J.P. Morgan Chase & Co. (19 %), Commonwealth Bank of Australia (14 %), T. Rowe Price Associates, Inc. and affiliates (6 %), and BlackRock, Inc. (5 %). It began operation on 9 May 2012 in the South China Sea, 320 kilometres (200 mi) southeast of Hong Kong, at a depth of 1,500 m and employing 160 people. On 2 May 2014 the platform was moved near to the Paracel Islands, a move Vietnam stated violated their territorial claims. Chinese officials said it was legal, stating the area lies in waters surrounding the Paracel Islands which China occupies and militarily controls.
Prior to the dispute around the sea areas involved, fishermen from involved countries tended to enter each other 's controlled islands and Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) leading to conflicts with the authorities that controlled the areas as they were unaware of the exact borders. As well, due to the depletion of the fishing resources in their maritime areas they were forced to fish in the neighbouring countries ' areas.
A Taiwanese fisherman was machine gunned to death by the coast guard of the Philippines in May 2013.
In the spring of 2014, China and Vietnam clashed again over China 's Haiyang Shiyou oil rig in Vietnam 's EEZ. The incident left seventeen Vietnamese injured and damaged both China 's and Vietnam 's ships.
Although Indonesia is not part of claims in the South China Sea dispute, after Joko Widodo became President of the country in 2014, he instituted a policy in 2015 that, if any foreign fishermen were caught illegally fishing in Indonesian waters, their vessels would be destroyed. The president wanted to make maritime resources, especially fisheries, a key component of his administration 's economic policy for Indonesian. Since then, many neighbouring countries fishing vessels have been blown up by Indonesian authorities. On 21 May 2015, around 41 fishing vessels from China, Vietnam, Thailand and the Philippines were blown up. On 19 March 2016, China Coast Guard prevented its fishermen being detained by Indonesian authorities when Chinese fishermen were caught fishing near the waters around Natuna, leading to a protest by Indonesian authorities and the Chinese ambassador was summonsed as China had considered the areas to be "Chinese traditional fishing grounds ''. Further Indonesian campaigns against foreign fishermen resulted in 23 fishing boats from Malaysia and Vietnam being blown up on the 5 April 2016.
Until late 2016, most fishing vessels blown up by Indonesian authorities were Vietnamese fishing vessels. Although Indonesian authorities increased their patrols to detect foreign fishing vessels, the areas in the South China Sea had already become known for Indonesian pirates, with frequent attacks on Malaysian, Singaporean and Vietnamese vessels as well as leading to hijacking such as the MT Orkim Harmony and MT Zafirah hijacking incidents. The continuing war against foreign fishermen by Indonesia led to protests by Vietnam in late 2016, when a Vietnamese fisherman was killed after being shot by Indonesian authorities. Beside that, Filipino pirates of Moro Pirates from the Sulu Sea also reaching South China Sea when a Vietnamese fisherman was killed by Filipino pirates in late 2015.
The Shangri - La Dialogue serves as the "Track One '' exchange forum on security issues surrounding the Asia - Pacific region. The South China Sea territorial disputes has dominated proceedings at the conference in recent years. The Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific is the "Track Two '' forum for dialogue on security issues.
In February 2016, U.S. President Barack Obama initiated the US - ASEAN Summit at Sunnylands in Rancho Mirage, California for closer engagement with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Territorial disputes in the South China Sea were a major topic, but its joint statement, the "Sunnylands Declaration '', did not name the South China Sea, instead calling for "respect of each nation 's sovereignty and for international law ''. Analysts believe it indicates divisions within the group on how to respond to China 's maritime strategy.
The position of China on its maritime claims based on UNCLOS and history has been ambiguous, particularly with the nine dash line map. For example, in its notes verbales in 2011, the first phrase stated that China has undisputed sovereignty over the islands and the adjacent waters, suggesting China is claiming sovereignty over its territorial waters, a position consistent with UNCLOS. However, the second phrase in its notes verbales stated that China enjoys sovereign rights and jurisdiction over the relevant waters along with the seabed and subsoil contained in this region, suggesting that China is claiming sovereignty over all of the maritime space (includes all the geographic features and the waters within the nine dash line). The third phrase indicates support for basing their claims on historical basis as well. Recently in its notes verbales in 2011, China has explicitly stated that it claims the territorial waters and all of the islands in which each island has its own exclusive economic zone and continental shelf. A major problem with this claim is that it fails to distinguish between geographic features considered as "islands '' or "rocks '' under UNCLOS. The vast majority of international legal experts have concluded that China 's claims based on historical claims are invalid. Many ambiguities arise from the notion of historical claims as a basis for claiming sovereignty and is inherently ambiguous.
Japanese scholar Taoka Shunji criticised Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe for trying to falsely portray China as a threat to Japan and that China was invading neighbours such as the Philippines. He pointed out that the Spratly Islands were not part of the Philippines when the US acquired the Philippines from Spain in the Treaty of Paris in 1898 and that Japanese - ruled Taiwan itself had annexed the Spratly Islands in 1938 in a move that was never challenged by the US - ruled Philippines, which never asserted that it was their territory. He also pointed out that other countries did not need to do full land reclamation since they already controlled islands and that the reason China engaged in extensive land reclamation is because they needed it to build airfields since China only has control over reefs.
Cambodia has backed China over the dispute in ASEAN meetings, preventing consensus over unified ASEAN action. Anti-Vietnamese sentiment due to Vietnam 's conquest of previously Cambodian lands, giving the Vietnamese a privileged status and encouragement of Vietnamese settlers in Cambodia during French colonial rule, and the occupation of Cambodia after the ouster of the Khmer Rouge has led to anti-Vietnamese feelings against ethnic Vietnamese in Cambodia and against Vietnam, and in turn has led to pro-China sentiment among the Cambodian government and the Cambodian opposition, including in the South China Sea.
The sweeping maritime claims of gas and oil rich territory maintained and disputed by Australia against the tiny country of East Timor and flouting of international law have been compared to the situation in the South China Sea, causing the East Timorese government to deprecate China 's claims and stance.
Since early in the South China Sea dispute, Indonesia has repeatedly asserted its position as a non-claimant state in the South China Sea dispute, and often positioned itself as an "honest broker ''. However, parts of China 's unilaterally claimed nine - dash line overlap Indonesia 's exclusive economic zone near the Natuna islands. Although China has acknowledged Indonesia 's sovereignty over the Natuna islands, the PRC has argued that the waters around the Natuna islands are Chinese "traditional fishing grounds ''. Indonesia quickly dismissed China 's claim, asserting that China 's nine - dash line claim over parts of the Natuna islands has no legal basis. In November 2015, Indonesia 's security chief Luhut Panjaitan said Indonesia could take China before an international court. Indonesia filed a comment with the Permanent Court of Arbitration regarding China 's claim in the case Philippines v. China.
Chinese fishing vessels -- often escorted by Chinese coast guard ships -- have repeatedly been reported to have breached Indonesian waters near the Natuna islands. On 19 March 2016, for example, Indonesian authorities tried to capture a Chinese trawler accused of illegal fishing in Indonesian waters, and arrested the Chinese crew. They were prevented from towing the boat to harbour by a Chinese coast guard vessel which reportedly "rammed '' the trawler in Indonesian waters. "To prevent anything else occurring, the Indonesian authorities let go of the Chinese boat and then left toward Natuna, still with eight fishermen and the captain on board, '' said Arrmanatha Nasir, a spokesman for Indonesia 's Foreign Ministry. Indonesia still has the Chinese crew in custody. On March 21, 2016, minister for fisheries and maritime affairs Susi Pudjiastuti summoned the Chinese ambassador, Xie Feng, and discussed this matter. Indonesia insists that they have the right to prosecute the Chinese trawler crew, despite Beijing 's demand to release their eight fishermen. Arif Havas Oegroseno, the government official of maritime security, said that the Chinese claim of "traditional fishing grounds '' was not recognised under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. This incident prompted security minister Luhut Pandjaitan to deploy more troops and patrol boats, and to strengthen the Ranai naval base in the area.
Following the clashes, on 23 June 2016, Indonesian President Joko Widodo visited the Natuna islands on a warship to demonstrate Indonesia 's authority. He led a high - level delegation, which included the Commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) and state ministers. Security Minister Luhut Panjaitan said it was meant to send a "clear message '' that Indonesia was "very serious in its effort to protect its sovereignty ''.
Following the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruling on 12 July 2016, Indonesia called on all parties involved in the territorial dispute to exercise self - restraint and to respect applicable international laws.
Indonesia challenged the Chinese nine - dash historical claim by arguing that if the historical claims can be used on presenting the territorial naval claims, Indonesia might also use its historical claims on the South China Sea by referring to the ancient influence of the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires.
Laos has supported China by refusing to accept the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruling on China 's sovereignty claims in the South China Sea.
Singapore has reiterated that it is not a claimant state in the South China Sea dispute and has offered to play a neutral role in being a constructive conduit for dialogue among the claimant states. However, Singapore hopes that China will obey international laws.
In ASEAN, Thailand is neutral and is open to hearing both sides and will not push to consensus.
The United States and China are currently in disagreement over the South China Sea. This disagreement is exacerbated by the fact that the US is not a member of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Nevertheless, the US has stood by its manoeuvres, claiming that "peaceful surveillance activities and other military activities without permission in a country 's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), '' is allowed under the convention. Additionally, a South China Sea free to access is in the US 's economic and geopolitical interests. In relation to the dispute Hillary Clinton, then United States Secretary of State, voiced her support for fair access by reiterating that freedom of navigation and respect for international law is a matter of national interest to the United States. Her comments were countered by China 's Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi as "in effect an attack on China, '' who warned the United States against making the South China Sea an international issue or multilateral issue.
Clinton testified in support of congressional approval of the Law of the Sea Convention, which would strengthen U.S. ability to support countries that oppose Chinese claims to certain islands in the area. On 29 May 2012, a spokesman for the Chinese Foreign Ministry expressed concern over this development, stating that "non-claimant Association of South East Asian Nations countries and countries outside the region have adopted a position of not getting involved into territorial disputes. '' In July 2012, the United States Senate passed resolution 524, initially sponsored by Senator John Kerry, stating (among other things) the United States ' strong support for the 2002 declaration of conduct of parties in the South China Sea, reaffirms the United States ' commitment to assist the nations of Southeast Asia to remain strong and independent, and supports enhanced operations by the United States armed forces in the Western Pacific.
In 2014, the United States responded to China 's claims over the fishing grounds of other nations by saying that "China has not offered any explanation or basis under international law for these extensive maritime claims. '' USN CNO Jonathan Greenert then pledged American support to the Philippines in its territorial conflicts with the PRC. The Chinese Foreign Ministry asked the United States to maintain a neutral position on the issue. In 2014 and 2015, the United States continued freedom of navigation operations, including in the South China Sea. Sources closer to the Pentagon have also said that the US administration is planning to deploy some more naval assets within 12 nautical miles of the Spratly Islands. In response to this announcement, Beijing issued a strict warning and said that she would not allow any country to violate China 's territorial waters in the name of "Freedom of Navigation ''. In May 2015, U.S. Secretary of Defense Ash Carter warned China to halt its rapid island - building. On 27 October 2015, the US destroyer USS Lassen navigated within 12 nautical miles of reclaimed land in the Subi Reef as the first in a series of "Freedom of Navigation Operations ''. This is the first time since 2012 that the US has directly challenged China 's claims of the island 's territorial limit. On 8 -- 9 November 2015, two US B - 52 strategic bombers flew near artificial Chinese - built islands in the area of the Spratly Islands and were contacted by Chinese ground controllers but continued their mission undeterred.
The United States itself has not signed UNCLOS, but has accepted all but Part XI as customary international law.
In response to Rex Tillerson 's comments on blocking access to man - made islands in the South China Sea, the Communist Party - controlled Global Times warned of a "large - scale war '' between the U.S. and China, saying: "Unless Washington plans to wage a large - scale war in the South China Sea, any other approaches to prevent Chinese access to the islands will be foolish. ''
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where is ex on the beach season 3 filmed | Ex on the Beach - wikipedia
Ex on the Beach is a reality television series that is broadcast on MTV. The series was first announced in February 2014 and premiered on 22 April 2014. It features eight single men and women enjoying a summer holiday in paradise while looking for love. However, they are joined by their exes to shake things up. Each ex was there either for revenge or to rekindle their love. The show is narrated by Irish comedian Andrew Maxwell.
On 12 December 2017 it was announced that Vicky Pattison, and featuring Joss Mooney, would host a spin - off show entitled "Ex on the Beach: Body SOS '' where she will attempt to help members of the public to get into shape.
The first series of the show was announced in February 2014 and premiered on MTV on 22 April 2014. The series ran for eight episodes and concluded on 10 June 2014. The official list of cast members was released on 13 March 2014 and includes four single boys: Ashley Cain, Jack Lomax, Liam Lewis and Marco Alexandre; as well as four single girls: Chloe Goodman, Emily Gillard, Farah Sattaur and Vicky Pattison. It was announced that Geordie Shore star Vicky Pattison would be taking part in the series; she was joined by ex-fiancé and former Geordie Shore co-star Ricci Guarnaccio as well as Australian fling Daniel Conn who featured briefly in series 6 of Geordie Shore. On 7 January 2015, cast member Chloe Goodman entered the Celebrity Big Brother house to compete in the fifteenth series. However she became the first Housemate to be evicted. Ashley later returned for Series 2 as an ex, while Vicky returned in the third series. Liam and Chloe both returned again for Series 5, while Ashley and Joss made appearances as exes. Ross was another cast member from this series to make a return, this time during Series 6.
The second series of the show began airing on 27 January 2015 and ran for eight episodes, concluding on 17 March 2015. This was confirmed on 23 July 2014 when it was announced that filming would begin soon, with the series airing in 2015. The official list of cast members was released on 6 January 2015. It included four single boys: Connor Hunter, Luke Goodfellow, Morgan Evans and Rogan O'Connor, as well as four single girls: Anita Kaushik, Kayleigh Morris, Loren Green and Melissa Reeves. It was also announced that Geordie Shore stars Charlotte Crosby and Gary Beadle would be taking part in the series. Ahead of the launch of the new series, it was confirmed that Series 1 cast member Ashley Cain would be returning for the second series as an ex. Rogan later returned for the third series, while Jess and Gary both returned for the fifth series as main cast, with Kayleigh and Melissa appearing as exes. Kayleigh also went on to appear in the eighteenth series of Big Brother in 2017, but was removed from the house on Day 13 due to threatening behaviour. In 2018, Jess Impiazzi, an ex during this series went onto appear in the twenty - first series of Celebrity Big Brother.
The third series of the show began on 11 August 2015. The official list of cast members was released on 14 July 2015. This series was filmed in Cancun, Mexico, making this the first series to be filmed outside of Europe. They include four boys: Graham Griffiths, Jayden Robins, Kirk Norcross and Stephen Bear, and four girls: Amy Paige Cooke, Laura Alicia Summers, Megan McKenna and Megan Rees. With the announcement of the line - up it was confirmed that former Geordie Shore cast member and star of the first series, Vicky Pattison, would be making her return as an ex alongside Series 2 star Rogan O'Connor. The Only Way Is Essex cast member Kirk Norcross was also confirmed to be taking part in the series, with his ex-fiancée and Celebrity Big Brother star Cami - Li featuring as his ex. Star of Magaluf Weekender Jordan Davies was also revealed to be taking part in the series, also featuring as an ex. Megan McKenna and Jordan later returned for the fourth series. On 5 January 2016, cast member Megan McKenna entered the Celebrity Big Brother house to compete in the seveneeth series, and on 28 July 2016, Stephen Bear entered the house to compete in the eighteenth series where he left as the winner. Jordan Davies made another return to the show, this time during the fifth series with Jemma and Bear, and Holly also returning as an ex again. In August 2017, both Jemma Lucy and Jordan Davies took part in the twentieth series of Celebrity Big Brother.
The fourth series of the show began on 19 January 2016. This series was filmed in Portugal. The official cast list was revealed on 15 December 2015 and includes four girls: Helen Briggs, Nancy - May Turner, Naomi Hedman and Olivia Walsh, as well as four boys: Joe Delaney, Lewis Good, Youssef Hassane and Geordie Shore star Scotty T. Megan McKenna and Magaluf Weekender cast member Jordan Davies would be returning to the series as exes, having previously appeared during the previous series. Olivia later returned to the beach for the fifth series, while Kieran Lee went onto appear in the eighteenth series of Big Brother, but was evicted during the final week.
The fifth series of the show began on 16 August 2016. This series took place in Koh Samui, Thailand. The series was confirmed on 8 March 2016 after the finale of the fourth series. It was also announced that faces from the past would return for this series with "unfinished business ''. The official list of cast members were released on 5 July 2016. It features four boys and four girls from previous series. From the first series it includes Chloe Goodman and Liam Lewis. Geordie Shore star Gary Beadle and Jess Impiazzi return having previously appeared in the second series, while Jemma Lucy, Jordan Davies and Stephen Bear from the third series all return. Finally Olivia Walsh returns having previously appeared in series 4. Over the course of the series they will be joined by their exes, which also include familiar faces. Series 1 's Ashley Cain will be making his third appearance on the show, while Joss Mooney also returns. Kayleigh Morris and Melissa Reeves will be back having already appeared in the second series. Holly Rickwood from Series 3 will also be back on the beach. New cast members include Lillie Lexie Gregg, Charlotte Dawson, David Hawley, Aimee Kimber, Conor Scurlock and Alex Stewart. While the series was airing, Stephen Bear took part in the eighteenth series of Celebrity Big Brother. He later went on to win the series. Kayleigh also went on to appear in the eighteenth series of Big Brother in 2017, but was removed from the house on Day 13 due to threatening behaviour. Later in the year, in August 2017, both Jemma Lucy and Jordan Davies took part in the twentieth series of Celebrity Big Brother, who were both followed by Jess Impiazzi, who later went onto appear in the twenty - first series.
The sixth series of the show began on 17 January 2017. This series was filmed on location in Crete, Greece. The series was confirmed on 2 November 2016. The official list of cast members were released on 13 December 2016. They include four boys; Alex Leslie, Josh Ritchie, Ross Worsick and Sean Pratt, and four girls; Harriette Harper, Maisie Gillespie, Zahida Allen and ZaraLena Jackson. Ross has previously appeared in the first series of the show whereas Josh featured in the first series of Love Island. With the announcement of the line - up it was also confirmed that Geordie Shore star Aaron Chalmers would be arriving on the beach as an ex as well as former The Only Way Is Essex cast member Nicole Bass. Chanelle McCleary, an ex from this series, later went onto appear in the eighteenth series of Big Brother but was evicted a week before the final.
The seventh series of the show began on 20 June 2017. This series was filmed on location on the island of Bali in Indonesia. The series was confirmed on 26 February 2017. The cast members for the series were confirmed on 23 May 2017 which include Geordie Shore stars Chloe Ferry and Marty McKenna, Love Island contestants Max Morley and Josh Ritchie, as well as Beauty School Cop Outs cast member Savannah Kemplay. Marty and Josh had previously appeared in the third and sixth series of the show respectively. Shortly after the series it was announced that Dean Ralph and Jordan Wright had joined the cast of The Only Way Is Essex for the twenty - second series.
The eighth series of the show is expected to begin on 20 March 2018, and was filmed in Spain. The series was confirmed in August 2017. The cast for this series was revealed on 20 February 2018, and includes Geordie Shore star Marnie Simpson as well as The X Factor contestant, and Stereo Kicks and Union J singer Casey Johnson.
In addition to appearing on Ex on the Beach, some of the cast members went on to compete in other reality TV shows including Celebrity Big Brother, Big Brother, and The Challenge.
Challenges in bold indicate the cast member was a finalist on the Challenge.
On 12 December 2017 it was announced that Vicky Pattison would host a spin - off show entitled "Ex on the Beach: Body SOS '' where she will attempt to help members of the public to get into shape. The first series began airing on 17 January 2018 and features Joss Mooney, who rose to fame by appearing in the first series of Ex on the Beach.
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who owns cheesecake factory and p f changs | The Cheesecake Factory - wikipedia
The Cheesecake Factory, Inc. is a restaurant company and distributor of cheesecakes based in the United States. The company operates 208 full - service restaurants: 194 under The Cheesecake Factory brand, 13 under the Grand Lux Cafe brand and one under the RockSugar Pan Asian Kitchen brand. The Cheesecake Factory also operates two bakery production facilities -- in Calabasas, California, and Rocky Mount, North Carolina -- and licenses two bakery - based menus for other food service operators under The Cheesecake Factory Bakery Cafe marque. Its cheesecakes and other baked goods can also be found in the cafes of many Barnes & Noble stores.
David M. Overton, the company 's founder, opened the first Cheesecake Factory restaurant in Beverly Hills, California, in 1978. The restaurant established the future chain 's pattern of featuring an eclectic menu, large portions, and signature cheesecakes.
The Cheesecake Factory was founded by Evelyn Overton. Evelyn first decided to open a business after making a cheesecake for her husband 's employer in 1949. She opened a small cheesecake shop in Detroit, Michigan in the late 1950s, but eventually gave it up in order to raise her two children. She continued to supply cakes to several local restaurants through a kitchen in her basement. In 1972, Oscar and Evelyn moved to the Woodland Hills area of Los Angeles where they opened a wholesale bakery, in which they produced cheesecakes and other desserts for local restaurants.
In 1978, Evelyn 's son David opened a small salad - and - sandwich restaurant in Beverly Hills that sold 10 varieties of cheesecakes on a one - page menu. In 1983, he opened a second restaurant in Marina del Rey. By 1987, the Beverly Hills location had expanded into a 78 - seat restaurant and was experiencing great financial success. This led to the opening of a third, larger location in Redondo Beach, which was eventually renovated into a 300 - seat, 21,000 - square - foot (2,000 m) location. By the end of the 1980s, The Cheesecake Factory 's one - page menu had expanded and the restaurant offered additional fast - food and short - order items.
The 1990s saw the opening of the first Cheesecake Factory restaurant outside of Southern California. The new restaurant was located in Washington, D.C. The Cheesecake Factory was incorporated in 1992 and went public in September 1993. David Overton planned to open 3 - 4 units a year in the hopes of generating 25 % a year increase in sales.
The company began changing its menu twice a year and added items including steaks, seafood, and vegetarian dishes. The company continued to open new restaurants and by 1995 was ranked 11th in the United States. As of April 2013, The Cheesecake Factory operated 162 restaurants under The Cheesecake Factory name in 36 states.
The company used to operate one self - service, limited - menu express food service operation under The Cheesecake Factory marque inside the DisneyQuest family entertainment center in Lake Buena Vista, Florida.
Plaza Las Américas in San Juan, Puerto Rico, opened its first Cheesecake Factory in the Caribbean on August 28, 2013.
On January 25, 2011, the company expanded into the Middle East in a partnership with Kuwaiti retail franchising company M.H. Alshaya Co. The 300 - seat restaurant opened on August 16, 2012 at The Dubai Mall. This is the Cheesecake Factory 's first location outside the United States.
In May 2014, The Cheesecake Factory announced that they would open the first Cheesecake Factory in East Asia. The first East Asian Cheesecake Factory opened in Disneytown in Pudong, Shanghai, China on June 16, 2016.
As of November, 2014, the Cheesecake Factory had seven restaurants in the Middle East. They have three in Dubai: at The Dubai Mall, Mall of Emirates, and Jumeirah Beach Residence. In Kuwait, they have one in The Avenues Mall and another in Arabella, with one in Saudi Arabia in Jeddah, and lastly in the Yas Mall in Abu Dhabi. On December 1, 2015, The Cheesecake Factory opened its eighth Middle East branch at the Verdun Shopping Center in Beirut, Lebanon. The opening was attended by many of The Cheesecake Factory management including managers from the US and Dubai. The Cheesecake Factory opened also made its first appearance in Doha, Qatar, by opening in the Mall of Qatar and a second branch soon to open in another mall in Qatar named Villagio.
There are Cheesecake Factorys in Parque Delta (shopping center) and Centro Santa Fe, Mexico City.
On April 12, 2017, the company announced that it is expanding into Canada with the first location at Yorkdale Shopping Centre in Toronto, Ontario. At more than 10,400 sq. ft, the new location will open in November 2017.
In May 2017, a Hong Kong store opened in Harbour City, Tsim Sha Tsui.
The Cheesecake Factory Bakery Cafe operates two bakery production facilities in Calabasas Hills, California and Rocky Mount, North Carolina, and licenses two bakery - based menus to other food service operators. This division operates in North America, Europe, Asia and the Middle East.
David Overton designed the Grand Lux Cafe, an upscale restaurant for The Venetian hotel and casino in Las Vegas. The restaurant is modeled after Italian, French, and Austrian styles. The Cafe offers, in addition to American and European - style food, Thai, Malaysian, Caribbean cuisine, and others. The Cheesecake Factory operates fourteen Grand Lux Cafe restaurants located in Florida, Illinois, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Texas.
RockSugar Southeast Asian Kitchen is a contemporary Asian - fusion restaurant which opened on June 19, 2008, at Century City in Los Angeles. David Overton excluded Chinese and Japanese cuisines from the menu, as these are served at the Grand Lux and Cheesecake Factory restaurants. A second location will open in Oakbrook, IL in Fall 2017.
The Cheesecake Factory has been criticized for featuring large servings of high calorie and high fat foods, and a corresponding lack of healthy menu options. For these reasons, the chain was dubbed the "worst family restaurant in America '' for 2010 by Men 's Health magazine. The average sandwich at the restaurant contains 1,400 calories. In 2013, the Center for Science in the Public Interest gave a better understanding toward some of the food found at The Cheesecake Factory, including the "Crispy Chicken Costoletta '' that has more calories (2,610) than a 12 - piece bucket of fried chicken from KFC and The Cheesecake Factory 's "Bistro Shrimp Pasta '' dish, which had more calories than any other entrée from a national chain restaurant at 3,120 calories, with 89 grams of saturated fat. The United States Department of Agriculture 's Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion states in its dietary guidelines that a typical female adult should consume about 2,000 calories (males plus 500) and no more than 10 % of saturated fat per day. In an attempt to offer healthier, lower calorie meal options, The Cheesecake Factory created a Skinnylicious menu that features a variety of cocktails, salads, appetizers, and specialty dishes such as lemon - garlic shrimp and grilled salmon.
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how many times have yankees lost world series | New York Yankees - wikipedia
The New York Yankees are an American professional baseball team based in the New York City borough of the Bronx. The Yankees compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) East division. They are one of two major league clubs based in New York City, the other being the New York Mets of the National League. In the 1901 season, the club began play in the AL as the Baltimore Orioles (no relation to the modern Baltimore Orioles). Frank Farrell and Bill Devery purchased the franchise (which had ceased operations) and moved it to New York City, renaming the club the New York Highlanders. The Highlanders were officially renamed the Yankees in 1913.
The team is owned by Yankee Global Enterprises, an LLC controlled by the family of the late George Steinbrenner, who purchased the team in 1973. Brian Cashman is the team 's general manager. The manager position is currently vacant. The team 's home games were played at the original Yankee Stadium from 1923 to 1973 and from 1976 to 2008. In 2009, they moved into a new ballpark of the same name after the previous facility was closed and demolished. The team is perennially among the leaders in MLB attendance; in 2011, the Yankees had the second - highest attendance.
One of the most successful sports clubs in the world, the Yankees have won 18 division titles, 40 AL pennants, and 27 World Series championships, all of which are MLB records. The Yankees have won more titles than any other franchise in the four major North American sports leagues. Forty - four Yankees players and eleven Yankees managers have been inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame, including Babe Ruth, Lou Gehrig, Joe DiMaggio, Mickey Mantle, Yogi Berra, and Whitey Ford. In pursuit of winning championships, the franchise has used a large payroll to attract talent, particularly during the Steinbrenner era. According to Forbes, the Yankees are the second highest valued sports franchise in the United States and the second in the world, with an estimated value of approximately $3.7 billion. The Yankees have garnered enormous popularity and a dedicated fanbase, as well as widespread enmity from fans of other MLB teams. The team 's rivalry with the Boston Red Sox is one of the most well - known rivalries in U.S. sports.
At the end of 1900, Ban Johnson, president of the American League -- a minor league previously known as the Western League (1894 -- 1899) -- reorganized the league. He added teams in three East Coast cities, forming the American League (AL) as a major league in an attempt to challenge the National League (NL) for supremacy. Plans to add another a team in New York City were blocked by the NL 's New York Giants, who had enough political power in New York City to prevent the AL from establishing a team. Instead, a team was placed in Baltimore, Maryland, a city which the NL abandoned when it contracted from 12 to 8 teams in 1900.
Nicknamed the Orioles, the team began playing in 1901 and was managed and partly owned by John McGraw. During the 1902 season, McGraw feuded with Johnson and secretly jumped to the Giants. In the middle of the season, the Giants, aided and abetted by McGraw, gained controlling interest of the Orioles and began raiding it for players, until the AL stepped in and took control of the team. In January 1903, a "peace conference '' was held between the two leagues to settle disputes and try to coexist. At the conference, Johnson requested that an AL team be put in New York, to play alongside the NL 's Giants. It was put to a vote, and 15 of the 16 major league owners agreed on it, with only John T. Brush of the Giants opposing. The Orioles ' new owners, Frank J. Farrell and William S. Devery, found a ballpark location not blocked by the Giants, and Baltimore 's team moved to New York.
The team 's new ballpark, Hilltop Park (formally known as "American League Park ''), was constructed in one of Upper Manhattan 's highest points -- between 165th and 168th Streets -- just a few blocks away from the much larger Polo Grounds. The team came to be known as the New York Highlanders. The name was inspired by a combination of the team 's elevated location in Upper Manhattan, and to the noted Scottish military unit The Gordon Highlanders, which coincided with the team 's president Joseph Gordon whose family was of Scots Irish heritage. Newspapers initially called the team "Gordon 's Highlanders '' (e.g. New York World, April 15, 1903), which soon became just "Highlanders ''. As was common with all members of the American League, the team was often called the New York Americans. They were also dubbed the "Invaders '' for a short time in 1903. New York Press Sports Editor Jim Price coined the unofficial nickname Yankees (or "Yanks '') for the club as early as 1904, because it was easier to fit in headlines and because "Yankee '' was and is a commonly - used synonym for "American ''. A prophetic letter to the editor of the New York Sun, May 7, 1903, p. 8, had raised this question: "Name for the American New Yorks. If the new baseball team is to have a name that is in keeping with the ' Giants, ' does it not seem reasonable that if they are the ' New York Americans ' they might be called the ' Yankees ' or ' Yanks '? ''
The most success the Highlanders achieved was finishing second in 1904, 1906 and 1910, 1904 being the closest they came to winning the AL pennant. That year, they lost the deciding game on the last day of the season to the Boston Americans, who later became the Boston Red Sox. This had much historical significance, as the Highlanders ' role in the pennant race caused the Giants to announce that they would not play in the World Series against the AL pennant winner. The World Series was not skipped again for another 90 years, when a strike truncated the entire 1994 season. It was the last time Boston would beat New York in a pennant - deciding game for a full century (2004). In 1904, pitcher Jack Chesbro set the single - season wins record at 41, which still stands. Under current playing practices, this is most likely an unbreakable record, when you consider that the last thirty game winner was Denny McLain (31) in 1968.
The original Polo Grounds burned down in 1911 and the Highlanders allowed the Giants to play in Hilltop Park during reconstruction. Relations between the two teams warmed, and the Highlanders would move into the newly rebuilt Polo Grounds in 1913. Now playing on the Harlem River, a far cry from their high - altitude home, the name "Highlanders '' no longer applied, and fell into disuse among the press. The media had already widely adopted the "Yankees '' nickname coined by the New York Press, and in 1913 the team became officially known as the New York Yankees.
By the middle of the decade, Yankees owners Farrell and Devery had become estranged and both were in dire need of money. At the start of 1915, they sold the team to Colonel Jacob Ruppert and Captain Tillinghast L'Hommedieu Huston for $1.25 million. Ruppert inherited a brewery fortune, providing the Yankees with an owner who possessed deep pockets and a willingness to dig into them to produce a winning team. This would lead the team to more success and prestige than Ruppert could ever have envisioned.
It is interesting to note that all the games of the 1921 and 1922 World Series were played in the Polo Grounds, when the Yankees squared off against their intracity rival Giants.
In the years around 1920, the Yankees, the Red Sox, and the Chicago White Sox had a détente. The trades between the three ballclubs antagonized Ban Johnson and garnered the teams the nickname "The Insurrectos ''. This détente paid off well for the Yankees as they increased their payroll. Most new players who would later contribute to the team 's success came from the Red Sox, whose owner, Harry Frazee, was trading them for large sums of money to finance his theatrical productions. Pitcher - turned - outfielder Babe Ruth was the most talented of all the acquisitions from Boston, and the outcome of the trade would haunt the Red Sox for the next 86 years, a span in which the team did not win a single World Series championship. The Red Sox often found themselves eliminated from the playoff hunt as a result of the Yankees ' success. This phenomenon eventually became known as the Curse of the Bambino as the failure of the Red Sox and the success of the Yankees seemed almost supernatural, and seemed to stem from that one trade. However, it would not be until 1990 when Dan Shaughnessy of The Boston Globe wrote a book with the same title that the curse was publicized.
Ruth 's multitude of home runs proved so popular that the Yankees began drawing more people than their National League counterpart, the Giants. In 1921 -- the year after acquiring Babe Ruth -- the Yankees played in their first World Series. They competed against the Giants, and all eight games of the series were played in the Polo Grounds. After the 1922 season, the Yankees were told to move out of the Polo Grounds. Giants manager John McGraw was said to have commented that the Yankees should "move to some out - of - the - way place, like Queens '', but they instead broke ground for a new ballpark in the Bronx, right across the Harlem River from the Polo Grounds. In 1922, the Yankees returned to the World Series again, and were dealt a second defeat at the hands of the Giants. Important newcomers in this period were manager Miller Huggins and general manager Ed Barrow. The hiring of Huggins by Ruppert in 1918 would cause a rift between the owners that eventually led to Ruppert buying Huston out in 1923.
In 1923, the Yankees moved to their new home, Yankee Stadium. It was the first triple - deck venue in baseball and seated an astounding 58,000 people. In the first game at Yankee Stadium, Babe Ruth hit a home run, which was fitting as his home runs and drawing power paid for the stadium, giving it its nickname of "The House That Ruth Built ''. At the end of the season, the Yankees faced the Giants in the World Series for the third straight year, and triumphed in the brand new ballpark for their first championship. Prior to that point, the Giants had been the city 's icon and dominant team. From 1923 onward, the Yankees would assume that role, and many years later the Giants would leave Coogan 's Bluff for San Francisco.
In the 1927 season, the Yankees featured a lineup that became known as "Murderers ' Row '', and some consider this team to be the best in the history of baseball (though similar claims have been made for other Yankee squads, notably those of 1939, 1961 and 1998). The Yankees won a then - AL record 110 games with only 44 losses, and swept the Pittsburgh Pirates in the World Series. Ruth 's home run total of 60 in 1927 set a single - season home run record that would stand until it was broken by Roger Maris in 1961. Meanwhile, first baseman Lou Gehrig had his first big season, batting. 373 with 47 home runs and 175 RBIs, beating Ruth 's single - season RBI mark (171 in 1921). The Yankees would win the World Series again in 1928.
In 1931, Joe McCarthy was hired as manager and brought the Yankees back to the top of the AL. They swept the Chicago Cubs in the 1932 World Series, and brought the team 's streak of consecutive World Series game wins to 12. This series was made famous by Babe Ruth 's "Called Shot '' in game three of the series at Wrigley Field, a fitting "swan song '' to his illustrious World Series career. In 1935, Ruth would leave the Yankees to join the NL 's Boston Braves, and he made his last major league baseball appearance on May 30 of that year.
With Ruth retired, Gehrig finally had a chance to take center stage, but it was only one year before a new star appeared, Joe DiMaggio. The team would win an unprecedented four straight World Series titles from 1936 to 1939. For most of 1939, however, they had to do it without Gehrig, who took himself out of the lineup and retired due to Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), now nicknamed "Lou Gehrig 's Disease '' in his memory. The Yankees declared July 4, 1939 to be "Lou Gehrig Day '', on which they retired his number 4 (the first retired number in baseball). Gehrig made a famous speech in which he declared himself to be "the luckiest man on the face of the earth. '' He died two years later.
The 1941 baseball season was often described as the last year of the "Golden Era '' before World War II and other realities intervened. It was a thrilling year as America watched two major events unfold: Ted Williams of the Red Sox hitting for the elusive. 400 batting average and Joe DiMaggio getting hits in consecutive ballgames. By the end of his hitting streak, DiMaggio hit in 56 consecutive games, the current major league record and one often deemed unbreakable.
Two months after the Yankees beat the Brooklyn Dodgers in the 1941 World Series -- the first of seven October meetings between the two crosstown rivals before the Dodgers ultimately moved to California -- the United States was attacked at Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan, and many of their best players, including DiMaggio, were drafted into the military to fight in World War II. The Yankees still managed to pull out a win against the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1943 World Series.
In 1945 construction magnate Del Webb and partners Dan Topping and Larry MacPhail purchased the team from the Ruppert estate for $2.8 million; MacPhail was bought out in 1947.
After a few slumping seasons, McCarthy was fired early in 1946. A few interim managers later, Bucky Harris took the job, righting the ship and taking the Yankees to a hard fought series victory against the Dodgers.
Despite finishing only three games behind the Cleveland Indians in the 1948 pennant race, Harris was relieved of his duties and replaced by Casey Stengel, who had a reputation of being a clown and managing bad teams. His tenure as Yankee field manager, however, was marked with success. The "underdog '' Yankees came from behind to catch and surprise a powerful Red Sox team on the last two days of the 1949 season, a face off that fueled the beginning of the modern Yankees -- Red Sox rivalry. By this time, however, DiMaggio 's career was winding down, and the "Yankee Clipper '' retired after the 1951 season. This year marked the arrival of the "Oklahoma Kid '', Mickey Mantle, who was one of several new stars that would fill the gap.
Bettering the clubs managed by Joe McCarthy, the Yankees won the World Series five consecutive times from 1949 -- 1953 under Stengel, which continues to be the major league record. Led by players like center fielder Mickey Mantle, pitcher Whitey Ford, and catcher Yogi Berra, Stengel 's teams won ten pennants and seven World Series titles in his twelve seasons as the Yankees manager. Stengel was a master at publicity for the team and for himself, even landing a cover story in Time magazine in 1955. The 1950 title was the only one of those five championships not to be won against either the New York Giants or Brooklyn Dodgers; it was won in four straight games against the Whiz Kids of the Philadelphia Phillies.
In 1954, the Yankees won over 100 games, but the Indians took the pennant with an AL record 111 wins; 1954 was famously referred to as The Year the Yankees Lost the Pennant. In 1955, the Dodgers finally beat the Yankees in the World Series, after five previous Series losses to them, but the Yankees came back strong the next year. On October 8, 1956, in Game Five of the 1956 World Series against the Dodgers, pitcher Don Larsen threw the only perfect game in World Series history, which remains the only perfect game in postseason play and was the only no - hitter of any kind to be pitched in postseason play until Roy Halladay pitched a no - hitter on October 6, 2010.
The Yankees lost the 1957 World Series to the Milwaukee Braves when Lew Burdette incredibly won three games for the Braves. Following the Series, the New York Giants and the Brooklyn Dodgers both left for California, the former leaving for San Francisco and the latter moving to Los Angeles, leaving the Yankees as New York 's only baseball team. In the 1958 World Series, the Yankees got their revenge against the Braves, and became the second team to win the Series after being down three - games - to - one. For the decade, the Yankees won six World Series championships (' 50, 51, ' 52, ' 53, ' 56, ' 58) and eight American League pennants (those six plus ' 55 and ' 57). Led by Mantle, Ford, Berra, Elston Howard (the Yankees ' first African - American player), and the newly acquired Roger Maris, the Yankees entered the 1960s seeking to replicate their success of the 1950s.
Arnold Johnson, owner of the Kansas City Athletics, was a longtime business associate of then - Yankees co-owners Del Webb and Dan Topping. Because of this "special relationship '' with the Yankees, he traded young players to them in exchange for cash and aging veterans. Invariably, these trades ended up being heavily tilted in the Yankees ' favor, leading to accusations that the Athletics were little more than a Yankee farm team at the major league level. Kansas City had been home to the Yankees ' top farm team for almost 20 years before the Athletics moved there from Philadelphia in 1954.
In 1960, Charles O. Finley purchased the Athletics and put an end to the trades. But the Yankees had already strengthened their supply of future prospects, which included a young outfielder named Roger Maris. In 1960, Maris led the league in slugging percentage, RBIs, and extra base hits. He finished second in home runs (one behind Mantle) and total bases, and won a Gold Glove, which garnered enough votes for the American League MVP award.
The year 1961 would prove to be one of the most memorable in Yankee history. Throughout the summer, Mantle and Maris hit home runs at a fast pace, and became known as the "M&M Boys ''. Ultimately, a severe hip infection forced Mantle to leave the lineup and drop out of the race. Maris continued though, and on October 1 (the last day of the regular season), he hit home run number 61, surpassing Babe Ruth 's single season home run record of 60. However, MLB Commissioner Ford Frick (who, as it was discovered later, had ghostwritten for Babe Ruth during his career) decreed that since Maris had played in a 162 - game season, and Ruth (in 1927) had played in a 154 - game season, two separate records would be kept. It would be 30 years before the dual record would be done away with, and Maris would hold the record alone until Mark McGwire broke it in 1998. Maris still holds the American League record.
The Yankees won the pennant with a 109 -- 53 record and went on to defeat the Cincinnati Reds in the 1961 World Series. The team finished the year with a then - record 240 home runs.
After the 1957 departures of the Dodgers and Giants for the West Coast, New York City was a one - team town for the first time since professional play began. In 1962, the sports scene in New York changed when the National League expanded to include a new expansion team, the New York Mets, who played at the Giants ' former home, the Polo Grounds, for two seasons while Shea Stadium was under construction in nearby Flushing, Queens. The Mets lost a record 120 games while the Yankees would win the 1962 World Series, their tenth in the past sixteen years, defeating the San Francisco Giants in seven games. It would be the Yankees ' last championship until 1977.
The Yankees reached the 1963 World Series, but were swept by the Los Angeles Dodgers and their ace pitcher Sandy Koufax.
After the season, Yogi Berra, who had just retired from playing, took over managerial duties. The aging Yankees returned the next year for a fifth straight World Series, but were beaten in seven games by the St. Louis Cardinals. It would be the Yankees ' last World Series appearance until 1976, when they were swept by the Big Red Machine.
After the 1964 season, CBS purchased 80 % of the Yankees from Topping and Webb for $11.2 million. With the new ownership, the team began to decline. In fact, the Yankees finished in the second division in 1965 -- their first losing record in 40 years, and only their second in 47 years.
In 1966, the Yankees finished last in the AL for the first time since 1912. It also marked their first consecutive losing seasons since 1917 and 1918. They finished next - to - last in 1967. While their fortunes improved somewhat in the late 1960s and early 1970s, they only finished higher than fourth once during CBS ' ownership, in 1970. Topping and Webb had owned the Yankees for 20 years, missing the World Series only five times and going 10 -- 5 in the ones they did get to. By contrast, the CBS - owned teams never went to the World Series.
Various reasons have been given for the decline, but the single biggest one was the Yankees ' inability to replace their aging superstars with promising young talent, as they had consistently done in the previous five decades. As early as the 1961 - 62 off - season, longtime fans noticed that the pipeline of talent had started to dry up. This was worsened by the introduction of the major league amateur draft that year, which meant that the Yankees could no longer sign any player they wanted. While the Yankees usually drafted fairly early during this period due to their lackluster records, Thurman Munson was the only pick who lived up to his billing.
At the start of this period, all - time "Voice of the Yankees '' Mel Allen, the team 's top announcer since 1939, was fired after the 1964 season, supposedly due to cost - cutting measures by longtime broadcast sponsor Ballantine Beer.
During baseball 's centennial season in 1969, the greatest players at each position for every team were named during a voting. The all - time Yankees were: Bill Dickey (catcher), Whitey Ford (left - handed pitcher), Red Ruffing (right - handed pitcher), Johnny Murphy (relief pitcher), Lou Gehrig (first base), Tony Lazzeri (second base), Phil Rizzuto (shortstop), Red Rolfe (third base), Joe DiMaggio (center field, also named baseball 's "Greatest Living Player ''), Babe Ruth (right field), Mickey Mantle (left field), and Casey Stengel (manager).
A group of investors, led by Cleveland - based shipbuilder George Steinbrenner (1930 -- 2010), purchased the club from CBS on January 3, 1973 for $8.7 million. Mike Burke stayed on as president until he quit in April. Within a year, Steinbrenner bought out most of his other partners and became the team 's principal owner, although Burke continued to hold a minority share into the 1980s.
One of Steinbrenner 's major goals was to renovate the Stadium. It had greatly deteriorated by the late 1960s, and the surrounding neighborhood had gone south as well. CBS initially suggested renovations, but the team would have needed to play elsewhere, and the Mets refused to open their home, Shea Stadium, to the Yankees. A new stadium in the Meadowlands, across the Hudson River in New Jersey, was suggested (and was eventually built, as Giants Stadium, specifically for football). Finally, in mid-1972, Mayor John Lindsay stepped in. The city bought the stadium and began an extensive two - year renovation period. Since the city owned Shea, the Mets had to allow the Yankees to play two seasons there. The renovations modernized the look of the stadium, significantly altered the dimensions, and reconfigured some of the seating.
After the 1974 season, Steinbrenner made a move that started the modern era of free agency, signing star pitcher Catfish Hunter away from Oakland. Midway through the 1975 season, Steinbrenner made another move, hiring former second baseman Billy Martin as manager. With Martin at the helm, the Yankees reached the 1976 World Series, but were swept by the Cincinnati Reds and their famed "Big Red Machine. ''
After the 1976 campaign, Steinbrenner added star Oakland outfielder Reggie Jackson -- who had spent 1976 with the Baltimore Orioles -- to his roster. During spring training of 1977, Jackson alienated his teammates with controversial remarks about the Yankees captain, catcher Thurman Munson. He had bad blood with manager Billy Martin, who had managed the Detroit Tigers when Jackson 's Athletics defeated them in the 1972 playoffs. Jackson, Martin, and Steinbrenner repeatedly feuded with each other throughout Jackson 's 5 - year contract. Martin would be hired and fired by Steinbrenner five times over the next 13 years. This conflict, combined with the extremely rowdy Yankees fans of the late 1970s and the bad conditions of the Bronx, led to the Yankee organization and stadium being referred to as the "Bronx Zoo. '' Despite the turmoil, Jackson starred in the 1977 World Series, when he hit three home runs in the same game, and overall, four home runs on four consecutive pitches from four different pitchers. Jackson 's great performance in the postseason earned him the Series MVP Award, and the nickname "Mr. October. ''
Throughout the late 1970s, the race for the pennant was often a close competition between the Yankees and the Red Sox. In the 1950s and early 1960s, the Yankees had been dominant while the Red Sox were largely a non-factor. However, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Yankees were mired in second place and the Red Sox led the league. In the late 1970s the two teams were contending simultaneously and locked in a close fight.
On July 14, 1978, the Yankees were 14 ⁄ games behind the Red Sox. In late July, Martin suspended Reggie Jackson for "defiance '' after he bunted while Martin had the "swing '' signal on. Upon Jackson 's return, Martin made a famous statement against both Jackson and owner Steinbrenner: "They deserve each other. One 's a born liar; the other 's convicted. '' Martin was forced to resign the next day and was replaced by Bob Lemon. This came while the team was winning five games in a row and Boston was losing five in a row.
The Yankees continued to win games, making up ground and by the time they met Boston for a pivotal four - game series at Fenway Park in early September, they were only four games behind the Red Sox. The Yankees swept the Red Sox in what became known as the "Boston Massacre '', winning the games 15 -- 3, 13 -- 2, 7 -- 0, and 7 -- 4. The third game was a shutout pitched by "Louisiana Lightning '' Ron Guidry, who would lead the majors with nine shutouts, a 25 -- 3 record, and a 1.74 ERA. Guidry finished with 248 strikeouts, but Nolan Ryan 's 260 strikeouts with the California Angels deprived Guidry of the pitching Triple Crown.
On the last day of the season, the two clubs finished in a tie for first place in the AL East, and a one - game playoff (the 163rd game of the regular season) was held at Fenway Park. With Guidry pitching against former Yankee Mike Torrez, the Red Sox took an early 2 -- 0 lead. In the seventh inning, light - hitting Yankee shortstop Bucky Dent drove a three - run home run over the "Green Monster '' (Fenway Park 's famed left field wall), putting the Yankees up 3 -- 2. Reggie Jackson 's solo home run in the following inning sealed the eventual 5 -- 4 win that gave the Yankees their one hundredth win of the season and their third straight AL East title and Guidry earned his 25th win of the season.
After beating the Kansas City Royals for the third consecutive year in the ALCS, the Yankees faced the Dodgers again in the World Series. They lost the first two games in LA, but won all three games at Yankee Stadium and won Game 6 in Los Angeles, winning their 22nd World Championship.
Changes occurred during the 1979 season. Former Cy Young Award - winning closer Sparky Lyle was traded to the Texas Rangers for several players, including Dave Righetti. Tommy John was acquired from the Dodgers and Luis Tiant from the hated Red Sox to bolster the pitching staff. During the season, Bob Lemon was replaced by Billy Martin.
The 1970s ended on a tragic note for the Yankees. On August 2, 1979, Thurman Munson died after crashing his private plane while practicing "Touch and Go '' landings. Four days later, the entire team flew out to Canton, Ohio for the funeral, despite having a game later that day against the Orioles. Martin adamantly stated that the funeral was more important, and that he did not care if they made it back in time. Bobby Murcer, a close friend of Munson 's, was chosen to give the eulogy at his funeral. In a nationally televised and emotional game, Murcer used Munson 's bat (which he gave to his fallen friend 's wife after the game), and drove in all five of the team 's runs in a dramatic 5 -- 4 walk - off victory. Before the game, Munson 's locker sat empty except for his catching gear, a sad reminder for his teammates. His locker, labeled with his number 15, has remained empty in the Yankee clubhouse as a memorial. When the Yankees moved across the street, Munson 's locker was torn out and installed in the new Stadium 's museum. The number 15 has been retired by the team.
The 1980 season brought more changes to the Yankees. Billy Martin was fired once again and Dick Howser took his place. Chris Chambliss was traded to the Toronto Blue Jays for catcher Rick Cerone. Thanks to Howser 's no - nonsense attitude, Reggie Jackson hit. 300 for the only time in his career with 41 homers, and finished 2nd in the MVP voting to Kansas City 's George Brett. The Yankees won 103 games and the AL East by three games over the 100 - win Baltimore Orioles, but were swept by the Royals in the 1980 ALCS.
After the season ended, the Yankees signed Dave Winfield to a 10 - year contract. The Yankees fired Howser and replaced him with Gene Michael. Under Michael, the Yankees led the AL East before a strike hit in June 1981. In the second half of the season, the Yankees struggled under Bob Lemon, who replaced Michael. Thanks to the split - season playoff format, the Yankees faced the second - half winner Milwaukee Brewers in the special 1981 American League Division Series. After narrowly defeating Milwaukee in five games, they breezed through Billy Martin and the Oakland Athletics in a three - game ALCS. In the World Series, the Yankees got off to a hot start by winning the first two games against the Los Angeles Dodgers. But the Dodgers fought back and stunned the Yankees by winning the next four games to clinch their first World Series title since 1965.
Following the team 's loss to the Dodgers in the 1981 World Series, the Yankees began their longest absence from the playoffs since 1921. Following the example set by the St. Louis Cardinals and the Big Red Machine that had defeated his team in the 1976 World Series, George Steinbrenner announced his plan to transform the Yankees from the Bronx Bombers into the "Bronx Burners '', increasing the Yankees ' ability to win games based on speed and defense instead of "waiting around for a 3 run home run ''. As a first step towards this end, the Yankees signed Dave Collins from the Cincinnati Reds during the 1981 off - season. Collins was traded to the Toronto Blue Jays after the 1982 season in a deal that also included future All - Stars Fred McGriff and Mike Morgan. In return the Yankees got Dale Murray and Tom Dodd.
The Yankees of the 1980s were led by All - Star first baseman Don Mattingly. In spite of accumulating the most total wins of any major league team, they failed to win a World Series (the first such Yankees team since the 1910s) and had only 1 playoff appearance. Although they consistently had a powerful offense -- Mattingly at various times was teammate to Dave Winfield (whom Mattingly battled for the AL batting title throughout most of the 1984 season), Rickey Henderson, Don Baylor, Ken Griffey, Sr., Mike Pagliarulo, Steve Sax, and Jesse Barfield, and the Yankees led the majors in runs scored for the decade -- the Yankees teams of the 1980s lacked sufficient starting pitching to win a championship. After posting a 22 -- 6 record in 1985, arm problems caught up with Ron Guidry, and his performance declined over the next three years. Of the remaining mainstays of the Yankees ' rotation, only Dave Righetti stood out, pitching a no - hitter on July 4, 1983, but he was moved to the bullpen the next year where he helped to define the closer role. Despite the Yankees ' lack of pitching success during the 1980s, they had three of the premier pitchers of the early 1990s on their roster during these years in Al Leiter, Doug Drabek and José Rijo. All were mismanaged and dealt away before they could reach their full potential, with only Rijo returning much value -- he was traded to the Oakland A 's in the deal that brought Henderson to New York.
The team came close to winning the AL East in 1985 and 1986, finishing second to the Toronto Blue Jays and Boston Red Sox (who lost in the World Series that year to the Yankees ' cross-town rivals, the New York Mets) respectively, but fell to fourth place in 1987 and fifth in 1988, despite having mid-season leads in the AL East standings both years. Despite their lack of championships and playoff appearances the Yankees posted the highest winning percentage of all MLB teams during the 1980s.
By the end of the decade, the Yankees ' offense was on the decline. Henderson and Pagliarulo had departed by the middle of 1989, while back problems hampered both Winfield (who missed the entire ' 89 season) and Mattingly (who missed almost the entire second half of 1990). Winfield 's tenure with the team ended when he was dealt to the Angels. From 1989 to 1992, the team had a losing record, spending significant money on free - agents and draft picks who did not live up to expectations. In 1990, the Yankees had the worst record in the American League, and their fourth last - place finish in franchise history.
On July 1, 1990, pitcher Andy Hawkins became the first Yankee ever to lose despite throwing a no - hitter. Third baseman Mike Blowers committed an error, followed by two walks and an error by the left fielder Jim Leyritz with the bases loaded, scoring all three runners and the batter. The 4 -- 0 loss to the Chicago White Sox was the largest margin of any no - hitter loss in the 20th century. Ironically, the Yankees (and Hawkins) were no - hit for six innings in a rain - shortened game against the White Sox 11 days later.
During the 1990 season, Yankee fans started to chant "1918! '' to taunt the Red Sox, reminding them of the last time they won a World Series one weekend the Red Sox were there in 1990. Each time the Red Sox were at Yankee Stadium afterward, demeaning chants of "1918! '' echoed through the stadium. Yankee fans also taunted the Red Sox with signs saying "CURSE OF THE BAMBINO '', pictures of Babe Ruth, and wearing "1918! '' T - shirts each time they were at the stadium.
The poor showings in the 1980s and 1990s would soon change. Steinbrenner hired Howard Spira to uncover damaging information on Winfield and was subsequently suspended from day - to - day team operations by Commissioner Fay Vincent when the plot was revealed. This turn of events allowed management to implement a coherent acquisition / development program without owner interference. General Manager Gene Michael, along with manager Buck Showalter, shifted the club 's emphasis from high - priced acquisitions to developing talent through the farm system. This new philosophy developed key players such as outfielder Bernie Williams, shortstop Derek Jeter, catcher Jorge Posada, and pitchers Andy Pettitte and Mariano Rivera. The first significant success came in 1994, when the Yankees had the best record in the AL, but the strike ended the season and Mattingly 's best chance for a World Series title and is remembered among the 10 worst moments in New York City sports history. Because the Yankees were last in a postseason in a season cut short by a strike, the news media constantly reminded the Yankees about the parallels between the two Yankee teams (1981 and 1994), which included both Yankee teams having division leads taken away by strike. Throughout October, the media continued to speculate about what might have been if there had not been a strike, making references to the days games in the post-season would have been played.
A year later, the team qualified for the playoffs in the new wild card slot in the strike shortened 1995 season. In the memorable 1995 American League Division Series against the Seattle Mariners, the Yankees won the first two games at home and dropped the next three in Seattle. Mattingly, suffering greatly from his back injury, retired after the 1995 season. He had the unfortunate distinction of beginning and ending his career on years bookended by Yankee World Series appearances (1981 and 1996).
Joe Torre had a mediocre run as a manager in the National League, and the choice was initially derided ("Clueless Joe '' was a headline in the New York Daily News). However, his calm demeanor proved to be a good fit, and his tenure was the longest under George Steinbrenner 's ownership.
The 1996 season saw the rise of three Yankees who would form the core of the team for years to come: rookie shortstop Derek Jeter, second - year starting pitcher Andy Pettitte, and second - year pitcher Mariano Rivera, who served as setup man in 1996 before becoming closer in 1997. Aided by these young players, the Yankees won their first AL East title in 15 years in 1996. They defeated the Texas Rangers in the ALDS, and in the ALCS beat the Baltimore Orioles in five games, which included a notable fan interference by young Jeffrey Maier that was called as a home run for the Yankees. In the World Series the team rebounded from an 0 -- 2 series deficit and defeated the defending champion Atlanta Braves, ending an 18 - year championship drought. Jeter was named Rookie of the Year. In 1997, the Yankees lost the 1997 ALDS to the Cleveland Indians in five games. General manager Bob Watson stepped down and was replaced by assistant general manager Brian Cashman.
The 1998 Yankees are widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest teams in baseball history, compiling a then - AL record 114 regular season wins against just 48 losses and then sweeping the San Diego Padres in the 1998 World Series. Their 125 combined regular and postseason wins is an MLB single - season record.
On May 17, 1998, David Wells pitched a perfect game against the Minnesota Twins at Yankee Stadium. On July 18, 1999, which was "Yogi Berra Day '' at the stadium, David Cone pitched a perfect game against the Montreal Expos, with both Berra and Don Larsen, the pitching battery for Larsen 's World Series perfect game on October 8, 1956, against the Brooklyn Dodgers, in attendance. The ALCS was the Yankees ' first meeting with the Red Sox in a post-season series. The Yankees would go on to win the 1999 World Series giving the 1998 -- 1999 Yankees a 22 -- 3 record (including four series sweeps) in six consecutive post-season series.
In 2000, the Yankees faced the New York Mets in the first Subway Series World Series since 1956. The Yankees won the series in 5 games, but a loss in Game 3 snapped their streak of World Series wins at 14, surpassing the club 's previous record of 12 (in 1927, 1928, and 1932). The Yankees are the last major league team to repeat as World Series champions and after the 2000 season they joined the Yankee teams of 1936 -- 1939 and 1949 -- 1953, as well as the 1972 -- 1974 Oakland Athletics as the only teams to win at least three consecutive World Series.
The Yankees dynasty of the 1990s was also part the Braves -- Mets rivalry. As noted above, three of their four World Series wins happened against either team (Braves in 1996 and 1999, Mets in 2000). Joe Torre added further fuel to the dynasty being part of the rivalry, having played for and managed both teams and he becoming manager of the Yankees and the events of the 1996 season were seen as factors in that rivalry intensifying.
In aftermath of the September 11 attacks, that year, Yankees defeated the Oakland A 's in the ALDS, and the Seattle Mariners in the ALCS. By winning the pennant for a fourth straight year, the 1998 -- 2001 Yankees joined the 1921 -- 1924 New York Giants, and the Yankee teams of ' 36 -- ' 39, ' 49 -- ' 53, ' 55 -- ' 58 and ' 60 -- ' 64 as the only teams to win at least four straight pennants. The Yankees won 11 consecutive postseason series in this 4 - year period. In the World Series against the Arizona Diamondbacks, the Yankees lost the series when closer Mariano Rivera uncharacteristically blew a save in the bottom of the ninth inning of Game 7; it was the second time in five years that a team lost the World Series after taking a lead into the bottom of the ninth inning of Game 7 (following the Cleveland Indians in 1997) and the first time since 1991 that the home team won all seven games of a World Series. The Yankees were also the first American League team to lose a World Series in which the home team won all seven games. Also, despite a very poor series overall, batting under. 200, Derek Jeter got the nickname, "Mr. November '', echoing comparisons Reggie Jackson 's "Mr. October '', for his walk - off home run in Game 4, though it began October 31, as the game ended in the first minutes of November 1. In addition, the Yankees ' home field in the aftermath of the attacks served as hosts of a memorial service titled "Prayer for America. ''
A vastly revamped Yankees team finished the 2002 season with an AL best record of 103 -- 58. The season was highlighted by Alfonso Soriano becoming the first second baseman ever to hit 30 home runs and steal 30 bases in a season. In the ALDS the Yankees lost to the eventual champion Anaheim Angels in four games.
In 2003, the Yankees again had the best league record (101 -- 61), highlighted by Roger Clemens ' 300th win and 4000th strikeout. In the ALCS, they defeated the Boston Red Sox in a dramatic seven game series, which featured a bench - clearing incident in Game 3 and a series - ending walk - off home run by Aaron Boone in the bottom of the 11th inning of Game 7. In the World Series the Yankees lost in 6 games to the Florida Marlins, losing a World Series at home for the first time since 1981.
In 2004, the Yankees acquired Alex Rodriguez, who moved to third base from his usual shortstop position to accommodate Derek Jeter. In the ALCS, the Yankees met the Boston Red Sox again, and became the first team in professional baseball history, and only the third team in North American pro sports history, to lose a best - of - seven series after taking a 3 -- 0 series lead.
In 2005 Alex Rodriguez won the American League MVP award, becoming the first Yankee to win the award since Don Mattingly in 1985. The Yankees again won the AL East by virtue of a tiebreaker but lost the ALDS in five games to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. The 2006 season was highlighted by a 5 - game series sweep of the Red Sox at Fenway Park (sometimes referred to as the "Second Boston Massacre ''), outscoring the Red Sox 49 -- 26.
Despite winning the AL East for the ninth consecutive year, the Yankees lost again in the ALDS, this time to the Detroit Tigers. After the ALDS was over, tragedy struck when pitcher Cory Lidle died when his plane crashed into a highrise apartment building in Manhattan. Along with Thurman Munson, Lidle was the second active Yankee to be killed in a private plane crash.
On June 18, 2007 the Yankees broke new ground by signing the first two professional baseball players from the People 's Republic of China to the MLB, and became the first team in MLB history to sign an advertising deal with a Chinese company. The Yankees ' streak of nine straight AL East division titles ended in 2007, but they still reached the playoffs with the AL Wild Card. For the third year in a row, the team lost in the first round of the playoffs, as the Cleveland Indians defeated the Yankees in the 2007 ALDS. After the series, Joe Torre declined a reduced - length and compensation contract offer from the Yankees and returned to the National League as manager of the Los Angeles Dodgers.
After Torre 's departure the Yankees signed former catcher Joe Girardi to a three - year contract to manage the club. The 2008 season was the last season played at Yankee Stadium. To celebrate the final year and history of Yankee Stadium, the 2008 Major League Baseball All - Star Game was played there on July 15, 2008. The final regular - season game at Yankee Stadium was played on September 21, 2008. After the game, Jeter addressed the crowd, thanking them for their support over the years, and urging them to "take the memories of this field, add them to the new memories that will come at the new Yankee Stadium and continue to pass them on from generation to generation. '' Despite multiple midseason roster moves, the team was hampered by injuries and missed the playoffs for the first time in 14 seasons.
During the off - season, the Yankees retooled their roster with several star free agent acquisitions, including CC Sabathia, Mark Teixeira, and A.J. Burnett. At the beginning of the 2009 season, the Yankees opened the new Yankee Stadium, located just a block north on River Avenue from their former home. The Yankees set a major league record by playing error - free ball for 18 consecutive games from May 14 to June 1, 2009. The Yankees finished first in the AL East. In the ALDS they defeated the Twins in a sweep before moving on to the ALCS where the Yankees defeated Angels in six games. They defeated the defending champions, the Philadelphia Phillies, in Game 6 of the World Series 7 -- 3, to take the series 4 -- 2, their 27th World Series title.
The 2010 season featured the rivalry between the Yankees and Red Sox being revived to start and end the season. The Yankees and the Red Sox started and finished the season against each other at Fenway Park. This was the first time since 1950 this had happened. In June, Joe Torre 's Dodgers played games against the Yankees for the first time since he became manager of the Dodgers, with the Yankees taking two out of three games in the series. During the 2010 All - Star break, Pennsylvania announcer Bob Sheppard and principal owner George Steinbrenner died. Eight days later, another longtime Yankee icon, former player and manager Ralph Houk, died. The Yankees won the American League Wild Card. They swept the Minnesota Twins in the 2010 American League Division Series, but lost to the Texas Rangers in the 2010 American League Championship Series 4 games to 2.
In a 22 -- 9 win over the Athletics at home on August 25, 2011, the Yankees became the first team in Major League history to hit three grand slams in a single game. They were hit by Robinson Canó, Russell Martin, and Curtis Granderson. The Yankees won the AL East title for the second time in three seasons, finishing with 97 wins and took home field throughout the AL postseason. However, they were defeated by the Tigers in five games in the 2011 American League Division Series.
In 2012, the Yankees again finished the season with the AL 's best record at 95 -- 67. In mid-July the Yankees traded two prospects to the Seattle Mariners for Ichiro Suzuki. They faced the Orioles in the 2012 American League Division Series. In Game 3, Raúl Ibañez became the oldest player to hit two home runs in a game, the oldest to hit a walk - off homer, the first substitute position player in a postseason game to hit two home runs, and the first to hit two home runs in the 9th inning or later in a postseason game, in the Yankees ' 3 -- 2 win. The Yankees would defeat the Orioles in five games. But in the 2012 American League Championship Series, the Yankees lost to the Tigers again, this time in a four - game sweep, which was compounded with a struggling offense and a season - ending injury to Derek Jeter.
The 2013 season was riddled with injuries. Mark Teixeira strained his elbow during the WBC and played only 15 games in the season, Alex Rodriguez played only 44 games after a hip surgery, Derek Jeter played only 17 games due to his ankle injury from the 2012 ALCS and Curtis Granderson played only 61 games due to forearm and knuckle injuries. On April 12, 2013, the Yankees made their second triple play ever in a home game playing the Baltimore Orioles. It was scored as 4 -- 6 -- 5 -- 6 -- 5 -- 3 -- 4, the first triple play of its kind in baseball history. On September 25, 2013, the Yankees lost to the Tampa Bay Rays, which for the second time in the wild card era, eliminated them from any playoffs. They ended the season 85 - 77, finishing in 3rd place in the AL East.
During the 2013 -- 14 off - season, the Yankees went on a large free agent spending spree, signing players such as Brian McCann, Jacoby Ellsbury, Masahiro Tanaka, and Carlos Beltrán. Despite that, the Yankees missed the playoffs for the second straight season, the first time in the post-1994 strike era, finishing 2nd in the AL East with an 84 - 78 record. Rodriguez missed the entire season due to a 162 - game suspension for his participation in the Biogenesis baseball scandal. One notable moment happened on September 25, 2014, when Derek Jeter -- playing his final home game -- hit a walk - off single off pitcher Evan Meek to defeat the Baltimore Orioles in front of 48,613 fans who came to see the captain for the last time. Reliever Dellin Betances finished 3rd in voting for AL Rookie of the Year, while starting pitcher Masahiro Tanaka finished 5th.
The 2015 season saw the Yankees make the playoffs for the first time since 2012. In his return from suspension, Rodriguez hit 33 home runs, his most since 2008, and tied Hank Aaron 's record of fifteen 30 - homer seasons. Teixeira hit 31 home runs before a hit - by - pitch ended his season in August. Rookie first baseman Greg Bird had an impressive showing in Teixeira 's place, hitting 11 home runs in 46 games, while rookie starting pitcher Luis Severino went 5 - 3 with a 2.89 ERA in 62.1 innings after getting called up in August. Closer Andrew Miller won the AL Reliever of the Year Award. The Yankees led the AL East for most of the year before being felled by a surging Toronto Blue Jays team, ending the season 87 - 75 and in 2nd place. They were soundly defeated by the Houston Astros, 3 -- 0 in the 2015 American League Wild Card Game, shutout for six innings by opposing starter Dallas Keuchel, earning boos from the frustrated home crowd of Yankees fans.
In the off - season, the Yankees traded for Cincinnati Reds ' closer Aroldis Chapman after a domestic violence allegation lowered his value. Chapman would later be suspended 30 games. The Yankees started the 2016 season on a rough note, starting 9 - 17. The resurgent 2015 experienced by Rodriguez and Teixeira did not carry over, as they batted. 200 and. 204 for the season, respectively. Bird was ruled out for the season after undergoing shoulder surgery. Starting pitcher Michael Pineda struggled, going 6 - 12 with a 4.82 ERA, the 7th - highest in baseball. At the trade deadline, the Yankees stood at an uninspiring 52 - 52, persuading ownership to trade away their most valuable assets and be sellers at the deadline.
On July 25, 2016, the Yankees traded Aroldis Chapman to the Chicago Cubs for a package centered around top shortstop prospect Gleyber Torres, and traded Andrew Miller to the Cleveland Indians for prospects outfielder Clint Frazier and pitcher Justus Sheffield. In addition, the Yankees traded 39 - year - old designated hitter Carlos Beltran to the Texas Rangers for minor league prospects. The Yankees ' decision to be "sellers '' rather than "buyers '' at the trade deadline (trading established, veteran players for young prospects) was unusual, given the Yankees ' typical win - now approach. In discussing the midseason trades, Yankees general manager Brian Cashman said that the Yankees recognized the "need to look toward the future. ''
In early August, both Teixeira and Rodriguez revealed their plans to retire by the season 's end. Rodriguez played his final game on August 12.. In his fourth - to - last game, Teixeira hit a walk - off grand slam against the Boston Red Sox, his 409th and last career home run.
The Yankees called up Tyler Austin and outfielder Aaron Judge in August. They made their debuts on August 13, hitting back - to - back home runs in their first career at - bats. Catcher Gary Sánchez hit 20 home runs in only 53 games, finishing 2nd in AL Rookie of the Year voting and setting the record at the time as the fastest to reach 20 career home runs. Sanchez, Judge and Austin, as well as the Yankees ' prosperous farm system in general, became nicknamed the "Baby Bombers ''.
After having traded Chapman to the Cubs during the 2016 season, the Yankees signed him as a free agent during the 2016 - 17 off - season; Chapman agreed to a five - year, $86 million contract, the most lucrative for a relief pitcher in history. In 2017, the Yankees finished the season with a record of 91 - 71. This was the first time the Yankees won 90 or more games in a season since 2012. They finished second in the AL East behind the Red Sox, but captured the first AL Wild Card spot. Judge and Sánchez combined for 85 home runs. Sanchez finished with 33, the most by a Yankees catcher in a single season. Judge led the American League with 52 home runs, breaking Mark McGwire 's major league record for most home runs by a rookie in a single season (McGwire hit 49 in 1987). The Yankees starting pitching was led by ace Luis Severino, who rebounded from his last season to lead the Yankees ' pitching staff. On July 1, Clint Frazier made his MLB debut where he went 2 for 4 with a home run. The Yankees sent Dellin Betances, Starlin Castro, Sánchez, Severino, and Judge to the 2017 Major League Baseball All - Star Game. Judge won the 2017 Home Run Derby, making the Yankees the team with the most players to win a Home Run Derby in history.
After the 2017 All - Star break, the Yankees made a series of moves to acquire third baseman Todd Frazier, former Yankee reliever David Robertson, reliever Tommy Kahnle, starter Sonny Gray, and starter Jaime Garcia. In the 2017 AL Wild Card Game at Yankee Stadium the Yankees defeated the Minnesota Twins 8 -- 4 to move on the ALDS; this was the Yankees ' first playoff win since 2012. In the ALDS, the Yankees lost the first two games to the Cleveland Indians before winning the final three games. They played the Houston Astros in the 2017 American League Championship Series and lost the series in seven games.
In the 2017 off - season, the Yankees hired Aaron Boone to succeed Joe Girardi, as their new manager on December 4, 2017. On December 11, 2017, the Yankees traded Starlin Castro and two other prospects to the Miami Marlins for Giancarlo Stanton.
The Yankees have won a record 27 World Series in 40 appearances (which, since the first World Series in 1903, currently amounts to an average appearance every 2.7 seasons and a championship every 4.0 seasons); the St. Louis Cardinals are second with 11 World Series victories. The Yankees ' number of World Series losses, 13, leads Major League Baseball. The St. Louis Cardinals, Brooklyn / Los Angeles Dodgers and New York / San Francisco Giants are second in total World Series appearances with eighteen apiece. Of their 18 World Series appearances, the Dodgers have faced the Yankees eleven times, going 3 -- 8, while the Giants have faced the Yankees seven times, going 2 -- 5. Among North American major sports, the Yankees ' success is approached only by the 24 Stanley Cup championships of the Montreal Canadiens of the National Hockey League. The Yankees have played in the World Series against every National League pennant winner except the Houston Astros and the Colorado Rockies.
Through 2014, the Yankees have an all - time regular season winning percentage of. 567 (a 10,031 -- 7,648 record), the best of any team in baseball.
The Yankees have won 27 World Series Championships. Their most recent one came in 2009, under manager Joe Girardi, when they defeated the Philadelphia Phillies in six games.
The "Yankees '' name is often shortened to "the Yanks. '' Their most prominently used nickname is "the Bronx Bombers '' or simply "the Bombers '', a reference to their home and their prolific hitting. A less used nickname is "the Pinstripes '', in reference to the iconic feature on their home uniforms. Critics often refer to the team and the organization as "the Evil Empire '', a term applied to the Yankees by Boston Red Sox president Larry Lucchino in a 2002 interview with the New York Times. A term from the team 's tumultuous late 70s, "the Bronx Zoo '', is sometimes used by detractors, as well as the "Damn Yankees '', after the musical of the same name. Ironically, even many Yankees supporters refer to their team as the "Evil Empire '' as a badge of honor and in fact enjoy having their team play "the villain ''.
With their recurring success since the 1920s, the Yankees have since been one of the most popular teams in the world, with their fan base coming from much further than the New York metropolitan area. The Yankees typically bring an upsurge in attendance at all or most of their various road - trip venues, drawing crowds of their own fans, as well as home - town fans whose interest is heightened when the Yankees come to town.
The first 1 million - fan season was in 1920, when 1,289,422 fans attended Yankee games at the Polo Grounds. The first 2 million - fan season was in 1946, when 2,265,512 fans attended the games at Yankee Stadium. The Yankees have beaten the league average for home attendance 83 out of the last 87 years (only during 1990, 1991, 1992 and 1994 did they not accomplish this). In the past seven years, the Yankees have drawn over three million fans each year, with an American League record - setting 4,090,696 in 2005, becoming only the third franchise in sports history to draw over four million in regular season attendance in their own ballpark. The Yankees were the league leaders in "road attendance '' each year from 2001 through 2006.
One famous fan was Freddy Schuman, popularly known as "Freddy Sez. '' For over 50 years, he came to the Yankees ' home games with a baseball cap, a Yankees ' jersey (which on the back bears his own name), and a cake pan with a shamrock painted on it, which was connected to a sign inscribed with words of encouragement for the home team. Schuman died on October 17, 2010 at the age of 85.
To avoid unwanted publicity, Yankees members use aliases when registering for hotels. The Village Voice published a list of aliases used by Yankees members, and the contents were republished on The Smoking Gun.
The "Bleacher Creatures '' are a notorious group of season ticket holders who occupied Section 39 in the right field bleachers at the old Yankee Stadium, and occupy Section 203 in the new one. They are known for their strict allegiance to the Yankees, and are often merciless to opposing fans who sit in the section and cheer for the road team. They enjoy taunting the opposing team 's right fielder with a series of chanting and slandering. The "creatures '' got their nickname from New York Daily News columnist Filip "Flip '' Bondy, who spent the 2004 season sitting in the section for research on his book about the group, Bleeding Pinstripes: A Season with the Bleacher Creatures of Yankee Stadium, published in 2005.
The Yankees baseball club is formally owned by Yankee Global Enterprises which owns the team 's regional YES sports network. While the club has claimed it is operating under annual losses in excess of $47 million this figure is attributed only to the ballclub 's finances and not to finances attributed to YES or Yankees Global Enterprises.
The Yankees have become well known for a winning reputation on a global level. In 2007, they reached an agreement with the Chinese Baseball Association to allow coaches, scouts and trainers to work in China to promote baseball and judge talent. They are trying to do the same with the Yomiuri Giants and the Hanshin Tigers in Japan. The Yankees and Yomiuri Giants currently have a close relationship and share ideas and strategies. The Yomiuri Shimbun daily newspaper has an ad on the left - field wall at Yankee Stadium, and other Japanese ads appear on the scrolling backstop advertising board. The Yankees are hoping that close ties with countries such as China and Japan will give them personal, in depth judgments of baseball talent.
In 2008, the Yankees announced a joint venture with the Dallas Cowboys that would form the basis for a partnership in running food and beverage, and other catering services to both teams ' stadiums.
In 2013, Forbes magazine ranked New York Yankees as the fourth most valuable sports team in the world, behind Real Madrid of La Liga, Manchester United of the Premier League and Barcelona of La Liga, a value of $2.3 billion.
In 2017, Forbes magazine ranked the Yankees as the most valuable MLB team at $3.7 billion, up 9 % from 2016, with the average MLB team worth $1.54 billion.
With the long - term success of the franchise and a large Yankee fanbase, many fans of other teams have come to dislike the Yankees. The organization is sometimes referred to by detractors as "the Bronx Zoo '' (echoing the title of Sparky Lyle 's book) or "the Evil Empire. '' When the Yankees are on the road, it is common for the home fans to chant "Yankees Suck '', and T - shirts, bumper stickers and other items have been sold with this phrase.
Much of the animosity toward the team may derive from its high payroll (which was around $200 million at the start of the 2008 season, the highest of any American sports team), and the free agent superstars the team attracts in the off - season. Chicago Tribune columnist Mike Royko noted, "Hating the Yankees is as American as pizza pie, unwed mothers, and cheating on your income tax. ''
The official fight song for the Yankees is "Here Come the Yankees '', written in 1967 by Bob Bundin and Lou Stallman. While it is not used as often, it is still heard frequently in instrumental form, most prominently in radio broadcasts. Another song strongly linked to the team is "New York, New York '', which is played in the stadium after home games. The Frank Sinatra cover version is traditionally played after victories, and the Liza Minnelli original version after losses. When the Yankees take the field before the start of every game, 2 Unlimited 's "Get Ready For This '' is played, with the fans usually clapping along. When the Yankees score a run at home, a short snippet of 2 Unlimited 's "Workaholic '' containing the bell chime of Westminster Quarters is played.
A wide selection of songs are played regularly at the stadium, many of them live on the Stadium 's Hammond organ. "God Bless America '' has been played during the 7th inning stretch since September 11. The version typically played is an abbreviated version of Kate Smith 's rendition. However, during many important games (including most play - off games) and on noteworthy days, it is sung live a Capella and includes a longer introduction. During the 5th inning, the grounds crew, while performing their duties, dance to "Y.M.C.A. ''. "Cotton - Eyed Joe '', once played during the 7th inning stretch, is now played in the 8th inning. On the DiamondVision screen, a man in farmer 's garb is shown dancing in the stadium 's control room, with the words "Cotton - Eyed Joey '' at the bottom. The organist will sometimes play the "Zorba the Greek Theme '', accompanied by clapping from the audience, to excite the crowd and encourage a rally.
The Yankees Entertainment and Sports (YES) Network launched in 2002, and serves as the primary home of the New York Yankees. Michael Kay is the play - by - play announcer with Ken Singleton, David Cone, Al Leiter, John Flaherty, and Paul O'Neill work as commentators as part of a three - man, or occasionally two - man, booth. Bob Lorenz hosts the pre-game show and the post-game show with Jack Curry, and Meredith Marakovits and Nancy Newman are the on site reporters. Some games are telecast on WPIX and formerly on WWOR - TV; those broadcasts are produced by YES.
Radio broadcasts are on the Yankees Radio Network, the flagship station being WFAN 660 AM, with John Sterling as the play - by - play announcer and Suzyn Waldman providing the commentary, with Spanish - language broadcasts on WADO 1280 AM.
The history of Yankee radio broadcasters is: WJZ 770 (1939 -- ' 40), WOR 710 (1942), WINS 1010 (1944 -- ' 57), WMGM 1050 (1958 -- ' 60), WCBS 880 (1961 -- ' 66), WHN 1050 (1967 -- ' 70), WMCA 570 (1971 -- ' 77), WINS 1010 (1978 -- ' 80), WABC 770 (1981 -- 2001), WCBS 880 (2002 -- 2013), WFAN 660 AM and WFAN - FM 101.9 (2014 -- present).
Pitchers
Catchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Manager
Coaches
40 active, 0 inactive, 0 non-roster invitees
7 - or 10 - day disabled list * Not on active roster Suspended list Roster, coaches, and NRIs updated December 26, 2017 Transactions Depth Chart → All MLB rosters
The Yankees have retired 21 numbers for 23 individuals, the most in Major League Baseball.
The retired numbers were displayed behind the old Yankee Stadium 's left field fence and in front of the opposing team 's bullpen, forming a little alley that connects Monument Park to the left field stands. When the franchise moved across the street to the new stadium, the numbers were incorporated into Monument Park that sits place in center field between both bullpens. The 20 numbers are placed on the wall in chronological order, beginning with Lou Gehrig 's number 4. This was retired soon after Gehrig left baseball on July 4, 1939, the same day he gave his famous farewell speech. His was the first number retired in Major League Baseball history. Beneath the numbers are plaques with the names of the players and a descriptive paragraph.
The number 42 was retired throughout Major League Baseball in honor of Jackie Robinson on April 15, 1997, the 50th anniversary of his breaking the color barrier. The day was declared Jackie Robinson Day, and would later be observed by all of baseball, with select players from every team wearing the number 42. Players who wore No. 42 at the time were allowed to continue to wear it until they left the team with which they played on April 15, 1997; Mariano Rivera was the last active player covered under that grandfather clause. While other teams placed the number 42 with the rest of their retired numbers, the Yankees did not do so at first. Ten years later, on April 17, 2007, the Yankees honored Robinson by mounting the logo of Jackie Robinson Day with a corresponding plaque alongside the rest of the retired numbers. Because the Yankees were finishing a roadtrip in Oakland on Jackie Robinson Day, the ceremony took place two days later. When the Yankees moved to the second Yankee Stadium, they replaced the Jackie Robinson Day logo with a number 42 that resembled the other retired numbers. Later on they replaced the number 42 so that it resembled the Dodger 's style, and on September 22, 2013 a plaque was dedicated to Robinson in Monument Park. Also, the number 42 dedicated to Robinson was removed entirely and replaced with one for Mariano Rivera.
In 1972, the number 8 was retired for two players on the same day, in honor of catcher Bill Dickey and his protege, catcher Yogi Berra. Berra inherited Dickey 's number in 1948 after Dickey ended his playing career and became a coach.
Billy Martin is the only Yankee to have his number retired as a player / manager combination. He wore number 1 as a player in the 1950s and as a manager in the 1970s and 1980s.
The numbers 37 and 6, retired for Casey Stengel and Joe Torre respectively, are the only numbers retired by the Yankees for someone who served solely as manager of the team. Stengel managed the Yankees to ten pennants and seven world championships between 1949 and 1960, including a record five consecutive world championships from 1949 through 1953. Joe Torre managed the Yankees from 1996 to 2007, winning six pennants and four World Series championships.
On May 14, 2017, the Yankees retired number 2 in honor of Derek Jeter. This leaves 0, which the Yankees have never issued in their history, as the only single - digit number available for future Yankees.
Roger Bresnahan Joe Kelley
Joe McGinnity
John McGraw Wilbert Robinson
Jack Chesbro *
Clark Griffith Willie Keeler
Branch Rickey
Frank Baker Ed Barrow Yogi Berra Wade Boggs Frank Chance Earle Combs Stan Coveleski Bobby Cox Bill Dickey
Joe DiMaggio Leo Durocher Whitey Ford Lou Gehrig Lefty Gomez Joe Gordon Goose Gossage Burleigh Grimes Bucky Harris Rickey Henderson
Waite Hoyt Miller Huggins Catfish Hunter * * Reggie Jackson Randy Johnson Tony Lazzeri Bob Lemon Larry MacPhail Lee MacPhail Mickey Mantle
Joe McCarthy Johnny Mize Phil Niekro Herb Pennock Gaylord Perry Tim Raines Phil Rizzuto Iván Rodríguez Red Ruffing Jacob Ruppert
Babe Ruth Joe Sewell Enos Slaughter Casey Stengel Joe Torre Dazzy Vance Paul Waner George Weiss Dave Winfield
Mel Allen
Red Barber Buck Canel
Jerry Coleman * Joe Garagiola
Curt Gowdy Russ Hodges
Tony Kubek *
The Yankees -- Red Sox rivalry is one of the oldest, most famous and fiercest rivalries in professional sports. For over 100 years, the Boston Red Sox and the Yankees have been intense rivals. The rivalry is often termed "the best '' and "greatest rivalry in all of sports. '' Games between the two teams are often broadcast on national television, schedule permitting.
The rivalry is sometimes so polarizing that it is often a heated subject, like religion or politics, in the Northeastern United States. Since the inception of the wild card team and an added Division Series, the American League East rivals have squared off in the American League Championship Series three times, with the Yankees winning twice in 1999 and 2003 and the Sox winning in 2004. In addition, the teams have twice met in the last regular - season series of a season to decide the league title, in 1904 (when the Red Sox won) and 1949 (when the Yankees won).
The teams also finished tied for first in 1978, when the Yankees won a high - profile one - game playoff for the division title. The 1978 division race is memorable for the Red Sox having held a 14 - game lead over the Yankees more than halfway through the season. Similarly, the 2004 ALCS is notable for the Yankees leading 3 games to 0 and ultimately losing a best of seven series. The Red Sox comeback was the only time in baseball history that a team has come back from a 0 -- 3 deficit to win a postseason series.
The Subway Series is a series of games played between teams based in New York City. The term 's historic usage has been in reference to World Series games played between New York teams. The Yankees have appeared in all Subway Series games as they have been the only American League team in the city, and have compiled an 11 -- 3 record in the fourteen championship Subway Series. Since 1997, the term Subway Series has also been applied to interleague play during the regular season between the Yankees and National League New York Mets.
The Yankees are affiliated with the following minor league teams:
The Yankees front office, as of 2013, included Hal Steinbrenner (Managing General Partner / Co-Chairperson), Randy Levine (President), Lonn A. Trost (Chief Operating Officer and General Counsel), and Brian Cashman (Senior Vice President, General Manager).
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where is key west located on a map | Key West, Florida - Wikipedia
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Key West is an island city in Florida and the county seat of Monroe County. The city boundaries include the island of Key West and several nearby islands, as well as the section of Stock Island north of U.S. Route 1, on the adjacent key just east of the city. Sigsbee Park -- originally known as Dredgers Key -- and Fleming Key, both located to the north, and Sunset Key located to the west are all included in the city boundaries. Both Fleming Key and Sigsbee Park are part of Naval Air Station Key West and are inaccessible to the general public. Key West is the southernmost city in the contiguous United States and the southern terminus of U.S. Route 1, State Road A1A, the East Coast Greenway and, before 1935, the Florida East Coast Railway.
Key West is 129 miles (208 km) southwest of Miami by air, about 160 miles (260 km) by car, and 106 miles (171 km) north - northeast of Havana, Cuba. Cuba, at its closest point, is 94 miles (151 km) south. Key West is a port of call for many passenger cruise ships. The Key West International Airport provides airline service. Naval Air Station Key West is an important year round training site for naval aviation due to the tropical weather, which is also the reason Key West was chosen as the Winter White House of President Harry S. Truman. The central business district is located along Duval Street and includes much of the northwestern corner of the island. The official city motto is "One Human Family. ''
In Pre-Colonial times Key West was inhabited by the Calusa people. The first European to visit was Juan Ponce de León in 1521. As Florida became a Spanish territory, a fishing and salvage village with a small garrison was established here.
Cayo Hueso (Spanish pronunciation: (ˈkaʝo ˈweso)) is the original Spanish name for the island of Key West. Spanish - speaking people today also use the term when referring to Key West. It literally means "bone cay (a low island or reef) ''. It is said that the island was littered with the remains (bones) of prior native inhabitants, who used the isle as a communal graveyard. This island was the westernmost Key with a reliable supply of water.
In 1763, when Great Britain took control of Florida, the community of Spaniards and Native Americans were moved to Havana. Florida returned to Spanish control 20 years later, but there was no official resettlement of the island. Informally the island was used by fishermen from Cuba and from the British, who were later joined by others from the United States after the latter nation 's independence. While claimed by Spain, no nation exercised de facto control over the community there for some time.
In 1815, the Spanish governor of Cuba in Havana deeded the island of Key West to Juan Pablo Salas, an officer of the Royal Spanish Navy Artillery posted in Saint Augustine, Florida. After Florida was transferred to the United States in 1821, Salas was so eager to sell the island that he sold it twice -- first for a sloop valued at $575 to a General John Geddes, a former governor of South Carolina, and then to a U.S. businessman John W. Simonton, during a meeting in a Havana café on January 19, 1822, for the equivalent of $2,000 in pesos in 1821. Geddes tried in vain to secure his rights to the property before Simonton who, with the aid of some influential friends in Washington, was able to gain clear title to the island. Simonton had wide - ranging business interests in Mobile, Alabama. He bought the island because a friend, John Whitehead, had drawn his attention to the opportunities presented by the island 's strategic location. John Whitehead had been stranded in Key West after a shipwreck in 1819 and he had been impressed by the potential offered by the deep harbor of the island. The island was indeed considered the "Gibraltar of the West '' because of its strategic location on the 90 - mile (140 km) -- wide deep shipping lane, the Straits of Florida, between the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico.
On March 25, 1822, Lt. Commander Matthew C. Perry sailed the schooner Shark to Key West and planted the U.S. flag, claiming the Keys as United States property. No protests were made over the American claim on Key West, so the Florida Keys became the property of the United States.
After claiming the Florida Keys for the United States, Perry renamed Cayo Hueso (Key West) to "Thompson 's Island '' for Secretary of the Navy Smith Thompson, and the harbor "Port Rodgers '' in honor of War of 1812 hero and President of the Navy Supervisors Board John Rodgers. In 1823, Commodore David Porter of the United States Navy West Indies Anti-Pirate Squadron took charge of Key West, which he ruled (but, according to some, exceeding his authority) as military dictator under martial law. Porter was tasked by the American Navy to end acts of piracy in the Key West area including slave ships.
Soon after his purchase, John Simonton subdivided the island into plots and sold three undivided quarters of each plot to:
Simonton spent the winter in Key West and the summer in Washington, where he lobbied hard for the development of the island and to establish a naval base on the island, both to take advantage of the island 's strategic location and to bring law and order to the town. He died in 1854.
The names of the four "founding fathers '' of modern Key West were given to main arteries of the island when it was first platted in 1829 by William Adee Whitehead, John Whitehead 's younger brother. That first plat and the names used remained mostly intact and are still in use today. Duval Street, the island 's main street, is named after Florida 's first territorial governor, who served between 1822 and 1834 as the longest - serving governor in Florida 's U.S. history.
William Whitehead became chief editorial writer for the "Enquirer '', a local newspaper, in 1834. He had the genius of preserving copies of his newspaper as well as copies from the "Key West Gazette '', its predecessor. He later sent those copies to the Monroe County clerk for preservation, which gives us a precious view of life in Key West in the early days (1820 -- 1840).
In 1852 the first Catholic Church, St. Mary 's Star - Of - The - Sea was built. The year 1864 became a landmark for the church in South Florida when five Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary arrived from Montreal, Canada, and established the first Catholic school in South Florida. The Convent of Mary Immaculate, the oldest Catholic School in Florida which is now known as Mary Immaculate Star of the Sea School.
During the American Civil War, while Florida seceded and joined the Confederate States of America, Key West remained in U.S. Union hands because of the naval base. However, most locals were sympathetic to the Confederacy, and many flew Confederate flags over their homes. Fort Zachary Taylor, constructed from 1845 to 1866, was an important Key West outpost during the Civil War. Construction began in 1861 on two other forts, East and West Martello Towers, which served as side armories and batteries for the larger fort. When completed, they were connected to Fort Taylor by railroad tracks for movement of munitions. Fort Jefferson, located about 68 miles (109 km) from Key West on Garden Key in the Dry Tortugas, served after the Civil War as the prison for Dr. Samuel A. Mudd, convicted of conspiracy for setting the broken leg of John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of President Abraham Lincoln.
In the 19th century, major industries included wrecking and salvaging; fishing; turtling, and salt manufacturing. From 1830 to 1861, Key West was a major center of U.S. salt production, harvesting the commodity from the sea (via receding tidal pools) rather than from salt mines. After the outbreak of the Civil War, Union troops shut down the salt industry after Confederate sympathizers smuggled the product into the South. Salt production resumed at the end of the war, but the industry was destroyed by an 1876 hurricane and never recovered, in part because of new salt mines on the mainland.
During the Ten Years ' War (an unsuccessful Cuban war for independence in the 1860s and 1870s), many Cubans sought refuge in Key West.
A fire on April 1, 1886, started at a cigar club and grew out of control, destroying 18 cigar factories and 614 houses and government warehouse buildings.
By 1889, Key West was the largest and wealthiest city in Florida.
The USS Maine sailed from Key West on its fateful visit to Havana, where it blew up and sank in Havana Harbor, igniting the Spanish -- American War. Crewmen from the ship are buried in Key West, and the Navy investigation into the blast occurred at the Key West Customs House.
The Overseas Railroad linked Key West to the mainland in 1912; it was destroyed in the 1935 Labor Day hurricane. The Overseas Highway, and extension of U.S. Route 1 in Florida, was completed in 1938; it was built atop many of the footings of the railroad.
Pan American Airlines was founded in Key West, originally to fly visitors to Havana, in 1926. The airline contracted with the United States Postal Service in 1927 to deliver mail to and from Cuba and the United States. The mail route was known as the ' Key West, Florida Havana Mail Route.
John F. Kennedy was to use "90 miles from Cuba '' extensively in his speeches against Fidel Castro. Kennedy himself visited Key West a month after the resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Prior to the Cuban revolution of 1959, there were regular ferry and airplane services between Key West and Havana.
Key West is located at 24 ° 33 ′ 33 '' N 81 ° 47 ′ 03 '' W / 24.55917 ° N 81.78417 ° W / 24.55917; - 81.78417. The maximum elevation above sea level is about 18 feet (5 m), a 1 - acre (4,000 m) area known as Solares Hill.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 7.4 square miles (19 km), of which 5.9 square miles (15 km) is land and 1.5 square miles (3.9 km) (19.73 %) is water.
Since the 1940s, the island has more than doubled in size via landfill. The new section on the eastern side is called "New Town. '' It contains shopping centers, retail malls, residential areas, schools, ball parks, and Key West International Airport.
Key West and most of the rest of the Keys are on the dividing line between the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. The two bodies have different currents, with the calmer and warmer Gulf of Mexico being characterized by great clumps of seagrass. The area where the two bodies merge between Key West and Cuba is called the Straits of Florida.
Key West was relatively isolated until 1912, when it was connected to the Florida mainland via the Overseas Railway extension of Henry M. Flagler 's Florida East Coast Railway (FEC). Flagler created a landfill at Trumbo Point for his railyards. The Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 destroyed much of the railroad and killed hundreds of residents, including around 400 World War I veterans who were living in camps and working on federal road and mosquito - control projects in the Middle Keys. The FEC could not afford to restore the railroad.
The U.S. government then rebuilt the rail route as an automobile highway, completed in 1938, which became an extension of United States Highway 1. The portion of U.S. 1 through the Keys is called the Overseas Highway. Franklin Roosevelt toured the road in 1939.
Key West has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw, similar to the Caribbean islands). Like most tropical climates, Key West has only a small difference in monthly mean temperatures between the coolest month (January) and the warmest month (July) -- with the annual range of monthly mean temperatures around 15 ° F (8.3 ° C). The Florida Keys are one of the only locations on the mainland U.S. known to never have had a frost or freeze -- the lowest temperature on record is 41 ° F (5 ° C) on January 12, 1886, and January 13, 1981. Prevailing easterly tradewinds and sea breezes suppress the usual summertime heating, with temperatures rarely reaching 95 ° F (35 ° C). There are 55 days per year with 90 ° F (32 ° C) or greater highs, with the average window for such readings June 10 through September 22, shorter than almost the entire southeastern U.S. However, low temperatures often remain above 80 ° F (27 ° C). The all - time record high temperature is 97 ° F (36 ° C) on July 19, 1880, and August 29, 1956.
Like most tropical climates, Key West has a two - season wet and dry climate. The period from November through April is normally sunny and quite dry, with only 25 percent of the annual rainfall occurring. May through October is normally the wet season. During the wet season some rain falls on most days, often as brief, but heavy tropical downpours, followed by intense sun. Early morning is the favored time for these showers, which is different from mainland Florida, where showers and thunderstorms usually occur in the afternoon. Easterly (tropical) waves during this season occasionally bring excessive rainfall, while infrequent hurricanes may be accompanied by unusually heavy amounts. On average, rainfall markedly peaks between August and October; the single wettest month in Key West is September, when the threat from tropical weather systems (hurricanes, tropical storms and tropical depressions) is greatest. Key West is the driest city in Florida, averaging just under 40 inches of rain per year. This is driven primarily by Key West 's relative dryness in May, June and July. In mainland Florida peninsular areas like Orlando, Tampa / St. Petersburg and Fort Myers, June and July average monthly rainfalls typically reach 7 to 10 inches, while Key West has only half such amounts over the same period.
Hurricanes rarely affect Key West, and the island has been relatively unaffected by major storms. Some locals maintain that Hurricane Wilma on October 24, 2005, was the worst storm in memory. The entire island was told to evacuate and business owners were forced to shut their doors. After the hurricane had passed, the resulting storm surge sent eight feet (two meters) of water inland completely inundating a large portion of the lower Keys. Low - lying areas of Key West and the lower Keys, including major tourist destinations, were under as much as three feet (one meter) of water. Sixty percent of the homes in Key West were flooded. The higher parts of Old Town, such as the Solares Hill and cemetery areas, did not flood, because of their higher elevations of 12 to 18 feet (4 to 5 m). The surge destroyed tens of thousands of cars throughout the lower Keys, and many houses were flooded with one to two feet (thirty to sixty - one centimeters) of sea water. A local newspaper referred to Key West and the lower Keys as a "car graveyard. '' The peak of the storm surge occurred when the eye of Wilma had already passed over the Naples area, and the sustained winds during the surge were less than 40 mph (64 km / h). The storm destroyed the piers at the clothing - optional Atlantic Shores Motel and breached the shark tank at the Key West Aquarium, freeing its sharks. Damage postponed the island 's famous Halloween Fantasy Fest until the following December. MTV 's The Real World: Key West was filming during the hurricane and deals with the storm.
In September 2005, NOAA opened its National Weather Forecasting building on White Street. The building is designed to withstand a Category 5 hurricane and its storm surge. Tours of the office are available, weather permitting, Monday - Friday from 10am to 12pm.
The most intense previous hurricane was Hurricane Georges, a Category 2, in September 1998. The storm damaged many of the houseboats along "Houseboat Row '' on South Roosevelt Boulevard near Cow Key channel on the east side of the island.
The most recent hurricane to impact Key West was Hurricane Irma, which made landfall in the Keys in the morning of September 10, 2017 as a Category 4 storm.
The first cruise ship was the Sunward in 1969, which docked at the Navy 's pier in the Truman Annex or the privately owned Pier B. The Navy 's pier is called the Navy Mole.
In 1984 the city opened a pier right on Mallory Square. The decision was met with considerable opposition from people who felt it would disrupt the tradition of watching the sunset at Mallory Square. Cruise ships now dock at all three piers.
In present times, several cruise ships dock on a regular basis at Key West, including the Royal Caribbean ship Majesty of the Seas and the Carnival Fascination, both of which visit weekly. In the last several years, however, larger cruise ships have increasingly bypassed Key West due to the narrowness of the island 's main ship channel. On October 1, 2013, 74 % of resident voters opposed a referendum that would have allowed the City Commission to request a feasibility study from the Army Corps of Engineers for a $36 million project to dredge a wider channel. Economic benefits from visiting cruise ship passengers are substantial but not attractive to all Key West citizens as the daily presence of thousands of tourists from cruise ships affects the character of the city, resulting in operation of facilities that cater to mass tourism rather than to a potentially more profitable and pleasant upscale clientele. There are also environmental issues as Key West is surrounded by coral habitat. Concerns over environmental protection were considered a prominent factor in the failure of the 2013 referendum.
As of 2009, there were 859,409 passengers annually.
As of the census of 2000, there were 25,478 people, 11,016 households, and 5,463 families residing in Key West. The population density was 4,285.0 inhabitants per square mile (1,653.3 / km2). There were 13,306 housing units at an average density of 2,237.9 per square mile (863.4 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 84.94 % White, 9.28 % African American, 0.39 % Native American, 1.29 % Asian, 0.05 % Pacific Islander, 1.86 % from other races, and 2.18 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino persons of any race were 16.54 % of the population.
There were 11,016 households, out of which 19.9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.7 % were married couples living together, 8.2 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 50.4 % were classified as non-families. Of all households, 31.4 % were made up of individuals, and 8.1 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.84.
The population was spread out, with 16.0 % under the age of 18, 8.4 % from 18 to 24, 37.1 % from 25 to 44, 26.7 % from 45 to 64, and 11.7 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 122.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 126.0 males.
The median income for a household was $43,021, and the median income for those classified as families was $50,895. Males had a median income of $30,967 versus $25,407 for females. The per capita income for the city was $26,316. About 5.8 % of families and 10.2 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.5 % of those under age 18 and 11.3 % of those age 65 or over.
The ancestries most reported in 2000 were English (12.4 %), German (12.2 %), Irish (11.3 %), Italian (6.8 %), American (6.0 %) and French (3.6 %).
The number of families (as defined by the Census Bureau) declined dramatically in the last four decades of the 20th century. In 1960 there were 13,340 families in Key West, with 42.1 % of households having children living in them. By 2000 the population had dwindled to 5,463 families, with only 19.9 % of households having children living in them.
As of 2000, 76.66 % spoke English as a first language, while Spanish was spoken by 17.32 %, 1.06 % spoke Italian, 1.02 % spoke French, and German spoken as a mother tongue was at 0.94 % of the population. In total, other languages spoken besides English made up 25.33 % of residents.
Many of the residents of Key West were immigrants from the Bahamas, known as Conchs (pronounced "conks '' '), who arrived in increasing numbers after 1830. Many were sons and daughters of Loyalists who fled to the nearest Crown soil during the American Revolution. In the 20th century many residents of Key West started referring to themselves as Conchs, and the term is now generally applied to all residents of Key West. Some residents use the term "Conch '' (or, alternatively, "Saltwater Conch '') to refer to a person born in Key West, while the term "Freshwater Conch '' refers to a resident not born in Key West but who has lived in Key West for seven years or more. However, the true original meaning of Conch applies only to someone with European ancestry who immigrated from the Bahamas. It is said that when a baby was born, the family would put a conch shell on a pole in front of their home.
Many of the black Bahamian immigrants who arrived later lived in Bahama Village, an area of Old Town next to the Truman Annex.
Key West is closer to Havana (106 miles (171 km)) than it is to Miami (129 miles (208 km)). In 1890, Key West had a population of nearly 18,800 and was the biggest and richest city in Florida. Half the residents were said to be of Cuban origin, and Key West regularly had Cuban mayors, including the son of Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, father of the Cuban Republic, who was elected mayor in 1876. Cubans were actively involved in reportedly 200 factories in town, producing 100 million cigars annually. José Martí made several visits to seek recruits for Cuban independence starting in 1891 and founded the Cuban Revolutionary Party during his visits to Key West.
Key West was flooded with refugees during the Mariel Boatlift. Refugees continue to come ashore and, on at least one occasion, most notably in April 2003, flew hijacked Cuban Airlines planes into the city 's airport.
Key West Government is governed via the mayor - council system. The city council is known as the city commission. It consists of six members each elected from individual districts. The mayor is elected in a citywide vote.
Mayors of Key West have reflected the city 's cultural and ethnic heritage. Among its mayors are the first Cuban mayor and one of the first openly gay mayors. One mayor is also famous for having water - skied to Cuba.
In 1982 the city of Key West briefly declared its "independence '' as the Conch Republic in a protest over a United States Border Patrol blockade. This blockade was set up on U.S. 1, where the northern end of the Overseas Highway meets the mainland at Florida City. The blockade was in response to the Mariel Boatlift. A traffic jam of 17 miles (27 km) ensued while the Border Patrol stopped every car leaving the Keys, supposedly searching for illegal immigrants attempting to enter the mainland United States. This paralyzed the Florida Keys, which rely heavily on the tourism industry. Flags, T - shirts and other merchandise representing the Conch Republic are still popular souvenirs for visitors to Key West, and the Conch Republic Independence Celebration -- including parades and parties -- is celebrated every April 23.
Monroe County School District operates public schools in Key West.
District - operated elementary schools serving the City of Key West include Poinciana Elementary School, which is located on the island of Key West, and Gerald Adams Elementary School, which is located on Stock Island. District - operated middle and high schools include Horace O'Bryant School, a former middle school which now operates as a K -- 8 school, and the Key West High School. All of Key West is zoned to Horace O'Bryant School for grades 6 - 8 and to Key West High School for grades 9 -- 12. Sigsbee Charter School is a K -- 8 school of choice, sanctioned by the District and serving predominantly military dependent children as well as children from the community at large. Admission to Sigsbee Charter School is limited and the waiting list is managed by a lottery system. Key West Montessori Charter School is a district - sanctioned charter school on Key West Island.
The main campus of Florida Keys Community College is located in Key West.
One of the biggest attractions on the island is a concrete replica of a buoy at the corner of South and Whitehead Streets that claims to be the southernmost point in the contiguous United States (see Extreme Points). Erected in 1983, the famous brightly painted and labeled "SOUTHERNMOST POINT CONTINENTAL U.S.A. '', it is one of the most visited and photographed attractions in the United States. However, the marker is not located at the exact southernmost point in the continental United States, Whitehead Spit, on the Truman Annex property just west of the buoy, is the true southernmost point, but it has no marker since it is U.S. Navy land and can not be entered by civilian tourists.
The claim "90 Miles to Cuba '' on the monument is close to correct, Cuba at its closest point has been measured at 94 statute miles (151 km) from Key West.
The original Key West settlement on the western part of the island is called "Old Town '' and comprises the Key West Historic District. It includes the major tourist destinations of the island, including Mallory Square, Duval Street, the Truman Annex and Fort Zachary Taylor. It is where are found the classic bungalows and guest mansions.
Generally, the structures date from 1886 to 1912. The basic features that distinguish the local architecture include wood - frame construction of one - to two - and - a-half - story structures set on foundation piers about three feet (one meter) above the ground. Exterior characteristics of the buildings are peaked "metal '' roofs, horizontal wood siding, gingerbread trim, pastel shades of paint, side - hinged louvered shutters, covered porches (or balconies, galleries, or verandas) along the fronts of the structures, and wood lattice screens covering the area elevated by the piers.
Old Town is comparable to the "New Town '' section of the island, which was created when the island of Key West was more than doubled in size via landfill. New Town, on the eastern part of the island, contains shopping centers, retail malls, residential areas, schools, ball parks, and Key West International Airport.
Key West was always an important military post, since it sits at the northern edge of the deepwater channel connecting the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico (the southern edge 90 miles (140 km) away is Cuba) via the Florida Straits. Because of this, Key West since the 1820s had been dubbed the "Gibraltar of the West. '' Fort Taylor was initially built on the island. The Navy added a small base from which the USS Maine sailed to its demise in Havana at the beginning of the Spanish -- American War.
At the beginning of World War II the Navy increased its presence from 50 acres (200,000 m) to 3,000 acres (12 km), including all of Boca Chica Key 's 1,700 acres (7 km) and the construction of Fleming Key from landfill. The Navy built the first water pipeline extending the length of the keys, bringing fresh water from the mainland to supply its bases. At its peak 15,000 military personnel and 3,400 civilians were at the base. Included in the base are:
Several U.S. presidents have visited Key West. Harry Truman visited for 175 days on 11 visits during his presidency and visited several times after he left office (see Truman Annex).
Key West was in a down cycle when Franklin D. Roosevelt visited in 1939. The buildup of military bases on the island occurred shortly thereafter.
In addition to Truman, Dwight D. Eisenhower stayed in Key West following a heart attack. In November 1962, John F. Kennedy visited Key West a month after the resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis. Jimmy Carter held a family reunion in Key West after leaving office.
Legend has it that Ernest Hemingway wrote part of A Farewell to Arms while living above the showroom of a Key West Ford dealership at 314 Simonton Street while awaiting delivery of a Ford Model A roadster purchased by the uncle of his wife Pauline in 1928.
Hardware store owner Charles Thompson introduced him to deep - sea fishing. Among the group who went fishing was Joe Russell (also known as Sloppy Joe). Russell was reportedly the model for Freddy in To Have and Have Not. Portions of the original manuscript were found at Sloppy Joe 's Bar after his death. The group had nicknames for each other, and Hemingway wound up with "Papa ''.
Pauline 's rich uncle Gus Pfeiffer bought the 907 Whitehead Street house in 1931 as a wedding present. Legend says the Hemingways installed a swimming pool for $20,000 in the late 1930s (equivalent in 2013 to $330,000). It was such a high price that Hemingway is said to have put a penny in the concrete, saying, "Here, take the last penny I 've got! '' The penny is still there.
During his stay he wrote or worked on Death in the Afternoon, For Whom the Bell Tolls, The Snows of Kilimanjaro, and The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber. He used Depression - era Key West as one of the locations in To Have and Have Not -- his only novel with scenes that occur in the United States.
Pauline and Hemingway divorced in 1939; Hemingway only occasionally visited when returning from Havana until his suicide in 1961.
The six - or seven - toed polydactyl cats descended from Hemingway 's original pet "Snowball '' still live on the grounds and are cared for at the Hemingway House, despite complaints by the U.S. Department of Agriculture that they are not kept free from visitor contact. The Key West City Commission has exempted the house from a law prohibiting more than four domestic animals per household.
Famous Sloppy Joe 's Bar at night
The Silver Slipper dance hall adjacent to Sloppy Joe 's, painted in the 1930s by Waldo Peirce.
One of the more than 50 polydactyl cats that live at the Hemingway house. This particular cat has seven (two extra) toes on each paw.
Tennessee Williams first became a regular visitor to Key West in 1941 and is said to have written the first draft of A Streetcar Named Desire while staying in 1947 at the La Concha Hotel. He bought a permanent house in 1949 and listed Key West as his primary residence until his death in 1983. In contrast to Hemingway 's grand house in Old Town, the Williams home at 1431 Duncan Street in the "unfashionable '' New Town neighborhood is a very modest bungalow. The house is privately owned and not open to the public. The Academy Award -- winning film version of his play The Rose Tattoo was shot on the island in 1956. The Tennessee Williams Theatre is located on the campus of Florida Keys Community College on Stock Island.
Williams had a series of rented homes all over the United States, but the only home he owned was in Key West.
Even though Hemingway and Williams lived in Key West at the same time, they reportedly met only once -- at Hemingway 's home in Cuba, Finca Vigía.
Key West is part of the Miami - Fort Lauderdale television market. It is served by rebroadcast transmitters in Key West and Marathon that repeat the Miami - Fort Lauderdale stations. Comcast provides cable television service. DirecTV and Dish Network provide Miami - Fort Lauderdale local stations and national channels.
The Key West area has 11 FM radio stations, 4 FM translators, and 2 AM stations. WEOW 92.7 is the home of The Rude Girl & Molly Blue, a popular morning zoo duo; Bill Bravo is the afternoon host. SUN 99.5 has Hoebee and Miss Loretta in the p.m. drive. Island 107.1 FM is the only locally owned, independent FM station in Key West, featuring alternative rock music and community programs.
The Florida Keys Keynoter and the Key West Citizen are published locally and serve Key West and Monroe County. The Southernmost Flyer, a weekly publication printed in conjunction with the Citizen, is produced by the Public Affairs Department of Naval Air Station Key West and serves the local military community. Key West the Newspaper (known locally as The Blue Paper due to its colorful header) is a local weekly investigative newspaper, established in 1994 by Dennis Cooper, taken over in 2013 as a fully digital publication by Arnaud and Naja Girard.
Key West and the Florida Keys have been the setting for many film and television productions beginning in 1942 with Reap the Wild Wind.
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who wrote the song it's so hard to say goodbye | It 's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday - wikipedia
"It 's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday '' is an R&B song written by Motown husband - and - wife songwriting team Freddie Perren and Christine Yarian for the 1975 film Cooley High. In the film, the song is performed by Motown artist G.C. Cameron, whose rendition peaked at number 38 on the Billboard R&B singles chart that same year. Perren also composed the instrumental score for Cooley High, and the B - side to "It 's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday '' features two of his score compositions from the film.
The composition fared better when covered in an a cappella rendition by contemporary R&B Motown group Boyz II Men 16 years later. Boyz II Men 's recording of "It 's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday '' peaked at number one on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs on December 21, 1991. Over on non-genre specific charts the song reached number five on the Hot 100 Airplay on December 7, 1991 and number two on the Hot Singles Sales on November 23, 1991 and eventually went on to peak at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 on December 14, 1991, blocked from the top spot for five weeks by Michael Jackson 's single "Black or White ''. "It 's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday '' was included on Boyz II Men 's first album, Cooleyhighharmony, its name a reference to the film from which the song originated.
The song was also featured in the films Lethal Weapon 3 (1992) and as the center of gags in Harold & Kumar Escape from Guantanamo Bay (2008), and in episodes of the television series It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, Psych and Martin. It was featured in the American Dad! episode "News Glance with Genevieve VaVance '' when Steve goes missing. It was also performed on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon immediately after Conan O'Brien 's final Tonight Show in 2010, with Jimmy Fallon and The Roots singing it in the studio O'Brien had occupied when he hosted Late Night (now home of The Dr. Oz Show). The song was later sung by Tracy Morgan as part of a tribute to his 30 Rock co-stars that celebrated the show 's then upcoming final episode. It was also featured on MTV during the current promotions of Jersey Shore 's final season. In July 2013, the song was used by the show Game of Thrones at its Comic - Con panel in a tribute video to the characters killed off in its third season.
US Cassette Single
Europe Maxi - CD
Singer Jacky Cheung recorded a Cantonese version of "It 's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday '' entitled "偷闲 加油 站 '' in 1993.
The Notorious B.I.G. humorously refers to the song in the song "Gimme the Loot, '' from his 1994 album Ready to Die, indicating that if a potential robbery victim tried to resist his efforts, the victim 's bereaved mother would be left singing "It 's so haaaard. ''
Nas also did something similar in the song "Destroy & Rebuild '', where he did n't mention Cormega 's name in the first verse of the song: "Right: Mega was his name, sorry ' bout that, but ' it 's so hard ' to put a coward 's name in my raps! ''
In 1995, Barrio Boyzz dedicated the song in Spanish to Selena after her death on March 31, 1995.
In 1998, rapper Master P with Mo B. Dick, Silkk the Shocker, and R&B group Sons of Funk did a loose cover for the song titled as "Goodbye to My Homies ''.
In 2001, Usher sang the song a capella in memory of R'n'B singer and actress Aaliyah, who had been killed in a plane crash three days before.
In 2002, Busch Stadium played the song while showing a memorial video of late pitcher Darryl Kile.
In 2008, Jamelody covered the song on his debut album, "Be Prepared ''.
In 2012, R. Kelly sang a portion of the song a capella in the ESPN 30 for 30 documentary Benji, which was a biography of Chicago HS basketball star Ben Wilson. Wilson was murdered in 1984 during an altercation with two teenagers at the age of 17 and Kelly was one of his AAU teammates. Kelly also sang the song as Wilson was being laid to rest the day of his funeral and recounted that for the film.
In 2012, Angela Aki sang the song using both English and Japanese lyrics.
In 2014, singer - songwriter Jason Mraz covered the song on his fifth studio album Yes!, with rock - folk band Raining Jane providing back - up.
Radio stations in the United States changing formats have on occasion used this song to sign off their old format prior to the debut of the new one, such as longtime urban station V103 in Baltimore in June 1997.
On February 12, 2017, guitarist Josh Klinghoffer performed a short tease of the song during the Red Hot Chili Peppers show in Philadelphia
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who wrote the song i wish you love | I Wish You Love - wikipedia
I Wish You Love may refer to:
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who unified japan and then went on to attempt to invade china via korea | Japanese invasions of Korea (1592 -- 98) - wikipedia
Korean and Chinese victory
Korea King Seonjo Prince Gwanghae Ryu Seong - ryong Gwon Yul Yi Sun - sin † Yi Eokgi † Won Gyun † Shin Rip † Kim Si - min † Song Sang - hyun † Go Gyeong - myeong † Kim Cheon - il † Jo Heon † Kim Myeong - won Yi Il Gwak Jae - u Jeong Gi - ryong Kim Deok - nyeong Yujeong Hyujeong Jeong Mun - bu Kim Chung - seon
Ming China Wanli Emperor Song Yingchang Yang Hao Li Rusong Xing Jie
Korea 172,000 Korean Army, (as of 1592) + at least 22,600 Korean volunteers and insurgents
China 1st. (1592 -- 93) 43,000 + 2nd. (1597 -- 98) 75,000 90,000 +
Japan 1st. (1592) 158,000 2nd. (1597 -- 98)
Korea: army: 185,000 + killed
50,000 ~ 60,000 captives Total military: 260,000 + Total army + civilian: ~ 1,000,000
157 ships
Japan: 100,000 + soldiers killed.
The Japanese invasions of Korea comprised two separate yet linked operations: an initial invasion in 1592, a brief truce in 1596, and a second invasion in 1597. The conflict ended in 1598 with the withdrawal of the Japanese forces from the Korean Peninsula after a military stalemate in Korea 's southern coastal provinces.
The invasions were launched by Toyotomi Hideyoshi with the intent of conquering the Korean Peninsula and China, which were ruled by the Joseon and by the Ming dynasty, respectively. Japan quickly succeeded in occupying large portions of the Korean Peninsula, but the contribution of reinforcements by the Ming, as well as the disruption of Japanese supply fleets along the western and southern coasts by the Joseon Navy forced a withdrawal of Japanese forces from Pyongyang and the northern provinces to the south, where the Japanese continued to occupy Hanseong (now Seoul) and the southeastern regions. Afterwards, with guerrilla warfare waged against the Japanese with righteous armies (Joseon civilian militias) and supply difficulties hampering both sides, neither the Japanese nor the combined Ming and Joseon forces were able to mount a successful offensive or gain any additional territory, resulting in a military stalemate in the areas between Hanseong and Kaesong. The first phase of the invasion lasted from 1592 until 1596, and was followed by ultimately unsuccessful peace negotiations between Japan and the Ming between 1596 and 1597.
In 1597, Japan renewed its offensive by invading Korea a second time. The pattern of the second invasion largely mirrored that of the first. The Japanese had initial successes on land, capturing several cities and fortresses, only to be halted and forced to withdraw to the southern coastal regions of the peninsula. The pursuing Ming and Joseon forces, however, were unable to dislodge the Japanese from their remaining fortresses and entrenched positions in the southern coastal areas, where both sides again became locked in a ten - month long military stalemate.
With Hideyoshi 's death in 1598, limited progress on land, and continued disruption of supply lines by the Joseon navy, the Japanese forces in Korea were ordered to withdraw back to Japan by the new governing Council of Five Elders. Final peace negotiations between the parties followed afterwards and continued for several years, ultimately resulting in the normalization of relations.
In Korean, the first invasion (1592 -- 1593) is called the "Japanese (倭 wae) Disturbance (亂 ran) of Imjin '' (1592 being an imjin year in the sexagenary cycle). The second invasion (1597 -- 1598) is called the "Second War of Jeong - yu '' (丁酉). Collectively, the invasions are referred to as the Imjin War.
In Chinese, the wars are referred to as the "Wanli Korean Campaign '', after then reigning Chinese emperor, or the "Renchen War to Defend the Nation '' (壬 辰 衛 國 戰爭), where renchen (壬 辰) is the Chinese reading of imjin.
In Japanese, the war is called Bunroku no eki (文 禄 の 役). Bunroku referring to the Japanese era name of Emperor Go - Yōzei, spanning the period from 1592 to 1596. The second invasion (1597 -- 1598) is called "Keichō no eki '' (慶長 の 役). During the Edo period (17 -- 19th centuries), the war was also called "Kara iri '' (唐 入り "entry into China ''), because Japan 's ultimate purpose at the commencement of the invasion was the conquest of Ming China, although with the reality that the conflict was largely confined to the Korean Peninsula for the duration of the war, the armies of Toyotomi Hideyoshi would alter their immediate objectives during the course of the campaign.
In 1592, with an army of approximately 158,000 troops, Toyotomi Hideyoshi launched what would end up being the first of two invasions of Korea, with the intent of conquering Joseon Korea and eventually Ming - dynasty China. Initially, the Japanese forces saw overwhelming success on land, capturing both Hanseong, the capital of Korea, and Pyongyang, and completing the occupation of large portions of the Korean Peninsula in three months. The Japanese forces, well trained, confident, and experienced after the numerous battles and conflicts of the Sengoku period, typically held the field in most land engagements. This success on land, however, was constrained by the naval campaigns of the Korean navy which would continue to raid Japanese supply fleets in its coastal waters, hampering the Japanese advances as supply lines were disrupted along the Western Korean coast and Japanese naval reinforcements were repelled. These trends, with some exceptions on both sides, held true throughout much of the conflict.
Under the rule of the Wanli Emperor, Ming China quickly interpreted the Japanese invasions as a challenge and threat to the Imperial Chinese tributary system. The Ming 's interest was also to keep the war confined to the Korean peninsula and out of its own territory (to avoid territorial destruction); they entered into the conflict by dispatching reinforcements to attack from the north. In the engagements that followed, the majority of the Joseon army was focused on defending the northern provinces from Japanese offensives, while also supporting Ming army campaigns to recapture territory occupied by the Japanese. These Ming - led land campaigns, combined with the naval warfare waged by Joseon navy, eventually forced the Japanese army to withdraw from Pyongyang to the south, where the Japanese continued to occupy Hanseong and the southern regions with the exception of the southwestern Jeolla Province. The pursuing Ming and Joseon armies attempted to advance further into the south, but were halted by the Japanese army at the Battle of Byeokjegwan. Subsequently, the Japanese armies launched a counterattack in an attempt to reoccupy the northern provinces but were repelled by the defending Joseon army at Haengju fortress. Additionally, Joseon 's civilian - led righteous armies actively waged guerrilla warfare against the Japanese forces in the south, which weakened the Japanese hold in the cities they occupied. Afterwards, with supply difficulties hampering both sides, neither the Japanese nor the combined Ming and Joseon forces were able to mount a successful offensive or gain any additional territory, resulting in a military stalemate in the areas between Hanseong and Kaesong. The war continued in this manner for five years, and was followed by a brief interlude between 1596 to 1597 during which Japan and the Ming engaged in ultimately unsuccessful peace talks.
In 1597, Japan renewed its offensive by invading Korea a second time. The pattern of the second invasion largely mirrored that of the first. The Japanese had initial successes on land, but the contribution of the Ming forces, as well as the Joseon Navy 's disruption of Japanese supply fleets, resulted in a withdrawal of Japanese forces towards the coastal regions of the peninsula. The pursuing Ming and Joseon forces, however, failed to dislodge the Japanese from their fortresses and entrenched positions in the southern coastal areas where both sides became locked in a ten - month long military stalemate.
With Hideyoshi 's death in September 1598, limited progress on land, and continued disruption of supply lines along the western and southern coasts by the Joseon navy, the remaining Japanese forces in Korea were ordered to withdraw back to Japan by the new governing Council of Five Elders. Final peace negotiations between the parties followed afterwards and continued for several years, ultimately resulting in the normalization of relations.
In 1392, General Yi Seonggye led a successful coup to take political power from U of Goryeo. Seonggye 's followers forced to take the crown as Taejo of Joseon, thus establishing a new dynasty. In search of a justification for its rule given the lack of a royal bloodline, the new regime received recognition from China and integration into the Imperial Chinese tributary system within the context of the Mandate of Heaven. Within this tributary system, China assumed the role of a "big brother '', with Korea maintaining the highest position among the tributary states, which also included countries such as the Ryukyu Kingdom, Vietnam, Thailand, Burma, and Laos, in return for accepting the subservient tributary role of a "younger brother ''.
In 1402, Japan under Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was conferred the title of "King of Japan '' by the Chinese emperor and through this title had similarly accepted a position in the imperial tributary system as of 1404. This relationship ended in 1549 when Japan, unlike Korea, chose to end its recognition of China 's regional hegemony and cancel any further tribute missions. Membership in the tributary system was a prerequisite for any economic exchange with China; in exiting the system, Japan relinquished its trade relationship with China.
Unlike the situation over one thousand years earlier when the Sui and Tang dynasties of China had an antagonistic relationship with Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, Ming China had close trading and diplomatic relations with the Joseon, which remained integrated in the imperial tributary system, but also received tribute and trade from Japan.
The two dynasties, Ming and Joseon (sometimes transliterated as Choson), shared much in common: both emerged during the fourteenth century after the end of the Yuan dynasty, embraced Confucian ideals in society, and faced similar external threats (the Jurchen raiders and the wokou). Internally, both China and Korea were troubled with fights among competing political factions, which would significantly influence decisions made by the Koreans prior to the war, and those made during the war by the Chinese. Dependence on each other for trade and also having common enemies resulted in Korea and Ming China having a friendly relationship.
The Wanli Emperor was enthroned in the year 1572, at the age of 9. For the first 10 years of his reign, the Ming was largely run by his teacher and guardian, Zhang Juzheng, who pushed through a series of reforms that revitalized the declining dynasty and made major breakthroughs in several of the key areas that had plagued the Ming, especially its financial problems. Zhang also made strong progress in defending against the Mongols of the north, and (as opposed to the corrupt practices of the past) promoted military generals, such as Li Chengliang and Qi Jiguang, based on their merits.
After Zhang Juzheng 's death in 1582, the Ming court slowly began to reverse some of his reforms and the Wanli Emperor himself increasingly became disillusioned and uninterested in daily politics. During the 1590s, the Ming dynasty was still at a relatively revitalized stage.
The Ming saw a string of conflicts during this period. Aside from their endless struggle against the Mongols, they were also dealing with a military rebellion in Ningxia just before the war broke out, along with a border war with the Taungoo Burma that coincided with the Imjin war. Their conflicts with the Jiajing wokou raids decades earlier also gave them significant experience against the Japanese style of warfare.
Japan was by this time ending a period of internal conflict and the process of unification had been taken forward by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Japan launched their first attack on the Korean peninsula, with the casus belli that Korea had refused to allow Japanese soldiers pass through their land to militarily confront China. This could have effectively been true since Japan was eager, for social and economic reasons, to take land on the continent and expand.
By the last decade of the 16th century, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the most preeminent daimyō, had unified all of Japan in a brief period of peace. Since Hideyoshi came to hold power in the absence of a legitimate successor of the Minamoto lineage necessary for the Imperial Shogun commission, he sought military power to legitimize his rule and to decrease his dependence on the Imperial family. It is also suggested that Hideyoshi planned an invasion of China to fulfill the dreams of his late lord Oda Nobunaga, and to mitigate the possible threat of civil disorder or rebellion posed by the large number of now idle samurai and soldiers in unified Japan. It is also possible that Hideyoshi might have set a more realistic goal of subjugating the smaller neighbouring states (i.e. the Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, and Korea), and treating the larger or more distant countries as trading partners, because throughout the invasion of Korea, Hideyoshi sought for legal tally trade with China. Hideyoshi 's need for military supremacy as a justification for his rule which lacked Shogunal background could, on an international level, eventually translate into an order with Japan 's neighbouring countries below Japan. Hideyoshi was also tempted by an external conflict to prevent internal rebellion within Japan. This would keep his newly formed state united against a common enemy, and prevent the daimyōs from acting on any ambitions against his rule. Fighting a war away from Japanese territory would also prevent territorial destruction, and maintain the infrastructure of the state. These considerations would be consistent with the fact that Hideyoshi was not a shogun nor had any bonds with the imperial bloodline. Turnbull suggested that personal ambition and megalomania of Hideyoshi as reasons for the invasion as Hideyoshi having in a series of wars conquered Japan, now wanted to turn to bigger things, noting that he spoke of not only of his desire to "slash his way '' into Korea to conquer China, but also wanted to conquer Taiwan, the Philippines and India. Furthermore, for thousands of years, China had been the intellectual, economic, military and political center of East Asia, and traditionally the states of East Asia had acknowledged the Emperors of China as their overlords and paid tribute in exchange for being allowed to trade with China; Japan had usually resisted the demand to be pay tribute to China, but the shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu had acknowledged the Emperor of China as his overlord in return for access to the huge Chinese market. Japan 's right to pay tribute and with it, the right to trade with China was ended in 1540s by the Ming court in response to raids by Sino - Japanese pirates known as the wakō. By seeking to conquer China, Hideyoshi was in effect claiming for Japan the role traditionally played by China in East Asia, which would rallied much support in Japan around a man of relatively humble origins who owed his position only to his military might. Finally, during the 1540s -- 1550s, the wakō had staged a series of raids into China and Korea, some of which were so large as to be "mini-invasions '' that caused much devastation, and seemed to suggest to Hideyoshi that both Korea and China were weak nations; as if both had much difficulty in countering the wakō, how would they fare if they were faced with an army of battle - hardened samurai?
The defeat of the Odawara - based Hōjō clan in 1590 finally brought about the second unification of Japan, and Hideyoshi began preparing for the next war. Beginning in March 1591, the Kyūshū daimyōs and their labor forces constructed Nagoya Castle in Nagoya, Saga (modern - day Karatsu, Saga, not to be confused with present day Nagoya city in Aichi Prefecture) as the center for the mobilization of the invasion forces.
Hideyoshi planned for a possible war with Korea long before completing the unification of Japan, and made preparations on many fronts. As early 1578, Hideyoshi, then fighting under Oda Nobunaga against Mōri Terumoto for control of the Chūgoku region, informed Terumoto of Nobunaga 's plan to conquer China. In 1592 Hideyoshi sent a letter to the Philippines demanding tribute from the governor general and stating that Japan had already received tribute from Korea (which was a misunderstanding) and the Ryukyus.
As for the military preparations, the construction of as many as 2,000 ships may have begun as early as 1586. To estimate the strength of the Korean military, Hideyoshi sent an assault force of 26 ships to the southern coast of Korea in 1587. On the diplomatic front, Hideyoshi began to establish friendly relations with China long before completing the unification of Japan and helped to police the trade routes against the wokou.
In 1587, Hideyoshi sent his first envoy Yutani Yasuhiro, to Korea, which was during the rule of King Seonjo to re-establish diplomatic relations between Korea and Japan (broken since the Wokou raid in 1555), which Hideyoshi hoped to use as a foundation to induce the Korean court to join Japan in a war against China. Yasuhiro, with his warrior background and an attitude disdainful of the Korean officials and their customs, failed to receive the promise of future ambassadorial missions from Korea.
Around May 1589, Hideyoshi 's second embassy, consisting of Sō Yoshitoshi (or Yoshitomo, 柳川 調 信), Yanagawa Shigenobu, and Buddhist monk Genso (玄 蘇) reached Korea and secured the promise of a Korean embassy to Japan in exchange for a group of Korean rebels which had taken refuge in Japan.
In 1587, Hideyoshi had ordered the adopted father of Yoshitoshi and the daimyō of Tsushima Island, Sō Yoshishige, to offer the Joseon Dynasty an ultimatum of submitting to Japan and participating in the conquest of China, or facing the prospect of open war with Japan. However, as Tsushima Island enjoyed a special trading position as the single checkpoint to Korea for all Japanese ships and had permission from Korea to trade with as many as 50 of its own vessels, the Sō family had a vested interest in preventing conflict with Korea, and delayed the talks for nearly two years. Even when Hideyoshi renewed his order, Sō Yoshitoshi reduced the visit to the Korean court to a campaign to better relations between the two countries. Near the end of the ambassadorial mission, Yoshitoshi presented King Seonjo a brace of peafowl and matchlock guns -- the first advanced firearms to come to Korea. Ryu Seong - ryong, a high - ranking scholar official, suggested that the military put the arquebus (a matchlock firearm) into production and use, but the Korean court failed to appreciate its merits. This lack of interest and underestimation of the power of the arquebus greatly contributed to the failures of the Korean army early in the war.
On April 1590, the Korean ambassadors including Hwang Yun - gil and Kim Saung - il left for Kyoto, where they waited for two months while Hideyoshi was finishing his campaign against the Hojo clan. Upon his return, they exchanged ceremonial gifts and delivered King Seonjo 's letter to Hideyoshi. Hideyoshi mistakenly assumed that the Koreans had come to pay a tributary homage to Japan. For this reason the ambassadors were not given the formal treatment that was due to diplomatic representatives. In the end, the Korean ambassadors asked for Hideyoshi to write a reply to the Korean king, for which they waited 20 days at the port of Sakai. The letter, redrafted as requested by the ambassadors on the ground that it was too discourteous, invited Korea to submit to Japan and join in a war against China.
Upon the ambassadors ' return, the Joseon court held serious discussions concerning Japan 's invitation; while Hwang Yun - gil reported conflicting estimates of Japanese military strength and intentions. They nonetheless pressed that a war was imminent. Kim Saung - il claimed that Hideyoshi 's letter was nothing but a bluff. Moreover, the court, aware only that Japan was in turmoil with various clan armies fighting each other, substantially underrated the combined strength and abilities of many Japanese armies at the time. Some, including King Seonjo, argued that Ming should be informed about the dealings with Japan, as failure to do so could make Ming suspect Korea 's allegiance, but the court finally concluded to wait further until the appropriate course of action became definite.
In the end, Hideyoshi 's diplomatic negotiations did not produce the desired result with Korea. The Joseon Court approached Japan as a country inferior to Korea, and saw itself as superior according to its favored position within the Chinese tributary system. It mistakenly evaluated Hideyoshi 's threats of invasions to be no better than the common wokou Japanese pirate raids. The Korean court handed to Shigenobu and Genso, Hideyoshi 's third embassy, King Seonjo 's letter rebuking Hideyoshi for challenging the Chinese tributary system. Hideyoshi replied with another letter, but since it was not presented by a diplomat in person as expected by custom, the court ignored it. After this denial of his second request, Hideyoshi proceeded to launch his armies against Korea in 1592.
The core of the Japanese forces were the samurai, the military caste of Japan who dominated Japanese society. Japanese society was divided into four castes: samurai, peasants, artisans, and merchants, in that order. The samurai caste owned most of the land in Japan, had the right to carry swords and to execute on the spot any commoner who was insufficiently deferential, and were ones allowed to own horses and ride into battle. The standard samurai weapon by 1592 was the yari, a spear meant to stab, often with a cross-blade that allowed a samurai to pull his opponent from his horse. If samurai wished to cut his opponent rather than stab, the weapons were the ōdachi, an extremely long sword with a huge handle, or the naginata, a polearm with very sharp curved blade. The most famous of all the samurai weapons was the katana, a sword described by the British military historian Stephen Turnbull as "... the finest edged weapon in the history of warfare ''. Samurai never carried shields, with the katana being used to deflect blows. By 1592, the armor of the samurai, where lamellae made from iron or leather scales tied together had been modified to include solid plate to help protect the samurai from bullets. Samurai engaged in psychological warfare by wearing an iron mask into battle that a mustache made of horsehair and a "sinister grin '' attached to the outside. The majority of the Japanese soldiers sent into Korea were ashigaru (infantrymen), who were usually conscripted peasants armed with spears, arquebuses (matchlock firearms), or bows. Unlike the samurai with their expensive suits of armor, the ashigaru wore cheap suits of iron armour around their chests. The ashigaru armed with arqeubuses were trained to fight in the European style, with the men trained to fire their guns in formation to create a volley of fire, then to go down on their knees to reload, while the men behind them fired, and the cycle repeated over and over again.
The commander of the Japanese First Division and overall commander of the invasion force was Konishi Yukinaga, a daimyō of Uto from Higo Province in Kyushu, chosen as commander of the invasion force more because of his diplomatic skills than military skills as Toyotomi Hideyoshi did not expect the Koreans to resist. Konishi had converted to Catholicism in 1583, and was known to the Spanish and Portuguese as Dom Agostinho. Katō Kiyomasa who led the Second Division into Korea was known in Japan as Toranosuke ("the young tiger '') and to the Koreans as the "devil general '' on the account of his ferocity. Katō was one of the "Seven Spears of Shizugatake '', a group of seven samurai who distinguished himself in combat at the Battle of Shizugatake in 1583, where samurai had fought one another mano a mano, and where Katō demonstrated his skills with a cross-bladed spear with great effect by cutting so many men, whose severed heads were thereafter tied to a stalk of green bamboo and carried by one of Katō 's attendants into battle. Katō was a devoted follower of Nichiren Buddhism, a type of Buddhism closely associated with militarism and ultra-nationalism in Japan, and his relations with the Catholic Konishi were extremely unfriendly, to the extent that the two men almost never met during the campaign in Korea. Katō 's battle standard was a white pennant which carried a message alleged to be have been written by Nichiren himself reading Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō ("Hail to the Lotus of the Divine Law ''). The naval commander was Wakizaka Yashuaru, another of the "Seven Spears of Shizugatake '', who had named damiyō of the island of Awaji in the Inland Sea in 1585, where he learned much about seafaring as the island is located close to whirlpools are notoriously dangerous for sailors.
The Chinese army was the largest in Asia, but in 1592 the Chinese were engaged in wars with the Mongols and crushing a rebellion in the south - west. The Ming army consisted of mercenaries that who were not the equal of the Japanese, but the Chinese army was still capable of considerable feats of organization, for example bringing 400 artillery guns across 480 km of harsh landscape to provide firepower against the Mongols. The core of the Chinese army was the infantry, divided into five sections; those armed with guns, swords, archers with fire arrows, archers with ordinary arrows and spearmen, backed up by the cavalry and artillery. The basic weapons for the Chinese infantry were the crossbow and the arquebus while the cavalry were usually mounted archers. Chinese infantry wore conical iron helmets and wore suits of armor made from leather or iron. Turnbull wrote "Chinese field artillery and siege cannon were the finest in the region ''. Chinese artillery was made from cast iron, and were divided into several types, the most important were the "great general gun '' and the folang zhi ("Frankish gun ''), the latter being a beech loaded artillery guns copied from the "Franks '' (i.e Europeans). The Chinese commander was Li Rusong, a man who has been traditionally disparaged in Japanese accounts, who was however as Turnbull described "... in fact, one of Ming China 's most accomplished generals ''. Turnbull wrote though Li was defeated at the battle of P'yǒkjeyek, his defeat was only tactical, and Li was an able strategist who achieved his goal of forcing the Japanese out of Korea, and that the way that Japanese accounts focused obsessively on his defeat at P'yǒkjeyek served to distract from his achievements.
Officers in the Joseon army came exclusively from the aristocracy, but unlike the highly militarist Japanese aristocracy trained to be soldiers from their youth onward, for the Joseon aristocracy scholarship was valued and war was disparaged as something unworthy of a Confucian gentleman - scholar. The quality of Korean generalship was very variable with some Korean officers being able and others being men who had not devoted much time to the study of war. Korean infantrymen wore a Chinese - style helmet, but no armor. The standard Korean sword was a two - edged, straight blade. A uniquely Korean weapon was the flail, a 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) - long hardwood stick, painted red, acting as the handle for a chain attached to a shaft with iron nails. Joseon infantrymen often fought as archers, and a Japanese source from 1592 commented Koreans were superior as soldiers to the Japanese only as archers because their bows had a range of 450 metres (1,480 ft) against the 300 metres (980 ft) of Japanese archers.
The standard Korean gun was the seungja "victory gun '', a simple arquebus inferior to the guns used by the Japanese. Korean artillery however was much superior to Japanese artillery, and unlike the Japanese, the Koreans had built ships capable of carrying heavy cannons.
Turnbull wrote that Korea 's salvation was its navy. The standard Korean ship was the panokseon, a warship that was not much different from the standard Japanese warships except for the fact that Korean ships carried heavy cannons while the Japanese ships did not. The famous "turtle ships '' that were heavily armored and armed and that were to wreak havoc on the Japanese ships were a minority of the Korean Navy 's ships. Korean and Japanese accounts both talk much of the "turtle ships '', but no such ship has survived, and historians still debate about what turtle ships looked like, through most now agree that they were in fact turtle - shaped. Admiral Yi Sun - sin, who began the war as the Left Naval Commander of Jeolla Province, was to become the commander of the Korean Navy and was described by Turnbull as "Korea 's greatest hero '' and "one of the outstanding naval commanders in the entire history of the world ''.
The two major security threats to Joseon and Ming China at the time were the Jurchen people, who raided along the northern borders, and the wokou, who pillaged the coastal villages and trade ships.
This defensive stance within an environment of relative peace pushed the Koreans to depend on the strength of their fortresses and warships. With the transmission of gunpowder and firearms technology from China during Goryeo, Korea improved upon the original Chinese firearm designs, the thunder crash bomb, and developed advanced cannon which were used with great efficiency at sea. Even though China was the main source of new military technologies in Asia, Korea was a manufacturing base for both cannon and shipbuilding during this era.
Japan, on the other hand, had been in a state of civil war for over a century, which had the result of turning Japan into a very proficient warlike society. When traders from the Portuguese Empire arrived in Japan and introduced arquebuses and muskets, the Japanese warlords were quick to adapt to this disruptive innovation, producing en masse the Tanegashima matchlock. In the on - going civil strife, the Japanese refined the drills and tactics to make best use of the new weapon, thus giving them a great advantage over the Korean armies.
Korean cannon were not adapted for effective use on land, and firearms were of a less advanced design. The small arms carried by Japanese soldiers proved to be particularly effective during land engagements and sieges. This strategic difference in weapons development and implementation contributed to the trend during the war of Japanese dominance on land and Korean dominance at sea.
As Japan had been at war since the mid-15th century, Toyotomi Hideyoshi had half a million battle - hardened soldiers at his disposal to form a remarkable professional army in Asia for the invasion of Korea. While Japan 's chaotic state had left the Koreans with a very low estimate of Japan as a military threat, there was a new sense of unity among the different political factions in Japan, as indicated by the "sword hunt '' in 1588 (the confiscation of all weapons from the peasants). Along with the hunt came "The Separation Edict '' in 1591, which effectively put an end to all Japanese wokou piracy by prohibiting the daimyōs from supporting the pirates within their fiefs. Ironically, the Koreans believed that Hideyoshi 's invasion would be just an extension of the previous pirate raids that had been repelled before. As for the military situation in Joseon, the Korean scholar official Ryu Seong - ryong observed, "not one in a hundred (Korean generals) knew the methods of drilling soldiers '': rising in ranks depended far more on social connections than military knowledge. Korean soldiers were disorganized, ill - trained, and ill - equipped, and they had been used mostly in construction projects such as building castle walls.
There were several defects with the organization of the Joseon - era Korean military defense system. One example was a policy that stated that local officers could not individually respond to a foreign invasion outside of their jurisdiction until a higher ranking general, appointed by the King 's court, arrived with a newly mobilized army. This arrangement was highly inefficient since the nearby forces would remain stationary until the mobile border commander arrived on the scene and took control. Secondly, as the appointed general often came from an outside region, he was likely to be unfamiliar with the natural environment, the available technology, and manpower of the invaded region. Finally, as a main army was never maintained, new and ill - trained recruits conscripted during war constituted a significant part of the army.
The Korean court managed to carry out some reforms, but they remain problematic. For example, the military training center established in 1589 in Gyeongsang Province recruited mostly men either too young or too old to be good soldiers, augmented by some adventure - seeking aristocrats and slaves buying their freedom, because able - bodied men of the right age, targeted by the policy, had higher priorities such as farming and other economic activities,.
The dominant form of the Korean fortresses was the sanseong ("mountain fortress ''), which consisted of a stone wall that continued around a mountain in a serpentine fashion. These walls were poorly designed with little use of towers and cross-fire positions (usually seen in European fortifications), and were mostly low in height. It was a wartime policy for these fortresses to serve as refuge castles and for everyone to evacuate to one, with those who failed to do so being assumed to be collaborators with the enemy; however, the policy never held any great effect because the fortresses were out of reach for most refugees.
Hideyoshi mobilized his army at Nagoya Castle on Kyushu, newly built for the sole purpose of housing the invasion forces and the reserves. The first invasion consisted of nine divisions totaling 158,800 men, of which the last two of 21,500 were stationed as reserves on Tsushima Island and Iki Island, respectively. The Japanese used a total of 320,000 troops throughout the entire war.
On the other side, Joseon maintained only a few military units with no field army, and its defense depended heavily on the mobilization of the citizen soldiers in case of emergency. During the first invasion, Joseon deployed a total of 84,500 regular troops throughout, assisted by 22,000 irregular volunteers. Ming troops never numbered more than 60,000 troops in Korea at any point of the war.
Since its introduction by the Portuguese traders on the island of Tanegashima in 1543, the arquebus had become widely used in Japan. While both Korea and China had also been introduced to firearms similar to the Portuguese arquebus, most were older models. The Korean soldiers ' small arms were hand cannon with a simple mechanism and with either a gunstock or wooden shaft attached. After the Japanese diplomats presented the Korean court arquebuses as gifts, the Korean scholar - official Ryu Seong - ryong advocated the use of the new weapon, but the Korean court failed to realize its potency. In contrast, the Japanese often deployed the arquebus in combination with archery in war.
The Chinese used a variety of weapons, including the Chinese long bow, swords, firearms, early kinds of land mines, and early hand grenades.
The Chinese also demonstrated massive use of rocket - propelled arrows, notably during the Siege of Pyongyang in January 1593. During siege actions, Chinese deployed rattan shields and iron pavises (large shields), reputed to be musket - proof.
The Japanese defeated successive Korean armies with a combination of muskets, spears, and swords. While muskets used by the Japanese were superior to Korean bows in terms of penetration and range the former lacked the fire rate of the latter. Numerous battle accounts from the Annal of Joseon dynasty and various essays, diaries of Korean officials and commanders show that musket alone could not ensure victory. By employing both musket and arme blanche ("cold steel '', swords, lances, spears, and the like), the Japanese were able to achieve success during the early phase of war. Indeed, the ferocious charge of Japanese troops with spears and swords were often more decisive than with muskets. This was because the Koreans were poorly trained in close combat, and lacked battlefield experience and discipline. Thus Korean soldiers were unable to hold their line against charging Japanese soldiers. The following words from a Korean military official named Shi - eon Lee to the Korean king discusses this weakness:
The King asked him (Shi - eon Lee), "You have already told me about the low accuracy of Japanese muskets. Why, then, are Korean armies having great problem with defeating them? ''
(Shi - eon Lee) then answered, "The Korean soldiers cower before the enemy and flee for their lives even before they have engaged the enemy. As for the commanders, they seldom leave their positions because they fear that they might be executed for deserting. However, there is a limit to executing deserting soldiers since there are so many of them. Truly, the Japanese are n't good musketeers, but they advance so rapidly that they appear right in front of the Koreans in the time Koreans can shoot only two arrows. It is said that Koreans are good archers, but they seldom hit the targets when the enemy is too far away, and are too scared to shoot when the enemy is near because they fear Japanese swords. Archery often becomes useless because Koreans, fearing the Japanese arme blanche, can barely shoot. The Japanese are reputed to be good swordsmen, but it is possible for Koreans to draw swords and hold their ground. However, the Koreans seldom do this and merely run for their lives. ''
The Koreans seldom employed field artillery, with cannon being mainly used in siege action and for defending castles. There were only very few instances of Koreans employing artillery in the field, with largely ineffective results. Some irregular Korean units with government - supplied weapons fired explosive shells from mortars, but this occurred only in isolated instances. The Chinese were more active in employing field artillery than the Koreans. One of the notable Chinese field guns was the "Great General Cannon '', a large breech - loading cannon with a two - wheeled cart, shooting an iron ball weighing about 10 kilograms. The Japanese employed field artillery only where strategically advantageous in both siege and field warfare situations, often using captured pieces where available.
The Koreans actively deployed their cavalry divisions in action. But the terrain was often mountainous, which was not generally suitable for cavalry, the farmland tended to have many ditches, and it was often barren and lacked grass essential for feeding the horses. In addition, Japanese use of the arquebus at long range and in concentrated volleys negated any possibility of effective cavalry tactics. Korean cavalrymen 's primary weapons were bows, with swords and lances holding only subsidiary positions. Most of cavalry action for the Koreans took place in the Battle of Chungju at the beginning of the war, where they were outnumbered and wiped out by Japanese infantry. Although the Japanese divisions also fielded cavalry they, usually dismounted when engaged in action, acting more as mounted infantry. While specialized firearms were used on horseback, most cavalrymen preferred the conventional yari (spear), but its use was limited by the increasing use of firearms by the Koreans and Chinese.
In contrast to the Japanese advantages on land, the Koreans possessed an advantage at sea. Because of advanced artillery and shipbuilding technology, along with an extensive naval history against Japanese pirates, the Korean navies fielded highly advanced and formidable ships. By the time of the Japanese invasion, Korea employed the panokseon, a powerful galley - type ship armed with cannon that outranged most Japanese vessels. The Korean Navy used this naval superiority to disrupt the Japanese logistical network off the west coast of the Korean Peninsula. This advantage, however, did not affect Japan 's ability to continuously reinforce its armies through the supply route from Tsushima in Japan to Busan in Korea, especially once Korean naval bases in the immediate area were neutralized by Japanese ground forces. The Korean navy led by Yi Sun - sin would withdraw and re-base in the northern border of Jeolla Province. While not able to entirely prevent reinforcement, the Korean navy continued to harass and inflict losses on the Japanese supply fleets throughout the duration of the war.
As virtually all Japanese ships in the first phase of the war lacked cannon artillery, Korean ships outranged and bombarded Japanese ships with impunity outside the range of the Japanese muskets, arrows, and catapults. When the Japanese attempted to outfit cannon to their ships, their lightweight ship design prohibited using more than a few per vessel, and vessels usually lacked the firepower or range of their Korean counterparts. In order to bolster their fleet, the Japanese considered employing two Portuguese galleons in the invasion.
In addition to a lack of effective naval armament, most Japanese ships were modified merchant vessels more suited for transportation of troops and equipment than fielding artillery weapons.
The Baekdudaegan mountain range runs down the length of the Korean peninsula. On either side of this "spine '' is a narrow eastern coastal plain and a wider western coastal plain. These mountains are cut transversely by river valleys, the major rivers running east - west to drain into the Yellow Sea on the west coast. The major exception to this is the Nakdong River, with a course that runs north - south, joining the sea at Busan. Busan 's harbour, its proximity to Japan, and its control of the route northwards along the Nakdong River valley made Busan the lynchpin of Japan 's presence in Korea.
The combination of mountains and rivers creates a military geography of natural choke points, at mountain passes and river fords, which the Koreans reinforced with fortifications. It also creates a limited number of routes along which men and goods can most easily travel. Routes such as the Great Yeongnam Road, which joins the Han River valley to that of the Nakdong River valley by way of the Mungyeong Saejae pass, through the Sobaek Mountains, are the traditional invasion routes that armies in Korea have travelled. During the war these routes, especially in the mountains, were vulnerable to disruption when used for supplies.
Jeolla Province, the holding of which became critical in preventing the Japanese navy use of the western coast, is bounded on its east by the Sobaek Mountains, the southern spur of the Baekdudaegan, and in the north by the Geum River.
On April 13, 1592, the First Division of the Japanese invasion army, consisting of 7,000 men led by Konishi Yukinaga, left Tsushima in the morning, and arrived at the port city of Busan in the evening. Korean naval intelligence had detected the Japanese fleet, but Won Gyun, the Right Naval Commander of Gyeongsang, misidentified the fleet as trading vessels on a mission. A later report of the arrival of an additional 100 Japanese vessels raised his suspicions, but the general did nothing about it. Sō Yoshitoshi landed alone on the Busan shore to ask the Koreans for a safe passage to China for the last time; the Koreans refused, and Sō Yoshitoshi laid siege to the city. Konishi Yukinaga attacked the nearby fort of Dadaejin the next morning. Japanese accounts claim that the battles dealt the Koreans complete annihilation (one claims 8,500 deaths, and another, 30,000 heads), while a Korean account claims that the Japanese themselves took significant losses before sacking the city. Chǒng Pal, the Korean commander at Busan was killed by a Japanese bullet, and with his death, Korean morale collapsed. In the meantime Konishi took the fortress of Dadejin, where under heavy volleys of supporting fire, the Japanese were able to place ladders against the walls, and took the fortress. Konishi ordered that no prisoners be taken, and the entire garrison was massacred. Konishi and the First Division turned north, marching to take Seoul. On the morning of May 25, 1592, the First Division arrived at Dongnae eupseong. Konishi sent a message to Song Sanghyǒn, the commander of the Dongnae fortress, explaining to his him that his objective was the conquest of China and if the Koreans would just submit, their lives would be spared. Song replied "It is easy for me to die, but difficult to let you pass '', which Konishi to order that no prisoners be taken to punish Song for his defiance. The resulting Siege of Dongnae lasted twelve hours, killed 3,000, and resulted in Japanese victory. The Japanese took no prisoners and killed everyone at Dongnae, civilian and military, even killing all of the cats and dogs of Dongnae.
Katō Kiyomasa 's Second Division landed in Busan on May 27, and Kuroda Nagamasa 's Third Division, west of Nakdong, on May 28. The Second Division took the abandoned city of Tongdo on May 28, and captured Gyeongju on May 30. The Third Division, upon landing, captured the nearby Gimhae castle by keeping the defenders under pressure with gunfire while building ramps up to the walls with bundles of crops. By June 3, the Third Division captured Unsan, Changnyong, Hyonpung, and Songju. Meanwhile, Konishi Yukinaga 's First Division passed the Yangsan mountain fortress (captured on the night of the Battle of Dongnae, when its defenders fled after the Japanese scouting parties fired their arquebuses), and captured the Miryang castle on the afternoon of May 26. The First Division secured the Cheongdo fortress in the next few days, and destroyed the city of Daegu. By June 3, the First Division crossed the Nakdong River, and stopped at the Sonsan mountain.
Upon receiving the news of the Japanese attacks, the Joseon government appointed General Yi Il as the mobile border commander, as was the established policy. General Yi headed to Myongyong near the beginning of the strategically important Choryong pass to gather troops, but he had to travel further south to meet the troops assembled at the city of Daegu. There, General Yi moved all troops back to Sangju, except for the survivors of the Battle of Dongnae who were to be stationed as a rearguard at the Choryong pass. On April 25, General Yi deployed a force of less than 1,000 men on two small hills to face the approaching First Division. Assuming that the sight of rising smoke was from the burning of buildings by a nearby Japanese force, General Yi sent an officer to scout on horseback; however, as he neared a bridge, the officer was ambushed by Japanese musket fire from below the bridge, and was beheaded. The Korean troops, watching him fall, were greatly demoralized. Soon the Japanese began the Battle of Sangju with their arquebuses; the Koreans replied with their arrows, which fell short of their targets. The Japanese forces, having been divided into three, attacked the Korean lines from both the front and the two flanks; the battle ended with General Yi Il 's retreat and 700 Korean casualties.
General Yi Il then planned to use the Choryong pass, the only path through the western end of the Sobaek mountain range, to check the Japanese advance. However, another commander appointed by the Joseon government, Shin Rip, had arrived in the area with a cavalry division and moved 100,000 combined troops to the Chungju fortress located above the Choryong pass. Rather than face a siege, Sin Rip decided to fight a battle in the open fields of Tangeumdae, which he felt ideal for the deployment of his cavalry unit. Since the cavalry consisted mostly of new recruits, however, Sin Rip was concerned that his troops may easily be tempted to flee the battle. As a result, he felt the need to trap his forces in the triangular area formed by the convergence of the Talcheon and Han rivers in the shape of a "Y ''. This field, however, was dotted with flooded rice paddies and was generally not suitable for cavalry action.
On June 5, 1592 the First Division of approximately 18,000 men led by Konishi Yukinaga left Sangju and reached an abandoned fortress at Mungyong by nightfall. The next day, the First Division arrived at Tangumdae in the early afternoon where they faced the Korean cavalry unit at the Battle of Chungju. Konishi divided his forces into three and attacked with arquebuses from both flanks as well as the front. The Korean arrows fell short of the Japanese troops, which were beyond their range, and General Sin 's two charges failed to break the Japanese lines. General Sin then killed himself in the river, and the Koreans that tried to escape by the river either drowned or were decapitated by the pursuing Japanese.
The Second Division led by Katō Kiyomasa arrived at Chungju, with the Third Division camped not far behind. There, Katō expressed his anger against Konishi for not waiting at Busan as planned, and attempting to take all of the glory for himself; Nabeshima Naoshige then proposed a compromise of dividing the Japanese troops into two separate groups to follow two different routes to Hanseong (the capital and present - day Seoul), and allowing Katō Kiyomasa to choose the route that the Second Division would take to reach Hanseong. The two divisions began the race to capture Hanseong on June 8, and Katō took the shorter route across the Han River while Konishi went further upstream where smaller waters posed a lesser barrier. Konishi arrived at Hanseong first on June 10 while the Second Division was halted at the river with no boats with which to cross. The First Division found the castle undefended with its gates tightly locked, as King Seonjo had fled the day before. The Japanese broke into a small floodgate, located in the castle wall, and opened the capital city 's gate from within. Katō 's Second Division arrived at the capital the next day (having taken the same route as the First Division), and the Third and Fourth Divisions the day after. Meanwhile, the Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Divisions had landed on Busan, with the Ninth Division kept in reserve on the island of Iki.
Parts of Hanseong had already been looted and torched, including bureaus holding the slave records and weapons, and they were already abandoned by its inhabitants. General Kim Myong - won, in charge of the defenses along the Han River, had retreated. The King 's subjects stole the animals in the royal stables and fled before him, leaving the King to rely on farm animals. In every village, the King 's party was met by inhabitants, lined up by the road, grieving that their King was abandoning them, and neglecting their duty of paying homage. Parts of the southern shore of the Imjin River was burnt to deprive the Japanese troops of materials with which to make their crossing, and General Kim Myong - won deployed 12,000 troops at five points along the river.
While the First Division rested in Hanseong (present - day Seoul), the Second Division began heading north, only to be delayed for two weeks by the Imjin River. The Japanese sent a message to the Koreans on the other bank requesting them to open way to China, but the Koreans rejected this. Afterwards, the Japanese commanders withdrew their main forces to the safety of the Paju fortress; the Koreans saw this as a retreat, and 13,000 Korean troops launched an attack at dawn against the remaining Japanese troops on the southern shore of the Imjin River. The main Japanese body retaliated against the isolated Korean troops, and acquired their boats. The Korean troops under General Kim Myong - won retreated with heavy losses to the Kaesong fortress.
With the Kaesong castle having been sacked shortly after General Kim Myong - won retreated to Pyeongyang, the Japanese troops divided their objectives: the First Division would pursue the Korean king in Pyongan Province in the north (where Pyongyang is located); the Second Division would attack Hamgyong Province in the northeastern part of Korea; the Sixth Division would attack Jeolla Province at the southwestern tip of the peninsula; the Fourth Division would secure Gangwon Province in the mid-eastern part of the peninsula; and the Third, Fifth, Seventh, and Eighth Divisions would stabilize the following provinces respectively: Hwanghae Province (below Pyongan Province), Chungcheong Province (below Gyeonggi Province); Gyeongsang Province (in the southeast where the Japanese first had landed); and Gyeonggi Province (where the capital city is located).
The First Division under Konishi Yukinaga proceeded northward, and sacked Pyongsan, Sohung, Pungsan, Hwangju, and Chunghwa along the way. At Chunghwa, the Third Division under Kuroda Nagamasa joined the First, and continued to the city of Pyongyang located behind the Taedong River. 10,000 Korean troops guarded the city against 30,000 Japanese under various commanders including the Generals Yi Il and Kim Myong - won, and their defense preparations had assured that no boats were available for Japanese use.
At night, the Koreans silently crossed the river and launched a successful surprise attack against the Japanese encampment. However, this alerted the rest of the Japanese army, which attacked the rear of the Korean positions and destroyed the remaining reinforcements crossing the river. Then the rest of the Korean troops retreated back to Pyongyang, and the Japanese troops gave up their pursuit of the Koreans to observe the way the Koreans crossed the river.
The next day, using what they had learned from observing the retreating Korean troops, the Japanese began sending troops to the other shore over the shallow points in the river, in a systematic manner, and at this the Koreans abandoned the city overnight. On July 20, 1592, the First and Third Divisions entered the deserted city of Pyongyang. In the city, they managed to gather 100,000 tons of military supplies and grain.
The Fourth Division under the command of Mōri Yoshinari set out eastward from the capital city of Hanseong (present - day Seoul) in July, and captured a series of fortresses along the eastern coast from Anbyon to Samcheok. The division then turned inward to capture Jeongseon, Yeongwol, and Pyeongchang, and settled down at the provincial capital of Wonju. There Mōri Yoshinari established a civil administration, systematized social ranks according to the Japanese model, and conducted land surveys. Shimazu Yoshihiro, one of the generals in the Fourth Division, arrived at Gangwon late, due to the Umekita Rebellion, and finished the campaign by securing Chuncheon.
Katō Kiyomasa, leading the Second Division of more than 20,000 men, crossed the peninsula to Anbyon County with a ten - day march, and swept north along the eastern coast. Among the castles captured was Hamhung, the provincial capital of Hamgyong Province. There a part of the Second Division was assigned to defense and civil administration.
The rest of the division, 10,000 men, continued north, and fought a battle on August 23 against the southern and northern Hamgyong armies under the command of Yi Yong at Songjin (present - day Kimchaek). A Korean cavalry division took advantage of the open field at Songjin, and pushed the Japanese forces into a grain storehouse. There the Japanese barricaded themselves with bales of rice, and successfully repelled a formation charge from the Korean forces with their arquebuses. While the Koreans planned to renew the battle in the morning, Katō Kiyomasa ambushed them at night; the Second Division completely surrounded the Korean forces with the exception of an opening leading to a swamp. Those that fled were trapped and slaughtered in the swamp.
Koreans who fled gave alarm to the other garrisons, allowing the Japanese troops to easily capture Kilju County, Myongchon County, and Kyongsong County. The Second Division then turned inland through Puryong County toward Hoeryong, where two Korean princes had taken refuge. On August 30, 1592, the Second Division entered into Hoeryong where Katō Kiyomasa received the Korean princes and the provincial governor Yu Yong - rip, these having already been captured by the local inhabitants. Shortly afterward, a Korean warrior band handed over the head of an anonymous Korean general, plus General Han Kuk - ham, tied up in ropes.
Katō Kiyomasa then decided to attack a nearby Jurchen castle across the Tumen River in Manchuria to test his troops against the "barbarians '', as the Koreans called the Jurchens (Orangkae in Korean and Orangai, both derived from the Mongol term Uriankhai "forest barbarian ''). Kato 's army of 8,000 was joined by 3000 Koreans, at Hamgyong, because the Jurchens periodically raided across the border. Soon the combined force sacked the castle, and camped near the border; after the Koreans left for home, the Japanese troops suffered a retaliatory assault from the Jurchens. Katō Kiyomasa retreated with his forces to avoid heavy losses. Because of this invasion, rising Jurchen leader Nurhaci offered military assistance to Joseon and Ming in the war. However, the offer was refused by both countries, particularly Joseon, saying that it would be disgraceful to accept assistance from the "Barbarians '' to the north.
The Second Division continued east, capturing the fortresses of Jongseong, Onsong County, Kyongwon County, and Kyonghung County, and finally arrived at Sosupo on the estuary of the Tumen River. There the Japanese rested on the beach, and watched a nearby volcanic island on the horizon that they mistook as Mount Fuji. After the tour, the Japanese continued their previous efforts to bureaucratize and administrate the province, and allowed several garrisons to be handled by the Koreans themselves.
Having secured Pyeongyang, the Japanese planned to cross the Yalu River into Jurchen territory, and use the waters west of the Korean peninsula to supply the invasion. However, Yi Sun - sin, who held the post of the Left Naval Commander of the Jeolla Province (which covers the western waters of Korea), successfully destroyed the Japanese ships transporting troops and supplies. Japan, lacking enough arms and troops to carry on the invasion of China, changed the objective of the war to the occupation of Korea.
When the Japanese troops landed at the port of Busan, Bak (also spelled Park) Hong, the Left Naval Commander of the Gyeongsang Province, destroyed his entire fleet, his base, and all armaments and provisions, and fled. Won Gyun, the Right Naval Commander, also destroyed and abandoned his own base, and fled to Konyang with only four ships. Thus there was no Korean naval activity around the Gyeongsang Province, and the surviving two, out of the four total fleets, were active only on the other (west) side of the peninsula. Won Gyun later sent a message to Yi Sun - sin that he had fled to Konyang after being overwhelmed by the Japanese in a fight. A messenger was sent by Yi Sun - sin to the nearby island of Namhae to give Yi 's order for war preparations, only to find it pillaged and abandoned by its own inhabitants. As soldiers began to flee secretly, Yi Sun - sin gave an order "to arrest the escapees '' and had two of the fugitives brought back and beheaded; he then had their heads put out for display. Yi Sun - sin 's battles steadily affected the war and put significant strain on the sea lanes along the western Korean Peninsula supporting the Japanese advance.
The Korean navy relied on a network of local fishermen and scouting boats to receive intelligence of the enemy movements. On the dawn of June 13, 1592, Yi Sun - sin and Yi Eok - gi set sail with 24 panokseons, 15 small warships, and 46 boats (i.e. fishing boats), and arrived at the waters of Gyeongsang Province by sunset.
The next day, the Jeolla fleet sailed to the arranged location where Won Gyun was supposed to meet them, and met the Yi Sun - sin on June 15. The augmented flotilla of 91 ships then began circumnavigating Geoje Island, bound for Gadeok Island, but scouting vessels detected 50 Japanese vessels at Okpo harbor. Upon sighting the approaching Korean fleet, some of the Japanese who had been busying themselves with plundering got back to their ships, and began to flee. At this, the Korean fleet encircled the Japanese ships and finished them with artillery bombardments. The Koreans spotted five more Japanese vessels that night, and destroyed four. The next day, the Koreans approached 13 Japanese ships at Jeokjinpo. In the same manner as the previous success at Okpo, the Korean fleet destroyed 11 Japanese ships -- completing the Battle of Okpo without loss of a single ship.
About three weeks after the Battle of Okpo, Yi Sun - sin and Won Gyun sailed with a total of 26 ships (23 under Yi Sun - sin) toward the Bay of Sacheon after receiving an intelligence report of the Japanese presence. Yi Sun - sin had left behind his fishing vessels that made up most of his fleet in favor of his newly completed turtle ship.
A turtle ship is a vessel of a panokseon design with the removal of the elevated command post, the modification of the gunwales into curved walls, and the addition of a roof covered in iron spikes (and possibly hexagonal iron plates; this is disputed). Its walls contained a total of 36 cannon ports, and also openings, above the cannon, through which the ship 's crew members could look out and fire their personal arms. The design prevented enemies from boarding the ship and aiming at the personnel inside. The ship was the fastest and most maneuverable warship in the East Asian theater, powered by two sails and 80 oarsmen taking turns on the ship 's 16 oars. No more than six turtle ships served throughout the entire war, and their primary role was to cut deep into the enemy lines, cause havoc with their cannon, and destroy the enemy flagship.
On July 8, 1592, the fleet arrived at the Bay of Sacheon, where the outgoing tide prevented the Korean fleet from entering. Therefore, Yi Sun - sin ordered the fleet to feign withdrawal, which the Japanese commander observed from his tent on a rock. Then the Japanese hurriedly embarked their 12 ships and pursued the Korean fleet. The Korean navy counterattacked, with the turtle ship in the front, and successfully destroyed all 12 ships.
In response to the Korean navy 's success, Toyotomi Hideyoshi recalled three commanders from land - based activities: Wakisaka Yasuharu, Katō Yoshiaki, and Kuki Yoshitaka. They were the first commanders with naval responsibilities in the entirety of the Japanese invasion forces. However, the commanders arrived in Busan nine days before Hideyoshi 's order was actually issued, and assembled a squadron to counter the Korean navy. Eventually Wakizaka completed his preparations, and his eagerness to win military honor pushed him to launch an attack against the Koreans without waiting for the other commanders to finish.
The combined Korean navy of 53 ships under the commands of Yi Sun - sin and Yi Ok - gi was carrying out a search - and - destroy operation because the Japanese troops on land were advancing into the Jeolla Province. The Jeolla Province was the only Korean territory to be untouched by a major military action, and served as home for the three commanders and the only active Korean naval force. The Korean navy considered it best to destroy naval support for the Japanese to reduce the effectiveness of the enemy ground troops.
On August 13, 1592, the Korean fleet sailing from the Miruk Island at Dangpo received local intelligence that a large Japanese fleet was nearby. The following morning, the Korean fleet spotted the Japanese fleet of 82 vessels anchored in the straits of Gyeonnaeryang. Because of the narrowness of the strait and the hazard posed by the underwater rocks, Yi Sun - sin sent six ships to lure out 63 Japanese vessels into the wider sea, and the Japanese fleet followed. There the Japanese fleet was surrounded by the Korean fleet in a semicircular formation called "crane wing '' by Yi Sun - sin. With at least three turtle ships (two of which were newly completed) spearheading the clash against the Japanese fleet, the Korean vessels fired volleys of cannonballs into the Japanese formation. Then the Korean ships engaged in a free - for - all battle with the Japanese ships, maintaining enough distance to prevent the Japanese from boarding; Yi Sun - sin permitted melee combats only against severely damaged Japanese ships. The battle ended in a Korean victory, with Japanese losses of 59 ships -- 47 destroyed and 12 captured. Several Korean prisoners of war were rescued by the Korean soldiers throughout the fight. Wakisaka escaped due to the speed of his flagship. When the news of the defeat at the Battle of Hansando reached Toyotomi Hideyoshi, he ordered that the Japanese invasion forces cease all naval operations.
Yi Eok - gi with his fleet joined Yi Sun - sin and Won Gyun, and participated in a search for enemy vessels in the Gyonsang waters. On July 13, the generals received intelligence that a group of Japanese ships including those that escaped from the Battle of Dangpo was resting in the Bay of Danghangpo.
On August 16, 1592, Yi Sun - sin led their fleet to the harbor of Angolpo where 42 Japanese vessels were docked in battle of Angolpo.
The Battle of Busan of 1592 (or more accurately, the Battle of Busanpo or Battle of Busan Bay) (釜山 浦 海戰) was a naval engagement that took place on September 1, 1592. It was a Korean surprise attack on the Japanese fleet stationed at Busan, and its main objective was to regain Busan for the Joseon forces, which would have directly cut the supply lines of the Japanese army. The attempt was ultimately repulsed and the Korean fleet retreated. Japanese control of Busan was maintained, along with Japanese control of the sea lanes from Japan to Busan, until the end of the war. While a tactical victory for the Korean navy, the battle was a strategic victory for Japanese forces, who retained control of the Busan area and the vital supply lines back to Japan.
The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, which summarized the battle as follows:
"李 舜臣 等 攻 釜山 賊 屯, 不 克. 倭 兵 屢 敗 於 水 戰, 聚 據 釜山 、 東 萊, 列 艦 守 港. 舜臣 與 元 均 悉 舟 師 進攻, 賊 斂 兵 不 戰, 登高 放 丸, 水兵 不能 下 陸, 乃 燒 空 船 四 百 餘 艘 而 退. 鹿島 萬 戶 鄭運居 前 力戰, 中丸 死, 舜臣 痛惜 之. ''.
This can be translated as follows, "Yi Sun - sin and his fleet attacked Busan where the enemy forces stationed, but failed to defeat them. Since Japanese soldiers were often defeated in sea fights, they gathered in the fortress in Busan and Dongnae, which guarded the naval ships. Yi Sun - sin and Won Gyun attacked the Busan bay on vast numbers of ships, but the Japanese soldiers did not fight, and climbed to higher position and shot an arquebus. Thus Josen marines were unable to land then after burning 400 empty ships, Yi 's fleet retreated. The Manho (Myriarch) of Rokdo (鹿島 萬 戶) Chong Woon (ko) was shot and died during the hard fighting, and Yi Sun Shin deeply regret the lost. ''
From the beginning of the war, the Koreans organized militias that they called "righteous armies '' (의병) to resist the Japanese invasion. These fighting bands were raised throughout the country, and participated in battles, guerilla raids, sieges, and the transportation and construction of wartime necessities.
There were three main types of Korean "righteous army '' militias during the war: the surviving and leaderless Korean regular soldiers, the patriotic yangbans (aristocrats) and commoners, and Buddhist monks.
During the first invasion, Jeolla Province remained the only untouched area on the Korean peninsula. In addition to the successful patrols of the sea by Yi Sun - sin, the activities of volunteer forces pressured the Japanese troops to avoid the province in favour of other priorities.
Gwak Jae - u was a famous leader in the Korean militia movement, the first to form a resistance group against the Japanese invaders. He was a land - owner in the town of Uiryong situated by the Nam River in the Gyeongsang Province. As the Korean regulars abandoned the town and an attack seemed imminent, Gwak organized fifty townsmen; however the Third Division went from Changwon straight toward Seongju. When Gwak used abandoned government stores to supply his army, the Gyeongsang Province Governor Kim Su branded Gwak 's group as rebels, and ordered that it be disbanded. When Gwak asked for help from other landowners, and sent a direct appeal to the King, the governor sent troops against Gwak, in spite of having enough troubles already with the Japanese. However, an official from the capital city then arrived to raise troops in the province, and, since the official lived nearby and actually knew him, he saved Gwak from troubles with the governor.
Gwak Jae - u deployed his troops in guerilla warfare under the cover of the tall reeds on the union of the Nakdong and the Nam Rivers. This strategy prevented Japanese forces from gaining easy access to Jeolla Province where Yi Sun - sin and his fleet were stationed.
The Sixth Division under the command of Kobayakawa Takakage was in charge of conquering Jeolla Province. The Sixth Division marched to Songju through the established Japanese route (i.e. the Third Division, above), and cut left to Geumsan in Chungcheong, which Kobayakawa secured as his starting base for his invasion of the province.
Ankokuji Ekei, a former Buddhist monk made into a general due to his role in the negotiations between Mōri Terumoto and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, led the units of the Sixth Division charged with the invasion of Jeolla Province. The units began their march to Uiryong at Changwon, and arrived at the Nam River. Ankokuji 's scouts planted meters measuring the river 's depths so that the entire squadron could cross the river; overnight, the Korean militiamen moved the meters into the deeper parts of the river. As the Japanese troops began to cross, Gwak 's militia ambushed them, and caused heavy losses for the Japanese. In the end, to advance into Jeolla Province, Ankokuji 's men had to try going north around the insecure grounds and within the security of the Japanese - garrisoned fortresses. At Kaenyong, Ankokuji 's target was changed to Gochang, to be taken with the aid of Kobayakawa Takakage. However, the entire Jeolla campaign was then abandoned when Kim Myeon and his guerillas successfully ambushed Ankokuji 's troops by firing arrows from hidden positions within the mountains.
When the Japanese troops were advancing to Hanseong (present - day Seoul), Yi Kwang, the governor of Jeolla Province, attempted to check the Japanese progress by launching his army toward the capital city. Upon hearing the news that the capital had already been sacked, the governor withdrew his army. However, as the army grew in size to 50,000 men with the accumulation of several volunteer forces, Yi Kwang and the irregular commanders reconsidered their aim to reclaim Hanseong, and led the combined forces north to Suwon, 42 km (26 mi) south of Hanseong. On June 4, an advance guard of 1,900 men attempted to take the nearby fortress at Yong - in, but the 600 Japanese defenders under Wakizaka Yasuharu avoided engagement with the Koreans until June 5, when the main Japanese troops came to relieve the fortress. The Japanese troops counterattacked successfully against the Jeolla coalition, forcing the Koreans to abandon arms and retreat.
Around the time of General Kwak 's mobilization of his volunteer army in the Gyeongsang Province, Go Gyeong - myeong in Jeolla Province formed a volunteer force of 6,000 men. Go then tried to combine his forces with another militia in the Chungcheong Province, but upon crossing the provincial border he heard that Kobayakawa Takakage of the Sixth Division had launched an attack on Jeonju (the capital of Jeolla Province) from the mountain fortress at Geumsan. Go returned to his own territory. Having joined forces with General Gwak Yong, Go then led his soldiers to Geumsan. There, on July 10, the volunteer forces fought with a Japanese army retreating to Geumsan after a defeat at the Battle of Ichi two days earlier on July 8.
Jinju (진주) was a strategic stronghold that defended Gyeongsang Province. The Japanese commanders knew that control of Jinju would mean easy access to the ricebelts of Jeolla Province. Accordingly, a large army under Hosokawa Tadaoki approached Jinju. Jinju was defended by Kim Simin (김시민), one of the better generals in Korea, commanding a Korean garrison of 3,000 men. Kim had recently acquired about 200 new arquebuses that were equal in strength to the Japanese guns. With the help of arquebuses, cannon, and mortars, the Koreans were able to drive the Japanese from Jeolla Province. The battle at Jinju is considered one of the greatest victories of Korea because it prevented the Japanese from entering Jeolla Province.
The Koreans could not hope to expel the Japanese from their land by themselves. Despite the various logistical and organizational difficulties suffered by the Japanese, Korea ultimately had to rely on the intervention of Ming China, to halt the advance of the first Japanese invasion.
Korean Court historian Ryu Seong - ryong stated that the Korean naval victory stalled the entire strategy of the invaders by "cutting off one of the arms '' with which Japan tried to envelop Korea, isolating Konishi Yukinaga 's army at P'yongyang and securing Chinese waters from the feared Japanese attack, such that "the Celestial Army could come by land to the assistance '' of Korea.
Viewing the crisis in Choson, the Ming Dynasty Wanli emperor and his court were initially filled with confusion and skepticism as to how their tributary could have been overrun so quickly.
The Korean Court was at first hesitant to call for help from the Ming Dynasty, and began a withdrawal to Pyongyang. The local governor at Liaodong eventually acted upon King Seonjo 's request for aid following the capture of Pyongyang by sending a small force of 5,000 soldiers led by Zu Chengxun. This cavalry force advanced almost unhindered and managed to enter Pyongyang, but was promptly and decisively defeated by the Japanese troops in the city. One of their leading generals, Shi Ru, was killed in this engagement. During the later half of 1592, the Ming sent investigation teams into Pyongyang to clarify the situation. The Ming became fully aware of the situation and made the decision for a full reinforcement by September 1592.
By then it had become clear that this was a situation much more serious than something that could be handled by local forces. Thus the Ming Emperor mobilized and dispatched a larger force in January 1593 under the general Li Rusong and Imperial Superintendent Song Yingchang, the former being one of the sons of Ming dynasty 's Liaodong military magistrate Li Chengliang and the latter being a bureaucratic officer (Ming military law stipulated that any military officer would have an accompanying bureaucrat appointed by the Imperial Court acting as the general 's superior). According to the collection of letters left by Song Yingchang, the strength of the Ming army was around 40,000, composed mostly of garrisons from the north, including around 3,000 men with experience against Japanese pirates under Qi Jiguang.
Thailand, a longtime faithful tributary state of the Chinese dynasties, offered to directly attack Japan to intervene in Hideyoshi 's plans, but Ming did not accept, instead ordering Thailand to attack Burma.
On January 5, 1593, the Ming expeditionary army arrived outside Pyongyang accompanied by a group of Korean soldiers. Ming general Li Rusong was appointed the supreme commander of all armies in Korea. After initial attempts to negotiate with the Japanese defenders under Konishi Yukinaga broke down, the two sides began skirmishing on the outskirts over the next couple of days, with the Li Rusong attempting to dislodge a Japanese garrison on the hills north of the city while Konishi Yukinaga attempted a night raid on the Ming camp.
On the morning of January 8, Li ordered an all - out assault on three sides of the city; Japanese defenders were forced off the walls fairly quickly, and retreated to the citadel they built on the eastern portions of the city. The allies were unwilling to commit to a direct assault on the heavily defended fortification during the day. Instead they left an opening for the Japanese to rally while making preparations for a fire assault on their position at night. Japanese forces sallied out of the undefended eastern walls and made a run for Hanseong (Seoul), and they were hit with additional ambushes on the way back south and took heavy casualties. Song YingChang 's letters on March 1, 1593, described the battle in full to the Ming court. After their defeat, the Japanese shifted their strategy to hit - and - run tactics and ambushes. The use of gunpowder technology and street fighting contributed to the victory, which would permanently deter the invasion.
Soon after retaking Pyongyang, Li also succeeded in retaking the major city of Kaesong on January 19, 1592, and met only minor resistance from the Japanese defenders.
Overconfident with his recent success and possibly misled by false reports, Li Rusong advanced towards the capital city of Hanseong (Seoul) with his allied army of 20,000 on January 21, 1592. On January 26, the force ran into an unexpected confrontation at Byeokjegwan with a large Japanese formation of about 30,000.
Initially, the scouting party of the group under Cha Da Sho and a Korean general confronted a small band of Japanese numbering no more than 600 men. The party overran them successfully but soon ran into a much larger host under Tachibana Muneshige, and retreated to a nearby hill to defend themselves.
Upon hearing of his scouting party 's plight, Li decided to rush forward with the rest of his small host. He met up with his scouting party around noon, but by that time even more Japanese forces were converging on the area.
The Ming forces gradually retreated north while fighting off several waves of attacks. Li Rusong and many other generals personally fought in the brawl, and they sustained heavy casualties before they met up with the rest of their army toward the later portion of the day. The Japanese pursued the defeated Ming army back up the pass to its highest point, and after a few more hours of fighting. At that point, the Japanese gave up further attacks and both sides pulled back. Because the Ming suffered heavy casualties among their elite retinues, Li became reluctant to move aggressively for the remainder of the war.
The Japanese invasion into Jeolla province was broken down and pushed back by General Kwon Yul at the hills of Ichiryeong, where outnumbered Koreans fought Japanese troops in Battle of Byeokjegwan and gained victory. Kwon Yul quickly advanced northwards, re-taking Suwon and then swung north toward Haengju where he would wait for the Chinese reinforcements. After he was informed that the Ming army under Li Rusong was pushed back at Byeokje, Kwon Yul decided to fortify Haengju.
Bolstered by the victory at Battle of Byeokjegwan, Katō and his army of 30,000 men advanced to the south of Hanseong to attack Haengju Fortress, an impressive mountain fortress that overlooked the surrounding area. An army of a few thousand led by Kwon Yul was garrisoned at the fortress, waiting for the Japanese. Katō believed his overwhelming army would destroy the Koreans and therefore ordered the Japanese soldiers to simply advance upon the steep slopes of Haengju with little planning. Kwon Yul answered the Japanese with fierce fire from the fortification using hwachas, rocks, handguns, and bows. Katō burned his dead and finally pulled his troops back.
The Battle of Haengju was an important victory for the Koreans, as it greatly improved the morale of the Korean army. The battle is celebrated today as one of the three most decisive Korean victories; the other two are the Siege of Jinju (1592) and the Battle of Hansando. Today, the site of Haengju fortress has a memorial built to honor Kwon Yul.
After the Battle of Byeokjegwan, the Ming army took a cautious approach and moved on Hanseong (present - day Seoul) again later in February after the successful Korean defense in the Battle of Haengju.
The two sides remained at a stalemate between the Kaesong to Hanseong line for the next couple of months, with both sides unable and unwilling to commit to further offensives. The Japanese lacked sufficient supplies to move north, and the defeat at Pyongyang had caused part of the Japanese leadership such as Konishi Yukinaga and Ishida Mitsunari to seriously consider negotiating with the Ming dynasty forces. This got them into a heated debate with other hawkish generals such as Katō Kiyomasa, and these conflicts would eventually have further implications following the war in Japan when the two sides became rivals in the Battle of Sekigahara.
The Ming forces had their own set of problems. Soon after arriving in Korea the Ming officials began to note the inadequate logistical supply from the Korean court. The records by Qian Shizhen noted that even after the siege of Pyongyang the Ming forces were already stalled for nearly a week due to the lack of supplies, before moving on to Kaesong. As the time went on the situation only become more serious. When the weather warmed, the road condition in Korea also became terrible, as numerous letters from Song Yingchang and other Ming officers attest, which made resupplying from China itself also a tedious process.
The Korean countryside was already devastated from the invasion when the Ming forces arrived, and in the heart of winter it was extremely difficult for the Koreans to muster sufficient supplies. Even though the court had assigned the majority of the men on hand to tackle the situation, their desire to reclaim their country, along with the militarily inexperienced nature of many of their administrators, resulted in their continual requests to the Ming forces to advance despite the situation. These events created an increasing level of distrust between the two sides.
Though by mid April 1593, faced with ever greater logistical pressure from a Korean naval blockade of Yi Sun - sin in addition to a Ming force special operation that managed to burn down a very significant portion of the Japanese grain storage, the Japanese broke off talks and pulled out of Hanseong.
Unlike the First Siege of Jinju, the second siege resulted in a Japanese victory. The Korean garrison resisted for ten days, until a section of wall was breached by Japanese sappers, who had made use of an armoured cart called a "tortoise shell cart ''. The fortress was captured with the loss of the garrison commander, Hwang Jin, and all of his defenders and civilians.
There were two factors that triggered the Japanese to withdraw: first, a Chinese commando penetrated Hanseong (present - day Seoul) and burned storehouses at Yongsan, destroying most of what was left of the Japanese troops ' depleted stock of food. Secondly, Shen Weijing made another appearance to conduct negotiations, and threatened the Japanese with an attack by 400,000 Chinese. The Japanese under Konishi and Kato, aware of their weak situation, agreed to withdraw to the Pusan area while the Chinese would withdraw back to China. A ceasefire was imposed, and a Ming emissary was sent to Japan to discuss peace terms.
By May 18, 1594, all the Japanese soldiers had retreated to the area around Busan and many began to make their way back to Japan. The Ming government withdrew most of its expeditionary force, but kept 16,000 men on the Korean peninsula to guard the truce.
Once peace negotiations between China and Japan finally got underway, Chinese negotiators gave the Ming Emperor the mistaken impression that he was about to deal with a minor state that had been subdued by war. Furthermore, they conveyed the idea that the Japanese regent, Hideyoshi, was prepared to become his vassal. Under such conditions, the Chinese sought to resolve the issue in their favor by including Japan in their tributary system of foreign relations. They would establish Hideyoshi as king of Japan and grant him the privilege of formal tribute trade relations with the Ming dynasty.
In Japan, Hideyoshi 's negotiators apparently led him to believe that China was suing for peace and was ready to accept him as their emperor. Thus, Hideyoshi issued the demands of a victor; first, a daughter of the Ming emperor must be sent to become the wife of the Japanese emperor; second, the southern provinces of Joseon must be ceded to Japan; third, normal trade relations between China and Japan must be restored; and fourth, a Joseon prince and several high - ranking government officials must be sent to Japan as hostages.
Bargaining from such fundamentally different perspectives, there was no prospect whatsoever for success in the talks. Early in 1597, both sides resumed hostilities.
During the period between the First and Second invasions, the Korean government had a chance to examine the reasons why they had been easily overrun by the Japanese. Ryu Seong - ryong, the Prime Minister, spoke out about the Korean disadvantages.
Ryu pointed out that Korean castle defenses were extremely weak, a fact which he had pointed out before the war. He noted how Korean castles had incomplete fortifications and walls that were too easy to scale. He also wanted cannons set up in the walls. Ryu proposed building strong towers with gun turrets for cannons. Besides castles, Ryu wanted to form a line of defenses in Korea. In this kind of defense, the enemy would have to scale many walls in order to reach Hanseong (Seoul).
Ryu also pointed out how efficient the Japanese army was, since it took them only one month to reach Hanseong, and how well organized they were. He noted how the Japanese moved their units in complex maneuvers, often weakening their enemy with the use of arquebuses, then attacking with melee weapons.
King Seonjo and the Korean court finally began to reform the military. In September 1593, the Military Training Agency (훈련 도감, alternately translated as Military Training Command) was established. The agency carefully divided the army into units and companies. Within the companies were squads of archers, arquebusers, swordsmen, and spear infantry. The agency set up divisional units in each region of Korea and garrisoned battalions at castles. The agency, which originally had less than 80 troops, soon grew to about 10,000.
One of the most important changes was that both upper class citizens and slaves were subject to the draft. All males had to enter military service be trained and familiarized with weapons.
It was also around this time that the military scholar Han Gyo (한교) wrote the martial arts manual Muyejebo, based on the book Jixiao Xinshu by the famous Chinese general Qi Jiguang.
After the failed peace negotiations of the inter-war years, Hideyoshi launched the second invasion of Korea. One of the main strategic differences between the first and second invasions was that conquering China was no longer an explicit goal for the Japanese. Failing to gain a foothold during Katō Kiyomasa 's Chinese campaign and the near complete withdrawal of the Japanese forces during the first invasion had established that the Korean peninsula was the more prudent and realistic objective.
Soon after the Chinese ambassadors had safely returned to China in 1597, Hideyoshi sent approximately 200 ships with an estimated 141,100 men under the overall command of Kobayakawa Hideaki. Japan 's second force arrived unopposed on the southern coast of Gyeongsang Province in 1596. However, the Japanese found that the Korean army was both better equipped and better prepared to deal with an invasion than several years prior. In addition, upon hearing the news in China, the imperial court in Beijing appointed Yang Hao (楊 鎬) as the supreme commander of an initial mobilization of 55,000 troops from various (and sometimes remote) provinces across China, such as Sichuan, Zhejiang, Huguang, Fujian, and Guangdong. A naval force of 21,000 was included in the effort. Ray Huang, a Chinese - American historian, estimated that the combined strength of the Chinese army and navy at the height of the second campaign was around 75,000. Korean forces totaled approximately 30,000 with General Gwon Yul 's army in Gong Mountain (공산; 公 山) in Daegu, General Gwon Eung 's (권응) troops in Gyeongju, Gwak Jae - u 's soldiers in Changnyeong (창녕), Yi Bok - nam 's (이복남) army in Naju, and Yi Si - yun 's troops in Chungpungnyeong.
Initially the Japanese found limited success, being largely confined to Gyeongsang Province and only launching numerous raids to harass and weaken the Korean defenders. In the early Autumn of 1597, the Japanese began a more focused and sustained advance. The Japanese planned to attack Jeolla Province in the southwestern part of the peninsula and eventually occupy Jeonju, the provincial capital. Korean success in the Siege of Jinju in 1592 had mostly saved this area from devastation during the first invasion. Two Japanese armies, under Mōri Hidemoto and Ukita Hideie, began the assault in Busan and marched towards Jeonju, taking Sacheon and Changpyong along the way.
The Korean navy was again to play a crucial part in the second invasion, as in the first, by hampering Japanese advances on land by harassing supply fleets at sea. However, despite his previous successes, Yi Sun - sin was both demoted and jailed by King Seonjo, largely due to a Japanese plot to deceive the Korean court and take advantage of the court 's political infighting. Government officials gave direct orders to launch a surprise naval operation against the Japanese, based on a tip from a presumed reliable Japanese spy. Yi refused to obey these orders, knowing that this was an obvious trap meant to have his own fleet sail in to an ambush. This development allowed others within the court to further advance their personal agendas while Yi was severely punished. Ultimately, Won Gyun was appointed in Yi Sun - sin 's place at the head of the Korean navy.
After Won Gyun replaced Yi Sun - sin as head of the navy, he was quick to take action and justify his newly acquired position. He gathered the entire Korean fleet, which now had more than 100 ships outside of Yosu, to search for the Japanese. Without any previous preparations or planning, Won Gyun then had his entire fleet sail towards Busan.
After one day at sea, Won Gyun was informed of a large Japanese fleet near Busan. He decided to attack immediately, despite reports of exhaustion among the crew of the ship.
At the subsequent Battle of Chilcheollyang, Won Gyun was completely outmaneuvered by the Japanese in a surprise attack. His ships were overwhelmed by arquebus fire and the traditional Japanese boarding attacks, which largely resulted in the destruction of his entire fleet. But the defection before the battle of Bae Soel, an officer who did not submit to Won Gyun 's leadership, kept thirteen panokseons out of the battle. These would form the entire fighting force of the Korean Navy during the immediately following months.
The Battle of Chilcheollyang was one of Japan 's most decisive naval victories of the war. Won Gyun was himself killed by a Japanese garrison after he struggled ashore on an island after the destruction of his flagship. The victory allowed the Japanese navy to safely escort its troop ships and to support planned landing operations.
After the disaster at Chilcheollyang, the allied defenses in the south began to quickly break down and the Japanese forces stormed into Jeolla Province. The garrison of Namwon became their next key target.
Namwon was located fifty kilometres southeast of Jeonju. Correctly predicting a Japanese attack, a coalition force of 6,000 soldiers (including 3,000 Chinese troops under Yang Yuan and civilian volunteers) were prepared to fight the approaching Japanese forces. The Japanese laid siege to the walls of the fortress with ladders and siege towers. The two sides exchanged volleys with arquebuses and bows. Eventually the Japanese forces scaled the walls and sacked the fortress. According to Japanese commander Okochi Hidemoto, author of the Chosen Ki, the Siege of Namwon resulted in 3,726 casualties among the Korean and Chinese forces. The Korean forces and its leaders were almost entirely killed. Only Yang Yuan managed to sally out after the walls were breached, with a handful of men, to return to Hanseong (Seoul). He was later executed by the Ming court because of his defeat in battle.
Hwangseoksan Fortress consisted of extensive walls that circumscribed the Hwangseok Mountains and garrisoned thousands of soldiers led by generals Jo Jong - do and Gwak Jun. When Katō Kiyomasa laid siege to the mountain with a large army, the Koreans lost morale and retreated with 350 casualties. The successful siege did not, however, lead to a subsequent advance from beyond Gyeongsang Province.
Upon the start of the second invasion, the Ming emperor was furious about the entire debâcle of the peace talks and turned his wrath on many of its chief supporters; particularly Shi Xing, the Minister of War, who was removed from his position and jailed (he died several years later, in prison). The chief negotiator, Shen Weijing, was executed. Xing Jie was named the new minister of war and Yang Hao as the new chief superintendent (Jin Lue) of Korea; Xing Jie himself was also stationed in Korea for the remainder of the war. The Ming leadership quickly pulled in many units stationed near its border with Korea.
After the steady Japanese advances on land, they were planned to assault Hanseong (present - day Seoul) by late August or early September of 1597. However, the plans were foiled by a Ming defense around Jiksan (modern day Cheonan).
Forces under Kuroda Nagamasa formed the vanguard of the right army and marched toward Hanseong, which deeply disturbed the court at Hanseong. Several of the Ming generals stationed in Korea suggested to the court that they pull back their forces until they could gather more reinforcements, but the Ming administrators overruled their generals and ordered them to make a stand. Thus the chief commander of the Ming forces at the time, Ma Gui, sent out General Jie Sheng (解 生) and three other generals with an elite cavalry force to confront the Japanese forces.
According to Korean records, the Ming forces ran into the vanguard forces under Kuroda around the area of Jiksan. On the first day, they beat back a small scouting party. On the second day, the two forces clashed in earnest, with the Japanese being beaten back. Soon afterwards, a larger Japanese force showed up and the Ming forces also retreated. The Japanese army moved forward and occupied Gyeonggi Province. This battle greatly relieved the Joseon and Ming courts and was seen as the beginning of a turnaround in the land campaign.
After the debacle in Chilcheollyang, King Seonjo immediately reinstated Yi Sun - sin. Yi Sun - sin quickly returned to Yeosu, where he found the majority of his navy destroyed. Yi re-organized the navy, now reduced to thirteen ships and approximately 200 men from the previous battle. On September 16, 1597, in the Myeongnyang Strait, Yi Sun - sin encountered a large Japanese fleet of approximately 133 warships, with a further 200 logistical ships in support. By making use of a narrow passage, Yi positioned his ships in a battle line that prevented the Japanese Navy from making use of their numerical superiority. The Battle of Myeongnyang resulted in a Korean victory, with Yi Sun - sin retaking the naval initiative. The Battle of Myeongnyang is considered Yi Sun - sin 's greatest battle, largely as a result of the disparity of numbers. Even after the victory, however, the Joseon navy was still outnumbered by the remaining Japanese navy, so Admiral Yi withdrew to the Yellow Sea to resupply his fleet and have more space for a mobile defense. After the Korean navy withdrew, the Japanese navy made an incursion into the western coast of Korea, near some islands in Yeonggwang County.
By late 1597, the Joseon and Ming allied forces achieved victory in Jiksan and pushed the Japanese further south. After the news of the loss at Myeongnyang, Katō Kiyomasa and his retreating army looted Gyeongju, the former capital of Unified Silla.
The Japanese forces sacked the city and many artifacts and temples were destroyed, most prominently, the Bulguksa, a Buddhist temple. Ming and Joseon forces continued to harass the Japanese forces, who then withdrew further south to Ulsan, a harbor that had been an important Japanese trading post a century before, and which Katō had chosen as a strategic stronghold.
Yi Sun - sin 's control of the areas around the Coast of Jeolla permitted no supply ships to reach the western side of the Korean Peninsula, into which many extensive tributaries merge. Without provisions and reinforcements, the Japanese forces were constrained to the coastal fortresses, known as wajō, that they still controlled. The advancing Ming forces attempted to take advantage of this situation by attacking Ulsan. This siege was the first major offensive from the Ming forces in the second phase of the war.
The effort of the Japanese garrison (about 7,000 men) of Ulsan was largely dedicated to its fortification in preparation for the expected attack. Katō Kiyomasa assigned command and defense of the base to Katō Yasumasa, Kuki Hirotaka, Asano Nagayoshi, and others before proceeding to Sosaengpo. The Ming army 's first assault on January 29, 1598, caught the Japanese Army unaware and still encamped, for the large part, outside Ulsan 's unfinished walls.
A total of around 36,000 troops with the help of singijeons and hwachas nearly succeeded in sacking the fortress, but reinforcements under the overall command of Mōri Hidemoto came across the river to aid the besieged fortress. Although the Japanese garrison was desperately short of supplies, the Ming commander Ma Gui judged the situation to be going against the allies, because more and more Japanese forces began to arrive from the surrounding area and the allied forces were quickly becoming outnumbered. Late one night, Ma Gui decided to order a general organized retreat of the allied forces, but soon confusion set in, and matters were further complicated by heavy rainfall and harassing attacks by the Japanese. The chief superintendent Yang Hao panicked and left hastily for Hanseong ahead of the army.
The general retreat quickly turned into a chaotic rout, of which the Japanese took quick advantage by attacked the retreating Ming and Joseon forces. The retreating Ming and Joseon forces had 20,000 losses. The disaster was a heavy setback for Joseon, who would not be in a position to move on the Japanese position again for more than eight months.
After the Siege at Ulsan, the two sides remained in a stalemate for the next several months. Xing Jie decided that they would require further reinforcements to launch a final large offensive to permanently remove the Japanese presence on the Korean Peninsula.
Reinforcements from China began to pour in through most of mid-1598, with Chen Lin and Deng Zilong and their navy arriving in May. By September 1598, the Ming presence in Korea had swelled to 75,000 overall, by far the largest at any point in the war.
Xing Jie divided his forces into four groups, with Ma Gui leading the offensive against Ulsan yet again, Li Rumei leading the offensive against Sacheon, Chen Lin commanding the navy, and Liu Ting and Yi Sun - sin coordinating a land - sea effort against Suncheon.
Just before they set out, however, news came that Li Rusong was killed by Mongolian tribesmen back in Liao Dong. Xing Jie decided to remove his emotionally weakened brother Li Rumei in favor of Dong Yi Yuan.
In June 1598, after Commander Konishi Yukinaga raised concerns about the supply situation and limited prospects for further territorial gains in the peninsula, 70,000 troops were withdrawn back to Japan, with only 60,000 left behind to guard the territory still under Japanese control. These forces were mostly Satsuma soldiers of the Shimazu clan under commanders Shimazu Yoshihiro and his son Tadatsune. Kato Kiyomasa remained in command of the defenses of Ulsan while Konishi himself commanded the defenses at Suncheon. The forces at Sacheon and Ulsan continued to be engaged in a military deadlock in the months that followed.
At Ulsan, Kato Kiyomasa defended the castle with 10,000 Japanese soldiers. In September 1598, 29,500 Ming and Joseon troops tried again to capture Ulsan Castle, but all their attempts were repulsed by the Japanese. The Ming and Joseon forces withdrew with heavy losses.
The Chinese believed that Sacheon was crucial to their goal of retaking the lost castles in Korea and ordered a general attack. Although the Chinese made initial progress, the tide of battle turned when Japanese reinforcements attacked the rear of the Chinese Army and the Japanese soldiers inside the fortress sallied from the gates and counter-attacked. The Chinese Ming forces retreated with 30,000 losses, with the Japanese in pursuit. According to Chinese and Korean sources concerning the battle, the forces led by Dong Yi Yuan had breached the castle wall and were making progress in capturing the castle until a gunpowder accident caused an explosion in their camp, and the Japanese took advantage of the situation to rout the confused and weakened troops.
At Suncheon, Konishi Yukinaga defended the castle with 13,700 Japanese soldiers. A total of 50,000 Ming and Joseon troops tried to capture it, but their attempts were repulsed and they retreated with heavy losses.
In the fall of 1598, following the successful Japanese defense at the battles of Sacheon, Ulsan, and Suncheon, the Ming, Joseon and Japanese forces were locked in a military stalemate in the south of the peninsula After the death of Hideyoshi on September 18, 1598, the Council of Five Elders, in late October, issued orders for the withdrawal of all forces from Korea. Hideyoshi 's death was kept a secret by the Council to preserve the morale of the army.
The Battle of Noryang Point was the final naval battle in the war. A Japanese Fleet of approximately 500 ships, under Shimazu Yoshihiro, was assembled and preparing to link up with the blockaded fleet under Konishi Yukinaga, and together withdraw via Pusan back to Japan.
The Korean navy, under Yi Sun - sin discovered the Shimazu fleet anchored in the narrow straits of Noryang. Noting the narrow geography of the area, Ming general Chen Lin, who led Deng Zilong and Yi Sun - sin, made a surprise attack against the Japanese fleet, under the cover of darkness on December 16, 1598, using cannon and fire arrows.
By dawn, nearly half of the Japanese fleet was scattered. During the pursuit of the remaining Japanese ships, both Yi Sun - sin and Deng Zilong were killed. Despite suffering high casualties, in the end the battle was a tactical victory for the Korean forces and resulted in the loss of over half of the Japanese fleet.
Strategically, however, the Japanese attained their objective by allowing Konishi Yukinaga, who was earlier blockaded by the Ming and Korean forces, to leave his fortress on December 16 with his men and withdraw unopposed by sailing through the southern end of Namhae Island, bypassing both the Noryang Strait and the battle. Konishi, Shimazu, Katō Kiyomasa and other Japanese generals of the Left Army congregated in Pusan and withdrew to Japan on December 21. The last ships sailed to Japan on December 24, bringing an end to seven years of war.
As Tsushima had suffered greatly from its loss of trade with Korea as a result of the invasions, Yoshitoshi of the Sō family, then dominant in Tsushima, undertook the lead in the peace negotiations by Japan. He sent four peace missions to Joseon in 1599 to normalize relations. The first three were captured and sent directly to Beijing by Chinese troops, but the fourth one, in 1601, successfully obtained from the Joseon court the promise of a normalizing of relations upon the return of remaining Joseon captives. As Ming troops continued to be present in Korea following the withdrawal of Japanese forces, the major incentive for Joseon for the normalization of relations with Japan was the withdrawal of the Chinese soldiers from their territory. The Ming Chinese themselves were causing as much havoc as the Japanese had during the actual conflict, and their presence continued to strain the local economy and infrastructure. In response to the Joseon request, Yoshitoshi promptly released several Joseon prisoners and between 1603 and 1604 helped the Joseon envoys to repatriate a further 3,000 by organizing negotiations at Kyoto with Tokugawa Ieyasu, by then the Shogun of Japan.
In the continuation of the diplomatic talks toward peaceful relations, Joseon in 1606 expanded its conditions and demanded that the Shogun write a formal letter requesting peace, and to extradite the Japanese soldiers who had defiled the Joseon Royal Tombs near Hanseong (Seoul). Realizing that the Shogunate would never agree to such a request, Yoshitoshi sent a forged letter and a group of criminals instead; the great need to expel the Ming soldiers pushed Joseon into accepting and to send an emissary in 1608. The end result was a return of Joseon prisoners and the restoration of diplomatic and trade relations between the two countries.
The Japanese invasions were Asia 's first regional wars involving massed armies equipped with modern weapons. The conflict saw the regular employment of Japanese armies of up to 200,000, Chinese armies of 80,000, and the ongoing deployment of local Korean forces numbering in the hundreds of thousands.
The invasions also stood as a challenge to the existing Chinese world order on two levels: the military, in which the war challenged Ming China 's status as the supreme military power in East Asia, and the political, in which the war affirmed Chinese willingness to aid in the protection of its tributary states.
Contrary to Toyotomi Hideyoshi 's intentions, the cost of the Japanese invasions of Korea significantly weakened the Toyotomi clan 's power in Japan. After Hideyoshi 's death, his young son Toyotomi Hideyori became head of the Toyotomi clan. However, the losses suffered by varying daimyōs during the campaign were a contributing factor to the imbalance of power in Japan after the war. As the western - based daimyo of Kyushu and western Honshu (partially by geographic convenience) contributed the majority of the forces used during the Korean conflict, it left the pro-Hideyoshi alliance weakened for the eventual struggle with the mostly eastern - backed forces of Tokugawa Ieyasu. Tokugawa would go on to unify Japan and establish himself as Shogun in 1603, following the decisive Battle of Sekigahara against a coalition of mostly western - based daimyōs.
Ming China also sustained a heavy financial burden for its role in defending Korea while also fighting several other conflicts in the same decade. The war also indirectly weakened China 's position in Manchuria, which gave the fledgling Manchu chieftain Nurhachi an opportunity to expand his influence and territory. Nurhachi 's expansions would culminate in the eventual collapse of the Ming Dynasty and the rise of the Qing dynasty in 1644. However, the sinocentric tributary system that the Ming had defended continued to be maintained by the Qing, and ultimately, the war resulted in a maintenance of the status quo -- with the re-establishment of trade and the normalization of relations between all three parties.
Given that the conflict was fought exclusively on Korean soil, Korea ultimately suffered the most damage of the three participants. It lost a large portion of its military strength and civilian population, had numerous cultural heritage sites damaged or destroyed, and many of its technological advancements pillaged. In many ways the invasions proved to be more devastating than any other event in the nation 's history (even, arguably, more so than the Korean War). The peninsula suffered a reduction of arable land to sixty - six percent of the prewar total, greatly hurting Korea 's mainly agricultural economy; in the years that followed, famine, disease, and rebellions were widespread throughout Korea. In Kyŏngsang Province alone 90 % of the land under cultivation was destroyed. Significant losses of historical archives, cultural and scientific artifacts (such as the Ja - gyuk - roo water clock), and skilled artisans resulted in a waning of Korean science. The main Korean royal palaces Gyeongbokgung, Changdeokgung, and Changgyeonggung were burned down, and Deoksugung was used as a temporary palace. The Baekjeong (Korean natives of the lowest social rank) took advantage of the lack of internal security brought on by invasion, and set fire to changnye (Korean government offices) in which census ledgers had been kept. The destruction of land and census registers made fiscal recovery difficult since taxation and corvée labour were based on them. The government was forced to trade rank and titles in order to obtain napsok of grain, and the Yangbang elite, which was exempt from household taxes, exploited the occasion to increase its landholdings, thereby further depriving the central government of taxes raised on property.
The total military and civilian casualties, as estimated by the late 19th - century historian, Geo H. Jones, were one million, and total combat casualties were estimated at between 250,000 and 300,000. A total of over 185,000 Korean and over 29,000 Chinese troops were killed, and an estimated 50,000 to 60,000 captives were taken by the Japanese throughout the war. Among those captured, a total of 7,500 were later returned to Korea through diplomatic means at the conclusion of the conflict. A large portion of the remaining captives were sold to European traders -- mainly Portuguese in Macau, who then resold them throughout Southeast Asia.
The captives brought to Japan, including scholars, craftsmen, medicine makers, and gold smelters, provided Japan with many cultural and technological gains. In the years that followed, Japanese pottery and art advanced and developed a significant similarity to their Korean counterparts. Advances in other areas such as agriculture were also aided by technology and artisans acquired and captured during the invasions. Japanese typography advanced with the adoption of Chinese fonts. Because Korean pottery was highly prized in Japan, many Japanese lords established pottery - producing kilns with captured Korean potters in Kyūshū and other parts of Japan. The production of Arita porcelain in Japan began in 1616 at the town of Imari with the aid of Korean potters who had been enticed to relocate there after the war.
As was typical in most prolonged military conflicts of the period, the war resulted in many instances of war brutality on all sides.
Japanese troops engaged in crimes against civilians in battles and often killed indiscriminately. Scorched earth policies were often employed: crops were burned, and farm animals were slaughtered to prevent their use by Joseon or Ming forces. Outside of the main battles, raids to acquire foods and supply from civilians were common. Captured prisoners were often mistreated or worked to near - death by starvation and neglect. In following their battlefield practice at the time, the Japanese also collected the ears and noses of dead soldiers as proof of their exploits on the battlefield and as a record of casualty counts. The high casualty rate of the Joseon and Ming forces, and the large number of ears collected during the campaign was enough to build a large mound near Hideyoshi 's Great Buddha, called the Mimizuka ("Mound of Ears '')
Korean armies were also known to forcefully acquire food and supplies from civilians, both on an individual and organized level. Korean bandits and highwaymen also took advantage of the chaos during the war to form raiding parties and rob other Koreans.
The Ming forces arriving in support of Joseon were often no better than the Japanese in the amount of destruction they caused and the degree of the crimes they committed. Ming forces often did not distinguish between loyal Joseon civilians and Japanese collaborators. In one notable case, the civilians of Namhae, who the Chinese General Chen Lin labelled as Japanese collaborators, were killed without justification. After the immediate Japanese military threat was neutralized, the Joseon desire for the Ming Armies to quickly withdraw from Korean territory was a contributing factor to the pace of the eventual peace resolution.
The war left significant legacies in all three countries. In the context of Japanese imperialism, the invasions are seen as the first Japanese attempt to become a global power. The partial occupation of Korea developed the Japanese concept that Korea belonged within Japan 's sphere of influence, and the Japanese leaders of the late 19th and the early 20th centuries used the 1592 -- 1597 invasions to reinforce the justification for their 20th century annexation of Korea.
In China, the war was used politically to inspire nationalistic resistance against Japanese imperialism during the 20th century. In Chinese academia, historians list the war as one of the Wanli Emperor 's "Three Great Punitive Campaigns ''. Contemporary Chinese historians often use the campaigns as an example of the friendship the two nations shared.
In Korea, the war is a historic foundation of Korean nationalism and, as in China, inspired and was used politically to instigate nationalistic resistance against Japanese imperialism during the 20th century. Korea gained several national heroes during the conflict, such as Admiral Yi Sun - sin. Even today, anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea can be traced as far back as the Japanese invasions in 1592, although the principal cause is rooted in more recent events, particularly the hardships suffered by Koreans during the Japanese occupation of Korea from 1910 through 1945.
Despite great interest in the war in East Asia, the Japanese invasions of Korea are not widely known in the West. Historian Stephen Turnbull attributes this to titles such as Hideyoshi 's Invasions of Korea (merely an extended part of Toyotomi Hideyoshi 's biography) and the Japanese invasions of Korea (simply a larger repeat of the Japanese wokou pirate raids) absent the distinction as a "war ''. Many history textbooks treat the war with only a few lines of mention, and with the exception of Samurai Invasion: Japan 's Korean War 1592 -- 98 by Turnbull, no complete academic studies on the subject exists in English, although both Murdoch and Sansom covered the topic in some detail in their general historical surveys of Japan, A History of Japan (1903) and A History of Japan (1958), respectively.
Primary sources
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what does a life sentence mean in uk | Life imprisonment in England and Wales - wikipedia
In England and Wales, life imprisonment is a sentence which lasts until the death of the prisoner, although in most cases the prisoner will be eligible for parole (officially termed "early release '') after a fixed period set by the judge. This period is known as the "minimum term '' (previously known as the "tariff ''). In some exceptionally grave cases, however, a judge may order that a life sentence should mean life by making a "whole life order. ''
Murder has carried a mandatory life sentence in England and Wales since capital punishment was suspended in 1965. There is currently no "first degree '' or "second degree '' murder definition. However, there were two degrees of murder between 1957 and 1965, one carrying the death penalty and one life imprisonment, and there have recently been plans to introduce such a definition.
Life imprisonment is only applicable to defendants aged 21 or over. Those aged between 18 and 20 are sentenced to custody for life. Those aged under 18 are sentenced to detention during Her Majesty 's pleasure for murder, or detention for life for other crimes where life imprisonment is the sentence for adults. However people under 21 may not be sentenced to a whole life order, and so must become eligible for parole.
In addition to the sentences mentioned above, until 2012 there were two other kinds of life sentence, imprisonment for public protection (for those over 18) and detention for public protection (for those under 18). These were for defendants whose crimes were not serious enough to merit a normal life sentence, but who were considered a danger to the public and so should not be released until the Parole Board had decided that they no longer represented a risk. These sentences were abolished by the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012, although a number of prisoners remain imprisoned under the former legislation.
When Parliament was considering abolition of the death penalty, there were many MPs who were against the reform, and the deal offered was that former capital offences would always inevitably merit a mandatory life sentence. Accordingly, life imprisonment replaced the death penalty as punishment for murderers, firstly for those whose sentences were commuted and later for those whose crimes were not "aggravated '' within the meaning of the Homicide Act 1957. To begin with, it was fairly common for those sentenced to life to be released in around ten to fifteen years. As time passed, it came to be thought that longer sentences should be imposed, especially in cases such as the Moors Murders, the Yorkshire Ripper and Dennis Nilsen. The Home Secretary (and now the Minister for Justice) was empowered to make Whole Life Orders to ensure that particularly dangerous or heinous criminals were never released. Currently, mandatory lifers serve an average of 14 years and for other lifers the average has been in decline and now stands at nine years.
Formerly, the Home Secretary reserved the right to set the "tariff '' or minimum length of term for prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment. However, in November 2000 politicians were stripped of this power in relation to defendants aged under 18, following an appeal to the European Court of Human Rights by the murderers of James Bulger.
In November 2002 a similar decision in relation to adult offenders followed a successful challenge by convicted double murderer Anthony Anderson. Anderson had been sentenced to life imprisonment in 1988 with a recommended minimum term of 15 years, but the Home Secretary later informed him that he would have to serve at least 20 years. The House of Lords ruled that this was incompatible with his human rights.
This judgment was upheld by the European Court of Human Rights. Since then, judges have set minimum terms and only the Court of Appeal or the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom can make any amendments to the sentence. Though politicians can no longer decide when or if a life sentence prisoner can be considered for parole, the Attorney General still has the power to petition the Court of Appeal in a bid to increase any prison terms which are seen as unduly lenient.
The Criminal Justice Act 2003 sets out guidelines for how long murderers should spend in prison before being considered for parole. Judges are not obliged to follow the guidelines, but must give reasons in court if they depart from them - whether recommending a lesser or higher minimum term than in accordance with the guidelines.
The guidelines recommended that multiple murderers (who murder two or more people) whose crimes involved sexual abuse, pre-planning, abduction or terrorism should never be released from prison. Such a sentence is known as a "whole life order ''. The murder of a single child following abduction, sexual or sadistic conduct also qualifies, as does the murder of a police or prison officer during the course of their duty (since 2015) and murder committed to advance a political, religious or ideological cause - along with any murder which was committed by someone who had previously been convicted of murder. Other multiple murders (two or more) should carry a recommended minimum of 30 years as a starting point sentence prior to consideration of additional aggravating factors and of any mitigating factors. A 30 - year minimum should also apply to the worst single murders, including those with sexual or racial motives and the use of a firearm - until 2015, the murder of a police officer in the course of duty also came within this category. Most other murders should be subject to a 15 - year minimum as a starting point. Inevitably, there have been numerous departures from these guidelines since they were first put into practice. For example, the judge who sentenced American fugitive David Bieber for the murder of a police officer said that he should never be released from prison, whereas statutory guidelines recommended a 30 - year minimum for this type of murder - this was a decade before the act was amended to include the murder of a police officer in the course of duty as one of the offenders whose life sentences should mean life.
On 23 July 2008, Bieber won a High Court appeal against the whole life tariff recommended by the trial judge, and was instead issued with a minimum term of 37 years, effectively meaning that he would not be released until at least 2041, by which time he would be 75 years old if still alive. In the case of Mark Goldstraw, who killed four people in an arson attack on a house in Staffordshire in 2006, the trial judge set a recommended minimum of 35 years; this crime met the guidelines for a whole life term as it involved planning and resulted in the death of more than one person.
Angus Sinclair, who had been imprisoned since 1982 for child abuse, was jailed for a minimum of 37 years in 2015. This means he will almost certainly die in prison as he was 69 by the time of his conviction for murdering two teenage girls in 1977. Many other life prisoners have received minimum terms which, due to their great length or the fact that the killer was middle aged or elderly when convicted, make it almost certain that they will never be released.
A prisoner who has served their minimum term becomes eligible for parole. If the Parole Board agrees to release a prisoner who was sentenced to life, he or she is released on a life licence meaning that he or she will remain on parole for the remainder of their natural life. Prisoners who break the conditions of their release, or who are found to be a danger to the public, can be immediately returned to prison for an indefinite period under the terms of this licence.
In England and Wales, the average life sentence prisoner serves around 15 years before being paroled, although those convicted of exceptionally grave crimes remain behind bars for considerably longer; Ian Huntley was given a minimum term of 40 years. Some receive whole life sentences which make it almost certain that they will die in prison; they can only be considered for release on appeal to the High Court, or in exceptional circumstances such as great age or ill health.
By 2015, there were at least 60 prisoners in England and Wales serving such sentences, issued by either the High Court or the Home Office. These include "Yorkshire Ripper '' Peter Sutcliffe. A number of other prisoners have died in prison when serving such sentences including Moors Murderers (Ian Brady and Myra Hindley) and serial killer GP Harold Shipman who committed suicide four years into his sentence.
For England and Wales, the law regarding release on licence of prisoners is laid out in chapter 2 of the Crime (Sentences) Act 1997 (see in particular sections 28 -- 30). This Act was amended and updated by the Criminal Justice Act 2003 chapters 6 and 7.
For Scotland, the law is set out in the Prisoners and Criminal Proceedings (Scotland) Act 1993, as amended in relation to life prisoners by the Convention Rights (Compliance) (Scotland) Act 2001, which incorporated changes to ensure that the procedure is compliant with the European Convention on Human Rights. The Scottish legal system does not allow a whole life sentence to be issued, but retains other forms of indefinite imprisonment, such as an Order for Lifelong Restriction.
Under the criminal law of England and Wales, a minimum term (formerly "tariff '') is the minimum period that a person serving an indefinite sentence must serve before that person becomes eligible for parole. The sentencing judge bears responsibility for setting the minimum term.
The purpose of this mechanism has been described as follows:
The tariff is the minimum period a life sentence prisoner must serve to meet the requirements of retribution and deterrence before being considered for release. After this minimum period has been served release will only take place where the prisoner is judged no longer a risk of harm to the public.
The factors involved in the determination of a tariff were contested in the 1993 case of Robert Thompson and Jon Venables, two 11 - year - old boys who were convicted of the murder of two - year - old James Bulger. Although the trial judge initially recommended that the pair would have to serve at least eight years in custody, the High Court later set a minimum term of 10 years. However, in July 1994 the Home Secretary Michael Howard set a tariff of 15 years, based in part on the public outcry over the murders. The ruling also came shortly after The Sun newspaper petitioned the Home Secretary with the signatures of more than 20,000 readers for the two killers to receive stiffer sentences.
Another petition for "life to mean life '' (even though the whole life tariff was not an option in the case offenders who committed their crimes before the age of 21) for the two killers attracted almost 280,000 signatures. It also came at a time when the popularity of the Conservative government was at a low ebb - particularly on Merseyside, where the crime occurred. Some commentators also argued that The Sun newspaper also saw the petition as an attempt to boost its sales on Merseyside, which had plummeted five years earlier due its controversial reporting of the Hillsborough disaster, in which 96 Liverpool F.C. supporters were killed at an FA Cup semi-final. In June 1997, the House of Lords ruled that Howard had acted unlawfully when setting the 15 - year minimum terms. This ruling also signalled the end of the Home Secretary 's powers to set minimum terms for offenders who committed their crimes before the age of 18.
In November 2002, following a European Court of Human Rights ruling that the Home Secretary could no longer set minimum terms for life sentence prisoners, the High Court stripped the Home Secretary of his powers to set minimum terms completely. Earlier that year, following a legal challenge by another convicted murderer, Dennis Stafford, the Home Secretary had also been stripped of his powers to overrule the Parole Board 's recommendations that a life sentence prisoner should be granted parole.
Another notable prisoner whose minimum sentence was increased was Myra Hindley, jailed for life in 1966 for her role in the Moors Murders; she was convicted of murdering two children and being an accessory in the murder of a third. Her partner Ian Brady was convicted of all three murders. Their trial judge later recommended to the appropriate authorities that he felt it was unlikely that Brady could ever be rehabilitated and safe to be considered for release, but felt that the same was not true of Hindley once she was removed from Brady 's influence, recommending that she should be considered for parole after a period of around 25 years. This ruling was endorsed by at least one Home Secretary and High Court judge, but after the pair confessed to two more murders in 1986, Hindley 's minimum term was increased to 30 years and then replaced by a whole life tariff in 1990, although she was not informed of the decision until 1994 - following a High Court ruling that the Home Secretary was obliged to inform all life sentence prisoners when or if they could be considered for parole. This was despite reports by Parole Board and prison officials which stated that Hindley posed little or no risk to society, and should be considered for parole or at least for a transfer to an open prison as a possible prelude to parole in the near future. A number of high - profile supporters, including Lord Longford and David Astor, backed Hindley 's campaign for parole, and claimed that a succession of Home Secretaries were keeping her in prison in attempt to win votes for their respective governments, as well as shying away from an inevitable tabloid media backlash that would accompany lost votes for any government whose Home Secretary failed to block Hindley 's release from prison. Some sources also claimed that Hindley was being kept in prison for her own safety more than to protect to the public from any risk she might pose, as she had received numerous deaths threats from relatives of the Moors Murders victims and from members of the public pledging to kill her if she was ever set free. Hindley lodged three appeals against her whole life tariff, but all three appeals were unsuccessful and she remained in prison until her death in November 2002, just over a week before the Home Secretary was stripped of his powers to set minimum terms for life sentence prisoners. Daily Mirror columnist Carole Malone was not a supporter of Hindley 's campaign for parole, but was critical of Michael Howard 's motives for reaffirming Hindley 's whole life tariff in February 1997 - three months before an inevitable general election defeat - and claimed that the Home Secretary was seizing the opportunity to win votes by keeping Myra Hindley in prison. Immediately after Hindley 's death, Malone commented that it had been inevitable that Hindley would die in prison, as successive Home Secretaries were too fearful about the survival of their government to consider Hindley 's release.
In the days between Hindley 's death and the ruling being delivered, the Home Secretary issued 50 - year minimum terms on four convicted child killers who had been convicted of high - profile murders between 1995 and 2001. Various legal and media sources, whether opposing or supporting the 50 - year tariffs, were keen to argue that the 50 - year minimum terms were politically motivated, as the crimes were high profile and still relatively fresh in public memory, and that the Home Secretary had also seized the opportunity to set these hefty tariffs as he knew that he was on the verge of being stripped of these powers. The government was also under public scrutiny due to the start of a firefighter 's strike which began after the government failed to settle pay and working conditions with the national firefighter 's union.
With the death of Myra Hindley, the Home Secretary had lost perhaps the most high - profile prisoner in the prison system, whose minimum term had been increased by a succession of Home Secretaries, leaving him with limited time to select new high - profile prisoners to impose heavy sentences on. Some of these factors were used as grounds to appeal in June 2010 when one of the killers, Roy Whiting, successfully appealed to have his sentence reduced in the High Court.
A similar system operates in Scotland, whereby the trial judge fixes a "punishment part '' to "satisfy the requirements of retribution and deterrence ''. The prisoner can not be considered for parole until this punishment part is served.
For example, for a murder, someone may be given a life sentence with a minimum term of 15 years. This means they can not be released on parole until the minimum term is served. Some prisoners serve considerably longer than the minimum term recommended by the trial judge - even if it was later reaffirmed or reduced by a Home Secretary or by the High Court. A notable example is Harry Roberts, jailed for life in 1966 for his role in the murder of three policemen in London. His trial judge recommended that he serve at least 30 years before being considered for parole, but he was not granted parole until 2014, by which time he had served 48 years in prison.
The terms below are only guidelines for adults, and starting points vary in different legal cases. Starting points may either be increased or decreased depending on aggravating and / or mitigating factors respectively. The guidelines are in Schedule 21 of the Act.
However, the law still states that life sentence prisoners (and prisoners issued with fixed - term prison sentences) who have been convicted of crimes committed before the Criminal Justice Act 2003 came into force (18 December 2003) are sentenced according to guidelines which existed when the crime was committed.
Murder of a child involving abduction or sexual or sadistic conduct. Any assassination committed to further a religious, political, racial or ideological cause. Murder by a person previously convicted of murder. Murder of a police or prison officer in the execution of their duty (from 13 April 2015).
Murder done for personal gain. Murder to obstruct the course of justice. Murder involving sexual or sadistic conduct. Multiple murder. Racially, sexually, or religiously aggravated murder. Murder committed by a person aged under 21 if it would otherwise deserve a whole life order. (In Griffiths and others v R (2012) the Court of Appeal said that this list is not exhaustive.)
Whole - life orders can not be given to offenders under the age of 21.
The whole life order (formerly a whole life tariff) is a court order whereby a prisoner who is being sentenced to life imprisonment is ordered to serve that sentence without possibility of parole. This order may be made in cases of aggravated murders committed by anyone who was aged 21 or above at the time of the crime. The purpose of a whole life order is for a prisoner to be kept in prison until he or she dies with absolutely no chance of eventual release, although in exceptional circumstances a prisoner can still be released by the Home Secretary on compassionate grounds such as great age or ill health; which has also seen several life sentence prisoners being granted early release a considerable length of time before the date when they could first apply for parole.
A whole life tariff can also be quashed on appeal by the Court of Appeal; a number of prisoners have had their sentences reduced by this method. From 1983, the Home Secretary had the right to decide how long a life sentence prisoner should serve before being considered for parole, and the trial judge was not obliged to recommend when or if an offender should be considered for parole. In some cases, the trial judge had recommended that a life sentence prisoner should at some point be considered for parole, only for the Home Secretary to later impose a whole life tariff; this happened in a number of cases involving prisoners who had been sentenced to life imprisonment before or after 1983.
The question of whether a Home Secretary should have the power to impose whole life tariffs was a controversial one, since a decision to impose such a sanction (or not) could carry political consequences for the Home Secretary and, by extension, the government he served -- as well as a backlash by the national media. Perhaps the most notable example is Myra Hindley, jailed for life in 1966 for her role in the Moors Murders. Her trial judge recommended that she should serve a minimum of 25 years before being considered for parole, However, this was later increased to 30 years and in 1990 to "whole life '' by David Waddington.
The introduction of the government 's tariff - setting procedures in 1983 also came shortly after a number of other high - profile murderers convicted. 1983 was also the year in which Dennis Nilsen was jailed for life for murdering 11 young men whose dismembered bodies were found at the two flats he had rented in North London. Two years earlier, "Yorkshire Ripper '' Peter Sutcliffe had been found guilty of murdering 13 women and attacking seven others in a six - year spree.
In 1976, "Black Panther '' Donald Neilson had been convicted on four charges of murder at the end of a highly publicised trial. All of these murderers were also subjected to a whole life tariff by subsequent Home Secretaries; Neilson remained in prison until his death in 2011, while Nilsen and Sutcliffe both remain imprisoned more than 30 years into their sentences, despite recommendations from their trial judges that they should be considered for parole after 25 and 30 years respectively.
In November 2002, a successful legal challenge by convicted double murderer Anthony Anderson saw the Home Secretary stripped of the final say on how long a life sentence prisoner must serve before parole can be considered, including the right to decide that certain prisoners should never be released. This ruling had been anticipated for several months, and was delivered just days after the death of Myra Hindley, who had been widely expected to gain immediate parole in the event of the Home Secretary being stripped of these sentencing powers.
A year later, the Criminal Justice Act 2003 was passed, which required that the trial judge recommended the minimum number of years to be served (or order that life should mean life) in the case of anyone being sentenced to life imprisonment. As had been the case when the Home Secretary could decide on the minimum length of a life sentence, prisoners were entitled to have their tariff reviewed by the High Court. These prisoners can also appeal to the European Court of Human Rights if their appeals to the High Court are unsuccessful.
In June 1997, the High Court had already stripped the Home Secretary of their powers to decide on minimum terms for life sentence prisoners who were convicted before the age of 18, following a legal challenge by solicitors acting for Robert Thompson and Jon Venables. The pair had been found guilty of murdering Merseyside toddler James Bulger in 1993, when they were 11 years old. The trial judge 's initial recommendation was that they should not be considered for parole for at least eight years. The Lord Chief Justice later ruled that the pair should serve a minimum sentence of 10 years, but following a petition by The Sun newspaper, Home Secretary Michael Howard had ruled during 1994 that the pair should not be released until they had spent at least 15 years in custody.
Opponents on this ruling had argued that this decision had been politically motivated; the murder of James Bulger had been a highly publicised case, the change in the sentence had been announced at a time when the Conservative government was trailing the Labour opposition in the opinion polls (which might have seen a "vote puller '', in a similar vein to the constant changes to Myra Hindley 's sentence), and was perhaps seen as an attempt by The Sun newspaper to regain lost sales on Merseyside, where its circulation had slumped dramatically since its controversial reporting of the Hillsborough disaster (which had claimed the lives of 96 Liverpool fans) five years earlier.
Only the Home Secretary can grant a release to a prisoner sentenced to a whole life tariff or whole life order, on compassionate grounds including great age or ill health. Only four prisoners known or believed to have been issued with a whole life tariff have so far been released from their sentences. Three of them were IRA members who were freed under the Good Friday Agreement in 1999, having spent more than 20 years in prison for terrorist offences including murder. The other was gang member Reggie Kray, who was freed from his life sentence in August 2000 after serving 32 years (two years after the expiry of his original 30 - year minimum term) due to terminal cancer; although the Home Office never confirmed he had been issued with a whole life tariff, his lengthy imprisonment and the fact that he was not paroled when his tariff expired (despite being well into his sixties) helped fuel media speculation that he was among the prisoners who had been issued with a whole life tariff. He died a few weeks after being freed.
Many prisoners have also received minimum sentences which are likely to last for most if not all of their remaining lives, such as child killers Roy Whiting and Ian Huntley, who were both convicted of child murder and received 40 - year minimum terms which mean that they can not apply for parole until they are at least 82 and 68 respectively. Whiting 's trial judge had originally recommended that life should mean life and just before the High Court stripped politicians of their sentencing powers in November 2002, Home Secretary David Blunkett set Whiting 's minimum term at 50 years, which was effectively a whole life tariff as it meant that he could only apply for parole if he lived to be at least 92. This decision was later appealed before the High Court, and the tariff was reduced to a 40 - year minimum term. Huntley murdered two 10 - year - old girls in August 2002, but by the time he was convicted 16 months later, the Home Secretary had been stripped of powers to set minimum terms for life sentence prisoners, and that decision was instead left to the High Court.
Perhaps the most notable prisoner to have been issued with a whole life tariff is Myra Hindley, who was jailed for life in 1966 for her part in the Moors Murders with Ian Brady; she was convicted of two murders and being an accessory in a third murder which Ian Brady was convicted of. Her original 25 - year minimum term was later increased to 30 years in 1985 by Home Secretary Leon Brittan, before his successor David Waddington ruled in 1990 that life should mean life for Hindley. His successors Michael Howard, Jack Straw and David Blunkett agreed with this ruling over the next 11 years.
Between 1997 and 2000, Hindley made three appeals against the ruling that life should mean life in her case, but each was unsuccessful. She remained in prison until her death in November 2002, 36 years after she was jailed. Her campaign for parole was supported by the likes of Lord Longford and David Astor, who claimed that she was a reformed character who had merely acted as Brady 's accomplice under duress, and had completely changed once removed from his influence. However, opinion polls showed that the majority of the British public was opposed to Hindley being paroled, and the tabloid media largely opposed her release as well. Hindley received numerous death threats from members of the public -- including the relatives of some of the Moors Murders victims -- who vowed to kill her if she were ever released from prison. Widespread public and media doubt as to whether Hindley 's remorse was genuine was further fueled by the fact that Hindley did not confess to two more murders until 1986, and further strengthened the belief of those who opposed her attempts to win parole that the reported turnaround in her life while in prison was nothing more than a ploy to boost her chances of parole.
Ian Brady was also told by a succession of Home Secretaries that his life sentence should mean life, but unlike Hindley he never attempted to gain parole, and insisted he never wanted to be released from custody. In 1999, he even made an unsuccessful legal challenge to be allowed to starve himself to death. He died in May 2017 after more than 50 years in prison, and was Britain 's longest - serving prisoner.
Since 2003, the law has provided that whole life orders can not be issued to anyone who was under the age of 21 at the time of their crime, although there had never been a previous case of a whole life tariff being imposed or recommended to someone who committed their crime before the age of 21.
Around 100 prisoners are believed to have been issued with whole life tariffs since the mechanism was first introduced in 1983, although some of them were convicted of their crimes before that date and some of the prisoners known to have been issued with the whole life tariff have since died in prison or had their sentences reduced on appeal.
A number of prisoners who are unlikely to ever be released or have received very long sentences have declared their wish to die; for example, Ian Brady. At least two such inmates have committed suicide in prison, Harold Shipman and Daniel Gonzalez and there have been attempted suicides by such prisoners, including Ian Huntley. A number have since died in prison as a result of ill health, including Brady 's accomplice Myra Hindley and the "Black Panther '' serial murderer and armed robber Donald Neilson.
Whole life sentences have also been criticised in some quarters for giving offenders no incentive to behave well and co-operate with prison staff, or make any serious attempt at rehabilitation. This was highlighted by the case of Robert Mawdsley, jailed for life for a single murder in 1975, who went on to kill three inmates several years into his sentence. In 2016, a second convicted murderer, Victor Castigador, admitted to murdering another prisoner. At least two other such prisoners have seriously wounded other inmates in prison. Shortly after being jailed for life in 2005, spree killer Mark Hobson poured a bucket of boiling water over Ian Huntley and left him scarred for life. In 2012, convicted murderer Gary Vinter admitted slashing Roy Whiting with a sharpened toilet brush handle. Four years later, Vinter admitted the attempted murder of another inmate who was left with a traumatic brain injury and blinded in one eye. Vinter 's lawyer claimed after the second attack that the absence of any likelihood of eventual release from prison had left him with no incentive to co-operate with the prison regime.
Three convicted murderers, Jeremy Bamber, Peter Moore and Douglas Vinter, all murderers who had been sentenced to whole life orders, applied to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, for the court to declare that it is a contravention of the European Convention on Human Rights for someone to be sentenced to lifelong imprisonment. When the initial ruling was delivered in January 2012, the court ruled that because the whole - life orders were imposed by a judge only after consideration of the facts of each case, and because the life prisoners could apply to the Home Secretary for compassionate release, their whole life orders did not breach their human rights.
A later appeal by the same men led to a ruling in July 2013 that there must be a prospect of review of whole - life tariffs within 25 years of the prisoner being sentenced, and that any impossibility of parole would violate their Article 3 rights. By this stage there were at least 49 prisoners serving such sentences in England and Wales.
In February 2014, five judges at the Court of Appeal (ECHR) found the Strasbourg court was incorrect in concluding English and Welsh law never allowed whole life orders to be reduced because the Secretary of State could reduce such orders in "exceptional circumstances '', and that all "whole life '' prisoners would be entitled to a review of their sentence within 25 years of being sentenced. Lord Thomas, current Lord Chief Justice said whole life orders were compatible with the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) in the most appalling cases of murder. Thomas said further, "Judges should therefore continue as they have done to impose whole - life orders in those rare and exceptional cases... In our judgment the law of England and Wales therefore does provide to an offender ' hope ' or the ' possibility ' of release in exceptional circumstances which render the just punishment originally imposed no longer justifiable. ''
In February 2015, the ECHR upheld the lawfulness of whole life orders, on the ground that they can be reviewed in exceptional circumstances, following a fresh challenge by murderer Arthur Hutchinson, who had been sentenced to life imprisonment for a triple murder in Sheffield more than 30 years earlier. Another legal challenge to the court by Hutchinson was rejected in January 2017. A fresh challenge by another "whole life '' prisoner -- Jamie Reynolds, who murdered a teenage girl in Shropshire in 2013 -- is now reportedly pending with the ECHR. By this stage, there were believed to be more than 70 prisoners in England and Wales serving whole life sentences.
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what year did honda goldwing have fuel injection | Honda Gold Wing - wikipedia
The Honda Gold Wing is a series of touring motorcycles manufactured by Honda. Gold Wings feature shaft drive, and a flat engine. Introduced at the Cologne Motorcycle Show in October 1974, the Gold Wing went on to become a popular model in North America, Western Europe and Australia, as well as Japan.
Total sales are more than 640,000, most of them in the U.S. market. Gold Wings were manufactured in Marysville, Ohio from 1980 until 2010, when motorcycle production there was halted. No Gold Wings were produced for the 2011 model year; and production resumed in Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan in 2011 using tooling transported from the USA factory.
The Society of Automotive Engineers of Japan (ja) includes a Honda Gold Wing GL1000 manufactured in 1974 as one of their 240 Landmarks of Japanese Automotive Technology. Through 2012, Honda GL models have appeared eighteen times in the Cycle World list of Ten Best bikes.
Over the course of its production history, the Gold Wing had many design changes. Beginning in 1975 with a 999 cc (61.0 cu in) flat - four engine, by 2001 this had grown to a 1,832 cc (111.8 cu in) flat - six. The 2012 model had anti-lock braking, cruise control, electrically - assisted reverse gear, an optional airbag, a fairing with heating and an adjustable windscreen, panniers and a trunk, a pillion backrest, satnav, and a six - speaker radio / audio system with MP3 / iPod connectivity.
In 1972, following the success of the ground - breaking CB750 superbike, the company assembled an R&D design team to explore concepts for a new flagship motorcycle. The project leader was Shoichiro Irimajiri, who in the 1960s had designed Honda 's multi-cylinder MotoGP engines and their Formula One V12 engine.
Simultaneously, at the 1972 Tokyo show, Honda revealed the CVCC "clean - burn '' car engine, their first production liquid - cooled engine. (Soichiro Honda was allegedly unconvinced that liquid - cooling was superior to air - cooling, but younger engineers eventually prevailed).
The 1974 Gold Wing with its flat - four shaft - drive powertrain used technologies both from earlier motorcycle and automotive designs.
Although preceded by the 1971 water - cooled Suzuki GT750 two - stroke triple, the Gold Wing was the first Japanese production motorcycle with a water - cooled four - stroke engine. The first four - cylinder boxer was produced in 1900.
During its development, the CB750 was known within Honda as their "King of Motorcycles ''; so Honda 's next big thing would be deemed the "King of Kings ''. Honda first envisaged the Gold Wing as a large sport motorcycle, but on learning that customers were "piling miles on touring '', Honda reconsidered the bike 's design objectives, realising that the primary market for the Gold Wing was the long - distance motorcyclist. In North America a motorcycle suitable to that task would need comfort for the long haul, wind protection, a smooth ride, a comfortable seat, luggage storage, and power in abundance.
In American in the early 1970s, long - distance motorcyclists had only a few manufacturers to choose from: Harley - Davidson, Moto Guzzi and BMW. The H-D Electra Glide was a comfortable, high - maintenance and high - vibration bike with a loyal cult following. It faced strong competition from Moto Guzzi 's 850cc Eldorado. BMW motorcycles were smoother and more reliable, if expensive. Other large Japanese bikes, such as the Honda CB750 and the Kawasaki Z1 were cheaper but were not ideal tourers with their small fuel tanks and rear drive - chains needing regular maintenance. The Gold Wing was aimed at a newly - emerging market segment namely, a new kind of American long distance rider not likely to buy a Harley or BMW but who would open their wallets for an affordable machine offering comfort, endurance, low - maintenance and a smooth, torquey, quiet engine.
The Gold Wing 's secondary target market was Europe, where riders prioritised handling and performance over luxury. (The European market 's special demands subsequently led to the Honda Pan European).
In 1972, the project team broke from Honda practice to produce an experimental prototype motorcycle, code - named "M1 ''. Instead of the usual transverse engine layout with a chain final drive, the M1 had a longitudinal engine suitable for shaft drive. The M1 had a 1470cc liquid - cooled flat - six engine, (twice the displacement of the CB750). Instead of seeking high performance (as some engineers had wanted) the M1 engine was designed to have a broad torque output and to produce 80 horsepower (60 kW) at 6700 rpm, with a top speed of 220 kilometres per hour (140 mph).
The brainstorming team 's M1 project was never intended as a production prototype. Nonetheless, the M1 should be seen as the primordial Gold Wing because so many of its distinctive features appeared on the GL1000. The flat - six gave the M1 a low center of gravity, enhancing stability, but the extreme length of the engine / gearbox unit resulted in a cramped riding position. Instead, the project team chose to build a bike with a compact one liter flat - four engine. This bike was code - named "Project 371 '', and Toshio Nozue (who had worked on CB750 development) took over from Irimajiri as project leader.
The Project 371 team finally settled on a layout that became the characteristic Gold Wing: a liquid - cooled flat - four SOHC engine, with a gear - driven generator that contra - rotated to counteract the engine 's torque reaction. Cylinder blocks and crankcase were integral, with the transmission situated beneath the crankcase to keep the unit construction engine as short as possible. Final drive was by shaft.
Before going on sale in the US and in Europe in 1975, the Gold Wing was revealed to dealers in September 1974 at American Honda 's annual dealer meeting in Las Vegas, and then shown to the public the following month at the IFMA (International Bicycle and Motorcycle Exhibition; today Intermot) in Cologne.
Small fairings had been mounted on two of the show models at the US dealer show in Las Vegas. These Honda - designed fairings were to be manufactured in the US by the Vetter Fairing Company and sold as Hondaline accessories; but they never went into production after the molds were accidentally destroyed. Consequently, the Gold Wing was born into the world naked, lacking saddlebags and having no place for luggage, without even a windshield. This created a golden opportunity for accessory manufacturers, who quickly offered a range of fairings and luggage accessories, particularly the Craig Vetter Windjammer series.
The original 999 cubic centimetres (61.0 cu in) GL1000 (designated K0) had an electric starter backed up by a kick start lever stored inside a dummy fuel tank, which also housed the radiator expansion tank, electrical components, as well as the air filter supplying four Keihin 32 mm CV carburetors. The real fuel tank was under the seat, in order to keep the center of mass as low as possible. The bike had a dry weight of 584 pounds (265 kg). 13,000 Gold Wings were sold in the United States in 1975.
There were no significant changes in the standard Gold Wing for 1976 (the K1 model). To mark the United States Bicentennial year Honda announced the GL1000 LTD with distinctive insignia and color scheme (e.g., gold stripes, gold wheels) plus some extra amenities. The LTD was a genuine limited edition with production restricted to about 2,000 units.
In the third model year (K2) Honda began refining the Gold Wing, although the changes for 1977 were small, such as exhaust pipe heat shields, revised seat and handlebar, as well as a new fuel gauge. Weight increased to 595 pounds (270 kg). The motorcycle division of Honda UK produced 52 Executive GL1000 K1 bikes by adding premium accessories to 1977 Gold Wings.
The engine was modified in 1978 for the GL1000 K3 model, in order to make more torque available at lower engine speeds; the carburetors were reduced in size by 1 mm, the exhaust system was redesigned, valve timing and ignition timing were altered. The kick - start mechanism was removed from the engine, and a reserve lighting module for the headlight and taillight (automatically switching to the second filament when one burns out) was removed from the electrics. A small instrument panel appeared on top of a restyled dummy fuel tank. Wire - spoke wheels were replaced with Honda 's new ComStar wheels, but the existing tires with inner tubes remained. Dry weight grew to 601 pounds (273 kg).
1979 marked the end of GL1000 development with the K4 model (the UK version was designated KZ). Dry weight increased slightly to 604 pounds (274 kg). for the last Gold Wing to be powered by a one - liter engine. There were only minor changes for this model year, except for the ComStar wheels; new ComStars had stronger steel spokes on aluminum rims instead of the original aluminum spoked wheels that precipitated a 1979 recall (for the 1978 model year). During the final run of the GL1000 in 1979, Hondaline saddlebags and trunk were available, but Honda still did not offer a fairing.
Honda sold more than 97,000 units of the GL1000 in the United States between 1975 and 1979.
After five years of the GL1000, the second - generation Gold Wing was released in 1979 as a 1980 model, and the GL1100 would be continued through the 1983 model year. The GL1100 was manufactured in Japan until May 1980 when Honda started building 1981 models at the Marysville Motorcycle Plant in Ohio (which had been making frames and parts for various models since 1974). Gold Wings would be built at a rate of 150 units a day for the years 1981 -- 1983. Engines were still being built in Japan, but Honda began to market the machine as being made in America.
The Gold Wing faced competition from Japan in the form of the Suzuki GS1000 with an inline - four engine, and especially in the Kawasaki Z1300 that had a massive DOHC 1300cc straight - six engine with water cooling. Honda responded by increasing the displacement of the Gold Wing, and then followed - up by announcing the first Japanese full - dress tourer. The new engine was more than just a GL1000 with a 3 mm larger bore, the alterations clearly emphasized torque over horsepower. The cylinder heads were modified to improve combustion at low and middle engine speeds, transmission gear ratios were changed and the final drive ratio shortened to make more torque available at highway speeds. The bore size for all four carburetors was again reduced by 1 mm, to 30 mm.
The wheelbase was lengthened over that of the GL1000, and air suspension was added. The GL1100 had an adjustable seat, and for the first time used tubeless tires, mounted on black reverse ComStar wheels. The naked Gold Wing, which would become known as the Standard model, weighed 589 pounds (267 kg) dry. In spite of the fact that here were only minor changes to differentiate the GL1100 ' 81 edition from the previous year.
All the 1982 Gold Wings had transmission ratios revised (again) to lower engine rpm at cruising speeds, new brakes with twin - piston calipers and wider tires on smaller wheels. Dry weight for the GL1100 ' 82 was 595 pounds (270 kg).
Transmission gear ratios were revised yet again for the 1983 Gold Wings to lessen engine speed on the highway. But the significant changes were not to the engine, they were to the running gear in this last year for GL1100s. Cast aluminum eleven - spoke wheels replaced the ComStars. The front suspension was endowed with TRAC anti-dive forks with an integrated fork brace, and the rear suspension worked even with no air pressure. Honda 's first combined braking system, dubbed Unified Braking at the time, debuted in 1983; it engaged both front and rear brakes in unison when the brake pedal was applied. Dry weight for the standard GL1100 inched up to 599 pounds (272 kg).
Honda went beyond the mechanical makeover of the naked Gold Wing in March 1980 by releasing the first Japanese turn - key tourer, the Interstate model (GL1100I) with a factory - installed full fairing, saddlebags and a removable trunk, plus a long list of optional extras including a stereo system. This bike was called the De Luxe model (GL1100DX) in some markets. The fairing was designed to protect both the rider and a passenger from the wind. Likewise, the saddlebags and trunk were intended to carry the baggage of two people. This made the Interstate significantly heavier than the standard model, with a dry weight of 672 pounds (305 kg). The almost identical Interstate model was made for 1981.
The GL1100I ' 82 model offered more options, such as a new stereo, a 40 - channel CB transceiver, and an on - board compressor to adjust the suspension air pressure. Dry weight was 679 pounds (308 kg).
The GL1100I ' 83 received the engine and running gear updates of the standard model; dry weight increased to 686 pounds (311 kg).
Starting in 1982, Honda offered three different Gold Wing models. With the introduction of the Aspencade (GL1100A) Honda took the full - dress tourer to a new level of luxury, with a larger seat, two - tone paint and more storage compartments, together with many options from the Interstate that were being included as standard. All three brake disks on the GL1100A were internally ventilated. The additional items jacked up the dry weight to 702 pounds (318 kg).
The GL1100A ' 83 received the same engine and running gear updates of the other models. The Aspencade also got new front and rear brakes, with internally ventilated front discs (only), as well as a digital LCD instrument panel and some additional amenities for rider and passenger. Weight went up just a bit to 707 pounds (321 kg).
In 1983 Honda was facing a challenge in the marketplace from a new full - dress tourer, the Yamaha Venture XVZ 1200 with its DOHC four valve per cylinder V4 engine (as Yamaha 's XS Eleven Venturer had challenged the GL1100 two years earlier). Honda hit back at the Milan motorcycle show late that year by announcing a new 1984 Gold Wing that pushed its four - cylinder engine design to its limits. The bored and stroked boxer produced more power and torque; a new final drive ratio gave the GL1200 taller gearing in order to reduce noise and vibration. The four Keihin 32 mm CV carburetors were larger than those on the GL1100 engine, on the other hand, they were the same size as the ' 75 -- ' 76 GL1000 carbs. Incorporating hydraulic actuation for the clutch, in addition to hydraulic tappets for the valves, made the new engine virtually maintenance - free. In order to make the Gold Wing more nimble, front and rear wheel diameters contracted (and tire widths expanded) one more time. The GL1200 was built on a new, stronger frame and despite all the improvements, the claimed dry weight of the naked bike remained unchanged at 599 pounds (272 kg) for the 1984 model year.
1984 was the one and only year for the GL1200 Standard (which was not exported to Europe) for the reason that sales had decreased in favor of the Interstate and Aspencade models. This led to the decline of aftermarket manufacturers such as the Vetter Fairing Company.
The GL1200 's competitors were becoming more numerous. Last of the big Japanese manufacturers to do so, Suzuki finally entered the marketplace in 1985 with their full - dress tourer, the GV1400 Cavalcade with a DOHC, four valves per cylinder, V4 engine. In 1986 Yamaha enlarged the Venture 's V4 engine to 1300cc, and Kawasaki introduced the ZG 1200 Voyager XII with a four - valve, DOHC, Inline - four engine.
With three versions of the Gold Wing boxer motor spanning a dozen years, by 1987 further development of the flat - four engine was regarded as being constrained by the law of diminishing returns. Piston displacement had been increased twice to generate more torque, but this also made each power stroke more intense. During the same time period, gear ratios had been raised to decrease engine RPM (boosting fuel economy and reducing vibration as well as noise levels) which in turn made pulses through the drivetrain seem rougher to the rider because firing intervals were farther apart. The obvious way to deliver power more smoothly (as Irimajiri - san had demonstrated with the M1 engine) was to step up from four cylinders to six.
Having introduced the full - dress Interstate with the GL1100, Honda used the GL1200I ' 84 to refine the Gold Wing 's fairing so that it would come across as a basic part of the bike and not as an afterthought. The new model Interstate (still called De Luxe in Europe) had an automotive - style instrument panel up front and increased luggage capacity in back: 38 liters (1.3 cu ft) in each saddlebag plus another 63 liters (2.2 cu ft) in the trunk. Dry weight for the 1984 Interstate was 697 pounds (316 kg).
Despite giving the Gold Wing taller gearing the year before, in 1985 Honda shortened the overall gearing to improve performance. There were many small changes to the GL1200I ' 85 but atypically its price was the same as it was the previous year, and at 699 pounds (317 kg) its weight was basically stable.
The GL1200I ' 86 got more small updates, but the significant change was that all Gold Wing engines were being produced in Honda 's Anna, Ohio plant from July 1985. Claimed dry weight for the 1986 Interstate was unchanged. The GL1200I ' 87 got a new seat design with three - stage foam; the weight was unchanged for 1987, the last year of the four - cylinder Gold Wing Interstate.
The GL1200A ' 84 had all the features of the GL1200I, plus a new Panasonic audio system that combined AM / FM radio, cassette player and an intercom between the rider and passenger. Unlike the analog instruments of the Interstate, the Aspencade had a dashboard with an LCD digital display. The GL1200A also had foot boards for the passenger instead of footpegs. Claimed dry weight for the 1984 Aspencade was 723 pounds (328 kg). The price was unchanged for 1985, and the Aspencade received the same updates as the Interstate model for that year. Dry weight for the Aspencade was 728 pounds (330 kg) in both ' 85 and ' 86.
In 1986 Dolby noise reduction was added to the audio system, which was replaced with an improved Panasonic system in 1987. In its final year, the GL1200A got the same seat upgrade as the GL1200I ' 87 model and some amenities that had been optional were made standard, increasing the dry weight of the Aspencade to 743 pounds (337 kg).
In 1985 Honda marked the tenth anniversary of the Gold Wing by launching a gold - painted Limited Edition model (GL1200L) luxuriously equipped with cruise control, auto - leveling rear suspension, an electronic trip computer and a four - speaker audio system. The significant development was that the GL1200L was furnished with Honda 's programmed fuel injection system, previously used on the turbocharged CX500T and CX650T (variants of the GL500 and GL650 Silver Wing). Also known as the LTD, 5372 units were built and sold only in North America. Claimed dry weight for the GL1200L was 782 pounds (355 kg).
To a limited extent, the Limited Edition turned out to be a sham when the SE - i (Special Edition -- injected) debuted in 1986, as essentially a repainted GL1200L. The SE - i had the same Dolby audio system as the GL1200A ' 86 and was only available in the US. This was the only year for the SE - i because the high cost of the fuel injection system forced Honda to return to carburetors for 1987.
A new design team began work on the fourth - generation Gold Wing in 1984. Honda describes prototype testing as involving sixty developmental stages, and building fifteen different test bikes, including one made from a GL1200 frame coupled with the original M1 engine so that a six - cylinder could be compared to a four - cylinder head - on. This early ' 70s prototype had an influence far beyond what the M1 's initial designers could have expected.
New Gold Wing engine design goals were smoothness, quietness and enormous power. Ultimately, a redesigned Gold Wing made its debut at the 1987 Cologne Motorcycle Show, 13 years after the original GL1000 was first shown to the public at the same venue, and the GL1500 brought the most changes seen to the Gold Wing series since its inception. The biggest difference was that the flat - four engine was replaced with a flat - six engine. Although the GL1500 still used carburetors, there were just two large 36 mm CV Keihins supplying all six cylinders, the first time any Gold Wing had less than one carb per cylinder.
Honda also enclosed the entire motorcycle in plastic, giving it a seamless appearance. The seat height was lowest yet on a Gold Wing, the passenger back rest and trunk were integrated, and a central mechanism locked the trunk lid and saddlebags. Rear suspension air pressure was adjusted by an on - board compressor. One major innovation was the addition of a "reverse gear '', which was actually a creative use of the electric starter motor linked to the transmission. Because of the size and weight, Honda felt that some people would have problems backing it up.
The new Gold Wing had grown in nearly every dimension. A larger windshield, longer wheelbase, two more cylinders, more horsepower, more bodywork, more electronics, more accessories and more mass: 794 pounds (360 kg) dry. Options include a passenger audio control and rear speakers, CB radio, auxiliary lights and exterior trim. In another first for the GL1500, 1988 was the year Honda exported Gold Wings from the US to Japan for the first time.
For 1989 Honda modified the brake discs, and raised the price. Brake discs were modified again in 1990, as were the carbs and camshafts, without a price increase. The claimed GL1500 dry weight for ' 90 was 798 pounds (362 kg). In addition, a Gold Wing 15th Anniversary Special Edition model (GL1500SE) made its debut in 1990.
The following year, to celebrate the 10th Anniversary of American - made Gold Wings, every bike produced for 1991 came with a numbered plaque and anniversary edition insignia. There were three ' 91 models: Aspencade indicated the regular GL1500 model; the luxurious Special Edition from the year before carried on as the SE model; and the Interstate name denoted a stripped - down model.
When the Honda of America Manufacturing (HAM) plant in Marysville, Ohio produced its 500,000 th vehicle in 1991, it was a Gold Wing Aspencade. The claimed dry weight for the GL1500A ' 91 was 800 pounds (360 kg). Honda began offering extra cost paint options, and Honda Canada inaugurated Canadian Edition Gold Wings in ' 92.
Beginning in 1993, all GL1500 rocker arms pivoted on needle bearings, and the cruise control was updated to directly read crankshaft speed for enhanced precision. 1994 was the seventh year of GL1500 production (longer than any of its forerunners) and nothing significant changed except the asking price.
1995 was the 20th Anniversary of the Gold Wing. American Honda published a special hard - cover book Gold Wing: The First 20 Years (Twentieth Anniversary Edition). All 1995 models got commemorative emblems, cosmetic changes, a thinner and narrower seat and suspension improvements which reduced ground clearance, contributing to an even lower seat height (offsetting the weight gain). The GL1500A was at its heaviest in ' 95; the claimed dry weight would stay at 802 pounds (364 kg) until the end of this model.
The 1996 Aspencade received an upmarket audio system that had been exclusive to the GL1500SE. Yet another milestone was reached in mid-1996 when a Gold Wing Aspencade was the millionth Honda motorcycle made in America to roll off the assembly line at the Marysville Motorcycle Plant. The GL1500 family got bigger when Honda created the first GL1500C Valkyrie in May 1996 (for the 1997 model year). The Valkyrie was the first naked GL since 1984.
1997 GL1500s received engine, transmission and final drive improvements first introduced on the GL1500C. A 1998 Gold Wing styling makeover extended to the engine with redesigned valve covers, but no price increase. Honda commemorated 50 years in America by adding 50th Anniversary emblems to all 1999 Gold Wings; the GL1500A ' 99 price increased. The 2000 Gold Wings had chrome - plated valve covers, Canadian and American models also had gold - plated 25th Anniversary emblems marking 25 years since the first GL1000 debuted for the 1975 model year.
The 2000 model was the last GL1500 Aspencade model. A complete redesign of the Marysville Motorcycle Plant began In January 2000 to build the next Gold Wing, and stories soon came out in the motorcycle press that the Gold Wing itself was being redesigned. The GL1500 had been in production for 13 model years, which was as long as all of the four - cylinder Gold Wings combined; moreover, GL1500 engine continued to be used in the Valkyrie through the 2003 model year.
The original 15th Anniversary Special Edition model had a vented windshield, additional lights, upgraded sound system, two - tone paint with special insignia, adjustable passenger floorboards and adjustable foot pegs as well as foot heaters for the rider. In 1990 It had a weight of 807 pounds (366 kg) dry. The GL1500SE ' 91 was essentially unchanged, though weight and price were up a bit at 809 pounds (367 kg).
Hitherto optional rear speakers and CB radio became standard on the GL1500SE ' 93; boosting both its weight -- 813 pounds (369 kg).
The GL1500SE ' 97 had powertrain updates. Honda marked its 50th Anniversary in 1999 without a GL1500SE price increase, and the American - made GL1500SE ' 99 that was exported to Japan got a two - tone paint job. More significantly, the export model got an exhaust air - injection system along with carburetor modifications in order to pass Japan 's new emission regulations.
The 25th Anniversary GL1500SE in 2000 had a claimed dry weight from 1995 to 2000 was 816 pounds (370 kg).
The GL1500I ' 91 model had its weight and price cut by eliminating the reverse gear, cruise - control, the passenger footboards, and by replacing the audio system with a small Kenwood radio. The seat was lowered by 0.8 inches (20 mm). Claimed dry weight for the 1991 Interstate was 760 pounds (340 kg). In 1992 the Kenwood radio was, in turn, replaced by a new Panasonic 25 - watt - per - channel sound system with intercom. Weight for the GL1500I ' 92 rose slightly to 767 pounds (348 kg).
As with the other 20th Anniversary models, the cost of a GL1500I ' 95 jumped. The last GL1500I was the 1996 model. Claimed dry weight for ' 95 and ' 96 was 769 pounds (349 kg). The Interstate model was discontinued, replaced in 1997 by the Valkyrie Tourer (GL1500CT) as well as the 1999 Valkyrie Interstate (GL1500CF).
The first new model for 13 years, the 2001 GL1800 had a larger 1,832 cc (111.8 cu in) engine with fuel injection, and a power increase from 74 kW (99 bhp) to 87 kW (117 bhp). The GL1800 's extruded aluminium frame, comprising 31 elements (barely half the GL1500 's number) resulted in an overall weight decrease. Options included ABS braking.
The 2006 model had further options: an airbag, in - dash GPS called Internavi, with audio information provided through the speakers and headset cables, plus a rider "comfort package '' comprising saddle heating, heated grips, and adjustable engine - air vents ahead of the driver 's foot pegs.
The 2010 model year was the last to be produced in the United States, and no 2011 model year Gold Wings were produced while manufacturing was transferred to Japan in 2012. Some retailers and aftermarket traders group all GL1800 models into two categories: US made GL1800s (2001 -- 2010) are "1st Generation '', and Japanese - built GL1800 's (2012 - 2013) are "2nd Generation ''.
2nd Gen GL1800 had minor updates: restyled bodywork made the fairing and saddlebags seem less bulbous, despite being more capacious. A revised fairing gave better protection to the rider 's legs, with vents channelling warm engine air onto the rider 's feet. The trunk, fairing pockets and saddlebags gave a storage capacity of 150 litres (5.3 cu ft). The instrument display has a brighter screen, an updated satellite navigation / radio, and a revised six - speaker audio system with MP3 and iPod connectivity.
For its 6th generation in 2018 Honda produced a completely redesigned Gold Wing. The new model has a new four - valve engine and is available in two versions: the standard Gold Wing (replacing F6B bagger) and the "top trunk '' Gold Wing Tour. Sportier in appearance, technologically more advanced, and more compact, the 2018 Gold Wing is 41 kg (90 lb) lighter than before. Its new robotically - welded frame has a double wishbone front suspension, resembling the Duolever from BMW. New features include throttle by wire, four ride modes, traction control, LED lighting, and (on the Tour model) electronically adjustable suspension. Options include automatic dual clutch transmission with a forward and reverse "walking mode ''.
In 1997 Honda brought back an incarnation of the "Standard Gold Wing, '' renamed the Valkyrie in the US, and called F6C in the rest of the world. It had a higher performance engine, based on the GL1500, in a cruiser - style frame. The Valkyrie Tourer version had a windshield and saddlebags. A more touring - oriented version was introduced in 1999 as the Valkyrie Interstate with a full fairing, saddlebags and trunk.
These models were dropped due to slow sales, leaving the standard Valkyrie, which was discontinued after the 2003 model year. In 2004 Honda released a "Limited Edition '' model, the Valkyrie Rune, complete with 1,832 cc (111.8 cu in) engine and unique styling.
The Valkyrie engine is based on the Gold Wing engine, but has solid lifters instead of hydraulic lifters, six carburetors instead of the Goldwing 's two (carbs ≤ 2000, FI ≥ 2001), more aggressive camshafts, a free flowing exhaust, and altered ignition timing to increase performance.
At the 2013 Tokyo Motor Show, Honda revealed a new naked version of the GL1800, the 2014 Valkyrie, using the same 1832cc six - cylinder engine as the Gold Wing but weighing 70 kg (150 lb) less. The new Valkyrie has increased rake and trail, front and rear suspension revised for the reduced weight, 50 / 50 weight distribution and large tires after the fashion of sport - bikes. Going beyond the naked bike genre, the Valkyrie 's horsepower - to - weight ratio puts it clearly into the muscle bike class.
In 2013, Honda brought out a new variation on the traditional Gold Wing, itself being available in two models, The F6B and F6B Deluxe. The F6B is basically a greatly stripped down version of the ' standard ' Gold Wing with most of the chrome trim being ' blacked out ', giving the F6B a look that should appeal to many cruiser buyers. It is affectionately known as the Bagger. The rear trunk has been eliminated and the windshield is much smaller. The seat is changed for both the passenger and the rider with the most obvious difference being that the passenger no longer has the oversize backrest -- a result of the removal of the trunk. The F6B Deluxe does, however, come with a small passenger backrest as standard equipment. The basic design is, otherwise, the same as the full blown Gold Wing except that there is no reverse gear and early models did not have cruise control. For 2018 this model is now just called the standard Gold Wing.
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who was the man in gone with the wind | Gone with the Wind (film) - wikipedia
Gone with the Wind is a 1939 American epic historical romance film adapted from Margaret Mitchell 's 1936 novel of the same name. The film was produced by David O. Selznick of Selznick International Pictures and directed by Victor Fleming. Set in the American South against the backdrop of the American Civil War and Reconstruction era, the film tells the story of Scarlett O'Hara, the strong - willed daughter of a Georgia plantation owner, from her romantic pursuit of Ashley Wilkes, who is married to his cousin, Melanie Hamilton, to her marriage to Rhett Butler. The leading roles are portrayed by Vivien Leigh (Scarlett), Clark Gable (Rhett), Leslie Howard (Ashley), and Olivia de Havilland (Melanie).
Production was difficult from the start. Filming was delayed for two years due to Selznick 's determination to secure Gable for the role of Rhett Butler, and the "search for Scarlett '' led to 1,400 women being interviewed for the part. The original screenplay was written by Sidney Howard, but underwent many revisions by several writers in an attempt to get it down to a suitable length. The original director, George Cukor, was fired shortly after filming had begun and was replaced by Fleming, who in turn was briefly replaced by Sam Wood while Fleming took some time off due to exhaustion.
The film received positive reviews upon its release in December 1939, although some reviewers found it overlong. The casting was widely praised and many reviewers found Leigh especially suited to her role as Scarlett. At the 12th Academy Awards, it received ten Academy Awards (eight competitive, two honorary) from thirteen nominations, including wins for Best Picture, Best Director (Fleming), Best Adapted Screenplay (posthumously awarded to Sidney Howard), Best Actress (Leigh), and Best Supporting Actress (Hattie McDaniel, becoming the first African - American to win an Academy Award). It set records for the total number of wins and nominations at the time. The film was immensely popular, becoming the highest - earning film made up to that point, and retained the record for over a quarter of a century. When adjusted for monetary inflation, it is still the most successful film in box - office history.
Gone with the Wind has been criticized as historical revisionism glorifying slavery, but nevertheless, it has been credited for triggering changes to the way African - Americans are depicted cinematically. It was re-released periodically throughout the 20th century and became ingrained in popular culture. The film is regarded as one of the greatest films of all time; it has placed in the top ten of the American Film Institute 's list of top 100 American films since the list 's inception in 1998, and in 1989, the United States Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry.
On the eve of the American Civil War in 1861, Scarlett O'Hara lives at Tara, her family 's cotton plantation in Georgia, with her parents and two sisters. Scarlett learns that Ashley Wilkes -- whom she secretly loves -- is to be married to his cousin, Melanie Hamilton, and the engagement is to be announced the next day at a barbecue at Ashley 's home, the nearby plantation Twelve Oaks.
At the Twelve Oaks party, Scarlett privately declares her feelings to Ashley, but he rebuffs her by responding that he and Melanie are more compatible. Scarlett is incensed when she discovers another guest, Rhett Butler, has overheard their conversation. The barbecue is disrupted by the declaration of war and the men rush to enlist. As Scarlett watches Ashley kiss Melanie goodbye, Melanie 's younger brother Charles proposes to her. Although she does not love him, Scarlett consents and they are married before he leaves to fight.
Scarlett is widowed when Charles dies from a bout of pneumonia and measles while serving in the Confederate Army. Scarlett 's mother sends her to the Hamilton home in Atlanta to cheer her up, although the O'Haras ' outspoken housemaid Mammy tells Scarlett she knows she is going there only to wait for Ashley 's return. Scarlett, who should not attend a party while in mourning, attends a charity bazaar in Atlanta with Melanie where she meets Rhett again, now a blockade runner for the Confederacy. Celebrating a Confederate victory and to raise money for the Confederate war effort, gentlemen are invited to bid for ladies to dance with them. Rhett makes an inordinately large bid for Scarlett and, to the disapproval of the guests, she agrees to dance with him.
The tide of war turns against the Confederacy after the Battle of Gettysburg in which many of the men of Scarlett 's town are killed. Scarlett makes another unsuccessful appeal to Ashley while he is visiting on Christmas furlough, although they do share a private and passionate kiss in the parlor on Christmas Day, just before he returns to war.
Eight months later, as the city is besieged by the Union Army in the Atlanta Campaign, Scarlett and her young house servant Prissy must deliver Melanie 's baby without medical assistance after she goes into premature labor. Afterwards, Scarlett calls upon Rhett to take her home to Tara with Melanie, her baby, and Prissy; he collects them in a horse and wagon, but once out of the city chooses to go off to fight, leaving Scarlett and the group to make their own way back to Tara. Upon her return home, Scarlett finds Tara deserted, except for her father, her sisters, and two former slaves: Mammy and Pork. Scarlett learns that her mother has just died of typhoid fever and her father has become incompetent. With Tara pillaged by Union troops and the fields untended, Scarlett vows she will do anything for the survival of her family and herself.
As the O'Haras work in the cotton fields, Scarlett 's father is killed after he is thrown from his horse in an attempt to chase away a scalawag from his land. With the defeat of the Confederacy Ashley also returns, but finds he is of little help at Tara. When Scarlett begs him to run away with her, he confesses his desire for her and kisses her passionately, but says he can not leave Melanie. Unable to pay the taxes on Tara implemented by Reconstructionists, Scarlett dupes her younger sister Suellen 's fiancé, the middle - aged and wealthy mill owner Frank Kennedy, into marrying her, by saying Suellen got tired of waiting and married another beau.
Frank, Ashley, Rhett and several other accomplices make a night raid on a shanty town after Scarlett is attacked while driving through it alone, resulting in Frank 's death. With Frank 's funeral barely over, Rhett proposes to Scarlett and she accepts. They have a daughter whom Rhett names Bonnie Blue, but Scarlett, still pining for Ashley and chagrined at the perceived ruin of her figure, lets Rhett know that she wants no more children and that they will no longer share a bed.
One day at Frank 's mill, Scarlett and Ashley are seen embracing by Ashley 's sister, India, and harboring an intense dislike of Scarlett she eagerly spreads rumors. Later that evening, Rhett, having heard the rumors, forces Scarlett to attend a birthday party for Ashley; incapable of believing anything bad of her beloved sister - in - law, Melanie stands by Scarlett 's side so that all know that she believes the gossip to be false. After returning home from the party, Scarlett finds Rhett downstairs drunk, and they argue about Ashley. Rhett kisses Scarlett against her will, stating his intent to have sex with her that night, and carries the struggling Scarlett to the bedroom. The next day, Rhett apologizes for his behavior and offers Scarlett a divorce, which she rejects, saying that it would be a disgrace. When Rhett returns from an extended trip to London, Scarlett informs him that she is pregnant, but an argument ensues which results in her falling down a flight of stairs and suffering a miscarriage. As she is recovering, tragedy strikes when Bonnie dies while attempting to jump a fence with her pony.
Scarlett and Rhett visit Melanie, who has suffered complications arising from a new pregnancy, on her deathbed. As Scarlett consoles Ashley, Rhett returns to their home in Atlanta; realizing that Ashley only ever truly loved Melanie, Scarlett dashes after Rhett to find him preparing to leave for good. She pleads with him, telling him she realizes now that she has loved him all along and that she never really loved Ashley, but Rhett says that with Bonnie 's death went any chance of reconciliation. Scarlett begs him to stay but Rhett rebuffs her and walks out the door and into the early morning fog, leaving her weeping on the staircase and vowing to one day win back his love.
Despite receiving top - billing in the opening credits, Gable -- along with Leigh, Howard, and de Havilland who receive second, third and fourth billing respectively -- has a relatively low placing in the cast list, due to its unusual structure. Rather than ordered by conventional billing, the cast is broken down into three sections: the Tara plantation, Twelve Oaks, and Atlanta. The cast 's names are ordered according to the social rank of the characters; therefore Thomas Mitchell, who plays Gerald O'Hara, leads the cast list as the head of the O'Hara family, while Barbara O'Neil as his wife receives the second credit and Vivien Leigh as the eldest daughter the third credit, despite having the most screen time. Similarly, Howard C. Hickman as John Wilkes is credited over Leslie Howard who plays his son, and Clark Gable, who plays only a visitor at Twelve Oaks, receives a relatively low credit in the cast list, despite being presented as the "star '' of the film in all the promotional literature. Following the death of Mary Anderson -- who played Maybelle Merriwether -- in April 2014, there are only two surviving credited cast members from the film: Olivia de Havilland who played Melanie Wilkes and Mickey Kuhn, who played her son Beau Wilkes.
Before publication of the novel, several Hollywood executives and studios declined to create a film based on it, including Louis B. Mayer and Irving Thalberg at Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer (MGM), Pandro Berman at RKO Pictures, and David O. Selznick of Selznick International Pictures. Jack L. Warner liked the story, but Warner Bros. 's biggest star Bette Davis was uninterested, and Darryl Zanuck of 20th Century - Fox did not offer enough money. Selznick changed his mind after his story editor Kay Brown and business partner John Hay Whitney urged him to buy the film rights. In July 1936 -- a month after it was published -- Selznick bought the rights for $50,000.
The casting of the two lead roles became a complex, two - year endeavor. For the role of Rhett Butler, Selznick wanted Clark Gable from the start, but Gable was under contract to MGM, who never loaned him to other studios. Gary Cooper was considered, but Samuel Goldwyn -- to whom Cooper was under contract -- refused to loan him out. Warner offered a package of Bette Davis, Errol Flynn, and Olivia de Havilland for lead roles in return for the distribution rights. By this time, Selznick was determined to get Gable and eventually struck a deal with MGM. Selznick 's father - in - law, MGM chief Louis B. Mayer, offered in August 1938 to provide Gable and $1,250,000 for half of the film 's budget but for a high price: Selznick would have to pay Gable 's weekly salary, and half the profits would go to MGM while Loew 's, Inc -- MGM 's parent company -- would release the film.
The arrangement to release through MGM meant delaying the start of production until the end of 1938, when Selznick 's distribution deal with United Artists concluded. Selznick used the delay to continue to revise the script and, more importantly, build publicity for the film by searching for the role of Scarlett. Selznick began a nationwide casting call that interviewed 1,400 unknowns. The effort cost $100,000 and was useless for the film, but created "priceless '' publicity. Early frontrunners included Miriam Hopkins and Tallulah Bankhead, who were regarded as possibilities by Selznick prior to the purchase of the film rights; Joan Crawford, who was signed to MGM, was also considered as a potential pairing with Gable. After a deal was struck with MGM, Selznick held discussions with Norma Shearer -- who was MGM 's top female star at the time -- but she withdrew herself from consideration. Katharine Hepburn lobbied hard for the role with the support of her friend, George Cukor, who had been hired to direct, but she was vetoed by Selznick who felt she was not right for the part.
Many famous -- or soon - to - be-famous -- actresses were considered, but only thirty - one women were actually screen - tested for Scarlett including Ardis Ankerson, Jean Arthur, Tallulah Bankhead, Diana Barrymore, Joan Bennett, Nancy Coleman, Frances Dee, Ellen Drew (as Terry Ray), Paulette Goddard, Susan Hayward (under her real name of Edythe Marrenner), Vivien Leigh, Anita Louise, Haila Stoddard, Margaret Tallichet, Lana Turner and Linda Watkins. Although Margaret Mitchell refused to publicly name her choice, the actress who came closest to winning her approval was Miriam Hopkins, who Mitchell felt was just the right type of actress to play Scarlett as written in the book. However, Hopkins was in her mid-thirties at the time and was considered too old for the part. Four actresses, including Jean Arthur and Joan Bennett, were still under consideration by December 1938; however, only two finalists, Paulette Goddard and Vivien Leigh, were tested in Technicolor, both on December 20. Goddard almost won the role, but controversy over her marriage with Charlie Chaplin caused Selznick to change his mind.
Selznick had been quietly considering Vivien Leigh, a young English actress who was still little known in America, for the role of Scarlett since February 1938 when Selznick saw her in Fire Over England and A Yank at Oxford. Leigh 's American agent was the London representative of the Myron Selznick talent agency (headed by David Selznick 's brother, one of the owners of Selznick International), and she had requested in February that her name be submitted for consideration as Scarlett. By the summer of 1938 the Selznicks were negotiating with Alexander Korda, to whom Leigh was under contract, for her services later that year. Selznick 's brother arranged for them to meet for the first time on the night of December 10, 1938, when the burning of Atlanta was filmed. In a letter to his wife two days later, Selznick admitted that Leigh was "the Scarlett dark horse '', and after a series of screen tests, her casting was announced on January 13, 1939. Just before the shooting of the film, Selznick informed newspaper columnist Ed Sullivan: "Scarlett O'Hara's parents were French and Irish. Identically, Miss Leigh 's parents are French and Irish. ''
Of original screenplay writer Sidney Howard, film historian Joanne Yeck writes, "reducing the intricacies of Gone with the Wind 's epic dimensions was a herculean task... and Howard 's first submission was far too long, and would have required at least six hours of film;... (producer) Selznick wanted Howard to remain on the set to make revisions... but Howard refused to leave New England (and) as a result, revisions were handled by a host of local writers ''. Selznick dismissed director George Cukor three weeks into filming and sought out Victor Fleming, who was directing The Wizard of Oz at the time. Fleming was dissatisfied with the script, so Selznick brought in famed writer Ben Hecht to rewrite the entire screenplay within five days. Hecht returned to Howard 's original draft and by the end of the week had succeeded in revising the entire first half of the script. Selznick undertook rewriting the second half himself but fell behind schedule, so Howard returned to work on the script for one week, reworking several key scenes in part two.
"By the time of the film 's release in 1939, there was some question as to who should receive screen credit, '' writes Yeck. "But despite the number of writers and changes, the final script was remarkably close to Howard 's version. The fact that Howard 's name alone appears on the credits may have been as much a gesture to his memory as to his writing, for in 1939 Sidney Howard died at age 48 in a farm - tractor accident, and before the movie 's premiere. '' Selznick, in a memo written in October 1939, discussed the film 's writing credits: "(Y) ou can say frankly that of the comparatively small amount of material in the picture which is not from the book, most is my own personally, and the only original lines of dialog which are not my own are a few from Sidney Howard and a few from Ben Hecht and a couple more from John Van Druten. Offhand I doubt that there are ten original words of (Oliver) Garrett 's in the whole script. As to construction, this is about eighty per cent my own, and the rest divided between Jo Swerling and Sidney Howard, with Hecht having contributed materially to the construction of one sequence. ''
According to Hecht biographer, William MacAdams, "At dawn on Sunday, February 20, 1939, David Selznick... and director Victor Fleming shook Hecht awake to inform him he was on loan from MGM and must come with them immediately and go to work on Gone with the Wind, which Selznick had begun shooting five weeks before. It was costing Selznick $50,000 each day the film was on hold waiting for a final screenplay rewrite and time was of the essence. Hecht was in the middle of working on the film At the Circus for the Marx Brothers. Recalling the episode in a letter to screenwriter friend Gene Fowler, he said he had n't read the novel but Selznick and director Fleming could not wait for him to read it. They would act out scenes based on Sidney Howard 's original script which needed to be rewritten in a hurry. Hecht wrote, "After each scene had been performed and discussed, I sat down at the typewriter and wrote it out. Selznick and Fleming, eager to continue with their acting, kept hurrying me. We worked in this fashion for seven days, putting in eighteen to twenty hours a day. Selznick refused to let us eat lunch, arguing that food would slow us up. He provided bananas and salted peanuts... thus on the seventh day I had completed, unscathed, the first nine reels of the Civil War epic. ''
MacAdams writes, "It is impossible to determine exactly how much Hecht scripted... In the official credits filed with the Screen Writers Guild, Sidney Howard was of course awarded the sole screen credit, but four other writers were appended... Jo Swerling for contributing to the treatment, Oliver H.P. Garrett and Barbara Keon to screenplay construction, and Hecht, to dialogue... ''
Principal photography began January 26, 1939, and ended on July 1, with post-production work continuing until November 11, 1939. Director George Cukor, with whom Selznick had a long working relationship, and who had spent almost two years in pre-production on Gone with the Wind, was replaced after less than three weeks of shooting. Selznick and Cukor had already disagreed over the pace of filming and the script, but other explanations put Cukor 's departure down to Gable 's discomfort at working with him. Emanuel Levy, Cukor 's biographer, claimed that Clark Gable had worked Hollywood 's gay circuit as a hustler and that Cukor knew of his past, so Gable used his influence to have him discharged. Vivien Leigh and Olivia de Havilland learned of Cukor 's firing on the day the Atlanta bazaar scene was filmed, and the pair went to Selznick 's office in full costume and implored him to change his mind. Victor Fleming, who was directing The Wizard of Oz, was called in from MGM to complete the picture, although Cukor continued privately to coach Leigh and De Havilland. Another MGM director, Sam Wood, worked for two weeks in May when Fleming temporarily left the production due to exhaustion. Although some of Cukor 's scenes were later reshot, Selznick estimated that "three solid reels '' of his work remained in the picture. As of the end of principal photography, Cukor had undertaken eighteen days of filming, Fleming ninety - three, and Wood twenty - four.
Cinematographer Lee Garmes began the production, but on March 11, 1939 -- after a month of shooting footage that Selznick and his associates regarded as "too dark '' -- was replaced with Ernest Haller, working with Technicolor cinematographer Ray Rennahan. Garmes completed the first third of the film -- mostly everything prior to Melanie having the baby -- but did not receive a credit. Most of the filming was done on "the back forty '' of Selznick International with all the location scenes being photographed in California, mostly in Los Angeles County or neighboring Ventura County. Tara, the fictional Southern plantation house, existed only as a plywood and papier - mâché facade built on the Selznick studio lot. For the burning of Atlanta, new false facades were built in front of the Selznick backlot 's many old abandoned sets, and Selznick himself operated the controls for the explosives that burned them down. Sources at the time put the estimated production costs at $3.85 million, making it the second most expensive film made up to that point, with only Ben - Hur (1925) having cost more.
Although legend persists that the Hays Office fined Selznick $5,000 for using the word "damn '' in Butler 's exit line, in fact the Motion Picture Association board passed an amendment to the Production Code on November 1, 1939, that forbade use of the words "hell '' or "damn '' except when their use "shall be essential and required for portrayal, in proper historical context, of any scene or dialogue based upon historical fact or folklore... or a quotation from a literary work, provided that no such use shall be permitted which is intrinsically objectionable or offends good taste. '' With that amendment, the Production Code Administration had no further objection to Rhett 's closing line.
To compose the score, Selznick chose Max Steiner, with whom he had worked at RKO Pictures in the early 1930s. Warner Bros. -- who had contracted Steiner in 1936 -- agreed to lend him to Selznick. Steiner spent twelve weeks working on the score, the longest period that he had ever spent writing one, and at two hours and thirty - six minutes long it was also the longest that he had ever written. Five orchestrators were hired, including Hugo Friedhofer, Maurice de Packh, Bernard Kaun, Adolph Deutsch and Reginald Bassett. The score is characterized by two love themes, one for Ashley 's and Melanie 's sweet love and another that evokes Scarlett 's passion for Ashley, though notably there is no Scarlett and Rhett love theme. Steiner drew considerably on folk and patriotic music, which included Stephen Foster tunes such as "Louisiana Belle, '' "Dolly Day, '' "Ringo De Banjo, '' "Beautiful Dreamer, '' "Old Folks at Home, '' and "Katie Belle, '' which formed the basis of Scarlett 's theme; other tunes that feature prominently are: "Marching through Georgia '' by Henry Clay Work, "Dixie, '' "Garryowen '' and "The Bonnie Blue Flag. '' The theme that is most associated with the film today is the melody that accompanies Tara, the O'Hara plantation; in the early 1940s, "Tara 's Theme '' formed the musical basis of the song "My Own True Love '' by Mack David. In all, there are ninety - nine separate pieces of music featured in the score. Due to the pressure of completing on time, Steiner received some assistance in composing from Friedhofer, Deutsch and Heinz Roemheld, and in addition, two short cues -- by Franz Waxman and William Axt -- were taken from scores in the MGM library.
On September 9, 1939, Selznick, his wife, Irene, investor John "Jock '' Whitney and film editor Hal Kern drove out to Riverside, California to preview it at the Fox Theatre. The film was still a rough cut at this stage, missing completed titles and lacking special optical effects. It ran for four hours and twenty - five minutes, but would later be cut down to under four hours for its proper release. A double bill of Hawaiian Nights and Beau Geste was playing, and after the first feature it was announced that the theater would be screening a preview; the audience were informed they could leave but would not be readmitted once the film had begun, nor would phone calls be allowed once the theater had been sealed. When the title appeared on the screen the audience cheered, and after it had finished it received a standing ovation. In his biography of Selznick, David Thomson wrote that the audience 's response before the film had even started "was the greatest moment of (Selznick 's) life, the greatest victory and redemption of all his failings '', with Selznick describing the preview cards as "probably the most amazing any picture has ever had. '' When Selznick was asked by the press in early September how he felt about the film, he said: "At noon I think it 's divine, at midnight I think it 's lousy. Sometimes I think it 's the greatest picture ever made. But if it 's only a great picture, I 'll still be satisfied. ''
About 300,000 people came out in Atlanta for the film 's premiere at the Loew 's Grand Theatre on December 15, 1939. It was the climax of three days of festivities hosted by Mayor William B. Hartsfield, which included a parade of limousines featuring stars from the film, receptions, thousands of Confederate flags and a costume ball. Eurith D. Rivers, the governor of Georgia, declared December 15 a state holiday. An estimated three hundred thousand residents and visitors to Atlanta lined the streets for up to seven miles to watch a procession of limousines bring the stars from the airport. Only Leslie Howard and Victor Fleming chose not to attend: Howard had returned to England due to the outbreak of World War II, and Fleming had fallen out with Selznick and declined to attend any of the premieres. Hattie McDaniel was also absent, as she and the other black cast members were prevented from attending the premiere due to Georgia 's Jim Crow laws, which would have kept them from sitting with their white colleagues. Upon learning that McDaniel had been barred from the premiere, Clark Gable threatened to boycott the event, but McDaniel convinced him to attend. President Jimmy Carter would later recall it as "the biggest event to happen in the South in my lifetime. '' Premieres in New York and Los Angeles followed, the latter attended by some of the actresses that had been considered for the part of Scarlett, among them Paulette Goddard, Norma Shearer and Joan Crawford.
From December 1939 to July 1940, the film played only advance - ticket road show engagements at a limited number of theaters at prices upwards of $1 -- more than double the price of a regular first - run feature -- with MGM collecting an unprecedented 70 percent of the box office receipts (as opposed to the typical 30 -- 35 percent of the period). After reaching saturation as a roadshow, MGM revised its terms to a 50 percent cut and halved the prices, before it finally entered general release in 1941 at "popular '' prices. Along with its distribution and advertising costs, total expenditure on the film was as high as $7 million.
In 1942, Selznick liquidated his company for tax reasons, and sold his share in Gone with the Wind to his business partner, John Whitney, for $500,000. In turn, Whitney sold it on to MGM for $2.8 million, so that the studio owned the film outright. MGM immediately re-released the film in spring 1942, and again in 1947 and 1954; the 1954 reissue was the first time the film was shown in widescreen, compromising the original Academy ratio and cropping the top and bottom to an aspect ratio of 1.75: 1. In doing so, a number of shots were optically re-framed and cut into the three - strip camera negatives, forever altering five shots in the film. A 1961 release commemorated the centennial anniversary of the start of the Civil War, and included a gala "premiere '' at the Loew 's Grand Theater. It was attended by Selznick and many other stars of the film, including Vivien Leigh and Olivia de Havilland; Clark Gable had died the previous year. For its 1967 re-release, it was blown up to 70mm, and issued with updated poster artwork featuring Gable -- with his white shirt ripped open -- holding Leigh against a backdrop of orange flames. There were further re-releases in 1971, 1974 and 1989; for the fiftieth anniversary reissue in 1989, it was given a complete audio and video restoration. It was released theatrically one more time in the United States, in 1998. In 2013, a 4K digital restoration was released in the United Kingdom to coincide with Vivien Leigh 's centenary. In 2014, special screenings were scheduled over a two - day period at theaters across the United States to coincide with the film 's 75th anniversary.
The film received its world television premiere on the HBO cable network on June 11, 1976, and played on the channel for a total of fourteen times throughout the rest of the month. It made its network television debut in November later that year: NBC paid $5 million for a one - off airing, and it was broadcast in two parts on successive evenings. It became at that time the highest - rated television program ever presented on a single network, watched by 47.5 percent of the households sampled in America, and 65 percent of television viewers, still the record for the highest rated film to ever air on television. In 1978, CBS signed a deal worth $35 million to broadcast the film twenty times over as many years. Turner Entertainment acquired the MGM film library in 1986, but the deal did not include the television rights to Gone with the Wind, which were still held by CBS. A deal was struck in which the rights were returned to Turner Entertainment and CBS 's broadcast rights to The Wizard of Oz were extended. It was used to launch two cable channels owned by Turner Broadcasting System: Turner Network Television (1988) and Turner Classic Movies (1994). It debuted on videocassette in March 1985, where it placed second in the sales charts, and has since been released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc formats.
Upon its release, consumer magazines and newspapers generally gave Gone with the Wind excellent reviews. However, while its production values, technical achievements, and scale of ambition were universally recognized, some reviewers of the time found the film to be too long and dramatically unconvincing. Frank S. Nugent for The New York Times best summed up the general sentiment by acknowledging that while it was the most ambitious film production made up to that point, it probably was not the greatest film ever made, but he nevertheless found it to be an "interesting story beautifully told ''. Franz Hoellering of The Nation was of the same opinion: "The result is a film which is a major event in the history of the industry but only a minor achievement in motion - picture art. There are moments when the two categories meet on good terms, but the long stretches between are filled with mere spectacular efficiency. ''
While the film was praised for its fidelity to the novel, this aspect was also singled out as the main factor in contributing to the lengthy running time. John C. Flinn wrote for Variety that Selznick had "left too much in '', and that as entertainment, the film would have benefited if repetitious scenes and dialog from the latter part of the story had been trimmed. The Manchester Guardian felt that the film 's one serious drawback was that the story lacked the epic quality to justify the outlay of time and found the second half, which focuses on Scarlett 's "irrelevant marriages '' and "domestic squabbles, '' mostly superfluous, and the sole reason for their inclusion had been "simply because Margaret Mitchell wrote it that way ''. The Guardian believed that if "the story had been cut short and tidied up at the point marked by the interval, and if the personal drama had been made subservient to a cinematic treatment of the central theme -- the collapse and devastation of the Old South -- then Gone With the Wind might have been a really great film. '' Likewise, Hoellering also found the second half of the film to be weaker than the first half: identifying the Civil War to be the driving force of the first part while the characters dominate in the second part, he concluded this is where the main fault of the picture lay, commenting that "the characters alone do not suffice ''. Despite many excellent scenes, he considered the drama to be unconvincing and that the "psychological development '' had been neglected.
Much of the praise was reserved for the casting, with Vivien Leigh in particular being singled out for her performance as Scarlett. Nugent described her as the "pivot of the picture '' and believed her to be "so perfectly designed for the part by art and nature that any other actress in the role would be inconceivable ''. Similarly, Hoellering found her "perfect '' in "appearance and movements ''; he felt her acting best when she was allowed to "accentuate the split personality she portrays '' and thought she was particularly effective in such moments of characterization like the morning after the marital rape scene. Flinn also found Leigh suited to the role physically and felt she was best in the scenes where she displays courage and determination, such as the escape from Atlanta and when Scarlett kills a Yankee deserter. Leigh won in the Best Actress category for her performance at the 1939 New York Film Critics Circle Awards. Of Clark Gable 's performance as Rhett Butler, Flinn felt the characterization was "as close to Miss Mitchell 's conception -- and the audience 's -- as might be imagined '', a view which Nugent concurred with, although Hoellering felt that Gable did n't quite convince in the closing scenes, as Rhett walks out on Scarlett in disgust. Of the other principal cast members, both Hoellering and Flinn found Leslie Howard to be "convincing '' as the weak - willed Ashley, with Flinn identifying Olivia de Havilland as a "standout '' as Melanie; Nugent was also especially taken with de Havilland 's performance, describing it as a "gracious, dignified, tender gem of characterization ''. Hattie McDaniel 's performance as Mammy was singled out for praise by many critics: Nugent believed she gave the best performance in the film after Vivien Leigh, with Flinn placing it third after Leigh 's and Gable 's performances.
At the 12th Academy Awards, Gone with the Wind set a record for Academy Award wins and nominations, winning in eight of the competitive categories it was nominated in, from a total of thirteen nominations. It won for Best Picture, Best Actress, Best Supporting Actress, Best Director, Best Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Best Art Direction, and Best Editing, and received two further honorary awards for its use of equipment and color (it also became the first color film to win Best Picture). Its record of eight competitive wins stood until Gigi (1958) won nine, and its overall record of ten was broken by Ben - Hur (1959) which won eleven. Gone with the Wind also held the record for most nominations until All About Eve (1950) secured fourteen. It was the longest American sound film made up to that point, and may still hold the record of the longest Best Picture winner depending on how it is interpreted. The running time for Gone with the Wind is just under 221 minutes, while Lawrence of Arabia (1962) runs for just over 222 minutes; however, including the overture, intermission, entr'acte, and exit music, Gone with the Wind lasts for 234 minutes (although some sources put its full length at 238 minutes) while Lawrence of Arabia comes in slightly shorter at 232 minutes with its additional components.
Hattie McDaniel became the first African - American to win an Academy Award -- beating out her co-star Olivia de Havilland who was also nominated in the same category -- but was racially segregated from her co-stars at the awards ceremony at the Coconut Grove; she and her escort were made to sit at a separate table at the back of the room. Meanwhile, screenwriter Sidney Howard became the first posthumous Oscar winner and Selznick personally received the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award for his career achievements.
Black commentators criticised the film for its depiction of black people and as a glorification of slavery. Carlton Moss, a black dramatist, complained in an open letter that whereas The Birth of a Nation was a "frontal attack on American history and the Negro people '', Gone with the Wind was a "rear attack on the same ''. He went on to dismiss it as a "nostalgic plea for sympathy for a still living cause of Southern reaction ''. Moss further criticized the stereotypical black characterizations, such as the "shiftless and dull - witted Pork '', the "indolent and thoroughly irresponsible Prissy '', Big Sam 's "radiant acceptance of slavery '', and Mammy with her "constant haranguing and doting on every wish of Scarlett ''. Following Hattie McDaniel 's Oscar win, Walter Francis White, leader of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, accused her of being an Uncle Tom. McDaniel responded that she would "rather make seven hundred dollars a week playing a maid than seven dollars being one ''; she further questioned White 's qualification to speak on behalf of blacks, since he was light - skinned and only one - eighth black.
Opinion in the black community was generally divided upon release, with the film being called by some a "weapon of terror against black America '' and an insult to black audiences, and demonstrations were held in various cities. Even so, some sections of the black community recognized McDaniel 's achievements to be representative of progression: some African - Americans crossed picket lines and praised McDaniel 's warm and witty characterization, while others hoped that the industry 's recognition of her work would lead to increased visibility on screen for other black actors. In its editorial congratulation to McDaniel on winning her Academy Award, Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life used the film as reminder of the "limit '' put on black aspiration by old prejudices. Malcolm X would later recall that "when Butterfly McQueen went into her act, I felt like crawling under the rug ''.
Upon its release, Gone with the Wind broke attendance records everywhere. At the Capitol Theatre in New York alone, it was averaging eleven thousand admissions per day in late December, and within four years of its release had sold an estimated sixty million tickets across the United States -- sales equivalent to just under half the population at the time. It repeated its success overseas, and was a sensational hit during the Blitz in London, opening in April 1940 and playing for four years. By the time MGM withdrew it from circulation at the end of 1943 its worldwide distribution had returned a gross rental (the studio 's share of the box office gross) of $32 million, making it the most profitable film ever made up to that point.
Even though it earned its investors roughly twice as much as the previous record - holder, The Birth of a Nation, the box - office performances of the two films were likely much closer. The bulk of the earnings from Gone with the Wind came from its roadshow and first - run engagements, which represented 70 percent and 50 percent of the box - office gross respectively, before entering general release (which at the time typically saw the distributor 's share set at 30 -- 35 percent of the gross). In the case of The Birth of a Nation, its distributor, Epoch, sold off many of its distribution territories on a "states rights '' basis -- which typically amounted to 10 percent of the box - office gross -- and Epoch 's accounts are only indicative of its own profits from the film, and not the local distributors. Carl E. Milliken, secretary of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors Association, estimated that The Birth of a Nation had been seen by fifty million people by 1930.
When it was re-released in 1947, it earned an impressive $5 million rental in the United States and Canada, and was one of the top ten releases of the year. Successful re-releases in 1954 and 1961 enabled it to retain its position as the industry 's top earner, despite strong challenges from more recent films such as Ben - Hur, but it was finally overtaken by The Sound of Music in 1966. The 1967 reissue was unusual in that MGM opted to roadshow it, a decision that turned it into the most successful re-release in the history of the industry. It generated a box - office gross of $68 million, making it MGM 's most lucrative picture after Doctor Zhivago from the latter half of the decade. MGM earned a rental of $41 million from the release, with the U.S. and Canadian share amounting to over $30 million, placing it second only to The Graduate for that year. Including its $6.7 million rental from the 1961 reissue, it was the fourth highest - earner of the decade in the North American market, with only The Sound of Music, The Graduate and Doctor Zhivago making more for their distributors. A further re-release in 1971 allowed it to briefly recapture the record from The Sound of Music, bringing its total worldwide gross rental to about $116 million by the end of 1971 -- more than trebling its earnings from its initial release -- before losing the record again the following year to The Godfather.
Across all releases, it is estimated that Gone with the Wind has sold over 200 million tickets in the United States and Canada, generating more theater admissions in that territory than any other film. The film was phenomenally successful in Western Europe too, generating approximately 35 million tickets in the United Kingdom and over 16 million in France, respectively becoming the biggest and sixth - biggest ticket - sellers in those markets. In total, Gone with the Wind has grossed over $390 million globally at the box office; in 2007 Turner Entertainment estimated the gross to be equivalent to approximately $3.3 billion when adjusted for inflation to current prices, while Guinness World Records arrived at a figure of $3.44 billion in 2014, making it the most successful film in cinema history.
The film remains immensely popular with audiences into the 21st century, having been voted the most popular film in two nationwide polls of Americans undertaken by Harris Interactive in 2008, and again in 2014. The market research firm surveyed over two thousand U.S. adults, with the results weighted by age, sex, race / ethnicity, education, region and household income so their proportions matched the composition of the adult population.
In revisiting the film in the 1970s, Arthur Schlesinger noted that Hollywood films generally age well, revealing an unexpected depth or integrity, but in the case of Gone with the Wind time has not treated it kindly. Richard Schickel posits that one measure of a film 's quality is to ask what you can remember of it, and the film falls down in this regard: unforgettable imagery and dialogue are simply not present. Stanley Kauffmann, likewise, also found the film to be a largely forgettable experience, claiming he could only remember two scenes vividly. Both Schickel and Schlesinger put this down to it being "badly written '', in turn describing the dialogue as "flowery '' and possessing a "picture postcard '' sensibility. Schickel also believes the film fails as popular art, in that it has limited rewatch value -- a sentiment that Kauffmann also concurs with, stating that having watched it twice he hopes "never to see it again: twice is twice as much as any lifetime needs ''. Both Schickel and Andrew Sarris identify the film 's main failing is in possessing a producer 's sensibility rather than an artistic one: having gone through so many directors and writers the film does not carry a sense of being "created '' or "directed '', but rather having emerged "steaming from the crowded kitchen '', where the main creative force was a producer 's obsession in making the film as literally faithful to the novel as possible.
Sarris concedes that despite its artistic failings, the film does hold a mandate around the world as the "single most beloved entertainment ever produced ''. Judith Crist observes that, kitsch aside, the film is "undoubtedly still the best and most durable piece of popular entertainment to have come off the Hollywood assembly lines '', the product of a showman with "taste and intelligence ''. Schlesinger notes that the first half of the film does have a "sweep and vigor '' that aspire to its epic theme, but -- finding agreement with the film 's contemporary criticisms -- the personal lives take over in the second half, and it ends up losing its theme in unconvincing sentimentality. Kauffmann also finds interesting parallels with The Godfather, which had just replaced Gone with the Wind as the highest - grosser at the time: both were produced from "ultra-American '' best - selling novels, both live within codes of honor that are romanticized, and both in essence offer cultural fabrication or revisionism.
The critical perception of the film has shifted in the intervening years, which resulted in it being ranked 235th in Sight & Sound 's prestigious decennial critics poll in 2012, and in 2015 sixty - two international film critics polled by the BBC voted it the 97th best American film.
The film has featured in several high - profile industry polls: in 1977 it was voted the most popular film by the American Film Institute (AFI), in a poll of the organization 's membership; the AFI also ranked the film fourth on its "100 Greatest Movies '' list in 1998, with it slipping down to sixth place in the tenth anniversary edition in 2007. Film directors ranked it 322nd in the 2012 edition of the decennial Sight & Sound poll, and in 2016 it was selected as the ninth best "directorial achievement '' in a Directors Guild of America members poll. In 2014, it placed fifteenth in an extensive poll undertaken by The Hollywood Reporter, which ballotted every studio, agency, publicity firm and production house in the Hollywood region. Gone with the Wind was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress in 1989 for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Gone with the Wind has been criticized as having perpetuated Civil War myths and black stereotypes. David Reynolds writes that "The white women are elegant, their menfolk noble or at least dashing. And, in the background, the black slaves are mostly dutiful and content, clearly incapable of an independent existence. '' Reynolds likened Gone with the Wind to The Birth of a Nation and other re-imaginings of the South during the era of segregation, in which white Southerners are portrayed as defending traditional values and the issue of slavery is largely ignored. The film has been described as a "regression '' that promotes the myth of the black rapist and the honourable and defensive role of the Ku Klux Klan during Reconstruction, and as a "social propaganda '' film offering a "white supremacist '' view of the past. From 1972 to 1996, the Atlanta Historical Society held a number of Gone with the Wind exhibits, among them a 1994 exhibit titled, "Disputed Territories: Gone with the Wind and Southern Myths ''. One of the questions explored by the exhibit was "How True to Life Were the Slaves in GWTW? '' This section showed slave experiences were diverse and concluded that the "happy darky '' was a myth, as was the belief that all slaves experienced violence and brutality.
W. Bryan Rommel Ruiz has argued that despite factual inaccuracies in its depiction of the Reconstruction period, Gone with the Wind nevertheless reflects contemporary interpretations that were common in the early 20th century. One such viewpoint is reflected in a brief scene in which Mammy fends off a leering freedman: a government official can be heard offering bribes to the emancipated slaves for their votes. The inference is taken to be that freedmen are ignorant about politics and unprepared for freedom, unwittingly becoming the tools of corrupt Reconstruction officials. While perpetuating some Lost Cause myths, the film makes concessions in regard to others. After the attack on Scarlett in the shanty town, a group of men including Scarlett 's husband Frank, Rhett Butler and Ashley raid the town; in the novel they belong to the Ku Klux Klan, representing the common trope of protecting the white woman 's virtue, but the filmmakers consciously neutralize the presence of the Klan in the film by referring to it only as a "political meeting ''.
Thomas Cripps reasons that the film in some respects undercuts racial stereotypes; in particular, the film created greater engagement between Hollywood and black audiences, with dozens of movies making small gestures in recognition of the emerging trend. Only a few weeks after its initial run, a story editor at Warner wrote a memorandum to Walter Wanger about Mississippi Belle, a script that contained the worst excesses of plantation films, suggesting that Gone with the Wind had made the film "unproducible ''. More than any film since The Birth of a Nation, it unleashed a variety of social forces that foreshadowed an alliance of white liberals and blacks who encouraged the expectation that blacks would one day achieve equality. According to Cripps, the film eventually became a template for measuring social change.
In 2017, Gone with the Wind was pulled from the schedule at the Orpheum Theatre in Memphis, Tennessee after a 34 - year run of annual showings due to its perceived racially insensitive content.
One of the most notorious and widely condemned scenes in Gone with the Wind depicts what is now legally defined as "marital rape ''. The scene begins with Scarlett and Rhett at the bottom of the staircase, where he begins to kiss her, refusing to be told ' no ' by the struggling and frightened Scarlett; Rhett overcomes her resistance and carries her up the stairs to the bedroom, where the audience is left in no doubt that she will "get what 's coming to her ''. The next scene, the following morning, shows Scarlett glowing with barely suppressed sexual satisfaction; Rhett apologizes for his behavior, blaming it on his drinking. The scene has been accused of combining romance and rape by making them indistinguishable from each other, and of reinforcing a notion about forced sex: that women secretly enjoy it, and it is an acceptable way for a man to treat his wife.
Molly Haskell has argued that nevertheless, women are mostly uncritical of the scene, and that by and large it is consistent with what women have in mind if they fantasize about being raped. Their fantasies revolve around love and romance rather than forced sex; they will assume that Scarlett was not an unwilling sexual partner and wanted Rhett to take the initiative and insist on having sexual intercourse.
Gone with the Wind and its production have been explicitly referenced, satirized, dramatized and analyzed on numerous occasions across a range of media, from contemporaneous works such as Second Fiddle -- a 1939 film spoofing the "search for Scarlett '' -- to current television shows, such as The Simpsons. The Scarlett O'Hara War (a 1980 television dramatization of the casting of Scarlett), Moonlight and Magnolias (a 2007 play by Ron Hutchinson that dramatizes Ben Hecht 's five - day re-write of the script), and "Went with the Wind! '' (a sketch on The Carol Burnett Show that parodied the film in the aftermath of its television debut in 1976) are among the more noteworthy examples of its enduring presence in popular culture. It was also the subject of a 1988 documentary, The Making of a Legend: Gone with the Wind, detailing the film 's difficult production history. In 1990, the United States Postal Service issued a stamp depicting Clark Gable and Vivien Leigh embracing in a scene from the film.
Following publication of her novel, Margaret Mitchell was inundated with requests for a sequel but claimed to not have a notion of what happened to Scarlett and Rhett, and that she had "left them to their ultimate fate ''. Mitchell continued to resist pressure from Selznick and MGM to write a sequel until her death in 1949. In 1975, her brother, Stephens Mitchell (who assumed control of her estate), authorized a sequel to be jointly produced by MGM and Universal Studios on a budget of $12 million. Anne Edwards was commissioned to write the sequel as a novel which would then be adapted into a screenplay, and published in conjunction with the film 's release. Edwards submitted a 775 - page manuscript entitled Tara, The Continuation of Gone with the Wind, set between 1872 and 1882 focusing on Scarlett 's divorce from Rhett; MGM was not satisfied with the story and the deal collapsed.
The idea was revived in the 1990s, when a sequel was finally produced in 1994, in the form of a television miniseries. Scarlett was based upon the novel by Alexandra Ripley, itself a sequel to Mitchell 's book. British actors Joanne Whalley and Timothy Dalton were cast as Scarlett and Rhett, and the series follows Scarlett 's relocation to Ireland after again becoming pregnant by Rhett.
Explanatory notes
George (Cukor) finally told me all about it. He hated (leaving the production) very much he said but he could not do otherwise. In effect he said he is an honest craftsman and he can not do a job unless he knows it is a good job and he feels the present job is not right. For days, he told me he has looked at the rushes and felt he was failing... the thing did not click as it should. Gradually he became convinced that the script was the trouble... David (Selznick), himself, thinks HE is writing the script... And George has continually taken script from day to day, compared the (Oliver) Garrett - Selznick version with the (Sidney) Howard, groaned and tried to change some parts back to the Howard script. But he seldom could do much with the scene... So George just told David he would not work any longer if the script was not better and he wanted the Howard script back. David told George he was a director -- not an author and he (David) was the producer and the judge of what is a good script... George said he was a director and a damn good one and he would not let his name go out over a lousy picture... And bull - headed David said "OK get out! ''
Citations
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countries can travel without visa new zealand passport | Visa requirements for New Zealand citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for New Zealand citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of New Zealand. As of 10 July 2018, New Zealand citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 182 countries and territories, ranking the New Zealand passport 7th in terms of travel freedom (tied with the Czech Republic and Maltese passports) according to the Henley Passport Index.
NB: Cook Islands and Niue are not dependent territories of NZ, they are in Free Association with New Zealand
New Zealand citizens are classified as ' Annex II ' foreign nationals, and so are permitted to stay visa - free in the 26 member states of the Schengen Area as a whole -- rather than each country individually -- for a period not exceeding 3 months every 6 months.
The New Zealand Government has signed bilateral visa waiver agreements with a number of the individual countries who are Schengen signatories, which allow New Zealand citizens to spend up to three months in the relevant country, without reference to time spent in other Schengen signatory states. Since these agreements continue to remain valid despite the implementation of the Schengen agreement, the European Commission has confirmed that in practice if New Zealanders visit Schengen countries which have signed these types of bilateral agreements with New Zealand, then the terms of these agreements override the conditions normally imposed as a result of the Schengen visa exemption agreement.
New Zealand has individual bilateral visa waiver agreements with the following Schengen signatories:
Consequently, New Zealand citizens can visit the above Schengen member states visa - free for periods of up to 3 months in each country. If, however, a New Zealand citizen then visits another Schengen state not included in the list above, the restriction of no more than 3 months out of a 6 - month period in the Schengen area as a whole applies. Therefore, if a New Zealand citizen has already spent 3 months in one or more of the above Schengen countries, any visits to another Schengen country without a bilateral visa waiver agreement with New Zealand may lead to difficulties with local law enforcement agencies (e.g. being accused of having overstayed upon leaving a Schengen country which is not in the list above).
In addition, a New Zealand citizen who has already spent up to 3 months in other parts of the Schengen Area can enter Hungary and remain there for up to a further 90 days visa - free. Following the stay in Hungary, if 3 months has already spent elsewhere in the Schengen area, he / she must then leave the Schengen area from Hungary and go directly to a country outside the Schengen Area.
In general, any person who is not a European Union, European Economic Area or Swiss citizen and who wishes to stay in a Schengen member state for more than 3 months is required to obtain a national long - stay ' D ' visa and / or a residence permit. New Zealand citizens aged 18 -- 30 (or 18 - 35 in some cases) are able to obtain a national long - stay ' D ' visa and / or a residence permit from 19 Schengen member states on the basis of a working holiday (see below). Schengen member states also issue national long - stay ' D ' visas and residence permits for other reasons to those fulfilling criteria laid out in their national immigration policies (e.g. skilled workers, students, au pair).
In general, the national long - stay ' D ' visa / residence permit needs to be obtained in advance through the member state 's embassy / consulate. However, some Schengen member states offer exceptions for New Zealand citizens.
Austria allows New Zealand citizens to enter the country without a visa and to apply for a temporary residence permit or a ' Red - White - Red Card ' (issued to permanent immigrants) after arrival, rather than in advance through an Austrian embassy / consulate.
The Czech Republic allows New Zealand citizens to apply for a work visa under a special scheme known as a ' Green Card ' (rather than a ' Blue Card ' or work permit which is required by most non-EU citizens). The application for a Green Card can be lodged at any Czech embassy / consulate (or, in some circumstances, within the Czech Republic if the applicant is already resident there) and is usually processed within 60 days.
As of 24 June 2014, it is no longer possible to apply for a green card. This type of permit was replaced
Denmark permits New Zealand citizens intending to stay in the country for over 3 months to enter Denmark without a visa and to apply for a residence or work permit (excluding a working holiday residence permit) after arrival (whilst for many other non-EEA and Swiss citizens, an application for a residence permit and visa for a stay over 3 months must be lodged in advance at a Danish foreign mission). This is particularly useful as there is no Danish embassy or consulate in New Zealand that accepts residence or work permit applications - the nearest one is in Canberra in Australia.
Estonia permits New Zealand citizens to stay and work in Estonia for more than 90 days but less than 6 months as long as they obtain a category ' D ' long - stay visa at a cost of € 80 in advance at an Estonian foreign mission after the employer has completed a ' registration of short - term employment '. New Zealand citizens intending to stay and work in Estonia for more than 6 months can apply for a temporary residence permit for employment after arrival in the country.
Germany permits New Zealand citizens intending to stay in the country for over 3 months to enter without a visa and to apply for a residence permit after arrival (whilst for many other non-EEA and Swiss citizens, a residence permit and visa for a stay over 3 months must be applied for in advance at a German foreign mission).
Hungary allows New Zealand citizens who wish to stay for more than 90 days in the country to apply for a residence card from the regional directorate of the Office of Immigration and Nationality within 90 days of arrival and do not need to obtain a residence permit prior to arrival in Hungary (unlike most other non-EEA and Swiss foreign nationals). Note also that family members (who are not New Zealand citizens) accompanying New Zealand citizens can apply for a residence permit after arriving in Hungary. For example, if a New Zealand citizen wishes to move to Hungary with her husband and her daughter (who are both Samoan citizens and not New Zealand citizens), all three of them can apply for a Hungarian residence permit after arriving in Hungary (although the husband and daughter will have to apply for a Schengen visa prior to travelling to Hungary).
Latvia permits new Zealand citizens intending to stay in the country for over 3 months as self - employed persons or as businesspersons to enter Latvia without a visa and to apply for a residence permit after arrival (whilst for many non-EEA and Swiss citizens, an application for a residence permit must be lodged in advance at a Latvian foreign mission).
Netherlands exempts New Zealand citizens from the requirement to obtain a Schengen category "D '' visa (the visa issued for long term stays in The Netherlands of over 90 days, known in Dutch as the "MVV '' visa) - an exemption which goes beyond the visa waiver afforded to most other non-EEA and non-Swiss foreign nationals who are usually only given a visa waiver of up to 90 days in a 180 - day period.
Norway permits New Zealand citizens who have qualifications as a skilled worker to stay in the country without a visa for up to 6 months to seek employment as a skilled worker or a specialist (except as a religious leader / teacher or an ethnic cook), as long as they register with the police within 3 months of arriving in Norway.
Slovakia permits New Zealand citizens intending to stay in the country for over 3 months to enter Slovakia without a visa and to apply for a residence permit (excluding a working holiday residence permit) after arrival (whilst for many other non-EEA and Swiss citizens, an application for a residence permit and visa for a stay over 3 months must be lodged in advance at a Slovak foreign mission).
Switzerland offers New Zealand citizens a more generous visa exemption than that which Schengen rules normally provide for. Not only are New Zealand citizens able to spend 3 months visa - free in Switzerland, they can also stay for over 3 months (i.e. without time limit) without the need to apply for a visa. However, at a cantonal level, individual cantonal migration authorities may impose further requirements, such as the need to register for a residence permit, if a New Zealand citizen wants to take up employment or reside for over 3 months, in which case a residence permit must be applied for before entry to Switzerland.
New Zealand citizens are able to visit the United Kingdom for up to 6 months (or 3 months if they enter from the Republic of Ireland) without the need to apply for a visa as long as they fulfil all of the following criteria:
However, even though, strictly speaking, he / she is not required to apply for a visa if he / she satisfies all of the above criteria, a New Zealand citizen who falls into any of the following categories has been strongly advised by the UK Border Agency (replaced by UK Visas and Immigration) to apply for a visa prior to travelling to the UK:
New Zealand citizens who were born before 1983 and qualify for the right of abode are able to live and work in the United Kingdom indefinitely.
New Zealand citizens with a grandparent born either in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands or Isle of Man at any time or in the Republic of Ireland on or before 31 March 1922 can apply for UK Ancestry Entry Clearance, which enables them to work in the UK for 5 years, after which they can apply to settle indefinitely.
New Zealand citizens aged 18 to 30 can apply for a Youth Mobility Scheme visa which allows them to pursue a working holiday in the UK for 2 years.
New Zealand citizens can study in the United Kingdom for up to 6 months as a student visitor without the need to apply for a visa as long as they do not work during this period. If attending a course which is longer than 6 months, New Zealand citizens can apply for a Tier 4 student visa in New Zealand or in the UK merely by completing the application form, quoting the Confirmation of Acceptance for Studies (CAS) reference number issued to them by their UK education provider and presenting evidence of care arrangements (if under the age of 18); they do not need to submit proof of sufficient funds, qualifications or English language ability (which most other foreign nationals need to demonstrate) as long as the UK education provider is recognised as a ' Highly Trusted ' sponsor by the UK Border Agency. However, the UK Border Agency reserves the right to request such evidence in particular situations and New Zealand citizens must still present such evidence if applying for a Tier 4 student visa outside New Zealand or the UK. New Zealand citizens who have been issued with a Tier 4 student visa (but not those who are in the UK as student visitors) can work in the UK for up to 20 hours per week during term - time and without time restrictions outside term - time.
By virtue of the Trans - Tasman Travel Arrangement, New Zealand citizens are granted a Special Category Visa on arrival in Australia (which permits residence and work for an indefinite period) as long as:
The same privilege is extended to Australian citizens and PR holders.
Holders of an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) travelling on business do not require a visa to the following countries:
The card must be used in conjunction with a passport and has the following advantages:
Many countries have entry restrictions on foreigners that go beyond the common requirement of having either a valid visa or a visa exemption. Such restrictions may be health related or impose additional documentation requirements on certain classes of people for diplomatic or political purposes.
In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela and Vietnam.
Turkey requires passports to be valid for at least 150 days upon entry.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months beyond the period of intended stay include European Union countries (except the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom), Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland (and always excepting EU / EEA / Swiss nationals), Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Nauru, Moldova, New Zealand and 3 months validity on arrival in Albania, Honduras, Macedonia, Panama, Qatar and Senegal.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month beyond the period of intended stay include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Lebanon, Macau and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay. Some countries have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other 's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled).
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being available.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia, require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has recently visited one.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead that reads: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''. As of April 2018 the list contains 710 persons.
Upon request, the authorities of the largely unrecognized Republic of Artsakh may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
Some countries (for example: Australia, Canada, Fiji, New Zealand and the United States) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest those travellers that refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to quickly change planes rather than go landside.
Fingerprinting countries include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China when entering through Shenzhen airport, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Japan, Malaysia upon entry and departure, Paraguay, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan.
Additionally, the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors who need to apply for a visa.
See List of diplomatic missions of New Zealand.
According to the statistics these are the numbers of New Zealand visitors to various countries per annum in 2015 (unless otherwise noted):
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty. Part of the Kingdom of Denmark, not part of the Schengen Area.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
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who sang the songs in that thing you do | That Thing You Do (song) - wikipedia
"That Thing You Do '' is a 1996 song that appears in the film That Thing You Do! The song is performed by the fictional 1960s band The Wonders, who are the focus of the film.
In 1964, an Erie, Pennsylvania band named "The One - ders '' (later known as The Wonders) goes from a college talent show to climbing up the Billboard charts thanks to the song "That Thing You Do ''. Written by guitarist / vocalist Jimmy Mattingly II, it was originally crafted as a ballad. During the performance at the talent show, drummer Guy Patterson produces a much more up - tempo beat and the rest of the band follow suit, turning the song into an upbeat, Beatles-esque rock number. The song is a hit with the audience, and they win the talent show. From there, the band is picked up by a local manager who helps them get more shows in the area, and eventually the song receives radio airplay. The band is then signed to Play - Tone Records, under Mr. White 's guidance, and the song climbs up the Billboard Hot 100, starting at # 93, then # 71, # 49, and # 21. The following week, "That Thing You Do '' climbs to # 7, becoming the quickest charting song ever on Play - Tone Records. However, Jimmy walks out on the band before they can produce another record, so they eventually become one - hit wonders.
Early in the film, when Jimmy and Lenny are asking Guy to join them at the talent competition at the college, Jimmy mentions they 'll perform a song he wrote. Lenny takes offense to that by slapping Jimmy on the arm. Jimmy begrudgingly corrects himself by saying, "We wrote. '' Later, when the vinyl 45 is officially released, the label states: Written by James Mattingly II. Later still, when being interviewed live on radio station KJZZ, Jimmy says of the song, "We wrote it in my garage back in Erie, PA ''.
In the film, the song is performed by James "Jimmy '' Mattingly II on lead vocals and guitar, Leonard "Lenny '' Haise on lead guitar and backing vocals, "T.B. Player '' on bass and backing vocals (as a running gag, the bass player in the film is unnamed), and Guy "Shades '' Patterson on drums. For their live performance of the song on The Hollywood Television Showcase, studio bassist Scott "Wolfman '' Pell replaced T.B. Player on bass and backing vocals.
In the fictitious "mockumentary '' liner notes from the soundtrack CD, "That Thing You Do '' peaked at # 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 during the summer of 1964.
The song was written by Adam Schlesinger, the bassist of the alternative rock group Fountains of Wayne. Schlesinger did not expect his song to be chosen, but tried as "a personal exercise. '' Performers include Mike Viola on vocals with Schlesinger on backup vocals.
The song was released as a single, and although not as successful as was depicted in the film, the track still did moderately well in the US, peaking at # 41 on the Billboard Hot 100. (It also reached # 22 on the Adult Contemporary chart, # 18 on the Adult Top 40, and # 24 on the Top 40 Mainstream chart.) The song also reached # 50 in Australia.
The song was a bigger hit outside of the US, reaching # 31 in Canada in December 1996, and # 22 on the UK Singles Chart in February 1997. The song was nominated for Best Original Song at the 69th Academy Awards as well as Best Original Song at the 54th Golden Globe Awards, losing out on both occasions to Madonna 's "You Must Love Me '' (written by Tim Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber) from the musical Evita.
On April 25, 2017, three quarters of the actors who played The Wonders - Tom Everett Scott (Guy "Shades '' Patterson), Johnathon Schaech (Jimmy Mattingly II) and Ethan Embry ("T.B. Player '') - performed the song live during a surprise appearance at the Roxy in Los Angeles. The occasion was the Goddamn Comedy Jam, a live show series in which comedians tell funny stories about a meaningful song and then perform it with a live band. Comedian and show creator Josh Adam Meyers persuaded the actors to perform the song with him. After initial hesitation on Scott 's part, Meyers managed to persuade him with help from The After Jam producer Jason Gallagher, who happened to be Scott 's brother - in - law. The other actors soon followed suit, with Gallagher helping them learn how to play the instruments. Steve Zahn (Lenny Haise) was unable to participate due to living in Kentucky; comedian Jeremiah Watkins took his place on lead guitar while wearing a cut - out mask of Zahn 's face. On April 10, 2017, Embry posted a video of himself playing the song 's bass line; it is now apparent that the video was a teaser for the event two weeks later. Coincidentally, Tom Everett Scott replaced Steve Zahn as Frank Heffley in the Diary of a Wimpy Kid film series.
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in response to an acute stressor epinephrine is released from which structure | Fight - or - flight response - wikipedia
The fight - or - flight response (also called hyperarousal, or the acute stress response) is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival. It was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon. His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing. More specifically, the adrenal medulla produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of catecholamines, especially norepinephrine and epinephrine. The hormones estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol, as well as the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin, also affect how organisms react to stress.
This response is recognized as the first stage of the general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.
The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight - or - flight response and its role is mediated by two different components.
The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord and its main function is to activate the physiological changes that occur during the fight - or - flight response. This component of the autonomic nervous system utilizes and activates the release of norepinephrine in the reaction.
The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and medulla, physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to activate the "rest and digest '' response and return the body to homeostasis after the fight or flight response. This system utilizes and activates the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
The reaction begins in the amygdala, which triggers a neural response in the hypothalamus. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the pituitary gland and secretion of the hormone ACTH. The adrenal gland is activated almost simultaneously and releases the hormone epinephrine. The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone cortisol, which increases blood pressure, blood sugar, and suppresses the immune system. The initial response and subsequent reactions are triggered in an effort to create a boost of energy. This boost of energy is activated by epinephrine binding to liver cells and the subsequent production of glucose. Additionally, the circulation of cortisol functions to turn fatty acids into available energy, which prepares muscles throughout the body for response. Catecholamine hormones, such as adrenaline (epinephrine) or noradrenaline (norepinephrine), facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action and:
The physiological changes that occur during the fight or flight response are activated in order to give the body increased strength and speed in anticipation of fighting or running. Some of the specific physiological changes and their functions include:
In the context of the fight or flight response, emotional regulation is used proactively to avoid threats of stress or to control the level of emotional arousal.
During the reaction, the intensity of emotion that is brought on by the stimulus will also determine the nature and intensity of the behavioral response. Individuals with higher levels of emotional reactivity may be prone to anxiety and aggression, which illustrates the implications of appropriate emotional reaction in the fight or flight response.
The specific components of cognitions in the fight or flight response seem to be largely negative. These negative cognitions may be characterized by: attention to negative stimuli, the perception of ambiguous situations as negative, and the recurrence of recalling negative words. There also may be specific negative thoughts associated with emotions commonly seen in the reaction.
Perceived control relates to an individual 's thoughts about control over situations and events. Perceived control should be differentiated from actual control because an individual 's beliefs about their abilities may not reflect their actual abilities. Therefore, overestimation or underestimation of perceived control can lead to anxiety and aggression.
The social information processing model proposes a variety of factors that determine behavior in the context of social situations and preexisting thoughts. The attribution of hostility, especially in ambiguous situations, seems to be one of the most important cognitive factors associated with the fight or flight response because of its implications towards aggression.
An evolutionary psychology explanation is that early animals had to react to threatening stimuli quickly and did not have time to psychologically and physically prepare themselves. The fight or flight response provided them with the mechanisms to rapidly respond to threats against survival.
A typical example of the stress response is a grazing zebra. If the zebra sees a lion closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated as a means to escape its predator. The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body 's systems. The sympathetic nervous system 's activation rarely provides for these needs. A similar example involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated heartbeat, piloerection (hair standing on end, normally to dissipate heat), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal. Note that the zebra and cat still maintain homeostasis in all states.
Animals respond to threats in many complex ways. Rats, for instance, try to escape when threatened, but will fight when cornered. Some animals stand perfectly still so that predators will not see them. Many animals freeze or play dead when touched in the hope that the predator will lose interest.
Other animals have alternative self - protection methods. Some species of cold - blooded animals change color swiftly, to camouflage themselves. These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but, in order to fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping capture either in a physical or sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to another location or just disappearing in place. And often both fight and flight are combined in a given situation.
The fight or flight actions also have polarity -- the individual can either fight or flee against something that is threatening, such as a hungry lion, or fight for or fly towards something that is needed, such as the safety of the shore from a raging river.
A threat from another animal does not always result in immediate fight or flight. There may be a period of heightened awareness, during which each animal interprets behavioral signals from the other. Signs such as paling, piloerection, immobility, sounds, and body language communicate the status and intentions of each animal. There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but which might also result in playing, mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is kittens playing: each kitten shows the signs of sympathetic arousal, but they never inflict real damage.
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power and position of the governor of an indian state | Governor (India) - Wikipedia
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Judiciary:
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Legislatures:
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Urban bodies:
The governors and lieutenant - governors / administrators of the states and union territories of India have similar powers and functions at the state level as that of the President of India at Union level. Governors exist in the states while lieutenant - governors exist in union territories and in the National Capital Territory of Delhi. The governor acts as the nominal head whereas the real power lies with the Chief ministers of the states and his / her councils of ministers.
In India, a lieutenant governor is in charge of a union territory. However, the rank is present only in the union territories of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Delhi and Puducherry (the other territories have an administrator appointed, who is an IAS officer or retired judges of courts). However, the governor of Punjab acts as the administrator of Chandigarh. Although lieutenant - governors do not hold the same rank as a governor of a state in the list of precedence.
The governors and lieutenant - governors are appointed by the president for a term of five years.
Article 157 and Article 158 of the Constitution of India specify eligibility requirements for the post of governor. They are as follows:
A governor must:
The primary function of the governor is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law as incorporated in his / her oath of office under Article 159 of the Indian constitution in the administration of the State affairs. All his / her actions, recommendations and supervisory powers (Article 167c, Article 200, Article 213, Article 355, etc.) over the executive and legislative entities of a State shall be used to implement the provisions of the Constitution. In this respect, the governor has many different types of powers:
The Constitution vests in the governor all the executive powers of the state government. The governor appoints the chief minister, who enjoys the support of the majority in the Legislative Assembly. The governor also appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers and distributes portfolios to them on the advice of the chief minister.
The Council of Ministers remain in power during the ' pleasure ' of the governor, but in the real sense it means the pleasure of obtaining majority in the Legislative Assembly. As long as the majority in the Vidhan Sabha supports the government, the Council of Ministers can not be dismissed.
The governor appoints the chief minister of a state. He or she also appoints the Advocate General and the chairman and members of the State Public Service Commission. Apart from this, State Election Commissioner are also appointed by the Governor (though removed by the President). The president consults the governor in the appointment of judges of the High Courts and the governor appoints the judges of the District Courts. All administrations are carried on his or her name, he or she also has the power to appoint staff for his tenure in class one and class four as per constitution of India.
The Governor of the state by virtue of his office is also the Chancellor of most of the Universities in the State. The dignity and impartiality of the office of the Chancellor puts the Governor in a unique position with regard to protecting the autonomy of the Universities and saving them from undue political interference. The Governor as Chancellor of University also acts as President of the Senate. He has power to direct inspection of every component of the Universities and affiliated colleges, required due action on the result of inquiry. The Chancellor appoints search committee for appointments of Vice Chancellor. He accords consent of warrant of degrees and withdraw degree or distinctions both at the recommendations of the Senate. He approves or disapproves statutes passed by the Senate and appoints teachers of the University based on recommendation of the respective committees.
The governor summons the sessions of both houses of the state legislature and prorogues them. The governor can even dissolve the Vidhan Sabha. These powers are formal and the governor while using these powers must act according to the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister.
The governor inaugurates (to dedicate) the state legislature by addressing it after the assembly elections and also at the beginning of the first session every year. The governor 's address on these occasions generally outlines new policies of the state government. A bill that the state legislature has passed, can become a law only after the governor gives assent. The governor can return a bill to the state legislature, if it is not a money bill, for reconsideration. However, if the state legislature sends it back to the governor for the second time, the governor must assent to it. The governor has the power to reserve certain bills for the president.
When the state legislature is not in session and the governor considers it necessary to have a law, then the governor can promulgate ordinances. These ordinances are submitted to the state legislature at its next session. They remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the state legislature is reconvened unless approved by it earlier.
Governor is empowered under Article 192 to disqualify a member of a House of the State legislature when the election commission recommends that the legislator is no longer complying with provisions of Article 191.
Per Articles 165 and 177, Governor can ask the Advocate General to attend the proceedings of both houses of the state legislature and report to him any unlawful functioning if any.
He causes to be laid before the State Legislature the annual financial statement which is the State Budget. Further no demand for grant shall be made except on his recommendation. He can also make advances out of the Contingency Fund of the State to meet any unforeseen expenditure. Moreover, he constitutes the State Finance Commission.
The governor can use these powers:
The governor has no role or powers in a contingency situation such as president 's rule unless specifically permitted by the president under articles 160, 356 and 357. The Governor is not permitted to take any decision on his own without state cabinet advise when an elected government is in charge under the provisions of Part VI of the constitution. Governor 's rule is applicable only to Jammu and Kashmir state. It is often used synonymous with president 's rule in other states.
Various emoluments, allowances and privileges available to a governor are determined by the Governors (Emoluments, Allowances and Privileges) Act, 1982.
In addition to the monthly salary, the governor is entitled to rent free official residence, free household facilities and conveyance. The governor and his family are provided with free medical attendance, accommodation and treatment for life.
The term of governor 's office is normally 5 years but it can be terminated earlier by:
There is no provision for impeachment, as it happens for the president.
Under Article 361 of the constitution, governor can not be summoned for questioning except on his voluntary willingness to testify in the court in support of his controversial deeds though the unconstitutional decisions taken by the governor would be declared invalid by the courts. The case would be decided by the courts based on the facts furnished by the union government for the governor 's role. As clarified by the Supreme Court in the case ' Rameshwar Prasad & Ors vs. Union of India & ANR 24 January 2006 ', though governor can not be prosecuted and imprisoned during his tenure, he can be prosecuted after he / she steps down from the post for the guilty committed during his term of governorship as declared earlier by the courts. No governor has resigned on impropriety to continue in office for declaring and nullifying his decisions as unconstitutional by the courts till now. No criminal case at least on the grounds of disrespecting constitution is lodged till now against former governors to punish them for their unconstitutional acts though many decisions taken during the term of governorship had been declared by Supreme Court as unconstitutional, mala fide, void, ultra vires, etc.
While the President of India is "elected '', the governor is "selected '' by the incumbent central government. That is why there have been many instances when governors appointed by a previous government are removed by an incoming government. The reasons are more political. The supreme court has ruled that governors should be given security of term but this is generally not adhered to.
Political observers have described governorship as "plush old age homes '' wherein the governor does not stay impartial and act against popular state leaders. In 1984, Congressman Ram Lal dismissed the N.T. Rama Rao government and allowed Nadendla Bhaskar Rao as chief minister of Andhra Pradesh for 31 days.
In January 2014, the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) approached the Union Law Ministry under the UPA Government to record statements of West Bengal Governor M.K. Narayanan and Goa Governor Bharat Vir Wanchoo. Their statements were considered vital as Narayanan was National Security Adviser and Wanchoo was Chief of Special Protection Group (SPG) at the time of signing of contract with AgustaWestland. Their views were also considered before Indian Government signed the contract with Agusta Westland. However, Union Law ministry stonewalled CBI probe by rejecting CBI 's request to examine them claiming they had ' immunity '. UPA was defeated in the 2014 general election and with the incoming NDA Government 's permission, West Bengal Governor M.K. Narayanan became the first ever Governor to be questioned by police in a criminal case. The CBI questioned M.K. Narayanan as a "witness '' in ₹ 3600 - crore 2013 Indian helicopter bribery scandal. The CBI said Goa Governor Bharat Vir Wanchoo would be questioned in the same case.
Arunachal Pradesh governor who is also appointed by the ruling party at the centre, has been sacked by the president after the Supreme Court has quashed his unconstitutional acts. it is a good event in Indian polity by giving a strong message to the state governors that they should not come under the influence of the ruling party at the centre to commit unconstitutional acts.
Lt Governor of Delhi, Najeeb Jung resigned taking moral responsibility for his unconstitutional role when Supreme Court observed that the elected local government is not an unconstitutional institution without any powers.
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where is marbella on the map of spain | Marbella - wikipedia
Marbella (/ mɑːrˈbeɪjə, - ˈvɛljə, - ˈvɛjə /; Spanish: (maɾˈβeʎa), locally (maɾˈβeʝa)) is a city and municipality in southern Spain, belonging to the province of Málaga in the autonomous community of Andalusia. It is part of the Costa del Sol and is the headquarters of the Association of Municipalities of the region; it is also the head of the judicial district that bears its name.
Marbella is situated on the Mediterranean Sea, between Málaga and the Strait of Gibraltar, in the foothills of the Sierra Blanca. The municipality covers an area of 117 square kilometres (45 sq mi) crossed by highways on the coast, which are its main entrances.
In 2012 the population of the city was 140,473 inhabitants, making it the second most populous municipality in the province of Málaga and the eighth in Andalusia. It is one of the most important tourist cities of the Costa del Sol and throughout most of the year is an international tourist attraction, due mainly to its climate and tourist infrastructure.
The city also has a significant archaeological heritage, several museums and performance spaces, and a cultural calendar with events ranging from reggae concerts to opera performances.
The Marbella municipality occupies a strip of land that extends along forty - four kilometres (27 miles) of coastline of the Penibético region, sheltered by the slopes of the coastal mountain range, which includes the Bermeja, Palmitera, Royal, White and Alpujata sub-ranges. Due to the proximity of the mountains to the coast, the city has a large gap between its north and south sides, thus providing views of the sea and mountain vistas from almost every part of the city. The coastline is heavily urbanised; most of the land not built up with golf courses has been developed with small residential areas. Map of Marbella. Marbella is bordered on the north by the municipalities of Istán and Ojén, on the northwest by Benahavís, on the west by Estepona and on the northeast by Mijas. The Mediterranean Sea lies to the south.
There are five geomorphological units: the Sierra Blanca, the Sierra Blanca piedmont (foothills), the lower hill country, the plains and the coastal dunes. The Sierra Blanca is most centrally located in the province, looming over the old village. This mountain range has three peaks: La Concha, located further west at 1,215 m above sea level, Juanar Cross, located eastward (within the municipality of Ojen) at 1,178 m above sea level, and the highest, Mount Lastonar, located between the two at 1,270 metres. Marbella 's topography is characterised by extensive coastal plains formed from eroded mountains. After the plain lies an area of higher elevations of between 100 and 400 m, occupied by low hills, behind which rise the foothills and steeper slopes of the mountains. The coast is generally low and sandy beaches that are more extensive further east, between the fishing port and the Cabopino. Despite the intense urbanisation of the coast, it still retains a natural area of dunes, the Artola Dunes (Dunas de Artola), at the eastern end of town.
The entire region lies within the Andalusian Mediterranean Basin. The rivers are short and have very steep banks, so that flash floods are common. These include the Guadalmina, the Guadaiza, the Verde and the Rio Real, which provide most of the water supply. The irregularity of rainfall has resulted in intermittent rivers that often run dry in summer; most of the many streams that cross the city have been bridged. The La Concepción reservoir supplies the population with drinking water; apart from this there are other reservoirs like El Viejo and El Nuevo (the Old and the New) that irrigated the old agricultural colony of El Ángel, and Las Medranas and Llano de la Leche that watered the plantations of the colony of San Pedro de Alcántara.
Marbella is protected on its northern side by the coastal mountains of the Cordillera Penibética and so enjoys a microclimate with an average annual temperature of 18 ° C (64 ° F). The highest peaks of the mountains are occasionally covered with snow, which usually melts in a day or two. Average rainfall is 628 l / m2, while hours of sunshine average 2,900 annually.
Because most of the mountain areas around Marbella can not be managed by the City Council and they are under the management of the central government, remnants of the land in its natural state are still preserved in the mountains, where there are chestnut and cherry trees, reforested firs, Aleppo, Monterrey and maritime pines; pinyons, and ferns. The fauna is represented by golden eagles, Bonelli 's eagles, short - toed eagles, hawks, falcons, vultures, genets or musk cats, badgers, wild goats, deer, martens, foxes and rabbits.
The coast has the Natural Monument site of the Dunas de Artola, one of the few protected natural beaches of the Costa del Sol, which contains marram grass, sea holly, sea daffodils and shrubs such as large - fruited juniper. The Posidonia oceanica, endemic to the Mediterranean, is found in the Cabopino area; it is an important part of the ecosystem in the sea around Marbella.
According to the census of the INE for 2011, Marbella had a population of 135,124 inhabitants, which ranked it as the second most populous city in the province of Málaga and eighth in Andalusia after surpassing Cádiz in 2008. Unlike other towns in the Costa del Sol, Marbella had a significant population before the population explosion caused by the tourist boom of the 1960s. The census counted about 10,000 people in 1950; population growth since has been as significant as that of neighboring towns. Between 1950 and 2001 the population grew by 897 %, with the decade of the 1960s having the highest relative increase, at 141 %. In 2001, only 26.2 % of Marbella 's population had been born there, 15.9 % were foreign - born, and those born in other towns in Spain made up the difference. During the summer months the population of Marbella increases by 30 % with the arrival of tourists and foreigners who have their second homes in the area.
The population is concentrated in two main centres: Marbella and San Pedro Alcántara; the rest is scattered in many developments in the districts of Nueva Andalucia and Las Chapas, located along the coast and on the mountain slopes. According to a study by the Association of Municipalities of the Costa del Sol, based on the production of solid waste in 2003, Marbella had a population of about 246,000 inhabitants, almost twice that of the population census of 2008. From the estimated volume of municipal waste in 2010, the City calculates the population during the summer months at around 400,000 people, while official police sources estimated it at about 500,000, with a peak of up to 700,000 people.
Traditionally the people of Marbella have been called "marbelleros '' in popular language, and "marbellenses '' in the liturgy; these names have appeared in dictionaries and encyclopedias. Since the mid-1950s, however, Marbellan residents have been called "marbellís '' or "marbellíes '', the only gentilic, or demonym, that appears in the Diccionario de la Lengua Española (Dictionary of the Spanish Language) published by the Royal Spanish Academy.
The use of "marbellí '' as a gentilic was popularised by the writer and journalist Victor de la Serna (1896 -- 1958), who wrote a series of documentary articles on "The Navy of Andalucía ''; in his research he had come upon the Historia de Málaga y Su Provincia (History of Málaga and the Province) by Francisco Guillén Robles, who used the plural word "marbellíes '' to designate the Muslim inhabitants of Marbella.
Archaeological excavations have been made in the mountains around Marbella which point to human habitation in Paleolithic and Neolithic times. Some historians believe that the first settlement on the present site of Marbella was founded by the Phoenicians in the 7th century BC, as they are known to have established several colonies on the coast of Málaga province. However, no remains have been found of any significant settlement, although some artefacts of Phoenician and later Carthaginian settlements have been unearthed in different parts of the municipality, as in the fields of Rio Real and Cerro Torrón.
The existence of a Roman population centre in what is now the El Casco Antiguo (Old Town) is suggested by three Ionic capitals embedded in one section of the Murallas del Castillo (Moorish castle walls), the reused materials of a building from earlier times. Recent discoveries in La Calle Escuelas (School Street) and other remains scattered throughout the old town testify to a Roman occupation as well. West of the city on the grounds of the Hotel Puente Romano is a small 1st century Roman Bridge over a stream. There are ruins of other Roman settlements along the Verde and Guadalmina rivers: Villa Romana on the Rio Verde (Green River), the Roman baths at Guadalmina, and the ruins of a Roman villa and an early Byzantine basilica at Vega del Mar, built in the 3rd century and surrounded by a paleo - Christian necropolis, later used as a burial ground by the Visigoths. All of these further demonstrate a continued human presence in the area. In Roman times, the city was called Salduba (Salt City).
During the period of Islamic rule, after the Normans lay waste to the coast of Málaga in the 10th century, the Caliphate of Córdoba fortified the coastline and built a string of several lighthouse towers along it. In the Umayyad fashion they constructed a citadel, the Alcazaba, and a wall to protect the town, which was made up of narrow streets and small buildings with large patios, the most notable buildings being the citadel and the mosque. The village was surrounded by orchards; its most notable crops were figs and mulberry trees for silkworm cultivation. The current name most likely developed from the name the Arabs gave it: Marbal la (مربلة), which may in turn derive, according to some linguistic investigations, from a previous Iberian place name. The traveller Ibn Battuta characterised it as "a pretty little town in a fertile district. '' During the time of the first kingdoms of Taifa, Marbil - la was disputed by the Taifas of Algeciras and of Málaga, eventually falling into the orbit of Málaga, which in turn later became part of the Nazarid Kingdom. In 1283 the Marinid sultan Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd Al - Haqq launched a campaign against the Kingdom of Granada. Peace between the Marinid dynasty and the Nasrid dynasty was achieved with the signing of the Treaty of Marbella on 6 May 1286, by which all the Marinid possessions in Al - Andalus were restored to the Nazarid sultan.
On 11 June 1485, the town passed into the hands of the Crown of Castile without bloodshed. The Catholic Monarchs gave Marbella the title of city and capital of the region and made it a realengo (royal protectorate). The Plaza de los Naranjos was built along the lines of Castilian urban design about this time, as well as some of the historical buildings that surround it. The Fuerte de San Luis de Marbella (Fort of San Luis) was built in 1554 by Charles V. The main door faced north and was protected by a moat with a drawbridge. Today, the ruins of the fort house a museum, and on the grounds are the Iglesia del Santo Cristo de la Vera Cruz (Church of the Holy Christ of the True Cross) and Ermita del Calvario (Calvary Chapel). Sugar cane was introduced to Marbella in 1644, the cultivation of which spread on the Málaga province coast, resulting in the construction of numerous sugar mills, such as Trapiche del Prado de Marbella.
In 1828 Málaga businessman Manuel Agustín Heredia founded a company called La Concepción to mine the magnetite iron ores of the Sierra Blanca at nearby Ojén, due to the availability of charcoal made from the trees of the mountain slopes and water from the Verde River, as a ready supply of both was needed for the manufacture of iron. In 1832 the company built the first charcoal - fired blast furnace for non-military use in Spain; these iron - smelting operations ultimately produced up to 75 % of the country 's cast iron. In 1860 the Marqués del Duero founded an agricultural colony, now the heart of San Pedro de Alcántara. The dismantling of the iron industry based in the forges of El Angel and La Concepción occurred simultaneously, disrupting the local economy, as much of the population had to return to farming or fishing for a livelihood. This situation was compounded by the widespread crisis of traditional agriculture, and by the epidemic of phylloxera blight in the vineyards, all of which accounted for Marbella 's high unemployment, increase in poverty, and the starvation of many day labourers.
The associated infrastructure built for the installation of the foundry of El Angel in 1871 by the British - owned Marbella Iron Ore Company temporarily relieved the situation, and even made the city a destination for immigrants, increasing its population. However, the company did not survive the worldwide economic crisis of 1893, and closed its doors in that year due to the difficulty of finding a market for the magnetite iron ore removed from its mine.
In the late 19th century, Marbella was a village composed of three parts: the main districts, the Barrio Alto or San Francisco, and the Barrio Nuevo. There were three smaller nuclei arranged around the old ironworks and the farm - model of the colony of San Pedro Alcántara, as well as isolated dwellings in orchards and farms. The general population was divided between a small group of oligarchs and the working people, the middle class being practically non-existent.
In the early decades of the century the first hotels were built: the El Comercial, which opened in 1918, and the Miramar, which opened its doors in 1926. During the Second Republic, Marbella experienced major social changes and contentious political parties mobilized.
As the Spanish Civil War began, Marbella and Casare suffered more anticlerical violence than the rest of western Málaga province. The day after the failed uprising that led to the civil war, several religious buildings were set fire to in Marbella. Only the walls of the Church of St. Mary of the Incarnation and the Church of San Pedro Alcantara were left standing. With the aid of Fascist Italian troops, Nationalist forces seized Marbella during the first months of the war. It became a haven for prominent Nazis, including Léon Degrelle and Wolfgang Jugler, and Falangist personalities like José Antonio Girón de Velasco and José Banús.
After the Second World War, Marbella was a small jasmine - lined village with only 900 inhabitants. Ricardo Soriano, Marquis of Ivanrey, moved to Marbella and popularised it among his rich and famous friends. In 1943 he acquired a country estate located between Marbella and San Pedro called El Rodeo, and later built a resort there called Venta y Albergues El Rodeo, beginning the development of tourism in Marbella.
Soriano 's nephew, Prince Alfonso of Hohenlohe - Langenburg, descendant of a high - ranking aristocratic family (his mother María de la Piedad de Yturbe y Scholtz - Hersmendorff, was the Marquesa de Belvís de las Navas) acquired another estate, Finca Santa Margarita. In 1954 he opened it as the Marbella Club, an international resort aimed at movie stars, business executives and the nobility. Both these resorts would be frequented by members of European aristocratic families with famous names: Bismarck, Rothschild, Thurn und Taxis, Metternich, de Mora y Aragon, de Salamanca or Thyssen - Bornemisza, thereby transforming Marbella into a destination for the international jet set. Trading on Prince Alfonso 's kinship to the royal courts of Europe, the hotel quickly proved to be popular with vacationing members of Europe 's social elites for its casual but discreet luxury. Jaime de Mora y Aragón, a Spanish bon vivant and brother to Fabiola, Queen of the Belgians, as well as Adnan Khashoggi and Guenter Rottman, were frequent visitors. Prince Alfonso 's first marriage was to Princess Ira von Fürstenberg, an Agnelli heiress. Princess Marie - Louise of Prussia (great - granddaughter of Kaiser Wilhelm II) and her husband Count Rudolf "Rudi '' von Schönburg -- Glauchau eventually took over the Marbella Club Hotel from Prince Alfonso.
In 1966, Prince Alfonso brought in a Beverly Hills architect and, with the assistance of the Banus family, who were personal friends of dictator Francisco Franco and had already developed the later - controversial Valle de los Caídos, developed the high - end tourist resort Puerto Banus. The resort opened to much fanfare in 1970. Celebrities in attendance included Franco 's designated successor, Juan Carlos (then Prince of Asturias), Prince Rainier of Monaco and his wife Grace Kelly, and Aga Khan IV; entertainers included Julio Iglesias. In 1973, exiled dictator Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar, who had left Cuba with a fortune estimated at between $100 and $300 million and lived extravagantly in various Iberian resorts, died of a heart attack there. Fugitive financier Marc Rich bought a house in Marbella, renounced his American citizenship and claimed Spanish citizenship during his decades of evading American income taxes, although he spent more time (and died) in Switzerland.
In 1974, Prince Fahd arrived in Marbella from Montecarlo. Until his death in 2005, Prince Fahd was a frequent and profligate guest; Marbella welcomed his retinue of over a thousand people spending petro - dollars. The then - anonymous Osama bin Laden visited on a number of occasions with his family between 1977 and 1988.
In the 1980s, Marbella continued as a popular jet set destination. However, the 1987 kidnapping of Melodie Nakachian, the daughter of local billionaire philanthropist Raymond Nakachian and the Korean singer Kimera, focused less - favourable international media scrutiny on Marbella, even though a police raid ultimately freed her.
From the first democratic elections after the adoption of the 1978 Spanish Constitution, until 1991, all the mayors of Marbella were members of the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (' El Partido Socialista Obrero Español ' or PSOE in Spanish).
In 1991, the builder and president of Atlético Madrid, Jesús Gil was elected mayor of Marbella by a wide majority. He and his party, the right - wing populist Independent Liberal Group (' Grupo Independiente Liberal ' or GIL in Spanish), promised to fight petty crime as well as the region 's declining prestige. Actor Sean Connery became Marbella 's international spokesman, although Connery later ended this business relationship after Gil used his image in an election campaign. Gil 's administration facilitated a building boom. However, critics complained about disregard for the existing urban plan, market speculation and environmental predation by developers; the regional Andalusian government suspended some development. Gil despised town - hall formalities, instead ruling from his office at the Club Financiero, and cultivated a maverick image. The PSOE and the People 's Party criticized Gil even at the national level, but voters re-elected him -- and Spanish celebrities continued to spend summers there. Gil 's political party, GIL, also proved popular in other tourist - dependent Costa del Sol towns like Estepona, and even across the Strait of Gibraltar to the Spanish North African cities of Ceuta and Melilla.
In 1999, Gil was convicted of embezzling public funds and falsifying public documents. Gil died in 2004, and his party remained in power until 2006, but related scandals continue to this day, as discussed below.
The old town of Marbella includes the ancient city walls and the two historical suburbs of the city, the Barrio Alto, which extends north, and the Barrio Nuevo, located to the east. The ancient walled city retains nearly the same layout as in the 16th century. Here is the Plaza de los Naranjos, an example of Castilian Renaissance design, its plan laid out in the heart of Old Town after the Christian reconquest. Around the square are arranged three remarkable buildings: the town hall, built in 1568 by the Catholic Monarchs in Renaissance style, the Mayor 's house, which combines Gothic and Renaissance elements in its façade, with a roof of Mudejar style and fresco murals inside, and the Chapel of Santiago, the oldest religious building in the city, built earlier than the square and not aligned with it, believed to date from the 15th century. Other buildings of interest in the centre are the Church of Santa María de la Encarnación, built in the Baroque style starting in 1618, the Casa del Roque, and the remains of the Arabic castle and defensive walls; also in the Renaissance style are the Capilla de San Juan de Dios (Chapel of St. John of God), the Hospital Real de la Misericordia (Royal Hospital of Mercy) and the Hospital Bazán which now houses the Museum of Contemporary Spanish Engravings.
One of the highlights of the Barrio Alto is the Ermita del Santo Cristo de la Vera Cruz (Hermitage of the Holy Christ of the True Cross), built in the 15th century and enlarged in the 18th century, which consists of a square tower with a roof covered by glazed ceramic tiles. The Barrio Alto is also known as the San Francisco neighborhood, after a Franciscan convent formerly located there. The so - called Nuevo Barrio (New Town), separated from the walled city by the Arroyo de la Represa, has no monumental buildings but retains its original layout and much of its character in the simple whitewashed houses with their tiled roofs and exposed wooden beams, orchards and small corrals.
Between the old town and the sea in the area known as the "historic extension '' (ensanche histórico), there is a small botanical garden on Paseo de la Alameda, and a garden with fountains and a collection of ten sculptures by Salvador Dalí on the Avenida del Mar, which connects the old town with the beach. To the west of this road, passing the Faro de Marbella, is Constitution Park (Parque de la Constitución), which houses the auditorium of the same name and the Skol Apartments, designed in the Modernist style by the Spanish architect Manuel Jaén Albaitero.
What is known as Marbella 's Golden Mile is actually a stretch of four miles (6.4 km) which begins at the western edge of Marbella city and stretches to Puerto Banús. The area is home to some of Marbella 's most luxurious villas and estates with views of mountain and sea, such as the Palace of King Fahd, as well as some landmark hotels, among them the Melia Don Pepe, the Hotel Marbella Club and the Hotel Puente Romano. The area developed during the tourism boom of the 1960s, where may be found the ruins of the Roman villa by the Rio Verde, and El Ángel, where the land of the old forge works was converted to an agricultural colony, and the Botanical Gardens of El Ángel with gardens of three different styles, dating from the 8th century.
The Golden Mile is divided into two parts by a motorway that runs through it. Along the motorway are strings of business centres, five - star hotels, golf course and other services. The beachside of the motorway is fully developed, while the mountain side is still undergoing development. Urbanisations in the area 's sea side are Alhambra del Mar, La Alcazaba, Las Torres, Los Verdiales, Marbellamar, Marina Marbella, Oasis, Rio Verde and Santa Margarita. On the mountainside of the motorway, the following residential areas are currently being developed: Sierra Blanca, Nagüeles, Cascada de Camoján, Jardines Colgantes, Marbella Hill Club, El Venero, El Batatal, La Capellania, La Virginia, Carolina, El Vicario, Altos de Salamanca, Casas del Señorio de Marbella, Coto Real, and Ancon Sierra.
The Golden Mile should not be confused with the New Golden Mile which is a marketing name given to the area between San Pedro del Alcantara and Estepona.
Nueva Andalucía is an area just west of Marbella and inland from the marina of Puerto Banús. Home to many Golf Courses it is also known as Golf Valley. The bullring by Centro Plaza marks the entrance to Nueva Andalucia where the villas and apartments are based on traditional Andalusian architecture and design.
At the heart of San Pedro de Alcántara are two industrial buildings of the 19th century: the Trapiche de Guadaiza and the sugar mill, which now houses the Ingenio Cultural Centre. The 19th century heritage of San Pedro is also represented by two buildings of colonial style, the parish Church and the Villa of San Luis, residence of the Marqués del Duero. Next to San Pedro, near the mouth of the river Guadalmina, are some of the most important archaeological sites in Marbella: the early Christian Basílica de Vega del Mar, the vaulted Roman baths of Las Bóvedas (the Domes) and the eponymous watch tower of Torre de Las Bóvedas. The important archaeological site of Cerro Colorado is located near Benahavis; it features a chronologically complex stratigraphy that begins in the 4th century BC within a Mastieno (ancient Iberian ethnicity of the Tartessian confederation) area, then a town identified as Punic, and finally a Roman settlement. A series of domestic structures built behind the city walls, and corresponding to these different stages of occupation recorded in the archaeological sequence of the site, characterise the settlement as being fortified. A hoard of three pots filled with silver coins of mostly Hispano - Carthaginian origin, and numerous pieces of precious metalwork, along with clippings and silver ingots, all dating from the 3rd century BC, were found here.
In the eastern part of the municipality in the district of Las Chapas is the site of Rio Real, situated on a promontory near the mouth of the river of the same name. Here traces of Phoenician habitation dating to the early 7th century BC were discovered in excavations made during an archaeological expedition led by Pedro Sánchez in 1998. Bronze Age utensils including plates, carinated bowls, lamps and other ceramics of Phoenician and indigenous Iberian types have been found, as well as a few Greek examples. There are two ancient watchtowers, the Torre Río Real (Royal River Tower) and the Torre Ladrones (Tower of Thieves). Among the notable tourist attractions is the residential complex Ciudad Residencial Tiempo Libre (Residential Leisure City), an architectural ensemble of the Modernist movement, which has been a registered property of Bien de Interés Cultural (Heritage of Cultural Interest) since 2006.
The 27 kilometres (17 miles) of coastline within the limits of Marbella is divided into twenty - four beaches with different features; however, due to expansion of the municipality, they are all now semi-urban. They generally have moderate surf, golden or dark sand ranging through fine, medium or coarse in texture, and some gravel. The occupancy rate is usually high to midrange, especially during the summer months, when tourist arrivals are highest. Amongst the various notable beaches are Artola beach, situated in the protected area of the Dunas de Artola, and Cabopino, one of the few nudist beaches in Marbella, near the port of Cabopino. The beaches of Venus and La Fontanilla are centrally located and very popular, and those of Puerto Banús and San Pedro Alcántara have been awarded the blue flag of the Foundation for Environmental Education for compliance with its standards of water quality, safety, general services and environmental management.
Political administration of the municipal government is run by the Ayuntamiento (City Hall), whose members are elected every four years. Maria Angeles Muñoz, leader of the People 's Party (PP) in Marbella, became mayor in 2007, and her party has governed the town ever since. The electoral roll is composed of all residents registered in Marbella who are over age 18 and a citizen of Spain or one of the other member states of the European Union. The Spanish Law on the General Election sets the number of councilors elected according to the municipality 's population; the Municipal Corporation of Marbella consists of 27 councilors.
Corruption accusations and mayor Gil 's further conviction in 2002 for diverting public funds to Atlético led to reappraisal of the city 's finances. When Jesús Gil y Gil finally resigned that year, he was succeeded by Julián Muñoz, his right - hand man, a former waiter famous for his romantic involvement with singer Isabel Pantoja, a matador 's widow. After a power struggle in which Muñoz fired Juan Antonio Roca Nicolas, a planning consultant, for involvement in the Gil - era scandal and in the later scandal discussed below, the city council censured the new mayor and expelled him from office. More than 79 companies and 85 individuals were implicated in the initial corruption scandal (for which Roca had been released from prison upon paying a 450,000 euro fine), and an additional fifty persons and more companies were convicted in June 2013. In a televised debate, Muñoz and Gil each accused the other of having robbed public funds.
After his own party repudiated Muñoz, Marisol Yagüe, a former secretary, became Marbella 's new mayor, but was herself arrested and jailed in March 2006. Deputy Mayor Isabel Garcia Marcos was arrested at Malaga 's airport en route to a honeymoon in Russia at this time, and police found over € 360,000 in cash in a safe in her home. Garcia, a Socialist until her expulsion from that party in 2003, had been known for criticizing Marbella 's endemic corruption. Gil died in 2004, a year after Spain 's Supreme Court barred him from holding further public office for 28 years for breach of trust and influence - peddling in the earlier cases, as well as shortly after a lower court ordered him to surrender his Atlético shares and fined him $16 million in connection with the 2002 conviction (but allowed him to remain free on bail during his appeal).
In March 2006, Marbella seemed nearly bankrupt. City councilor Tomás Reñones, a former Atlético Madrid football player, ran Marbella after Mayor Yague and Deputy Mayor Garcia were jailed, but soon ended up in jail as well. On 8 April 2006, the Spanish Senate unanimously approved the report of the General Commission of Autonomous Communities and suspended the city council, the first time such a course of action had occurred in Spain since democracy 's restoration. Spain 's Prime Minister, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, head of the national PSOE, appointed a committee of auditors to run Marbella temporarily, as well as unravel the financial machinations.
After a short period of interim government, municipal elections were held in May 2007. For the first time, the People 's Party (PP) gained a majority, with 16 out of the 27 council seats. The PSOE won 10 council seats, United Left (IU) had 1. In the municipal elections of May 2011, the PP won 15 seats, the PSOE 7, the IU 2, and three independents elected.
The investigation, known as the Operation Malaya case, has resulted in numerous convictions and the seizure of goods worth 2.4 million euros. Today "Marbellan urbanism '' is synonymous in Spain with governmental corruption, with as many as 30,000 illegal homes built in the town, without significant educational and health infrastructure.
During the complex, three - year trial (which included over 300 hours of hearings and 400 witnesses), evidence showed that under a scheme masterminded by Roca (a formerly unemployed builder who ran the city 's planning department in the 1990s), building permits were issued in exchange for envelopes of cash, and the money then illegally laundered. Although prosecutors had sought even stiffer terms after convicting 50 municipal officials and business executives, in October 2013, Roca was sentenced to 11 years in jail and fined 240m euros, former mayor Muñoz sentenced to six years, and former mayor Yagüe sentenced to serve two years in prison. Forty of the 95 accused were found not guilty by the Malaga court.
The corruption investigation that led to this round of convictions began in 2005, as an investigation into drug moneylaundering. Roca reportedly claimed to control the town after Gil 's death. At the height of his wealth he was one of the richest men in Andalucia, having accumulated several hotels, ranches with more than 103 thoroughbred horses and fighting bulls, a private jet, a helicopter, 14 vintage cars, 5 kilos of jewellery and a 275 piece art collection including Miro paintings. However, although Marbella 's population had boomed to approximately 160,000 residents during the previous fifteen years, neither additional schools nor health centres were built; the city 's infrastructure remained virtually unchanged since 1991. Although the city expanded its workforce from 400 employees in 1991 to 3,200 in 2006, under the GIL administrations Marbella paid neither social security contributions nor taxes for its employees. The town 's debt now exceeds over 200 million euros and precludes necessary infrastructure improvements. Hundreds of the poorly built apartments and homes, many sold to expatriate British and Irish retirees, face demolition as hazardous. Investigating magistrate Miguel Angel Torres Segura, who led the investigations through 2007, was promoted to the criminal court in Granada.
The design of the coat of arms and the flag used by Marbella City Hall has been the subject of controversy. According to some sources, GIL changed these symbols without any consensus or heraldic rigour, nor had they been vetted by the Junta de Andalucía, so that different factions claim the rehabilitation of the shield granted by the Catholic Monarchs to the city in 1493 and official recognition of a flag designed in accordance with prevailing standards of vexillology.
According to 2003 data, Marbella is amongst the municipalities ranking highest in household disposable income per capita in Andalusia, second to Mojácar and matched by four other municipalities, including its neighbour, Benahavís.
Its business sector consisted of 17,647 establishments in 2005, representing a total of 14.7 % of the businesses in Malaga province, and showed greater dynamism than the provincial capital itself for growth over the period 1998 - 2004, when it grew 9 % compared to the 2.4 % growth rate of Málaga. Compared to the rest of Andalusia, the volume of production in Marbella is higher than that of most other municipalities with similar population, ranking even above the capitals of Almeria, Huelva and Jaen.
As in most cities of the Andalusian coast, Marbella 's economy revolves around tertiary activities. The service sector accounts for 60 % of employment, while trade accounts for almost 20 %. The main branches of the service sector are hospitality, real estate and business services, which fact underscores the importance of tourism in the Marbella economy. Meanwhile, the construction, industrial and agriculture sectors account for 14.2 %, 3.8 % and 2.4 % of employment respectively.
The number of business establishments in the service sector accounts for 87.5 % of the total, those in construction account for 9.6 %, and in industry, 2.9 %. Of these companies, 89.5 % have fewer than 5 employees and only 2.3 % have a staff of at least 20 employees.
In 2008 a study by the Institute of Statistics of Andalusia (IEA) based on 14 variables (income, equipment, training, etc.), found Marbella was the Andalusian city with the best development of the general welfare and the highest quality of life. According to the results of the study, Marbella ranks highest in the number of private clinics, sports facilities and private schools.
In December 2016, an investment fund based in Hong Kong announced that it had acquired 170,000 square metres of land near Elviria and planned to invest EUR 300 million to develop a five - star luxury hotel and 120 villas. According to its developer, the future resort "is to be the most luxurious in the country '' and will be run by an international hotel chain.
Cities on the coast are accessible by bus from Marbella, including Málaga, Estepona, Torremolinos, Fuengirola and Gibraltar. The area is also served by the A7 motorway; the closest airport is Málaga - Costa Del Sol.
The four ports of Marbella are primarily recreational; although both Puerto Banús and the Puerto de la Bajadilla are permitted to dock cruise ships, neither operates regular service to other ports. The port of Bajadilla is also home to the fishermen 's guild of Marbella and is used for the transport of goods.
Marbella is the most populous municipality in the Iberian Peninsula without a railway station in its territory, and is the only Spanish city of over 100,000 inhabitants not served by rail.
An infrastructure project is underway for the construction of the Corridor of Costa del Sol rail system to connect Nerja, Málaga and Algeciras, possibly to include a high speed railway, with several stops planned for Marbella. Until then the nearest station is near Fuengirola, 27 km (17 miles) distant, further away is Málaga Maria Zambrano, located in Málaga city, 57 km (35 miles) away, and Ronda railway station, also 57 km (35 miles).
Most intercity bus services are operated by CTSA - Portillo, communicating with major urban centres of the Costa del Sol, including Málaga and its airport, and nearby towns in the interior (Benahavis, Ojen, Ronda), as well as the Campo including Gibraltar (La Linea and Algeciras), some of the major cities of Andalusia (Almería, Cádiz, Córdoba, Jerez, Granada, Jaen, Seville and Úbeda) and Mérida in Extremadura. The central bus station has connections to other domestic destinations, Madrid and Barcelona.
There are always plenty of taxis available from Malaga airport or from the different taxi ranks along the Costa del Sol to Marbella, most of them are clean and non-smoking, as well as being the most comfortable way of travelling to local holiday destinations.
Marbella is not formally integrated into the Metropolitan Transportation Consortium Málaga area.
Given the ethnic diversity of the city, Marbella 's newspapers and magazines are published in several European languages, among which are La Tribuna de Marbella (Spanish), and Costa del Sol Nachrichten (in German). In addition, Diario Sur (Spanish) or Southern Journal (in English) and La Opinión de Málaga (Spanish) have editorial offices in the city. Among the magazines with the largest circulation are those dedicated to fashion and lifestyle, such as Absolute Marbella, Essential Magazine, The European Magazine, Transform Magazine (all in English), and Das Aktuelle Spanienmagazin (in German). Golf Andalusia and Golf Spain magazines, monthly Spanish - English bilingual magazines with a total circulation of 45,000 copies, are distributed throughout Spain.
Marbella has several local television stations, such as M95 Television, Summer TV and South Coast Television and several digital news dailies including the Voice of Marbella and Journal of Marbella.
Famous British actress Millie Bobby Brown was born in Marbella on February 19, 2004.
Besides the typical Andalusian cultural events, a variety of annual festivals are held in Marbella, mainly between June and October; other events are held sporadically. Festivals dedicated to music include the Marbella International Opera Festival held in August since 2001, the Marbella Reggae Festival in July, and the Marbella International Film Festival in June at different locations around the city -- amongst them the beach, aboard a boat or in Old Town. It also hosts the Marbella International Film Festival, the Spanish Film Festival and the Festival of Independent Theatre.
To provide venues for these and other events, the city has cultural facilities both publicly and privately managed, such as the Auditorium of Constitution Park, the Ingenio Cultural Centre, the Teatro Ciudad de Marbella or Black Box Theatre, among others. In addition, there is a music conservatory, a cinema club and several cinemas showing foreign films dubbed into Castilian.
The International Contemporary Art Fair I, also known as MARB ART, was held in Marbella in 2005, exhibiting works of photography, painting, sculpture and graphic design by over 500 artists; it has been held annually since at the Palace of Congresses. The following year the 2006 extension of the Ateneo de Málaga Marbella (Atheneum of Málaga Marbella) opened, dedicated to the development of artistic and cultural activities.
Amongst local cultural associations is the Cilniana Association, an organisation dedicated to protecting and promoting the heritage of Marbella and neighbouring towns, which publishes its own magazine. Since 2009 the city has been home to Marbella University, the first private university in the province of Málaga. In 2013, the city welcomed the opening of Marbella International University Centre (MIUC), an international higher - education institution focused on Business, Politics and Media, and the only university in Andalusia where courses are taught in both English and Spanish.
The traditional cuisine of Marbella is that of the Malagueño coast and is based on seafood. The most typical dish is fried fish, using anchovies, mackerel, mullet or squid, amongst others. Gazpacho and garlic soup are very typical. Bakeries sell oil cakes, wine donuts, borrachuelos (aniseed rolls fried with a little wine and dipped into syrup), torrijas (similar to French toast) and churros (fritters). In addition to the traditional native cuisine, there are many restaurants in Marbella that serve food of the international, nouvelle, or fusion cuisines.
In June, the Fair and Fiesta of San Bernabe is celebrated to honour the patron saint of Marbella. For a week there are various activities and performances which are divided into two parts: Fair Day, which began in Old Town and is now held in the Avenida del Doctor Maíz Viñals and Fair Night, which takes place in Arroyo Primero. In October the fair and festivals in honour of the patron saint of San Pedro Alcantara are celebrated, which also last a full week. The smaller Fair and Festivals of Nueva Andalucía celebrated in early October in Las Chapas and El Ángel are also popular. Throughout the summer season (July to October) most barrios of Marbella have events organised by neighbourhood associations to encourage cultural activities including: bullfights, musical performances, photo competitions and sporting events. Among the best known associations are those of Santa Marta, Salto del Agua, Leganitos, Divina Pastora, Trapiche, Plaza de Toros and Miraflores. Other festivals and local celebrations include the Pilgrimages of Cruz de Juanar (May), La Virgen del Carmen (July) and La Virgen Madre (August), as well as the Día del Tostón (November), a traditional celebration which consists of going to the fields to roast chestnuts.
The city is especially popular with tourists from Northern Europe (including the United Kingdom, Ireland and Germany) and also Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. Marbella is particularly noted for the presence of aristocrats, celebrities and wealthy people; it is a popular destination for luxury yachts, and increasingly so for cruise ships, which dock in its harbour.
The area is popular with golfers and boaters, and there are many private estates and luxury hotels in the vicinity, including the Marbella Club Hotel. Marbella hosts a WTA tennis tournament on red clay, the Andalucia Tennis Experience.
Sights in or near Marbella include:
The short story Soñar un Crimen is set in Marbella. It details one of the infamous murders that occurred in the city.
Marbella was featured in the popular political thriller, Syriana. It was used as the location for a private party which an Arabian Emir hosts. Marbella was portrayed as an extremely affluent city with most cars at the entrance of the palace being very expensive. In the same year it appeared in Steven Spielberg 's Munich in a very similar context.
In 2006, there was an international advertisement advertising Marbella as a tourist destination. The song on the advert is aptly called Marbella and is performed by singer Cristie.
Torrente 2: Misión en Marbella and the Finnish 1985 comedy film Uuno Epsanjassa is situated in Marbella.
Many other films and TV programmes such as Nip / Tuck portray it as a playground for the rich.
ITV aired a TV programme in spring 2007 called Marbella Belles which portrays a series of British women who now live in Marbella with their rich partners.
Cast of Living on the Edge visit on the fourth episode of the first season.
It is also referenced in the stage play "Noises Off '' by Michael Frayn. The character Phillip and his wife Belinda have been tax exiles in Spain. The character Gary thinks he and his guest are alone in the house, when he spots Phillip, and thinks he 's a ghost. Gary: "Hold on a second, you 're not from the other world! '' Phillip: "Yes, yes, Marbella! ''
Carlos Baute 's song "Colgando en tus Manos '' mentions him and his love of holidaying in Marbella and Marta Sanchez sings this line in their duet version of the song.
The second half of series 2 of Auf Wiedersehen, Pet is set in Marbella.
The British TV show The Only Way Is Essex has filmed multiple times in Marbella, including the current series.
In 2011, the Spanish soap opera (telenovela) "La Reina del Sur '' starring Mexican actress Kate del Castillo was often filmed and based on locations in Marbella, which included many landmarks in the city.
In 2015, the British television channel ITVBe filmed Life on Marbs, a constructed reality series following a cast of regulars set in and around Marbella.
Marbella is twinned with:
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life love and the pursuit of happyness movie | The Pursuit of Happyness - wikipedia
Columbia Pictures
The Pursuit of Happyness is a 2006 American biographical drama film based on entrepreneur Chris Gardner 's nearly one - year struggle being homeless. Directed by Gabriele Muccino, the film features Will Smith as Gardner, a homeless salesman. Smith 's son Jaden Smith co-stars, making his film debut as Gardner 's son, Christopher Jr.
The screenplay by Steven Conrad is based on the best - selling eponymous memoir written by Gardner with Quincy Troupe. The film was released on December 15, 2006, by Columbia Pictures. For his performance, Smith was nominated for an Academy Award and a Golden Globe for Best Actor.
The unusual spelling of the film 's title comes from a mural that Gardner sees on the wall outside the daycare facility his son attends. He complains to the owner of the daycare that "happiness '' is incorrectly spelled as "happyness '' and needs to be changed.
In 1981, San Francisco salesman Chris Gardner invests his entire life savings in portable bone density scanners, which he demonstrates to doctors and pitches as a handy quantum leap over standard X-rays. The scanners play a vital role in Chris ' life. While he is able to sell most of them, the time lag between the sales and his growing financial demands enrage his already bitter and alienated wife Linda, who works as a hotel maid. The financial instability increasingly erodes their marriage, in spite of them caring for Christopher Jr., their soon - to - be five - year - old son.
While Chris is trying to sell one of the scanners, Gardner meets Jay Twistle, a manager for Dean Witter Reynolds, and impresses him by solving a Rubik 's Cube during a taxi ride. After Jay leaves, Gardner lacks money to pay the fare, and chooses to run instead. This resulted in the driver angrily chasing him into a BART station. Gardner boards a train but loses one of his scanners in the process. His new relationship with Jay earns him the chance to become an intern stockbroker. The day before the interview, Gardner grudgingly agrees to paint his apartment so as to postpone being evicted due to his difficulty in paying the rent. While painting, Gardner is greeted by two policemen at his doorstep, who take him to the station, stating he has to pay for his numerous parking tickets he has accumulated. As part of the sanction, Gardner is ordered to spend the night in jail instead, complicating his schedule for the interview the next morning. He manages to arrive at Dean Witter 's office on time, albeit still in his shabby clothes. Despite his appearance, he impresses the interviewers, and lands an unpaid internship. He would be amongst 20 interns competing for a paid position as a stockbroker.
Gardner 's unpaid internship does not please Linda, who eventually leaves for New York, because she might get a job at her sister 's boyfriend 's new restaurant. After Gardner bluntly says she is incapable of being a single mom, she agrees that Christopher Jr. will remain with his dad. Gardner is further set back when his bank account is garnished by the IRS for unpaid income taxes, and he and Christopher are evicted. He ends up with less than $22, resulting in them being homeless, and they are forced at one point to stay in a restroom at a BART station. Other days, he and Christopher spend nights at a homeless shelter, in BART, or, if he manages to procure cash, at a hotel. Later, Gardner finds the bone scanner that he lost in the BART station earlier and, after repairing it, sells it to a physician, thus completing all his sales of his scanners.
Disadvantaged by his limited work hours, and knowing that maximizing his client contacts and profits is the only way to earn the broker position, Gardner develops a number of ways to make phone sales calls more efficiently, including reaching out to potential high value customers, defying protocol. One sympathetic prospect who is a top - level pension fund manager even takes him and his son to a San Francisco 49ers game. Regardless of his challenges, he never reveals his lowly circumstances to his colleagues, even going so far as to lend one of his bosses five dollars for cab fare, a sum that he can not afford. Concluding his internship, Gardner is called into a meeting with his managers. One of them notes he is wearing a new shirt. Gardner explains it is his last day and thought to dress for the occasion. The manager smiles and says he should wear another one tomorrow, letting him know he has won the coveted full - time position giving him back his $5 as he promised. Fighting back tears, Gardner shakes hands with them, then rushes to his son 's daycare to embrace Christopher. They walk down the street, joking with each other (and are passed by the real Chris Gardner, in a business suit). The epilogue reveals that Gardner went on to form his own multimillion - dollar brokerage firm.
Chris Gardner realized his story had Hollywood potential after an overwhelming national response to an interview he did with 20 / 20 in January 2002. He published his autobiography on May 23, 2006, and later became an associate producer for the film. The movie took some liberties with Gardner 's true life story. Certain details and events that actually took place over the span of several years were compressed into a relatively short time and although eight - year - old Jaden portrayed Chris as a five - year - old, Gardner 's son was just a toddler at the time.
Chris Gardner reportedly thought Smith, an actor best known for his performances in action movies, was miscast to play him. However, he said his daughter Jacintha "set him straight '' by saying, "If Smith can play Muhammad Ali, he can play you! ''
Varèse Sarabande released a soundtrack album with the score composed by Andrea Guerra on January 9, 2007.
Also in the film are brief portions of "Higher Ground '' and "Jesus Children of America '', both sung by Stevie Wonder, and "Lord, Do n't Move the Mountain '' by Mahalia Jackson and Doris Akers, sung by the Glide Ensemble.
The film debuted first at the North American box office, earning $27 million during its opening weekend and beating out heavily promoted films such as Eragon and Charlotte 's Web. It was Smith 's sixth consecutive # 1 opening and one of Smith 's consecutive $100 million blockbusters. The film grossed $162,586,036 domestically in the US and Canada. In the hope Gardner 's story would inspire the down - trodden citizens of Chattanooga, Tennessee to achieve financial independence and to take greater responsibility for the welfare of their families, the mayor of Chattanooga organized a viewing of the film for the city 's homeless. Gardner himself felt that it was imperative to share his story for the sake of its widespread social issues. "When I talk about alcoholism in the household, domestic violence, child abuse, illiteracy, and all of those issues -- those are universal issues; those are not just confined to ZIP codes, '' he said.
The film was released on DVD on March 27, 2007, and as of November 2007, US Region 1 DVD sales accounted for an additional $89,923,088 in revenue, slightly less than half of what was earned in its first week of release. About 5,570,577 units have been sold, bringing in $90,582,602 in revenue.
The film was received generally positively by critics, with Smith receiving widespread acclaim for his performance. Film review site Rotten Tomatoes calculated a 67 % overall approval based on 171 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Will Smith 's heartfelt performance elevates The Pursuit of Happyness above mere melodrama. ''
In the San Francisco Chronicle, Mick LaSalle observed, "The great surprise of the picture is that it 's not corny... The beauty of the film is its honesty. In its outlines, it 's nothing like the usual success story depicted on - screen, in which, after a reasonable interval of disappointment, success arrives wrapped in a ribbon and a bow. Instead, this success story follows the pattern most common in life -- it chronicles a series of soul - sickening failures and defeats, missed opportunities, sure things that did n't quite happen, all of which are accompanied by a concomitant accretion of barely perceptible victories that gradually amount to something. In other words, it all feels real. ''
Manohla Dargis of The New York Times called the film "a fairy tale in realist drag... the kind of entertainment that goes down smoothly until it gets stuck in your craw... It 's the same old bootstraps story, an American dream artfully told, skillfully sold. To that calculated end, the film making is seamless, unadorned, transparent, the better to serve Mr. Smith 's warm expressiveness... How you respond to this man 's moving story may depend on whether you find Mr. Smith 's and his son 's performances so overwhelmingly winning that you buy the idea that poverty is a function of bad luck and bad choices, and success the result of heroic toil and dreams. ''
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded the film three out of a possible four stars and commented, "Smith is on the march toward Oscar... (His) role needs gravity, smarts, charm, humor and a soul that 's not synthetic. Smith brings it. He 's the real deal. ''
In Variety, Brian Lowry said the film "is more inspirational than creatively inspired -- imbued with the kind of uplifting, afterschool - special qualities that can trigger a major toothache... Smith 's heartfelt performance is easy to admire. But the movie 's painfully earnest tone should skew its appeal to the portion of the audience that, admittedly, has catapulted many cloying TV movies into hits... In the final accounting, (it) winds up being a little like the determined salesman Mr. Gardner himself: easy to root for, certainly, but not that much fun to spend time with. ''
Kevin Crust of the Los Angeles Times stated, "Dramatically it lacks the layering of a Kramer vs. Kramer, which it superficially resembles... Though the subject matter is serious, the film itself is rather slight, and it relies on the actor to give it any energy. Even in a more modest register, Smith is a very appealing leading man, and he makes Gardner 's plight compelling... The Pursuit of Happyness is an unexceptional film with exceptional performances... There are worse ways to spend the holidays, and, at the least, it will likely make you appreciate your own circumstances. ''
In the St. Petersburg Times, Steve Persall graded the film B - and added, "(It) is the obligatory feel - good drama of the holiday season and takes that responsibility a bit too seriously... the film lays so many obstacles and solutions before its resilient hero that the volume of sentimentality and coincidence makes it feel suspect... Neither Conrad 's script nor Muccino 's redundant direction shows (what) lifted the real - life Chris above better educated and more experienced candidates, but it comes through in the earnest performances of the two Smiths. Father Will seldom comes across this mature on screen; at the finale, he achieves a measure of Oscar - worthy emotion. Little Jaden is a chip off the old block, uncommonly at ease before the cameras. Their real - life bond is an inestimable asset to the on - screen characters ' relationship, although Conrad never really tests it with any conflict. ''
National Review Online has named the film # 7 in its list of ' The Best Conservative Movies '. Linda Chavez of the Center for Equal Opportunity wrote, "this film provides the perfect antidote to Wall Street and other Hollywood diatribes depicting the world of finance as filled with nothing but greed. ''
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the type of tissue that does the work of an organ | Tissue (biology) - wikipedia
In biology, tissue is a cellular organizational level between cells and a complete organ. A tissue is an ensemble of similar cells and their extracellular matrix from the same origin that together carry out a specific function. Organs are then formed by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues.
Etymology: from the French "tissue '', from "tisser '', meaning something that is woven, referring to the fact this organ is made of layers of cells.
The study of tissue is known as histology or, in connection with disease, histopathology. The classical tools for studying tissues are the paraffin block in which tissue is embedded and then sectioned, the histological stain, and the optical microscope. In the last couple of decades, developments in electron microscopy, immunofluorescence, and the use of frozen tissue sections have enhanced the detail that can be observed in tissues. With these tools, the classical appearances of tissues can be examined in health and disease, enabling considerable refinement of medical diagnosis and prognosis.
Animal tissues are grouped into four basic types: connective, muscle, nervous, and epithelial. Collections of tissues joined in structural units to serve a common function compose organs. While all animals can generally be considered to contain the four tissue types, the manifestation of these tissues can differ depending on the type of organism. For example, the origin of the cells comprising a particular tissue type may differ developmentally for different classifications of animals.
The epithelium in all birds and animals is derived from the ectoderm and endoderm with a small contribution from the mesoderm, forming the endothelium, a specialized type of epithelium that composes the vasculature. By contrast, a true epithelial tissue is present only in a single layer of cells held together via occluding junctions called tight junctions, to create a selectively permeable barrier. This tissue covers all organismal surfaces that come in contact with the external environment such as the skin, the airways, and the digestive tract. It serves functions of protection, secretion, and absorption, and is separated from other tissues below by a basal lamina.
Connective tissues are fibrous tissues. They are made up of cells separated by non-living material, which is called an extracellular matrix. This matrix can be liquid or rigid. For example, blood contains plasma as its matrix and bone 's matrix is rigid. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place. Blood, bone, tendon, ligament, adipose and areolar tissues are examples of connective tissues. One method of classifying connective tissues is to divide them into three types: fibrous connective tissue, skeletal connective tissue, and fluid connective tissue.
Muscle cells form the active contractile tissue of the body known as muscle tissue or muscular tissue. Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle tissue is separated into three distinct categories: visceral or smooth muscle, found in the inner linings of organs; skeletal muscle, typically attached to bones and which generates gross movement; and cardiac muscle, found in the heart where it contracts to pump blood throughout an organism.
Cells comprising the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified as nervous (or neural) tissue. In the central nervous system, neural tissues form the brain and spinal cord. In the peripheral nervous system, neural tissues forms the cranial nerves and spinal nerves, inclusive of the motor neurons.
The epithelial tissues are formed by cells that cover the organ surfaces such as the surface of skin, the airways, the reproductive tract, and the inner lining of the digestive tract. The cells comprising an epithelial layer are linked via semi-permeable, tight junctions; hence, this tissue provides a barrier between the external environment and the organ it covers. In addition to this protective function, epithelial tissue may also be specialized to function in secretion, excretion and absorption. Epithelial tissue helps to protect organs from microorganisms, injury, and fluid loss.
Functions of epithelial tissue:
There are many kinds of epithelium, and nomenclature is somewhat variable. Most classification schemes combine a description of the cell - shape in the upper layer of the epithelium with a word denoting the number of layers: either simple (one layer of cells) or stratified (multiple layers of cells). However, other cellular features, such as cilia may also be described in the classification system. Some common kinds of epithelium are listed below:
Plant tissues are categorized broadly into three tissue systems: the epidermis, the ground tissue, and the vascular tissue.
Plant tissues can also be divided differently into two types:
Meristematic tissue consists of actively dividing cells, and leads to increase in length and thickness of the plant. The primary growth of a plant occurs only in certain, specific regions, such as in the tips of stems or roots. It is in these regions that meristematic tissue is present. Cells in these tissues are roughly spherical or polyhedral, to rectangular in shape, and have thin cell walls. New cells produced by meristem are initially those of meristem itself, but as the new cells grow and mature, their characteristics slowly change and they become differentiated as components of the region of occurrence of meristimatic tissues, they are classified as:
The cells of meristematic tissues are similar in structure and have thin and elastic primary cell wall made up of cellulose. They are compactly arranged without inter-cellular spaces between them. Each cell contains a dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus. Dense protoplasm of meristematic cells contains very few vacuoles. Normally the meristematic cells are oval, polygonal or rectangular in shape.
Meristemetic tissue cells have a large nucleus with small or no vacuoles, they have no inter cellular spaces.
The meristematic tissues that take up a specific role lose the ability to divide. This process of taking up a permanent shape, size and a function is called cellular differentiation. Cells of meristematic tissue differentiate to form different types of permanent tissue. There are 3 types of permanent tissues:
A group of cells which are similar in origin; similar in structure and similar in function are called simple permanent tissue. They are of four types:
Parenchyma (para - ' beside '; chyma - ' in filling, loose, unpacked ') is the bulk of a substance. In plants, it consists of relatively unspecialised living cells with thin cell walls that are usually loosely packed so that intercellular spaces are found between cells of this tissue. This tissue provides support to plants and also stores food. In some situations, a parenchyma contains chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis, in which case it is called a chlorenchyma. In aquatic plants, large air cavities are present in parenchyma to give support to them to float on water. Such a parenchyma type is called aerenchyma.
Collenchyma is Greek word where "Collen '' means gum and "chyma '' means infusion. It is a living tissue of primary body like Parenchyma. Cells are thin - walled but possess thickening of cellulose, water and pectin substances (pectocellulose) at the corners where number of cells join together. This tissue gives a tensile strength to the plant and the cells are compactly arranged and have very little inter-cellular spaces. It occurs chiefly in hypodermis of stems and leaves. It is absent in monocots and in roots.
Collenchymatous tissue acts as a supporting tissue in stems of young plants. It provides mechanical support, elasticity, and tensile strength to the plant body. It helps in manufacturing sugar and storing it as starch. It is present in the margin of leaves and resist tearing effect of the wind.
Sclerenchyma is Greek word where "Sclrenes '' means hard and "chyma '' means infusion. This tissue consists of thick - walled, dead cells. These cells have hard and extremely thick secondary walls due to uniform distribution of lignin. Lignin deposition is so thick that the cell walls become strong, rigid and impermeable to water.
The entire surface of the plant consists of a single layer of cells called epidermis or surface tissue. The entire surface of the plant has this outer layer of epidermis. Hence it is also called surface tissue. Most of the epidermal cells are relatively flat. The outer and lateral walls of the cell are often thicker than the inner walls. The cells forms a continuous sheet without inter cellular spaces. It protects all parts of the plant.
The complex tissue consists of more than one type of cells which work together as a unit. Complex tissues help in the transportation of organic material, water and minerals up and down the plants. That is why it is also known as conducting and vascular tissue. The common types of complex permanent tissue are:
Xylem and phloem together form vascular bundles.
Xylem consists of:
Xylem serves as a chief conducting tissue of vascular plants. It is responsible for the conduction of water and mineral ions / salt.
Xylem tissue is organized in a tube - like fashion along the main axes of stems and roots. It consists of a combination of parenchyma cells, fibers, vessels, tracheids, and ray cells. Longer tubes made up of individual cells are vessels (tracheae), while vessel members are open at each end. Internally, there may be bars of wall material extending across the open space. These cells are joined end to end to form long tubes. Vessel members and tracheids are dead at maturity. Tracheids have thick secondary cell walls and are tapered at the ends. They do not have end openings such as the vessels. The tracheids ends overlap with each other, with pairs of pits present. The pit pairs allow water to pass from cell to cell.
Though most conduction in xylem tissue is vertical, lateral conduction along the diameter of a stem is facilitated via rays. Rays are horizontal rows of long - living parenchyma cells that arise out of the vascular cambium. In trees and other woody plants, rays radiate out from the center of stems and roots, and appear like spokes on a wheel in cross section. Rays, unlike vessel members and tracheids, are alive at functional maturity.
Phloem consists of:
Phloem is an equally important plant tissue as it also is part of the ' plumbing system ' of a plant. Primarily, phloem carries dissolved food substances throughout the plant. This conduction system is composed of sieve - tube member and companion cells, that are without secondary walls. The parent cells of the vascular cambium produce both xylem and phloem. This usually also includes fibers, parenchyma and ray cells. Sieve tubes are formed from sieve - tube members laid end to end. The end walls, unlike vessel members in xylem, do not have openings. The end walls, however, are full of small pores where cytoplasm extends from cell to cell. These porous connections are called sieve plates. In spite of the fact that their cytoplasm is actively involved in the conduction of food materials, sieve - tube members do not have nuclei at maturity. It is the companion cells that are nestled between sieve - tube members that function in some manner bringing about the conduction of food. Sieve - tube members that are alive contain a polymer called callose, a carbohydrate polymer, forming the callus pad / callus, the colourless substance that covers the sieve plate. Callose stays in solution as long as the cell contents are under pressure. Phloem transports food and materials in plants upwards and downwards as required.
Mineralized tissues are biological tissues that incorporate minerals into soft matrices. Such tissues may be found in both plants and animals, as well as algae. Typically these tissues form a protective shield against predation or provide structural support.
The term "tissue '' comes from the French tissu, a belt of woven, and was introduced in anatomy by Marie François Xavier Bichat in 1801. He argued that the body functions would be better understood taking as unity of study the tissues, and not the organs. Bichat distinguished 21 types of elementary tissues for the human body, a number later reduced by other authors.
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where does wonder woman's power come from | Wonder Woman - wikipedia
Wonder Woman is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character is a founding member of the Justice League, goddess, and Ambassador - at - Large of the Amazonian people. The character first appeared in All Star Comics # 8 in October 1941 and first cover - dated on Sensation Comics # 1, January 1942. In her homeland, the island nation of Themyscira, her official title is Princess Diana of Themyscira, Daughter of Hippolyta. When blending into the society outside of her homeland, she adopts her civilian identity Diana Prince. The character is also referred to by such epithets as the "Amazing Amazon '', the "Spirit of Truth '', "Themyscira 's Champion '', and the "Goddess of Love and War ''.
Wonder Woman was created by the American psychologist and writer William Moulton Marston (pen name: Charles Moulton), and artist Harry G. Peter. Olive Byrne, Marston 's lover, and his wife, Elizabeth, are credited as being his inspiration for the character 's appearance. Marston drew a great deal of inspiration from early feminists, and especially from birth control pioneer Margaret Sanger; in particular, her piece "Woman and the New Race ''. The character first appeared in All Star Comics # 8 in October 1941 and first cover - dated on Sensation Comics # 1, January 1942. The Wonder Woman title has been published by DC Comics almost continuously except for a brief hiatus in 1986.
Wonder Woman 's origin story relates that she was sculpted from clay by her mother Queen Hippolyta and given life by Aphrodite, along with superhuman powers as gifts by the Greek gods. However, in recent years artists updated her profile: she has been depicted as the daughter of Zeus, and jointly raised by her mother Hippolyta and her aunts Antiope and Menalippe. In the 1980s artist George Perez gave her a muscular look and emphasized her Amazonian heritage. In 2010 artist Jim Lee redesigned Diana 's costume to include pants, though this design was later abandoned. She inherits Ares 's divine abilities, becoming the personified "God of War ''.
Wonder Woman 's Amazonian training helped to develop a wide range of extraordinary skills in tactics, hunting, and combat. She possesses an arsenal of advanced technology, including the Lasso of Truth, a pair of indestructible bracelets, a tiara which serves as a projectile, and, in older stories, a range of devices based on Amazon technology. Wonder Woman 's character was created during World War II; the character in the story was initially depicted fighting Axis military forces as well as an assortment of colorful supervillains, although over time her stories came to place greater emphasis on characters, deities, and monsters from Greek mythology. Many stories depicted Wonder Woman rescuing herself from bondage, which defeated the "damsels in distress '' trope that was common in comics during the 1940s. In the decades since her debut, Wonder Woman has gained a cast of enemies bent on eliminating the Amazon, including classic villains such as Ares, Cheetah, Doctor Poison, Circe, Doctor Psycho, and Giganta, along with more recent adversaries such as Veronica Cale and the First Born. Wonder Woman has also regularly appeared in comic books featuring the superhero teams Justice Society (from 1941) and Justice League (from 1960).
Notable depictions of the character in other media include Gloria Steinem placing the character on the cover of the second edition of Ms. magazine in 1971; the 1975 -- 1979 Wonder Woman TV series starring Lynda Carter; as well as animated series such as the Super Friends and Justice League. Since Carter 's television series, studios struggled to introduce a new live - action Wonder Woman to audiences, although the character continued to feature in a variety of toys and merchandise, as well as animated adaptations of DC properties, including a direct - to - DVD animated feature starring Keri Russell. Attempts to return Wonder Woman to television have included a television pilot for NBC in 2011, closely followed by another stalled production for The CW. Gal Gadot portrays Wonder Woman in the DC Extended Universe, starting with the 2016 film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, marking the character 's first appearance in a feature film in its 75 - year history. Gadot also starred in the character 's first solo live - action film Wonder Woman, which was released on June 2, 2017.
On October 21, 2016, the United Nations sparked controversy by naming Wonder Woman a "UN Honorary Ambassador for the Empowerment of Women and Girls '' in a ceremony attended by Under - Secretary - General for Communications and Public Information Cristina Gallach and by actors Lynda Carter and Gal Gadot. Two months later, she was dropped from her role as a UN Ambassador following a petition.
In an October 25, 1940, interview with the Family Circle magazine, William Moulton Marston discussed the unfulfilled potential of the comic book medium. This article caught the attention of comics publisher Max Gaines, who hired Marston as an educational consultant for National Periodicals and All - American Publications, two of the companies that would merge to form DC Comics. At that time, Marston wanted to create his own new superhero; Marston 's wife Elizabeth suggested to him that it should be a woman:
William Moulton Marston, a psychologist already famous for inventing the polygraph, struck upon an idea for a new kind of superhero, one who would triumph not with fists or firepower, but with love. "Fine, '' said Elizabeth. "But make her a woman. ''
Marston introduced the idea to Gaines. Given the go - ahead, Marston developed Wonder Woman, whom he believed to be a model of that era 's unconventional, liberated woman. Marston also drew inspiration from the bracelets worn by Olive Byrne, who lived with the couple in a polyamorous relationship. Wonder Woman debuted in All Star Comics # 8 (cover date Dec / Jan 1941 / 1942, released in October 1941), scripted by Marston.
Marston was the creator of a systolic - blood - pressure - measuring apparatus, which was crucial to the development of the polygraph (lie detector). Marston 's experience with polygraphs convinced him that women were more honest than men in certain situations and could work more efficiently.
Marston designed Wonder Woman to be an allegory for the ideal love leader; the kind of women who (he believed) should run society.
"Wonder Woman is psychological propaganda for the new type of woman who should, I believe, rule the world '', Marston wrote.
In a 1943 issue of The American Scholar, Marston wrote:
Not even girls want to be girls so long as our feminine archetype lacks force, strength, and power. Not wanting to be girls, they do n't want to be tender, submissive, peace - loving as good women are. Women 's strong qualities have become despised because of their weakness. The obvious remedy is to create a feminine character with all the strength of Superman plus all the allure of a good and beautiful woman.
Marston went on record by describing bondage and submission as a "respectable and noble practice ''. Marston wrote in a weakness for Wonder Woman, which was attached to a fictional stipulation that he dubbed "Aphrodite 's Law '', that made the chaining of her "Bracelets of Submission '' together by a man take away her Amazonian super strength. However, not everything about his creation was explicitly explained in any one source, which caused confusion among writers and fans for many years.
Initially, Wonder Woman was an Amazon champion who wins the right to return Steve Trevor -- a United States intelligence officer whose plane had crashed on the Amazons ' isolated island homeland -- to "Man 's World '' and to fight crime and the evil of the Nazis.
During this period, Wonder Woman joined the Justice Society of America as the team 's secretary.
During the Silver Age, under writer Robert Kanigher, Wonder Woman 's origin was revamped, along with other characters '. The new origin story increased the character 's Hellenic and mythological roots: receiving the blessing of each deity in her crib, Diana is destined to become "beautiful as Aphrodite, wise as Athena, as strong as Hercules, and as swift as Hermes. ''
At the end of the 1960s, under the guidance of Mike Sekowsky, Wonder Woman surrendered her powers in order to remain in Man 's World rather than accompany her fellow Amazons to another dimension. Wonder Woman begins using the alias Diana Prince and opens a mod boutique. She acquires a Chinese mentor named I Ching, who teaches Diana martial arts and weapons skills. Using her fighting skill instead of her powers, Diana engaged in adventures that encompassed a variety of genres, from espionage to mythology. This phase of her story was directly influenced by the British spy thriller The Avengers and Diana Rigg 's portrayal of Emma Peel.
In the early 1970s the character returned to her superhero roots in the Justice League of America and to the World War II era in her own title. This however, was ultimately due to the popularity of the TV series at the time also having Wonder Woman set in WW2 era, and was shifted back to the 1970s era once the TV show did the same.
With a new decade arriving, DC president Jenette Kahn ordered a revamp in Wonder Woman 's appearance. Artist Milton Glaser, who also designed the "bullet '' logo adopted by DC in 1977, created a stylized "WW '' emblem that evoked and replaced the eagle in her bodice, and debuted in 1982. The emblem in turn was incorporated by studio letterer Todd Klein onto the monthly title 's logo, which lasted for a year and a half before being replaced by a version from Glaser 's studio. With sales of the title continuing to decline in 1985 (despite an unpublished revamp that was solicited), the series was canceled and ended in issue # 329 (February 1986) written by Gerry Conway, depicting Steve Trevor 's marriage to Wonder Woman.
The Crisis on Infinite Earths cross-over of 1986 was designed and written with the purpose of streamlining most of DC 's characters into one more - focused continuity and reinventing them for a new era, thus Wonder Woman and Steve Trevor were declared to come from the Earth - Two dimension, and along with all of their exploits, were erased from history, so that a new Wonder Woman character, story and timeline could take priority.
Following the 1985 Crisis on Infinite Earths series, George Pérez, Len Wein, and Greg Potter rewrote the character 's origin story, depicting Wonder Woman as an emissary and ambassador from Themyscira to Patriarch 's World, charged with the mission of bringing peace to the outside world. Pérez incorporated a variety of deities and concepts from Greek mythology in Wonder Woman 's stories and origin. His rendition of the character acted as the foundation for the modern Wonder Woman stories, as he expanded upon the widely accepted origin of Diana being birthed out of clay. The relaunch was a critical and commercial success.
In August 2010 (issue # 600), J. Michael Straczynski took over the series ' writing duties and introduced Wonder Woman to an alternate timeline created by the Gods in which Paradise Island had been destroyed and the Amazons scattered around the world. In this timeline, Diana is an orphan raised in New York. The entire world has forgotten Wonder Woman 's existence and the main story of this run was of Diana trying to restore reality even though she does not properly remember it herself. A trio of Death Goddesses called The Morrigan acted as the main enemy of Wonder Woman. In this run, Wonder Woman wears a new costume designed by Jim Lee. Straczynski determined the plot and continued writing duties until Wonder Woman # 605; writer Phil Hester then continued his run, which ultimately concluded in Wonder Woman # 614.
In 2011, DC Comics relaunched its entire line of publications to attract a new generation of readers, and thus released volume 4 of the Wonder Woman comic book title. Brian Azzarello and Cliff Chiang were assigned on writing and art duties respectively and revamped the character 's history considerably. In this new continuity, Wonder Woman wears a costume similar to her original Marston - costume, utilizes a sword and shield, and has a completely new origin. No longer a clay figure brought to life by the magic of the gods, she is, instead, a demi - goddess and the natural - born daughter of Hippolyta and Zeus. Azzarello and Chiang 's revamp of the character was critically acclaimed, but highly divisive among long time fans of the character.
In a side story as part of "Harley 's Little Black Book '' Wonder Woman meets Harley Quinn in London and has a brief team up with her in which we find that Harley has been a huge fan of Wonder Woman for years and has a bit of a crush on her. After the fight with the villain the two retire to a local bar where Harley suggests they join an English super team and then steals her magic lasso, but just to wrap it around herself so they and some of the other patrons can play truth or dare. They are last seen with Wonder Woman carrying Harley out of the bar asleep, though an additional piece of art shows Harley tied up and planting kisses on Wonder Woman.
In 2016, DC Comics once again relaunched all of its publications as part of the "DC Rebirth '' continuity reboot, which has a new bi-monthly Wonder Woman series from writer Greg Rucka. The new series does not use a regular storyline that exists between each issue; instead two separate storylines share the book, with an installment of one story published every other issue, and those of the other storyline published in between those. This practice began with the storyline "The Lies '' for the odd numbered issues, and "Year One '' for the even numbered issues. The new storyline as presented in these issues effectively retcons the events from the previous New 52 series. "The Lies '' storyline reveals that a number of events from the previous Wonder Woman series in which Diana was made the Queen of the Amazons and the God of War, was in fact all an illusion created by a mysterious villain, and she had never once been back to Themyscira ever since she left, nor is she capable of returning there. The "Year One '' story is presented as an all - new origin story for Diana, which reveals how she received her powers from the Olympian Gods, which was intended to bring her back to her classical DC roots. Wonder Woman appears in DC Rebirth with a revised look, which includes a red cape and light armor fittings. Along with her lasso and bracelets, she now regularly utilizes her sword and shield. Wonder Woman: Rebirth artist Liam Sharp described the new armor as a utilitarian piece which allows her to move more freely.
During Marston 's run, Diana Prince was the name of an army nurse whom Wonder Woman met. The nurse wanted to meet her fiancé, who was transferred to South America, but was unable to arrange for money to do so. As Wonder Woman needed a secret identity to look after Steve (who was admitted to the same army hospital in which Diana Prince worked), and because both of them looked alike, Wonder Woman gave the nurse money to go to her fiancé in exchange for the nurse 's credentials and took Diana Prince as her alias. She started to work as an army nurse and later as an Air Force secretary.
The identity of Diana Prince was especially prominent in a series published in the early 1970s, in which she fought crime only under the Prince alias and without her mystic powers. To support herself, she ran a mod clothing boutique.
The Diana Prince alias also played an important role after the events of Infinite Crisis. Wonder Woman was broadcast worldwide killing a villain named Maxwell Lord, as he was mind controlling Superman into killing Batman. When Wonder Woman caught him in her lasso, demanding to know how to stop Superman, Maxwell revealed that the only way to stop him was to kill Lord, so as a last resort Diana snapped his neck. To recover from the trauma of killing another person, the Amazon went into a self - imposed exile for one year. On her return to public life, Diana realized that her life as a full - time celebrity superhero and ambassador had kept her removed from humanity. Because of this she assumed the persona of Diana Prince and became an agent at the Department of Metahuman Affairs. During a later battle with the witch Circe, a spell was placed on Diana leaving her powerless when not in the guise of Wonder Woman.
In the current New 52 universe, Diana does not have a secret identity as stated in an interview by series writer Brian Azzarello. However, when she and Superman began dating, for her civilian identity she uses the Diana Prince alias whenever she is around Clark Kent; such as when she introduced herself to Lois Lane at Lois 's housewarming party under that name.
Princess Diana commands respect both as Wonder Woman and Diana Prince; her epithetical title -- The Amazon Princess -- illustrates the dichotomy of her character. She is a powerful, strong - willed character who does not back down from a fight or a challenge. Yet, she is a diplomat who strongly "favors the pen '', and a lover of peace who would never seek to fight or escalate a conflict. She 's simultaneously both the most fierce and most nurturing member of the Justice League; and her political connections as a United Nations Honorary Ambassador and the ambassador of a warrior nation makes her an invaluable addition to the team. With her powerful abilities, centuries of training and experienced at handling threats that range from petty crime to threats that are of a magical or supernatural nature, Diana is capable of competing with nearly any hero or villain.
Many writers have depicted Diana in different personalities and tone; between both of her diametric extremes; that of a worldy warrior, a highly compassionate and calm ambassador, and sometimes also as a naive and innocent person, depending on the writer. What has remained constant, and is a mainstay of the character, is her nurturing humanity: her overwhelming belief in love, empathy, compassion, and having a strong conscience. This trait had been the reason for her induction into the Star Sapphires.
Writer Gail Simone was applauded for her portrayal of Wonder Woman during her run on the series, with comic book reviewer Dan Phillips of IGN noting that "she 's molded Diana into a very relatable and sympathetic character. ''
Actress Gal Gadot described Wonder Woman as "an idealist. Experienced, super-confident. Open and sincere even in the midst of a gruesome, bloody conflict. Having many strengths and powers, but at the end of the day she 's a woman with a lot of emotional intelligence ''.
In the Golden Age, Wonder Woman adhered to an Amazon code of helping any in need, even misogynistic people, and never accepting a reward for saving someone; while conversely, the modern version of the character has been shown to perform lethal and fatal actions when left with no other alternative, exemplified in the killing of Maxwell Lord in order to save Superman 's life.
The New 52 version of the character has been portrayed to be a younger, more headstrong, loving, fierce and willful person. Brian Azzarello stated in a video interview with DC Comics that they 're building a very "confident '', "impulsive '' and "good - hearted '' character in her. He referred to her trait of feeling compassion as both her strength and weakness.
A distinctive trait of her characterization is a group of signature mythological exclamations, such as "Great Aphrodite! '' (historically the very first one), "Great Hera! '', "Merciful Minerva! '', and "Suffering Sappho! ', some of which were contributed by Elizabeth Holloway Marston.
Diana, after her death, was granted divinity as the Goddess of Truth by her gods for such faithful devotion. During her brief time as a god of Olympus, Diana was replaced in the role of Wonder Woman by her mother, Queen Hippolyta. Unlike Diana receiving the title of Wonder Woman in honor, Hippolyta 's role as Wonder Woman was meant to be a punishment for her betrayal in Artemis ' death as well as for unintentionally killing her own daughter. However, Hippolyta eventually grew to enjoy the freedom and adventure the title came with. Whereas Diana used the Lasso of Truth as her primary weapon, Hippolyta favored a broad sword.
John Byrne, the writer that introduced the concept of Hippolyta as the first Wonder Woman, has explained his intentions in a post in his message board:
I thought George 's one "mistake '' in rebooting Wonder Woman was making her only 25 years old when she left Paradise Island. I preferred the idea of a Diana who was thousands of years old (as, if I recall correctly, she was in the TV series). From that angle, I would have liked to have seen Diana having been Wonder Woman in WW2, and be returning to our world in the reboot.
Not having that option, I took the next best course, and had Hippolyta fill that role.
As Wonder Woman, Queen Hippolyta immediately got involved in a time travel mission back to the 1940s with Jay Garrick. After this mission, she elected to join the Justice Society of America and remained in that era for eight years, where her teammates nicknamed her "Polly ''. During that time she had a relationship with Ted Grant. Hippolyta also made visits into the past to see her godchild Lyta, daughter of Hippolyta 's protege Helena, the Golden Age Fury. These visits happened yearly from young Lyta 's perspective and also accounted for Hippolyta 's participation in the JSA / JLA team ups. When she returned from the past, Hippolyta took Diana 's place in the JLA as well.
Artemis of Bana - Mighdall briefly served as Wonder Woman during Hippolyta 's trials for a new Wonder Woman. Orana, a character similar to Artemis, defeated Diana in a new contest and became Wonder Woman in pre-Crisis on Infinite Earths continuity. Orana was killed during her first mission. Others who have donned the Wonder Woman persona include Nubia, Cassandra Sandsmark, and Donna Troy.
Diana is depicted as a masterful athlete, acrobat, fighter and strategist, trained and experienced in many ancient and modern forms of armed and unarmed combat, including exclusive Amazonian martial arts. In some versions, her mother trained her, as Wonder Girl, for a future career as Wonder Woman. From the beginning, she is portrayed as highly skilled in using her Amazon bracelets to stop bullets and in wielding her golden lasso. Batman once called her the "best melee fighter in the world ''. The modern version of the character is known to use lethal force when she deems it necessary. In the New 52 continuity, her superior combat skills are the result of her Amazon training, as well as receiving further training from Ares, the God of War, himself, since as early as her childhood. The Golden Age Wonder Woman also had knowledge in psychology, as did her Amazon sisters.
The Golden Age Wonder Woman had strength that was comparable to the Golden Age Superman. Wonder Woman was capable of bench pressing 15,000 pounds even before she had received her bracelets, and later hoisted a 50,000 pound boulder above her head to inspire Amazons facing the test. Even when her super strength was temporarily nullified, she still had enough mortal strength of an Amazon to break down a prison door to save Steve Trevor. In one of her earliest appearances, she is shown running easily at 60 mph (97 km / h), and later jumps from a building and lands on the balls of her feet.
She was able to heal faster than a normal human being due to her birthright consumption of water from Paradise Island 's Fountain of Eternal Youth.
Her strength would be removed in accordance with "Aphrodite 's Law '' if she allowed her bracelets to be bound or chained by a male.
She also had an array of mental and psychic abilities, as corresponding to Marston 's interest in parapsychology and metaphysics. Such an array included ESP, astral projection, telepathy (with or without the Mental Radio), mental control over the electricity in her body, the Amazonian ability to turn brain energy into muscle power, etc. Wonder Woman first became immune to electric shocks after having her spirit stripped from her atoms by Dr. Psycho 's Electro Atomizer; it was also discovered that she was unable to send a mental radio message without her body.
Wonder Woman (vol. 1) # 105 revealed that Diana was formed from clay by the Queen of the Amazons, given life and power by four of the Greek and Roman gods (otherwise known as the Olympian deities) as gifts, corresponding to her renowned epithet: "Beautiful as Aphrodite, wise as Athena, swifter than Hermes, and stronger than Hercules '', making her the strongest of the Amazons. Wonder Woman 's Amazon training gave her limited telepathy, profound scientific knowledge, and the ability to speak every language -- even caveman and Martian languages.
Between 1966 and 1967, new powers were added, such as super breath.
In the Silver and Bronze ages of comics, Wonder Woman was able to further increase her strength. In times of great need, removing her bracelets would temporarily augment her power tenfold, but cause her to go berserk in the process.
These powers received changes after the events of Crisis on Infinite Earths.
In the Post-Crisis universe, Wonder Woman receives her super powers as a blessing from Olympian deities just like the Silver Age version before, but with changes to some of her powers:
While not completely invulnerable, she is highly resistant to great amounts of concussive force and extreme temperatures and matches Superman in this regard, although edged weapons or projectiles applied with sufficient force are able to pierce her skin. Due to her divine origins, Diana can resist many forms of magical manipulation.
She is able to astrally project herself into various lands of myth. Her physical body reacts to whatever happens to her on the mythical astral plane, leaving her body cut, bruised, or sometimes strengthened once her mind and body are reunited. She can apparently leave the planet through meditation, and did this once to rescue Artemis while she was in hell.
After the 2011 relaunch, Diana gained new powers. As the biological daughter of Hippolyta and Zeus, she has inherited some of her father 's powers, which are held in check by the wearing her magic bracelets. She uses these powers in battle against the goddess Artemis and quickly renders her unconscious with ease with a series of carefully positioned counterattacks. While using her godly strength, her outfit and accoutrements lit up and her eyes glowed like her father 's.
After becoming the God of War in the pages of Wonder Woman, Diana inherits Ares 's divine abilities. Diana has not exhibited her full powers as War, but is seen in Superman / Wonder Woman # 5 to slip easily into telepathic rapport with a soldier, explaining "I am War. I know all soldiers, and they know me. ''
During the Rebirth retcon, the "Year One '' storyline explains that while put in a cell after coming to Man 's World, Diana was visited by the Greek gods in animal form, and each gave her powers that would reveal themselves when she needed them to. She first displays strength when she accidentally rips the bars off her cell door when visited by Steve Trevor, Etta Candy, and Barbara Ann Minerva. Later on a trip to the mall, she discovers super speed, great durability, and the power of flight while fighting off a terrorist attack.
Diana has an arsenal of powerful god - forged gear at her disposal, but her signature equipment are her indestructible bracelets and the Lasso of Truth.
Wonder Woman 's outfit has varied over time, although almost all of her outfit incarnations have retained some form of breastplate, tiara, bracelets, and her signature five - pointed star symbols.
Wonder Woman 's outfit design was originally rooted in American symbolism and iconography, which included her signature star symbols, a golden eagle on her chest, crimson red bustier, white belt, and a dark blue star spangled skirt / culotte.
She also had a pair of red glowing magnetic earrings which allowed her to receive messages from Queen Desira of the planet Venus.
At the time of her debut, Wonder Woman sported a red top with a golden eagle emblem, a white belt, blue star - spangled culottes, and red and golden go - go boots. She originally wore a skirt; however according to Elizabeth Martson, "It was too hard to draw and would have been over her head most of the time. '' This outfit was entirely based on the American flag, because Wonder Woman was purely an American icon as she debuted during World War II. Later in 1942, Wonder Woman 's outfit received a slight change -- the culottes were converted entirely into skin - tight shorts and she wore sandals. While earlier most of her back was exposed, during the imposition of the Comics Code Authority in the mid-1950s, Wonder Woman 's outfit was rectified to make her back substantially covered, in order to comply with the Authority 's rule of minimum exposure. During Mike Sekowsky 's run in the late 1960s, Diana surrendered her powers and started using her own skill to fight crime. She wore a series of jumpsuits as her attire, most popular of these was a white one.
After Sekowsky 's run ended in the early 1970s, Diana 's roots were reverted to her old mythological ones and she wore a more modernized version of her original outfit, a predecessor to her "bathing suit '' outfit. Later, in 1976, her glowing white belt was turned into a yellow one. For Series 3, artist Terry Dodson redrew her outfit as a strapless swimsuit.
After Crisis On Infinite Earths, George Pérez rebooted the character in 1987. She wore an outfit similar to her 1970s one, but now with a larger glowing golden belt. This outfit continued until William Messner - Loebs ' run, which had Diana pass on the role of Wonder Woman to Artemis. No longer Wonder Woman, Diana sported a new black biker - girl outfit designed by artist Mike Deodato Jr. After John Byrne took over writing and art duties, he redesigned the Wonder Woman outfit (Diana was reinstated as Wonder Woman at the end of Loebs ' run) and joined the emblem and belt together.
Her outfit did not receive any prominent change until after the 2005 -- 2006 "Infinite Crisis '' storyline. Similar to her chest - plate, her glowing belt was also shaped into a "W ''. This outfit continued until issue # 600 -- J. Michael Straczynski 's run of Wonder Woman 's altered timeline changed her outfit drastically. Her outfit was redesigned by Jim Lee and included a redesigned emblem, a golden and red top, black pants, and a later discontinued blue - black jacket.
It was later retconned by Gail Simone that Wonder Woman 's outfit design had Amazonian roots. During a flashback in Vol. 3, Hippolyta is shown issuing orders to have a garment created for Diana, taking inspiration from the skies on the night Diana was born; a red hunter 's moon and a field of stars against deep blue, and the eagle breastplate being a symbol of Athena 's avian representations.
Another major outfit change for Wonder Woman came about as part of DC Comics ' 2011 relaunch of its entire line of publications, The New 52. The character 's original one - piece outfit was restored, although the color combination of red and blue was changed to dark red and blue - black. Her chest - plate, belt and tiara were also changed from gold to a platinum or sterling silver color. Along with her sword, she now also utilizes a shield. She wears many accessories such as arm and neck jewelery styled as the "WW '' motif. Her outfit is no longer made of fabric, as it now resembles a type of light, flexible body armor. Her boots are now a very dark blue rather than red. The design previously included black trousers, but they were removed and the one - piece look was restored during the time of publication.
After the events of the 2015 storyline "Convergence '', Diana gets a new armored suit with the classic armor and tiara returning.
Wonder Woman 's outfit is redesigned to resemble the one worn in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice: it is a red bustier with a gold eagle, a blue growing leather skirt with gold edges with two stars, and knee - high red boots with gold knee guards and accents. Her tiara once again becomes gold with a red star. She occasionally wears a red cape with a gold clasp and edges.
Her tiara 's signature star symbol is now an eight pointed starburst. According to designer Lindy Hemming and director Patty Jenkins, every design decision made for Themyscira came down to the same question: "How would I want to live that 's badass? '' "To me, they should n't be dressed in armor like men. It should be different. It should be authentic and real (...) and appealing to women. '' When asked about the decision to give the Amazons heeled sandals, Jenkins explained that they also have flats for fighting, adding "It 's total wish - fulfillment (...) I, as a woman, want Wonder Woman to be sexy, hot as hell, fight badass, and look great at the same time (...) the same way men want Superman to have ridiculously huge pecs and an impractically big body. That makes them feel like the hero they want to be. And my hero, in my head, has really long legs. '' This corresponds to the original intent by William Moulton Marston, who wanted his character to be alluringly feminine.
The Pre-Crisis version of the invisible plane was a necessity because before the Crisis on Infinite Earths rewrote Wonder Woman 's history -- along with the histories of many other heroes -- Wonder Woman simply could not fly. She grew increasingly powerful through the Silver Age of comic books and beyond, acquiring the power to ride wind currents thus allowing her to imitate flight over short distance. This had limitations, however; for example, if there was no wind and the air was completely still she would be trapped on the ground or if dropped from a distance that she would helplessly fall out of control to the ground. Though this meant that she would rely on the invisible plane less frequently, she always had need of it.
The Invisible Plane was a creation of Diana 's during her younger years on Paradise Island. She created it to be an improvement on her mother 's planes which would be shot down in Man 's World. The result of her innovation was an invisible plane that could fly at terrific speeds silently and not be detected by hostile forces, thus avoiding unpleasant conflict. Initially, it was portrayed as being transparent.
The Invisible Plane appeared in the very first comic stories, including All - Star Comics # 8, where it is shown as being able to fly at over 2,000 mph (3,200 km / h) and to send out rainbow rays that penetrate the mist around Paradise Island, as well as landing stealthily and having a built - in radio. Wonder Woman is seen storing the plane at an abandoned farm near Washington, D.C., in the barn; she goes there as Lt. Prince and changes clothes in some of the earliest tales. Though never explicitly stated, the Plane is presumably stored there when not in use for the rest of the Pre-Crisis era. In a story made shortly after, it flies at 40 miles (64 km) a second.
Shortly thereafter, the telepathic capacities of Wonder Woman 's tiara allow her to summon it, often to hover or swoop by the War Department, and she would exit on a rope ladder. She uses the plane to fly into outer space, and frequently transports Etta Candy and the Holliday Girls, Steve Trevor, or others. During the 1950s, the plane became a jet, and was often shown swooping over Lt. Prince 's office; she stripped out of her uniform at super speed and would bound to the plane. Though the Plane was depicted as semi-transparent for the reader 's convenience, in - story dialogue indicated that it actually was completely invisible, or at least able to become so as the need arose. (DC Comics Presents... # 41)
Wonder Woman continued to use the plane for super-speed, outer space, and multi-dimensional transport up until the un-powered era of Diana Prince. When Wonder Woman resumed super-powered, costumed operations in 1973, she continued to use the jet as before, but did glide on air currents for short distances. At one point, Aphrodite granted the plane the power to fly faster than the speed of light for any interstellar voyages her champion might undertake. Thanks to tinkering by gremlins, the Plane even developed intelligence and the power to talk. The Plane proved a good friend, eager to help his "mistress '' and her loved ones in any way possible. It got along especially well with Steve Trevor.
Diana 's bulletproof bracelets were formed from the remnants of Athena 's legendary shield, the Aegis, to be awarded to her champion. The shield was made from the indestructible hide of the great she - goat, Amalthea, who suckled Zeus as an infant. These forearm guards have thus far proven indestructible and able to absorb the impact of incoming attacks, allowing Wonder Woman to deflect automatic weapon fire and energy blasts. Diana can slam the bracelets together to create a wave of concussive force capable of making strong beings like Superman 's ears bleed. Recently, she gained the ability to channel Zeus 's lightning through her bracelets as well. Zeus explained to her that this power had been contained within the bracelets since their creation, because they were once part of the Aegis, and that he had only recently unlocked it for her use. After the 2011 relaunch of the character, it was revealed that Diana was the daughter of Zeus and Hippolyta and that the bracelets are able to keep the powers she had inherited from Zeus in check. In addition, Hephaestus has modified the bracelets to allow Wonder Woman the sorcerous ability to manifest a sword of grayish metal from each bracelet. Each sword, marked with a red star, takes shape from a flash of lightning, and when Wonder Woman is done with them, the swords disappear, supposedly, back into her bracelets. As such, she has produced other weapons from the bracelets in this way such as a bow that fires explosive arrows, spears and energy bolts among others.
The inspiration to give Diana bracelets came from the pair of bracelets worn by Olive Byrne, creator William Moulton Marston 's assistant and lover.
The Lasso of Truth, or Lasso of Hestia, was forged by Hephaestus from the golden girdle of Gaea. The original form of the Lasso in the Golden Age was called the Magic Lasso Of Aphrodite. It compels all beings who come into contact with it to tell the absolute truth and is virtually indestructible; in Identity Crisis, Green Arrow mistakenly describes it as "the only lie detector designed by Zeus. '' The only times it has been broken were when Wonder Woman herself refused to accept the truth revealed by the lasso, such as when she confronted Rama Khan of Jarhanpur, and by Bizarro in Matt Wagner 's non-canonical Batman / Superman / Wonder Woman: Trinity. During the Golden Age, the original form of the Lasso had the power to force anyone caught to obey any command given them, even overriding the mind control of others; this was effective enough to defeat strong - willed beings like Captain Marvel. Diana wields the Lasso with great precision and accuracy and can use it as a whip or noose.
Diana occasionally uses additional weaponry in formal battle, such as ceremonial golden armour with golden wings, pteruges, chestplate, and golden helmet in the shape of an eagle 's head. She possesses a magical sword forged by Hephaestus that is sharp enough to cut the electrons off an atom.
As early as the 1950s, Wonder Woman 's tiara has also been used as a razor - edged throwing weapon, returning to her like a boomerang. The tiara allows Wonder Woman to be invulnerable from telepathic attacks, as well as allowing her to telepathically contact people such as the Amazons back on Themyscira using the power of the red star ruby in its center.
The Golden, Silver, and Bronze Age portrayals of Wonder Woman showed her using a silent and invisible plane that could be controlled by mental command and fly at speeds up to 3,000 mph (4,800 km / h). Its appearance has varied over time; originally it had a propeller, while later it was drawn as a jet aircraft resembling a stealth aircraft.
During the golden age Wonder Woman possessed a Purple Ray capable of healing even a fatal gunshot wound to the brain. She also possessed a Mental Radio that could let her receive messages from those in need.
As a recent temporary inductee into the Star Sapphires, Wonder Woman gained access to the violet power ring of love. This ring allowed her to alter her costume at will, create solid - light energy constructs, and reveal a person 's true love to them. She was able to combine the energy with her lasso to enhance its ability.
In her debut in All Star Comics # 8, Diana was a member of a tribe of women called the Amazons, native to Paradise Island -- a secluded island set in the middle of a vast ocean. Captain Steve Trevor 's plane crashes on the island and he is found alive but unconscious by Diana and fellow Amazon, and friend, Mala. Diana has him nursed back to health and falls in love with him. A competition is held amongst all the Amazons by Diana 's mother, the Queen of the Amazons Hippolyta, in order to determine who is the most worthy of all the women; Hippolyta charges the winner with the responsibility of delivering Captain Steve Trevor back to Man 's World and to fight for justice. Hippolyta forbids Diana from entering the competition, but she takes part nonetheless, wearing a mask to conceal her identity. She wins the competition and reveals herself, surprising Hippolyta, who ultimately accepts, and must give in to, Diana 's wish to go to Man 's World. She then is awarded a special uniform made by her mother for her new role as Wonder Woman and safely returns Steve Trevor back to his home country.
Coming to America for the first time, Wonder Woman comes upon a wailing army nurse. Inquiring about her state, she finds that the nurse wanted to leave for South America with her fiancé but was unable due to shortage of money. As both of them looked identical and Wonder Woman needed a job and a valid identity to look after Steve (who was admitted in the same army hospital), she gives her the money she had earned earlier to help her go to her fiancé in exchange for her credentials. The nurse reveals her name as Diana Prince, and thus, Wonder Woman 's secret identity was created, and she began working as a nurse in the army.
Wonder Woman then took part in a variety of adventures, mostly side by side with Trevor. Her most common foes during this period would be Nazi forces led by a German baroness named Paula von Gunther, occasionally evil deities / demigods such as Mars and the Duke of Deception, and then colorful villains like Hypnota, Doctor Psycho, and the Cheetah.
In the Silver Age, Wonder Woman 's history received several changes. Her earlier origin, which had significant ties to World War II, was changed and her powers were shown to be the product of the gods ' blessings, corresponding to her epithet, "beautiful as Aphrodite, wise as Athena, stronger than Hercules, and swifter than Hermes ''. The concepts of Wonder Girl and Wonder Tot were also introduced during this period.
Wonder Woman (vol. 1) # 179 (Nov. 1968) showed Wonder Woman giving up her powers and returning her costume and title to her mother in order to continue staying in Man 's World. The reason behind this was that all the Amazons were shifting to another dimension, but Diana was unable to accompany them as she needed to stay behind to help Steve, who had been wrongly convicted. Thus, she no longer held the title of Wonder Woman and after meeting and training under a blind martial arts mentor I - Ching, Diana resumed crime fighting as the powerless Diana Prince. She ran a mod - boutique as a business and dressed in a series of jumpsuits while fighting crime. During this period, Samuel R. Delany took over scripting duties with issue # 202. Delany was initially supposed to write a six - issue story arc, which would culminate in a battle over an abortion clinic, but Delany was removed reportedly due to criticism from Gloria Steinem, who, not knowing the content of the issues Delany was writing, was upset that Wonder Woman had lost her powers and was no longer wearing her traditional costume.
In Wonder Woman Vol 1 # 204, Diana 's powers and costume were returned to her and she is once again reinstated as Wonder Woman. I - Ching is killed by a crazy sniper in the same issue. Later, Diana meets her sister Nubia, who is Hippolyta 's daughter fashioned out of dark clay (hence Nubia 's dark complexion). Nubia claimed to be the "Wonder Woman of The Floating Island '', and she challenges Diana to a duel which ends in a draw. Returning to her home, Nubia would have further adventures involving Diana.
The last issue of Volume 1 showed Diana and Steve Trevor announce their love for each other and their subsequent marriage.
The events of Crisis on Infinite Earths greatly changed and altered the history of the DC Universe. Wonder Woman 's history and origin were considerably revamped by the event. Wonder Woman was now an emissary and ambassador from Themyscira (the new name for Paradise Island) to Patriarch 's World, charged with the mission of bringing peace to the outside world. Various deities and concepts from Greek mythology were blended and incorporated into Wonder Woman 's stories and origin. Diana was formed out of clay of the shores of Themyscira by Hippolyta, who wished for a child; the clay figure was then brought to life by the Greek deities. The Gods then blessed and granted her unique powers and abilities -- beauty from Aphrodite, strength from Demeter, wisdom from Athena, speed and flight from Hermes, Eyes of the Hunter and unity with beasts from Artemis and sisterhood with fire and the ability to discern the truth from Hestia. Due to the reboot, Diana 's operating methods were made distinctive from Superman and Batman 's with her willingness to use deadly force when she judges it necessary. In addition, her previous history and her marriage to Steve Trevor were erased. Trevor was introduced as a man much older than Diana who would later on marry Etta Candy.
Starting in Wonder Woman Vol 2 # 51, The Amazons, who had revealed their presence to the world in Wonder Woman Vol 2 # 50, are blamed for a series of murders and for the theft of various artifacts. The Amazons are then taken into custody, Queen Hippolyta is nowhere to be found and Steve Trevor is forced by General Yedziniak to attack Themyscira. These events lead to the "War of the Gods '' occurring. The culprit of the murders, thefts and the framing of the Amazons is revealed to be the witch Circe, who "kills '' Diana by reverting her form back into the clay she was born from. Later, Wonder Woman is brought back to life and together with Donna Troy, battles Circe and ultimately defeats her. Circe would later return by unknown means.
When Hippolyta and the other Amazons were trapped in a demonic dimension, she started receiving visions about the death of Wonder Woman. Fearing her daughter 's death, Hippolyta created a false claim that Diana was not worthy of continuing her role as Wonder Woman, and arranged for a contest to determine who would be the new Wonder Woman, thus protecting Diana from her supposed fate. The participants of the final round were Diana and Artemis, and with the help of some mystic manipulation by Hippolyta, Artemis won the contest. Thus, Diana was forced to hand over her title and costume to Artemis, who became the new Wonder Woman and Diana started fighting crime in an alternate costume. Artemis later died in battle with the White Magician -- thus, Hippolyta 's vision of a dying Wonder Woman did come true, albeit not of Diana as Wonder Woman. Diana once again became Wonder Woman, a request made by Artemis in her last seconds. Artemis would later return as Requiem. Prior to Artemis ' death, Hippolyta would admit to her daughter about her own part in Artemis ' death, which strained their relationship as Diana was unable to forgive her mother for sending another Amazon to her death knowingly for the sake of saving her own daughter.
The demon Neron engaged Diana in battle and managed to kill her. The Olympian Gods granted Diana divinity and the role of the Goddess of Truth who started to reside in Olympus; her mother Hippolyta then assumed the role of Wonder Woman and wore her own different incarnation of the costume. In Wonder Woman Vol 2 # 136, Diana was banished from Olympus due to interfering in earthly matters (as Diana was unable to simply watch over people 's misery on earth). She immediately returned to her duties as Wonder Woman, but ran into conflicts with her mother over her true place and role as Hippolyta seemed accustomed to her life in America. Their fight remained unsolved, as Hippolyta tragically died during an intergalactic war. Themyscira was destroyed during the war, but was restored and reformed as a collection of floating islands. Circe later resurrected Hippolyta in Wonder Woman Vol 3 # 8.
One of the events that led to Infinite Crisis was of Wonder Woman killing the villain Maxwell Lord in Wonder Woman (vol. 2) # 219. Maxwell Lord was mind - controlling Superman, who as a result was near to killing Batman. Wonder Woman tried to stop Superman, Lord (who was unable to mind control her) made Superman see her as his enemy Doomsday trying to kill Lois Lane. Superman then attacked Wonder Woman, and a vicious battle ensued. Buying herself time by slicing Superman 's throat with her tiara, Wonder Woman caught Lord in her Lasso of Truth and demanded to know how to stop his control over Superman. As the lasso forced the wearer to speak only the truth, Lord told her that the only way to stop him was to kill him. Left with no choice, Wonder Woman snapped Lord 's neck and ended his control over Superman. Unknown to her, the entire scene was broadcast live around every channel in the world by Brother Eye. The viewers were not aware of the entire situation, and saw only Wonder Woman murdering a Justice League associate. Wonder Woman 's actions put her at odds with Batman and Superman, as they saw Wonder Woman as a cold - blooded killer, despite the fact that she saved their lives.
At the end of Infinite Crisis, Wonder Woman temporarily retires from her costumed identity. Diana, once again using the alias Diana Prince, joins the Department of Metahuman Affairs. Donna Troy becomes the new Wonder Woman and is captured by Diana 's enemies. Diana then goes on a mission to rescue her sister, battling Circe and Hercules. Diana defeats the villains, freeing Donna and takes up the role of Wonder Woman again. Circe places a spell on Diana, which renders Diana into a normal, powerless human being when in the role of Diana Prince; her powers come to her only when she is in the role of Wonder Woman.
The storyline "The Circle '' was focused on the revelation of a failed assassination attempt on Diana when she was a baby, by four rogue Amazons. These Amazons -- Myrto, Charis, Philomela and Alkyone, collectively referred to as The Circle -- were Hippolyta 's personal guards and were extremely loyal and devoted to her. However, when Hippolyta decided to raise a daughter, The Circle was horrified and considered the baby ill - fate, one who would ruin their entire race. Thus, after Diana was sculpted out of clay and brought to life, The Circle decided to assassinate the baby. Their attempt was foiled however, and the four Amazons were imprisoned. After years, the Circle escaped their prisons with the help of Captain Nazi, and decided to accomplish their previously failed mission and kill Diana. Diana defeated Myrto, Charis, Philomela and then approached Alkyone, who runs off and succumbs to her death by falling into the ocean. The other three Amazons return to their prisons.
Issue # 600 introduced Wonder Woman to an alternate time - line created by the Gods in which Themyscira had been destroyed and the Amazons scattered around the world. In this timeline, Diana is an orphan raised in New York who is learning to cope with her powers. The entire world has forgotten Wonder Woman 's existence and the main story of this run was of Diana trying to restore reality even though she does not properly remember it herself. Diana has no memories of her prior adventures as Wonder Woman, recollecting her memories in bits and pieces and receiving different abilities and resources (such as the power of flight and her lasso) during the progression of her adventure. A trio of Death Goddesses called The Morrigan acted as Wonder Woman 's main enemies. Diana ultimately defeats the evil goddesses and returns everything back to normal.
In September 2011, DC Comics relaunched its entire publication line, dubbing the event the New 52. Among the major changes to the character, Wonder Woman now appears wearing a new costume similar to her older one, and has a completely new origin. In this new timeline, Wonder Woman is no longer a clay figure brought to life by the magic of the gods. Rather, she is the demigoddess daughter of Queen Hippolyta and Zeus: King of the Greek Gods. Her original origin is revealed as a cover story to explain Diana 's birth as a means to protect her from Hera 's wrath. Currently, Diana has taken on the role and title as the new "God of War ''.
The Greek messenger god, Hermes, entrusts Wonder Woman with the protection of Zola, a young woman, who is pregnant with Zeus 's child, from Hera, seething with jealousy and determined to kill the child. With the appearance of a bizarre, new, chalk - white enemy, the goddess Strife (a reimagined version of Eris, the goddess of discord who had battled Wonder Woman in post-Crisis continuity), Wonder Woman discovers she, herself, is the natural - born daughter of Hippolyta and Zeus, who, after a violent clash, became lovers. Hippolyta revealed Diana 's earlier origin story to be a lie, spread amongst the Amazons to protect Diana from the wrath of Hera, who is known for hunting and killing several illegitimate offspring of Zeus.
The first of these half - mortal siblings to reveal himself to Wonder Woman was her older half - brother, Lennox Sandsmark, who could transform himself into living, marble - like stone and, before his death, was revealed to be the father of Wonder Girl (Cassie Sandsmark). His killer, the First Born, the eldest progeny of Zeus, would become Wonder Woman 's first major super-villain of the New 52.
The story then focuses on Wonder Woman 's quest to rescue Zola from Hades, who had abducted her and taken her to Hell at the end of the sixth issue of the series. The male children of the Amazons are introduced and Diana learns about the birth of her "brothers '' -- the Amazons used to infrequently invade ships coming near their island and force themselves on the sailors, before killing them. After nine months, the birth of the resulting female children was highly celebrated and they were inducted into the ranks of the Amazons while the male children were rejected. In order to save the male children from being drowned to death by the Amazons, Hephaestus traded weapons to the Amazons in exchange for them.
After saving Zola from Hades, Wonder Woman tries to protect her further from Apollo, as it is prophesied that one of Zeus ' children will be his downfall whom Apollo considers to be Zola 's child. Wonder Woman receives the power of flight by one of Hermes ' feathers piercing her thigh and Zola 's baby is stolen by Hermes at the end and given to Demeter. The issue 's last page shows a dark and mysterious man rising from the snow, taking a helmet and disappearing. This man is later revealed to be Zeus ' first son, known only as First Born, who seeks to rule over Olympus and the rest of the world, and take Diana as his bride.
A stand - alone # 0 issue was released in September which explored Diana 's childhood and her tutelage under Ares, the God of War, now known most often as simply ' War '. The issue was narrated in the style of a typical Silver Age comic book and saw Diana in her childhood years. The main plot of the issue was Diana training under War as he thought of her being an extraordinary girl with immense potential. The issue ultimately concluded with Diana learning and experiencing the importance of mercy, which she first learned when War showed it to her during their sparring. This later translated into her refusal to kill the Minotaur -- a task given to her by War; however, this show of mercy makes her a failure in War 's eyes, which was actually his fault since he inadvertently "taught '' her mercy and affection as his protege. Later in the series, Wonder Woman is forced to kill War during a conflict with her evil half - brother, Zeus ' son First Born, and herself becomes the God of War. After the Amazons are restored, she rules over them both as a warrior queen and God of War, as the ongoing conflict with First Born escalates. At the end of Azzarello 's run, as part of a final conflict, Wonder Woman kills First Born, while Zeke is revealed to have been Zeus ' plan for resurrection, with Zola revealed to have been a mortal shell for the goddess Athena, who gave birth to Zeus just as he once did to her. Wonder Woman pleads with Athena not to allow the Zola personality, whom she has grown to love as a friend, die with Athena 's awakening. Athena leaves the site in animal form, leaving a stunned and confused Zola behind with Wonder Woman.
Wonder Woman appears as one of the lead characters in the Justice League title written by Geoff Johns and drawn by Jim Lee that was launched in 2011 as part of the New 52. In August 2012, she and Superman shared a kiss in Justice League Vol 2 # 12, which has since developed into a romantic relationship. DC launched a Superman / Wonder Woman series that debuted in late 2013, which focuses both the threats they face together, and on their romance as a "Power Couple ''.
After the events of Convergence, Wonder Woman would don a new costume. She would also face Donna Troy, who is now reimagined as a villanous doppellganger created by a vengeful Amazon elder, not only to physically defeat Wonder Woman but also to outmaneuver her in Themyscirian politics.
The New 52 version of Earth 2 was introduced in Earth 2 # 1 (2012). In that issue, the Earth 2 Wonder Woman is introduced via flashback. She, along with Superman and Batman, are depicted dying in battle with forces from Apokolips five years in the past. This Wonder Woman worshiped the deities of Roman mythology as opposed to the Greek; the Roman gods perish as a result of the conflict. An earlier version of the Earth - 2 Wonder Woman, prior to the Apokoliptian invasion, is seen in the comic book Batman / Superman, where she is seen riding a pegasus.
In Earth 2 # 8 (2013), Wonder Woman 's adult daughter, Fury, is introduced. She is loyal to the Apokoliptian Steppenwolf.
In 2016, DC Comics started DC Rebirth, a relaunch of its entire line of comic books.
Following the events of the Darkseid War, Wonder Woman is told by the dying Myrina Black that on the night of Diana 's birth, Hippolyta gave birth to a twin child. This child was revealed to be male, known as Jason, and is said to be incredibly powerful. Wonder Woman makes it her mission to find him. At the same time, she finds the truth behind her origin and history is now cluttered, as she remembers two versions: the pre-Flashpoint one, and the New 52 rendition. She can not locate Themiscyra or her fellow Amazons and the Lasso of Truth does not work for her anymore.
The "Year One '' storyline retells Diana 's origin growing up on Themyscira. She lives an idyllic life and harbors interest for the outside world, and the first connection to it comes in the form of Steve Trevor, who crashes on the island and is the sole survivor. A contest is held to determine which Amazon is the best candidate to take Steve home, with Diana volunteering despite knowing the cost to leave the island is to never return. Diana wins the contest and departs with Steve. Once arriving in America, Diana is taken into custody by the government to discern her origins. She meets Etta Candy and Barbara Ann Minerva along the way. While incarcerated Diana is visited by the gods in animal form and bestow upon her powers of strength, speed, agility, durability, and flight. She discovers Ares, the god of war, is working to destroy humanity. Accepting her new role in Man 's World, Diana, with the help of the gods in animal form, subdues Ares with the lasso. Now called Wonder Woman, Diana becomes one of the world 's greatest heroes.
The "Lies '' story arc runs parallel and explores Diana 's search. No longer able to get into Mount Olympus, Diana tracks down Barbara Ann Minerva, the Cheetah, to get help. Cheetah agrees to help in exchange for Diana aiding her in killing the god Urzkartaga and end Minerva 's curse. The pair battle their way through Urzkartaga 's minions, the Bouda, and defeat Andres Cadulo, a worshiper of Urzkartaga that planned to sacrifice Steve Trevor to the plant god. Once reverted to her human form, Minerva agreed to help Wonder Woman find her way back to Paradise Island. During this time Wonder Woman reconnects with Steve. Minerva eventually realizes Paradise Island is an embodiment of emotion instead of a physical place, so Wonder Woman and Steve head out to find the island. They succeed and Wonder Woman is greeted by her mother and sisters, though Steve senses something is wrong. Wonder Woman comes to realize nothing is as she remembers and, upon using the Lasso of Truth, discovers everything she thought she knew was a lie: she never really returned to Themyscira after departing with Steve years earlier. The revelation shatters Diana 's mind and she is left nearly insane. Veronica Cale, a businesswoman who has been desiring to find Themyscira and the leader of Godwatch, sends a military group called Poison after her, but Diana 's state has left her vulnerable and oblivious to the danger she and Steve are in. Steve wards them off long enough for them to be rescued, and reluctantly places Diana in a mental hospital so she can get help. While there she comes to grasp the reality she thought she knew was false, eventually coming out of her stupor and able to rejoin the others in tracking down Veronica Cale, who is trying to find Themyscira.
As a compassionate warrior with - god - like strength, Wonder Woman preferred peace and love to war and violence, a contradiction that has long made her a symbol of female empowerment, and the center of controversy. The early Wonder Woman stories featured an abundant amount of bondage portrayals, which had critics worried.
Although created to be a positive role model and a strong female character for girls and boys, Wonder Woman has had to deal with the misogyny that was commonplace in comic book industry for decades. For example, Wonder Woman was a founding member of the Justice Society of America. This roster included the original Flash and Green Lantern. Wonder Woman was an experienced leader and easily the most powerful of them all; yet was rendered a secretary. This would also be accompanied with her losing her powers or getting captured on most Justice League adventures. During the ' 50s and ' 60s, comic writers regularly made Wonder Woman love sick over Steve Trevor, a Major in the United States Army. Stories frequently featured Wonder Woman hoping or imagining what it would be like to marry Steve Trevor.
Wonder Woman was named the 20th greatest comic book character by Empire magazine. She was ranked sixth in Comics Buyer 's Guide 's "100 Sexiest Women in Comics '' list. In May 2011, Wonder Woman placed fifth on IGN 's Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time.
Not all reaction to Wonder Woman has been positive. In the controversial Seduction of the Innocent, psychiatrist Fredric Wertham claimed Wonder Woman 's strength and independence made her a lesbian in a condemning way.
Feminist icon Gloria Steinem, founder of Ms. magazine, was responsible for the return of Wonder Woman 's original abilities. Offended that the most famous female superhero had been depowered into a boyfriend - obsessed damsel in distress, Steinem placed Wonder Woman (in costume) on the cover of the first issue of Ms. (1972) -- Warner Communications, DC Comics ' owner, was an investor -- which also contained an appreciative essay about the character. Wonder Woman 's powers and traditional costume were restored in issue # 204 (January -- February 1973).
In 1972, just months after the groundbreaking US Supreme Court decision Roe v. Wade, science fiction author Samuel R. Delany had planned a story for Ms. that culminated in a plainsclothes Wonder Woman protecting an abortion clinic. However, Steinem disapproved of Wonder Woman being out of costume, and the controversial story line never happened.
The original significance of Wonder Woman had the intentions of influencing many women of all ages, displaying the physical and mental strengths, values, and ethical attributes that not only men acquire. "Wonder Woman symbolizes many of the values of the women 's culture that feminists are now trying to introduce into the mainstream: strength and self - reliance for women; sisterhood and mutual support among women; peacefulness and esteem for human life; a diminishment both of ' masculine ' aggression and of the belief that violence is the only way of solving conflicts, '' Steinem wrote at the time.
The origin of Wonder Woman and the psychological reasoning behind why William Morton Marston created her in the way he did illustrated Marston 's educational, ethical, and moral values. "William Marston intended her to be a feminist character, showing young boys the illimitable possibilities of a woman who could be considered just as strong as the famed Superman. '' Gladys L. Knight explains the impact and influences that superheroes have on us in society ranging from the 1870s until the present day.
Marc DiPaolo introduces us to Wonder Woman 's creator and history and he demonstrates how she is a "WWII veteran, a feminist icon, and a sex symbol '' all throughout her "career ''. Wonder Woman stars in multiple films and is most commonly known for her red, white and blue one piece, and her tall, sexy assertiveness. What many people do n't know is that she is a big part of history in the comic and superhero world because of how her character influences real life people of all ages, sexes, ethnicities, and races. "Marston created the comic book character Wonder Woman to be both strong and sexy, as a means of encouraging woman to emulate her unapologetic assertiveness. ''
Continuing her legacy as an influential feminist icon, in 2015 Wonder Woman became the first superhero to officiate a same - sex wedding in a comic series.
On October 21, 2016, the United Nations controversially named Wonder Woman a UN Honorary Ambassador for the Empowerment of Women and Girls in a ceremony attended by Under - Secretary - General for Communications and Public Information Cristina Gallach and by actors Lynda Carter and Gal Gadot. The character was dropped from the role two months later after a petition against the appointment stated Wonder Woman was "not culturally... sensitive '' and it was "alarming that the United Nations would consider using a character with an overtly sexualized image ''.
Gloria Steinem, editor for Ms. Magazine and a big supporter of Wonder Woman, stated "... (Marston) had invented Wonder Woman as a heroine for little girls, and also as a conscious alternative to the violence of comic books for boys. '' Badower described a near - international incident (involving an unnamed Russian general rolling dozens of tanks and munitions through a shady mountain pass) as an outstanding example for standing up to bullies. "She ends up deflecting a bullet back and disarming the general, '' he says, adding that "she does n't actually do anything violent in the story. I just think that Wonder Woman is smarter than that. ''
Nick Pumphrey stated that Wonder Woman stands as a non-violent beacon of hope and inspiration for women and men. Grant Morrison stated "I sat down and I thought, ' I do n't want to do this warrior woman thing. ' I can understand why they 're doing it, I get all that, but that 's not what (Wonder Woman creator) William Marston wanted, that 's not what he wanted at all! His original concept for Wonder Woman was an answer to comics that he thought were filled with images of blood - curdling masculinity, and you see the latest shots of Gal Gadot in the costume, and it 's all sword and shield and her snarling at the camera. Marston 's Diana was a doctor, a healer, a scientist. ''
William Marston 's earliest works were notorious for containing "sapphic - undertones '' subtext. Fredric Wertham 's Seduction of the Innocent referred to her as the "lesbian counterpart to Batman '' (whom he also identified as a homosexual). In the decades since, DC Comics attempted to downplay her sexuality, and comic book writers and artists did n't do much more than hint at Wonder Woman 's erotic legacy.
Grant Morrison 's 2016 comic Wonder Woman: Earth One, which exists parallel to the current DC comics Rebirth canon, Diana is depicted being kissed on her right cheek by a blonde woman who has put her left arm around Diana.
Wonder Woman feels she need not be "labelled sexually '', that she "loves people for who they are '' and is "just herself ''. Coming from a society that was only populated by women, "lesbian '' in (the world 's) eyes may have been "straight '' for them. "Her culture is completely free from the shackles of heteronormativity in the first place so she would n't even have any ' concept ' of gender roles in sex. '' Wonder Woman is suggested as being queer or bisexual, as she and another Amazon, Io, had reciprocal feelings for each other
In 2016, Sensation Comics featured Wonder Woman officiating a same - sex wedding (Issue # 48) drawn by Australian illustrator Jason Badower. "My country is all women. To us, it 's not ' gay ' marriage. It 's just marriage '', she states to Superman. Inspired by the June Supreme Court ruling that established marriage equality in all 50 United States, Badower says DC Comics was "fantastic '' about his idea for the issue. In an interview with The Sydney Morning Herald, he said his editor "Was like ' great, I love it! Let 's do it. ' It was almost anticlimactic. '' "Diana 's mother, the queen, at the very least authorized or in some cases officiated these weddings, '' Badower says. "It just seems more like a royal duty Diana would take on, that she would do for people that would appreciate it. ''
Wonder Woman 's advocacy for gay rights was taken a step further in September 2016, when comic book writer Greg Rucka announced that she is canonically bisexual, according to her rebooted Rebirth origin. Rucka stated that in his opinion, she "has to be '' queer and has "obviously '' had same - sex relationships on an island surrounded by beautiful women. This follows the way Wonder Woman was written in the alternate continuity or non-canon Earth One by Grant Morrison, and fellow Wonder Woman writer Gail Simone staunchly supported Rucka 's statement. Surprised at the amount of backlash from her fanbase, Rucka responded to "haters '' that consensual sex with women is just as important to Wonder Woman as the Truth is to Superman.
Wonder Woman actress Gal Gadot reacted positively to Diana 's rebooted orientation, and agreed her sexuality was impacted by growing up in the women - only Themyscira.
Since her debut in All Star Comics # 8 (December 1941), Diana Prince / Wonder Woman has appeared in a number of formats besides comic books. Genres include animated television shows including Super Friends, direct - to - DVD animated films, video games, the 1970s live - action television show, Wonder Woman, the 2014 CGI theatrical release, The Lego Movie (technically her first silver screen debut), and the live - action DCEU films, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) and Wonder Woman (2017). In November 2017, she will appear in the DCEU release, Justice League.
A biographical drama titled Professor Marston & the Wonder Women, about Elizabeth Holloway Marston, her husband William Moulton Marston, Olive Byrne, and the creation of Wonder Woman, was released on October 27, 2017.
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the rolling stones time is on my side album | Time is on My Side - wikipedia
"Time Is on My Side '' is a song written by Jerry Ragovoy (using the pseudonym "Norman Meade ''). First recorded by jazz trombonist Kai Winding and his Orchestra in 1963, it was covered (with additional lyrics by Jimmy Norman) by both soul singer Irma Thomas and the Rolling Stones in 1964.
Winding session arranger Garry Sherman contacted friend and colleague Ragovoy after Kai had expressed an interest in going in a more commercial and rhythmic direction (in gratitude for the gig Ragovoy granted Sherman 50 % of the publishing rights, which he kept until an expensive divorce in 1983). But Ragovoy had thought of no lyrics for the song other than "time is on my side ''. Produced by Creed Taylor and engineered by Phil Ramone, and including background vocals by Cissy Houston, Dionne Warwick and Dee Dee Warwick, the recording was released on the Verve Records label in October 1963.
In early 1964, Irma Thomas recorded a R&B cover of the song as the B - side for her single "Anyone Who Knows What Love Is (Will Understand) '', released on Imperial Records. Songwriter Jimmy Norman was enlisted by the arranger H.B. Barnum to create some more lyrics for the song, which at that time consisted only of the words "Time is on my side '' and "You 'll come runnin ' back. '' He managed to finish moments before Thomas entered the studio to record it. Produced by Eddie Ray, Thomas ' version of "Time Is on My Side '' provided the inspiration for the title of her 1996 greatest hits release Time Is on My Side.
The Rolling Stones recorded two versions of the song in 1964. The first version (a looser arrangement featuring a briefer, organ - only intro), recorded in London in June 1964, was released in the US in 1964, as a single from their album 12 X 5. The second version (more tightly arranged and featuring guitar in the intro), recorded in Chicago on November 8, 1964, was released in the UK on January 15, 1965 on The Rolling Stones No. 2. This is the version that receives airplay and appears on most "best of '' compilations. Both versions incorporate elements of Irma Thomas 's recording, including spoken - word interjections in the chorus, a monologue in the middle of the song, and distinctive lead guitar.
The US version was released on September 26, 1964 as a single (a month after Thomas 's cover) and peaked at number six on the US Billboard Pop Singles Chart to become the Rolling Stones ' first top ten hit in the US (their previous single, "It 's All Over Now '', had only peaked at number 26).
A live version of the song from the band 's 1982 live album, Still Life, reached number 62 in the UK Singles Chart.
"Time Is on My Side '' has since been covered by artists such as Indexi, Michael Bolton, Cat Power, Hattie Littles, Blondie, Wilson Pickett, Brian Poole and the Tremeloes, the O'Jays, the Pretty Things, Lorraine Ellison, Paul Revere and the Raiders, Kim Wilson, Tracy Nelson, Patti Smith, Andrés Calamaro (for his "El Salmón '', a CD with 103 songs), the Moody Blues (in 1965 and on the 1985 re-release of The Magnificent Moodies).
Pop singer and pianist Vanessa Carlton recorded a version of the song for a Time Warner digital video recorders commercial, which also served as promotion for her second album, Harmonium (2004), and received heavy rotation on US television during early 2005. The newspaper Metroland reviewed her rendition of the song negatively, and wrote, "we tend to think time is most definitely not on her side -- how else to explain the near - universal apathy to the release of her second album, Harmonium? '' Harmonium was not re-issued to include the song.
In 2004, Jimmy Norman, who wrote the lyrics to "Time is on My Side '' but whose name was eventually removed from credits, recorded it for the first time as the last track on his album Little Pieces.
In 2007, British soul singer Beverley Knight recorded a version of the song featuring Ronnie Wood for her fifth studio album, Music City Soul.
In the 1998 supernatural thriller Fallen (which is the only Turner Pictures 's R - rated production), starring Denzel Washington, the Stones version (with the guitar intro) is used often in the movie to depict when a character 's body has been infiltrated by the demon / fallen angel named Azazel. Various characters throughout the film sing the song (including actors James Gandolfini and John Goodman), and the song is featured in the opening scenes and well as the final one.
It is the title for a season three episode of Supernatural.
The Irma Thomas version is played at the end of the season two premiere episode, "Guy Walks Into a Psychiatrist 's Office... '', of The Sopranos.
In 2012, wrestler Bray Wyatt began singing the chorus line of the song to finish his promos.
Irma Thomas, Allen Toussaint, Dave Bartholomew and other New Orleans musicians perform the song in the final episode of season one of the HBO TV series Treme with the show 's fictional trombone player Antoine Batiste played by Wendell Pierce.
In the 1989 film Shocker, the antagonist Horace Pinker (Mitch Pileggi) sings the opening line before he is executed in reference to foreshadowing to his soon - to - be apparent immortality. "Time Is On My Side '' - guitar intro version, was also used again on TV at the very beginning of a "Lucifer '' episode. titled ("Weaponizer '' - (Season 2, Episode 5), that aired in on October 24, 2016 (imdb.com).
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the compromise of 1877 included all of the following except | Compromise of 1877 - wikipedia
The Compromise of 1877 was an informal, unwritten deal that settled the intensely disputed 1876 U.S. presidential election. It resulted in the United States federal government pulling the last troops out of the South, and formally ended the Reconstruction Era. Through the Compromise, Republican Rutherford B. Hayes was awarded the White House over Democrat Samuel J. Tilden on the understanding that Hayes would remove the federal troops whose support was essential for the survival of Republican state governments in South Carolina, Florida and Louisiana. The compromise involved Democrats who controlled the House of Representatives allowing the decision of the Electoral Commission to take effect. The outgoing president, Republican Ulysses S. Grant, removed the soldiers from Florida. As president, Hayes removed the remaining troops from South Carolina and Louisiana. As soon as the troops left, many white Republicans also left, and the "Redeemer '' Democrats took control. They already dominated other state governments in the South. What was exactly agreed is somewhat contested as the documentation is insufficient.
Black Republicans felt betrayed as they lost power and were subject to discrimination and harassment to suppress their voting. by 1905 most black men were effectively disenfranchised by state legislatures in every southern state.
The compromise essentially stated that Southern Democrats would acknowledge Hayes as president, but only on the understanding that Republicans would meet certain demands. The following elements are generally said to be the points of the compromise:
In exchange, Democrats would accept the Republican Hayes as president by not employing the filibuster during the joint session of Congress needed to confirm the election.
After the Compromise, a few Democrats complained loudly that Tilden had been cheated. There was talk of forming armed units that would march on Washington, but President Grant was ready for that. He tightened military security, and nobody marched on Washington.
Hayes was peacefully inaugurated. Points 1 and 2 of the compromise took effect. Hayes had already announced his support for the restoration of "home rule, '' which would involve federal troop removal, before the election. It was not unusual, nor unexpected, for a president, especially one so narrowly elected, to select a cabinet member favored by the other party. Points 3 and 4 were never enacted; it is possible there was no firm agreement about them.
Whether by informal deal or simply reassurances already in line with Hayes 's announced plans, talks with Southern Democrats satisfied the worries of many. This prevented a Congressional filibuster that had threatened to extend resolution of the election dispute beyond Inauguration Day 1877.
C. Vann Woodward (1951) argued for an economic interpretation, saying that emerging business and industry interests of the New South found common ground with Republican businessmen, particularly with the railroads. They met secretly at Wormley 's Hotel in Washington to forge a compromise with aid to internal improvements: bridges, canals and railroads wanted by the South. But Peskin notes that no serious federal effort was made after Hayes took office to fund a railroad or provide other federal aid for improvements. An opposing interest group representing the Southern Pacific actually thwarted Scott 's proposed Texas and Pacific scheme, and ultimately ran its own line to New Orleans.
Some historians, such as Allan Peskin, argue that the assurances offered to some Southern Democrats to prevent a filibuster were not a compromise but a foregone conclusion, as Tilden did not command sufficient support. Peskin admits that Woodward 's interpretation had become almost universally accepted in the nearly quarter century since he had published it. As not all terms of the agreement were met, Peskin believes there was really no deal between the North and South in 1877. He also suggests that Northern Democrats were more significant in quashing the filibuster than those from the South. For instance, Samuel J. Randall (D - Pennsylvania) was Speaker of the House and prevented the filibuster. He was more interested in ensuring that the Radical state government in Louisiana was abandoned than in any southern railroad.
Vincent DeSantis argues that the Republican Party abandoned Southern blacks to the rule of the racist Democratic Party in order to gain the support of Democrats for Hayes ' presidency.
In any case, Reconstruction ended. The dominance of the Democratic Party in the South was cemented with the ascent of the "Redeemer '' governments that displaced the Republican governments. After 1877, support for white supremacy generally caused whites to vote for Democrats and the region became known as the "Solid South. '' Until the end of the 19th century, black Republicans continued to elect numerous candidates to local office, although Democrats controlled most state representative and statewide seats, except for a brief period of fusion governments supported by Republicans and Populists. The majority of white voters supported national Democratic candidates well into the 20th century before shifting to the Republican Party. This later shift to the Republican party followed the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which was introduced by Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson and supported by most Republicans and northern Democrats. Democratic groups worked to suppress black voting by intimidation and fraud but, after regaining power again at the turn of the 20th century, passed constitutions and laws to disenfranchise blacks (as well as many poor whites) in states such as Alabama and others. As there was no change in congressional apportionment, southern whites accrued great power by controlling all the seats of the region based on states ' total populations.
In The Mexicanization of American Politics: The United States ' Transnational Path from Civil War to Stabilization (2012), Downs rejects the idea that this was an era of easy reconciliation and political stability. Instead he shows many Americans feared "Mexicanization '' of politics, whereby force would be used to settle a presidential election, as force had been used to settle certain state elections in the South. Downs explores how Mexicanization was roundly rejected and stability was achieved.
Whatever deals may or may not have taken place on the side, in formal legal terms, the election of 1876 was not decided by such acts, but by the official vote of Congress to accept the recommendations of the Electoral Commission they themselves had set up as a way out of the election impasse. The expectation in setting up the committee had been that its decisions would be accepted by Congress. It was only when certain Democrats disagreed with the commission 's decisions in favor of Hayes that this arrangement was jeopardized. This Democratic group threatened a filibuster (opposed by Republicans and Congressional Democratic leadership as well) that would prevent the agreed - upon vote from taking place. Discussions of the points in the alleged compromise were related to persuading key Democrats against accepting a filibuster. The very threat of a filibuster -- a measure used by a minority to prevent a vote -- indicates that there were already sufficient votes for accepting the commission 's recommendations.
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who plays miss wilma in i can do bad all by myself | I Can Do Bad All by Myself (film) - Wikipedia
Tyler Perry 's I Can Do Bad All by Myself is a 2009 romantic musical comedy - drama film which was released on September 11, 2009. The film was directed, produced, and written by Tyler Perry, who also makes an appearance in the film as his signature character Madea. Although the film and play share the same title, the film is not an adaptation of Perry 's play of the same name; the two works have different storylines.
The film opens with April (Taraji P. Henson), a self - centered, alcoholic singer, performing at a nightclub where she works. On the other side of town, Madea (Tyler Perry) and Joe Simmons (Perry) catch Jennifer (Hope Olaidè Wilson), Manny (Kwesi Boakye), and Byron (Freddy Siglar) breaking into their house. After hearing the children 's troubles, Madea welcomes and feeds them. Jennifer tells Madea that they 're living with their grandmother, whom they have n't seen in four days. They tell Madea that their only other relative is their Aunt April.
April shares her home with her shady boyfriend, Randy (Brian White), who 's married with children. The next morning, Madea brings the kids to April 's house, but April does n't want to be bothered. Meanwhile, Pastor Brian (Marvin Winans) sends a Colombian immigrant named Sandino (Adam Rodríguez) to her house for work and a place to stay. April puts Sandino in her basement and wants to lock him down there because she does n't know him that well. While working around the house, Sandino surprises April by cleaning himself up and becoming very handsome. When Randy arrives, he sees April with the kids and Sandino and heckles him while making subtle advances at Jennifer.
Shortly afterward, Pastor Brian and Wilma (Gladys Knight), a church member, come to inform April that her mother died from a fatal brain aneurysm while riding on a city bus. April is devastated by the news and seeks comfort from Randy; however, he is sleeping and shrugs her off. Later, Sandino comforts April as she tells him about her mother 's death and the last time she spoke with her.
Depressed, Jennifer goes to Madea wanting to know how to pray. However, Madea, inexperienced with prayer, attempts to instruct her in a scene that plays out comically. The same night, Wilma sings "The Need to Be '', an uplifting song for women, and Tanya (Mary J. Blige), the nightclub bartender, sings "I Can Do Bad ''. Before singing the song, Tanya strongly confronts April about her selfishness and attitude. She tells April that she is fed up with her attitude and makes it clear that April needs to get her life together and needs to start making wiser decisions. Tanya declares that she loves April and wants to help her but in order to help April, she needs to start helping herself. By this; she suggests that April needs to give up the binge drinking of alcohol, start thinking about the safety and well - being of Byron, Manny and Jennifer and ending her useless relationship with Randy.
Over time, Sandino and April become good friends, and Sandino fixes a ruined bedroom in her house. This makes Manny and Byron happy, but upsets Jennifer, who feels April does not want them there. While on a date, Sandino tells April he does n't understand why she is with Randy and asks if she loves Randy. He tells her what true love is to him. One Sunday morning, Sandino eagerly knocks on April 's bedroom door to get April ready for church, but Randy threatens to have Sandino deported if he continues to spend time with April.
Late the next night, Manny needs his insulin shot, and Jennifer goes to the kitchen to get it. As she prepares the shot, Randy approaches and attempts to rape her, but Sandino fights him off. April walks in on the fight and Randy claims Jennifer offered him sex for money. April claims to believe him and sends Randy to take a bath. When he is in the tub, April threatens to electrocute him with a plugged - in radio. Sandino arrives and tries to stop her, but April is enraged, as she explains that she was sexually assaulted by her step - father, who then lied about it to her mother, thus causing April to lose her faith in the people that cared about her. After saying does he want her to put it down twice, she drops the plugged - in radio into the water, giving Randy a severe electric shock. Randy barely jumps out just in time and Sandino orders him to leave.
April goes to the bar for a drink and blames herself for not seeing the signs. Sandino tries to stop her from drinking, but she pushes him away. She then asks Sandino if he is a child molester, because of all the attention he gives the children. Sandino tells April of his childhood as a child laborer and explains that he loves the children so much because he sees himself in them. Feeling hurt at her unfair accusations, Sandino says farewell to the children and leaves.
Jennifer and April begin to get along and connect after April tells Jennifer about her bad experience as a child. Jennifer tells April that she should recognize Sandino as a good man. Eventually, Sandino returns and April apologizes to him and admits that she loves him like a friend. Sandino tells her that she ca n't love anyone until she learns to love herself. He tells April that he is in love with her but he wants April to love him back the same way he loves her. He shows her by kissing her.
Eventually, April and Sandino get married. April and Sandino then hold a block party for their reception with Tanya singing "Good Woman Down '', dedicated to April, then the new couple is shown embracing and sharing a passionate kiss.
The film features 13 songs, including two new songs by Blige. Perry was not able to produce a soundtrack album for the film due to the various record companies involved.
The film has received generally positive reviews from critics, making it Perry 's most acclaimed film to date. Rotten Tomatoes reported that 63 % of critics gave positive reviews based on 43 reviews with an average score of 5.9 / 10, giving it a "Fresh '' rating, with the general consensus being though somewhat formulaic and predictable, Perry succeeds in mixing broad humor with sincere sentimentality to palatable effect. By comparison, Metacritic gave the film a 55 % approval rating of critics based on 13 reviews.
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when was the last time england won a quarter final | England at the FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The England national football team has competed at the FIFA World Cup since 1950. The FIFA World Cup is the premier competitive international football tournament, first played in 1930, whose finals stage has been held every four years since, except 1942 and 1946, due to the Second World War.
The tournament consists of two parts, the qualification phase and the final phase (officially called the World Cup Finals). The qualification phase, which currently take place over the three years preceding the finals, is used to determine which teams qualify for the finals. The current format of the finals involves thirty - two teams competing for the title, at venues within the host nation (or nations) over a period of about a month. The World Cup Finals is the most widely viewed sporting event in the world, with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the 2006 Final.
England did not enter the competition until 1950, but have entered all eighteen subsequent tournaments. They have failed to qualify for the finals on three occasions, 1974 (West Germany), 1978 (Argentina) and 1994 (United States), and have failed to advance from the group stages on three occasions; at the 1950 FIFA World Cup, the 1958 FIFA World Cup and the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Their best ever performance is winning the Cup in the 1966 tournament held in England, whilst they also finished in fourth place in 1990, in Italy, and in 2018 in Russia. Other than that, the team have reached the quarter - finals on nine occasions, the latest of which were at the 2002 (South Korea / Japan) and the 2006 (Germany).
England are the only team not representing a sovereign state to win the World Cup, which they did in 1966 when they hosted the finals. They defeated West Germany 4 -- 2 after extra time to win the World Cup title. Since then, they have generally reached the knockout stages of almost every competition they have qualified for, including a fourth - place finish in the 1990 and 2018 World Cups. At the world cup, England have had more goalless draws than any other team.
England 's first qualifying campaign for the FIFA World Cup doubled as the 1950 British Home Championship. The series kicked off for England on 15 October 1949 at Ninian Park, Cardiff, against Wales. Stan Mortensen gave England the lead after twenty two minutes, and just seven minutes later, Jackie Milburn doubled the lead. This was the first goal of Milburn 's hat trick, which left England 4 -- 0 up with 20 minutes to play. Mal Griffiths scored a consolation goal for Wales ten minutes from time, but England held on for a comfortable victory.
A month later, England welcomed Ireland to Maine Road, and it began well for the home side as Jack Rowley scored inside six minutes. England were already 6 -- 0 up, thanks to Jack Froggatt, two for Stan Pearson, Stan Mortensen and a second from Rowley, by the time Ireland struck back through Samuel Smyth after 55 minutes. Rowley added a third and a fourth to his tally in the three minutes following Smyth 's goal, however, leaving the score at 8 -- 1 at the hour mark. The frantic scoring rate calmed down after that, with only one apeice before the final whistle, with Stan Pearson completing his brace for England 's ninth, and Bobby Brennan scoring for Ireland.
It was not until May 1950 that England travelled to Hampden Park to face Scotland, who were also undefeated after their games against Ireland and Wales. With the top two from the group qualifying, both teams were guaranteed progression to the finals, and the game was solely for the honour of winning the British Home Championship, and the seeding advantage to be enjoyed upon reaching Brazil. A solitary goal from Roy Bentley gave England the victory, the title and the top spot in the group.
England were seeded in pot one for the finals, which meant they were the favourites to progress from Group 2, which also contained Spain, Chile and the United States. England 's campaign kicked off against Chile in Rio de Janeiro, and, as was expected, England cruised to a 2 -- 0 victory, courtesy of goals from Stan Mortensen and Wilf Mannion.
Their troubles began four days later when they faced the Americans in Belo Horizonte in what has become one of the most famous matches of all time. Joe Gaetjens scored the only goal of the match to give the United States an unlikely victory, which has gone down as one of the World Cup 's greatest upsets. A myth arose that the English newspapers were so confident of an English victory that when the result was telegrammed back, they assumed a misprint and printed the score as 10 -- 1 in England 's favour. However, this has proven to be untrue.
This left England in a sticky situation prior to their final match, against Spain in Rio. They needed to win, and for Chile to beat the United States to stand any chance of going through, and even then they would need the goal averages to fall in their favour. As it turned out, no such calculations were necessary, despite Chile 's victory, as Spain 's Zarra scored the only goal of the game, eliminating England from the competition.
As with their first World Cup, England 's qualifying for the 1954 edition also constituted the 1953 -- 54 British Home Championship. They played Wales at Ninian Park as their first match once again, and the 4 -- 1 result was the same. However, unlike four years earlier, it was the home side that went into the lead, after twenty two minutes through Ivor Allchurch. Despite being 1 -- 0 down at half time, England scored four within eight minutes of the restart; two each for Dennis Wilshaw and Nat Lofthouse.
Goodison Park was the venue for England 's home clash against Ireland, who were newly renamed Northern Ireland. Harold Hassall got England off to a good start with a goal after just ten minutes. Eddie McMorran put the Irish back on terms just before the hour mark, but Hassall completed his brace six minutes later. Lofthouse completed a comfortable 3 -- 1 win for England.
With the top two in the group qualifying for the finals, the final game between England and Scotland, at Hampden Park, settled nothing except the placings within the group, despite Scotland having dropped a point with a 3 -- 3 draw at home to Wales. Allan Brown put the home side ahead after just seven minutes, but it was all square again thanks to Ivor Broadis just four minutes later. Johnny Nicholls gave England the lead for the first time just after half time, and they began to extend a lead after Ronnie Allen 's 68th - minute goal. Jimmy Mullen made the game all but certain seven minutes from time, and although Willie Ormond scored a consolation for Scotland with just 1 minute to play, England topped the competition for the second time in a row.
England were drawn in Group 4 for the finals, with hosts Switzerland, Italy and Belgium. In an odd twist, unique to the 1954 tournament, England and Italy, as the two seeded teams in the group, did not have to play each other.
Equally, Switzerland and Belgium did not have to play each other. England 's first game in Switzerland was against Belgium in Basel, and they suffered a shock as Léopold Anoul put the Belgians into the lead after just five minutes. Ivor Broadis put the favourites back on terms just over twenty minutes later, and although Nat Lofthouse gave England the lead 10 minutes later, it was proving to be tougher than they had expected against the Belgians.
Broadis scored his second just after the hour, but Henri Coppens hit back four minutes later to keep Belgium in the game at only 3 -- 2 down. Anoul completed his brace another four minutes after that to level the scores again. In another oddity peculiar to this World Cup, drawn matches in the group stage would go to extra time, and as such the teams played on with the score at 3 -- 3.
Just one minute into the added period, Lofthouse added a fourth for England and they seemed to have won it, but Jimmy Dickinson scored an own goal three minutes later to put the score back at 4 -- 4. It stayed this way until the extra period was up, and as penalty shoot - outs were yet to be invented and replays were not used in the group, the match was recorded as a draw.
England 's second and final group game was against the hosts in Bern. This proved to be an easier game for the Three Lions, and they scored one goal in each half (from Jimmy Mullen and Dennis Wilshaw respectively) to give them a comfortable win of 2 -- 0. As Switzerland (against England), Italy (against Switzerland) and Belgium (against Italy) had all lost one game, England progressed as group winners, along with Switzerland, who won a play - off against Italy.
England faced the winners of group three and defending champions Uruguay in the quarter - finals. Carlos Borges gave the South Americans the lead inside 5 minutes, but Lofthouse put England back on terms ten minutes later. England were clearly struggling, but held on until just before half time, when Obdulio Varela gave the lead back Uruguay.
Juan Alberto Schiaffino doubled the lead just after the break, but Tom Finney kept England 's foot in the door with his sixty seventh - minute goal. However, it was all over after Javier Ambrois restored the two - goal lead with twelve minutes to play. The score remained at 4 -- 2, and England were eliminated from the cup.
For the first time, England had to play against countries other than the Home Nations to reach the Finals in Sweden. They were drawn against the Republic of Ireland and Denmark. In the qualifying round, England won three out of the four games and drew the other. Four months before the World Cup, Roger Byrne, Duncan Edwards, David Pegg and Tommy Taylor all lost their lives in the Munich air disaster while playing for Manchester United. At the finals, which is the only tournament to have seen all Home Nations take part, the Home Nations were all drawn in different groups.
England were drawn against the Soviet Union (2 -- 2), Brazil (0 -- 0) and Austria (2 -- 2), who finished third in the 1954 World Cup. At the end of the group stage, Soviet Union and England each had three points, and had scored four goals and conceded four goals. This meant there was a play - off to decide the second - placed team in the group, the winner to qualify. England lost the play - off 1 -- 0 and were thus knocked out. The only consolation for England was that they were the only team to play the eventual winners Brazil and not lose.
The third World Cup which took place in South America, saw England qualify by successfully qualifying from the group, which contained Portugal and Luxembourg, defeating Luxembourg on both occasions, and defeating Portugal at home, and drawing in Lisbon.
At the finals, England were drawn in a group with Hungary, Argentina and Bulgaria. England defeated Argentina 3 - 1, thanks to goals from Ron Flowers, Bobby Charlton and Jimmy Greaves, before playing out a goalless draw with Bulgaria, and a 2 -- 1 defeat to Hungary.
England finished in second place behind Hungary and played the winners of group 3, defending champions Brazil, in the quarter - finals. Brazil scored first through Garrincha, before an equaliser for Gerry Hitchens before half time. However, second - half goals from Garrincha and Vavá meant Brazil won the game 3 -- 1, and eliminated England from the competition. This defeat was manager Walter Winterbottom 's last game in charge. Winterbottom had led England to four World Cup Finals. From May 1963, Alf Ramsey became the manager of England.
In the 1966 World Cup Finals, England used their home advantage and, under Ramsey, won their first, and only, World Cup title. England played all their games at Wembley Stadium in London, which became the last time that the hosts were granted this privilege. After drawing 0 -- 0 in the opening game against former champions Uruguay, which started a run of four games all ending goalless. England then beat both France and Mexico 2 -- 0 and qualified for the quarter - finals.
The quarter - finals saw England play Argentina, which ended in a 1 -- 0 win to England. This match saw the start of the rivalry between England and Argentina, when Argentinian Antonio Rattín was dismissed by German referee Rudolf Kreitlein in a very fierce game. A 2 -- 1 win against Portugal in the semi-final then followed. Portugal were the first team to score against England in the tournament. The final saw England play West Germany, with the result finishing in a 4 -- 2 win for England, after extra time.
1970 saw the first World Cup finals take place in North America and England qualified automatically for the tournament by winning the 1966 FIFA World Cup. England were drawn in a group with Romania, former world champions Brazil and Czechoslovakia. Each of the matches only saw one goal, with England defeating Romania and Czechoslovakia, and losing to Brazil. The quarter - final saw a repeat of the 1966 final, with England playing West Germany. England were hampered by the fact that first - choice goalkeeper Gordon Banks was ill, and Peter Bonetti played instead. England led 2 -- 0 with goals by Alan Mullery and Martin Peters, but in the 70th minute, Franz Beckenbauer pulled one goal back for West Germany.
After Beckenbauer 's goal, Ramsey substituted Bobby Charlton, who overtook Billy Wright as England 's most capped player ever, with caps totalling 106. Uwe Seeler equalised for the Germans in the eighty first minute, thereby taking the game into extra time. During extra time, Gerd Müller scored the winning goal for West Germany which saw the German side win 3 -- 2. This turned out to be Charlton 's last game for England.
For the first time, England did not qualify for a World Cup. In a group with Olympic champions Poland and Wales, England could not overtake Poland. After only drawing at home to Wales 1 -- 1 and losing the first leg 2 -- 0 to Poland, meant that England had to beat Poland at home, whilst Poland only needed to draw. Poland managed to withstand England 's attacks in the first half, who had Martin Peters playing for them. Poland took the lead in the 57th minute with a goal from Jan Domarski.
England equalised six minutes later, with a penalty converted by Allan Clarke. England were unable to score any more goals with goalkeeper Jan Tomaszewski keeping England at bay. Brian Clough had previously called Tomaszewski a "clown ''. The commentator of the game then said "it 's all over ''. Poland took this good form to the finals and ended in third place. After failing to qualify, Alf Ramsey resigned from his post and after a time, where Ramsey and his predecessor had lasted a total of 29 years, no manager was able to last in the job for longer than eight years. This ended when Bobby Robson became England manager.
England also did not qualify for the fourth World Cup which took place in South America. This time, England were denied by Italy, who had scored three more goals than England after both teams finished on the same points. Goals scored dictated who qualified after the head - to - head record between the two sides finished the same, following a 2 -- 0 home win for each team. The lower - ranked teams in the group were Finland and Luxembourg, but the size of the wins against them proved to be decisive. Nevertheless, Ron Greenwood was given a second chance in charge of England, after taking the role in 1977.
1982 saw the first time where the European Qualifying Rounds were divided into groups of five teams, where the top two teams qualify for the World Cup. Greenwood used his second chance and took England to Spain by finishing second behind Hungary and above Romania, Switzerland and Norway.
At the finals, England won all three group games, defeating France 3 - 1, with a brace from Bryan Robson, before beating Czechoslovakia 2 -- 0, with a Jozef Barmos own goal, and World Cup newcomers Kuwait 1 -- 0, thanks to a Trevor Francis goal.
The next round saw a second group stage consisting of three teams, a first time event at the World Cup. England drew with West Germany 0 -- 0 and after the Germans beat Spain 2 -- 1, England then had to beat Spain with a two - goal difference to progress to the next round. England, however, only managed a 0 -- 0 draw against the Spanish. England remained unbeaten at the end of the tournament. After the World Cup, Ron Greenwood 's time as England manager ended, and he was replaced by Bobby Robson.
1986 saw the second World Cup to take place in Mexico. England qualified for Mexico 1986 by winning four games and drawing four times against Northern Ireland, who qualified in second place, Romania, Finland and Turkey. In Mexico, England lost their opening game to Portugal 1 -- 0 and could only manage a goalless draw against Morocco. The final group game, however, saw England beat Poland 3 -- 0, which is one of the three highest scores for England at the World Cup, with Gary Lineker scoring a hat - trick.
This result took England to second place and finished behind Morocco. England then also beat Paraguay 3 -- 0 in the Round of 16. In the quarter - finals, England renewed their rivalry with Argentina in a game that has become notorious for the Argentina goals, both scored by Diego Maradona. Maradona 's first goal, known as the Hand of God, was illegal and should not have counted, as he used his hand to punch the ball into the net. However, the referee missed this infringement, and ruled that the goal should stand. Maradona then made the score 2 - 0, famously dribbling from inside Argentina 's half and around several English players before scoring. Gary Lineker pulled back the score to 2 - 1, but England ran out of time to equalise, and were eliminated. Nevertheless, Lineker finished with the Golden Boot by scoring six goals and thereby becoming England 's first Golden Boot winner.
By winning three and drawing three, England qualified for Italia ' 90, the second World Cup to be held in Italy, scoring ten goals and conceding none. England were unbeaten through qualification, winning three games, and drawing the remaining three, but still finished second to Sweden, whom they drew with twice. England profited from Romania 's 3 -- 1 win over Denmark, who, had they won, would have qualified as the third - best second - placed team. West Germany and England were able to qualify for Italia ' 90 as the best second - placed teams in the groups with four teams.
Because a few years previously saw English hooligans at European competition matches, England were forced to play their group games on Sardinia and Sicily. In group F, was the European champions Netherlands, the Republic of Ireland and Egypt and England. After opening the tournament with a 1 -- 1 draw against Ireland and a 0 -- 0 draw against the Dutch, England then beat Egypt 1 -- 0. This was Egypt 's first appearance since the 1934 World Cup. England won the group with four points.
In the next round, England had to play Belgium. The game went to extra time, and in the hundredth and nineteenth minute, David Platt scored the winning goal. England also had to play extra time against Cameroon in the quarter - finals. Cameroon were the first African team to have reached the quarter - finals. England opened the scoring through David Platt, but Cameroon quickly turned around the game to lead 2 - 1. Lineker subsequently won and scored a penalty in the 83rd minute to ensure the game went to extra time. He then scored a second penalty, to see England reach the semi-finals.
In the semi-finals, England met West Germany. There was no separating the two teams after 90 minutes, which made England the first team to have played extra time in three successive World Cup games. There was also no separating the two teams after extra time, thereby taking the game to penalties.
Although English goalkeeper Peter Shilton dived the right way for every penalty, he was unable to save any. German goalkeeper Bodo Illgner, having failed to save any of England 's first three penalties, saved England 's fourth penalty, taken by Stuart Pearce. Olaf Thon then scored for Germany, meaning that England 's Chris Waddle would have to score his fifth penalty and hope that Shilton saved the Germans ' fifth penalty. However, Waddle 's penalty missed completely, going high over the crossbar, thereby resulting in England 's being knocked out of the competition. The third - place playoff between England and Italy saw England lose their only game of the tournament in normal time. Even though this was England 's best finish since the 1966 World Cup, Bobby Robson 's time as England manager had come to an end.
For the 1994 World Cup in the United States, under the leadership of new manager Graham Taylor, England surprisingly did not qualify for the tournament. In a group with six teams, England lost to Norway and the Netherlands, finishing third above Poland, Turkey and San Marino.
England went into their final game with San Marino knowing they would need a seven - goal victory and for Poland to beat the Netherlands in the other match in order to qualify. In the game against San Marino, Davide Gualtieri scored against England after nine seconds, taking the lead for the outsiders. England went on to win 7 -- 1, which was too small a goal margin. Additionally, despite the half - time score between the Poles and the Dutch being 1 - 1, the Dutch went on to win 3 - 1, meaning that however many goals England scored, they could still not qualify. Taylor 's tenure in charge ended and he was replaced by Terry Venables, who was dismissed after England lost the semi-final of Euro 1996, hosted in England.
After missing out on the World Cup in 1994, England, managed by Glenn Hoddle, qualified for the World Cup in France. England were drawn in Group 2 of UEFA qualifying with Italy, Poland, Georgia and Moldova. England beat Poland, Georgia and Moldova both home and away, but a home defeat to Italy in their fourth match meant they went into the final qualifier at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome just a point ahead of the Azzurri and only needing a draw to qualify automatically; defeat would see them have to navigate a play - off to secure qualification. The match finished as a goalless draw and England finished top of the group.
At the finals in France, England played in Group G. England defeated Tunisia 2 -- 0 in the first game, with goals from Alan Shearer and Paul Scholes. Their second match saw England lose 2 -- 1 to Romania; despite an 81st - minute equaliser from Michael Owen, Dan Petrescu scored a winner shortly before injury time. In their final group game, England defeated Colombia 2 -- 0 in the decisive match, thanks to goals from midfielders Darren Anderton and David Beckham. England finished second in Group G, which saw them qualify for the last 16 phase, and play the winner of 1998 FIFA World Cup Group H, Argentina.
In a fiery game containing six yellow cards and two penalties, David Beckham was controversially sent off in the 47th minute for what many felt was at most a yellow card offence, knocking over Diego Simeone. Gabriel Batistuta opened the scoring from the penalty spot in the fifth minute of the game, before an equaliser also from the spot by Alan Shearer four minutes later. England took the lead through Owen, in the 16th minute. Argentina drew level through Javier Zanetti in injury time of the first half.
The game finished 2 - 2, and, as neither team were able to find a winner in extra time, penalties were needed to decide the team that qualified to the next round. While David Seaman did save one penalty, Argentine goalkeeper Carlos Roa managed to save two, including the vital one from David Batty, thereby knocking England out of the World Cup. Beckham subsequently received death threats and was sent bullets in the post.
In 2002 the World Cup took place in Asia for the first time. England, under its first ever foreign manager in Swedish Sven - Göran Eriksson, were able to qualify for the tournament. England were drawn in Group 9, alongside Germany, Finland, Greece and Albania. In the last ever game in the original Wembley Stadium, (which closed after the match) England played Germany, losing 1 -- 0, the only goal scored by Dietmar Hamann. The match was the last under the management of Kevin Keegan, who resigned at the end of the match, and was replaced by Eriksson. By beating Germany 5 -- 1 in Munich, England 's qualifying campaign was revitalised, and they qualified automatically, by drawing 2 -- 2 with Greece. Germany, who could only draw 0 -- 0 with Finland, had to play a play - off game against Ukraine, with England qualifying ahead winning the group.
In Japan, England had to play against Eriksson 's homeland, Sweden, and both settled out for a 1 -- 1 draw. England and Beckham gained a measure of revenge for their previous 1998 defeat in defeating Argentina 1 - 0, thanks to a Beckham penalty. However, England could only manage a disappointing 0 - 0 draw against Nigeria, meaning that although they were able to qualify for the second round, where they played Denmark, they qualified as runners up, which meant that they would meet favourites Brazil in the quarter - finals if they qualified.
England played Denmark in the round of 16 defeating Denmark 3 -- 0, thanks to goals from Micheal Owen, Rio Ferdinand, and Emile Heskey. England played four - time World Cup winners and 1998 runners - up Brazil in the quarter - finals. Despite leading through a Michael Owen goal, a mistake by David Seaman saw England lose 2 -- 1, and Brazil won their fourth World Cup match against England, and went on to win the tournament.
England were drawn into Group 6 of European qualifying for the 2006 World Cup. The group featured other home nations in Wales, and Northern Ireland, as well as Poland (who had eliminated England the last time the World Cup took place in Germany), Azerbaijan and Austria. England won eight of the 10 games, and qualified as group winners, in front of Portugal, despite drawing to Austria in Vienna, and losing to Northern Ireland in Belfast.
In Germany, however, England were less convincing. England played in Group B, alongside Paraguay, Trinidad and Tobago, and Sweden. England started with a 1 -- 0 win against Paraguay; which was won due to a 3rd minute own goal. The second game against first time qualifiers Trinidad and Tobago saw England have to wait until the 83rd minute for England to take the lead, with Peter Crouch opened the scoring with a goal many felt was illegal, and the second goal of the game coming in added time from Steven Gerrard. The last group game saw England play against Sweden, where an eventual 2 - 2 draw saw them qualify for the next round as group winners, thereby avoiding playing hosts Germany.
In the last 16 stage, a free kick from David Beckham saw England win 1 -- 0 against Ecuador and reach the quarter - finals, where they faced Portugal. The game finished goalless, and England once again were knocked out on penalties and Portuguese goalkeeper Ricardo became the first goalkeeper to save three penalties in a penalty shoot - out. Ricardo saved from Frank Lampard, Steven Gerrard, and Jamie Carragher; the only England player who successfully converted his penalty was Owen Hargreaves. Portugal won the shoot - out 3 - 1, despite misses from Petit and Hugo Viana. This game was also Erickson 's final match as England manager.
Qualification for the first African World Cup went successfully for new England manager Fabio Capello, after previous manager Steve McClaren was unable to secure qualification to the Euro 2008. By winning nine times and only losing to Ukraine, England qualified ahead of Croatia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Andorra. England 's group was seen as a favourable one, containing comparatively much weaker teams. However, England opened up their campaign with a 1 -- 1 draw against the United States, thanks to a major error by goalkeeper Robert Green. They then drew 0 -- 0 against Algeria and were booed off the field by their own fans, drawing the ire of striker Wayne Rooney. England eventually qualified for the next round by beating Slovenia 1 -- 0, but only qualified as runners up to the United States, thereby meaning they would draw favourites Germany.
In the second round match, Germany took the lead after 20 minutes after goalkeeper Manuel Neuer played the ball down the pitch to Miroslav Klose, who opened the scoring. The score became 2 -- 0 to Germany after 32 minutes. Shortly after, England defender Matthew Upson scored a header. Later, Frank Lampard had a shot at goal which was disallowed despite crossing the line; which was confirmed on replays. German goalkeeper Manuel Neuer admitted subsequently he knew the ball had crossed the line, but decided to deceive the referee. The German media reported it was "revenge for Wembley '', while the English media criticised FIFA 's refusal to implement goal - line technology. Ironically, despite his earlier opposition to goal - line technology, Sepp Blatter said that it should be introduced after a Ukrainian goal against England at Euro 2012 was ruled out. As England tried to equalise, Germany used this to their advantage and scored two more goals. This became Germany 's biggest win against England in a World Cup, winning 4 - 1.
Under Roy Hodgson, who replaced Fabio Capello after Euro 2012 after a disagreement between Capello and The FA, England qualified for the second World Cup to be held in Brazil. Ukraine were again one of the opponents in the qualifying rounds. The other opponents included Montenegro, Poland, Moldova and San Marino. After winning six games and drawing four, England qualified unbeaten.
The draw for the finals saw England have to play against Italy and Uruguay, both former world champions, which meant that it was the first ever time three World Champions were drawn in the same group, along with Costa Rica. England lost to Italy and Uruguay, and were thus knocked out after two games. The final match against Costa Rica finished as a goalless draw. This performance was statistically their worst ever performance at a World Cup, ending up with just one point after two losses to Uruguay and Italy and a goalless draw with Costa Rica in the dead rubber match, their lowest points total in the group stage of a world cup.
England played in UEFA Group F in qualification for the 2018 World Cup, in a group of six with Slovakia, Slovenia, Scotland, Lithuania and Malta, with only the winner of the group guaranteed qualification. England went into the qualification process under manager Sam Allardyce, only for Allardyce to leave the post after just one game due to controversy regarding discussing breaking FIFA rules.
Under Allardyce 's replacement, Gareth Southgate, England went undefeated throughout qualification, winning eight matches out of 10, drawing with Slovenia 0 -- 0 in Ljubljana, and drawing 2 -- 2 with Scotland in Glasgow thanks to a 90th - minute equaliser from Harry Kane. This was the third successive major tournament that England were undefeated, having been undefeated in 2014 World Cup, and Euro 2016 qualifying.
Under Gareth Southgate, the England team began their tournament in group G against Tunisia. The game started well for England with a goal from Harry Kane in the 11th minute. Tunisia equalised through Sassi from the penalty spot in the 35th minute following a foul by Kyle Walker. Some controversy followed as various potential offences against Harry Kane, inside the penalty area were ignored by the referee and no VAR checks were carried out. England persevered and scored a second goal in the 91st minute, again by Harry Kane, resulting in a 2 -- 1 victory.
In the second group stage match, England surpassed their record for goals scored in a World Cup match by beating Panama 6 - 1. Jesse Lingard scored the third goal, John Stones scored the first and fourth goals and Harry Kane scored a hat - trick with the second, fifth and sixth goals.
In the final group stage match, England narrowly lost 1 - 0 to Belgium. Adnan Januzaj scored the sole goal of the game; but with both teams having fielded reserve teams, with England specificially making 9 changes. Before the game media outlets stating that a loss could potentially become beneficial, as the winner would be in the half of the draw with four of the top seven sides in the world. The result that meant Belgium topped the group and England finished second, setting up a last 16 clash with Group H winners Colombia.
England played their last 16 match in the Otkritie Arena, Moscow, with the same team as against Tunisia. Harry Kane scored his sixth goal of the tournament, and the third penalty, after once again being fouled in the box from a corner, similarly as against Panama. The score remained at 1 - 0, until stoppage time, where a header from Yerry Mina beat Jordan Pickford in goal to bring the game to extra time. Neither team managed to score in extra time, and the match went to penalties, which England won 4 - 3. As well as being the first knockout match England had won at a major tournament since 2006 (last defeating Ecuador in the last 16); it was the first time England won a World Cup penalty shoot - out. The match was notable for the heated atmosphere the game was played in, with a total of eight yellow cards being shown in the match.
England played against Sweden in their quarter - final at Cosmos Arena, Samara on 7 July 2018. They won the match 2 -- 0, with defender Harry Maguire scoring his first England goal, a header scored from a corner, and Dele Alli a second header from close range. This would send them through to their third World Cup semi-final and their first since 1990, and third overall. The team played Croatia in the semi-final, resulting in a 2 -- 1 loss after extra time. England would later finish fourth in the competition, the best result since 1990. England would lose again to Belgium in the 3rd place playoff, thanks to goals from Thomas Meunier and Eden Hazard, despite a Eric Dier shot being cleared off the line by Toby Alderweireld.
The tournament would see England score nine goals from set - pieces -- the most by a team in a single World Cup tournament since 1966.
Last update: 14 July 2018
Current as of 3 July 2018 after the match against Colombia
Historically, very few English World Cup squad members were playing for a club in a foreign league at the time of their selection to the national squad.
Team Awards
Individual Awards
Team Records
Individual Records
Four FIFA World Cup finals were officiated by English referees, more than by any other football association. The first Englishman to officiate a final, George Reader, is also the oldest World Cup referee to date, as he was 53 years and 236 days old at the 1950 decisive match between Uruguay and Brazil. The other final referees are William Ling (1954), Jack Taylor (1974) and Howard Webb (2010).
Arthur Ellis, who was a linesman at the 1950 final, is part of an elite group of referees who has been called up for three consecutive World Cups (1950 -- 1958).
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stargate sg 1 the end of the ori | Ori (Stargate) - wikipedia
The Ori / ˈɔːraɪ / are fictional characters in the science fiction television series, Stargate SG - 1. They are a group of "ascended '' beings who use their advanced technology and knowledge of the universe to attempt to trick non-ascended humans into worshipping them as gods.
They first appeared in the ninth season of Stargate SG - 1, replacing the Goa'uld as the show 's primary antagonists. While the Goa'uld relied on stolen technology from other civilizations to pose as gods, the Ori also have paranormal abilities in addition to very advanced technology. As Ascended beings, they live on a higher plane of existence with great power and knowledge and are as close to being "gods '' as any non-deific being can be. The Ori fabricated a religion called Origin, which they use in an attempt to control non-ascended beings. The Ori also attempt to destroy any planets and civilizations that reject Origin.
Since the eighth season of Stargate SG - 1 was intended to be the last, the producers finished it with the defeat of the Goa'uld and Replicators. When the Sci Fi Channel renewed the series, however, the producers had grown creatively tired of writing endings. Having had good experiences with the first season of Stargate Atlantis, the producers hence decided to revamp the series in more fronts than just adding new characters by introducing new villains and new missions. Thus they considered the beginning of Season 9 as the pilot of a new show.
Season Nine was about wiping the slate clean and resetting the story to where Stargate SG - 1 was in its first season. The reason was that the SG - 1 team was now winning every time, having already defeated the main enemies the previous season. Since SG - 1 had always been grounded in Earth mythology, the producers chose the King Arthur mythology for the new season as that had not been done before. Merlin as a famous magical figure was made an Ancient, leading to the Ancients ' enemies named the Ori. The Ori are thus "a natural extension of where the Ancient mythology had gone. '' Up until that point, the story of the Ancients had been kept at arm 's length because the show was not about the aliens but "human beings going out into this unexplored, fantastical universe. '' The producers also acknowledged that a premature full revelation of the Ancients would have caused their story to be less interesting.
Producer Brad Wright believed the Ori are still within the overriding theme of Stargate, as they are "aliens playing gods '' and "false gods '' and the relationship between aliens as gods and ordinary human folk. The introduction of the Ori was to prepare the viewer for their invasion and overtaking that would take place later. The Ori also served as a challenge for the new heroes in the SG - 1 team (Mitchell, Landry, Vala). The writers believed that new bad guys and new obstacles for the characters to overcome would make for a more interesting story.
The name "Ori '' comes from the word "Origin '', as in the origin of the Ancients. When executive producer Robert C. Cooper looked at the root of "origin '', he retcon - invented the word "Origin '' as the name of the Ori religion. Cooper said it was an interesting idea for him to address the philosophical arguments with various religious people, seeing the whole challenge as "how do you prove whose God exists or whether God exists at all? '' Instead of the Goa'uld, who were proved quickly to not be gods by killing them and figuring out their technology, it would be hard to present the same argument to the Ori followers because the Ori were essentially ascended gods. Even if their gods were dead, it would not make much difference for them, as their followers would continue to believe; without the "magic powers '' of the Ori, their followers and the Priors (the Ori 's missionaries) could still use the technology and their ships. Cooper said that "it 's not necessarily wrong to believe in something... what 's wrong is to murder somebody because they do n't believe the way you do. '' Although Cooper was reluctant to get too serious about the meaning behind the Ori as Stargate should "first and foremost (...) entertain people '', he considered it representative of television and the media, "mak (ing) people believe whatever the people in charge of that magic box -- whatever they want you to believe they can pretty much convince you, or convince the vast majority of people. '' For Cooper, "the followers of the Ori were the interesting part '', and he "wanted to do a story that was in some way reflective of the differences between people 's beliefs that we see around us in our society, and how conflicts arise as a result of that. '' Cooper was particularly interested in the interaction between Ori followers and other normal human beings, the resulting "mysterious aspect and quality to religious belief and the passion that it invokes. '' The producers therefore put the Ori in the story background, similar to the way there was very little direct interaction between the actual deities of the religion and mankind in real life.
Cooper was concerned that the distinction between the Ori and the Ori 's followers was often overlooked, and that the SG - 1 team dealt with the followers, not the ascended gods. If, as "The Shroud '' suggested, the Ori were actually destroyed by the Merlin 's Ancient weapon, the real issue for the SG - 1 teams became the followers. Brad Wright pointed to power corruption, and the catch of the Ori killing unbelievers.
In the original pitch for "Beachhead '', Brad Wright had intended to let Ori build the Supergate and come through. It was then decided among the writers to only let the threat of the Ori come through the Priors, and wait for the Ori arrival until the end of the season.
The last ten minutes of "Camelot '' should serve as a "great, ominous harbinger of the foe '' SG - 1 is up against. In Season 10, the Ori sweep through the Milky Way galaxy, forcing SG - 1 to start from scratch again to find technology, resources, and allies to fight against them.
If Stargate SG - 1 had gone on, the producers would have considered the search for the Ark (of Stargate: The Ark of Truth) as the overriding story for an eleventh season, similar to the Sangraal in seasons nine and ten. The producers did not explore more detailed ideas after the show 's cancellation.
Art director James Robbins developed the design of the Ori and the Priors from scratch. At the beginning he knew a basic description of them and their powers, and that they would carry a staff weapon. The art department first looked at Japanese and Samurai from a costuming point of view. Inspired by remote jungle tribes for the mystical aspects, Robbins came up with the idea of scarification for the Priors and the Doci. The Priors have scarifications on the chin and the cheek, while the Doci also have them on their forehead. Scarification would therefore be a symbol of high establishment. Originally, it was also considered to have scarification on the hands, and to have the Priors have finger extensions, but this became too impracticable. When the Prime Jaffa Gerak became a Prior in "The Fourth Horseman '', his golden Jaffa tattoo on his forehead was replaced with a Prior scarification, and his makeup was made to look like the gold had melted and become part of his Prior scarification.
Each Prior was given his own unique symbol, which he would wear on his wardrobe and also on his staff weapon. The art department built each staff to have a little orb encased in natural wood, and the orbs start to glow when the actor pushes a little button on the handle.
Composer Joel Goldsmith 's inspiration for the Ori themes were the "certain parallels to what 's happening today, in modern day ''. He admits that the music of the Ori was intentionally given a gothic, Gregorian and Christian feel. He tried to meld a few different styles.
The Ori backstory is elaborate and is explained over Season 9 and 10 and the film Stargate: The Ark of Truth. Robert C. Cooper considered the backstory "pretty complicated '' but felt the show gave the answers to the audience members who wanted to delve deeper.
Part of this story returns to the Ancients, whose backstory began in the Season 1 episode "The Torment of Tantalus ''. Early in Season 9, Brad Wright explained that the Ori are the original Ancients, who would disagree with the Alterans (later to relocate and be known as the Ancients of the Milky Way galaxy) that they should n't interfere because interference would mean playing god, which these beings had n't quite achieved.
The Ori and the Alterans were one race millions of years ago and lived in a single society on an evolutionary path to ascension. The Ark of Truth shows flashbacks to human Ancients coexisting with the people who eventually became the Ori. However, a philosophical division emerged. The Ori grew more and more fervent in their religious belief, while the Alterans adopted a more scientific / rational outlook to become a more progressive society. The Ancients were well known for their fierce belief in free will and had a code to be "fairly non-violent ''. As such, they do not interfere on lower planes of existence at all, not even to save their own kind from being exterminated by the Ori, or to prevent all life in the Milky Way galaxy from being exterminated by Anubis. In contrast, the Ori constantly interfere. For example, Origin states that failure to share the secrets of the universe to those on the lower planes of existence is an evil act and that anyone not following it must be eliminated; by this definition, every ascended Ancient was evil and must be destroyed. They also have no rules against taking direct control of living beings or completely changing them to behave as they desire. With the Ori outnumbering the Alterans, their viewpoints ultimately diverged so much that the two groups split apart and began to actively oppose each other, with the Ori attempting to kill the Alterans.
Their fundamentally different beliefs in regards to science led the Alterans to hide their level of scientific belief so that they would not get into a conflict. Eventually, the Ancients decided to build a space ship and leave rather than to use their technology, like the Ark of Truth, to defeat the Ori. Though they had the ability to stop the Ori, they thought it to be philosophically and morally wrong. The film thus addresses the non-interference policy of the Ancients under the Ori threat, and how they act millions of years later, when SG - 1 succeeds in killing the Ori.
After much time, believed by Daniel Jackson to be thousands of years, the Alterans discovered the Milky Way, where they eventually built their empire. However, even after the Ori had forced the Alterans to leave their galaxy, the two factions remained bitter enemies. Eventually, the Alterans were afflicted with a terrible plague that wiped out most of their civilization. It would later be discovered that what was known of this plague is very similar to the disease used by Ori Priors against non-believers, which had led Daniel Jackson to speculate that the pre-Ascended Ori might have been responsible for this plague.
After millions of years, both the Alterans and the Ori learned how to ascend and evolved, forming two groups that continued to oppose each other, even at the higher planes of existence. According to the Orici Adria, the Ori - Ancient war on the Ascended plane is due to the Ancients ' intolerance for those who do not comply with their rules about non-interference. According to Orlin, a de-ascended Ancient, the conflict arises from the Ori 's ultimate wish to destroy the Ancients once and for all as they seek to eliminate all who oppose them.
When the Ori ascended they re-created humanity (the second generation of humans) to worship them in the Ori galaxy, and gave their followers the knowledge and technology to essentially enslave others and to force them to believe as the Ori desired. The Ancients also created a new evolution of humans (i.e. current human culture) in the Milky Way and shielded them, preventing the Ori from finding out about them and enslaving the people to Origin as they had in their own galaxy. They do not view this action as a violation of their non-interference policies as the Ori are at a level equal to themselves. However, as the Ancients will not interfere in the lower planes of existence, the Ori are allowed to send their human followers to the Milky Way in order to convert it, and anyone who wishes to worship the Ori will not be prevented from doing so.
According to Orlin, ascended beings can be empowered by massive numbers of humans worshipping them. The Ori fabricated an entire religion, Origin, based on the false promise of ascension in order to take power from their followers. The Ancients refrain from interfering in the lower planes of existence because manipulating and aligning lower life forms could result in exactly this type of corruption. According to the Ancient Myrddin, the Ori had the best intentions when they began. Even after the Ori were destroyed, their followers and Priors continued acting in their name to oppress thousands of people since, for the most part, they were ignorant to the demise of their "Gods ''.
The Ori impose a religion called Origin on sentient beings, promising a guide towards enlightenment that is also known in the series as Ascension. The faith comes with a holy book called The Book of Origin, and the Priors spread the Word of Origin. The Book of Origin contains tales of how the followers of the Ori returned to the path to enlightenment, and thus achieved Ascension, although some skeptics consider these merely "fables meant to fill a soul bereft of hope with purpose ''. Several lines from the Book of Origin, or otherwise repeated mantras, are heard on the show. These include variations of "Hallowed are the Ori ''. The central icon of this religion is fire, something that gives off light and warmth. The fact that on Earth this icon has some evil or Satanic associations in many modern religions prompted Daniel to posit that the Ancients had influenced this negative connotation in order to identify the threat the Ori pose. Among the populations of natives in the Ori home galaxy are groups of heretics who believe they are being suppressed, and seek to discover forbidden historical knowledge to show others that the Ori, despite their power, are not gods.
Ori military tactics varied during the initial incursions into the Milky Way galaxy and the full - scale invasion that was later achieved through the Supergate. The initial incursions were achieved through lone Priors who were sent to worlds in the Milky Way galaxy, preaching to the populace and distributing copies of the Book of Origin. When the people failed to comply, more drastic measures were taken, eventually to the point of destroying the population. The show features powerful Ori weapons in "Ethon '', ships in "Camelot '', control chairs like that in "Counterstrike '' and Supergates in "Beachhead ''. The Ori can be killed by Merlin 's Sangraal weapon, which nullifies ascended beings. As seen in The Ark of Truth, there is also an Ark that Cooper considered "a truly fascinating centerpiece '' and "mass brain - washing device '' which causes people to see the truth in any given situation. Comparing the Ark to television as it is "a box that light comes out of, and you believe what it says '', Cooper left it open whether the choice to do it without guns was ultimately the better method.
The Doci (Latin docere, "to teach ''), played by Julian Sands, represents the Ori in their home galaxy and leads the Priors. He appears in "Origin '', "The Fourth Horseman, Part 1 '' and Stargate: The Ark of Truth. The Doci is essentially a chief Prior who acts as a mediator or mouthpiece for the Ori. The Doci has brown hair and colored eyes, pale skin and facial markings of a Prior. The Doci was introduced in "Origin '', where he was shown to reside in the city of Celestis, with his chambers next to the Ori 's Flames of Enlightenment. In one instance, the Ori possessed the Doci to speak to Daniel. Had Julian Sands not been able to come back as the Doci for the direct - to - DVD film The Ark of Truth, the producers had planned to hire another actor as a different Doci in charge in Celestis. Although Sands ' availability eventually was a hindrance in The Ark of Truth, the producers felt it was better to include the Doci than to forgo the character.
The Ori are served by so - called Priors, highly evolved human beings who act as missionaries of the Ori by traveling to different planets to spread the religion of Origin. As the Ori are incapable of directly affecting the material universe in the Milky Way Galaxy due to the protection of the ascended Ancients, they send the Priors as their representatives to circumvent this rule. Cooper said the Priors have "these incredible, superhuman powers '', which allows them to perform deeds which they convince people are miracles, attack enemies, and resurrect the dead. They also unleash plagues as punishment for not following the Ori. The Priors believe fervently in their mission, and essentially offer a real religion with big promises. Priors have been encountered on various worlds, trying to convert the local population and fight anyone who tried to stop them, including the Tau'ri and the Jaffa.
As shown in the series, priors are normal humans whom the Ori transform into an evolved state of human to serve as missionaries as a reward for loyalty and devoted service. This process drastically alters their appearance: albino skin and hair, a tracery of raised lines on the chin and cheeks, and indentation of the skull just above and behind the eyes. Their eyes appear as a misty gray pupil without an iris. In "The Fourth Horseman '' and The Ark of Truth, SG - 1 was able to temporarily disable a Prior 's abilities by using ultrasonic sounds to deny Priors access to the advanced areas of their brains.
The Ori warriors are conscripted men, who were trained to fight non-believers as foot soldiers and take over the Milky Way. Introduced in "Crusade '', they are shown wearing metallic plate armor and armed with powerful staff weapons. They are first seen in combat in Season 10. Cooper wrote "Crusade '' with the intention to show that the Ori warriors are not two - dimensional, even though their strength of belief and single - mindedness makes them fight for what they want to fight for. According to Cooper, the Ori warriors are a fictional mirror of the events in the real world, but he wanted people to try and understand "why people want to go to war with us, or blow up our buildings, or our airplanes ''. Cooper also wanted to show that "there 's really no winner to the argument '' when it comes to "religion and belief, and gods ''; according to Cooper, there is a line when a society takes up arms instead of finding a more civilized way of dialogue.
Tim Guinee played Tomin, a devout Ori follower of the village of Ver Isca, who becomes an Ori commander in Season 10. He appears in "Crusade '', "Flesh and Blood '', "Line in the Sand '', and Stargate: The Ark of Truth. Tomin is intended as a representation of the Ori warriors, and Cooper described Guinee as a "fabulous actor who instantly creates that humanity and empathy... while he 's mass - murdering people '' Tomin is introduced in flashbacks in "Crusade '', having found Vala after she was transported to the Ori home galaxy. Tomin had been crippled since childhood, and was therefore looked down on by his fellow villagers. Tomin married Vala and accepted her pregnancy as his child, not knowing that it was a miraculous conception set by the Ori. A little later, a Prior visited the village and cured Tomin of his limp, allowing him to become a warrior for the Ori. The prior also told Tomin the truth about the child as "the will of the Ori '', who would later be the Orici. Tomin is later able to forgive Vala. Tomin and Vala depart aboard the first wave of Ori vessels entering the Milky Way, and they go separate ways in "Flesh and Blood ''. Tomin rises to the rank of commander within the Ori warrior armies, and he and Vala meet again in "Line in the Sand ''. Because a Prior twists the words of the Book of Origin, Tomin begins to doubt the Priors and their interpretations of Origin 's teachings, and helps Vala escape. Tomin plays an important role in the film Stargate: The Ark of Truth, in which, after seeing a Prior 's death with his own eyes, he learns the truth about the Ori.
In Season 10, the primary antagonist switched from the Priors and the Doci to the Orici, also known by the name Adria. The story presents her as a genetically advanced human infused with Ori knowledge, created to circumvent the Ancients ' rules that the Ori can not directly use their powers to conquer the Milky Way galaxy. Adria is one step higher than the Doci, but equal in terms of her role in the Milky Way galaxy, which is to lead the armies of the Ori in the Milky Way galaxy, converting the galaxy to Origin in the process. Adria possesses several Prior - like superhuman abilities, and leads the armies of the Ori until her Ascension in the penultimate episode of Stargate SG - 1. From a creative standpoint, Adria 's character was created to give Vala Mal Doran a story and personality arc as a member of the SG - 1 team.
Adria 's story begins shortly after the events of "Beachhead '', when Vala is impregnated by the Ori in the Ori home galaxy. Vala eventually returns to the Milky Way aboard one of the Ori battlecruisers invading the Milky Way galaxy. In "Flesh and Blood '', Vala gives birth to a baby girl, the Orici. Within hours of being born, the child reaches the apparent age of four and heals her mother 's pain, knowing that Vala is not a believer in Origin. By the child 's apparent age of seven, Vala gives her the name Adria, after her stepmother, a "witch of a woman ''. Vala escapes when Adria is at the apparent age of twelve. Adria only starts to have an impact in the second quarter of the season, when she has grown "into a beautiful but deadly young woman ''.
When Vala, who has joined the SG - 1 team, meets adult Adria in "Counterstrike '', Adria foreshadows her plans with Daniel. In "The Quest '', Adria tricks SG - 1 into obtaining the Sangraal for her. Adria captures Daniel before he can complete the device. Hoping to convert both Earth and Vala, Adria attempts to convert Daniel to the path of Origin and makes him a Prior. In "The Shroud '', however, Daniel betrays her and uses the weapon on the Ori galaxy. In "Dominion '', Adria is briefly implanted with a cloned Ba'al symbiote. Although the symbiote is removed, the procedure almost kills Adria and she ascends. Being the only surviving Ori after the events of "The Shroud '', Adria alone controls the power generated by the followers of Origin -- becoming the closest thing the Stargate universe has seen to a true god. She continues the Ori 's assault on the Milky Way in Stargate: The Ark of Truth. After an Ancient device known as the Ark of Truth affects her galaxy 's believers, Adria is last seen in Stargate: The Ark of Truth in a battle with the Ancient Morgan le Fay, which in Cooper 's view started as a fight in the human realm of existence and continues on the ascended level similar to what happened with Anubis and Oma Desala in "Threads ''. Adria is thus "eternally distracted from being able to continue her evil ways ''.
Young Adria was played by three child actresses -- Adria at age four was played by Robert C. Cooper 's daughter Emma, who replaced the originally cast child who suffered from stage fright. Adria at age seven was played by Jodelle Ferland, and at age twelve by Brenna O'Brien. Morena Baccarin was offered the role of adult Adria in a phone call by the producers, who were Firefly fans. The orange contact lenses that the actress had to wear made her feel nearly blind and irritated her eyes, so the lenses were dropped during the shooting of "The Quest ''. Baccarin enjoyed "the whole experience (...) incredible '' as she got to play a character she could learn from. In her words, "Adria was a complex character and I loved trying to make her sweet as well as totally bad. '' Brad Wright called Adria "an interesting character because she 's the Ori cheating '', and compared her to the Ori equivalent of a Harcesis. Cooper considered Adria becoming host to a Goa'uld "the marriage of the old villains and the new villains '' and compared it to the episode "Enemies '', the first where both the Replicators and the Goa'uld first appeared together. Morena Baccarin was only available for one day during the filming of Stargate: The Ark of Truth, worth six pages of script. Cooper had written more scenes between her, Julian Sands ("Doci '') and the SG - 1 team, but the only other option to what ended up in the film was to cut the character.
In the second episode of season 9, it is shown that not all Humans in the Ori Home Galaxy believe their gods to be benevolent as is seen in the case of the Anti-Ori Underground. This group of humans live a dangerous life in hiding from purges and the fanatical followers. Their purpose is simply to collect enough evidence to prove to their brethren that the claims of the Ori are false. Despite this, they do believe that the Ori are very powerful; it is only their intentions they doubt. Even though the group lives in the shadows of Ori society, they have collected a number of artifacts that they have kept hidden, since such pieces of technology contradict the book of Origin and thus would be destroyed if discovered. The group also has a number of followers in high positions even within the City of the Gods. All known members of this movement -- Harrid (played by Stephen Park), Sallis (April Amber Telek), Fannis (Paul Moniz de Sa), Seevis (Michael Ironside), and Denya (Daniella Evangelista) -- die shortly after their introduction. Another member is introduced in Stargate: The Ark of Truth: Hertis (Chris Gauthier). Tomin somehow finds him and takes him to meet with Daniel and Vala in order to find the location of Ortus Malum where the team believes the Ark of Truth to be. He is somewhat suspicious of Daniel and Vala as they are unaware that the fires of Celestis are out (an indication that the Ori are dead) which should have spread very far. Apparently Tomin told him they were from far away but just not how far (another galaxy). In order to give him proof of their story, Daniel, Vala and Tomin take him to the Odyssey which is in orbit which is proof enough for him. He tells them what is believed to be the location: a mountain high above the Plains of Celestis on another planet. Presumably he is then returned to his home planet as he is not seen again.
In reviewing the first part of Season 9, Steven Graves of TV Zone was concerned that "mining Arthurian mythology for season 9 may prove to be a mistake for Stargate '', comparing scenes of "Avalon '' to "a god - awful Merri Olde England pastiche straight out of Monty Python and the Holy Grail, complete with unwashed peons, an overbearing church and witchburning. '' He however commented about "Origin '' that "Stargate SG - 1 seems to be establishing an interesting set of themes this season, providing a timely commentary on religious evangelism and intolerance with its new villains, the Ori. '' By "The Powers That Be '', Graves was sure that "the Ori are a force to be reckoned with. '' Regarding "The Fourth Horseman '', he thought it was "doubly nice '' to see an SG - 1 story where the apocalyptic events have an effect on contemporary Earth instead of on alien planets.
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how many times can a person be elected prime minister of india | Prime minister of India - Wikipedia
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The Prime Minister of India is the leader of the executive of the Government of India. The prime minister is also the chief adviser to the President of India and head of the Council of Ministers. They can be a member of any of the two houses of the Parliament of India -- the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of the States) -- but has to be a member of the political party or coalition, having a majority in the Lok Sabha.
The prime minister is the senior-most member of cabinet in the executive of government in a parliamentary system. The prime minister selects and can dismiss members of the cabinet; allocates posts to members within the government; and is the presiding member and chairperson of the cabinet.
The union cabinet headed by the prime minister is appointed by the President of India to assist the latter in the administration of the affairs of the executive. Union cabinet is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha as per article 75 (3) of the Constitution of India. The prime minister has to enjoy the confidence of a majority in the Lok Sabha and shall resign if they are unable to prove majority when instructed by the president.
India follows a parliamentary system in which the prime minister is the presiding head of the government and chief of the executive of the government. In such systems, the head of state, or, the head of state 's official representative (i.e., the monarch, president, or governor - general) usually holds a purely ceremonial position and acts -- on most matters -- only on the advice of the prime minister.
The prime minister -- if they are not already -- shall become a member of parliament within six months of beginning his / her tenure. A prime minister is expected to work with other central ministers to ensure the passage of bills by the parliament.
Since 1947, there have been 14 different prime ministers. The first few decades after 1947 saw the Indian National Congress ' (INC) almost complete domination over the political map of India. India 's first prime minister -- Jawaharlal Nehru -- took oath on 15 August 1947. Nehru went on to serve as prime minister for 17 consecutive years, winning four general elections in the process. His tenure ended in May 1964, on his death. After the death of Nehru, Lal Bahadur Shastri -- a former home minister and a leader of the Congress party -- ascended to the position of prime minister. Shastri 's tenure saw the Indo - Pakistani War of 1965. Shashtri subsequently died of a reported heart attack in Tashkent, after signing the Tashkent Declaration.
After Shastri, Indira Gandhi -- Nehru 's daughter -- was elected as the country 's first woman prime minister. Indira 's first term in office lasted 11 years, in which she took steps such as nationalization of banks; end of allowances and political posts, which were received by members of the royal families of the erstwhile princely states of British India. In addition, events such as the Indo - Pakistani War of 1971; the establishment of a sovereign Bangladesh; accession of Sikkim to India, through a referendum in 1975; and India 's first nuclear test in Pokhran occurred during Indira 's first term. In 1975, President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed -- on Indira 's advice -- imposed a state of emergency, therefore, bestowing the government with the power to rule by decree, the period is known for human right violations.
After widespread protests, the emergency was lifted in 1977, and a general election was to be held. All of the political parties of the opposition -- after the conclusion of the emergency -- fought together against the Congress, under the umbrella of the Janata Party, in the general election of 1977, and were successful in defeating the Congress. Subsequently, Morarji Desai -- a former deputy prime minister -- became the first non-Congress prime minister of the country. The government of Prime Minister Desai was composed of groups with opposite ideologies, in which unity and coordination were difficult to maintain. Ultimately, after two and a half years as PM; on 28 July 1979, Morarji tendered his resignation to the president; and his government fell. Thereafter, Charan Singh -- a deputy prime minister in Desai 's cabinet -- with outside, conditional support from Congress, proved a majority in Lok Sabha and took oath as prime minister. However, Congress pulled its support shortly after, and Charan Singh had to resign; he had a tenure of 5 months, the shortest in the history of the office.
In 1980, after a three - year absence, the Congress returned to power with an absolute majority. Indira Gandhi was elected prime minister a second time. During her second tenure, Operation Blue Star -- an Indian Army operation inside the Golden Temple, the most sacred site in Sikhism -- was conducted, resulting in reportedly thousands of deaths. Subsequently, on 31 October 1984, Indira was shot dead by Satwant Singh and Beant Singh -- two of her bodyguards -- in the garden of her residence at 1, Safdarjung Road, New Delhi.
After Indira, the Rajiv Gandhi -- her eldest son and 40 years old at the time -- was sworn in on the evening of 31 October 1984, becoming the youngest person ever to hold the office of prime minister. Rajiv immediately called for a general election. In the subsequent general election, the Congress secured an absolute majority, winning 401 of 552 seats in the Lok Sabha, the maximum number received by any party in the history of India. Vishwanath Pratap Singh -- first finance minister and then later defence minister in Rajiv 's cabinet -- uncovered irregularities, in what became to be known as the Bofors scandal, during his stint at the Ministry of Defence; V.P. Singh was subsequently expelled from Congress and formed the Janata Dal and -- with the help of several anti-Congress parties -- also formed the National Front, a coalition of many political parties.
In the general election of 1989, the National Front -- with outside support from the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Left Front -- came to power. V.P. Singh was elected prime minister. During a tenure of less than a year, V.P. Singh and his government accepted the Mandal Commission 's recommendations. V.P. Singh 's tenure came to an end after he ordered the arrest of BJP leader Lal Krishna Advani, as a result, BJP withdrew its outside support to the government, V.P. Singh lost the subsequent vote - of - no - confidence 146 - 320 and had to resign. After V.P. Singh 's resignation, Chandra Shekhar -- home minister in V.P. Singh 's cabinet -- along with 64 members of parliament (MPs) floated the Samajwadi Janata Party (Rashtriya) (SJP (R)), and proved a majority in the Lok Sabha with support from Congress. But his premiership did not last long, Congress proceeded to withdraw its support; Chandra Shekhar 's government fell as a result, and new elections were announced.
In the general election of 1991, Congress -- under the leadership of P.V. Narasimha Rao -- formed a minority government; Rao became the first PM of South Indian origin. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, India was on the brink of bankruptcy, so, Rao took steps to liberalise the economy, and appointed Manmohan Singh -- an economist and a former governor of the Reserve Bank of India -- as finance minister. Rao and Manmohan then took various steps to liberalise the economy, these resulted in an unprecedented economic growth in India. His premiership, however, was also a witness to the demolition of the Babri Masjid, which resulted in the death of about 2,000 people. Rao, however, did complete five continuous years in office, becoming the first prime minister outside of the Nehru -- Gandhi family to do so.
After the end of Rao 's tenure in May 1996, the nation saw four prime ministers in a span of three years, viz., two tenures of Atal Bihari Vajpayee; one tenure of H.D. Deve Gowda from 1 June 1996 to 21 April 1997; and one tenure of I.K. Gujral from 21 April 1997 to 19 March 1998. The government of Prime Minister Vajpayee -- elected in 1998 -- took some concrete steps. In May 1998 -- after a month in power -- the government announced the conduct of five underground nuclear explosions in Pokhran. In response to these tests, many western countries, including the United States, imposed economic sanctions on India, but, due to the support received from Russia, France, the Gulf countries and some other nations, the sanctions -- were largely -- not considered successful. A few months later in response to the Indian nuclear tests, Pakistan also conducted nuclear tests. Given the deteriorating situation between the two countries, the governments tried to improve bilateral relations. In February 1999, the India and Pakistan signed the Lahore Declaration, in which the two countries announced their intention to annul mutual enmity, increase trade and use their nuclear capabilities for peaceful purposes. In May 1999, All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) withdrew from the ruling National Democratic Alliance (NDA) coalition; Vajpayee 's government -- hence -- became a caretaker one after losing a motion - of - no - confidence 269 - 270, this coincided with the Kargil War with Pakistan. In the subsequent October 1999 election, the BJP - led NDA and its affiliated parties secured a comfortable majority in the Lok Sabha, winning 299 of 543 seats in the lower house.
Vajpayee continued the process of economic liberalization during his reign, resulting in economic growth. In addition to the development of infrastructure and basic facilities, the government took several steps to improve the infrastructure of the country, such as, the National Highways Development Project (NHDP) and the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY; IAST: Pradhānamaṃtrī Grāma Saḍa़ka Yojanā; lit. Prime Minister Rural Road Scheme), for the development of roads. But during his reign, the 2002 Gujarat communal riots in the state of Gujarat took place; resulting in the death of about 2,000 deaths. Prime Minister Vajpayee 's tenure as prime minister came to an end in May 2004, making him the first non-Congress PM to complete a full five - year tenure.
In the 2004 election, the Congress emerged as the largest party in a hung parliament; Congress - led United Progressive Alliance (UPA) -- with outside support from the Left Front, the Samajwadi Party (SP) and Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) among others -- proved a majority in the Lok Sabha, and Manmohan Singh was elected prime minister; becoming the first Sikh prime minister of the nation. During his tenure, the country retained the economic momentum gained during Prime Minister Vajpayee 's tenure. Apart from this, the government succeeded in getting the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005, and the Right to Information Act, 2005 passed in the parliament. Further, the government strengthened India 's relations with nations like Afghanistan; Russia; and the United States, culminating with the ratification of India -- United States Civil Nuclear Agreement near the end of Manmohan 's first term. At the same time, the November 2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks also happened during Manmohan 's first term in office. In the general election of 2009, the mandate of UPA increased. Prime Minister Manmohan 's second term, however, was surrounded by accusations of high - level scandals and corruption. Manmohan resigned as prime minister on 17 May 2014, after Congress ' defeat in the 2014 general election.
In the general election of 2014, the BJP - led NDA got an absolute majority, winning 336 out of 543 Lok Sabha seats; the BJP itself became the first party since 1984 to get a majority in the Lok Sabha. Narendra Modi -- the Chief Minister of Gujarat -- was elected prime minister; becoming the first prime minister to have been born in an independent India.
The Constitution envisions a scheme of affairs in which the President of India is the head of state; in terms of Article 53 with office of the prime minister being the head of Council of Ministers to assist and advise the president in the discharge of his / her constitutional functions. To quote, Article 53, 74 and 75 provide as under;
The executive powers of the Union shall be vested in the president and shall be exercised either directly or through subordinate officers, in accordance with the Constitution.
There shall be a Council of Ministers with the prime minister at the head to aid and advise the president who shall, in the exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice.
The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.
Like most parliamentary democracies, the president 's duties are mostly ceremonial as long as the constitution and the rule of law is obeyed by the cabinet and the legislature. The Prime Minister of India is the head of government and has the responsibility for executive power. The president 's constitutional duty is to preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law per article 60. In the constitution of India, the prime minister is mentioned in only four of its articles (articles 74, 75, 78 and 366), however he / she plays a crucial role in the Government of India by enjoying majority in the Lok Sabha.
According to Article 84 of the Constitution of India, which sets the principle qualification for member of Parliament, and Article 75 of the Constitution of India, which sets the qualifications for the minister in the Union Council of Minister, and the argument that the position of prime minister has been described as primus inter pares (the first among equals), A prime minister must:
If however a candidate is elected as the prime minister they must vacate their post from any private or government company and may take up the post only on completion of their term.
The prime minister is required to make and subscribe in the presence of President of India before entering office, the oath of office and secrecy, as per the Third Schedule of the Constitution of India.
Oath of office:
I, < name >, do swear in the name of God / solemnly affirm that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India as by law established, that I will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India, that I will faithfully and conscientiously discharge my duties as prime minister for the Union and that I will do right to all manner of people in accordance with the Constitution and the law, without fear or favour, affection or ill - will.
Oath of secrecy:
I, < name >, do swear in the name of God / solemnly affirm that I will not directly or indirectly communicate or reveal to any person or persons any matter which shall be brought under my consideration or shall become known to me as prime minister for the Union except as may be required for the due discharge of my duties as such Minister.
The prime minister serves on ' the pleasure of the president ', hence, a prime minister may remain in office indefinitely, so long as the president has confidence in him / her. However, a prime minister must have the confidence of Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India.
However, the term of a prime minister can end before the end of a Lok Sabha 's term, if a simple majority of its members no longer have confidence in him / her, this is called a vote - of - no - confidence. Three prime ministers, I.K. Gujral, H.D. Deve Gowda and Atal Bihari Vajpayee have been voted out from office this way. In addition, a prime minister can also resign from office; Morarji Desai was the first prime minister to resign while in office.
Upon ceasing to possess the requisite qualifications to be a member of Parliament subject to the Representation of the People Act, 1951.
The prime minister leads the functioning and exercise of authority of the Government of India. The President of India -- subject to eligibility -- invites a person who is commanding support of majority members of Lok Sabha to form the Government of India -- also known as the central government or Union government -- at the national level and exercise its powers. In practice the prime minister nominates the members of their council of ministers to the president. They also work upon to decide a core group of ministers (known as the cabinet), as in charge of the important functions and ministries of the Government of India.
The prime minister is responsible for aiding and advising the president in distribution of work of the government to various ministries and offices and in terms of the Government of India (Allocation of Business) Rules, 1961. The coordinating work is generally allocated to the Cabinet Secretariat. While the work of the government is generally divided into various Ministries, the prime minister may retain certain portfolios if they are not allocated to any member of the cabinet.
The prime minister -- in consultation with the cabinet -- schedules and attends the sessions of the houses of parliament and is required to answer the question from the Members of Parliament to them as the in - charge of the portfolios in the capacity as Prime Minister of India.
Some specific ministries / department are not allocated to anyone in the cabinet but the prime minister themself. The prime minister is usually always in charge / head of:
The prime minister represents the country in various delegations, high level meetings and international organisations that require the attendance of the highest government office, and also addresses to the nation on various issues of national or other importance.
Per Article 78 of the constitution, the official communication between the union cabinet and the president are through the prime minister. Other wise constitution recognises the prime minister as a member of the union cabinet only outside the sphere of union cabinet.
The prime minister recommends to the president -- among others -- names for the appointment of:
As the chairperson of Appointments Committee of the Cabinet (ACC), the prime minister -- on the non-binding advice of the Cabinet Secretary of India led - Senior Selection Board (SSB) -- decides the postings of top civil servants, such as, secretaries, additional secretaries and joint secretaries in the Government of India. Further, in the same capacity, the PM decides the assignments of top military personnel such as the Chief of the Army Staff, Chief of the Air Staff, Chief of the Naval Staff and commanders of operational and training commands. In addition, the ACC also decides the posting of Indian Police Service officers -- the All India Service for policing, which staffs most of the higher level law enforcement positions at federal and state level -- in the Government of India.
Also, as the Minister of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions, the PM also exercises control over the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), the country 's premier civil service, which staffs most of the senior civil service positions; the Public Enterprises Selection Board (PESB); and the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), except for the selection of its director, who is chosen by a committee of: (a) the prime minister, as chairperson; (b) the leader of the opposition in Lok Sabha; (c) and the chief justice.
Unlike most other countries, the prime minister does not have much influence over the selection of judges, that is done by a collegium of judges consisting of the Chief Justice of India, four senior-most judges of the Supreme Court of India and the chief justice -- or the senior-most judge -- of the concerned state high court. The executive as a whole, however, has the right to send back a recommended name to the collegium for reconsideration, this, however, is not a full veto power, and the collegium can still put forward rejected name.
The prime minister acts as the leader of the house of the chamber of parliament -- generally the Lok Sabha -- he / she belongs to. In this role, the prime minister is tasked with representing the executive in the legislature, he / she is also expected to announce important legislation, and is further expected to respond to the opposition 's concerns. Article 85 of the Indian constitution confers the president with the power to convene and end extraordinary sessions of the parliament, this power, however, is exercised only on the advise of prime minister and his / her council, so, in practice, the prime minister does exercise some control over affairs of the parliament.
Article 75 of the Constitution of India confers the parliament with the power to decide the remuneration and other benefits of the prime minister and other ministers are to be decided by the Parliament. and is renewed from time to time. The original remuneration for prime minister and other ministers were specified in the Part B of the second schedule of the constitution, which was later removed by an amendment.
In 2010, the prime minister 's office reported that he / she does not receive a formal salary, but was only entitled to monthly allowances. That same year The Economist reported that, on a purchasing power parity basis, the prime minister received an equivalent of $4106 per year. As a percentage of the country 's per - capita GDP (Gross Domestic Product), this is the lowest of all countries The Economist surveyed.
The 7, Lok Kalyan Marg -- previously called the 7, Race Course Road -- in New Delhi, serves as the official place of residence for the Prime Minister of India. For ground travel, the prime minister uses a highly modified, armoured version of a Range Rover, while for air travel, Boeing 777 - 300ER s -- designated by the call sign Air India One (AI - 1 or AIC001), and maintained by the Indian Air Force -- are used. The Special Protection Group (SPG) is charged with protecting the sitting prime minister and his / her family.
The Prime Minister 's Office (PMO) acts as the principal workplace of the prime minister. The office is located at South Block, and is a 20 - room complex, and has the Cabinet Secretariat, the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of External Affairs adjacent to it. The office is headed by the Principal Secretary to the Prime Minister of India, generally a former civil servant, mostly from the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) and rarely from the Indian Foreign Service (IFS).
Former prime ministers are entitled to a bungalow, former prime ministers are also entitled the same facilities as those given to a serving cabinet minister, this includes a fourteen - member secretarial staff, for a period of five years; reimbursement of office expenses; six domestic executive - class air tickets each year and; and security cover from the Special Protection Group. In addition, former prime ministers rank seventh on the Indian order of precedence, equivalent to chief minister s of states (within their respective states) and cabinet ministers As a former member of the parliament, the prime minister receives a minimum pension of ₹ 20,000 (US $290) per month, plus -- if he / she served as an MP for more than five years -- ₹ 15,000 (US $220) for every year served.
The prime minister acts as the presides over various funds.
The National Defence Fund (NDF) was set up the Indian government in 1962, in the aftermath of 1962 Sino - Indian War. The prime minister acts as chairperson of the fund 's executive committee, while, the ministers of defence, finance and home act as the members of the executive committee, the finance minister also acts the treasurer of the committee. The secretary of the fund 's executive committee is a joint secretary in the Prime Minister 's Office, dealing with the subject of NDF. The fund -- according to its website -- is "entirely dependent on voluntary contributions from the public and does not get any budgetary support. ''. Donations to the fund are 100 % tax - deductible under section 80G of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
The Prime Minister 's National Relief Fund (PMNRF) was set up by the first Prime Minister of India -- Jawaharlal Nehru -- in 1948, to assist displaced people from Pakistan. The fund, now, is primarily used to assist the families of those who are killed during natural disasters such as earthquakes, cyclones and flood and secondarily to reimburse medical expenses of people with chronic and deadly diseases. Donations to the PMNRF are 100 % tax - deductible under section 80G of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
The post of Deputy Prime Minister of India is not technically a constitutional post, nor is there any mention of it in an Act of the parliament. But historically, on various occasions, different governments have assigned one of their senior ministers as the ' deputy prime minister '. There is neither constitutional requirement for filling the post of deputy PM, nor does the post provide any kind of special powers. Typically, senior cabinet ministers like the finance minister or the home minister are appointed as deputy prime minister. The post is considered to be the senior most in the cabinet after the prime minister and represents the government in his / her absence. Generally, deputy prime ministers have been appointed to strengthen the coalition governments. The first holder of this post was Vallabhbhai Patel, who was also the home minister in Jawaharlal Nehru 's cabinet.
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pink floyd wish you were here album cover meaning | Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album) - wikipedia
Wish You Were Here is the ninth studio album by English rock band Pink Floyd. It was released on 12 September 1975 by Harvest Records in the United Kingdom and a day later by Columbia Records in the United States. The album topped record charts in both regions.
Inspired by material the group composed while performing around Europe, Wish You Were Here was recorded during numerous recording sessions at Abbey Road Studios in London, England. Two of the album 's four songs criticise the music business, another expresses alienation and the multi-part track "Shine On You Crazy Diamond '' is a tribute to Syd Barrett. Barrett 's mental breakdown had forced him to leave the group seven years earlier, prior to the release of the group 's second studio album A Saucerful of Secrets (on which he only appeared on three tracks). It was lead writer Roger Waters ' idea to split "Shine On You Crazy Diamond '' into two parts that would bookend the album around three new compositions and to introduce a concept linking them all. As with their previous album The Dark Side of the Moon (1973), the band used studio effects and synthesizers, and brought in guest singers to supply vocals on some tracks of the album. These singers were Roy Harper, who provided the lead vocals on "Have a Cigar '', and the Blackberries, who added backing vocals to "Shine On You Crazy Diamond ''.
Wish You Were Here was an instant commercial success (despite the fact that Harvest Records ' parent company EMI was unable to print enough copies of the album to satisfy commercial demand), and although it initially received mixed reviews, the album has since gone on to receive critical acclaim. It appears on Rolling Stone 's lists of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time '' and the "50 Greatest Prog Rock Albums of All Time ''. Band members Richard Wright and David Gilmour have cited Wish You Were Here as their favourite Pink Floyd album.
During 1974, Pink Floyd sketched out three new compositions, "Raving and Drooling '', "You Gotta Be Crazy '' and "Shine On You Crazy Diamond ''. These songs were performed during a series of concerts in France and England, the band 's first tour since 1973 's The Dark Side of the Moon. As Pink Floyd had never employed a publicist and kept themselves distant from the press, their relationship with the media began to sour. Following the publication by NME of a negative critique of the band 's new material, written by Nick Kent (a devotee of Syd Barrett) and Pete Erskine, the band returned to the studio in the first week of 1975.
Wish You Were Here is Floyd 's second album with a conceptual theme written entirely by Roger Waters. It reflects his feeling that the camaraderie that had served the band was, by then, largely absent. The album begins with a long instrumental preamble and segues into the lyrics for "Shine On You Crazy Diamond '', a tribute to Syd Barrett, whose mental breakdown had forced him to leave the group seven years earlier. Barrett is fondly recalled with lines such as "Remember when you were young, you shone like the sun '' and "You reached for the secret too soon, you cried for the moon ''.
Wish You Were Here is also a critique of the music business. "Shine On '' crosses seamlessly into "Welcome to the Machine '', a song that begins with an opening door (described by Waters as a symbol of musical discovery and progress betrayed by a music industry more interested in greed and success) and ends with a party, the latter epitomising "the lack of contact and real feelings between people ''. Similarly, "Have a Cigar '' scorns record industry "fat - cats '' with the lyrics repeating a stream of cliches heard by rising new - comers in the industry, and including the question "by the way, which one 's Pink? '' asked of the band on at least one occasion. The lyrics of the next song, "Wish You Were Here '', relate both to Barrett 's condition, and to the dichotomy of Waters ' character, with greed and ambition battling with compassion and idealism. The album closes with a reprise of "Shine On '' and further instrumental excursions.
"I had some criticisms of Dark Side of the Moon... '' noted David Gilmour. "One or two of the vehicles carrying the ideas were not as strong as the ideas that they carried. I thought we should try and work harder on marrying the idea and the vehicle that carried it, so that they both had an equal magic... It 's something I was personally pushing when we made Wish You Were Here. ''
Alan Parsons, EMI staff engineer for Pink Floyd 's previous studio album, The Dark Side of the Moon, had declined the band 's offer to continue working with them (Parsons became successful in his own right with The Alan Parsons Project). The group had worked with engineer Brian Humphries on More, recorded at Pye Studios, and again in 1974 when he replaced an inexperienced concert engineer. Humphries was therefore the natural choice to work on the band 's new material, although as a stranger to EMI 's Abbey Road set - up he encountered some early difficulties. On one occasion, Humphries inadvertently spoiled the backing tracks for "Shine On '', a piece that Waters and drummer Nick Mason had spent many hours perfecting, with echo. The entire piece had to be re-recorded.
The sessions for Wish You Were Here at Abbey Road 's Studio Three lasted from January until July 1975, recording on four days each week from 2: 30 P.M. until very late in the evening. The group found it difficult at first to devise any new material, especially as the success of The Dark Side of the Moon had left all four physically and emotionally drained. Keyboardist Richard Wright later described these sessions as "falling within a difficult period '', and Waters recalled them as "torturous ''. Mason found the process of multi-track recording drawn out and tedious, while David Gilmour was more interested in improving the band 's existing material. Gilmour was also becoming increasingly frustrated with Mason, whose failing marriage had brought on a general malaise and sense of apathy, both of which interfered with his drumming. Mason has since stated that Nick Kent 's criticism in the NME may have had some influence in keeping the band together.
Humphries said his point of view of these struggled sessions in a 2014 interview: "There were days when we did n't do anything. I do n't think they knew what they wanted to do. We had a dartboard and an air rifle and we 'd play these word games, sit around, get drunk, go home and return the next day. That 's all we were doing until suddenly everything started falling into place. ''
After several weeks, Waters began to visualise another concept. The three new compositions from 1974 's tour were at least a starting point for a new album, and "Shine On You Crazy Diamond '' seemed a reasonable choice as a centrepiece for the new work. Mostly an instrumental twenty - minute - plus piece similar to "Echoes '', the opening four - note guitar phrase reminded Waters of the lingering ghost of former band - member Syd Barrett. Gilmour had composed the phrase entirely by accident, but was encouraged by Waters ' positive response. Waters wanted to split "Shine On You Crazy Diamond '', and sandwich two new songs between its two halves. Gilmour disagreed, but was outvoted three to one. "Welcome to the Machine '' and "Have a Cigar '' were barely veiled attacks on the music business, their lyrics working neatly with "Shine On '' to provide an apt summary of the rise and fall of Barrett; "Because I wanted to get as close as possible to what I felt... that sort of indefinable, inevitable melancholy about the disappearance of Syd. '' "Raving and Drooling '' and "You Gotta Be Crazy '' had no place in the new concept, and were set aside until the following album, 1977 's Animals.
One of the more notable events during the recording of Wish You Were Here occurred on 5 June 1975, the day Gilmour married his first wife, Ginger, on the eve of Pink Floyd 's second US tour that year. The band were in the process of completing the final mix of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond '' when an overweight man with shaven head and eyebrows, and holding a plastic bag, entered the room. Waters, who was working in the studio, initially did not recognise him. Wright was also mystified by the identity of the visitor, presumed he was a friend of Waters ' and asked him, but soon realised that it was Syd Barrett. Gilmour initially presumed he was an EMI staff member. Mason also failed to recognise him and was "horrified '' when Gilmour identified him. In Mason 's personal memoir of Pink Floyd, Inside Out, he recalled Barrett 's conversation as "desultory and not entirely sensible ''. Storm Thorgerson later reflected on Barrett 's presence: "Two or three people cried. He sat round and talked for a bit but he was n't really there. ''
Waters was reportedly reduced to tears by the sight of his former bandmate, who was asked by fellow visitor Andrew King how he had managed to gain so much weight. Barrett said he had a large refrigerator in his kitchen, and that he had been eating lots of pork chops. He also mentioned that he was ready to avail the band of his services, but while listening to the mix of "Shine On '', showed no signs of understanding its relevance to his plight. He joined the guests at Gilmour 's wedding reception in the EMI canteen, but left without saying goodbye. None of the band members saw him from that day on until his death in 2006. Although the lyrics had already been created, Barrett 's presence on that day may have influenced the final part of the song -- a subtle refrain performed by Wright from "See Emily Play '' is audible towards the end of the album.
As in The Dark Side of the Moon, the band used synthesizers such as the EMS VCS 3 (on "Welcome to the Machine ''), but softened with Gilmour 's acoustic guitar and percussion from Mason. The beginning of "Shine On '' contains remnants from a previous but incomplete studio recording by the band known as "Household Objects ''. Wine glasses had been filled with varying amounts of fluid, and recordings were made of a wet finger circling the edge of each glass. These recordings were multi-tracked into chords, and used in the opening of "Shine On ''.
Jazz violinist Stéphane Grappelli and classical violinist Yehudi Menuhin were performing in another studio in the building, and were invited to record a piece for the new album. Menuhin watched as Grappelli played on the song "Wish You Were Here ''; however, the band later decided his contribution was unsuitable and, until 2011, it was believed that the piece had been wiped. It turns out his playing was included on the album, but so low in the final mix that the band presumed it would be insulting to credit him. He was paid £ 300 for his contribution (equivalent to £ 2,300 in 2018). Dick Parry again played saxophone, on "Shine On You Crazy Diamond ''. The opening bars of "Wish You Were Here '' were recorded from Gilmour 's car radio, with somebody turning the dial (the classical music heard is the finale of Tchaikovsky 's Fourth Symphony).
Recording sessions had twice been interrupted by US tours (one in April and the other in June 1975), and the final sessions, which occurred after the band 's performance at Knebworth, proved particularly troublesome for Waters. He struggled to record the vocals for "Have a Cigar '', requiring several takes to perform an acceptable version. His problems stemmed in part from the stresses placed upon his voice while recording the lead vocals of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond ''. Gilmour was asked to sing in his place, but declined, and eventually colleague and friend Roy Harper was asked to stand in. Harper was recording his own album in another of Abbey Road 's studios, and Gilmour had already performed some guitar licks for him. Waters later regretted the decision, believing he should have performed the song. The Blackberries recorded backing vocals for "Shine On You Crazy Diamond ''.
The band played much of Wish You Were Here on 5 July 1975 at the Knebworth music festival. Roy Harper, performing at the same event, on discovering that his stage costume was missing, proceeded to destroy one of Pink Floyd 's vans, injuring himself in the process. This delayed the normal setup procedure of the band 's sound system. As a pair of World War II Spitfire aircraft had been booked to fly over the crowd during their entrance, the band were not able to delay their set. The result was that a power supply problem pushed Wright 's keyboards completely out of tune, damaging the band 's performance. At one point he left the stage, but the band were able to continue with a less sensitive keyboard, a piano and a simpler light show. Following a brief intermission, they returned to perform The Dark Side of the Moon, but critics displeased about being denied access backstage savaged the performance.
Wish You Were Here was sold in one of the more elaborate packages to accompany a Pink Floyd album. Storm Thorgerson had accompanied the band on their 1974 tour, and had given serious thought to the meaning of the lyrics, eventually deciding that the songs were, in general, concerned with "unfulfilled presence '', rather than Barrett 's illness. This theme of absence was reflected in the ideas produced by his long hours spent brainstorming with the band. Thorgerson had noted that Roxy Music 's Country Life was sold in an opaque green cellophane sleeve -- censoring the cover image -- and he copied the idea, concealing the artwork for Wish You Were Here in a black - coloured shrink - wrap (therefore making the album art "absent ''). The concept behind "Welcome to the Machine '' and "Have a Cigar '' suggested the use of a handshake (an often empty gesture), and George Hardie designed a sticker containing the album 's logo of two mechanical hands engaged in a handshake, to be placed on the opaque sleeve (the mechanical handshake logo would also appear on the labels of the vinyl album this time in a black and blue background). The album 's cover images were photographed by Aubrey ' Po ' Powell, Storm 's partner at the Pink Floyd design studio Hipgnosis and was inspired by the idea that people tend to conceal their true feelings, for fear of "getting burned '', and thus two businessmen were pictured shaking hands, one man on fire. "Getting burned '' was also a common phrase in the music industry, used often by artists denied royalty payments. Two stuntmen were used (Ronnie Rondell and Danny Rogers), one dressed in a fire - retardant suit covered by a business suit. His head was protected by a hood, underneath a wig. The photograph was taken at the Warner Bros. studios in Los Angeles. Initially the wind was blowing in the wrong direction, and the flames were forced into Rondell 's face, burning his moustache. The two stuntmen changed positions, and the image was later reversed.
The album 's back cover depicts a faceless "Floyd salesman '', in Thorgerson 's words, "selling his soul '' in the desert (shot in the Yuma Desert in California again by Aubrey ' Po ' Powell). The absence of wrists and ankles signifies his presence as an "empty suit ''. The inner sleeve shows a veil concealing a nude woman in a windswept Norfolk grove, and a splash-less diver at Mono Lake -- titled Monosee (the German translation of Mono Lake) on the liner notes -- in California (again emphasising the theme of absence). The decision to shroud the cover in black plastic was not popular with the band 's US record company, Columbia Records, who insisted that it be changed (they were overruled). EMI were less concerned; the band were reportedly extremely happy with the end product, and when presented with a pre-production mockup, they accepted it with a spontaneous round of applause.
The album was released on 12 September 1975 in the UK, and on the following day in the US. In Britain, with 250,000 advance sales, it went straight to number one, and demand was such that EMI informed retailers that only 50 percent of their orders would be fulfilled. With 900,000 advance orders (the largest for any Columbia release) it reached number one on the US Billboard chart in its second week. Wish You Were Here was Pink Floyd 's fastest - selling album ever.
On release, the album received mixed reviews. Ben Edmunds wrote in Rolling Stone:
Melody Maker 's reviewer similarly opined: "From whichever direction one approaches Wish You Were Here, it still sounds unconvincing in its ponderous sincerity and displays a critical lack of imagination in all departments. ''
Robert Christgau thought highly of the album, however, writing in The Village Voice at the time: "The music is not only simple and attractive, with the synthesizer used mostly for texture and the guitar breaks for comment, but it actually achieves some of the symphonic dignity (and cross-referencing) that The Dark Side of the Moon simulated so ponderously. '' He later wrote: "My favorite Pink Floyd album has always been Wish You Were Here, and you know why? It has soul, that 's why -- it 's Roger Waters 's lament for Syd, not my idea of a tragic hero but as long as he 's Roger 's that does n't matter. ''
According to Acclaimed Music, Wish You Were Here is the 185th most ranked record on critics ' all - time lists. In 2012, it was voted 211th on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time ''. In 2015, it was chosen as the fourth greatest progressive rock album by Rolling Stone. In 1998 Q readers voted Wish You Were Here the 34th greatest album of all time. In 2000 the same magazine placed it at number 43 in its list of the 100 Greatest British Albums Ever. In 2007, one of Germany 's largest public radio stations, WDR 2, asked its listeners to vote for the 200 best albums of all time. Wish You Were Here was voted number one. In 2004 Wish You Were Here was ranked number 36 on Pitchfork Media 's list of the Top 100 albums of the 1970s. IGN rated Wish You Were Here as the 8th greatest classic rock album. and Ultimate Classic Rock placed Wish You Were Here second best in their list of "Worst to Best Pink Floyd Albums, ''
Despite the problems during production, the album remained Wright 's favourite: "It 's an album I can listen to for pleasure, and there are n't many Floyd albums that I can. '' Gilmour shares this view: "I for one would have to say that it is my favourite album, the Wish You Were Here album. The end result of all that, whatever it was, definitely has left me an album I can live with very very happily. I like it very much. ''
Pink Floyd and their manager Steve O'Rourke had been dissatisfied with the efforts of EMI 's US label Capitol Records, and Wish You Were Here was Pink Floyd 's first album with Columbia Records, an affiliate of CBS. The band remained with EMI 's Harvest Records in Europe. As a result of the label switch, the band gained ownership of their recordings, so that, from Wish You Were Here onward, every one of their albums has been copyrighted to either "Pink Floyd Music Limited '' or (after Waters ' departure) "Pink Floyd (1987) Ltd. '' instead of the corresponding record label.
The album was certified Silver and Gold (60,000 and 100,000 sales respectively) in the UK on 1 August 1975, and Gold in the US on 17 September 1975. It was certified six times platinum on 16 May 1997, and by 2004 has sold an estimated 13 million copies worldwide. "Have a Cigar '' was chosen by Columbia as their first single, with "Welcome to the Machine '' on the B - side in the US.
Wish You Were Here has been remastered and re-released on several formats. In the UK and US the album was re-issued in quadraphonic using the SQ format in 1976, and in 1980 a special Hi - Fi Today audiophile print was released in the UK. In the US it was released on CD in 1983, and in the UK 1985, and again as a remastered CD with new artwork in 1994. In the US, Columbia 's CBS Mastersound label released a half - speed mastered audiophile LP in 1981, and in 1994 Sony Mastersound released a 24 - carat gold - plated CD, remastered using Super Bit Mapping, with the original artwork from the LP in both longbox and jewel case forms, the latter with a cardboard slipcover. The album was included as part of the box set Shine On, and five years later Columbia Records released an updated remastered CD, 17 seconds longer than the EMI remasters from 1994, giving a running time of 44: 28. Its label was a recreation of the original machine handshake logo, with a black and blue background. The album was subsequently re-released in 2000 for its 25th anniversary, on the Capitol Records label in the US. The album was re-released and remixed in 2011 in multiple editions as part of the Why Pink Floyd...? reissue campaign. The Wish You Were Here - Immersion Box Set includes the new stereo digital remaster (2011) by James Guthrie on CD, an unreleased 5.1 Surround Mix (2009) by James Guthrie on DVD and Blu - ray, a Quad Mix (which had been released only on vinyl LP and 8 - track tape) on DVD, as well as the original stereo mix (1975) on DVD and Blu - ray. This campaign also featured the 2011 stereo remaster on 180g heavyweight vinyl as well as the 2011 stereo remaster and the 5.1 surround sound mix (2009) as a hybrid Super Audio CD (SACD). In 2016, the 180g vinyl was re-released on the band 's own Pink Floyd Records label this time remastered by James Guthrie, Joel Plante and Bernie Grundman.
All lyrics written by Roger Waters.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Notes
Footnotes
Bibliography
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where were the black hawks trying to return to in the black hawk war of 1832 | Black Hawk war - wikipedia
The Black Hawk War was a brief conflict between the United States and Native Americans led by Black Hawk, a Sauk leader. The war erupted soon after Black Hawk and a group of Sauks, Meskwakis, and Kickapoos, known as the "British Band '', crossed the Mississippi River, into the U.S. state of Illinois, from Iowa Indian Territory in April 1832. Black Hawk 's motives were ambiguous, but he was apparently hoping to avoid bloodshed while resettling on tribal land that had been ceded to the United States in the disputed 1804 Treaty of St. Louis.
U.S. officials, convinced that the British Band was hostile, mobilized a frontier militia and opened fire on a delegation from the Native Americans on May 14, 1832. Black Hawk responded by successfully attacking the militia at the Battle of Stillman 's Run. He led his band to a secure location in what is now southern Wisconsin and was pursued by U.S. forces. Meanwhile, other Native Americans conducted raids against forts and settlements largely unprotected with the absence of U.S. troops. Some Ho - Chunk and Potawatomi warriors with grievances against European - Americans took part in these raids, although most tribe members tried to avoid the conflict. The Menominee and Dakota tribes, already at odds with the Sauks and Meskwakis, supported the U.S.
Commanded by General Henry Atkinson, the U.S. troops tracked the British Band. Militia under Colonel Henry Dodge caught up with the British Band on July 21 and defeated them at the Battle of Wisconsin Heights. Black Hawk 's band was weakened by hunger, death, and desertion and many native survivors retreated towards the Mississippi. On August 2, U.S. soldiers attacked the remnants of the British Band at the Battle of Bad Axe, killing many or capturing most who remained alive. Black Hawk and other leaders escaped, but later surrendered and were imprisoned for a year.
The Black Hawk War gave the young captain Abraham Lincoln his brief military service, although he never participated in a battle. Other participants who later became famous included Winfield Scott, Zachary Taylor, and Jefferson Davis. The war gave impetus to the U.S. policy of Indian removal, in which Native American tribes were pressured to sell their lands and move west of the Mississippi River and stay there.
In the 18th century, the Sauk and Meskwaki (or Fox) Native American tribes lived along the Mississippi River in what is now the U.S. states of Illinois and Iowa. The two tribes had become closely connected after having been displaced from the Great Lakes region in conflicts with New France and other Native American tribes, particularly after the so - called Fox Wars ended in the 1730s. By the time of the Black Hawk War, the population of the two tribes was about 6,000 people.
As the United States expanded westward in the early 19th century, government officials sought to buy as much Native American land as possible. In 1804, territorial governor William Henry Harrison negotiated a treaty in St. Louis in which a group of Sauk and Meskwaki leaders supposedly sold their lands east of the Mississippi for more than $2,200, in goods and annual payments of $1,000 in goods. The treaty became controversial because the Native leaders had not been authorized by their tribal councils to cede lands. Historian Robert Owens argued that the chiefs probably did not intend to give up ownership of the land, and that they would not have sold so much valuable territory for such a modest price. Historian Patrick Jung concluded that the Sauk and Meskwaki chiefs intended to cede a little land, but that the Americans included more territory in the treaty 's language than the Natives realized. According to Jung, the Sauks and Meskwakis did not learn the true extent of the cession until years later.
The 1804 treaty allowed the tribes to continue using the ceded land until it was sold to American settlers by the U.S. government. For the next two decades, Sauks continued to live at Saukenuk, their primary village, which was located near the confluence of the Mississippi and Rock Rivers. In 1828, the U.S. government finally began to have the ceded land surveyed for white settlement. Indian agent Thomas Forsyth informed the Sauks that they should vacate Saukenuk and their other settlements east of the Mississippi.
The Sauks were divided about whether to resist implementation of the disputed 1804 treaty. Most Sauks decided to relocate west of the Mississippi rather than become involved in a confrontation with the United States. The leader of this group was Keokuk, who had helped defend Saukenuk against the Americans during the War of 1812. Keokuk was not a chief, but as a skilled orator, he often spoke on behalf of the Sauk civil chiefs in negotiations with the Americans. Keokuk regarded the 1804 treaty as a fraud, but after having seen the size of American cities on the east coast in 1824, he did not think the Sauks could successfully oppose the United States.
Although the majority of the tribe decided to follow Keokuk 's lead, about 800 Sauks -- roughly one - sixth of the tribe -- chose instead to resist American expansion. Black Hawk, a war captain who had fought against the United States in the War of 1812 and was now in his 60s, emerged as the leader of this faction in 1829. Like Keokuk, Black Hawk was not a civil chief, but he became Keokuk 's primary rival for influence within the tribe. Black Hawk had actually signed a treaty in May 1816 that affirmed the disputed 1804 land cession, but he insisted that what had been written down was different from what had been spoken at the treaty conference. According to Black Hawk, the "whites were in the habit of saying one thing to the Indians and putting another thing down on paper. ''
Black Hawk was determined to hold onto Saukenuk, where he lived and had been born. When the Sauks returned to the village in 1829 after their annual winter hunt in the west, they found that it had been occupied by white squatters who were anticipating the sale of land. After months of clashes with the squatters, the Sauks left in September 1829 for the next winter hunt. Hoping to avoid further confrontations, Keokuk told Forsyth that he and his followers would not return to Saukenuk.
Against the advice of Keokuk and Forsyth, Black Hawk 's faction returned to Saukenuk in the spring of 1830. This time, they were joined by more than 200 Kickapoos, a people who had often allied with the Sauks. Black Hawk and his followers became known as the "British Band '' because they sometimes flew a British flag to defy claims of U.S. sovereignty, and because they hoped to gain the support of the British at Fort Malden in Canada.
When the British Band once again returned to Saukenuk in 1831, Black Hawk 's following had grown to about 1,500 people, and now included some Potawatomis, a people with close ties to the Sauks and Meskwakis. American officials determined to force the British Band out of the state. General Edmund P. Gaines, commander of the Western Department of the United States Army, assembled troops with the hope of intimidating Black Hawk into leaving. The army had no cavalry to pursue the Sauks should they flee further into Illinois on horseback, and so on June 5 Gaines requested that the state militia provide a mounted battalion. Illinois governor John Reynolds had already alerted the militia; about 1,500 volunteers turned out. Meanwhile, Keokuk convinced many of Black Hawk 's followers to leave Illinois.
On June 26, 1831, Gaines launched an assault against Saukenuk, only to find that Black Hawk and his followers had abandoned the village and recrossed the Mississippi. On June 30, Black Hawk, Quashquame, and other Sauk leaders met with Gaines and signed an agreement in which the Sauks promised to remain west of the Mississippi and to break off further contact with the British in Canada.
Black Hawk did not remain west of the Mississippi for long. In late 1831, Neapope, a Sauk civil chief, returned from Fort Malden and told Black Hawk that the British and the other Illinois tribes were prepared to support the Sauks against the United States. Why Neapope made these claims, which would prove to be unfounded, is unclear. Historians have described Neapope 's report to Black Hawk as "wishful thinking '' and the product of a "fertile imagination ''. Black Hawk welcomed the information, though he would later criticize Neapope for misleading him. He spent the winter in an unsuccessful attempt to recruit additional allies from other tribes and from Keokuk 's followers.
According to Neapope 's erroneous report, Wabokieshiek ("White Cloud ''), a shaman known to Americans as the "Winnebago Prophet '', had claimed that other tribes were ready to support Black Hawk. Wabokieshiek 's mother was a Ho - Chunk (Winnebago), but his father had belonged to a Sauk clan that provided the tribe 's civil leaders. When Wabokieshiek joined the British Band in 1832, he would become the ranking Sauk civil chief in the group. His village, Prophetstown, was about thirty - five miles up the Rock River from Saukenuk. The village was inhabited by about 200 Ho - Chunks, Sauks, Meskwakis, Kickapoos, and Potawatomis who were dissatisfied with tribal leaders who refused to stand up to American expansion. Although some Americans would later characterize Wabokieshiek as a primary instigator of the Black Hawk War, the Winnebago Prophet, according to historian John Hall, "actually discouraged his followers from resorting to armed conflict with the whites ''.
On April 5, 1832, the British Band entered Illinois once again. Numbering about 500 warriors and 600 non-combatants, they crossed near the mouth of the Iowa River over to Yellow Banks (present - day Oquawka, Illinois), and then headed north. Black Hawk 's intentions upon reentering Illinois are not entirely clear, since reports from both white and Indian sources are conflicting. Some said that the British Band intended to reoccupy Saukenuk, while others said that the destination was Prophetstown. According to historian Kerry Trask, "even Black Hawk may not have been sure where they were going and what they intended to do ''.
As the British Band moved into Illinois, American officials urged Wabokieshiek to advise Black Hawk to turn back. Previously, the Winnebago Prophet had encouraged Black Hawk to come to Prophetstown, arguing that the 1831 agreement made with General Gaines prohibited a return to Saukenuk, but did not forbid the Sauks from moving to Prophetstown. Now, instead of telling Black Hawk to turn back, Wabokieshiek told him that, as long as the British Band remained peaceful, the Americans would have no choice but to let them settle at Prophetstown, especially if the British and the area tribes supported the band. Although the British Band traveled with armed guards as a security precaution, Black Hawk was probably hoping to avoid a war when he reentered Illinois. The presence of women, children, and the elderly indicated that the band was not a war party.
Although the return of Black Hawk 's band worried U.S. officials, they were at the time more concerned about the possibility of a war among the Native American tribes in the region. Most accounts of the Black Hawk War focus on the conflict between Black Hawk and the United States, but historian John Hall argues that this overlooks the perspective of many Native American participants. According to Hall, "the Black Hawk War also involved an intertribal conflict that had smoldered for decades ''. Tribes along the Upper Mississippi had long fought for control of diminishing hunting grounds, and the Black Hawk War provided an opportunity for some Natives to resume a war that had nothing to do with Black Hawk.
After having displaced the British as the dominant outside power following the War of 1812, the United States had assumed the role of mediator in intertribal disputes. Before the Black Hawk War, U.S. policy discouraged intertribal warfare. This was not strictly for humanitarian reasons: intertribal warfare made it more difficult for the United States to acquire Indian land and move the tribes to the West, a policy known as Indian removal, which had become the primary goal by the late 1820s. U.S. efforts at mediation included multi-tribal treaty councils at Prairie du Chien in 1825 and 1830, in which tribal boundaries were drawn. Native Americans sometimes resented American mediation, especially young men, for whom warfare was an important avenue of social advancement.
The situation was complicated by the American spoils system. After Andrew Jackson assumed the U.S. presidency in March 1829, many competent Indian agents were replaced by unqualified Jackson loyalists, argues historian John Hall. Men like Thomas Forsyth, John Marsh, and Thomas McKenney were replaced by less qualified men such as Felix St. Vrain. In the 19th century, historian Lyman Draper argued that the Black Hawk War could have been avoided had Forsyth remained as the agent to the Sauks.
In 1830, violence threatened to undo American attempts at preventing intertribal warfare. In May, Dakotas (Santee Sioux) and Menominees killed fifteen Meskwakis attending a treaty conference at Prairie du Chien. In retaliation, a party of Meskwakis and Sauks killed twenty - six Menominees, including women and children, at Prairie du Chien in July 1831. American officials discouraged the Menominees from seeking revenge, but the western bands of the tribe formed a coalition with the Dakotas to strike at the Sauks and Meskwakis.
Hoping to prevent the outbreak of a wider war, American officials ordered the U.S. Army to arrest the Meskwakis who massacred the Menominees. General Gaines was ill, and so his subordinate, Brigadier General Henry Atkinson, received the assignment. Atkinson was a middle - aged officer who had ably handled administrative and diplomatic tasks, most notably during the 1827 Winnebago War, but he had never seen combat. On April 8, he set out from Jefferson Barracks in Missouri, moving up the Mississippi River by steamboat with about 220 soldiers. By chance, Black Hawk and his British Band had just crossed into Illinois. Although Atkinson did not realize it, his boats passed Black Hawk 's band.
When Atkinson arrived at Fort Armstrong on Rock Island on April 12, he learned that the British Band was in Illinois, and that most of the Meskwakis he wanted to arrest were now with the band. Like other American officials, Atkinson was convinced that the British Band intended to start a war. Because he had few troops at his disposal, Atkinson hoped to get support from the Illinois state militia. He wrote to Governor Reynolds on April 13, describing -- and perhaps purposely exaggerating -- the threat that the British Band posed. Reynolds, who was eager for a war to drive the Indians out of the state, responded as Atkinson had hoped: he called for militia volunteers to assemble at Beardstown by April 22 to begin a thirty - day enlistment. The 2,100 men who volunteered were organized into a brigade of five regiments under Brigadier General Samuel Whiteside. Among the militiamen was 23 - year - old Abraham Lincoln, who was elected captain of his company.
After Atkinson 's arrival at Rock Island on April 12, 1832, he, Keokuk, and Meskwaki chief Wapello sent emissaries to the British Band, which was now ascending the Rock River. Black Hawk rejected the messages advising him to turn back. Colonel Zachary Taylor, a regular army officer who served under Atkinson, later stated that Atkinson should have made an attempt to stop the British Band by force. Some historians have agreed, arguing that Atkinson could have prevented the outbreak of war with more decisive action or astute diplomacy. Cecil Eby charged that "Atkinson was a paper general, unwilling to proceed until all risk had been eliminated ''. Kerry Trask, however, argued that Atkinson was correct in believing that he did not yet have enough troops to stop the British Band. According to Patrick Jung, leaders on both sides had little chance of avoiding bloodshed at this point, because the militiamen and some of Black Hawk 's warriors were spoiling for a fight.
Meanwhile, Black Hawk learned that the Ho - Chunk and Potawatomi tribes were less supportive than anticipated. As in other tribes, different bands of these tribes often pursued different policies. The Ho - Chunks who lived along the Rock River in Illinois had family ties to the Sauks; they cautiously supported the British Band while trying not to provoke the Americans. Ho - Chunks in Wisconsin were more divided. Some bands, remembering their loss to the Americans in the 1827 Winnebago War, decided to stay clear of the conflict. Other Ho - Chunks with ties to the Dakotas and Menominees, most notably Waukon Decorah and his brothers, were eager to fight against the British Band.
Most Potawatomis wanted to remain neutral in the conflict, but found it difficult to do so. Many white settlers, recalling the Fort Dearborn massacre of 1812, distrusted the Potawatomis and assumed that they would join Black Hawk 's uprising. Potawatomi leaders worried that the tribe as a whole would be punished if any Potawatomis supported Black Hawk. At a council outside Chicago on May 1, 1832, Potawatomi leaders including Billy Caldwell "passed a resolution declaring any Potawatomi who supported Black Hawk a traitor to his tribe ''. In mid May, Potawatomi chiefs Shabonna and Waubonsie told Black Hawk that neither they nor the British would come to his aid.
Without British supplies, adequate provisions, or Native allies, Black Hawk realized that his band was in serious trouble. By some accounts, he was ready to negotiate with Atkinson to end the crisis, but an ill - fated encounter with Illinois militiamen would end all possibility of a peaceful resolution.
On May 8, General Whiteside 's militia brigade was mustered into federal service under Atkinson. Two days later, the militia and regulars began marching up the Rock River in pursuit of the British Band, with Governor Reynolds accompanying the expedition as a major general of militia. Atkinson allowed Reynolds, Whiteside, and the militiamen to take the lead while he brought up the rear with the regular soldiers. In what historian Patrick Jung calls a "serious lapse in judgment '', Atkinson directed the militia -- his least trained and disciplined men -- to "move upon the Indians should they be within striking distance without waiting for my arrival ''. On May 12, the militiamen learned that Black Hawk 's band was only twenty - five miles away. Reynolds wanted to send out a scouting force, but the cautious Whiteside insisted on waiting for Atkinson. Because most of the militia were now under U.S. Army command, Reynolds could not give them orders, but he did have two battalions of mounted militia under Major Isaiah Stillman that had not been federalized. In what would prove to be a controversial decision, Reynolds sent these 260 amateur citizen - soldiers forward to reconnoiter the British Band.
In what became known as the Battle of Stillman 's Run, the two battalions of militia came into contact with Black Hawk and his warriors on May 14, near present - day Stillman Valley. Accounts of how the battle began are varied. Black Hawk later stated that he sent three men under a white flag to parley, but the Americans imprisoned them and opened fire on a second group of observers who followed. Some militiamen never reported seeing a white flag; others believed that the flag was a ruse the Indians used to set an ambush. All accounts agree that Black Hawk 's warriors attacked the militia camp at dusk. To Black Hawk 's surprise, his forty warriors completely routed the much larger militia force. Twelve Illinois militiamen were killed in the humiliating defeat; the British Band suffered only three fatalities.
The Battle of Stillman 's run was a turning point. Prior to this battle, Black Hawk had not been committed to war. Now he determined to avenge what he saw as the treacherous killing of his warriors under a flag of truce. After Stillman 's defeat, American leaders like President Jackson and Secretary of War Lewis Cass would not consider a diplomatic solution; they wanted a resounding victory over Black Hawk to serve as an example to other Native Americans who might consider similar uprisings.
With hostilities now underway, and few allies to depend upon, Black Hawk sought a place of refuge for the women, children, and elderly in his band. Accepting an offer from the Rock River Ho - Chunks, the band traveled further upriver to Lake Koshkonong in the Michigan Territory and camped in an isolated place known as the "Island ''. With the non-combatants secure, members the British Band, with a number of Ho - Chunk and Potawatomi allies, began raiding white settlers. Not all Native Americans in the region supported this turn of events; most notably, Potawatomi chief Shabonna rode throughout the settlements, warning whites of the impending attacks.
The initial raiding parties consisted primarily of Ho - Chunk and Potawatomi warriors. The first attack came on May 19, 1832, when Ho - Chunks ambushed six men near Buffalo Grove, Illinois, killing a man named William Durley. Durley 's scalped and mutilated body was found by Indian agent Felix St. Vrain. The Indian agent was himself killed and mutilated, along with three other men, several days later at Kellogg 's Grove.
The Ho - Chunks and Potawatomis, who took part in the war, were sometimes, motivated by grievances, not directly related to Black Hawk 's objectives. One such incident was the Indian Creek massacre. In the spring of 1832, Potawatomis living along Indian Creek were upset that a settler named William Davis had dammed the creek, preventing fish from reaching their village. Davis ignored the protests, and assaulted a Potawatomi man who tried to dismantle the dam. The Black Hawk War provided the Indian Creek Potawatomis with an opportunity for revenge. On May 21, about fifty Potawatomis and three Sauks from the British Band attacked Davis 's settlement, killing, scalping, and mutilating fifteen men, women, and children. Two teenage girls from the settlement were kidnapped and taken to Black Hawk 's camp. A Ho - Chunk chief named White Crow negotiated their release two weeks later. Like other Rock River Ho - Chunks, White Crow was trying to placate the Americans while clandestinely aiding the British Band.
News of Stillman 's defeat, the Indian Creek massacre, and other smaller attacks triggered panic among the white population. Many settlers fled to Chicago, then a small town, which became overcrowded with hungry refugees. Many Potawatomis also fled towards Chicago, not wanting to get caught in the conflict nor be mistaken for hostiles. Throughout the region, settlers hurriedly organized militia units and built small forts.
After Stillman 's defeat on May 14, the regulars and militia continued up the Rock River to search for Black Hawk. The militiamen became discouraged at not being able to find the British Band. When they heard about the Indian raids, many deserted so that they could return home to defend their families. As morale plummeted, Governor Reynolds asked his militia officers to vote on whether to continue the campaign. General Whiteside, disgusted with the performance of his men, cast the tie - breaking vote in favor of disbanding. Most of Whiteside 's brigade disbanded at Ottawa, Illinois, on May 28. About 300 men, including Abraham Lincoln, agreed to remain in the field for twenty more days until a new militia force could be organized.
As Whiteside 's brigade disbanded, Atkinson organized a new force in June 1832 that he dubbed the "Army of the Frontier ''. The army consisted of 629 regular army infantrymen and 3,196 mounted militia volunteers. The militia was divided into three brigades commanded by Brigadier Generals Alexander Posey, Milton Alexander, and James D. Henry. Since many men were assigned to local patrols and guard duties, Atkinson had only 450 regulars and 2,100 militiamen available for campaigning. Many more militiamen served in units that were not part of the Army of the Frontier 's three brigades. Abraham Lincoln, for example, reenlisted as a private in an independent company that was taken into federal service. Henry Dodge, a Michigan territorial militia colonel who would prove to be one of the best commanders in the war, fielded a battalion of mounted volunteers that numbered 250 men at its strongest. The overall number of militiamen who took part in the war is not precisely known; the total from Illinois alone has been estimated at six to seven thousand.
In addition to organizing a new militia army, Atkinson also began to recruit Native American allies, reversing the previous American policy of trying to prevent intertribal warfare. Menominees, Dakotas, and some Ho - Chunks bands were eager to go to war against the British Band. By June 6, agent Joseph M. Street had assembled about 225 Natives at Prairie du Chien. This force included about eighty Dakotas under Wabasha and L'Arc, forty Menominees, and several bands of Ho Chunks. Although the Indian warriors followed their own leaders, Atkinson placed the force under the nominal command of William S. Hamilton, a militia colonel and a son of Alexander Hamilton. Hamilton would prove to be an unfortunate choice to lead the force; historian John Hall characterized him as "pretentious and unqualified ''. Before long, the Indians became frustrated with marching around under Hamilton and not seeing any action. Some Menominee scouts remained, but most of the Natives eventually left Hamilton and fought the war on their own terms.
In June 1832, after hearing that Atkinson was forming a new army, Black Hawk began sending out raiding parties. Perhaps hoping to lead the Americans away from his camp at Lake Koshkonong, he targeted areas to the west. The first major attack occurred on June 14 near present - day South Wayne, Wisconsin, when a band of about 30 warriors attacked a group of farmers, killing and scalping four.
Responding to this attack, militia Colonel Henry Dodge gathered a force of twenty - nine mounted volunteers and set out in pursuit of the attackers. On June 16, Dodge and his men cornered about eleven of the raiders at a bend in the Pecatonica River. In a brief battle, the Americans killed and scalped all of the Natives. The Battle of Horseshoe Bend (or Battle of Pecatonica) was the first real American victory in the war, and helped restore public confidence in the volunteer militia force.
On the same day of Dodge 's victory, another skirmish took place at Kellogg 's Grove in present - day Stephenson County, Illinois. American forces had occupied Kellogg 's Grove in an effort to intercept war parties raiding to the west. In the First Battle of Kellogg 's Grove, militia commanded by Adam W. Snyder pursued a British Band raiding party of about thirty warriors. Three Illinois militiamen and six Native warriors died in the fighting. Two days later, on June 18, militia under James W. Stephenson encountered what was probably the same war party near Yellow Creek. The Battle of Waddams Grove became a hard fought, hand - to - hand melee. Three militiamen and five or six Indians were killed in the action.
Back on June 6, when a civilian miner was killed by raiders near the village of Blue Mounds in the Michigan Territory, residents began to fear that the Rock River Ho - Chunks were joining the war. On June 20, a Ho - Chunk raiding party estimated by one eyewitness to be as large as 100 warriors attacked the settler fort at Blue Mounds. Two militiamen were killed in the attack, one of whom was badly mutilated.
On June 24, 1832, Black Hawk and about 200 warriors attacked at the hastily constructed Apple River Fort, near present - day Elizabeth, Illinois. Local settlers, warned of Black Hawk 's approach, took refuge in the fort, which was defended by about 20 to 35 militiamen. The Battle of Apple River Fort lasted about forty - five minutes. The women and girls inside the fort, under the direction of Elizabeth Armstrong, loaded muskets and molded bullets. After losing several men, Black Hawk broke off the siege, looted the nearby homes, and headed back towards his camp.
The next day, June 25, Black Hawk 's party encountered a militia battalion commanded by Major John Dement. In the Second Battle of Kellogg 's Grove, Black Hawk 's warriors drove the militiamen inside their fort and commenced a two - hour siege. After losing nine warriors and killing five militiamen, Black Hawk broke off the siege and returned to his main camp at Lake Koshkonong. This would prove to be Black Hawk 's last military success in the war. With his band running low on food, he decided to take them back across the Mississippi.
On June 15, 1832, President Andrew Jackson, displeased with Atkinson 's handling of the war, appointed General Winfield Scott to take command. Scott gathered about 950 troops from eastern army posts just as a cholera pandemic had spread to eastern North America. As Scott 's troops traveled by steamboat from Buffalo, New York, across the Great Lakes towards Chicago, his men started getting sick from cholera, with many of them dying. At each place the vessels landed, the sick were deposited and soldiers deserted. By the time the last steamboat landed in Chicago, Scott had only about 350 effective soldiers left. On July 29, Scott began a hurried journey west, ahead of his troops, eager to take command of what was certain to be the war 's final campaign, but he would be too late to see any combat.
General Atkinson, who learned in early July that Scott would be taking command, hoped to bring the war to a successful conclusion before Scott 's arrival. The Americans had difficulty locating the British Band, however, thanks in part to false intelligence given to them by area Native Americans. Potawatomis and Ho - Chunks in Illinois, many of whom had sought to remain neutral in the war, decided to cooperate with the Americans. Tribal leaders knew that some of their warriors had aided the British Band, and so they hoped that a highly visible show of support for the Americans would dissuade U.S. officials from punishing the tribes after the conflict was over. Wearing white headbands to distinguish themselves from hostile Natives, Ho - Chunks and Potawatomis served as guides for Atkinson 's army. Ho - Chunks sympathetic to the plight of Black Hawk 's people misled Atkinson into thinking that the British Band was still at Lake Koshkonong. While Atkinson 's men were trudging through the swamps and running low on provisions, the British Band had in fact relocated miles to the north. Potawatomis under Billy Caldwell also managed to demonstrate support for the Americans while avoiding battle.
In mid-July, Colonel Dodge learned from métis trader Pierre Paquette that the British Band was camped near the Rock River rapids, at present Hustisford, Wisconsin. Dodge and James D. Henry set out in pursuit from Fort Winnebago on July 15. The British Band, reduced to fewer than 600 people due to death and desertion, headed for the Mississippi River as the militia approached. The Americans pursued them, killing and scalping several Native stragglers along the way.
On July 21, 1832, the militiamen caught up with the British Band near present - day Sauk City, Wisconsin. To buy time for the noncombatants to cross the Wisconsin River, Black Hawk and Neapope confronted the Americans in a rear guard action that became known as the Battle of Wisconsin Heights. Black Hawk was desperately outnumbered, leading about 50 Sauks and 60 to 70 Kickapoos against 750 militiamen. The battle was a lopsided victory for the militiamen, who lost only one man while killing as many as 68 of Black Hawk 's warriors. Despite the high casualties, the battle allowed much of the British Band, including many women and children, to escape across the river. Black Hawk had managed to hold off a much larger force while allowing most of his people to escape, a difficult military operation that impressed some U.S. Army officers when they learned of it.
The Battle of Wisconsin Heights had been a victory for the militia; no regular soldiers of the U.S. Army had been present. Atkinson and the regulars joined up with the volunteers several days after the battle. With a force of about 400 regulars and 900 militiamen, the Americans crossed the Wisconsin River on July 27 and resumed the pursuit of the British Band. The British Band was moving slow, encumbered with wounded warriors and people dying of starvation. The Americans followed the trail of dead bodies, cast off equipment, and the remains of horses the hungry Natives had eaten.
After the Battle of Wisconsin Heights, a messenger from Black Hawk had shouted to the militiamen that the starving British Band was going back across the Mississippi and would fight no more. No one in the American camp understood the message, however, since their Ho - Chunk guides were not present to interpret. Black Hawk may have believed that the Americans had gotten the message, and that they had not pursued him after the Battle of Wisconsin Heights. He apparently expected that the Americans were going to let his band recross the Mississippi unmolested.
The Americans, however, had no intentions of letting the British Band escape. The Warrior, a steamboat outfitted with an artillery piece, patrolled the Mississippi River, while American allied - Dakotas, Menominees, and Ho - Chunks watched the banks. On August 1, the Warrior arrived at the mouth of the Bad Axe River, where the Dakotas told the Americans that they would find Black Hawk 's people. Black Hawk raised a white flag in an attempt to surrender, but his intentions may have been garbled in translation. The Americans, in no mood to accept a surrender anyway, thought that the Indians were using the white flag to set an ambush. When they became certain that the Natives on land were the British Band, they opened fire. Twenty - three Natives were killed in the exchange of gunfire, while just one soldier on the Warrior was injured.
After the Warrior left, Black Hawk decided to seek refuge in the north with the Ojibwes. Only about 50 people, including Wabokieshiek, agreed to go with him; the others remained, determined to cross the Mississippi and return to Sauk territory. The next morning, on August 2, Black Hawk was heading north when he learned that the American army had closed in on the members of the British Band who were trying to cross the Mississippi. He tried to rejoin the main body, but after a skirmish with American troops near present - day Victory, Wisconsin, he gave up the attempt. Sauk chief Weesheet later criticized Black Hawk and Wabokieshiek for abandoning the people during the final battle of the war.
The Battle of Bad Axe began at about 9: 00 am on August 2 after the Americans caught up with the remnants of the British Band a few miles downstream from the mouth of the Bad Axe River. The British Band was reduced to roughly 500 people by this time, including about 150 warriors. The warriors fought with the Americans while the Native noncombatants frantically tried to cross the river. Many made it to one of the two nearby islands, but were dislodged after the steamboat Warrior returned at noon, carrying regulars and Menominees allied with the Americans.
The battle was another lopsided victory for the Americans, who lost just 14 men, including one Menominee who died by friendly fire and was buried with honors alongside the white soldiers. At least 260 members of the British Band were killed, including about 110 who drowned while trying to cross the river. Although the regular soldiers of the U.S. Army generally tried to avoid needless bloodshed, many of the militiamen intentionally killed Native noncombatants, sometimes in cold blood. The encounter was, in the words of historian Patrick Jung, "less of a battle and more of a massacre ''.
Menominees from Green Bay, who had mobilized a battalion of nearly 300 men, arrived too late for the battle. They were upset at having missed the chance to fight their old enemies, and so on August 10, General Scott sent 100 of them after a part of the British Band that had escaped. Indian agent Samuel C. Stambaugh, who accompanied them, urged the Menominees not to take any scalps, but Chief Grizzly Bear insisted that such a prohibition could not be enforced. The group tracked down about ten Sauks, only two of whom were warriors. The Menominees killed and scalped the warriors, but spared the women and children.
The Dakotas, who had volunteered 150 warriors to fight against the Sauks and Meskwakis, also arrived too late to participate in the Battle of Bad Axe, but they pursued the members of the British Band who made it across the Mississippi into Iowa. On about August 9, in the final engagement of the war, they attacked the remnants of the British Band along the Cedar River, killing 68 and taking 22 prisoners. Ho - Chunks also hunted survivors of the British Band, taking between fifty and sixty scalps.
The Black Hawk War resulted in the deaths of 77 white settlers, militiamen, and regular soldiers. This figure does not include the deaths from cholera suffered by the relief force under General Winfield Scott. Estimates of how many members of the British Band died during the conflict range from about 450 to 600, or about half of the 1,100 people who entered Illinois with Black Hawk in 1832.
A number of American men with political ambitions fought in the Black Hawk War. At least seven future U.S. Senators took part, as did four future Illinois governors; future governors of Michigan, Nebraska, and the Wisconsin Territory; and one future U.S. president. The Black Hawk War demonstrated to American officials the need for mounted troops to fight a mounted foe. During the war, the U.S. Army did not have cavalry; the only mounted soldiers were part - time volunteers. After the war, Congress created the Mounted Ranger Battalion under the command of Henry Dodge, which was expanded to the 1st Cavalry Regiment in 1833.
After the Battle of Bad Axe, Black Hawk, Wabokieshiek, and their followers traveled northeast to seek refuge with the Ojibwes. American officials offered a reward of $100 and forty horses for Black Hawk 's capture. While camping near present - day Tomah, Wisconsin, Black Hawk 's party was seen by a passing Ho - Chunk man, who alerted his village chief. The village council sent a delegation to Black Hawk 's camp and convinced him to surrender to the Americans. On August 27, 1832, Black Hawk and Wabokieshiek surrendered at Prairie du Chien to Indian agent Joseph Street. Colonel Zachary Taylor took custody of the prisoners, and sent them by steamboat to Jefferson Barracks, escorted by Lieutenants Jefferson Davis and Robert Anderson.
By war 's end, Black Hawk and nineteen other leaders of the British Band were incarcerated at Jefferson Barracks. Most of the prisoners were released in the succeeding months, but in April 1833, Black Hawk, Wabokieshiek, Neapope, and three others were transferred to Fort Monroe in Virginia, which was better equipped to hold prisoners. The American public was eager to catch a glimpse of the captured Indians. Large crowds gathered in Louisville and Cincinnati to watch them pass. On April 26, the prisoners met briefly with President Jackson in Washington, D.C., before being taken to Fort Monroe. Even in prison they were treated as celebrities: they posed for portraits by artists such as Charles Bird King and John Wesley Jarvis, and a dinner was held in their honor before they left.
American officials decided to release the prisoners after a few weeks. First, however, the Natives were required to visit several large U.S. cities on the east coast. This was a tactic often used when Native American leaders came to the East, because it was thought that a demonstration of the size and power of the United States would discourage future resistance to U.S. expansion. Beginning on June 4, 1833, Black Hawk and his companions were taken on a tour of Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York City. They attended dinners and plays, and were shown a battleship, various public buildings, and a military parade. Huge crowds gathered to see them. Black Hawk 's handsome son Nasheweskaska (Whirling Thunder) was a particular favorite. Reaction in the west, however, was less welcoming. When the prisoners traveled through Detroit on their way home, one crowd burned and hanged effigies of the Indians.
According to historian Kerry Trask, Black Hawk and his fellow prisoners were treated like celebrities because the Indians served as a living embodiment of the noble savage myth that had become popular in the eastern United States. Then and later, argues Trask, white Americans absolved themselves of complicity in the dispossession of Native Americans by expressing admiration or sympathy for defeated Indians like Black Hawk. The mythologizing of Black Hawk continued, argues Trask, with the many plaques and memorials that were later erected in his honor. "Indeed, '' writes Trask, "most of the reconstructed memory of the Black Hawk War has been designed to make white people feel good about themselves. '' Black Hawk also became an admired symbol of resistance among Native Americans, even among descendants of those who had opposed him.
The Black Hawk War marked the end of Native armed resistance to U.S. expansion in the Old Northwest The war provided an opportunity for American officials such as Andrew Jackson, Lewis Cass, and John Reynolds to compel Native American tribes to sell their lands east of the Mississippi River and move to the West, a policy known as Indian removal. Officials conducted a number of treaties after the war to purchase the remaining Native American land claims in the Old Northwest. The Dakotas and Menominees, who won approval from American officials for their role in the war, largely avoided postwar removal pressure until later decades.
After the war, American officials learned that some Ho - Chunks had aided Black Hawk more than had been previously known. Eight Ho - Chunks were briefly imprisoned at Fort Winnebago for their role in the war, but charges against them were eventually dropped due to a lack of witnesses. In September 1832, General Scott and Governor Reynolds conducted a treaty with the Ho - Chunks at Rock Island. The Ho - Chunks ceded all their land south of the Wisconsin River in exchange for a forty - mile strip of land in Iowa and annual payments of $10,000 for twenty - seven years. The land in Iowa was known as the "Neutral Ground '' because it had been designated in 1830 as a buffer zone between the Dakotas and their enemies to the south, the Sauks and Meskwakis. Scott hoped that the settlement of the Ho - Chunks in the Neutral Ground would help keep the peace. Ho - Chunks remaining in Wisconsin were pressured to sign a removal treaty in 1837, even though leaders such as Waukon Decorah had been U.S. allies during the Black Hawk War. General Atkinson was assigned to use the army to forcibly relocate those Ho - Chunks who refused to move to Iowa.
Following the September 1832 treaty with the Ho - Chunks, Scott and Reynolds conducted another with the Sauks and Meskwakis, with Keokuk and Wapello serving as the primary representatives of their tribes. Scott told the assembled chiefs that "if a particular part of a nation goes out of their country, and makes war, the whole nation is responsible ''. The tribes sold about 6 million acres (24,000 km2) of land in eastern Iowa to the United States for payments of $20,000 per year for thirty years, among other provisions. Keokuk was granted a reservation within the cession and recognized by the Americans as the primary chief of the Sauks and Meskwakis. The tribes sold the reservation to the United States in 1836, and additional land in Iowa the following year. Their last lands in Iowa were sold in 1842, and most of the Natives moved to a reservation in Kansas.
Thanks to the decision of Potawatomi leaders to aid the U.S. during the war, American officials did not seize tribal land as war reparations. Instead, only three individuals accused of leading the Indian Creek massacre were tried in court; they were acquitted. Nevertheless, the drive to purchase Potawatomi land west of the Mississippi began in October 1832, when commissioners in Indiana bought a large amount of Potawatomi land, even though not all Potawatomi bands were represented at the treaty. The tribe was compelled to sell their remaining land west of the Mississippi in a treaty held in Chicago in September 1833.
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is amazon video and amazon prime the same | Amazon Video - wikipedia
Prime Video is an Internet video on demand service that is developed, owned, and operated by Amazon.com. It offers television shows and films for rent or purchase and Prime Video, a selection of Amazon Studios original content and licensed acquisitions included in the Amazon 's Prime subscription. In the UK, US, Germany, and Austria, access to Prime Video is also available through a video - only membership, which does not require a full Prime subscription. In countries like France and Italy, Rent or Buy and Prime Video are not available on the Amazon website and Prime Video content is only accessible through a dedicated website. In some countries Amazon Video additionally offers Amazon Channels, which allows viewers to subscribe to other suppliers ' content, including HBO in the United States.
Launched on September 7, 2006 as Amazon Unbox in the United States, the service grew with its expanding library, and added the Prime Video membership with the development of Prime. It was then renamed as Amazon Instant Video on Demand. After acquiring the local streaming and DVD - by - mail service LoveFilm in 2011, Prime Video was added to Prime in the United Kingdom, Germany and Austria in 2014, a move that angered some Prime UK members as the bundling was non-negotiable with a 61 % increase in subscription fee.
In the UK, Germany, and Austria, Prime Video has been available on a monthly subscription of £ 5.99 or € 7.99 per month, continuing the plan of LoveFilm Instant. The service was previously available in Norway, Denmark and Sweden in 2012, but was discontinued in 2013. On April 18, 2016, Amazon split Prime Video from Amazon Prime in the US for $8.99 per month. The service also hosts Amazon Original content alongside titles on Video as well.
On December 14, 2016, Amazon Video launched worldwide (except for Mainland China, Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Syria) expanding its reach beyond US, UK, Germany, Austria, and Japan. Among the new territories, the service was included with Prime in Belgium, Canada, France, India, Italy, Spain, Poland, and Brazil, while for all other countries it was made available for a monthly promotional price of $ / € 2.99 per month for the first six months and $ / € 5.99 per month thereafter.
The service debuted on September 7, 2006 as Amazon Unbox in the United States. On September 4, 2008, the service was renamed Amazon Video on Demand. As of August 2014 the service is no longer available for downloading purchased instant videos. On February 22, 2011, the service rebranded as Amazon Instant Video and added access to 5,000 movies and TV shows for Amazon Prime members. On September 4, 2012, Amazon signed a deal with pay - TV channel Epix to feature movies on their streaming service, in a move to rival their competitor Netflix. Additionally, in November 2013, Amazon premiered the comedies Alpha House and Betas, which are original series available exclusively online via the Prime Instant Video service. Amazon offered the first three episodes of both series at once for free, with each subsequent episode released weekly thereafter for Prime members.
In February 2014, Amazon announced that the streaming service of its UK subsidiary LoveFilm would be folded into the Instant Video service on February 26, 2014. In January 2015, Transparent became the first show produced by Amazon Studios to win a major award and the first series from a streaming video service to win the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series -- Musical or Comedy.
In 2015, Amazon launched the Streaming Partners Program (now known as Amazon Channels), a platform allowing subscription - based third - party channels and streaming services to be offered to Amazon Prime subscribers through the Amazon Video platform. These services are separate from the Amazon Video offering, and must be purchased separately. The original launch in the U.S. included services such as Curiosity Stream, Lifetime Movie Club, AMC 's Shudder, Showtime, Starz, and others. The service subsequently added other partners, such as HBO and Cinemax, Fandor, PBS Kids, Seeso, Toku and Boomerang.
On July 30, 2015, Amazon announced that they had hired Jeremy Clarkson, Richard Hammond, and James May to produce an untitled motoring show for Amazon Prime Video that would later be named The Grand Tour. Neither Jeff Bezos nor Amazon.com had stated how much Clarkson, Hammond, or May are being paid to produce the programme via their production company W. Chump & Sons, but Jeff Bezos stated that the deal was "very expensive, but worth it ''. The budget for the show has not officially been announced, but Andy Wilman, the former executive producer of Top Gear stated that each episode would have a budget of around £ 4.5 million, nine times larger than Top Gear 's budget. Also in July, Amazon announced plans to expand the service into India.
In September 2015 the word "Instant '' was dropped from its title in the US, and it was renamed simply Amazon Video. In November 2016, the Wall Street Journal reported that Amazon was pursuing streaming rights to U.S. professional sports leagues to further differentiate the service.
Amazon announced in November 2016 that it planned to stream The Grand Tour globally, which led to speculation over whether the full Amazon Video service would begin a wider international rollout to compete with Netflix. On December 14, 2016, Amazon Video expanded into 200 additional countries.
In January 2017, Amazon announced Anime Strike, an anime focused Amazon Channels service. In May 2017, Amazon Channels expanded into Germany and the UK; in the UK, the company reached deals to offer channels from Discovery Communications (including Eurosport), and live / on - demand content from ITV.
In April 2017, Amazon began to make sports - related content acquisitions, first acquiring non-exclusive rights to stream portions of the NFL 's Thursday Night Football games during the 2017 NFL season to Prime subscribers in a $50 million deal, replacing a previous deal with Twitter. In August, Amazon acquired the British television rights to the ATP World Tour beginning 2019, replacing Sky Sports. The deal will run until 2023 and will exclusively show all masters 1000 events and 12 500 and 250 series tournaments. Amazon will be the third party pay TV provider for the ATP finals and starting in 2018 for Queens Club and Eastbourne tournaments. The ATP announced a two - year deal in September for Amazon to stream the Next Generation ATP Finals. In November it was announced that Amazon had acquired the British television rights to the US Open for five years from the 2018 edition, for a reported £ 30 million. Eurosport who owned the pan European rights extended their deal with the US Open but excluded the UK, which was ironic as Amazon had reached a deal with the broadcaster to stream their channels on their station. The ATP additionally announced that Amazon in the US would screen the tennis channel, Tennis TV from 2018.
On January 5, 2018, Amazon announced that they will be terminating their Anime Strike and Heera services, merging their content with Prime Video.
In June 2018, it was announced that Amazon had secured the rights to broadcast 20 live Premier League football matches from the 2019 - 20 season on a three - year deal. The deal signifies a major shift in the way UK football fans will watch the Premier League, as this will be the first time that the league will be shown on a domestic live streaming service, as opposed to Premier League matches being shown exclusively on television.
Amazon Video, via sister company Amazon Studios, owns global television adaptation rights to The Lord of the Rings.
Depending on the device, Amazon supports up to 4K (UHD) and High Dynamic Range (HDR) streaming. UHD / HDR rolled out with its original content. Other titles support 1080p (HD) streaming with 5.1 Dolby Digital or Dolby Digital Plus audio. For titles available for purchase (and not included in a customer 's Amazon Prime subscription), the HD option is often offered at an additional price.
Amazon Video is available worldwide (except for Mainland China, Iran, North Korea, and Syria). Initially it was available only to residents of the United States, United Kingdom, Japan, Germany and Austria, causing customers living outside Amazon Video 's available countries to increasingly use VPN to get around the geographical restrictions.
Customers of Amazon Video can stream on the web using an HTML5 player (supported in Chrome, Firefox, Internet Explorer 11, Edge, Safari and Opera).
Amazon Video is available on Amazon 's "Fire '' devices, smart phones, tablets, PCs, and various TVs, Blu - ray players and consoles with a broadband connection. TVs supporting the service include LG, Panasonic, Samsung, and Sony. Sony TVs supporting Android TV include the Amazon Video app. Consoles supporting Amazon Video include recent PlayStation, Xbox, Wii and Wii U.
On October 1, 2015, Amazon announced that Chromecast and Apple TV products were banned from sale on its online marketplace effective October 29, 2015. Amazon argued that this was to reduce "customer confusion '', as these devices do not support the Amazon Video ecosystem.
Analog stereo
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what was the african crop exported during triangular trade | Triangular trade - wikipedia
Triangular trade or triangle trade is a historical term indicating trade among three ports or regions. Triangular trade usually evolves when a region has export commodities that are not required in the region from which its major imports come. Triangular trade thus provides a method for rectifying trade imbalances between the above regions.
Historically the particular routes were also shaped by the powerful influence of winds and currents during the age of sail. For example, from the main trading nations of Western Europe, it was much easier to sail westwards after first going south of 30 N latitude and reaching the so - called "trade winds ''; thus arriving in the Caribbean rather than going straight west to the North American mainland. Returning from North America, it is easiest to follow the Gulf Stream in a northeasterly direction using the westerlies. A similar triangle to this, called the volta do mar was already being used by the Portuguese, before Christopher Columbus ' voyage, to sail to the Canary Islands and the Azores. Columbus simply expanded this triangle outwards, and his route became the main way for Europeans to reach, and return from, the Americas.
The best - known triangular trading system is the transatlantic slave trade, that operated from the late 16th to early 19th centuries, carrying slaves, cash crops, and manufactured goods between West Africa, Caribbean or American colonies and the European colonial powers, with the northern colonies of British North America, especially New England, sometimes taking over the role of Europe. The use of African slaves was fundamental to growing colonial cash crops, which were exported to Europe. European goods, in turn, were used to purchase African slaves, who were then brought on the sea lane west from Africa to the Americas, the so - called Middle Passage.
A classic example is the colonial molasses trade. Sugar (often in its liquid form, molasses) from the Caribbean was traded to Europe or New England, where it was distilled into rum. The profits from the sale of sugar were used to purchase manufactured goods, which were then shipped to West Africa, where they were bartered for slaves. The slaves were then brought back to the Caribbean to be sold to sugar planters. The profits from the sale of the slaves were then used to buy more sugar, which was shipped to Europe, restarting the cycle. The trip itself took five to twelve weeks.
The first leg of the triangle was from a European port to Africa, in which ships carried supplies for sale and trade, such as copper, cloth, trinkets, slave beads, guns and ammunition. When the ship arrived, its cargo would be sold or bartered for slaves. On the second leg, ships made the journey of the Middle Passage from Africa to the New World. Many slaves died of disease in the crowded holds of the slave ships. Once the ship reached the New World, enslaved survivors were sold in the Caribbean or the American colonies. The ships were then prepared to get them thoroughly cleaned, drained, and loaded with export goods for a return voyage, the third leg, to their home port, from the West Indies the main export cargoes were sugar, rum, and molasses; from Virginia, tobacco and hemp. The ship then returned to Europe to complete the triangle.
However, because of several disadvantages that slave ships faced compared to other trade ships, they often returned to their home port carrying whatever goods were readily available in the Americas and filled up a large part or all of their capacity with ballast. Other disadvantages include the different form of the ships (to carry as many humans as possible, but not ideal to carry a maximum amount of produce) and the variations in the duration of a slave voyage, making it practically impossible to pre-schedule appointments in the Americas, which meant that slave ships often arrived in the Americas out - of - season. When the ships did reach their intended ports, only about 90 % of the passengers survived the journey across the middle passage. Due to the slaves being transported in tight, confined spaces, a small percentage of the group that started perished at the hands of disease and lack of nourishment. Cash crops were transported mainly by a separate fleet which only sailed from Europe to the Americas and back mitigating the impact the slaves involvement brought forth. The Triangular trade is a trade model, not an exact description of the ship 's route.
A 2017 study provides evidence for the hypothesis that the export of gunpowder technology to Africa increased the transatlantic slave trade by making it easier for Africans to enslave each other: "A one percent increase in gunpowder set in motion a 5 - year gun - slave cycle that increased slave exports by an average of 50 %, and the impact continued to grow over time. ''
New England also benefited from the trade, as many merchants from New England, especially the state of Rhode Island, replaced the role of Europe in the triangle. New England also made rum from Caribbean sugar and molasses, which it shipped to Africa as well as within the New World. Yet, the "triangle trade '' as considered in relation to New England was a piecemeal operation. No New England traders are known to have completed a sequential circuit of the full triangle, which took a calendar year on average, according to historian Clifford Shipton. The concept of the New England Triangular trade was first suggested, inconclusively, in an 1866 book by George H. Moore, was picked up in 1872 by historian George C. Mason, and reached full consideration from a lecture in 1887 by American businessman and historian William B. Weeden. The song "Molasses to Rum '' from the musical 1776 vividly describes this form of the triangular trade.
The term "triangular trade '' also refers to a variety of other trades.
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us suspended the military sales to pakistan according to an amendment called | Pakistan -- United States relations - wikipedia
Pakistan -- United States relations refers to the bilateral relationship between Pakistan and the United States. On 20 October 1947, two months and six days after Pakistan 's independence, the United States established relations with Pakistan, making it amongst the first nations to establish relations with the new state. Pakistan allied itself with the U.S. during the Cold war era against the Soviet Union, and was an integral player in the CENTO and SEATO organizations.
Pakistan also played a crucial role in arranging the 1972 Nixon visit to China which led to normalization of ties between the two countries. Despite a worsening of relations following the election of the left - oriented Pakistan Peoples Party under Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, relations quickly improved and deepened during Operation Cyclone in the 1980s, which was directed against Soviet expansion in Central Asia and South Asia, by funding and training Muslim mujahideen in Afghanistan to combat the Soviet Union. Relations once again soured after the collapse of the Soviet Union, when the United States approved sanctions against Pakistan by passing the Pressler amendment, which was enacted against Pakistan for its nuclear weapons program, which was initiated after the war with India in 1971 and accelerated after India detonated a nuclear bomb in 1974. Pakistan once again assumed an important role in American geopolitical interests in the region following the attacks of September 11th, 2001, and the subsequent War on Terror. Relations were strengthened as the United States named Pakistan a major non-NATO ally in 2002 -- which allowed for the release of over $25 billion of aid to Pakistan. American recovery efforts following the 2005 Kashmir earthquake were widely appreciated by the Pakistani public.
Relations began to strain as both sides began to criticize one another 's strategy in the War on Terror, with the United States government frequently accusing Pakistan of harboring members of the Afghan Taliban and Quetta Shura, while Pakistan has alleged that the United States has done little to control security in eastern Afghanistan, where Pakistan 's most - wanted terrorist, Mullah Fazlullah is believed to be hiding. Furthermore, as a result of the Raymond Allen Davis incident in Lahore, the secret U.S. operation in Abbottabad which resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden, followed by the Salala incident, relations between the two countries became increasingly strained in recent years with high levels of mistrust. Public opinion in Pakistan frequently ranks the U.S. one of its least favored countries, and vice versa. In 2015, according to Gallup 's annual World Affairs survey, only 15 % of Americans had a favorable view of Pakistan.
The United States today engages in extensive economic, social, and scientific assistance as well as vital military relations with Pakistan, while Pakistan continues to occupy a strategic position in the United States ' interests in Central and South Asia. The United States is the second - largest supplier of military equipment to Pakistan after China, and is one of Pakistan 's largest donors of foreign assistance.
Following Pakistan 's independence from the British Indian Empire, the nascent state struggled to position itself as a non-aligned member of the international community. Pakistan 's pro-communist forces commanded considerable support in East Pakistan, while in West Pakistan, the pro-Soviet Pakistan Socialist Party remained largely marginalized. The capitalist and pro-American Pakistan Muslim League dominated much of West Pakistan 's political landscape, particularly in the prosperous region of Punjab, while its base of support in East Pakistan was far more modest.
Prime Minister Ali Khan, however, attempted to establish friendly relations with both the Soviet Union and the United States in hopes that Pakistan could benefit from an alliance with both superpowers. Both the Military of Pakistan and Foreign Service of Pakistan raised doubts as to whether the Soviets had the political will and capacity to provide military, technical, and economic aid to a similar degree that Soviets had begun to offer to Pakistan 's socialist neighbor, India. Pakistan nevertheless requested military aid from the USSR, which was predictably rebuffed as the Soviet Union had previously oriented itself to India. The government 's overtures to the Soviet Union were not favorably regarded by Pakistan 's conservative middle classes, who regarded the USSR as an atheist and socialist ally of India.
In 1950, the United States extended an overture to Pakistan by inviting Prime Minister Khan for an official state visit. As the USSR had rebuffed capitalist Pakistan and aligned itself with Pakistan 's rivals, the country 's policy crafters found that maintaining friendly relations with both superpowers was impossible. Prime Minister Khan accepted the American invitation and paid an official 23 - day state visit to the United States beginning on May 3, 1950. The event was highly politicized in Pakistan, and outraged the country 's leftists, and was seen as the seminal event that leads to warm diplomatic ties for several decades. However, it is alleged that during PM Khan 's first visit to the US, president Truman requested Pakistan 's premier to let the CIA formulate a base in Pakistan, strictly to keep an eye on the activities of Soviet Union -- a request which was not granted by Khan.
Throughout the period between 1950 and 1953, several major Pakistan political and military figures paid visits to the United States. During this time, Army commander Ayub Khan paid visits to the United States -- a figure who would later institute a strongly pro-American military dictatorship. Foreign Minister Sir Zafrullah Khan, Foreign Secretary Ikram - Ullah Khan, Finance Minister Ghulam Muhammad, and Defense Secretary Sikander Mirza all paid official state visits to the United States.
Defense ties between the two countries strengthened almost immediately following Khan 's visit to the United States. Personal goodwill towards Pakistan was evident even when Liaqat Ali Khan was assassinated in 1951. Under the government of Khawaja Nazimuddin, Pakistani and American officials developed positive attitudes towards one another. Such personal goodwill was evident when Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, while arguing for wheat aid to Pakistan in 1953, told the sub-committee on Agriculture and Forestry during hearings that, "the (p) eople of Pakistan had a splendid military tradition, '' and that in Karachi he had been met by a guard of honour which was the "finest '' he had ever seen ". Close ties between the countries were further consolidated by a mutual defense treaty signed in May 1954, after which hundreds of Pakistani military officers began to regularly train in the United States. A U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) was also established in Rawalpindi, then capital of Pakistan. Pakistani officers were not only trained in military tactics, but also taught leadership, management, and economic theory.
In 1956, President Dwight Eisenhower requested permission from Pakistan 's new Prime Minister, Huseyn Suhravardie, to lease the Peshawar Air Station (PAS), which was to be used in intelligence gathering of Soviet intercontinental ballistic missiles. The request was granted, and soon the United States built an airstrip, command and control station at the site before initiating operations. The base was regarded as top - secret, and even the high - ranking Pakistani public officials such as Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, were refused entry to the facility.
American interest in Pakistan as an ally against the spread of Communism primarily was focused towards maintaining excellent ties with Pakistan 's military establishment. Prime Minister Huseyn Suhravardie paid several official visits to the United States -- typically with his Army commander, Ayub Khan, at his side. After the military coup d'état in 1958, Ayub Khan argued that left wing activists could seize power in Pakistan, thereby jeopardizing American interests in the region. He successfully convinced American officials that the Pakistani military was the strongest, and most capable institution to govern the country.
During the dictatorship of Ayub Khan, Pakistan enjoyed a close relationship with the United States. Ayub Khan was strongly pro-American, and on a visit the United States in 1954, before Khan was head of state, he famously told American Brigadier - General Henry A. Byroade "I did n't come here to look at barracks. Our army can be your army if you want us. But let 's make a decision ''. His view of the United States had remained positive by the time he seized power. In fact, during the 1960s, Pakistan 's population was generally pro-American and held a similarly positive view of the United States.
In 1960, Ayub Khan granted permission for the United States to fly its first spy missions to the Soviet Union from the Peshawar Air Base, which had been recently upgraded with American funds. In May 1960, the U-2 incident took place, in which pilot Gary Powers was captured by the USSR. The CIA notified Ayub Khan of the incident while he was in London for a state visit -- he reportedly shrugged his shoulders and stated that he had expected such an incident would eventually happen.
In 1961, Khan paid his first visit to the United States as head of state. American goodwill towards Khan was evident by an elaborate state dinner held at Mount Vernon, and a ticker tape parade for Khan in New York City.
American military aide was concentrated in West - Pakistan, with economic benefits were controlled by, and almost exclusively used by, West Pakistan. East Pakistani anger towards an absence of economic development was directed towards the United States, as well as West Pakistan. The East - Pakistan parliament passed a resolution denouncing the 1954 military pact with the United States.
Economic aid to Pakistan was further increased by the United States through the consortium companies. West Pakistan 's high rate of economic growth during this time period brought wide regard to Pakistan as a model of successful implementation of capitalism in a developing country -- in 1964, GDP growth was 9.38 %.
In 1965, Pakistan, under the leadership of Ayub Khan, launched the so - called Operation Gibraltar against India, which escalated to a declaration of war. The war with India had a high economic cost for Pakistan, which lost $500 million in aid from the United States. Economic growth that year was a mere 0.88 %. The economy rapidly rebounded with a GDP growth of 2.32 % in 1966, and 9.79 % in 1969. However, given the huge economic cost of the war without any clear victory (or loss), Khan surrendered his Presidential powers to Army Commander General Yahya Khan (no relation) in 1969.
Despite the loss of a crucial ally, Pakistan, and its new leader, were perceived in the United States as an integral bulwark against Communism, and so Pakistan 's close relations with the United States were maintained.
President Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger took advantage of Pakistan 's close relationship with People Republic of China to initiate secret contacts that resulted in Henry Kissinger 's secret visit to China in July 1971 after visiting Pakistan. These contacts resulted in the 1972 Nixon visit to China, and the subsequent normalizing of relations between the United States and the People 's Republic of China.
At the onset of hostilities between India and Pakistan, President Nixon urged Yahya Khan to restrain Pakistani forces, in order to prevent escalation of war, and to safeguard Pakistan 's interests -- Nixon feared that an Indian invasion of West Pakistan would lead to socialist India 's domination of the subcontinent, thereby strengthening the position of the Soviet Union. Yahya Khan feared that an independent Bangladesh would lead to the disintegration of West Pakistan. However, Indian military support for Bengali guerrillas and a massive flood of Bengali refugees into India led to the escalation of hostilities and declared war between India and Pakistan.
The United States secretly encouraged the shipment of military equipment from the Shah 's Iran, Turkey, and Jordan to Pakistan, and reimbursed those countries for their shipments, despite Congressional objections. The United States, however, also threatened to cut - off aid to pressure Pakistan to end hostilities, but did not wish for India to dominate the new political landscape in South Asia either.
Near the end of the war, the Nixon Administration recognized Pakistan 's imminent defeat, but sent the USS Enterprise, as well as the Task Force - 74 of the United States Seventh Fleet into the Indian Ocean -- which was regarded as a warning to India to resist escalating attacks against West Pakistan. As it was the height of the Vietnam War, the United States show of force was seen as a sign of support for the beleaguered West Pakistan Armed Forces.
Declassified CIA intelligence documents stated that "India intended to dismember Pakistan and destroy its armed forces, a possible loss of U.S. ally in the Cold war that the United States can not afford to lose. '' Nixon termed India a "Soviet stooge '' before ordering the Enterprise to lead the Task Force - 74. In an assessment completed by the United States, India was seen as being able to summarily defeat Pakistan, were India to receive the full backing of Soviet Union. Nixon sent a message to Soviet Union urging Russians to stop backing India. In Nixons ' words: "In the strongest possible... (...)... terms to restrain India with which... (Soviets) have great influence and for whose actions you must share responsibility ''.
As a result of the 1970s election, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, a charismatic democratic socialist, became President (1971 -- 1974) and later Prime minister in 1974. This period is seen as a "quiet cold war '' with the Pakistan who administered under democratic socialists led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. His socialist ideas favored the communist ideas but never actually allied with communism. Under Bhutto, Pakistan would focus on Movement of Non-Aligned Countries, building closer ties with Soviet bloc and the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, Bhutto tried to maintain a balance with the United States, but such attempts were rebuffed by the United States. Bhutto opposed the ultra-leftism concepts but was a strong proponent of left - wing politics, which the U.S. had opposed in Pakistan from the very start.
Although, Richard Nixon enjoyed firmly strong relations with Bhutto and was a close friend of Bhutto, the graph of relation significantly went down under the Presidency of Jimmy Carter. Carter, an anti-socialist, tightened the embargo placed on Pakistan and placed a pressure through the United States Ambassador to Pakistan, Brigadier - General Henry Byroade. The socialist orientation, and Bhutto 's proposed left - wing theories, had badly upset the United States, further clinging the bell tolls in the United States as fearing Pakistan 's loss as an ally in the Cold war. The leftists and Bhutto 's policy towards Soviet Union was seen sympathetic and had built a bridge for the Soviet Union to have gain access in Pakistan 's warm water ports, that something both the United States and the Soviet Union had lacked.
During the course of 1976 presidential election, Carter was elected as U.S. President, and his very inaugural speech Carter announced the determination to seek the ban of nuclear weapons. With Carter 's election, Bhutto lost all links to United States administration he had through President Nixon. Bhutto had to face the embargo and pressure from the American President who was totally against the political objectives which Bhutto had set forth for his upcoming future plans. Carter indirectly announced his opposition to Bhutto, his ambition and the elections. Responding to President Carter, Bhutto launched a more actively aggressive and serious diplomatic offensive on the United States and the Western world over the nuclear issues. Bhutto 's demagogic act on nuclear issues put the United States, particularly Carter who found it extremely difficult to counter Bhutto, on Defensive position at the United Nations. While India and the Soviet Union were pushed aside when Bhutto attacked Indian nuclear programme as labeling latter 's program based on the nuclear proliferation. Writing to the world and Western leaders, Bhutto made it clear and maintained to the United States:
Pakistan was exposed to a kind of "nuclear threat and blackmail '' unparalleled elsewhere... (...)... If the world 's community failed to provide political insurance to Pakistan and other countries against the nuclear blackmail, these countries would be a constraint to launch atomic bomb programs of their own!... (A) ssurances provided by the United Nations were not "Enough! ''...
Although Carter placed an embargo on Pakistan, Bhutto under the technical guidance and diplomatic though Foreign minister Aziz Ahmed, succeeded to bought sensitive equipment, common metal materials, and electronic components, marked as "common items '', hide the true nature of the intentions, greatly enhance the atomic bomb project, though a complete failure for Carter 's embargo. Bhutto tried to resolve the issue, but Carter intentionally sabotages the talks. In a thesis written by historian Abdul Ghafoor Buhgari, Carter keenly sabotaged Bhutto credibility, but did not wanted to favor his execution as Carter made a call to General Zia - ul - Haq to stop the act. Therefore, senior leadership of Pakistan Peoples Party reached out to different country 's ambassadors and high commissioners but did not meet with the U.S. ambassador, as the leadership knew the "noble '' part played by Carter and his administration. When Carter administration discovered Bhutto 's act, the programme was reached to a well - advanced level, and furthermore, had disastrous effect on SALT I Treaty which was soon collapse, a failure of President Carter to stop the atomic proliferation and arm race between the Soviet Union and the United States heightened.
In 1974, with India carried out the test of nuclear weapons near the Pakistan 's eastern border, codename Smiling Buddha, Bhutto sought the United States to impose economic sanctions in India. Though it was unsuccessful approach, in a meeting of Pakistan 's Ambassador to the United States with Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, Kissinger told Pakistan 's ambassador to Washington that the test is "a fait accompli and that Pakistan would have to learn to live with it '', although he was aware this is a "little rough '' on the Pakistanis. In the 1970s, the ties were further severed with Bhutto as Bhutto had continued to administer the research on weapons, and in 1976, in a meeting with Bhutto and Kissinger, Kissinger had told Bhutto, "that if you (Bhutto) do not cancel, modify or postpone the Reprocessing Plant Agreement, we will make a horrible example from you ''. The meeting was ended by Bhutto as he had replied: "For my country 's sake, for the sake of people of Pakistan, I did not succumb to that black - mailing and threats ''. After the meeting, Bhutto intensified his nationalization and industrialization policies, as well as aggressively taking steps to spur scientific research on atomic weapons and the atomic bomb project. Bhutto authorized the construction of Chagai weapon - testing laboratories, whilst the United States opposed the action and predicted that it will lead to a massive and destructive war between India and Pakistan in the future. The atomic bomb project became fully mature in 1978, and a first cold test was conducted in 1983 (see Kirana - I).
Bhutto called upon Organization of Islamic Conference in order to bring Muslim world together but after months, the pro-United States Muslim nations and the United States itself took the promised step and Bhutto was declared as the corrupted one, and, as a result, Bhutto was hanged in 1979.
In 1979, a group of Pakistani students burned the American embassy in Islamabad to the ground killing two Americans as a reaction to Grand Mosque Seizure, citing the U.S. involvement.
After the removal and death of Bhutto, the Pakistan 's ties with the United States were better and improved. On December 24, 1979, the Soviet 40th Army crossed borders, rolling into Afghanistan, President Carter issued his doctrine (see Carter Doctrine). The silent features offers the creation of the Rapid Deployment Force (RDF), increasing the deployment of United States Naval Forces Central Command (NAVCENT), a collective security framework in the region and a commitment to the defence of Pakistan by transfer of significant amount of weapons and Monetarism.
Following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, ISI and CIA ran multibillion - dollar worth Operation Cyclone to thwart the communist regime as well as defeating Soviets in Afghanistan. Throughout the military regime of General Zia - ul - Haq, the ties and relations were promoted at its maximum point, and the United States had given billion dollars of economic and military aid to Pakistan. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 highlighted the common interest of Pakistan and the United States in opposing the Soviet Union. In 1981, Pakistan and the United States agreed on a $3.2 billion military and economic assistance program aimed at helping Pakistan deal with the heightened threat to security in the region and its economic development needs. With US assistance, in the largest covert operation in history, Pakistan armed and supplied anti-Soviet fighters in Afghanistan.
In the 1980s, Pakistan agreed to pay $658 million for 28 F - 16 fighter jets from the United States; however, the US congress froze the deal, citing objections to Pakistan 's nuclear ambitions. Under the terms of the American cancellation, the US kept both the money and the planes, leading to angry claims of theft by Pakistanis.
Initially, Carter offered Pakistan $325 million in aid over three years; Zia rejected this as "peanuts. '' Carter also signed the finding in 1980 that allowed less than $50 million a year to go to the Mujahideen. All attempts were rebuffed, Zia shrewdly played his cards knowing that Carter was on his way out and he may get a better deal from the incoming Reagan. After Ronald Reagan came to office, defeating Carter for the US Presidency in 1980, all this changed, due to President Reagan 's new priorities and the unlikely and remarkably effective effort by Congressman Charles Wilson (D - TX), aided by Joanne Herring, and CIA Afghan Desk Chief Gust Avrakotos to increase the funding for Operation Cyclone. Aid to the Afghan resistance, and to Pakistan, increased substantially, finally reaching $1 billion. The United States, faced with a rival superpower looking as if it were to create another Communist bloc, now engaged Zia in fighting a US - aided war by proxy in Afghanistan against the Soviets.
The Reagan administration and Reagan himself supported Pakistan 's military regime, American officials visited the country on a routine basis. The U.S. political influence in Pakistan effectively curbed down the liberals, socialists, communists, and democracy advocates in the country in 1983, instead advising Zia to hold the non-partisans elections in 1985. General Akhtar Abdur Rahman of ISI and William Casey of CIA worked together in harmony, and in an atmosphere of mutual trust. The ISI officer Mohammad Yusuf stated ""It was a great blow to the Jehad when Casey died '', calling Casey "shaheed '', a former CIA director is actually a martyr of Islam. The U.S. intelligence community also helped Zia to expand the idea of The Establishment in the national politics of Pakistan, approving the sale of F - 16 Fighting Falcon, nuclear technology, naval warships, intelligence training and efforts.
After the restoration of democracy after the disastrous and mysterious death of Zia and U.S. Ambassador in an aviation crash, relations deteriorated quickly with upcoming prime ministers Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif. The United States took a tough stand on Pakistan 's nuclear development, passing the Pressler amendment, while significantly improving the relations with India. Both Benazir and Nawaz Sharif also asked the United States to take steps to stop the Indian nuclear program, feeling that United States was not doing enough to address what Pakistan saw as an existential threat. Pakistan found itself in a state of extremely high insecurity as tensions mounted with India and Afghanistan 's infighting continued. Pakistan 's alliance with the U.S. was strained due to factors such as its support for the Taliban and public distancing of the Pakistani government from the U.S.
In 1992 US Ambassador Nicholas Platt advised Pakistan 's leaders that if Pakistan continued to support terrorists in India or Indian - administered territory, "the Secretary of State may find himself required by law to place Pakistan on the state sponsors of terrorism list. '' When the US decided to respond to the 1998 United States embassy bombings in Africa by firing missiles at an al - Qaeda camp in Taliban - controlled Afghanistan, five Pakistani ISI agents present at the camp were killed.
In 1989, Benazir Bhutto made a quick visit in the U.S. asking U.S. to stop financing the Afghan mujahideen to President George H.W. Bush, which she marked "America 's Frankenstein ''. This was followed by Nawaz Sharif who visited the U.S. in 1990, but U.S. gave cold shoulder to Pakistan, asking Pakistan to stop developing the nuclear deterrence. In 1990, Prime minister Nawaz Sharif travelled to the U.S. to solve the nuclear crises after the U.S. had tightened its economic embargo on Pakistan, prompting Sharif and then - Treasure Minister Sartaj Aziz to held talks on Washington. It was widely reported in Pakistan that the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Teresita Schaffer had told the Foreign Minister Shahabzada Yaqub Khan to halt the uranium enrichment programme. In December 1990, France 's Commissariat à l'énergie atomique agreed to provide a commercial 900MW power plant, but plans did not materialize as France wanted Pakistan to provide entire financial funds for the plant. Furthermore, the U.S. Ambassador Robert Oakley further influenced on the project, showing growing concerns of the U.S. on the agreement. While talking to U.S. media, Nawaz Sharif declared that: "Pakistan possessed no (atomic) bomb... Pakistan would be happy to sign the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) but it must be provided "first '' to India to do the same ". After France 's project was cancelled, Nawaz Sharif successfully held talks with the China to build the largest commercial nuclear plant, CHASNUPP - I in Chasma city in Pakistan.
In 1995, Prime minister Benazir Bhutto made a final visit to U.S. urging President Bill Clinton to amend the Pressler Amendment and emphasized the United States to launch a campaign against extremism, with Pakistan allying with the United States. Prime minister Benazir Bhutto was successful in passing the Brown Amendment, but the embargo on arms remained active. During the United States trip, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto faced heated criticism and opposition on the nuclear weapons program, who however responded fiercely and in turn sharply criticized U.S. 's nonproliferation policy and demanded that the United States honor its contractual obligation. Although Benazir was able to convince the U.S. business community to invest in Pakistan, she was unable to revert the economic embargo which kept investment away from the country.
In 1998, Prime minister Nawaz Sharif ordered to conduct first nuclear tests after Benazir Bhutto called for the tests (see Chagai - I and Chagai - II), in response to Indian nuclear tests (see Pokhran - II). Nawaz Sharif 's ordering the nuclear tests was met with great hostility and ire in the United States after President Clinton placing the economic embargo on Pakistan. The relations were also refrained and strained after Nawaz Sharif became involved with Kargil war with India, while India 's relations with Israel and U.S. greatly enhanced. Soon after the tests, Benazir Bhutto publicly announced her believe that her father was "sent to the gallows at the instance of the superpower for pursuing the nuclear capability, though she did not disclose the name of the power. In 1999, Benazir leaked the information that Nawaz Sharif would be deposed that there is (nothing) that Americans want to support Nawaz Sharif or the democracy in Pakistan. After the military coup was commenced against Nawaz Sharif, the President Clinton criticized the coup demanding the restoration of democracy but did not favor the mass demonstration against the military regime as the coup, at that time, was popular. In conclusion, both Nawaz Sharif and Benazir Bhutto refused to make compromises with respect to the country 's nuclear deterrence, instead building infrastructure despite U.S. objections.
Pakistan was a leading member of the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) and the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) from its adoption in 1954 -- 55 and allied itself with the United States during the most of the Cold war. In 1971 -- 72, Pakistan ended its alliance with the United States after the East - Pakistan war in which East Pakistan successfully seceded with the aid of India. The promise of economic aid from the United States was instrumental in creating these agreements. At the time the pact was adopted, Pakistan 's relationship with the United States was the friendliest in Asia.
During the Indo - Pakistani War of 1965, the United States refused to provide any military support to as against its pledged. This generated widespread anti-American feelings and emotions in Pakistan that the United States was no longer a reliable ally. According to C. Christine Fair, the U.S. cut off arms supplies because Pakistan "started the war with India by using regular military personnel disguised as mujahideen. '' According to Fair, in 1971 "the Pakistanis were angry at the U.S. again, for not bailing them out from another war they started against India. ''
In April 1979, the United States suspended most economic assistance to Pakistan over concerns about Pakistan 's atomic bomb project under the Foreign Assistance Act.
In 1955, after Prime minister Huseyn Suhrawardy established nuclear power to ease of the electricity crises, with U.S. offering grant of US $350,000 to acquire a commercial nuclear power plant. Following this year, the PAEC signed an agreement with counterpart, the United States Atomic Energy Commission, where the research on nuclear power and training was started initially by the United States. During the 1960s, the U.S. opens doors to Pakistan 's scientists and engineers to conduct research on leading institutions of the U.S., notably ANL, ORNL, and LLNL. In 1965, Abdus Salam went to U.S. and convinced the U.S. government to help establish a national institute of nuclear research in Pakistan (PINSTECH) and a research reactor Parr - I. The PINSTECH building was designed by leading American architect Edward Durrell Stone; American nuclear engineer Peter Karter designed the reactor, which was then supplied by the contractor American Machine and Foundry. Years later, the U.S. helped Pakistan to acquire its first commercial nuclear power plant, Kanupp - I, from GE Canada in 1965. All this nuclear infrastructure was established by the U.S. throughout the 1960s, as part of the Congressional Atoms for Peace program.
This was changed after Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and democratic socialists under him decided to build nuclear weapons for the sake of their national security and survival. In 1974, U.S. imposed embargo and restriction on Pakistan to limit its nuclear weapons program. In the 1980s, the American concerns of Pakistan 's role in nuclear proliferation eventually turned out to be true after the exposure of nuclear programs of Iran, North Korea, Saudi Arabia and Libya. Although the atomic program was effectively peaceful and devoted for economical usage, the nuclear policy change in the 1970s and till the present, with Pakistan maintaining its program as part of the strategic deterrence.
In the 1980s, the plan to recognize national security concerns and accepting Pakistan ' assurances that it did not intend to construct a nuclear weapon, Congress waived restrictions (Symington Amendment) on military assistance to Pakistan. In October 1980, a high - level delegation and CMLA General Zia - ul - Haq travels to U.S., first meeting with former president Richard Nixon. Although, the meeting was to discuss the Soviet integration of Afghanistan, Nixon made it clear he is in favor of Pakistan gaining nuclear weapons capability, while correcting that he is not in a race for the presidential elections. The following year, Agha Shahi made it clear to Alexander Haig that Pakistan "wo n't make a compromise '' on its nuclear weapons program, but assured the U.S. that the country had adopted the policy of deliberate ambiguity, refraining itself to conduct nuclear tests to avoid or create divergence in the relations.
In March 1986, the two countries agreed on a second multi-year (FY 1988 -- 93) $4 - billion economic development and security assistance program. On October 1, 1990, however, the United States suspended all military assistance and new economic aid to Pakistan under the Pressler Amendment, which required that the President certify annually that Pakistan "does not possess a nuclear explosive device. ''
India 's decision to conduct nuclear tests in May 1998 and Pakistan 's response set back US relations in the region, which had seen renewed US interest during the second Clinton Administration. A presidential visit scheduled for the first quarter of 1998 was postponed and, under the Glenn Amendment, sanctions restricted the provision of credits, military sales, economic assistance, and loans to the government.
Since 1998, the governments of both countries have started an intensive dialogue on nuclear nonproliferation and security issues. First meeting took place in 1998 between Foreign Secretary Shamshad Ahmad and Deputy Secretary of State Strobe Talbott to discuss the issues focusing on CTBT signature and ratification, FMCT negotiations, export controls, and a nuclear restraint regime. The October 1999 overthrow of the democratically elected Sharif government triggered an additional layer of sanctions under Section 508 of the Foreign Appropriations Act which includes restrictions on foreign military financing and economic assistance. US Government assistance to Pakistan was limited mainly to refugee and counter-narcotics assistance. '' At the height of the nuclear proliferation case in 2004, President George Bush delivering a policy statement at the National Defense University, President Bush proposed to reform the IAEA to combat the nuclear proliferation and quoted: "No state, under investigation for proliferation violations, should be allowed to serve on the IAEA Board of Governors -- or on the new special committee. And any state currently on the Board that comes under investigation should be suspended from the Board. ''
Bush 's proposal was seen as targeted against Pakistan, which is an influential member of IAEA since the 1960s and serves on the Board of Governors; it did not receive attention from other world governments. In 2009, Pakistan has repeatedly blocked the Conference on Disarmament (CD) from implementing its agreed program of work, despite severe pressure from the major nuclear powers to end its defiance of 64 other countries in blocking international ban on the production of new nuclear bomb - making material, as well as discussions on full nuclear disarmament, the arms race in outer space, and security assurances for non-nuclear states. The Chairman Joint Chiefs General Tariq Majid justified Pakistan 's action and outline the fact that atomic deterrence against a possible aggression was a compulsion, and not a choice for Pakistan. He further justified that "a proposed fissile material cutoff treaty would target Pakistan specifically.
On December 10, 2012, the Assistant Secretary for Arms Control, Verification, and Compliance Rose Gottemoeller and Additional Secretary for United Nations and Economic Coordination Aizaz Ahmad Chaudhry co-chaired the Pakistan - U.S. Security, Strategic Stability, and Nonproliferation (SSS&NP) Working Group in Islamabad. Gottemoeller traveled to Pakistan after former Indian Foreign Secretary Shyam Saran wrote in an article that, "Pakistan had moved its nuclear doctrine from minimum deterrence to second strike capability and expanded its arsenal to include tactical weapons that can be delivered by short - range missiles like the Hatf - IX. The meeting ended with an agreement on continuing dialogue on a range of issues related to the bilateral relationship, including international efforts to enhance nuclear security and peaceful applications of nuclear energy.
In the 1990s, U.S. and the Missile Technology Control Regime put restrictions on Pakistan 's space program in amid fear that the country 's alleged covert development of missile programs. The U.S. began cooperation with Pakistan in peaceful space technology in the 1960s after establishing the Sonmiani Terminal in 1961, constructing an airfield and launch pad. In 1962, the Space Research Commission launched the first solid - fuel rocket, Rehbar - I, built with close interaction with the U.S. NASA. Launching of the rocket made Pakistan the first South Asian country and tenth country in the world to carrying out the launch of the rocket. During the 1962 and 1972, approximately 200 rockets were fired from the Sonmiani, but this cooperation waned after 1972.
During the 1990s and early 2000s, U.S. tightened its embargo and construction on Pakistan 's space development, and in 1998, putting restrictions and sanctions on premier astronautics research department, DESTO, although the sanctions were uplifted in 2001 by the Bush Administration.
After the September 11 attacks in 2001 in the United States, Pakistan became a key ally in the war on terror with the United States. In 2001, US President George W. Bush pressured the government into joining the US the war on terror. Pervez Musharraf acknowledges the payments received for captured terrorists in his book:
We 've captured 689 and handed over 369 to the United States. We 've earned bounties totaling millions of dollars
In 2003, the US officially forgave US $1 billion in Pakistani debt in a ceremony in Pakistan in turn for Pakistan joining the US ' war on terror '. "Today 's signing represents a promise kept and another milestone in our expanding partnership, '' US Ambassador Nancy Powell said in a statement, "The forgiveness of $1 billion in bilateral debt is just one piece of a multifaceted, multi-billion dollar assistance package. '' The new relationship between the United States and Pakistan is not just about September 11, ' Powell said. "It is about the rebirth of a long - term partnership between our two countries. '' However, Pakistan support of the U.S. and its war has angered many Pakistanis that do not support it.
In October 2005, Condoleezza Rice made a statement where she promised that the United States will support the country 's earthquake relief efforts and help it rebuild '' after the Kashmir earthquake.
Prior to the September 11 attacks in 2001, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia were key supporters of the Taliban in Afghanistan, as part of their "strategic depth '' objective vis - a-vis India, Iran, and Russia.
After 9 / 11, Pakistan, led by General Pervez Musharraf, reversed course as they were under pressure from the United States and joined the "War on Terror '' as a U.S. ally. Having failed to convince the Taliban to hand over bin Laden and other members of Al Qaeda, Pakistan provided the U.S. a number of military airports and bases for its attack on Afghanistan, along with other logistical support. Since 2001, Pakistan has arrested over five hundred Al - Qaeda members and handed them over to the United States; senior U.S. officers have been lavish in their praise of Pakistani efforts in public while expressing their concern that not enough was being done in private. However, General Musharraf was strongly supported by the Bush administration.
In return for their support, Pakistan had sanctions lifted and has received about $10 billion in U.S. aid since 2001, primarily military. In June 2004, President George W. Bush designated Pakistan as a major non-NATO ally, making it eligible, among other things, to purchase advanced American military technology.
Pakistan has lost thousands of lives since joining the U.S. war on terror in the form of both soldiers and civilians and was going through a critical period, however many areas of Pakistan are becoming terror free. Suicide bombs were commonplace in Pakistan, whereas they were unheard of prior to 9 / 11. The Taliban have been resurgent in recent years in both Afghanistan and Pakistan. Hundreds of thousands of refugees have been created internally in Pakistan, as they have been forced to flee their homes as a result of fighting between Pakistani forces and the Taliban in the regions bordering Afghanistan and further in Swat.
A key campaign argument of US President Barack Obama was that the US had made the mistake of "putting all our eggs in one basket '' in the form of General Musharraf. Musharraf was eventually forced out of office under the threat of impeachment, after years of political protests by lawyers, civilians and other political parties in Pakistan. With Obama coming into office, the U.S. is expected to triple non-military aid to Pakistan to $1.5 billion per year over 10 years, and to tie military aid to progress in the fight against militants. The purpose of the aid is to help strengthen the relatively new democratic government led by President Zardari and to help strengthen civil institutions and the general economy in Pakistan and to put in place an aid program that is broader in scope than just supporting Pakistan 's military.
Pakistan is a major non-NATO ally as part of the War on Terrorism, and a leading recipient of U.S. aid. Between 2002 -- 2013, Pakistan received $25 billion in economic and military aid and sales of military equipment. The equipment included eighteen new F - 16 aircraft, eight P - 3C Orion maritime patrol aircraft, 6,000 TOW anti-tank missiles, 500 AMRAM air - to - air missiles, 6 C - 130 transport aircraft, 20 Cobra attack helicopters, and a Perry - class missile frigate. About half of the aid package was disbursed during the Bush administration and other half during the Obama administration. The aid during the Obama administration was more economic than military.
In 2008, NSA Director Mike McConnell confronted ISI Director Ahmad Shuja Pasha, claiming that the ISI was tipping off jihadists so that they could escape in advance of American attacks against them.
On 11 June 2008, the Gora Prai airstrike, on the Afghan - Pakistani border, killed 10 members of the paramilitary Frontier Corps. The Pakistani military condemned the airstrike as an act of aggression, souring the relations between the two countries. However, after the drone attacks in June, President Bush had said ' Pakistan is strong ally '. Western officials have claimed nearly 70 % (roughly $3.4 billion) of the aid given to the Pakistani military has been misspent in 2002 -- 2007. However U.S. - Pakistani relationship has been a transactional based and US military aid to Pakistan has been shrouded in secrecy for several years until recently. Furthermore, a significant proportion of US economic aid for Pakistan has ended up back in the US as funds are channeled through large US contractors. US Representative Gary Ackerman also said a large sum of US economic aid has not left the US as it spent on consulting fees and overhead cost.
In the November 2008 Mumbai Attacks, the United States informed Pakistan that it expected full cooperation in the hunt for the plotters of the attacks.
The United States and Pakistan have experienced several military confrontations on the Durand Line. These skirmishes took place between American forces deployed in Afghanistan, and Pakistani troops guarding the border. On November 26, 2011, 24 Pakistani soldiers were killed in an aerial attack on Pakistani positions near the border. The attack further damaged US - Pakistani relations with many in Pakistan calling for a more hardline stance against the United States.
Present US - Pakistan relations are a case study on the difficulties of diplomacy and policy - making in a multipolar world. Pakistan has important geopolitical significance for both India and China, making unilateral action almost impossible for the US. At the same time, Pakistan remains a key player in American efforts in Afghanistan. The two countries are trying to build a strategic partnership, but there remains a significant trust deficit, which continues to hinder successful cooperation in combating common threats.
Despite recent setbacks, both Pakistan and the United States continue to seek a productive relationship to defeat terrorist organizations. It has been alleged that the ISI pays journalists to write articles hostile to the United States.
On 14 September 2009, former President of Pakistan, Pervez Musharraf, admitted that American foreign aid to Pakistan had been diverted from its original purpose of fighting the Taliban to preparing for war against neighboring India. The United States government has responded by stating that it will take these allegations seriously. However Pervez Musharraf also said, ' "Wherever there is a threat to Pakistan, we will use it (the equipment) there. If the threat comes from al - Qaeda or Taliban, it will be used there. If the threat comes from India, we will most surely use it there. ''
In late 2009, Hillary Clinton made a speech in Pakistan about the war against the militants and said: "... we commend the Pakistani military for their courageous fight, and we commit to stand shoulder to shoulder with the Pakistani people in your fight for peace and security. ''
In October 2009, the US Congress approved $7.5 billion of non-military aid to Pakistan over the next five years via the Kerry - Lugar Bill. In February 2010, US President Barack Obama sought to increase funds to Pakistan to "promote economic and political stability in strategically important regions where the United States has special security interests ''. Obama also sought $3.1 billion aid for Pakistan to defeat Al Qaeda for 2010.
On December 1, 2009, President Barack Obama in a speech on a policy about Pakistan said "In the past, we too often defined our relationship with Pakistan narrowly. Those days are over... The Pakistani people must know America will remain a strong supporter of Pakistan 's security and prosperity long after the guns have fallen silent so that the great potential of its people can be unleashed. '' President Obama also said, "In the past, we too often defined our relationship with Pakistan narrowly, those days are over. Moving forward, we are committed to a partnership with Pakistan that is built on a foundation of mutual interests, mutual respect and mutual trust '' and that the two countries "share a common enemy ' in combating Islamic extremism. ''
In the aftermath of a thwarted bombing attempt on a 2009 Northwest Airlines flight, the U.S. Transportation Security Administration (TSA) issued a new set of screening guidelines that includes pat - downs for passengers from countries of interest, which includes Pakistan. In a sign of widening fissures between the two allies, on January 21, Pakistan declined a request by the United States to launch new offensives on militants in 2010. Pakistan say it "ca n't launch any new offensives against militants for six months to a year because it wants to ' stabilize ' previous gains made. However, the US praises Pakistan 's military effort against the militants. Furthermore Pakistan president, in meeting with the U.S. delegation, had said Pakistan "had suffered a... loss of over 35 billion dollars during the last eight years as a result of the fight against militancy. '' But the President also called for "greater Pak - U.S. cooperation ''.
In February 2010, Anne W. Patterson (U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan) said that the United States is committed to a partnership with Pakistan and further said "Making this commitment to Pakistan while the U.S. is still recovering from the effects of the global recession reflects the strength of our vision. Yet we have made this commitment, because we see the success of Pakistan, its economy, its civil society and its democratic institutions as important for ourselves, for this region and for the world. ''
Between 2002 -- 2010, Pakistan received approximately $18 billion in military and economic aid from the United States. In February 2010, the Obama administration requested an additional $3 billion in aid, for a total of $20.7 billion.
In mid-February 2010, after the capture of the second most powerful Taliban, Abdul Ghani Baradar in Pakistan by Pakistani forces, the White House hailed the operation. Furthermore, White House Press Secretary Robert Gibbs said that this is a "big success for our mutual efforts (Pakistan and United States) in the region '' and praised Pakistan for the capture, saying it was a sign of increased cooperation with the US in the terror fight.
In March, Richard Holbrooke, then US special envoy to Pakistan, said that US - Pakistani relations have seen "significant improvement '' under Obama. He also said, "No government on earth has received more high - level attention '' than Pakistan.
2011 was rated by the BBC as a "disastrous year '' for Pakistan - U.S. relations, primarily due to three events: the Raymond Allen Davis incident, the death of Osama bin Laden and the Salala incident. As early as 2005, Western criticism against Pakistan grew and many European and American political correspondents criticized Pakistan at the public level. The London - based The Economist in fact observed: "As an American ally, Pakistan has become an embarrassment for the United States. '' In January 2011, the Raymond Allen Davis incident occurred in which Raymond Davis, an alleged private security contractor, shot dead two Pakistani locals after they attempted to rob him. The action sparked protests in Pakistan and threatened relations between the United States and Pakistan, including aid flows. Pakistan prosecuted him despite US demands for him to be freed because he enjoys diplomatic immunity. Ultimately he was freed after the United States made payments to the families of the slain Pakistanis, but the incident was emblematic of the volatile nature of American - Pakistani relations. In spite of this rocky relationship, the United States remains committed to assisting Pakistan 's new democratic government in the areas of development, stability, and security.
The CIA had long suspected Osama Bin Laden of hiding in Pakistan. India and US have also accused Pakistan of giving safe - haven to the Taliban. However, Pakistan has repeatedly denied these accusations.
The attack on the US embassy and the NATO headquarters in Kabul were blamed on the Haqqani Network, which US Admiral Mike Mullen called "a veritable arm of Pakistan 's Inter-Services Intelligence Agency. '' Pakistan reacted by recalling its finance minister who was on a visit to the U.N. Pakistan also tried to strengthen the relationship with China and Saudi Arabia to counter the U.S. The Chinese government advised Pakistan against any commitments that could jeopardize China 's relationships with US and India. The United States reissued a call urging Pakistan to act against the Haqqani Network or else the US would be forced to take on the threat unilaterally. Islamic groups in Pakistan, issued a fatwa proclaiming Jihad against the US. This was followed by Pakistan threatening the US with retaliation, if the US went ahead with unilateral action against the Haqqani network.
In May 2011, Pakistani journalist Saleem Shahzad was killed and in September, The New Yorker reported that the order to kill Shahzad came from an officer on General Kayani 's staff. In July Admiral Mullen alleged that Shahzad 's killing had been "sanctioned by the government '' of Pakistan, but the ISI denied any involvement in the Shahzad murder.
Osama bin Laden, then head of the militant group al - Qaeda, was killed in Pakistan on May 2, 2011, shortly after 1 a.m. local time by a United States special forces military unit. The operation, codenamed Operation Neptune Spear, was ordered by United States President Barack Obama and carried out in a US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) operation by a team of United States Navy SEALs from the United States Naval Special Warfare Development Group (also known as DEVGRU or informally by its former name, SEAL Team Six) of the Joint Special Operations Command, with support from CIA operatives on the ground.
According to Obama administration officials, US officials did not share information about the raid with the government of Pakistan until it was over. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Michael Mullen called Pakistan 's army chief Ashfaq Parvez Kayani at about 3 a.m. local time to inform him of the Abbottabad Operation.
According to the Pakistani foreign ministry, the operation was conducted entirely by US forces. Pakistan Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) officials said they were also present at what they called a joint operation; President Asif Ali Zardari flatly denied this. Pakistan 's foreign secretary Salman Bashir later confirmed that Pakistani military had scrambled F - 16s after they became aware of the attack but that they reached the compound after American helicopters had left.
Since some in the U.S. government claimed that they had caught bin Laden without Pakistani help, numerous allegations were made that the government of Pakistan had shielded bin Laden. Critics cited the very close proximity of bin Laden 's heavily fortified compound to the Pakistan Military Academy, that the US chose not to notify Pakistani authorities before the operation and the double standards of Pakistan regarding the perpetrators of the 2008 Mumbai attacks. US government files, leaked by WikiLeaks, disclosed that American diplomats had been told that Pakistani security services were tipping off bin Laden every time US forces approached. Pakistan 's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), also helped smuggle al - Qaeda militants into Afghanistan to fight NATO troops.
According to the leaked files, in December 2009, the government of Tajikistan had also told US officials that many in Pakistan were aware of bin Laden 's whereabouts.
CIA chief Leon Panetta said the CIA had ruled out involving Pakistan in the operation, because it feared that "any effort to work with the Pakistanis could jeopardize the mission. They might alert the targets. '' However, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton stated that "cooperation with Pakistan helped lead us to bin Laden and the compound in which he was hiding. '' Obama echoed her sentiments. John O. Brennan, Obama 's chief counterterrorism advisor, said that it was inconceivable that bin Laden did not have support from within Pakistan. He further stated, "People have been referring to this as hiding in plain sight. We are looking at how he was able to hide out there for so long. ''
In 2012, Shakil Afridi, a doctor who had set up a fake vaccination campaign -- in cooperation with the United States in searching for Al Qaeda and bin Laden -- was convicted of treason by Pakistan, and sentenced to 33 years in prison. The United States Congress voted to cut 33 million dollars in aid to Pakistan: 1 million dollars for every year that Shakil Afridi was sentenced to prison.
Following years of poor inter-governmental relations, the two countries began to cooperate more closely -- particularly following the United States ' use of drone missiles to strike at Pakistan 's most - wanted militant Mullah Fazlullah on November 24, 2014, whom they "narrowly missed ''. The United States later used drone missiles to kill several of Pakistan 's most wanted militants who were hiding in a remote region close to the Afghan border in November 2014. The Pakistani Zarb - e-Azb operation against militant in North Waziristan also, in the words of Lt. Gen. Joseph Anderson, "fractured '' the Haqqani Network -- long accused by the United States of having a safe harbor in Pakistan. The United States then captured and transferred a senior Taliban commander, Latif Mehsud, to Pakistan, which had been seeking his arrest. Following an unprecedented two - week - long visit by Pakistan 's most senior military official Gen. Raheel Sharif, Rep. Adam Schiff stated that US - Pakistani relations were on the upswing following several tense years of dysfunction. Pakistan further killed senior Al - Qaeda leader Adnan el Shukrijumah -- long wanted by the United States. Warming of relations, and increased security cooperation, between Afghanistan and Pakistan were also positive developments by the United States, which had long tried to mend relations between the two countries.
On 7 May 2015, according to an internal report prepared by Congressional Research Service, Pakistan has made full payment from its national funds towards the purchase of 18 new F - 16C / D Fighting Falcon Block 52 combat aircraft worth USD 1.43 billion. Also including F - 16 armaments including 500 AMRAAM air - to - air missiles; 1,450 2,000 - pound bombs; 500 JDAM Tail Kits for gravity bombs; and 1,600 Enhanced Paveway laser - guided kits. All this has cost Pakistan USD 629 million. Pakistan has also paid USD 298 million for 100 harpoon anti-ship missiles, 500 sidewinder air - to - air missiles (USD95 million); and seven Phalanx Close - In Weapons System naval guns (USD80 million). Under Coalition Support Funds (in the Pentagon budget), Pakistan received 26 Bell 412EP utility helicopters, along with related parts and maintenance, valued at USD235 million.
On February 11, 2016, US government has proposed US $860 million in aid for Pakistan during the 2016 -- 17 fiscal year, including $265 million for military hardware in addition to counterinsurgency funds.
On August 21, 2017, Donald Trump announced his new strategy for Afghan War and accused Pakistan of providing safe heavens to terrorists. "The Pakistani people have suffered greatly from terrorism and extremism. We recognize those contributions and those sacrifices, but Pakistan has also sheltered the same organizations that try every single day to kill our people '', Trump said. Moreover, Trump also urged India for its role in the war which was seen, by many in Pakistan, as an anti-Pak strategy. Trump 's speech led to rise of Anti-American sentiments in Pakistan and protest against Trump were held across the country. Two months later, Trump tweeted that he was starting to develop better relations with the Pakistani government.
On January 1, 2018, Donald Trump again criticized Pakistan, saying "they have given us nothing but lies & deceit ''.
After the suicide bombing in Quetta, the United States Government condemned the attacks.
70,000 civilians and more than 10,000 troops and policemen in Pakistan have died fighting the American war on terror, for which the United States has promised to fulfill all the expenditures of the war. However, according to Pakistani officials the US has not compensated as much as half of that money, but has only claimed so in the media. Pakistan is a major non-NATO ally as part of the War on Terrorism and provides key intelligence and logistical support for the United States. A leading recipient of US military assistance, Pakistan expects to receive approximately $20 billion since 2001 a combination of reimbursement to Pakistan and training programs for the Pakistan counter-terrorism units. However, in the aftermath of the Osama Bin Laden raid, Pakistan Army canceled a $500 million training program and sent all 135 trainers home. The United States showed displeasure at this act and withheld a further $300 million in assistance.
Some politicians in Pakistan argue the war on terror has cost the Pakistani economy $70 billion and U.S. aid costs the country more in the long term, leading to accusations that the US is making Pakistan a client state.
On 31 May 2012, Senator Rand Paul (R - Kentucky) called for the United States to suspend all aid to Pakistan and grant citizenship to a doctor who was jailed for helping hunt down Osama bin Laden.
Former United States Ambassador to the United Nations Zalmay Khalilzad demanded a "complete isolation policy '' for Pakistan. He said that if Pakistan does not stop backing radicalism and extremism, the United States should suspend all aid to it and treat it as a second North Korea.
On 05 Jan 2018, US suspended about $2 billion in security aid to Pakistan for failing to clamp down on the Afghan Taliban and the Haqqani Network terror groups and dismantle their safe havens, a White House official said.
The freezing of all security assistance to Pakistan comes after President Donald Trump in a New Year 's Day tweet accused the country of giving nothing to the US but "lies and deceit '' and providing "safe haven '' to terrorists in return for $33 billion aid over the last...
According to the Washington Post, American culture has heavily penetrated Pakistan. In the past decade, the introduction of US cinema, US fashion and US Cuisine have proliferated Pakistan. In particular, the introduction of American apple pies, US - style diners similar to the Sonic Drive - In on Pakistani motorways, Hot dog stands on the streets of major cities, Fast food restaurants serving Chicago - style pizza as well as New York - style pizza with the option of US style home deliveries.
The proliferation of American culture in Pakistan stands in stark contrast to the growing resentment most Pakistanis feel toward the United States government. As a result, US companies have heavily invested in Pakistan. Hardee 's have opened restaurants in the country and its first American - style sports bar. McDonald 's has heavily invested in the country and has been credited with introducing the concept of home deliveries. Those businesses join existing burger joints and other American fast - food restaurants such as Pizza Hut, KFC, Fatburger and Domino 's Pizza. Taco Bell and Burger King are also said to be looking at opening branches in Pakistan. Al Jazeera 's feature on 15 Jan 2016 highlighted the ' burger generation ' in Pakistan, which are highly influenced by ' American culture '.
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what pop groups music was used in the movie saturday night fever | Saturday Night Fever (soundtrack) - Wikipedia
Saturday Night Fever is the soundtrack album from the 1977 film Saturday Night Fever starring John Travolta. It remains the best selling soundtrack of all time with over 45 million units sold. In the United States, the album was certified 16 × Platinum for shipments of at least 16 million units. The album stayed atop the album charts for 24 straight weeks from January to July 1978 and stayed on Billboard 's album charts for 120 weeks until March 1980. In the UK, the album spent 18 consecutive weeks at No. 1. The album epitomized the disco phenomenon on both sides of the Atlantic and was an international sensation. The album has been added to the National Recording Registry in the Library of Congress for being culturally significant.
According to the DVD commentary for Saturday Night Fever, the producers intended to use the song "Lowdown '' by Boz Scaggs in the rehearsal scene between Tony and Annette in the dance studio, and choreographed their dance moves to the song. However, representatives for Scaggs 's label, Columbia Records, refused to grant legal clearance for it, as they wanted to pursue another disco movie project, which never materialized. Composer David Shire, who scored the film, had to in turn write a song to match the dance steps demonstrated in the scene and eliminate the need for future legal hassles. However, this track does not appear on the movie 's soundtrack.
The Bee Gees 's involvement in the film did not begin until post-production. As John Travolta asserted, "The Bee Gees were n't even involved in the movie in the beginning... I was dancing to Stevie Wonder and Boz Scaggs. ''
Producer Robert Stigwood commissioned the Bee Gees to create the songs for the film.
Robin Gibb recalled:
We were recording our new album in the north of France. And we 'd written about and recorded about four or five songs for the new album when Stigwood rang from LA and said, ' We 're putting together this little film, low budget, called Tribal Rites of a Saturday Night. Would you have any songs on hand? ', and we said, ' Look, we ca n't, we have n't any time to sit down and write for a film '. We did n't know what it was about.
The brothers wrote the songs "virtually in a single weekend '' at Château d'Hérouville studio in France. The first song they recorded was "If I Ca n't Have You '', but their version was not used on the film.
Barry Gibb remembered the reaction when Stigwood and music supervisor Bill Oakes arrived and listened to the demos:
They flipped out and said these will be great. We still had no concept of the movie, except some kind of rough script that they 'd brought with them...
Maurice Gibb recalled, "We played him demo tracks of ' If I Ca n't Have You ', ' Night Fever ' and ' More Than a Woman '. He asked if we could write it more discoey. ''
The Brothers Gibb then wrote a song called "Saturday Night '' but as Maurice explains, "There were so many songs called ' Saturday Night ' even one by the Bay City Rollers, so when we rewrote it for the movie, we called it ' Stayin ' Alive '. Recording "Stayin ' Alive '' was not simple. Engineer Karl Richardson copied a choice few seconds of drumming from "Night Fever '', cut out the piece of tape and glued the ends together, then fed it back into a recorder by a makeshift arrangement to create a new drum track. Drummer Dennis Bryon did not attend the recording of "Stayin ' Alive ''.
The original issue of the album included the original studio version of "Jive Talkin ' ''; later LP pressings included a version culled from Here at Last... Bee Gees... Live. All CD releases have included the original "Jive Talkin ' ''. "Jive Talkin ' '' was to have been used in a deleted scene taking place the day after Tony Manero 's first Saturday night at the disco, but as the sequence was cut for the final film, the song was cut as well. In addition to the Bee Gees songs, additional incidental music was composed and adapted by David Shire. Three of Shire 's cues -- "Manhattan Skyline '', "Night on Disco Mountain '' (based on the classical piece "Night on Bald Mountain '') and "Salsation '' -- are included on the soundtrack album as well. Five additional cues -- "Tony and Stephanie '', "Near the Verrazano Bridge '' (both adapted from the Bee Gees ' song "How Deep Is Your Love ''), "Barracuda Hangout '', "Death on the Bridge '' and "All Night Train '' -- while heard in the film, remain unreleased on CD. In 1994, the soundtrack was re-released on CD through Polydor Records. In 2006, the album was re-released on Reprise Records as part of the Bee Gees ' regaining control of their master tapes.
To commemorate the movie 's 40th anniversary, Capitol Records released a newly remastered version on April 21, 2017 with the original artwork and gatefold packaging.
On 17 November 2017, a deluxe box set was released with the original soundtrack, 4 new mixes of "Stayin ' Alive '', "Night Fever '', "How Deep Is Your Love '' and "You Should Be Dancing '', a collector 's book, art prints, a movie poster and a turntable mat.
Along with the success of the movie, the soundtrack, composed and performed primarily by the Bee Gees, is the best - selling soundtrack album of all time. Saturday Night Fever had a large cultural impact in the United States. The Bee Gees had originally written and recorded five of the songs used in the film -- "Stayin ' Alive '', "Night Fever '', "How Deep Is Your Love '', "More Than a Woman '' (performed in the film in two different versions -- one version by Tavares, and another by the Bee Gees) and "If I Ca n't Have You '' (performed in the movie by Yvonne Elliman) as part of a regular album. They had no idea at the time they would be making a soundtrack and said that they basically lost an album in the process. Two previously released Bee Gees songs -- "Jive Talkin ' '' and "You Should Be Dancing '' -- are also included on the soundtrack. Other previously released songs from the disco era round out the music in the movie.
The soundtrack also won a Grammy Award for Album of the Year. It is the only disco album to do so, and one of only three soundtrack albums so honored. In 2012, the album was ranked No. 132 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time ''. The soundtrack hit the No. 1 spot on the Billboard chart 's Pop Album and Soul Album charts. In 2003 the TV network VH1 named it the 57th greatest album of all time, and it was ranked 80th in a 2005 survey held by British television 's Channel 4 to determine the 100 greatest albums of all time. Pitchfork Media listed Saturday Night Fever as the 34th best album of the 1970s.
The album was added to the National Recording Registry in the Library of Congress on March 21, 2013 for long - term preservation.
Notes
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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how many species of aloe vera are there | List of Aloe species - wikipedia
This is a list of the species of the genus Aloe. As of November 2016, the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families accepts about 580 species and hybrids.
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how much is a mexican 2 dollar coin worth in the us | Mexican peso - wikipedia
The Mexican peso (sign: $; code: MXN) is the currency of Mexico. Modern peso and dollar currencies have a common origin in the 15th -- 19th century - Spanish dollar, most continuing to use its sign, "$ ''. The Mexican peso is the 8th most traded currency in the world, the third most traded currency originating from the Americas (after the United States dollar and Canadian dollar), and the most traded currency originating from Latin America.
The current ISO 4217 code for the peso is MXN; prior to the 1993 revaluation (see below), the code MXP was used. The peso is subdivided into 100 centavos, represented by "¢ ''. As of 1 March 2018, the peso 's exchange rate was $23.10 per euro and $18.84 per U.S. dollar.
The name was first used in reference to pesos oro (gold weights) or pesos plata (silver weights). The Spanish word peso means "weight ''. Compare the British pound sterling.
The peso was the name of the eight - real coins issued in Mexico by Spain. These were the so - called Spanish dollars or pieces of eight in wide circulation in the Americas and Asia from the height of the Spanish Empire until the early 19th century (the United States accepted the Spanish dollar as legal tender until the Coinage Act of 1857).
In 1863, the first issue was made of coins denominated in centavos, worth one hundredth of the peso. This was followed in 1866 by coins denominated "one peso ''. Coins denominated in reales continued to be issued until 1897. In 1905, the gold content of the peso was reduced by 49.3 % but the silver content of the peso remained unchanged (subsidiary coins were debased). However, from 1918 onward, the weight and fineness of all the silver coins declined, until 1977, when the last silver 100 - peso coins were minted.
Throughout most of the 20th century, the Mexican peso remained one of the more stable currencies in Latin America, since the economy did not experience periods of hyperinflation common to other countries in the region. However, after the oil crisis of the late 1970s, Mexico defaulted on its external debt in 1982, and as a result the country suffered a severe case of capital flight, followed by several years of inflation and devaluation, until a government economic strategy called the "Stability and Economic Growth Pact '' (Pacto de estabilidad y crecimiento económico, PECE) was adopted under President Carlos Salinas. On January 1, 1993 the Bank of Mexico introduced a new currency, the nuevo peso ("new peso '', or MXN), written "N $ '' followed by the numerical amount. One new peso, or N $1.00, was equal to 1000 of the obsolete MXP pesos.
On January 1, 1996, the modifier nuevo was dropped from the name and new coins and banknotes -- identical in every respect to the 1993 issue, with the exception of the now absent word "nuevo '' -- were put into circulation. The ISO 4217 code, however, remained unchanged as MXN.
Thanks to the stability of the Mexican economy and the growth in foreign investment, the Mexican peso is now among the 15 most traded currency units.
The first coins of the peso currency were 1 centavo pieces minted in 1863. Emperor Maximilian, ruler of the Second Mexican Empire from 1864 -- 1867, minted the first coins with the legend "peso '' on them. His portrait was on the obverse, with the legend "Maximiliano Emperador; '' the reverse shows the imperial arms and the legends "Imperio Mexicano '' and "1 Peso '' and the date. They were struck from 1866 to 1867.
The New Mexican republic continued to strike the 8 reales piece, but also began minting coins denominated in centavos and pesos. In addition to copper 1 centavo coins, silver (. 903 fineness) coins of 5, 10, 25 and 50 centavos and 1 peso were introduced between 1867 and 1869. Gold 1, 21⁄2, 5, 10 and 20 - peso coins were introduced in 1870. The obverses featured the Mexican ' eagle ' and the legend "Republica Mexicana. '' The reverses of the larger coins showed a pair of scales; those of the smaller coins, the denomination. One - peso coins were made from 1865 to 1873, when 8 reales coins resumed production. In 1882, cupro - nickel 1, 2 and 5 centavos coins were issued but they were only minted for two years. The 1 peso was reintroduced in 1898, with the Phrygian cap, or liberty cap design being carried over from the 8 reales.
In 1905 a monetary reform was carried out in which the gold content of the peso was reduced by 49.36 % and the silver coins were (with the exception of the 1 - peso) reduced to token issues. Bronze 1 - and 2 - centavos, nickel 5 - centavos, silver 10 -, 20 -, and 50 - centavos and gold 5 - and 10 - pesos were issued.
In 1910, a new peso coin was issued, the famous Caballito, considered one of the most beautiful of Mexican coins. The obverse had the Mexican official coat of arms (an eagle with a snake in its beak, standing on a cactus plant) and the legends "Estados Unidos Mexicanos '' and "Un Peso. '' The reverse showed a woman riding a horse, her hand lifted high in exhortation holding a torch, and the date. These were minted in. 903 silver from 1910 to 1914.
Between 1917 and 1919, the gold coinage was expanded to include 2 -, 21⁄2 -, and 20 - peso coins. However, circulation issues of gold ceased in 1921. In 1918, the peso coin was debased, bringing it into line with new silver 10 -, 20 -, and 50 - centavo coins. All were minted in. 800 fineness to a standard of 14.5 g to the peso. The liberty cap design, already on the other silver coins, was applied to the peso. Another debasement in 1920 reduced the fineness to. 720 with 12 g of silver to the peso. Bronze 10 - and 20 - centavo coins were introduced in 1919 and 1920, but coins of those denominations were also minted in silver until 1935 and 1943, respectively.
In 1947, a new issue of silver coins was struck, with the 50 - centavo and 1 - peso in. 500 fineness and a new 5 - peso coin in. 900 fineness. A portrait of José María Morelos appeared on the 1 peso and this was to remain a feature of the 1 - peso coin until its demise. The silver content of this series was 5.4 g to the peso. This was reduced to 4 g in 1950, when. 300 fineness 25 - and 50 - centavo, and 1 - peso coins were minted alongside. 720 fineness 5 pesos. A new portrait of Morelos appeared on the 1 peso, with Cuauhtemoc on the 50 - centavo and Miguel Hidalgo on the 5 - peso coins. No reference was made to the silver content except on the 5 - peso coin. During this period 5 peso, and to a lesser extent, 10 - peso coins were also used as vehicles for occasional commemorative strikings.
In 1955, bronze 50 - centavos were introduced, along with smaller 5 - peso coins and a new 10 - peso coin. In 1957, new 1 - peso coins were issued in. 100 silver. This series contained 1.6 g of silver per peso. A special 1 - peso was minted in 1957 to commemorate Benito Juárez and the constitution of 1857. These were the last silver pesos. The 5 - peso coin now weighed 18 grams and was still 0.720 silver; the 10 - peso coin weighed 28 grams and was in 0.900 silver.
Between 1960 and 1971, new coinage was introduced, consisting of brass 1 - and 5 - centavos, cupro - nickel 10 -, 25 -, and 50 - centavos, 1 -, 5 -, and 10 - pesos, and silver 25 - pesos (only issued 1972). In 1977, silver 100 - pesos were issued for circulation. In 1980, smaller 5 - peso coins were introduced alongside 20 - pesos and (from 1982) 50 - pesos in cupro - nickel. Between 1978 and 1982, the sizes of the coins for 20 centavos and above were reduced. Base metal 100 -, 200 -, 500 -, 1000 -, and 5000 - peso coins were introduced between 1984 and 1988.
As noted above, the nuevo peso (new peso) was the result of hyperinflation in Mexico. In 1993, President Carlos Salinas de Gortari stripped three zeros from the peso, creating a parity of $1 New Peso for $1000 of the old ones.
The transition was done both by having the people trade in their old notes, and by removing the old notes from circulation at the banks, over a period of three years from January 1, 1993 to January 1, 1996. At that time, the word "nuevo '' was removed from all new currency being printed and the "nuevo '' notes were retired from circulation, thus returning the currency and the notes to be denominated just "peso '' again.
Confusion was avoided by making the nuevo peso currency almost identical to the old "peso ''. Both of them circulated at the same time, while all currency that only said "peso '' was removed from circulation. The Bank of Mexico then issued new currency with new graphics, also under the "nuevo peso ''. These were followed in due course by the current, almost identical, "peso '' currency without the word nuevo.
In 1993, coins of the new currency (dated 1992) were issued in denominations of 5, 10, 20 and 50 centavos, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 nuevos pesos. The 5 and 10 centavos were minted in stainless steel and the 20 and 50 centavos in aluminium bronze. The nuevo peso denominations were bimetallic, with the 1, 2 and 5 nuevos pesos having aluminium bronze centers and stainless steel rings, and the 10, 20 and 50 nuevos pesos having. 925 silver centers and aluminium bronze rings.
In 1996, the word Nuevo was removed from the coins. New 10 pesos were introduced with base metal replacing the silver center. The 20, 50, and 100 - peso coins are the only currently circulating coinage in the world to contain any silver.
In 2003, the Banco de Mexico began the gradual launch of a new series of bimetallic $100 coins. These number 32 -- one for each of the nation 's 31 states, plus the Federal District. While the obverse of these coins bears the traditional coat of arms of Mexico, their reverses show the individual coats of arms of the component states. The first states to be celebrated in this fashion were Zacatecas, Yucatán, Veracruz, and Tlaxcala. In circulation they are extraordinarily rare, but their novelty value offsets the unease most users feel at having such a large amount of money in a single coin. Although the Bank has tried to encourage users to collect full sets of these coins, issuing special display folders for the purpose, the high cost involved has worked against them. Bullion versions of these coins are also available, with the outer ring made of gold, instead of aluminium bronze.
The coins commonly encountered in circulation have face values of 50 ¢, $1, $2, $5, and $10. The 5 ¢, 10 ¢ and 20 ¢ coins are uncommon due to their small value. Small commodities are priced in multiples of 10 ¢, but stores may choose to round the total prices to 50 ¢. There is also a trend for supermarkets to ask customers to round up the total to the nearest 50 ¢ or 1 peso to automatically donate the difference to charities. The $20, $50 and $100 coins are rarely seen in circulation due to the wide use of the lighter banknotes of the same denominations as well as their metal value.
The first banknotes issued by the Mexican state were produced in 1823 by Emperor Agustin de Iturbide in denominations of 1, 2 and 10 pesos. Similar issues were made by the republican government later that same year. Ten - pesos notes were also issued by Emperor Maximilian in 1866 but, until the 1920s, banknote production lay entirely in the hands of private banks and local authorities.
In 1920, the Monetary Commission (Comisión Monetaria) issued 50 - centavos and 1 - peso notes whilst the Bank of Mexico (Banco de México) issued 2 - pesos notes. From 1925, the Bank issued notes for 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 pesos, with 500 and 1000 pesos following in 1931. From 1935, the Bank also issued 1 - peso notes and, from 1943, 10,000 pesos.
Production of 1 - peso notes ceased in 1970, followed by 5 pesos in 1972, 10 and 20 pesos in 1977, 50 pesos in 1984, 100 pesos in 1985, 500 pesos in 1987 and 1,000 pesos in 1988. 5,000 - pesos notes were introduced in 1981, followed by 2,000 pesos in 1983, 20,000 pesos in 1985, 50,000 pesos in 1986 and 100,000 pesos in 1988.
In 1993, notes were introduced in the new currency for 10, 20, 50, and 100 nuevos pesos. These notes are designated series B by the Bank of Mexico (Banco de México). (It is important to note that this series designation is not the 1 or 2 letter series label printed on the banknotes themselves.) All were printed with the date July 31, 1992. The designs were carried over from the corresponding notes of the old peso.
All Series C notes had brand new designs and were printed with the date December 10, 1993, but they were not issued until October 1994. The word "nuevos '' remained and banknotes in denominations of 500 nuevos pesos was added. The 500 nuevos pesos note was worth more than US $ 100 when it was introduced, but its value dropped to almost equal to $100 by the end of 1994.
The next series of banknotes, designated series D, was introduced in 1996. It is a modified version of series C with the word "nuevos '' dropped, the bank title changed from "El Banco de México '' to "Banco de México '' and the clause "pagará a la vista al portador '' (Pay at sight to the bearer) removed. There are several printed dates for each denomination. In 2000, a commemorative series was issued which was like series D except for the additional text "75 aniversario 1925 - 2000 '' under the bank title. It refers to the 75th anniversary of the Bank. While series D includes the $10 note and is still legal tender, they are no longer printed, are seldom seen, and the coin is more common. $10 notes are rarely found in circulation.
Starting from 2001, each denomination in the series was upgraded gradually. On October 15, 2001, in an effort to combat counterfeiting, Series D notes of 50 pesos and above were further modified with the addition of an iridescent strip. On notes of 100 pesos and above, the denomination is printed in color - shifting ink in the top right corner.
On September 30, 2002, a new $20 note was introduced. The new $20 is printed on longer - lasting polymer plastic rather than paper. A new $1000 note was issued on November 15, 2004, which was worth about US $88 upon introduction. The Bank of Mexico refers to the $20, $50, and $1000 notes during this wave of change as "series D1 ''.
On April 5, 2004, the Chamber of Deputies approved an initiative to demand that the Bank of Mexico produce by January 1, 2006 notes and coins that are identifiable by the blind population (estimated at more than 750,000 visually impaired citizens, including 250,000 that are completely blind).
On December 19, 2005, $100, $200, and $500 MXN banknotes include raised, tactile patterns (like Braille), meant to make them distinguishable for people with vision incapacities. This system has been questioned and many demand that it be replaced by actual Braille so it can be used by foreigners not used to these symbols. The Banco de México, however, says they will continue issuing the symbol bills.
The raised, tactile patterns are as follows:
In September 2006, it was announced that a new family of banknotes would be launched gradually. The 50 - peso denomination in polymer was launched in November 2006. The 20 - peso note was launched in August 2007. The 1,000 - peso note was launched in March 2008.
The $200 was issued in 2008, and the $100 and $500 notes were released in August 2010. This family is the F Series. A revised $50 note, with improved security features was released on May 6, 2013. This note is part of the F Series family of banknotes issued by the Banco de Mexico (as Type F1).
On September 29, 2009, The Bank of Mexico unveiled a set of commemorative banknotes. The 100 - peso denomination note commemorates the centennial of the Beginning of the Mexican Revolution (1910 -- 1920). The 200 - peso denomination note commemorates the bicentennial of the start of the Mexican War for Independence which began in 1810. There was a printing error in the $100 - peso notes, in the small letters (almost unnoticeable, as they are very small and the same color as the waving lines), near the top right corner, just above the transparent corn, from the side of the "La Revolución contra la dictadura Porfiriana '', it is written: "Sufragio electivo y no reelección '' (Elective suffrage and no reelection), this supposed to be a quote to Francisco I. Madero 's famous phrase, but he said "Sufragio efectivo no reelección '' (Valid Suffrage, No Reelection). President Felipe Calderón made a newspaper announcement in which he apologized for this, and said that the notes were going to continue in circulation, and that they would retain their value.
Likewise, a 100 - peso banknote that commemorates the 100th anniversary of the enactment of the Constitution of Mexico was unveiled on 2017.
The 18th and 19th century Spanish dollar and Mexican peso were widely used in the early United States. On July 6, 1785, the value of the United States dollar was set by decree to approximately match the Spanish dollar. Both were based on the silver content of the coins. The first U.S. dollar coins were not issued until April 2, 1792, and the peso continued to be officially recognized and used in the United States, along with other foreign coins, until February 21, 1857. In Canada, it remained legal tender, along with other foreign silver coins, until 1854 and continued to circulate beyond that date. The Mexican peso also served as the model for the Straits dollar (now the Singapore / Brunei Dollar), the Hong Kong dollar, the Japanese yen and the Chinese yuan. The term Chinese yuan refers to the round Spanish dollars, Mexican pesos and other 8 reales silver coins which saw use in China during the 19th and 20th century. The Mexican peso was also briefly legal tender in 19th century Siam, when government mints were unable to accommodate a sudden influx of foreign traders, and was exchanged at a rate of three pesos to one Thai baht.
Some establishments in border areas of the United States accept Mexican pesos as currency, such as certain border Walmart stores, certain border gas stations such as Circle K, and the La Bodega supermarkets in San Ysidro on the Tijuana border. In 2007, Pizza Patrón, a chain of pizza restaurants in the southwestern part of the U.S., started to accept the currency, sparking controversy in the United States. Other than in U.S., Guatemalan, and Belizean border towns, Mexican pesos are generally not accepted as currency outside of Mexico.
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where was season 6 of american horror story filmed | American Horror Story: Roanoke - wikipedia
American Horror Story: Roanoke is the sixth season of the FX horror anthology television series American Horror Story. It premiered on September 14, 2016, marking the first time the series has debuted outside of October, and concluded on November 16, 2016.
Returning cast members from previous seasons include: Lily Rabe, Sarah Paulson, Angela Bassett, Adina Porter, Kathy Bates, Denis O'Hare, Wes Bentley, Cheyenne Jackson, Lady Gaga, Evan Peters, Frances Conroy, Leslie Jordan, Finn Wittrock, Robin Weigert, and Taissa Farmiga, along with new cast members Cuba Gooding Jr. and André Holland. Paulson also reprised her role as the Asylum character, Lana Winters, for the season finale.
Prior to the premiere, series co-creator Ryan Murphy stated this season of the series would be "more rogue '' and "dark '' in contrast to its previous cycle, Hotel. Details about its plot and cast were kept secret until the first episode aired, an unusual approach to publicity for the series. As such, it became the first iteration of the series to not release a subtitle prior to the season premiere since its debut. Several potential themes were theorized based on various promotional material produced by FX. After the release of pictures taken from the set in Santa Clarita, it was widely speculated that the season would incorporate the infamous 1580s Roanoke Colony disappearance. The premiere episode revealed the season to be depicted as a paranormal documentary entitled My Roanoke Nightmare which reenacts the experiences of a married couple who relocate to North Carolina. Roanoke has received positive reviews, with critics noting its subdued aesthetic and pacing in comparison to earlier seasons of the series.
Presented as a paranormal documentary series titled My Roanoke Nightmare in the first half of the season, the story follows a married couple whose experiences are reenacted by actors. Shelby (Lily Rabe) and Matt Miller (André Holland) move from Los Angeles, California, to a house in Dare County North Carolina following a brutal assault which left Matt temporarily hospitalized and caused Shelby to have a miscarriage. As soon as the couple settles into their new home, located on a farmstead in rural North Carolina where the Roanoke Colony settled before their infamous disappearance, strange and paranormal occurrences begin to haunt them and Matt 's sister, Lee Harris (Adina Porter). In the five - episode documentary, Shelby is portrayed by the extravagant English actress Audrey Tindall (Sarah Paulson), Matt by the conceited Dominic Banks (Cuba Gooding Jr.) and Lee by the alcoholic Monet Tumusiime (Angela Bassett).
The leader of Roanoke 's colonists, Thomasin White, known as The Butcher, is portrayed by the unstable actress Agnes Mary Winstead (Kathy Bates), while her son, Ambrose, is portrayed by Dylan (Wes Bentley). The builder and first owner of the house, Edward Philippe Mott, is played by Rory Monahan (Evan Peters) and the previous owner, before the arrival of the Millers, by William van Henderson (Denis O'Hare).
The second half of the season is presented as found footage and depicts the production and aftermath of the follow - up series entitled Return to Roanoke: Three Days in Hell. Designed by My Roanoke Nightmare 's producer Sidney Aaron James (Cheyenne Jackson), Return to Roanoke places the reenactors and their real life counterparts in the Roanoke house for three days during the Blood Moon, putting the lives of the cast and crew in danger as they face the true horrors within the Roanoke house.
^ 1 These actors portray their characters solely in the My Roanoke Nightmare re-enactment.
On November 10, 2015, the network renewed the series for a sixth cycle; which premiered on September 14, 2016. In August 2015, co-creator Ryan Murphy commented on the sixth year, stating, "The next thing we 're crafting up is very very different than (Hotel), not smaller. But just not opulent. More rogue and more dark. '' In October 2015, when questioned about clues and hints alluding to the sixth season (as has been the status quo since the first season of the series) in Hotel, Murphy revealed he had yet to definitively decide on a theme, "This is an interesting year in that the idea that we 're dealing with I 've mentioned in several seasons. It 's been there before. We 've actually talked about it a lot on the show. I might do that for season 7 but I 'm leaning towards that for season 6. '' In January 2016, FX president John Landgraf revealed that the season will be "principally set in the present '', with a dual timeline in "echoes of the past ''. He also confirmed a fall 2016 premiere. At the 2016 PaleyFest, Murphy divulged that the two previous ideas (the writers) had been considering had been merged into season six, saying it will involve children and operatic themes. The season will consist of 10 episodes, the least in a given cycle, in the show 's history; with the finale scheduled to air November 16, 2016. On September 1, 2016, it was reported by Entertainment Weekly that the season was possibly subtitled The Mist, as a Rotten Tomatoes page and TV Guide magazine had printed; which was later proven untrue. There is a direct connection to Freak Show with an exploration of the Mott family origin.
In a late September issue of Entertainment Weekly, Falchuk and Murphy revealed there would be a major twist coming to the series in "Chapter 6 ''. Murphy said of the matter, "You 'll see starting in episode 6, the show has a huge turn and the thing that you think you 're watching is not what you 're watching, It 's a hat on a hat on a hat on a hat that we 've had to protect. '' Falchuk added, "No matter what you think it is, it 's not that. Then, episode 6 comes and you 're like, ' Wait! What happened? ' It 's like (episodes) 1 -- 5, 6 -- 9, and 10 is its own thing. '' Murphy went on to confirm the turn in the season being a behind - the - camera look at the production of the faux documentary My Roanoke Nightmare. He also stated that the final episode will feature characters, and their mythologies, that will continue on in the overall series.
Colonial ware and design are incorporated into the season, which is theorized to be, at least partially, set in 1590 Roanoke, North Carolina. A pioneer cottage is incorporated in Santa Clarita, California. The set is fully dressed in time - period appropriate dressings, including an etched tree. The production designers constructed an entire colonial house, that serves as the season 's chief setting. The house was constructed in an undisclosed California forest, over the course of four months. The abode is completely functional, furnished, and finished inside and out. This is the first time in American Horror Story history that a complete home has been built, and is quite unprecedented for film and television productions in general. A three - story set built in Malibu Canyon was not permitted properly, and after being torn down in October 2016, FX "will be required to do extensive restoration. ''
In October 2015, Murphy tweeted that he had asked Hotel star Lady Gaga to join the untitled season, but did not expect an answer anytime soon. She later confirmed her involvement in March 2016. Coven star Emma Roberts has stated that she and Murphy have talked about a "devilish '' role for her in the season. Murder House and Coven star Taissa Farmiga was heavily rumored to be involved with the season in some form. Murphy later confirmed Farmiga would appear late in the season. In February 2016, Angela Bassett confirmed her return to the series during an interview on Larry King Now, being the first cast member added to the season 6 roster. She portrays Lee Harris, a re-enactor of the documentary 's horrific events. At PaleyFest, Murphy invited Kathy Bates, Denis O'Hare, Sarah Paulson, Finn Wittrock, Cheyenne Jackson, Wes Bentley, and Matt Bomer to return to the show for its sixth season. In May 2016, Jessica Lange stated, in an interview with Charlie Rose, that she would not be returning for the sixth or any other future season of the series; saying, "No, I had four years with that, four seasons, and each year was a marvelous character, everything changed from one year to another which made it very interesting to me. But no, I think sometimes you come to the end of something... '' However, Variety published an article in September 2016, reporting Lange would appear.
In June 2016, Coven alum Leslie Jordan announced his return to the series, stating he had been approached to appear in Freak Show, but declined. He was surprised to get a call from Murphy again. Later in the month, Bomer, Jackson, and Evan Peters confirmed their involvement with the sixth season. O'Hare stated he would return in some capacity in a May 2016 interview. Us Weekly has reported the returns of Bentley, Bates, and Wittrock. In an early August 2016 interview with Glamour, series veteran Sarah Paulson announced her return for the sixth year. She said of the show, "I just think I have the greatest job on the planet because my TV show (American Horror Story) is going into its sixth season and I 'm playing an entirely different character, like nothing I 've ever played. '' She plays the featured re-enactor in the horrific documentary. On Halloween 2016, Murphy announced the return of Paulson 's Asylum character, Lana Winters. TMZ reported the casting of The People v. O.J. Simpson: American Crime Story star Cuba Gooding Jr. Gooding Jr. himself later went on to confirm his presence in the season, also announcing that he will share most screen - time with former co-star Paulson, stating, "It 's really been a treat to finally engage with her on camera, because when we did The People v. O.J. it was more about my scenes and then her scenes and us being in the courtroom but separate, but we 're not separate no more! '' He plays the co-lead of the My Roanoke Nightmare documentary. In September 2016, Glee alum Jacob Artist announced his involvement with the sixth season. On the same month, the main casting was announced after the first episode with the addition of André Holland and series veteran Lily Rabe portraying the real - life couple, Matt Miller (Lee 's brother) and his wife Shelby from the documentary 's interviews. Adina Porter, after a small guest appearance on an episode of the first series, portrayed the real Lee Harris.
In March 2016, the series received a major tax credit for filming of the season in Los Angeles, California. Cast alum Angela Bassett, along with Jennifer Lynch, Marita Grabiak, Gwyneth Horder - Payton, Elodie Keene, and Alexis Korycinski were set as directors during the season, marking the first time women have served in the capacity on the show. In June 2016, cast member Jackson stated that the season had already clandestinely begun principal photography earlier that month. On August 1, 2016, TMZ published photographs of the American Horror Story set in Santa Clarita, California; that consists of a small Pioneer home, and a tree with the word "Croatoan '' carved into its center. Both of these things are attributed to the 1590 colony of 117 people, in Roanoke, North Carolina, that disappeared without a trace, and the only clue left was the carving -- the name being a nearby island and tribe of Native Americans. Later, TMZ unveiled more set photos from an unknown California forest.
The marketing campaign for the season was one of mystery. On June 6, 2016, all of the series ' social media pages displayed a teaser image of a red number six, with a question mark superimposed. Little was known about plot details or casting before the premiere, which seems to be a deliberate ploy of publicity. The following months saw a virtual reality experience at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con International, a multitude of motley teaser trailers and posters, a Mercedes - Benz sweepstakes; and no casting or plot announcements. At the Television Critics Association Summer Press Tour, on August 9, 2016, FX chief John Landgraf announced that all, but one, of the teaser trailers released thus far have been deliberate misdirects by the network. Explaining, "(Murphy and Stephanie Gibbons, FX head of marketing and on - air promotions) went out and made many more trailers than you 've actually seen for hypothetical seasons of American Horror Story, meaning different genres and different places ''. Landgraf also reiterated what had been previously reported, that the official theme of the cycle will not be revealed until the airing of the first episode.
A week before the premiere FX released a trailer featuring Lady Gaga 's new single "Perfect Illusion '', speaking to the anonymity of the season. In a September 13, 2016 interview with The Hollywood Reporter, marketing chief Stephanie Gibbons spoke at length about the risks and idea behind the seasons complete anonymity. Explaining the origin of her campaign, "I felt we would play on two aspects of the human helix: Desire to know, the curiosity to find out what you do n't know; and perhaps more importantly, the notion of how powerful withholding is to the human psyche. Often wanting is more fulfilling than having. ''
One of the earliest season hypotheses was that of Slender Man, the 2009 phenomenon, a man with a blank face, tractable arms, and killer of children. However, sources working on the show confirmed to Entertainment Weekly, in January 2016, that the myth would not be appearing, and that a theme had already been established for the season, and would be revealed in March. Though, this did not come to pass. Based on the teaser trailers and several interviews given by Murphy, media reported the plot of the season as dealing with cult, farm, orphanage, colony, or the storyline of the Antichrist, which has already been touched on by the series in season one (Vivien and Tate 's child, Michael, that Constance took as her own, was considered to be the titular figure). Deadline 's Ross A. Lincoln posited the theory that the cycle will revolve around the Bloody Benders family. They owned an inn and general store in rural 1800s Kansas and were responsible for the deaths of 11 passersby, later disappearing. Photos from the set released by TMZ confirmed the season to incorporate colonial aspects. Vulture 's Jordan Crucchiola theorized it to be about the Roanoke Colony, with Murphy likely to adapt the historical explanation of the settlers disappearance. The Huffington Post added that another story avenue Murphy might venture on is the colloquial belief that the colonist vanished under supernatural circumstances. Screener 's Aaron Pruner noted that the colony was mentioned by Billie Dean Howard in Murder House, thus alluding to the possible Antichrist or supernatural presence in the sixth season. Pruner also mentioned that the history of the word "Croatoan '' is vast and unnerving. Days before the death of author Edgar Allan Poe, he is said to have muttered the cryptic word as his final. Furthermore, in 1937, the word was found scribbled in fated pilot Amelia Earhart 's journal. Kate Feldman from New York Daily News has speculated that the season will revolve around the Manson family; she cited iconography in a teaser, Charles Manson 's fascination with spiders (i.e. official poster for season), Evan Peters ' appearance resembling Manson, and Murphy 's previous comments stating that the series had considered the theme for the third year, which ultimately shifted to Coven. However, Sarah Paulson has rejected the Manson theme, saying, "Wrong! You can look me dead in the eyes. You are wrong, dead wrong. And you will see that I am not lying to you. I 'm not pulling a little Jedi mind trick. '' After the release of the revealing "Anthology '' trailer, The Huffington Post 's Bill Bradley suggested, after taking into account several factors, that the season would feature a discarded Murder House menace that slays his victims with hedge trimmers. TV Guide suggested a major connection to Asylum concerning the spider shown travelling under the skin of a person in one of the teasers for the season.
American Horror Story: Roanoke has received positive reviews from critics. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the season a 78 % approval rating, with an average rating of 6.7 / 10, based on 13 reviews. The site 's consensus reads, "American Horror Story: My Roanoke Nightmare takes a surprising turn away from prior AHS formats, revisiting the deliberate pace of earlier seasons on a spookier, smaller scale, even if the true - crime format feels overdone. '' On Metacritic, the season was given a score of 72 out of 100 based on 9 reviews, indicating "generally positive reviews ''.
Dan Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter gave a positive review, writing, "When you 're the type of show prone to kicking off a season with the introduction of a hairless mole man with a killer dildo, it 's possible that the most provocative thing you can do to start a chapter is eschewing mole men, dildos and, in fact, killing altogether for a full week. The American Horror Story franchise has been and done many things, but it 's never offered such a false sense of security, so this subdued start may be the scariest promise of all. It 's the most curious I 've been about future installments in a long time. '' Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly also gave a positive review, writing, "The use of mystery to market the season may have been contrived, but at this point, mystery might also be the best thing going for it, too. '' Ben Travers of IndieWire called the premiere "a promising start with a central mystery as tantalizing as the ads teasing it. ''
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
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who played guy gibson in the 1954 film the dambusters | The Dam Busters (film) - wikipedia
The Dam Busters is a 1955 British epic war film starring Michael Redgrave and Richard Todd. It was directed by Michael Anderson. The film recreates the true story of Operation Chastise when in 1943 the RAF 's 617 Squadron attacked the Möhne, Eder, and Sorpe dams in Nazi Germany with Barnes Wallis 's bouncing bomb.
The film was based on the books The Dam Busters (1951) by Paul Brickhill and Enemy Coast Ahead (1946) by Guy Gibson. The film 's reflective last minutes convey the poignant mix of emotions felt by the characters -- triumph over striking a successful blow against the enemy 's industrial base is tempered by the sobering knowledge that many died in the process of delivering it.
The film became very popular and was the most popular movie at the British box office in 1955. In 1999, the British Film Institute voted The Dam Busters the 68th greatest British film of the 20th century. Its depiction of the raid, along with a similar sequence in the film 633 Squadron, provided the inspiration for the Death Star trench run in Star Wars: A New Hope.
A remake has been in development since 2008, but has yet to be produced as of 2018.
In the early years of the Second World War, aeronautical engineer Barnes Wallis is struggling to develop a means of attacking Germany 's dams in the hope of crippling German heavy industry. Working for the Ministry of Aircraft Production, as well as doing his own job at Vickers, he works feverishly to make practical his theory of a bouncing bomb which would skip over the water to avoid protective torpedo nets. When it came into contact with the dam, it would sink before exploding, making it much more destructive. Wallis calculates that the aircraft will have to fly extremely low (150 feet (46 m)) to enable the bombs to skip over the water correctly, but when he takes his conclusions to the Ministry, he is told that lack of production capacity means they can not go ahead with his proposals.
Angry and frustrated, Wallis secures an interview with Sir Arthur "Bomber '' Harris (played by Basil Sydney), the head of RAF Bomber Command, who at first is reluctant to take the idea seriously. Eventually, however, he is convinced and takes the idea to the Prime Minister, who authorises the project.
Bomber Command forms a special squadron of Lancaster bombers, 617 Squadron, to be commanded by Wing Commander Guy Gibson, and tasked to fly the mission. He recruits experienced crews, especially those with low - altitude flight experience. While they train for the mission, Wallis continues his development of the bomb but has problems, such as the bomb breaking apart upon hitting the water. This requires the drop altitude to be reduced to 60 feet (18 m). With only a few weeks to go, he succeeds in fixing the problems and the mission can go ahead.
The bombers attack the dams. Eight Lancasters and their crews are lost, but two dams are breached and the overall mission succeeds.
In credits order.
Following the success of the book The Dam Busters (a RAF - approved history of 617 Squadron), Robert Clark the head of production at Associated British Picture Corporation (ABPC) approached its author Paul Brickhill about acquiring the film rights as a vehicle for Richard Todd. The company 's production manager was, however, of the option that due to its numerous personnel and raids it would not be able to film the book in its entirety. As a result, Clark requested that Brickhill provide a film treatment which described his vision for the film. Brickhill agree to do it without payment in the hope of selling the film rights. To assist him, Clark teamed him up with Walter Mycroft who was the company 's Director of Production. Brickhill decided to concentrate the film treatment on Operation Chastise and ignore the later raids.
After the Air Ministry agreed to make available four Lancaster bombers at a cheap price which helped make the production viable, Associated British decided to proceed with the film and agreed with Brickhill on the film rights in December 1952 for what is believed to have been ₤ 5,000. After considering C.S. Forester, Terence Rattigan, as well as Emlyn Williams and Leslie Arliss, R.C. Sherriff was selected as the screenwriter with planned August delivery of the screenplay. Sherrif agreed with Brickhill 's opinion that the film needed to concentrate on Operation Chastise and exclude the later operations covered in the book.
In preparation for writing the script, Sherrif met with Barnes Wallis at his home, later returning accompanied by Brickhill, Walter Mycroft and production supervisor W.A. "Bill '' Whittaker on 22 March 1952 to witness Wallis demonstrating his original home experiment. To Wallis 's embarrassment he could n't get it to work, no matter how many times he tried.
Just prior to the film 's scheduled release, Guy Gibson 's widow Eve took legal action to prevent it, and Brickhill and Clark were mired in months of wrangling with her until references to her husband 's book Enemy Coast Ahead were included.
The flight sequences of the film were shot using real Avro Lancaster bombers supplied by the RAF. The aircraft, four of the final production B. VIIs, had to be taken out of storage and specially modified by removing the mid-upper gun turrets to mimic 617 Squadron 's special aircraft, and cost £ 130 per hour to run, which amounted to a tenth of the film 's costs. A number of Avro Lincoln bombers were also used as "set dressing ''. (An American cut was made more dramatic by depicting an aircraft flying into a hill and exploding. This version used stock footage from Warner Brothers of a Boeing B - 17 Flying Fortress, not a Lancaster.)
The Upper Derwent Valley in Derbyshire (the test area for the real raids) doubled as the Ruhr valley for the film. The scene where the Dutch coast is crossed was filmed between Boston, Lincolnshire and King 's Lynn, Norfolk, and other coastal scenes near Skegness. Additional aerial footage was shot above Windermere, in the Lake District.
While RAF Scampton, where the real raid launched, was used for some scenes, the principal airfield used for ground location shooting was RAF Hemswell, a few miles north and still an operational RAF station at the time of filming. Guy Gibson had been based at Hemswell in his final posting and the airfield had been an operational Avro Lancaster base during the war. At the time filming took place it was then home to No. 109 Squadron and No. 139 Squadron RAF, which were both operating English Electric Canberras on electronic countermeasures and nuclear air sampling missions over hydrogen bomb test sites in the Pacific and Australia. However, part of the RAF 's fleet of ageing Avro Lincolns had been mothballed at Hemswell prior to being broken up and several of these static aircraft appeared in background shots during filming, doubling for additional No 617 Squadron Lancasters. The station headquarters building still stands on what is now an industrial estate and is named Gibson House. The four wartime hangars also still stand, little changed in external appearance since the war.
Serving RAF pilots from both squadrons based at Hemswell took turns flying the Lancasters during filming and found the close formation and low level flying around Derwentwater and Windermere exhilarating and a welcome change from their normal high level solo Canberra sorties.
Three of the four Lancaster bombers used in the film had also appeared in the Dirk Bogarde film Appointment in London two years earlier.
The theatre scene showing the spotlights was filmed at the Lyric Theatre Hammersmith. There is no reference in the film ' s credits to who the dancers were. The BBC Television Toppers were on loan for one day filming, under contract from the BBC.
The film featured several actors who would go on to be stars of cinema and TV. Robert Shaw was featured as Gibson 's engineer Flt Sgt Pulford while George Baker played Flt Lt Maltby. Patrick McGoohan had a bit part as a sergeant and Richard Thorp played Sqn Ldr Maudsley.
The Dam Busters March by Eric Coates, is for many synonymous with the film, as well as with the exploit itself, and remains a favourite military band item at flypasts and in the concert hall.
Other than the introduction and trio section theme, the majority of the march as performed is not featured in the film soundtrack. Coates himself avoided writing music for the cinema, having been advised against it by Edward Elgar, and he only agreed to provide an overture for the film after he was persuaded by the film 's producers it was of "national importance '' and pressure was put on him via his publisher, Chappell. A march he had recently completed was found to fit well with the heroic subject and was thus submitted. The majority of the soundtrack including the theme played during the raid sequence in the film was composed by Leighton Lucas.
Philip Lane, who reconstructed parts of Leighton Lucas 's orchestral score (which had been lost) notes that Lucas created his own main theme "which seems to play hide and seek with Coates 's throughout the film, both vying for supremacy. '' The variety hall sequence in the film features the 1942 song "Sing Everybody Sing '' by John P Long.
In 1999, British television network ITV broadcast a censored version of the film, removing all utterances of "Nigger '' (the real name of the unit 's mascot, a black labrador). ITV blamed regional broadcaster London Weekend Television, which in turn alleged that a junior staff member had been responsible for the unauthorised cuts. When ITV again showed a censored version in June 2001, it was condemned by the Index on Censorship as "unnecessary and ridiculous '' and because the edits introduced continuity errors. The British Channel 4 screened the censored American version in July 2007, in which the dialogue was dubbed so as to call the dog "Trigger '', this screening took place just after the planned remake was announced. In September 2007, as part of the BBC Summer of British Film series, The Dam Busters was shown at selected cinemas across the UK in its uncut format. The original, uncensored, version was also shown on 1 and 5 January 2013, by the British broadcaster Channel 5. It was the version, distributed by Studio Canal, containing shots of the bomber flying into a hill.
The film is largely historically accurate, with only a small number of changes made for reasons of dramatic licence. Some errors derive from Paul Brickhill 's book, which was written when much detail about the raid was not yet in the public domain.
The Dambusters received a Royal world premiere at the Odeon Leicester Square on 16 May 1955, the twelfth anniversary of the raid. Princess Margaret attended along with Eve Gibson, Guy Gibson 's widow and his father. Richard Todd, Barnes Wallis and the surviving members of 617 Squadron who had taken part in the mission were all guests of honour. The premiere helped to raise money and awareness for various RAF charities.
Reviews upon its release were positive. Variety described the film as having great attention to detail. Over time, the film 's reputation has grown and is now regarded as a beloved classic of British cinema. In a contemporary review, The Guardian stated that The Dam Busters remains very well made and entertaining. The film was the most successful film at the British box office in 1955.
The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Special Effects, and was also nominated for BAFTA awards for Best British Film, Best Screenplay and Best Film From Any Source.
The British Film Institute placed The Dam Busters as the 68th greatest British film. In 2004, the magazine Total Film named The Dam Busters the 43rd greatest British film of all time. Richard Todd considered the film as one of his favourites of all those that he appeared in, and went on to appear at many Dambusters themed events. As of May 2014, The Dam Busters currently holds 100 % maximum approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, indicating universal acclaim. At the same time, the film holds a 7.4 / 10 on IMDb.
The film was not shown on British television until 30 May 1971.
On 16 May 2008, a commemoration of the 65th anniversary was held at Derwent Reservoir, including a flypast by a Lancaster, Spitfire, and Hurricane. The event was attended by actor Richard Todd, representing the film crew and Les Munro, the last surviving pilot from the original raid, as well as Mary Stopes - Roe, the elder daughter of Sir Barnes Wallis.
On 17 May 2018, a commemoration of the 75th anniversary was held, in which a restored version of the film was broadcast live from the Royal Albert Hall, and hosted by Dan Snow. The film was simulcast into over 300 cinemas nationwide.
Work on a remake of The Dam Busters, produced by Peter Jackson and directed by first time director Christian Rivers, began in 2008. Jackson said in the mid-1990s that he became interested in remaking the 1955 film, but found that the rights had been bought by Mel Gibson. In 2004, Jackson was contacted by his agent, who said Gibson had dropped the rights. In December 2005, the rights were purchased by Sir David Frost, from the Brickhill family. Stephen Fry wrote the script.
In March 2007, it was announced it will be distributed by Universal Pictures, and StudioCanal. Filming was planned to commence in early 2009, on a budget of US $40 million, although no project specific filming had begun by May 2009. The project was delayed because Jackson decided to make The Hobbit.
Weta Workshop was making the models and special effects for the film and had made 10 life size Lancaster bombers. Fry said Wing Commander Guy Gibson 's dog "Nigger '' will be called "Digger '' in the remake to avoid rekindled controversy over the original name. For the remake, Peter Jackson has said no decision has been made on the dog 's name, but is in a "no - win, damned - if - you - do - and - damned - if - you - do n't scenario '', as changing the name could be seen as too much political correctness, while not changing the name could offend people. Further, executive producer Sir David Frost was quoted in The Independent as stating: "Guy sometimes used to call his dog Nigsy, so I think that 's what we will call it. Stephen has been coming up with other names, but this is the one I want. '' Les Munro, a pilot in the strike team, joined the production crew in Masterton as technical advisor. Jackson was also to use newly declassified War Office documents to ensure the authenticity of the film.
After Munro died in August 2015, Phil Bonner of the Lincolnshire Aviation Heritage Centre said he still thinks Jackson will eventually make the film, citing Jackson 's passion for aviation. Jackson said, "There is only a limited span I can abide, of people driving me nuts asking me when I 'm going to do that project. So I 'll have to do it. I want to, actually, it 's one of the truly great true stories of the Second World War, a wonderful, wonderful story. ''
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when does becky first appear on full house | Full House - wikipedia
Full House is an American television sitcom created by Jeff Franklin for ABC. The show chronicles the events of widowed father, Danny Tanner, who enlists his brother - in - law Jesse Katsopolis and best friend Joey Gladstone to help raise his three daughters, oldest D.J., middle child Stephanie and youngest Michelle in his San Francisco home. It aired from September 22, 1987, to May 23, 1995, broadcasting eight seasons and 192 episodes.
While never a critical favorite, the series was consistently in the Nielsen Top 30 (from 1988 onward) and gained even more popularity in syndicated reruns and also aired internationally. It has also had tie - in merchandise marketed, such as a series of paperback books. A sequel series, Fuller House, premiered on Netflix on February 26, 2016.
After his wife Pamela Katsopolis is killed in a car accident by a drunk driver, sports anchorman Danny Tanner recruits his brother - in - law Jesse (a rock musician) and best friend Joey (who works as a stand - up comedian) to help raise his three young daughters. Over time, the three men as well as the children bond and become closer to one another.
In season two, Danny is reassigned from his duties as anchor by his television station to become co-host of a new local morning TV show, Wake Up, San Francisco, and is teamed up with Nebraska native Rebecca Donaldson. Jesse and Becky eventually fall in love and get married in season four. In season five, Becky gives birth to twin sons, Nicky and Alex.
The producers ' first choice to play the character of Danny Tanner was Bob Saget. Saget was not available to appear in the pilot due to his commitment as an on - air contributor to CBS 's The Morning Program. The producers instead cast actor John Posey to play Danny. Posey only appeared in the unaired pilot (which is included on the DVD release of Season 1).
John Stamos 's character was originally named Jesse Cochran; Stamos reportedly wanted his character to better reflect his Greek heritage, so producers decided to change the character 's surname to Katsopolis (beginning with season two).
To comply with child labor laws, twins Ashley and Mary - Kate Olsen were cast to alternate in the role of Michelle during tapings. The girls were jointly credited as "Mary Kate Ashley Olsen '' in seasons two through seven because the producers did not want audiences to know that the Michelle character was played by twins. (The sisters occasionally appeared together in fantasy sequences.)
All six of the original cast members remained with the show through its entire eight - year run, with five characters added to the main cast along the way. D.J. 's best friend Kimmy was a recurring character in seasons one through four, who was upgraded to a regular in season five. Rebecca originally appeared for six episodes in season two; producers decided to expand her role and made her a regular the following season. After marrying Jesse, they have twins Nicky and Alex, who make their debut in season five. As babies, the children were played by Daniel and Kevin Renteria, and in season six, the roles of the twins were succeeded by Blake and Dylan Tuomy - Wilhoit. The last main character added was Steve Hale, who was D.J. 's boyfriend in seasons six and seven. He was played by Scott Weinger.
Comet, the family dog, was a golden retriever named Buddy. Buddy later appeared as the central character in the original film Air Bud (1997), before dying of lung cancer at the age of nine.
The series was created by Jeff Franklin and executive produced by Franklin, along with Thomas L. Miller and Robert L. Boyett. The series was produced by Jeff Franklin Productions and Miller - Boyett Productions, in association with Lorimar - Telepictures (1987 -- 1988), Lorimar Television (1988 -- 1993), and then by Warner Bros. Television (1993 -- 1995) after Lorimar was folded into Warner Bros. 's existing television production division.
Although the series was set in San Francisco, the sitcom itself was taped at the Warner Bros. Studios in Los Angeles. Outside of certain excerpts in the opening title sequences, the only episode to have actually been taped in San Francisco was the first episode of season eight, "Comet 's Excellent Adventure ''. There were also a few episodes which were filmed on - location elsewhere, most notably Hawaii in the season three premiere "Tanner 's Island '', and at Walt Disney World for the two - part sixth - season finale "The House Meets the Mouse ''.
The series experienced heavy turnover with its writing staff throughout its run, the first season in particular had at least three writing staff changes with Lenny Ripps (who remained with the show until the early part of the fourth season, by then serving as a creative consultant) and Russell Marcus being the only writers surviving the changes through the entire season. Show creator and executive producer Jeff Franklin was the only writer to remain with the series throughout its entire eight - season run (Franklin also wrote and directed several episodes during the first five seasons). Marc Warren and Dennis Rinsler joined the series ' writing staff in the second season as producers and remained with the show until its 1995 cancellation; Warren and Rinsler took over as head writers by season five and assumed showrunning duties as executive producers for the sixth season to allow Franklin to focus on Hangin ' With Mr. Cooper (Full House served as Cooper 's lead - in when the former aired on Tuesday nights during the 1992 -- 93 season).
The show 's theme song, "Everywhere You Look '', was performed by Jesse Frederick, who co-wrote the song with writing partner Bennett Salvay and series creator Jeff Franklin. Various instrumental versions of the theme song were used in the closing credits; the version used during seasons three through eight was also used in the opening credits in some early syndication runs, although the song was almost always truncated to the chorus for broadcast. Seasons one through five used a longer version of the theme song. In syndicated airings, the line "you miss your old familiar friends, but waiting just around the bend '' replaced the lines starting with "how did I get delivered here, somebody tell me please... '' (after ABC Family acquired the series in 2003, it became the first television outlet to air the long versions of the theme since the series ' ABC run, which were included only in select episodes from the first five seasons, whereas the full version was used in most episodes during those seasons).
Full House originally aired on Fridays from September 1987 to August 1991, which spanned the show 's first four seasons, and later became the flagship program of ABC 's newly launched TGIF block in September 1989. The show was briefly moved to Tuesdays during the 1987 -- 88 season and then aired twice a week on Tuesdays and Fridays for a few months in order to help the series build an audience. It remained on Fridays permanently for the next three seasons, as the show 's ratings increased. Full House was moved to Tuesdays full - time for season five and remained there until the series ended in 1995. While the show 's first season was not very successful, mostly because it was a new series placed in an 8 p.m. Eastern timeslot (most freshman series start out in protected time slots preceded by successful lead - ins), the show quickly became popular during its second season as it was placed immediately following the established hit show Perfect Strangers (which was also produced by Tom Miller and Bob Boyett). From season three onwards, it was ranked among Nielsen 's Top 30 shows (a ratings increase which allowed the series to move back to Fridays at 8 p.m.). By the fourth season, the series jumped to the Top 20 and remained there until the seventh season (the series peaked at the top ten during seasons five and six).
In 1995, despite the fact the show was still rated in the top 25, ABC announced that it was canceling the show after eight seasons due to the increasing costs of producing the series. The one - hour series finale was watched by 24.3 million viewers, ranking No. 7 for the week and attracting a 14.6 household rating and a 25 percent audience share.
Warner Bros. Television Distribution handles the domestic and international syndication rights to the series. During the summer of 1991, reruns of the early seasons began airing in a daily daytime strip on NBC. Starting in September 1991, Warner Bros. Domestic Television Distribution began distributing Full House for broadcast in off - network syndication and was syndicated on various local stations nationwide until 2003. In 1998, Atlanta - based cable superstation TBS (which became a general entertainment cable channel in October 2007) and Chicago - based superstation WGN (which carried the series locally in the Chicago market via WGN - TV) obtained cable rights to the series and aired the show every weekday until 2002 when it was dropped from the schedules of both networks; the series returned to TBS on December 9, 2013.
In September 2003, ABC Family acquired the series; as a result, ABC Family became the first network since ABC to air the original extended version of the theme song, featured in select episodes of the first five seasons; by the time ABC Family 's rights to the series expired in December 2013, the channel ran the closing credits over the last 30 seconds of the final scene, albeit at the bottom of the screen (it was previously played over the channel 's genericized credit sequence design). In other broadcast and cable syndication runs (as well as most other episodes aired on ABC Family), a shortened version of the main theme with alternate lyrics is used for all episodes of the first five seasons; however, an altered version of the opening credits for seasons six and seven is used, removing the lyric "Whatever happened to predictability; the milkman, the paperboy, evenin ' TV '' that was kept in the long version of the theme during those seasons (the season eight title sequence airs as is).
Nick at Nite acquired the series in 2003, and aired it from October 6 of that year until April 10, 2009; several months later on August 31, 2009, it moved to sister channel The N and continued to air on that channel after its September 28, 2009, rebrand as TeenNick, where it remained until October 24, 2010. The following day on October 25, the series returned to Nick at Nite after a one - year absence, airing in the hour leading into the start of Nickelodeon 's broadcast day. Soon after, though, it was dropped from Nick at Nite again, returning to TeenNick until September 2012, where it was then transferred back to Nick at Nite. When NickSplat lost an hour of broadcast, the series returned to TeenNick again on October 2, 2017. The series was also picked up by the Hallmark Channel in December 2017, and put on the schedule in January 2018. In 2014, episodes have averaged 1.5 million viewers on Nick at Nite, which is up 7 percent from 2013 and a 0.4 rating in the key 18 -- 49 demographic, up 8 percent from 2013.
On September 29, 2017, Hulu acquired the streaming rights to Full House along with fellow Warner Bros. TV productions Family Matters, Hangin ' with Mr. Cooper, Perfect Strangers and Step by Step in addition to Disney - ABC TV productions Boy Meets World, Dinosaurs and Home Improvement.
Despite the show 's popularity, critical acclaim by viewers, and cult following, critics ' reviews for Full House were by most accounts mediocre, particularly in its early years but became more positive in later years. The first season holds an aggregate score of 31 / 100 ("Generally unfavorable reviews '') on Metacritic. In Slate, Willa Paskin referred to the series as "a hackneyed and saccharine family sitcom ''. Isaac Feldberg opined that it was "archetypally average, hiding behind a ubiquitous laugh track and obnoxiously on - the - nose life lessons. ''
During Bob Saget 's final season as host of America 's Funniest Home Videos, six other Full House cast alumni (John Stamos, Dave Coulier, Candace Cameron, Jodie Sweetin, Andrea Barber, and Lori Loughlin) reunited on the May 9, 1997, episode (the episode which preceded Saget 's final episode as host of that series).
In a December 2008 news story, it was reported that John Stamos was planning a reunion movie. This idea was quickly withdrawn, because reportedly most of the cast was not interested. In 2009, Stamos announced that a feature film based on the show was still planned. Stamos told The New York Daily News, "I 'm working on a movie idea, but it would n't be us playing us. I 'm not 100 % sure, but it would probably take place in the first few years. '' Stamos posited Steve Carell and Tracy Morgan for the roles of Danny and Joey respectively.
In 2012, eight of the Full House cast members reunited in Los Angeles for their 25th anniversary. Publicists for Mary - Kate and Ashley Olsen said that they "were n't able to attend, given their work schedules. ''
On July 19, 2013, the original Jesse and the Rippers (the band which Jesse Katsopolis served as frontman, until he was voted out in season 8) reunited on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. The group performed a medley of covers including the Beach Boys ' "Forever, '' Elvis Presley 's "Little Sister, '' "Hippy Hippy Shake '', and ending with the Full House theme "Everywhere You Look ''. Bob Saget and Lori Loughlin made cameo appearances.
In January 2014, Saget, Stamos, and Coulier appeared on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. They each reprised their characters, while Fallon dressed in child 's pajamas in a bed framed by four gigantic pencils, similar to Michelle Tanner 's bed from the show. Saget, Stamos, and Coulier said some of their famous catchphrases from the show, as well as singing "The Teddy Bear '' song. Stamos, Saget and Coulier also appeared together in a 2014 commercial for Dannon Oikos Greek Yogurt (for which Stamos serves as spokesperson) that debuted during Super Bowl XLVIII, days after their appearance on Late Night.
In August 2014, reports circulated that Warner Bros. Television was considering a series spin - off. John Stamos, who has an ownership stake in the show, headed up the attempt to get the series back into production. Netflix closed a deal to produce a 13 - episode sequel series tentatively titled Fuller House, with many of the original series cast members reprising their roles. Notably, Mary - Kate and Ashley Olsen both declined to reprise the role of Michelle in the first season, although the creators and producers said they could still possibly appear in future seasons. Stamos would guest star as well and serve as producer.
Filming began on July 25, 2015. Like the original series, the show is set in San Francisco. The original series idea was focused on D.J., a veterinarian struggling to raise three boys after her firefighter husband Tommy Fuller is killed in the line of duty; Stephanie, who is aspiring to become a musician; and Kimmy, who is a party planner and a single mother to a teenage daughter, Ramona. The show 's premise follows one similar to the original series when Stephanie makes plans to put her career on hold for a while and move in with D.J. to help take care of her children. Almost immediately afterwards, Kimmy makes the same offer for her and Ramona to move in and help out. Netflix premiered the series on February 26, 2016, with the premiere episode featuring a Tanner family reunion. As of December 22, 2017 there have been three seasons of the series.
Warner Home Video released all eight seasons of the series on DVD in Region 1 between 2005 and 2007. A complete series box - set containing all 192 episodes was released on November 6, 2007. As of 2016, the complete series is available for purchase via online retailers such as Amazon. Additionally, the first four seasons were also released on DVD in Region 2 and Region 4.
Books based on Full House are geared toward children primarily between the ages of 8 and 14. Warner Bros., which holds the rights to Full House and its associated characters, would not permit others to use their characters, and selected who could write books based on the television series. The books are based on the Silhouette romance novels by Mills & Boon. Full House Michelle # 7: Summer Rhapsody is a Silhouette Special Edition # 75 by Nancy John and Laura O'Neil in February 1983.
The series includes the following:
In 2006, Full House was one of a group of Warner Brothers properties licensed to Moscow - based network STS for adaptation to Russian. The show, Topsy - Turvy House (ru: Дом кувырком) followed the plots of the American version with changes to accommodate cultural differences. It ran for two seasons, beginning in 2009.
On August 22, 2015, a television movie called The Unauthorized Full House Story was first released by Lifetime. It tells the behind - the - scenes story of the series.
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what is the walk from france to spain | Camino de Santiago - wikipedia
The Camino de Santiago (Latin: Peregrinatio Compostellana, "Pilgrimage of Compostela ''; Galician: O Camiño de Santiago), known in English as the Way of Saint James among other names, is a network of pilgrims ' ways or pilgrimages leading to the shrine of the apostle Saint James the Great in the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in Galicia in northwestern Spain, where tradition has it that the remains of the saint are buried. Many follow its routes as a form of spiritual path or retreat for their spiritual growth. It is also popular with hiking and cycling enthusiasts and organized tour groups.
The French Way (Camino Francés) and the Routes of Northern Spain are the courses listed in the World Heritage List by UNESCO.
The Way of St. James was one of the most important Christian pilgrimages during the Middle Ages, together with those to Rome and Jerusalem, and a pilgrimage route on which a plenary indulgence could be earned; other major pilgrimage routes include the Via Francigena to Rome and the pilgrimage to Jerusalem.
Legend holds that St. James 's remains were carried by boat from Jerusalem to northern Spain, where he was buried in what is now the city of Santiago de Compostela. (The name Santiago is the local Galician evolution of Vulgar Latin Sancti Iacobi, "Saint James ''.)
The Way can take one of dozens of pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela. Traditionally, as with most pilgrimages, the Way of Saint James began at one 's home and ended at the pilgrimage site. However, a few of the routes are considered main ones. During the Middle Ages, the route was highly travelled. However, the Black Death, the Protestant Reformation, and political unrest in 16th century Europe led to its decline. By the 1980s, only a few hundred pilgrims per year registered in the pilgrim 's office in Santiago. In October 1987, the route was declared the first European Cultural Route by the Council of Europe; it was also named one of UNESCO 's World Heritage Sites. Since the 1980s the route has attracted a growing number of modern - day international pilgrims.
Whenever St. James 's Day (25 July) falls on a Sunday, the cathedral declares a Holy or Jubilee Year. Depending on leap years, Holy Years occur in 5 -, 6 -, and 11 - year intervals. The most recent were 1982, 1993, 1999, 2004, and 2010. The next will be 2021, 2027, and 2032.
The pilgrimage to Santiago has never ceased from the time of the discovery of St. James 's remains in 812 AD, though there have been years of fewer pilgrims, particularly during European wars.
The main pilgrimage route to Santiago follows an earlier Roman trade route, which continues to the Atlantic coast of Galicia, ending at Cape Finisterre. Although it is known today that Cape Finisterre, Spain 's westernmost point, is not the westernmost point of Europe (Cabo da Roca in Portugal is farther west), the fact that the Romans called it Finisterrae (literally the end of the world or Land 's End in Latin) indicates that they viewed it as such. At night, the Milky Way overhead seems to point the way, so the route acquired the nickname "Voie lactée '' -- the Milky Way in French.
The scallop shell, often found on the shores in Galicia, has long been the symbol of the Camino de Santiago. Over the centuries the scallop shell has taken on a variety of meanings, metaphorical, practical, and mythical meanings, even if its relevance may have actually derived from the desire of pilgrims to take home a souvenir.
Two versions of the most common myth about the origin of the symbol concern the death of Saint James, who was martyred by beheading in Jerusalem in 44 AD. According to Spanish legends, he had spent time preaching the gospel in Spain, but returned to Judaea upon seeing a vision of the Virgin Mary on the bank of the Ebro River.
From its connection to the Camino, the scallop shell came to represent pilgrimage, both to a specific shrine as well as heaven, recalling Hebrews 11: 13, identifying that Christians "are pilgrims and strangers on the earth ''.
As the symbol of the Camino de Santiago, the shell is seen very frequently along the trails. The shell is seen on posts and signs along the Camino in order to guide pilgrims along the way. The shell is even more commonly seen on the pilgrims themselves. Wearing a shell denotes that one is a traveler on the Camino de Santiago. Most pilgrims receive a shell at the beginning of their journey and either attach it to them by sewing it onto their clothes or wearing it around their neck or by simply keeping it in their backpack.
The scallop shell also served practical purposes for pilgrims on the Camino de Santiago. The shell was the right size for gathering water to drink or for eating out of as a makeshift bowl.
During the medieval period, the shell was proof of completion rather than a symbol worn during the pilgrimage.
The pilgrim 's staff is a walking stick used by pilgrims to the shrine of Santiago de Compostela in Spain. Generally, the stick has a hook on it so that something may be hung from it, and may have a crosspiece on it.
Codex Calixtinus
The earliest records of visits paid to the shrine dedicated to St. James at Santiago de Compostela date from the 9th century, in the time of the Kingdom of Asturias and Galicia. The pilgrimage to the shrine became the most renowned medieval pilgrimage, and it became customary for those who returned from Compostela to carry back with them a Galician scallop shell as proof of their completion of the journey. This practice gradually led to the scallop shell becoming the badge of a pilgrim.
The earliest recorded pilgrims from beyond the Pyrenees visited the shrine in the middle of the 11th century, but it seems that it was not until a century later that large numbers of pilgrims from abroad were regularly journeying there. The earliest records of pilgrims that arrived from England belong to the period between 1092 and 1105. However, by the early 12th century the pilgrimage had become a highly organized affair.
One of the great proponents of the pilgrimage in the 12th century was Pope Callixtus II, who started the Compostelan Holy Years. The official guide in those times was the Codex Calixtinus. Published around 1140, the 5th book of the Codex is still considered the definitive source for many modern guidebooks. Four pilgrimage routes listed in the Codex originate in France and converge at Puente la Reina. From there, a well - defined route crosses northern Spain, linking Burgos, Carrión de los Condes, Sahagún, León, Astorga, and Compostela.
The daily needs of pilgrims on their way to and from Compostela were met by a series of hospitals and contributed to the development of the idea itself, some Spanish towns still bearing the name, as Hospital de Órbigo. The hospitals were often staffed by Catholic orders and under royal protection. Donations were encouraged but many poorer pilgrims had few clothes and poor health often barely getting to the next hospital.
Romanesque architecture, a new genre of ecclesiastical architecture, was designed with massive archways to cope with huge crowds of the devout. There was also the sale of the now - familiar paraphernalia of tourism, such as badges and souvenirs. Since the Christian symbol for James the Greater was the scallop shell, many pilgrims wore one as a sign to anyone on the road that they were a pilgrim. Pilgrims often prayed to Saint Roch whose numerous depictions with the Cross of St James can still be seen along the Way even today.
The pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela was possible because of the protection and freedom provided by the Kingdom of France, where the majority of pilgrims originated. Enterprising French (including Gascons and other peoples not under the French crown) settled in towns along the pilgrimage routes, where their names appear in the archives. The pilgrims were tended by people like Domingo de la Calzada, who was later recognized as a saint.
Pilgrims walked the Way of St. James, often for months and sometime years at a time, to arrive at the great church in the main square of Compostela and pay homage to St. James. Many arrived with very little due to illness or robbery or both. Traditionally pilgrims lay their hands on the pillar just inside the doorway of the cathedral, and so many now have done it has visibly worn away the stone.
The popular Spanish name for the astronomical Milky Way is El Camino de Santiago. According to a common medieval legend, the Milky Way was formed from the dust raised by travelling pilgrims. Another legend tells that when a hermit saw a bright star shining over a hillside near San Fiz de Solvio, he informed the bishop of Iria Flavia, who found a grave at the site with three bodies inside, one of which he asserted was Saint James. Subsequently the location was called "the field of the star '' (Campus Stellae, corrupted to "Compostela ''). Another origin myth mentioned in Book IV of the Book of Saint James relates how the saint appeared in a dream to Charlemagne, urging him to liberate his tomb from the Moors and showing him the direction to follow by the route of the Milky Way.
The Church employed a system of rituals to atone for temporal punishment due to sins known as penance. According to this system, pilgrimages were a suitable form of expiation for some temporal punishment, and they could be used as acts of penance for those who were guilty of certain crimes. As noted in the Catholic Encyclopedia:
In the registers of the Inquisition at Carcassone... we find the four following places noted as being the centres of the greater pilgrimages to be imposed as penances for the graver crimes: the tomb of the Apostles at Rome, the shrine of St. James at Compostella (sic), St. Thomas ' body at Canterbury, and the relics of the Three Kings at Cologne.
There is still a tradition in Flanders of pardoning and releasing one prisoner every year under the condition that, accompanied by a guard, the prisoner walks to Santiago wearing a heavy backpack.
During the war of American Independence, John Adams was ordered by Congress to go to Paris to obtain funds for the cause. His ship started leaking and he disembarked with his two sons in Finisterre in 1779. From there he proceeded to follow the Way of St. James in the reverse direction of the pilgrims ' route, in order to get to Paris overland. He did not stop to visit Santiago, which he later came to regret. In his autobiography, Adams described the customs and lodgings afforded to St. James 's pilgrims in the 18th century and he recounted the legend as he learned it:
I have always regretted that We could not find time to make a Pilgrimage to Saintiago de Compostella. We were informed,... that the Original of this Shrine and Temple of St. Iago was this. A certain Shepherd saw a bright Light there in the night. Afterwards it was revealed to an Archbishop that St. James was buried there. This laid the Foundation of a Church, and they have built an Altar on the Spot where the Shepherd saw the Light. In the time of the Moors, the People made a Vow, that if the Moors should be driven from this Country, they would give a certain portion of the Income of their Lands to Saint James. The Moors were defeated and expelled and it was reported and believed, that Saint James was in the Battle and fought with a drawn Sword at the head of the Spanish Troops, on Horseback. The People, believing that they owed the Victory to the Saint, very cheerfully fulfilled their Vows by paying the Tribute... Upon the Supposition that this is the place of the Sepulchre of Saint James, there are great numbers of Pilgrims, who visit it, every Year, from France, Spain, Italy and other parts of Europe, many of them on foot.
Adams ' great - grandson, the historian Henry Adams visited Leon, among other Spanish cities, during his trip through Europe as a youth, although he did not follow the entire pilgrimage route. Another Enlightenment - era traveler on the pilgrimage route was the naturalist Alexander von Humboldt.
Today, hundreds of thousands (over 300,000 in 2017) of Christian pilgrims and many others set out each year from their homes, or from popular starting points across Europe, to make their way to Santiago de Compostela. Most travel by foot, some by bicycle, and a few travel as some of their medieval counterparts did, on horseback or by donkey (for example, the British author and humorist Tim Moore). In addition to those undertaking a religious pilgrimage, many are hikers who walk the route for travel or sport. Also, many consider the experience a spiritual retreat from modern life.
Here only a few routes are named. For a complete list of all the routes (traditional and less so), see: Camino de Santiago (route descriptions).
Camino Francés, or French Way, is the most popular. The Via Regia is the last portion of the (Camino Francés). Historically, because of the Codex Calixtinus, most pilgrims came from France: typically from Arles, Le Puy, Paris, and Vézelay; some from Saint Gilles. Cluny, site of the celebrated medieval abbey, was another important rallying point for pilgrims and, in 2002, it was integrated into the official European pilgrimage route linking Vézelay and Le Puy.
Camino Primitivo, or Original Way, is the oldest route to Santiago de Compostela, first taken in the 9th century and which begins in Oviedo.
Camino Portugués, or the Portuguese Way, is the second-most - popular route, starting at the cathedral in Lisbon (for a total of about 610 km) or at the cathedral in Porto in the north of Portugal (for a total of about 227 km), crossing into Galicia at Valença.
Camino del Norte, or the Northern Way, is also less traveled and starts in the Basque city of Irun on the border with France, or sometimes in San Sebastián, is considered the start of the route. It is a less popular route because of its changes in elevation, whereas the Camino Frances is mostly flat. The route follows the coast along the Bay of Biscay until it nears Santiago. Though it does not pass through as many historic points of interest as the Camino Frances, it has cooler summer weather. The route is believed to have been first used by pilgrims to avoid traveling through the territories occupied by the Muslims in the Middle Ages.
Most Spanish consider the French border in the Pyrenees the natural starting point. By far the most common starting point on the Camino Francés is Saint - Jean - Pied - de-Port, on the French side of the Pyrenees, with Roncesvalles on the Spanish side also being popular. The distance from Roncesvalles to Santiago de Compostella through León is about 800 km (500 mi).
In Spain, France and Portugal, pilgrim 's hostels with beds in dormitories provide overnight accommodation for pilgrims who hold a credencial (see below). In Spain this type of accommodation is called a refugio or albergue, both of which are similar to youth hostels or hostelries in the French system of gîtes d'étape.
Hostels may be run by the local parish, the local council, private owners or pilgrims ' associations. Occasionally, these refugios are located in monasteries, such as the one run by monks in Samos, Spain, and the one in Santiago de Compostela.
The final hostel on the route is the famous Hostal de los Reyes Catolicos, which lies across the plaza from the Cathedral of Santiago de Campostela. It was originally constructed by Ferdinand and Isabel, the Catholic Monarchs. Today it is a luxury 5 - star Parador hotel, which still provides free services to a limited number of pilgrims daily.
Most pilgrims purchase and carry a document called the credencial, which gives access to overnight accommodation along the route. Also known as the "pilgrim 's passport '', the credencial is stamped with the official St. James stamp of each town or refugio at which the pilgrim has stayed. It provides pilgrims with a record of where they ate or slept and serves as proof to the Pilgrim 's Office in Santiago that the journey was accomplished according to an official route and thus that the pilgrim qualifies to receive a compostela (certificate of completion of the pilgrimage).
The compostela is a certificate of accomplishment given to pilgrims on completing the Way. To earn the compostela one needs to walk a minimum of 100 km or cycle at least 200 km. In practice, for walkers, the closest convenient point to start is Sarria, as it has good bus and rail connections to other places in Spain. Pilgrims arriving in Santiago de Compostela who have walked at least the last 100 km (62 mi), or cycled 200 km (120 mi) to get there (as indicated on their credencial), and who state that their motivation was at least partially religious, are eligible for the compostela from the Pilgrim 's Office in Santiago.
The compostela has been indulgenced since the Early Middle Ages and remains so to this day, during Holy Years. It reads:
CAPITULUM huius Almae Apostolicae et Metropolitanae Ecclesiae Compostellanae sigilli Altaris Beati Jacobi Apostoli custos, ut omnibus Fidelibus et Perigrinis ex toto terrarum Orbe, devotionis affectu vel voti causa, ad limina Apostoli Nostri Hispaniarum Patroni ac Tutelaris SANCTI JACOBI convenientibus, authenticas visitationis litteras expediat, omnibus et singulis praesentes inspecturis, notum facit: (Latin version of name of recipient)
Hoc sacratissimum Templum pietatis causa devote visitasse. In quorum fidem praesentes litteras, sigillo ejusdem Sanctae Ecclesiae munitas, ei confero.
Datum Compostellae die (day) mensis (month) anno Dei (year)
Canonicus Deputatus pro Peregrinis
English translation:
The CHAPTER of this holy apostolic and metropolitan Church of Compostela, guardian of the seal of the Altar of the blessed Apostle James, in order that it may provide authentic certificates of visitation to all the faithful and to pilgrims from all over the earth who come with devout affection or for the sake of a vow to the shrine of our Apostle St. James, the patron and protector of Spain, hereby makes known to each and all who shall inspect this present document that (Name)
has visited this most sacred temple for the sake of pious devotion. As a faithful witness of these things I confer upon him (or her) the present document, authenticated by the seal of the same Holy Church.
Given at Compostela on the (day) of the month of (month) in the year of the Lord (year).
Deputy Canon for Pilgrims
The simpler certificate of completion in Spanish for those with non-religious motivation reads:
La S.A.M.I. Catedral de Santiago de Compostela le expresa su bienvenida cordial a la Tumba Apostólica de Santiago el Mayor; y desea que el Santo Apóstol le conceda, con abundancia, las gracias de la Peregrinación.
English translation:
The Holy Apostolic Metropolitan Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela expresses its warm welcome to the Tomb of the Apostle St. James the Greater; and wishes that the holy Apostle may grant you, in abundance, the graces of the Pilgrimage.
The Pilgrim 's Office gives more than 100,000 compostelas each year to pilgrims from more than 100 different countries. However, the requirements to earn a compostela ensure that not everyone who walks on the Camino receives one. The requirements for receiving a compostela are: 1) make the Pilgrimage for religious / spiritual reasons or at least have an attitude of search, 2) do the last 100 km on foot or horseback or the last 200 km by bicycle. 3) collect a certain number of stamps on a credencial.
Green bars are holy years
A Pilgrim 's Mass is held in the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela each day at 12: 00 and 19: 30. Pilgrims who received the compostela the day before have their countries of origin and the starting point of their pilgrimage announced at the Mass. The Botafumeiro, one of the largest censers in the world, is operated during certain Solemnities and on every Friday, except Good Friday, at 19: 30. Priests administer the Sacrament of Penance, or confession, in many languages. In the Holy Year of 2010 the Pilgrim 's Mass was exceptionally held four times a day, at 10: 00, 12: 00, 18: 00, and 19: 30, catering for the greater number of pilgrims arriving in the Holy Year.
The Xunta de Galicia (Galicia 's regional government) promotes the Way as a tourist activity, particularly in Holy Compostelan Years (when 25 July falls on a Sunday). Following the Xunta 's investment and advertising campaign for the Holy Year of 1993, the number of pilgrims completing the route has been steadily rising. The next Holy Year will occur in 2021, 11 years after the last Holy Year of 2010. More than 272,000 pilgrims made the trip during the course of 2010.
(Chronological)
(Alphabetical by author 's surname)
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attorney general during wall street bombing of 1920 | Wall Street bombing - wikipedia
Coordinates: 40 ° 42 ′ 25 '' N 74 ° 00 ′ 37 '' W / 40.7070 ° N 74.0103 ° W / 40.7070; - 74.0103
The Wall Street bombing occurred at 12: 01 pm on September 16, 1920, in the Financial District of Manhattan, New York City. The blast killed 30 people immediately, and another eight died later of wounds sustained in the blast. There were 143 seriously injured, and the total number of injured was in the hundreds.
The bombing was never solved, although investigators and historians believe the Wall Street bombing was carried out by Galleanists (Italian anarchists), a group responsible for a series of bombings the previous year. The attack was related to postwar social unrest, labor struggles, and anti-capitalist agitation in the United States.
The Wall Street bomb killed more people than the 1910 bombing of the Los Angeles Times, which was the deadliest act of terrorism on U.S. soil up to that point. The death toll was exceeded in the Bath School disaster in 1927.
At noon, a horse - drawn wagon passed by lunchtime crowds on Wall Street and stopped across the street from the headquarters of the J.P. Morgan bank at 23 Wall Street, on the Financial District 's busiest corner. Inside the wagon, 100 pounds (45 kg) of dynamite with 500 pounds (230 kg) of heavy, cast - iron sash weights exploded in a timer - set detonation, sending the weights tearing through the air. The horse and wagon were blasted into small fragments, but the driver was believed to have left the vehicle and escaped.
The 38 fatalities, most of whom died within moments of the blast, were mostly young people who worked as messengers, stenographers, clerks, and brokers. Many of the wounded suffered severe injuries. The bomb caused more than $2 million in property damage ($24.4 million today) and destroyed most of the interior spaces of the Morgan building.
Within one minute of the explosion, William H. Remick, president of the New York Stock Exchange, suspended trading in order to prevent a panic. Outside, rescuers worked feverishly to transport the wounded to the hospital. James Saul, a 17 - year - old messenger, commandeered a parked car and transported 30 injured people to an area hospital. Police officers rushed to the scene, performed first aid, and appropriated all nearby automobiles as emergency transport vehicles.
The Justice Department 's Bureau of Investigation (BOI, the forerunner of the Federal Bureau of Investigation) did not immediately conclude that the bomb was an act of terrorism. Investigators were puzzled by the number of innocent people killed and the lack of a specific target, other than buildings that suffered relatively superficial, non-structural damage. Exploring the possibility of an accident, police contacted businesses that sold and transported explosives. By 3: 30 pm, the board of governors of the New York Stock Exchange had met and decided to open for business the next day. Crews cleaned up the area overnight to allow for normal business operations the next day, but in doing so they destroyed physical evidence that might have helped police investigators solve the crime. The New York assistant district attorney noted that the timing, location, and method of delivery all pointed to Wall Street and J.P. Morgan as the targets of the bomb, suggesting in turn that it was planted by radical opponents of capitalism, such as Bolsheviks, anarchists, communists, or militant socialists.
Investigators soon focused on radical groups opposed to U.S. financial and governmental institutions and known to use bombs as a means of violent reprisal. They observed that the Wall Street bomb was packed with heavy sash weights designed to act as shrapnel, then detonated on the street in order to increase casualties among financial workers and institutions during the busy lunch hour. Officials eventually blamed anarchists and communists. The Washington Post called the bombing an "act of war ''. The Sons of the American Revolution had previously scheduled a patriotic rally for the day after (September 17) to celebrate Constitution Day at exactly the same intersection. On September 17, thousands of people attended the Constitution Day rally in defiance of the previous day 's attack.
The bombing stimulated renewed efforts by police and federal investigators to track the activities and movements of foreign radicals. Public demands to track down the perpetrators led to an expanded role for the U.S. Justice Department 's Bureau of Investigation, including the General Intelligence Division of the BOI headed by J. Edgar Hoover. The New York City Police Department also pushed to form a "special, or secret, police '' to monitor "radical elements '' in New York City.
On September 17, the BOI released the contents of flyers found in a post office box in the Wall Street area just before the explosion. Printed in red ink on white paper, they said: "Remember, we will not tolerate any longer. Free the political prisoners, or it will be sure death for all of you. '' At the bottom was: "American Anarchist Fighters ''. The BOI quickly decided that the flyer eliminated the possibility of an accidental explosion. William J. Flynn, Director of the BOI, suggested the flyers were similar to those found at the June 1919 anarchist bombings.
The investigation conducted by the Bureau of Investigation stalled when none of the victims turned out to be the driver of the wagon. Though the horse was newly shod, investigators could not locate the stable responsible for the work. When the blacksmith was located in October, he could offer the police little information.
Robert W. Wood helped to reconstruct the bomb mechanism.
Investigators questioned tennis champion Edwin Fischer, who had sent warning post cards to friends, telling them to leave the area before September 16. He told police he had received the information "through the air ''. However, they found Fischer made a regular habit of issuing such warnings, and had him committed to Amityville Asylum, where he was diagnosed as insane but harmless.
The Bureau of Investigation and local police investigated the case for over three years without success. Occasional arrests garnered headlines but each time they failed to support indictments. Most of the initial investigation focused on anarchists and communists, such as the Galleanist group, whom authorities believed were involved in the 1919 bombings. During President Warren G. Harding 's administration, officials evaluated the Soviets as possible masterminds of the Wall Street bombing and then the Communist Party USA. In 1944, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, successor to the BOI, investigated again. It concluded that its agents had explored many radical groups, "such as the Union of Russian Workers, the I.W.W., Communist, etc... and from the result of the investigations to date it would appear that none of the aforementioned organizations had any hand in the matter and that the explosion was the work of either Italian anarchists or Italian terrorists. ''
One Galleanist in particular, Italian Anarchist Mario Buda (1884 -- 1963), an associate of Sacco and Vanzetti, and the owner of a car which led to the arrest of the latter for a separate robbery and murder, is alleged by some historians, including Paul Avrich, to be the man most likely to have planted the bomb. Avrich and other historians theorize that Buda acted in revenge for the arrest and indictment of his fellow Galleanists, Sacco and Vanzetti. Buda 's involvement as the Wall Street bombmaker was confirmed by statements made by his nephew Frank Maffi and fellow anarchist Charles Poggi, who interviewed Buda in Savignano, Italy, in 1955. Buda (at that time known by the alias of Mike Boda) had eluded authorities at the time of the arrests of Sacco and Vanzetti, was experienced in the use of dynamite and other explosives, was known to use sash weights as shrapnel in his time bombs, and is believed to have constructed several of the largest package bombs for the Galleanists (Buda was also a suspect in the Preparedness Day Bombing of San Francisco July 22, 1916). These included a large black powder bomb that killed nine policemen in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1917. Buda was in New York City at the time of the bombing, but he was neither arrested nor questioned by police.
After leaving New York, Buda resumed the use of his real name in order to secure a passport from the Italian vice-consul, then promptly sailed for Naples. By November, he was back in his native Italy, never to return to the United States. Other Galleanists, still in the U.S. continued the bombing and assassination campaign for another twelve years, culminating in a 1932 bomb attack targeting Webster Thayer, the presiding judge in the Sacco and Vanzetti trial. Thayer, who survived the ensuing blast that destroyed his house and injured his wife and housekeeper, moved his residence to his club for the remainder of his life, where he was guarded 24 hours a day.
The bombing has inspired several books, notably The Day Wall Street Exploded, by Beverly Gage, The Death Instinct, by Jed Rubenfeld and Buda 's Wagon: A Brief History of the Car Bomb (2007) by Mike Davis.
The bombing is referenced in Clive Cussler 's 2014 book The Bootlegger.
The bombing is the subject of PBS series American Experience which broadcast an episode The Bombing of Wall Street in February, 2018.
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where is the irrawaddy river located on a world map | Irrawaddy river - wikipedia
The Irrawaddy River or Ayeyarwady River (Burmese: ဧရာဝတီမြစ်; MLCTS: erawa. ti mrac, pronounced (ʔèjàwədì mjɪʔ), also spelt Ayeyarwaddy) is a river that flows from north to south through Myanmar. It is the country 's largest river and most important commercial waterway. Originating from the confluence of the N'mai and Mali rivers, it flows relatively straight North - South before emptying through the Irrawaddy Delta into the Andaman Sea. Its drainage basin of about 404,200 square kilometres (156,100 sq mi) covers a large part of Burma. After Rudyard Kipling 's poem, it is sometimes referred to as ' The Road to Mandalay '.
As early as the sixth century the river was used for trade and transport. Having developed an extensive network of irrigation canals, the river became important to the British Empire after it had colonized Burma. The river is still as vital today, as a considerable amount of (export) goods and traffic moves by river. Rice is produced in the Irrawaddy Delta, irrigated by water from the river.
In 2007, Myanmar 's military dictatorship signed an agreement for the construction of seven hydroelectric dams, yielding a total 13,360 MW, in the N'mai and Mali Rivers, including the 3,600 MW Myitsone Dam at the confluence of both rivers. Environmental organisations have raised concerns about the ecological impacts on the river 's biodiverse ecosystems. Animals potentially impacted include the threatened Irrawaddy dolphin and the Irrawaddy river shark, an endangered species.
The native Kachin people named the river Mali - Nmai - Hka. The Burmese name of Irrawaddy is derived from a Pali name for the Ravi River of India, Irāvatī. Airavati (Pali Erāvatī) was the Pali version of the name of the elephant mount of Sakka, an important deva in Buddhism. Elephants were often a symbol for water and was used as the name for several others rivers, such as the Achiravati.
The Irrawaddy gives its name to the Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris), which is found in the lower reaches of the river and known to help fishermen who practice cast - net fishing. Though called Irrawaddy dolphin, it has been also found in the Bay of Bengal and the ocean.
The Irrawaddy River bisects Myanmar from north to south and empties through the nine - armed Irrawaddy Delta into the Indian Ocean.
The Irrawaddy River arises by the confluence of the N'mai (Nam Gio) and Mali Rivers in Kachin State. Both the N'mai and Mali Rivers find their sources in the Himalayan glaciers of Upper Burma near 28 ° N. The eastern branch of the two, N'mai, is the larger and rises in the Languela Glacier north of Putao. It is unnavigable because of the strong current whereas the smaller western branch, the Mali river, is navigable, despite a few rapids. Herefore, the Mali river is still called by the same name as the main river by locals. The controversial Myitsone Dam is currently under construction at the convergence of these rivers.
The town of Bhamo, about 240 kilometres (150 mi) south of the Mali and N'mai river confluence, is the northernmost city reachable by boat all the year round although during the monsoons most of the river can not be used by boats. The city of Myitkyina lies 50 kilometres (31 mi) south of the confluence and can be reached during the dry season.
Between Myitkyina and Mandalay, the Irrawaddy flows through three well - marked defiles:
This sheet of lava is the Singu Plateau, a volcanic field from the Holocene. This field consists of magma from the fissure vents and covers an area of about 62 square kilometres (24 sq mi). The plateau is also known as Letha Taung.
Leaving this plateau at Kyaukmyaung, the river follows a broad, open course through the central dry zone -- the ancient cultural heartland -- where large areas consist of alluvial flats. From Mandalay (the former capital of the kingdom of Myanmar), the river makes an abrupt westward turn before curving southwest to unite with the Chindwin River, after which it continues in a southwestern direction. It is probable that the upper Irrawaddy originally flowed south from Mandalay, discharging its water through the present Sittaung River to the Gulf of Martaban, and that its present westward course is geologically recent. Below its confluence with the Chindwin, the Irrawaddy continues to meander through the petroleum producing city of Yenangyaung, below which it flows generally southward. In its lower course, between Minbu and Pyay, it flows through a narrow valley between forest - covered mountain ranges -- the ridge of the Arakan Mountains to the west and that of the Pegu Yoma Mountains to the east.
The delta of the Irrawaddy begins about 93 kilometres (58 mi) above Hinthada (Henzada) and about 290 kilometres (180 mi) from its curved base, which faces the Andaman Sea. The westernmost distributary of the delta is the Pathein (Bassein) River, while the easternmost stream is the Yangon River, on the left bank of which stands Myanmar 's former capital city, Yangon (Rangoon). Because the Yangon River is only a minor channel, the flow of water is insufficient to prevent Yangon Harbour from silting up, and dredging is necessary. The relief of the delta 's landscape is low but not flat. The soils consist of fine silt, which is replenished continuously by fertile alluvium carried downstream by the river. As a result of heavy rainfall varying from 2,000 to 3,000 millimetres (79 -- 118 in) a year in the delta, and the motion and sediment load of the river, the delta surface extends into the Andaman Sea at a rate of about 50 metres (160 ft) per year.
Due to monsoonal rains, which occur between mid-May and mid-October, the volume of the Irrawaddy and its tributaries varies greatly throughout the year. In summer, the melting of the snow and glaciers in Northern Burma add to the volume. The average discharge near the head of the delta is between a high of 32,600 cubic metres (1,150,000 cu ft) and a low of 2,300 cubic metres (81,000 cu ft) per second. The discharge can be as high as 40,393 cubic meter per second in rainy season. Over a year, the discharge averages 13,000 cubic metres (460,000 cu ft). Further North, at Sagaing, the hydrograph shows a 38 % decrease in discharge compared to where the river enters the delta. it also silted up around 278 tons of sand every year.
Variation between high and low waterlevel is also great. At Mandalay and Prome, a range of 9.66 to 11.37 metres (31.7 -- 37.3 ft) has been measured between low - water level and floodlevel respectively. Because of the monsoonal character of the rain, the highest point is recorded in August, the lowest in February.
This variation in water level makes it necessary for ports along the river to have separate landing ports for low - and high - water. Still, low water levels have caused problems for ports along the river, as in the Bamaw -- Mandalay -- Pyay sectors, the shallowest point is as shallow as 60 centimetres (2.0 ft).
Within the basin, the average population density is 79 people / km. For these people, the river supply amounts to 18,614 m per person per year.
No complete and precise list of all the fish in the Irrawaddy river basin currently exists, but in 1996 it was estimated that there are about 200 species. In 2008, it was estimated that the Irrawaddy ecoregion is home to 119 -- 195 species of fish found nowhere else in the world (endemic). Several new species of fish have been described from the Irrawaddy river basin in recent years (for example, the cyprinid Danio htamanthinus in 2016 and the stone loach Malihkaia aligera in 2017), and it is likely that undescribed species remain.
Among the most well - known species in the river is the Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris), a euryhaline species of oceanic dolphin with a high and rounded forehead, lacking a beak. It is found in discontinuous sub-populations near sea coasts and in estuaries and rivers in parts of the Bay of Bengal and South - East Asia.
Along the North - South course of the Irrawaddy River, a number of notably different ecoregions can be distinguished.
The streams of the Nmai and Mali that form the Irrawaddy originate in high and remote mountains near the border with Tibet. This part of Burma, which extends north from Myitkyina and the Irrawaddy confluence, lies entirely outside the tropics. Rain falls at all seasons of the year, but mostly in the summer. The valleys and lower hill ranges are covered with tropical and subtropical evergreen rainforest instead of monsoon (deciduous) forest. This region is characterised by subtropical and temperate forests of oak and pine are found at elevations above 900 metres (3,000 ft). This evergreen forest passes into sub-tropical pine forest at about 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) feet. Above 1,800 metres (5,900 ft), are forests of rhododendrons, and that in turn into evergreen conifer forest above 2,400 metres (7,900 ft) feet.
The Irrawaddy river basin covers an approximate area of 255 81 km (31 sq mi). The Central Basin consists of the valley of the middle Irrawaddy and lower Chindwin. It lies within the ' dry zone ' and consists almost entirely of plains covered with the teak - dominated Irrawaddy Moist Deciduous Forest ecoregion surrounding drier patches of dry forests. The central basin receives little rain (ave 650mm per year) although it does flood quickly during the July -- October storms. The one meteorological factor which does not vary greatly, and which is the most important for plant life, is atmospheric humidity. This is always high, except in the winter in certain localities. Humidity usually does not fall below 75 % and is 90 % or more for long periods during summer. Another feature is the prevalent southerly summer winds which erode the soil of the basin.
The natural habitats of this central zone have been much altered for farming and there are few protected areas.
The predominant trees of the drier patches are the thorny Terminalia oliveri and the hardwood dahat teak (Tectona hamiltoniana) with stands of Indaing Dipterocarpus tuberculatus which is cut for timber. The wildlife includes many birds, small mammals and reptiles such as the huge Burmese python. However, most of the large animals including the tiger have been hunted out or seen their habitats disappear.
The Irrawaddy River and its tributaries flow into the Andaman Sea through the Irrawaddy Delta. This ecoregion consists of mangroves and freshwater swamp forests. It is an extremely fertile area because of the river - borne silt deposited in the delta. The upper and central portions of the delta are almost entirely under cultivation, principally for rice. The southern portion of the ecoregion transitions into the Burmese Coast mangroves and is made up of fanlike marshes with oxbow lakes, islands, and meandering streams.
Birds of the delta are both winter visitors and passage migrants including great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), a wide variety of Anatidae, Eurasian coot (Fulica atra), about thirty species of migratory shorebirds, the whiskered tern (Chlidonias hybrida), the Caspian tern (Hydroprogne caspia), and the brown - headed gull (Larus brunnicephalus), which is very common. One of the most numerous wintering shorebird is the lesser sand plover (Charadrius mongolus), which occurs in flocks of many thousands along the outer coast of the delta. The wood sandpiper (Tringa glareola) and red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) are also abundant.
In the late 19th century, the spot - billed pelican (Pelecanus philippensis) nested in huge numbers in south Burma. One colony on the Sittaung River plain to the east of the delta was described in November 1877 as covering 300 square kilometres (100 sq mi) and containing millions of birds. Immense colonies still bred in the area in 1910, but the birds had disappeared completely by 1939. Small numbers were regularly reported in the delta in the 1940s, but no breeding sites were located. As of 2010, no pelicans have been recorded, and it may well be that the species is now extinct in Burma.
Several species of large mammal occur in the delta, but their populations are small and scattered, with the possible exceptions of the Malayan sambar deer (Cervus unicolor equinus), Indian hog deer (C. porcinus), and wild boar (Sus scrofa), which have been reported from all Reserved Forests. Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) were once widespread throughout the country with numbers as high as 10,000 animals, but in the last decade numbers have dwindled, partly due to transferring the animals to logging camps. Other species reported to be present include the leopard, Bengal tiger, crab - eating macaque, wild dog, and otters (Panthera pardus, P. tigris, Cuon alpinus, and Lutra species).
The saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) can be found in the southern part of the delta. The species was formerly abundant in coastal regions, but population numbers have decreased because of a combination of commercial skin hunting, habitat loss, drowning in fishing nets and over-collection of living animals to supply crocodile farms.
It was at this river that a battle between a saltwater crocodile and a tiger was observed that ended with the reptile devouring the tiger.
Despite recent declines in the sea turtle populations, five species are known to nest in Burma at well known island and mainland beaches known as turtle - banks. These are the olive ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta), the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas), the hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), and the leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea).
The Irrawaddy River has five major tributaries. As they flow through the northern tip of Burma -- the Kachin State -- they cut long north - south alluvial plains and relatively narrow upland valleys between the 2,000 to 3,000 metres (7,000 -- 10,000 ft) mountain ridges. The rivers joining the Irrawaddy are, from north to south:
As early as the sixth century, ancestors of the Burmese were using the Irrawaddy river, which runs through the center of Burma, to gain power in the region through trade and transport on the China -- India route. By the twelfth century, a well - developed network of canals made for flourishing rice cultivation. Later, the river became a key economic tool of Imperial British interests, who set up trading ports along its shores.
Today, the Irrawaddy is still the country 's most important commercial waterway. Despite Mandalay 's position as the chief rail and highway focus in northern Burma, a considerable amount of passenger and goods traffic moves by river. As the Irrawaddy Delta is one of the world 's major rice - growing areas, one of the most important goods transported is rice. Teak logs -- Myanmar is one of the world 's top exporters -- are floated down the river as large rafts. Before it is transported, teak has to be seasoned, because otherwise it wo n't float. This happens by girdling, a practice where a deep circular cut through bark and sap is made into the heartwood. Other major goods that are transported from the nation 's heartlands to Yangon for export are other foodstuffs, petroleum, cotton, and local commodities.
Commercial transportation on the Irrawaddy is maintained for about 1,300 kilometres (810 mi): from Hinthada to Bhamo (1,080 kilometres (670 mi)) throughout the year, but from Bhamo to Myitkyina (200 km) for only seven months. More than 3,200 kilometres (2,000 mi) of navigable waterways exist in the Irrawaddy delta, and there is a system of connecting canals. The Sittang is usable by smaller boats, but the Salween River, because of its rapids, is navigable for less than 160 kilometres (99 mi) from the sea. Small steamers and country boats also serve the coasts of the Rakhine State and Tanintharyi Region. On the Chindwin River, transportation is carried on by steam or diesel vessels throughout the year up to Homalin -- about 640 km from its confluence with the Irrawaddy. Seasonal navigation is carried on into Tamanthi, which is 57 miles (92 km) by river above Homalin.
The Chindwin valley has no railroad and relies heavily on river transport. Chauk, downstream from the confluence in the oil - field district, is a petroleum port. It is linked to Yangon by road and rail. Hinthada, near the apex of the delta, is the rail junction for lines leading to Kyangin and Bassein (Pathein). A ferry operates between Hinthada on the west bank and the railway station at Tharrawaw on the east bank.
Burma 's junta signed an agreement with China Power Investment Corporation in May 2007 for the construction of seven hydroelectric dams along the Irrawaddy, Mali, and N'Mai River in Kachin State. The total planned output of all seven plants will be 15,160 MWs of electricity, making it the largest hydropower project in Burma, surpassing the 7,100 MW Tasang Dam in Shan State. The following data is available for the dam locations:
The power generated by the dams will be transmitted to other countries in the South - East Asian region, with most going to China. Other countries targeted for power export are Thailand, India and Bangladesh.
The largest of the seven, the Myitsone Dam, is located at the confluence of the Mali and N'Mai Rivers at the creation of the Irrawaddy. Although the China Power Investment Corporation is project manager of the Confluence Region Hydropower Projects. ParConfluence Region Hydropower Projects, several companies have been or are currently involved in the preparation, construction and financing of the 3,600 MW Myitsone Dam. Asia World Company has a key position, amidst Burmese Suntac Technologies and state - run Myanmar Electrical Power Enterprise, a state - owned utility enterprise responsible for power generation, transmission and distribution
Chinese involvement comes from China Power Investment Corporation, China Southern Power Grid, Yunnan Machinery Equipment Import & Export Company Changjiang Institute of Surveying, Planning, Design and Research.
At least one Japanese company is involved, Kansai Electric Power Company.
Due to its location and size, construction of the Myitsone Dam has raised significant ecological and sociological concerns. According to the Irrawaddy Myitsone Dam Multipurpose Water Utilizing Project study, the maximum water level of the reservoir will be 290 metres. This makes for a flood zone of 766 km, compromising 47 villages.
Other consequences of the inundation include loss of farmland, loss of spawning habitat as fishes can not swim upstream anymore. The Kachin Development Networking Group, a network of civil society groups and development organisations in Kachin State warn this will lead to a loss of income for fishermen. They report locals are also worried about the flooding of cultural sites in the flood zone. As with other large dam projects, the Myitsone Dam construction will alter the hydrological characteristics of the river, e.g. preventing sediment from enriching riverbanks downstream, where it usually enriches the riverside foodproducing plains. This can affect fertility as far downstream as the Irrawaddy Delta, the major rice - producing area of Myanmar.
Ecological concerns focus on the inundation of an area that is the border of the Indo - Burma and South Central China biodiversity hotspots. The Mali and N'mai River confluence region falls within the Mizoram - Manipur - Kachin rainforests, added to the WWF list of outstanding examples of biodiverse regions.
The location of the Myitsone Dam, located less than 100 km from a fault line where the Eurasian and Indian tectonic plates meet, raised concerns about its earthquake resistance. Earthquakes in the region, such as the 5.3 magnitude earthquake that struck near the Burma - China border on 20 August 2008, prompted Naw Lar, the coordinator of the KDNG dam research project, to ask the junta to reconsider its dam projects.
The river flows through or past the following cities:
.
Until the construction of the Ava (Innwa) Bridge, a 16 span rail and road cantilever bridge built by the British colonial government in 1934, the only way across the Irrawaddy was by ferry. The bridge was destroyed by the retreating British Army during the World War II and was rebuilt in 1954 after Burmese independence and was the only bridge to span the Irrawaddy until recent times when a spate of bridge construction has been carried out by the government.
River Irrawaddy with Mandalay Hill on the east bank
Travelling on the great river
Traditional rivercraft on the Irrawaddy
Buffalo pulling logs from the Irrawaddy at Mandalay
The great river at Mingun
An island village on the Irrawaddy stays above water on stilts during the monsoons
Bamboo rafts by the Irrawaddy
Market on the west bank at Mingun
Bamboo raft sailing down the Irrawaddy
Woman sailing in small boat along the west bank at Mingun
Irrawaddy river near Bu Paya
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when was the white house called the white house | White House - Wikipedia
The White House is the official residence and workplace of the President of the United States. It is located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C. and has been the residence of every U.S. President since John Adams in 1800. The term, "White House '', is often used as a metonym for the president and his advisers.
The residence was designed by Irish - born architect James Hoban in the neoclassical style. Construction took place between 1792 and 1800 using Aquia Creek sandstone painted white. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he (with architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe) added low colonnades on each wing that concealed stables and storage. In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior and charring much of the exterior. Reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed Executive Residence in October 1817. Exterior construction continued with the addition of the semi-circular South portico in 1824 and the North portico in 1829.
Because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices relocated to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901. Eight years later in 1909, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office, which was eventually moved as the section was expanded. In the main mansion, the third - floor attic was converted to living quarters in 1927 by augmenting the existing hip roof with long shed dormers. A newly constructed East Wing was used as a reception area for social events; Jefferson 's colonnades connected the new wings. East Wing alterations were completed in 1946, creating additional office space. By 1948, the residence 's load - bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the interior rooms were completely dismantled and a new internal load - bearing steel frame constructed inside the walls. Once this work was completed, the interior rooms were rebuilt.
The modern - day White House complex includes the Executive Residence, West Wing, East Wing, the Eisenhower Executive Office Building -- the former State Department, which now houses offices for the President 's staff and the Vice President -- and Blair House, a guest residence. The Executive Residence is made up of six stories -- the Ground Floor, State Floor, Second Floor, and Third Floor, as well as a two - story basement. The property is a National Heritage Site owned by the National Park Service and is part of the President 's Park. In 2007, it was ranked second on the American Institute of Architects list of "America 's Favorite Architecture ''.
Following his April 1789 inauguration, President George Washington occupied two executive mansions in New York City: the Samuel Osgood House at 3 Cherry Street (April 1789 -- February 1790), and the Alexander Macomb House at 39 -- 41 Broadway (February -- August 1790). In May 1790, New York began construction of Government House for his official residence, but he never occupied it. The national capital moved to Philadelphia in December 1790.
The July 1790 Residence Act named Philadelphia, Pennsylvania the temporary national capital for a 10 - year period while the Federal City was under construction. The City of Philadelphia rented Robert Morris 's city house at 190 High Street (now 524 -- 30 Market Street) for Washington 's presidential residence.
The first U.S. President occupied the Market Street mansion from November 1790 to March 1797 and altered it in ways that may have influenced the design of the White House. As part of a futile effort to have Philadelphia named the permanent national capital, Pennsylvania built a much grander presidential mansion several blocks away, but Washington declined to occupy it.
President John Adams also occupied the Market Street mansion from March 1797 to May 1800. On Saturday, November 1, 1800, he became the first president to occupy the White House. The President 's House in Philadelphia became a hotel and was demolished in 1832, while the unused presidential mansion became home to the University of Pennsylvania.
The President 's House was a major feature of Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant's ' plan for the newly established federal city, Washington, D.C. (see: L'Enfant Plan). The architect of the White House was chosen in a design competition which received nine proposals, including one submitted anonymously by Thomas Jefferson.
President Washington visited Charleston, South Carolina in May 1791 on his "Southern Tour '', and saw the under - construction Charleston County Courthouse designed by Irish architect James Hoban. He is reputed to have met with Hoban then. The following year, he summoned the architect to Philadelphia and met with him in June 1792.
On July 16, 1792, the President met with the commissioners of the federal city to make his judgment in the architectural competition. His review is recorded as being brief, and he quickly selected Hoban 's submission.
The building has classical inspiration sources, that could be found directly or indirectly in the Roman architect Vitruvius or in Andrea Palladio styles; Palladio being an Italian architect of the Renaissance which had a considerable influence on the Western architecture (Palladian architecture). The building Hoban designed is verifiably influenced by the upper floors of Leinster House, in Dublin, which later became the seat of the Oireachtas (the Irish parliament). Several other Georgian - era Irish country houses have been suggested as sources of inspiration for the overall floor plan, details like the bow - fronted south front, and interior details like the former niches in the present Blue Room. These influences, though undocumented, are cited in the official White House guide, and in White House Historical Association publications. The first official White House guide, published in 1962, suggested a link between Hoban 's design for the South Portico and Château de Rastignac, a neoclassical country house located in La Bachellerie in the Dordogne region of France and designed by Mathurin Salat. Construction on the French house was initially started before 1789, interrupted by the French Revolution for twenty years and then finally built 1812 -- 1817 (based on Salat 's pre-1789 design). The theoretical link between the two houses has been criticized because Hoban did not visit France. Supporters of a connection posit that Thomas Jefferson, during his tour of Bordeaux in 1789, viewed Salat 's architectural drawings (which were on - file at the College) at the École Spéciale d'Architecture (Bordeaux Architectural College). On his return to the U.S. he then shared the influence with Washington, Hoban, Monroe, and Benjamin Henry Latrobe.
Construction of the White House began with the laying of the cornerstone on October 13, 1792, although there was no formal ceremony. The main residence, as well as foundations of the house, were built largely by enslaved and free African - American laborers, as well as employed Europeans. Much of the other work on the house was performed by immigrants, many not yet with citizenship. The sandstone walls were erected by Scottish immigrants, employed by Hoban, as were the high - relief rose and garland decorations above the north entrance and the "fish scale '' pattern beneath the pediments of the window hoods. There are conflicting claims as to where the sandstone used in the construction of the White House originated. Some reports suggest sandstone from the Croatian island of Brač (specifically the Pučišća querry whose stone was used to build the ancient Roman palace of Emperor Diocletian) was used in the original construction of the building, contrarily researchers believe limestone from the island was used in the 1902 renovations and not the original construction. Others suggest the original sandstone simply came from Aquia Creek in Stafford County, Virginia, as importing the stone would be too costly. The initial construction took place over a period of eight years, at a reported cost of $232,371.83 (equal to $3,350,711 today). Although not yet completed, the White House was ready for occupancy circa November 1, 1800.
Shortages, including material and labor, forced alterations to the earlier plan developed by French engineer Pierre Charles L'Enfant for a "palace '' that was five times larger than the house that was eventually built. The finished structure contained only two main floors instead of the planned three, and a less costly brick served as a lining for the stone façades. When construction was finished, the porous sandstone walls were whitewashed with a mixture of lime, rice glue, casein, and lead, giving the house its familiar color and name.
As it is a famed structure in America, several replicas of the White House have been constructed.
The north front is the principal façade of the White House and consists of three floors and eleven bays. The ground floor is hidden by a raised carriage ramp and parapet, thus the façade appears to be of two floors. The central three bays are behind a prostyle portico (this was a later addition to the house, built circa 1830) serving, thanks to the carriage ramp, as a porte cochere. The windows of the four bays flanking the portico, at first - floor level, have alternating pointed and segmented pediments, while at second - floor level the pediments are flat. The principal entrance at the center of the portico is surmounted by a lunette fanlight. Above the entrance is a sculpted floral festoon. The roofline is hidden by a balustraded parapet.
The mansion 's southern façade is a combination of the Palladian and neoclassical styles of architecture. It is of three floors, all visible. The ground floor is rusticated in the Palladian fashion. At the center of the façade is a neoclassical projecting bow of three bays. The bow is flanked by five bays, the windows of which, as on the north façade, have alternating segmented and pointed pediments at first - floor level. The bow has a ground floor double staircase leading to an Ionic colonnaded loggia (with the Truman Balcony at second - floor level), known as the south portico. The more modern third floor is hidden by a balustraded parapet and plays no part in the composition of the façade.
The building was originally variously referred to as the "President 's Palace '', "Presidential Mansion '', or "President 's House ''. The earliest evidence of the public calling it the "White House '' was recorded in 1811. A myth emerged that during the rebuilding of the structure after the Burning of Washington, white paint was applied to mask the burn damage it had suffered, giving the building its namesake hue. The name "Executive Mansion '' was used in official contexts until President Theodore Roosevelt established the formal name by having "White House -- Washington '' engraved on the stationery in 1901. The current letterhead wording and arrangement "The White House '' with the word "Washington '' centered beneath goes back to the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Although the structure was not completed until some years after the presidency of George Washington, there is speculation that the name of the traditional residence of the President of the United States may have derived from Martha Washington 's home, White House Plantation in Virginia, where the nation 's first President had courted the First Lady in the mid-18th century.
On Saturday, November 1, 1800, John Adams became the first president to take residence in the building. During Adams ' second day in the house, he wrote a letter to his wife Abigail, containing a prayer for the house. Adams wrote:
I pray Heaven to bestow the best of blessings on this House, and all that shall hereafter inhabit it. May none but honest and wise men ever rule under this roof.
Franklin D. Roosevelt had Adams 's blessing carved into the mantel in the State Dining Room.
Adams lived in the house only briefly before Thomas Jefferson moved into the "pleasant country residence '' in 1801. Despite his complaints that the house was too big ("big enough for two emperors, one pope, and the grand lama in the bargain ''), Jefferson considered how the White House might be added to. With Benjamin Henry Latrobe, he helped lay out the design for the East and West Colonnades, small wings that help conceal the domestic operations of laundry, a stable and storage. Today, Jefferson 's colonnades link the residence with the East and West Wings.
In 1814, during the War of 1812, the White House was set ablaze by British troops during the Burning of Washington, in retaliation for burning Upper Canada 's Parliament Buildings in the Battle of York; much of Washington was affected by these fires as well. Only the exterior walls remained, and they had to be torn down and mostly reconstructed because of weakening from the fire and subsequent exposure to the elements, except for portions of the south wall. Of the numerous objects taken from the White House when it was ransacked by British troops, only two have been recovered. Employees and slaves rescued a painting of George Washington, and in 1939, a Canadian man returned a jewelry box to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, claiming that his grandfather had taken it from Washington. Some observers allege that most of these spoils were lost when a convoy of British ships led by HMS Fantome sank en route to Halifax off Prospect during a storm on the night of November 24, 1814, even though Fantome had no involvement in that action.
After the fire, President James Madison resided in The Octagon House from 1814 to 1815, and then the Seven Buildings from 1815 to the end of his term. Meanwhile, both architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe and Hoban contributed to the design and oversight of the reconstruction, which lasted from 1815 until 1817. The south portico was constructed in 1824 during the James Monroe administration; the north portico was built six years later. Though Latrobe proposed similar porticos before the fire in 1814, both porticos were built as designed by Hoban. An elliptical portico at Château de Rastignac in La Bachellerie, France with nearly identical curved stairs is speculated as the source of inspiration due to its similarity with the South Portico, although this matter is one of great debate. Italian artisans, brought to Washington to help in constructing the U.S. Capitol, carved the decorative stonework on both porticos. Contrary to speculation, the North Portico was not modeled on a similar portico on another Dublin building, the Viceregal Lodge (now Áras an Uachtaráin, residence of the President of Ireland), for its portico postdates the White House porticos ' design. For the North Portico, a variation on the Ionic Order was devised incorporating a swag of roses between the volutes. This was done to link the new portico with the earlier carved roses above the entrance.
The White House as it looked following the conflagration of August 24, 1814
Jefferson and Latrobe 's West Wing Colonnade, in this nineteenth - century engraved view, is now the James S. Brady Press Briefing Room.
Principal story plan for the white house by Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1807.
Earliest known photograph of the White House, taken c. 1846 by John Plumbe during the administration of James K. Polk.
By the time of the American Civil War, the White House had become overcrowded. The location of the White House was questioned, just north of a canal and swampy lands, which provided conditions ripe for malaria and other unhealthy conditions. Brigadier General Nathaniel Michler was tasked to propose solutions to address these concerns. He proposed abandoning the use of the White House as a residence and designed a new estate for the first family at Meridian Hill in Washington, D.C., but Congress rejected the plan.
When Chester Arthur took office in 1881, he ordered renovations to the White House to take place as soon as the recently widowed Lucretia Garfield moved out. Arthur inspected the work almost nightly and made several suggestions. Louis Comfort Tiffany was asked to send selected designers to assist. Over twenty wagonloads of furniture and household items were removed from the building and sold at a public auction. All that was saved were bust portraits of John Adams and Martin Van Buren. A proposal was made to build a new residence south of the White House, but it failed to gain support.
In the fall of 1882 work was done on the main corridor, including tinting the walls pale olive and adding squares of gold leaf, and decorating the ceiling in gold and silver, and colorful traceries woven to spell "USA ''. The Red Room was painted a dull Pomeranian red, and its ceiling was decorated with gold, silver, and copper stars and stripes of red, white, and blue. A fifty - foot jeweled Tiffany glass screen, supported by imitation marble columns, replaced the glass doors that separated the main corridor from the north vestibule.
In 1891, First Lady Caroline Harrison proposed major extensions to the White House, including a National Wing on the east for a historical art gallery, and a wing on the west for official functions. A plan was devised by Colonel Theodore A. Bingham, which reflected the Harrison proposal. These plans were ultimately rejected.
However, in 1902 Theodore Roosevelt hired McKim, Mead & White to carry out expansions and renovations in a neoclassical style suited to the building 's architecture, removing the Tiffany screen and all Victorian additions. Charles McKim himself designed and managed the project, which gave more living space to the President 's large family by removing a staircase in the West Hall and moving executive office staff from the second floor of the residence into the new West Wing.
President William Howard Taft enlisted the help of architect Nathan C. Wyeth to add additional space to the West Wing, which included the addition of the Oval Office. In 1925, Congress enacted legislation allowing the White House to accept gifts of furniture and art for the first time. The West Wing was damaged by fire in 1929, but rebuilt during the remaining years of the Herbert Hoover presidency. In the 1930s, a second story was added, as well as a larger basement for White House staff, and President Franklin Roosevelt had the Oval Office moved to its present location: adjacent to the Rose Garden.
Decades of poor maintenance, the construction of a fourth story attic during the Coolidge administration, and the addition of a second - floor balcony over the south portico for Harry S. Truman took a great toll on the brick and sandstone structure built around a timber frame. By 1948, the house was declared to be in imminent danger of collapse, forcing President Truman to commission a reconstruction and to live across the street at Blair House from 1949 to 1951. The work, done by the firm of Philadelphia contractor John McShain, required the complete dismantling of the interior spaces, construction of a new load - bearing internal steel frame and the reconstruction of the original rooms within the new structure. The total cost of the renovations was about $5.7 million (US $54 million in 2018). Some modifications to the floor plan were made, the largest being the repositioning of the grand staircase to open into the Entrance Hall, rather than the Cross Hall. Central air conditioning was added, as well as two additional sub-basements providing space for workrooms, storage, and a bomb shelter. The Trumans moved back into the White House on March 27, 1952. While the house 's structure was kept intact by the Truman reconstruction, much of the new interior finishes were generic, and of little historic value. Much of the original plasterwork, some dating back to the 1814 -- 1816 rebuilding, was too damaged to reinstall, as was the original robust Beaux Arts paneling in the East Room. President Truman had the original timber frame sawed into paneling; the walls of the Vermeil Room, Library, China Room, and Map Room on the ground floor of the main residence were paneled in wood from the timbers.
Jacqueline Kennedy, wife of President John F. Kennedy (1961 -- 63), directed a very extensive and historic redecoration of the house. She enlisted the help of Henry Francis du Pont of the Winterthur Museum to assist in collecting artifacts for the mansion, many of which had once been housed there. Other antiques, fine paintings, and improvements of the Kennedy period were donated to the White House by wealthy philanthropists, including the Crowninshield family, Jane Engelhard, Jayne Wrightsman, and the Oppenheimer family.
Stéphane Boudin of the House of Jansen, a Paris interior - design firm that had been recognized worldwide, was employed by Jacqueline Kennedy to assist with the decoration. Different periods of the early republic and world history were selected as a theme for each room: the Federal style for the Green Room, French Empire for the Blue Room, American Empire for the Red Room, Louis XVI for the Yellow Oval Room, and Victorian for the President 's study, renamed the Treaty Room. Antique furniture was acquired, and decorative fabric and trim based on period documents was produced and installed. The Kennedy restoration resulted in a more authentic White House of grander stature, which recalled the French taste of Madison and Monroe. In the Diplomatic Reception Room, Mrs. Kennedy installed an antique "Vue de l'Amérique Nord '' wallpaper which Zuber & Cie had designed in 1834. The wallpaper had hung previously on the walls of another mansion until 1961 when that house was demolished for a grocery store. Just before the demolition, the wallpaper was salvaged and sold to the White House.
The first White House guidebook was produced under the direction of curator Lorraine Waxman Pearce with direct supervision from Mrs. Kennedy. Sale of the guidebook helped finance the restoration.
Kennedy showed her restoration of the White House to the public in a televised tour of the house on Valentine 's Day in 1962.
Congress enacted legislation in September 1961 declaring the White House a museum. Furniture, fixtures, and decorative arts could now be declared either historic or of artistic interest by the President. This prevented them from being sold (as many objects in the executive mansion had been in the past 150 years). When not in use or display at the White House, these items were to be turned over to the Smithsonian Institution for preservation, study, storage, or exhibition. The White House retains the right to have these items returned.
Out of respect for the historic character of the White House, no substantive architectural changes have been made to the house since the Truman renovation. Since the Kennedy restoration, every presidential family has made some changes to the private quarters of the White House, but the Committee for the Preservation of the White House must approve any modifications to the State Rooms. Charged with maintaining the historical integrity of the White House, the congressionally authorized committee works with each First Family -- usually represented by the First Lady, the White House Curator, and the Chief Usher -- to implement the family 's proposals for altering the house.
During the Nixon Administration (1969 -- 1974), First Lady Pat Nixon refurbished the Green Room, Blue Room, and Red Room, working with Clement Conger, the curator appointed by President Richard Nixon. Mrs. Nixon 's efforts brought more than 600 artifacts to the house, the largest acquisition by any administration. Her husband created the modern press briefing room over Franklin Roosevelt 's old swimming pool. Nixon also added a single - lane bowling alley to the White House basement.
Computers and the first laser printer were added during the Carter administration, and the use of computer technology was expanded during the Reagan administration. A Carter - era innovation, a set of solar water heating panels that were mounted on the roof of the White House, was removed during Reagan 's presidency. Redecorations were made to the private family quarters and maintenance was made to public areas during the Reagan years. The house was accredited as a museum in 1988.
In the 1990s, Bill and Hillary Clinton refurbished some rooms with the assistance of Arkansas decorator Kaki Hockersmith, including the Oval Office, the East Room, Blue Room, State Dining Room, Lincoln Bedroom, and Lincoln Sitting Room. During the administration of George W. Bush, First Lady Laura Bush refurbished the Lincoln Bedroom in a style contemporary with the Lincoln era; the Green Room, Cabinet Room, and theater were also refurbished.
The White House became one of the first wheelchair - accessible government buildings in Washington when modifications were made during the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, who used a wheelchair because of his paralytic illness. In the 1990s, Hillary Clinton, at the suggestion of Visitors Office Director Melinda N. Bates, approved the addition of a ramp in the East Wing corridor. It allowed easy wheelchair access for the public tours and special events that enter through the secure entrance building on the east side.
In 2003, the Bush administration reinstalled solar thermal heaters. These units are used to heat water for landscape maintenance personnel and for the presidential pool and spa. 167 solar photovoltaic grid - tied panels were installed at the same time on the roof of the maintenance facility. The changes were not publicized as a White House spokeswoman said the changes were an internal matter. The story was picked up by industry trade journals. In 2013, President Barack Obama had a set of solar panels installed on the roof of the White House, making it the first time solar power would be used for the president 's living quarters.
The president usually travels to and from the White House grounds via official motorcade or helicopter. The journey by helicopter was inaugurated in the 1950s when President Dwight D. Eisenhower began traveling on Marine One to and from his official residence.
Today the group of buildings housing the presidency is known as the White House Complex. It includes the central Executive Residence flanked by the East Wing and West Wing. The Chief Usher coordinates day to day household operations. The White House includes: six stories and 55,000 ft (5,100 m) of floor space, 132 rooms and 35 bathrooms, 412 doors, 147 windows, twenty - eight fireplaces, eight staircases, three elevators, five full - time chefs, a tennis court, a (single - lane) bowling alley, a movie theater (officially called the White House Family Theater), a jogging track, a swimming pool, and a putting green. It receives up to 30,000 visitors each week.
The original residence is in the center. Two colonnades -- one on the east and one on the west -- designed by Jefferson, now serve to connect the East and West Wings added later. The Executive Residence houses the president 's dwelling, as well as rooms for ceremonies and official entertaining. The State Floor of the residence building includes the East Room, Green Room, Blue Room, Red Room, State Dining Room, Family Dining Room, Cross Hall, Entrance Hall, and Grand Staircase. The Ground Floor is made up of the Diplomatic Reception Room, Map Room, China Room, Vermeil Room, Library, the main kitchen, and other offices. The second floor family residence includes the Yellow Oval Room, East and West Sitting Halls, the White House Master Bedroom, President 's Dining Room, the Treaty Room, Lincoln Bedroom and Queens ' Bedroom, as well as two additional bedrooms, a smaller kitchen, and a private dressing room. The third floor consists of the White House Solarium, Game Room, Linen Room, a Diet Kitchen, and another sitting room (previously used as President George W. Bush 's workout room).
The West Wing houses the President 's office (the Oval Office) and offices of his senior staff, with room for about 50 employees. It also includes the Cabinet Room, where the president conducts business meetings and where the Cabinet meets, as well as the White House Situation Room, James S. Brady Press Briefing Room, and Roosevelt Room. In 2007, work was completed on renovations of the press briefing room, adding fiber optic cables and LCD screens for the display of charts and graphs. The makeover took 11 months and cost of $8 million, out of which news outlets paid $2 million. In September 2010, a two - year project began on the West Wing, creating a multistory underground structure; this will be followed with additional renovation of the wing.
The Oval Office, Roosevelt Room, and other portions of the West Wing were partially replicated on a sound stage and used as the setting for the popular television show The West Wing.
The East Wing, which contains additional office space, was added to the White House in 1942. Among its uses, the East Wing has intermittently housed the offices and staff of the First Lady, and the White House Social Office. Rosalynn Carter, in 1977, was the first to place her personal office in the East Wing and to formally call it the "Office of the First Lady ''. The East Wing was built during World War II in order to hide the construction of an underground bunker to be used in emergencies. The bunker has come to be known as the Presidential Emergency Operations Center.
The White House and grounds cover just over 18 acres (about 7.3 hectares). Before the construction of the North Portico, most public events were entered from the South Lawn, which was graded and planted by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson also drafted a planting plan for the North Lawn that included large trees that would have mostly obscured the house from Pennsylvania Avenue. During the mid-to - late 19th century a series of ever larger greenhouses were built on the west side of the house, where the current West Wing is located. During this period, the North Lawn was planted with ornate carpet - style flowerbeds. The general layout of the White House grounds today is based on the 1935 design by Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. of the Olmsted Brothers firm, commissioned by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. During the Kennedy administration, the White House Rose Garden was redesigned by Rachel Lambert Mellon. The Rose Garden borders the West Colonnade. Bordering the East Colonnade is the Jacqueline Kennedy Garden, which was begun by Jacqueline Kennedy but completed after her husband 's assassination. On the weekend of June 23, 2006, a century - old American Elm (Ulmus americana L.) tree on the north side of the building, came down during one of the many storms amid intense flooding. Among the oldest trees on the grounds are several magnolias (Magnolia grandiflora) planted by Andrew Jackson, including the Jackson Magnolia, reportedly grown from a sprout taken from the favorite tree of Jackson 's recently deceased wife, the sprout planted after Jackson moved into the White House. The tree stood for over 200 years; but in 2017, having become too weak to stand on its own, it was decided it should be removed and replaced with one of its offspring. Michelle Obama planted the White House 's first organic garden and installed beehives on the South Lawn of the White House, which will supply organic produce and honey to the First Family and for state dinners and other official gatherings.
The Cross Hall, connecting the State Dining Room and the East Room on the State Floor
Marine One prepares for landing on the South Lawn where State Arrival Ceremonies for visiting heads of state take place.
The White House and surrounding grounds
The White House with fountain and grounds
White House from the north
Like the English and Irish country houses it was modeled on, the White House was, from the start, open to the public until the early part of the 20th century. President Thomas Jefferson held an open house for his second inaugural in 1805, and many of the people at his swearing - in ceremony at the Capitol followed him home, where he greeted them in the Blue Room. Those open houses sometimes became rowdy: in 1829, President Andrew Jackson had to leave for a hotel when roughly 20,000 citizens celebrated his inauguration inside the White House. His aides ultimately had to lure the mob outside with washtubs filled with a potent cocktail of orange juice and whiskey. Even so, the practice continued until 1885, when newly elected Grover Cleveland arranged for a presidential review of the troops from a grandstand in front of the White House instead of the traditional open house. Jefferson also permitted public tours of his house, which have continued ever since, except during wartime, and began the tradition of annual receptions on New Year 's Day and on the Fourth of July. Those receptions ended in the early 1930s, although President Bill Clinton briefly revived the New Year 's Day open house in his first term.
The White House remained accessible in other ways; President Abraham Lincoln complained that he was constantly beleaguered by job seekers waiting to ask him for political appointments or other favors, or eccentric dispensers of advice like "General '' Daniel Pratt, as he began the business day. Lincoln put up with the annoyance rather than risk alienating some associate or friend of a powerful politician or opinion maker.
In February 1974, a stolen army helicopter landed without authorization on the White House 's grounds. Twenty years later, in 1994, a light plane flown by Frank Eugene Corder crashed on the White House grounds, and he died instantly.
As a result of increased security regarding air traffic in the capital, the White House was evacuated in May 2005 before an unauthorized aircraft could approach the grounds.
On May 20, 1995, primarily as a response to the Oklahoma City bombing of April 19, 1995, the United States Secret Service closed off Pennsylvania Avenue to vehicular traffic in front of the White House from the eastern edge of Lafayette Park to 17th Street. Later, the closure was extended an additional block to the east to 15th Street, and East Executive Avenue, a small street between the White House and the Treasury Building.
After September 11, 2001, this was made permanent in addition to closing E Street between the South Portico of the White House and the Ellipse. In response to the Boston Marathon bombing, the road was closed to the public in its entirety for a period of two days.
The Pennsylvania Avenue closing has been opposed by organized civic groups in Washington, D.C. They argue that the closing impedes traffic flow unnecessarily and is inconsistent with the well - conceived historic plan for the city. As for security considerations, they note that the White House is set much farther back from the street than numerous other sensitive federal buildings are.
Prior to its inclusion within the fenced compound that now includes the Old Executive Office Building to the west and the Treasury Building to the east, this sidewalk served as a queuing area for the daily public tours of the White House. These tours were suspended in the wake of the September 11 attacks. In September 2003, they resumed on a limited basis for groups making prior arrangements through their Congressional representatives or embassies in Washington for foreign nationals and submitting to background checks, but the White House remained closed to the public. White House tours were suspended for most of 2013 due to budget constraints after sequestration. The White House reopened to the public in November 2013.
The White House Complex is protected by the United States Secret Service and the United States Park Police.
NASAMS (Norwegian Advanced Surface to Air Missile System) were used to guard air space over Washington, D.C. during the 2005 presidential inauguration. The same NASAMS units have since been used to protect the president and all airspace around the White House, which is strictly prohibited to aircraft.
For security reasons, the section of Pennsylvania Avenue on the north side of the White House is closed to all vehicular traffic, except government officials.
White House at night
North front of the White House on the reverse (back) of the U.S. $20 bill.
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where did many of the first christian monks and nuns live | Christian monasticism - wikipedia
Christian monasticism is the devotional practice of individuals who live ascetic and typically cloistered lives that are dedicated to Christian worship. It began to develop early in the history of the Christian Church, modeled upon scriptural examples and ideals, including those in the Old Testament, but not mandated as an institution in the scriptures. It has come to be regulated by religious rules (e.g. the Rule of Saint Augustine, Anthony the Great, St Pachomius, the Rule of St Basil, the Rule of St Benedict,) and, in modern times, the Canon law of the respective Christian denominations that have forms of monastic living. Those living the monastic life are known by the generic terms monks (men) and nuns (women). The word monk originated from the Greek monachos "monk '', itself from monos meaning "alone ''.
Monks did not live in monasteries at first, rather, they began by living alone, as the word monos might suggest. As more people took on the lives of monks, living alone in the wilderness, they started to come together and model themselves after the original monks nearby. Quickly, the monks formed communities to further their ability to observe an ascetic life. According to Christianity historian Robert Louis Wilken, "By creating an alternate social structure within the Church they laid the foundations for one of the most enduring Christian institutions... '' Monastics generally dwell in a monastery, whether they live there in community (cenobites), or in seclusion (recluses).
The basic idea of monasticism in all its varieties is seclusion or withdrawal from the world or society. The object of this is to achieve a life whose ideal is different from and largely at variance with that pursued by the majority of humanity, and the method adopted, no matter what its precise details may be, is always self - abnegation or organized asceticism. Monastic life is distinct from the "religious orders '' such as the friars, canons regular, clerks regular, and the more recent religious congregations. The latter have essentially some special work or aim, such as preaching, teaching, liberating captives, etc., which occupies a large place in their activities. While monks have undertaken labours of the most varied character, in every case this work is extrinsic to the essence of the monastic state.
Both ways of living out the Christian life are regulated by the respective church law of those Christian denominations that recognize it (e.g., the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Anglican Church, or the Lutheran Church). Christian monastic life does not always involve communal living with like - minded Christians. Christian monasticism has varied greatly in its external forms, but, broadly speaking, it has two main types (a) the eremitical or secluded, (b) the cenobitical or city life. St. Anthony the Abbot may be called the founder of the first and St. Pachomius of the second. The monastic life is based on Jesus 's amen to "be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect '' (Matthew 5: 48). This ideal, also called the state of perfection, can be seen, for example, in the Philokalia, a book of monastic writings. Their manner of self - renunciation has three elements corresponding to the three evangelical counsels: poverty, chastity and obedience.
Monks and friars are two distinct roles. In the thirteenth century "... new orders of friars were founded to teach the Christian faith, '' because monasteries had declined.
First Century groups such as the Essenes and the Therapeutae followed lifestyles that could be seen as precursors to Christian monasticism. Early Christian monasticism drew its inspiration from the examples of the Prophet Elijah and John the Baptist, who both lived alone in the desert, and above all from the story of Jesus ' time in solitary struggle with Satan in the desert, before his public ministry. The Carmelites find inspiration in the old testament prophet Elijah.
From the earliest times within the Christian Church, there were probably individual hermits who lived a life in isolation in imitation of Jesus 's 40 days in the desert. They have left no confirmed archaeological traces and only hints in the written record. Communities of virgins who had consecrated themselves to Christ are found at least as far back as the 2nd century. There were also individual ascetics, known as the "devout '', who usually lived not in the deserts but on the edge of inhabited places, still remaining in the world but practicing asceticism and striving for union with God.
Eremitic monasticism, or solitary monasticism, is characterized by a complete withdrawal from society. The word ' eremitic ' comes from the Greek word eremos which means desert. This name was given because of St. Anthony of the Desert, or St. Anthony of Egypt, who left civilization behind to live on a solitary Egyptian mountain in the third century. Though he was probably not the first Christian hermit, he is recognized as such as he was the first known one.
Paul the Hermit is the first Christian historically known to have been living as a monk. In the 3rd Century Anthony of Egypt (252 - 356) lived as a hermit in the desert and gradually gained followers who lived as hermits nearby but not in actual community with him. This type of monasticism is called eremitical or "hermit - like ''.
An early form of "proto - monasticism '' appeared as well in the 3rd century among Syriac Christians through the "Sons of the covenant '' movement. Eastern Orthodoxy looks to Basil of Caesarea as a founding monastic legislator, as well to as the example of the Desert Fathers.
Another option for becoming a solitary monastic was to become an anchoress. This began because there were women who wanted to live the solitary lifestyle but were not able to live alone in the wild. Thus they would go to the Bishop for permission who would then perform the rite of enclosure. After this was completed the anchoress would live alone in a room that typically had a window that opened into a church so they could receive communion and participate in church services. There were two other windows that allowed food to be passed in and people to come seek advice. The most well known anchoress was Julian of Norwich who was born in England in 1342.
While the earliest Desert Fathers lived as hermits, they were rarely completely isolated, but often lived in proximity to one another, and soon loose - knit communities began to form in such places as the Desert of Nitria and the Desert of Skete. Saint Macarius established individual groups of cells such as those at Kellia (founded in 328.) These monks were anchorites, following the monastic ideal of St. Anthony. They lived by themselves, gathering together for common worship on Saturdays and Sundays only.
In 346 St Pachomius established in Egypt the first cenobitic Christian monastery. At Tabenna in Upper Egypt, sometime around 323 AD, Pachomius decided to mold his disciples into a more organized community in which the monks lived in individual huts or rooms (cellula in Latin,) but worked, ate, and worshipped in shared space. The intention was to bring together individual ascetics who, although pious, did not, like Saint Anthony, have the physical ability or skills to live a solitary existence in the desert. This method of monastic organization is called cenobitic or "community - based ''. In Catholic theology, this community - based living is considered superior because of the obedience practiced and the accountability offered. The head of a monastery came to be known by the word for "Father; '' - in Syriac, Abba; in English, "Abbot ''.
Guidelines for daily life were created, and separate monasteries were created for men and women. St Pachomius introduced a monastic Rule of cenobitic life, giving everyone the same food and attire. The monks of the monastery fulfilled the obediences assigned them for the common good of the monastery. Among the various obediences was copying books. St Pachomius considered that an obedience fulfilled with zeal was greater than fasting or prayer.
A Pachomian monastery was a collection of buildings surrounded by a wall. The monks were distributed in houses, each house containing about forty monks. There would be thirty to forty houses in a monastery. There was an abbot over each monastery, and provosts with subordinate officials over each house. The monks were divided into houses according to the work they were employed in: thus there would be a house for carpenters, a house for agriculturists, and so forth. But other principles of division seem to have been employed, e.g., there was a house for the Greeks. On Saturdays and Sundays all the monks assembled in the church for Mass; on other days the Office and other spiritual exercises were celebrated in the houses.
From a secular point of view, a monastery was an industrial community in which almost every kind of trade was practised. This, of course, involved much buying and selling, so the monks had ships of their own on the Nile, which conveyed their agricultural produce and manufactured goods to the market and brought back what the monasteries required. From the spiritual point of view, the Pachomian monk was a religious living under a rule.
The community of Pachomius was so successful he was called upon to help organize others, and by one count by the time he died in 346 there were thought to be 3,000 such communities dotting Egypt, especially in the Thebaid. From there monasticism quickly spread out first to Palestine and the Judean Desert, Syria, North Africa and eventually the rest of the Roman Empire.
In 370 Basil the Great, monastic founder in Cappadocia, became bishop of Caesarea and wrote principles of ascetic life. Eastern monastic teachings were brought to the western church by Saint John Cassian (ca. 360 -- ca. 435). As a young adult, he and his friend Germanus entered a monastery in Palestine but then journeyed to Egypt to visit the eremitic groups in Nitria. Many years later, Cassian founded a monastery of monks and probably also one of nuns near Marseilles. He wrote two long works, the Institutes and Conferences. In these books he not only transmitted his Egyptian experience but also gave Christian monasticism a profound evangelical and theological basis.
At the time of his conversion in Milan in the years 386 - 387, Augustine was aware of the life of Saint Anthony in the desert of Egypt. Upon his return to Africa as a Christian in the year 388, however, Augustine and a few Christian friends founded at Thagaste a lay community. They became cenobites in the countryside rather than in the desert.
Saint Benedict (c. 480 -- 547 AD) lived for many years as a hermit in a cave near Subiaco, Italy. He was asked to be head over several monks who wished to change to the monastic style of Pachomius by living in community. Between the years 530 and 560, he wrote the Rule of Saint Benedict as a guideline for monks living in community.
Scholars such as Lester K. Little attribute the rise of monasticism at this time to the immense changes in the church brought about by Constantine 's legalization of Christianity. The subsequent transformation of Christianity into the main Roman religion ended the position of Christians as a minority sect. In response a new form of dedication was developed. The long - term "martyrdom '' of the ascetic replaced the violent physical martyrdom of the persecutions.
Orthodox monasticism does not have religious orders as in the West, so there are no formal Monastic Rules (Regulae); rather, each monk and nun is encouraged to read all of the Holy Fathers and emulate their virtues. There is also no division between the "active '' and "contemplative '' life. Orthodox monastic life embraces both active and contemplative aspects.
Within the Eastern Orthodox Church, there exist three types of monasticism: eremitic, cenobitic, and the skete. The skete is a very small community, often of two or three (Matthew 18: 20), under the direction of an Elder. They pray privately for most of the week, then come together on Sundays and Feast Days for communal prayer, thus combining aspects of both eremitic and coenobitic monasticism.
Even before Saint Anthony the Great (the "father of monasticism '') went out into the desert, there were Christians who devoted their lives to ascetic discipline and striving to lead an evangelical life (i.e., in accordance with the teachings of the Gospel). As monasticism spread in the East from the hermits living in the deserts of Egypt to Palestine, Syria, and on up into Asia Minor and beyond, the sayings (apophthegmata) and acts (praxeis) of the Desert Fathers and Desert Mothers came to be recorded and circulated, first among their fellow monastics and then among the laity as well.
Among these earliest recorded accounts was the Paradise, by Palladius of Galatia, Bishop of Helenopolis (also known as the Lausiac History, after the prefect Lausus, to whom it was addressed). Saint Athanasius of Alexandria (whose Life of Saint Anthony the Great set the pattern for monastic hagiography), Saint Jerome, and other anonymous compilers were also responsible for setting down very influential accounts. Also of great importance are the writings surrounding the communities founded by Saint Pachomius, the father of cenobiticism, and his disciple Saint Theodore, the founder of the skete form of monasticism.
Among the first to set forth precepts for the monastic life was Saint Basil the Great, a man from a professional family who was educated in Caesarea, Constantinople, and Athens. Saint Basil visited colonies of hermits in Palestine and Egypt but was most strongly impressed by the organized communities developed under the guidance of Saint Pachomius. Saint Basil 's ascetical writings set forth standards for well - disciplined community life and offered lessons in what became the ideal monastic virtue: humility.
Saint Basil wrote a series of guides for monastic life (the Lesser Asketikon the Greater Asketikon the Morals, etc.) which, while not "Rules '' in the legalistic sense of later Western rules, provided firm indications of the importance of a single community of monks, living under the same roof, and under the guidance -- and even discipline -- of a strong abbot. His teachings set the model for Greek and Russian monasticism but had less influence in the Latin West.
Of great importance to the development of monasticism is the Saint Catherine 's Monastery on Mount Sinai in Egypt. Here the Ladder of Divine Ascent was written by Saint John Climacus (c. 600), a work of such importance that many Orthodox monasteries to this day read it publicly either during the Divine Services or in Trapeza during Great Lent.
At the height of the East Roman Empire, numerous great monasteries were established by the emperors, including the twenty "sovereign monasteries '' on the Holy Mountain, an actual "monastic republic '' wherein the entire country is devoted to bringing souls closer to God. In this milieu, the Philokalia was compiled.
As the Great Schism between East and West grew, conflict arose over misunderstandings about Hesychasm. Saint Gregory Palamas, bishop of Thessalonica, an experienced Athonite monk, defended Orthodox spirituality against the attacks of Barlaam of Calabria, and left numerous important works on the spiritual life.
Christian monasticism was and continued to be a lay condition -- monks depended on a local parish church for the sacraments. However, if the monastery was isolated in the desert, as were many of the Egyptian examples, that inconvenience compelled monasteries either to take in priest members, to have their abbot or other members ordained. A priest - monk is sometimes called a hieromonk. In many cases in Eastern Orthodoxy, when a bishopric needed to be filled, they would look to nearby monasteries to find suitable candidates, being good sources of men who were spiritually mature and generally possessing the other qualities desired in a bishop. Eventually, among the Orthodox Churches it became established by canon law that all bishops must be monks.
Monastic centers thrive to this day in Bulgaria, Ethiopia, Georgia, Greece, Republic of Macedonia, Russia, Romania, Serbia, the Holy Land, and elsewhere in the Orthodox world, the Autonomous Monastic State of Mount Athos remaining the spiritual center of monasticism for the Eastern Orthodox Church. Since the fall of the Iron Curtain, a great renaissance of monasticism has occurred, and many previously empty or destroyed monastic communities have been reopened.
Monasticism continues to be very influential in the Eastern Orthodox Church. According to the Sacred Canons, all Bishops must be monks (not merely celibate), and feast days to Glorified monastic saints are an important part of the liturgical tradition of the church. Fasting, Hesychasm, and the pursuit of the spiritual life are strongly encouraged not only among monastics but also among the laity.
There are also three levels of monks: The Rassophore, the Stavrophore, and the Schema - Monk (or Schema - Nun). Each of the three degrees represents an increased level of asceticism. In the early days of monasticism, there was only one level -- the Great Schema -- and even Saint Theodore the Studite argued against the establishment of intermediate grades, but nonetheless the consensus of the church has favored the development of three distinct levels.
When a candidate wishes to embrace the monastic life, he will enter the monastery of his choice as a guest and ask to be received by the Hegumen (Abbot). After a period of at least three days the Hegumen may at his discretion clothe the candidate as a novice. There is no formal ceremony for the clothing of a novice; he (or she) would simply be given the Podraznik, belt and skoufos.
After a period of about three years, the Hegumen may at his discretion tonsure the novice as a Rassophore monk, giving him the outer garment called the Rassa (Greek: Rason). A monk (or nun) may remain in this grade all the rest of his life, if he so chooses. But the Rite of Tonsure for the Rassophore refers to the grade as that of the "Beginner '', so it is intended that the monk will advance on to the next level. The Rassophore is also given a klobuk which he wears in church and on formal occasions. In addition, Rassophores will be given a prayer rope at their tonsure.
The next rank, Stavrophore, is the grade that most Russian monks remain all their lives. The title Stavrophore means "cross-bearer '', because when Tonsured into this grade the monastic is given a cross to wear at all times. This cross is called a Paramand -- a wooden cross attached by ribbons to a square cloth embroidered with the Instruments of the Passion and the words, "I bear upon my body the marks of the Lord Jesus '' (Galatians 6: 17). The Paramand is so called because it is worn under the Mantle (Greek: Mandyas; Church Slavonic: Mantya), which is a long cape which completely covers the monk from neck to foot. Among the Russians, Stavrophores are also informally referred to as "mantle monks ''. At his Tonsure, a Stavrophore is given a wooden hand cross and a lit candle, as well as a prayer rope.
The highest rank of monasticism is the Great Schema (Greek: Megaloschemos; Church Slavonic: Schimnik). Attaining the level of Schema monk is much more common among the Greeks than it is among the Russians, for whom it is normally reserved to hermits, or to very advanced monastics. The Schema monk or Schema nun wears the same habit as the Rassophore, but to it is added the Analavos (Church Slavonic: Analav), a garment shaped like a cross, covering the shoulders and coming down to the knees (or lower) in front and in back. This garment is roughly reminiscent of the scapular worn by some Roman Catholic orders, but it is finely embroidered with the Cross and instruments of the Passion (see illustration, above). The Klobuk worn by a Schema monk is also embroidered with a red cross and other symbols. the Klobuk may be shaped differently, more rounded at the top, in which case it is referred to as a koukoulion. The skufia worn by a Schema monk is also more intricately embroidered.
The religious habit worn by Orthodox monastics is the same for both monks and nuns, except that the nuns wear an additional veil, called an apostolnik.
The central and unifying feature of Orthodox monasticism is Hesychasm, the practice of silence, and the concentrated saying of the Jesus Prayer. All ascetic practices and monastic humility is guided towards preparing the heart for theoria or the "divine vision '' that comes from the union of the soul with God. It should be noted, however, that such union is not accomplished by any human activity. All an ascetic can do is prepare the ground; it is for God to cause the seed to grow and bear fruit.
The introduction of monasticism into the West may be dated from about A.D. 340 when St. Athanasius visited Rome accompanied by the two Egyptian monks Ammon and Isidore, disciples of St. Anthony. The publication of the "Vita Antonii '' some years later and its translation into Latin spread the knowledge of Egyptian monachism widely and many were found in Italy to imitate the example thus set forth. The first Italian monks aimed at reproducing exactly what was done in Egypt and not a few -- such as St. Jerome, Rufinus, Paula, Eustochium and the two Melanias -- actually went to live in Egypt or Palestine as being better suited to monastic life than Italy.
The earliest phases of monasticism in Western Europe involved figures like Martin of Tours, who after serving in the Roman legions converted to Christianity and established a hermitage near Milan, then moved on to Poitiers where a community gathered around his hermitage. He was called to become Bishop of Tours in 372, where he established a monastery at Marmoutiers on the opposite bank of the Loire River, a few miles upstream from the city. His cell was a hut of wood, and round it his disciples, who soon numbered eighty, dwelt in caves and huts. His monastery was laid out as a colony of hermits rather than as a single integrated community. The type of life was simply the Antonian monachism of Egypt.
Honoratus of Marseilles was a wealthy Gallo - Roman aristocrat, who after a pilgrimage to Egypt, founded the Monastery of Lérins in 410, on an island lying off the modern city of Cannes. The monastery combined a community with isolated hermitages where older, spiritually - proven monks could live in isolation. Lérins became, in time, a center of monastic culture and learning, and many later monks and bishops would pass through Lérins in the early stages of their career. Honoratus was called to be Bishop of Arles.
John Cassian began his monastic career at a monastery in Palestine and Egypt around 385 to study monastic practice there. In Egypt he had been attracted to the isolated life of hermits, which he considered the highest form of monasticism, yet the monasteries he founded were all organized monastic communities. About 415 he established two monasteries near Marseilles, one for men, one for women. In time these attracted a total of 5,000 monks and nuns. Most significant for the future development of monasticism were Cassian 's Institutes, which provided a guide for monastic life and his Conferences, a collection of spiritual reflections.
It seems that the first Celtic monasteries were merely settlements where the Christians lived together -- priests and laity, men, women, and children alike -- as a kind of religious clan. According to James F. Kenney, every important church was a monastic establishment, with a small walled village of monks and nuns living under ecclesiastical discipline, and ministering to the people of the surrounding area. Monastic spirituality came to Britain and then Ireland from Gaul, by way of Lérins, Tours, and Auxerre. Its spirituality was heavily influenced by the Desert Fathers, with a monastic enclosure surrounding a collection of individual monastic cells. The British church employed an episcopal structure corresponding closely to the model used elsewhere in the Christian world. Illtud, David, Gildas, and Deiniol were leading figures in 6th - century Britain.
According to Thomas O'Loughlin, "Each monastery should be seen, as with most monasteries of the period, as an individual response to the monastic impulse by someone who had experienced monasticism and then went off to establish either a hermitage to which others later came or a cenobitic community. '' The monasteries were organized on a family basis. Next in importance to the abbot was the scribe, in charge of the scriptorium, the teaching function of the monastery, and the keeping of the annals. The role of scribe was often a path to the position of abbot. Hereditary right and relationship to the abbot were factors influencing appointment to monastic offices.
Buildings would generally have been of wood, wattle and thatch. Monasteries tended to be cenobitical in that monks lived in separate cells but came together for common prayer, meals, and other functions. Celtic monasticism was characterized by an rigorous asceticism and a love for learning.
Some more austere ascetics became hermits living in remote locations in what came to be called the "green martyrdom ''.
Women 's communities were normally much smaller and poorer. The nuns had to do everything themselves, unless they had a couple of tenant - farmers to supply food, or pious who made donations. They spun and wove, kept their huts clean, milked their cows, and made their own meals, which could be meager.
Around 397, Ninian, a Briton probably from the area south of the Firth of Clyde, dedicated his church at Whithorn to St. Martin of Tours. According to Bede, Ninian evangelized the southern Picts.
Kentigern was an apostle of the British Kingdom of Strathclyde in the late 6th century, and the founder and patron saint of the city of Glasgow. Due to anti-Christian sentiment he re-located for a time to Wales, where he established a monastery at St. Asaph 's. Here he divided the monks into three groups. The unlettered were assigned to the duty of agriculture, the care of cattle, and the other necessary duties outside the monastery. He assigned 300 to duties within the cloister of the monastery, such as doing the ordinary work, and preparing food, and building workshops. The remaining monks, who were lettered, he appointed to the celebration of Divine service in church by day and by night.
Cadoc founded Llancarfan in the latter part of the fifth century. He received the religious habit from an Irish monk, St. Tathai, superior of a small community near Chepstow, in Monmouthshire. Returning to his native county, Cadoc built a church, and monastery, which was called Llancarfan, or the "Church of the Stags ''. There he also established a college and a hospital. His legend recounts that he daily fed a hundred clergy and a hundred soldiers, a hundred workmen, a hundred poor men, and the same number of widows. When thousands left the world and became monks, they very often did so as clansmen, dutifully following the example of their chief. Bishoprics, canonries, and parochial benefices passed from one to another member of the same family, and frequently from father to son. Their tribal character is a feature which Irish and Welsh monasteries had in common.
Illtyd spent the first part of his religious life as a disciple of Cadoc at Llancarfan. He founded the monastery at Llanilltyd Fawr. One of his students was Paul Aurelian, a key figure in Cornish monasticism. Gildas the Wise was also a student at Llanilltyd Fawr, as was Samson of Dol. Samson founded a monastery in an abandoned Roman fort near the river Severn and lived for a time the life of a hermit in a nearby cave before going to Brittany.
St David established his monastery on a promontory on the western sea, well placed to be a centre of Insular Christianity. His establishment became known for its austerity and holiness, more than as a centre of learning, although when King Alfred sought a scholar for his court, he summoned Asser of St David 's. Contemporary with David were Teilo, Cadoc, Padarn, Beuno and Tysilio among them.
Many early medieval settlements in the region were occupied by hermitage chapels which are often dedicated to St Michael as the conventional slayer of pagan demons, as at St Michael 's Mount.
The earliest monastic settlements in Ireland emerged at the end of the fifth century. It was from Illtud and his colleagues that the Irish sought guidance on matters of ritual and discipline. Enda of Aran is called the "patriarch of Irish monasticism ''. A warrior prince of Oriel, upon the death of his betrothed he decided to study for the priesthood. He first joined St Ailbe at Emly, before travelling to Ninian 's Candida Casa in Scotland, where he was ordained. About 484 he established the first Irish monastery at Killeaney on Aran Mor. Finnian of Clonard is said to have studied under Cadoc at Llancarfan in Glamorganshire. Finnian of Moville studied under Colman of Dromore and Mochae of Noendrum, before he too went to Candida Casa.
Ireland was a rural society of chieftains living in the countryside. As in Wales, if a clan chieftain accepted Christianity so did those he ruled. Commonly Irish monasteries were established by grants of land to an abbot or abbess who came from a local noble family. The monastery became the spiritual focus of the tribe or kin group. Successive abbots and abbesses were members of the founder 's family, a policy which kept the monastic lands under the jurisdiction of the family (and corresponded to Irish legal tradition, which only allowed the transfer of land within a family). In Ireland, the abbot was often called "coarb '', a term designating the heir of successor of the founder.
The abbots of the principal monasteries -- such as Clonard, Armagh, Clonmacnoise, Swords, etc. -- were of the highest rank and held in the greatest esteem. They wielded great power and had vast influence. The abbot usually was only a presbyter, but in the large monasteries there were one or more resident bishops who conferred orders and discharged the other functions of a bishop. The abbot was superior of the house, and all were subject to him.
The Irish rule was rigorous. It was more or less a copy of the French rule, as the French was a copy of the Thebaid. The daily routine of monastic life was prayer, study, and manual labor. With regard to food the rule was very strict. Only one meal a day, at 3 o'clock p.m., was allowed, except on Sundays and Feast days. Wednesdays and Fridays were fast days, except the interval between Easter and Whit Sunday. The food allowed was barley bread, milk, fish, and eggs. Flesh meat was not allowed except on great feasts.
In Ireland a distinctive form of penance developed, where confession was made privately to a priest, under the seal of secrecy, and where penance was given privately and ordinarily performed privately as well. Penance was considered therapeutic rather than punitive. Certain handbooks were made, called "penitentials '', designed as a guide for confessors and as a means of regularising the penance given for each particular sin. According to Thomas Pollock Oakley, the penitential guides first developed in Wales, probably at St. David 's, and spread by missions to Ireland.
Irish monasticism maintained the model of a monastic community while, like John Cassian, marking the contemplative life of the hermit as the highest form of monasticism. Saints ' lives frequently tell of monks (and abbots) departing some distance from the monastery to live in isolation from the community. Irish monastic rules specify a stern life of prayer and discipline in which prayer, poverty, and obedience are the central themes.
Irish monks needed to learn Latin, the language of the Church. Thus they read Latin texts, both spiritual and secular, with an enthusiasm that their contemporaries on the continent lacked. Subjects taught included Latin, Greek, Hebrew, grammar, rhetoric, poetry, arithmetic, chronology, the Holy Places, hymns, sermons, natural science, history and especially the interpretation of Sacred Scripture. In 544 St Ciarán founded a monastery at Clonmacnoise, which became one of the most important centres of learning and religious life in Ireland. Contrary to common practice, the title of abbot -- which included the title "Comarba of Saint Ciarán '' -- at the community was not hereditary, which reflected the humble origins of its founder. In 557 St Brendan founded a monastery at Clonfert.
By the end of the seventh century, Irish monastic schools were attracting students from England and from Europe.
The achievements of insular art, in illuminated manuscripts like the Book of Kells, high crosses, and metalwork like the Ardagh Chalice, and in the case of manuscript decoration had a profound influence on Western medieval art. The manuscripts were produced by and for monasteries, and evidence suggests that metalwork was produced in both monastic and royal workshops.
The monastery of Saint Brigit, at Kildare was a double monastery, with both men and women ruled by the Abbess, a pattern found in other monastic foundations.
Irish monasticism spread widely, first to Scotland and Northern England, then to Gaul and Italy. Columba and his followers established monasteries at Bangor, on the northeastern coast of Ireland, at Iona, an island north - west of Scotland, and at Lindisfarne, which was founded by Aidan, an Irish monk from Iona, at the request of King Oswald of Northumbria. Abbots of Iona were normally appointed from the founders kin, with an abbot often naming hhis successor.
Columbanus, an abbot from a Leinster noble family, traveled to Gaul in the late 6th century with twelve companions. Columbanus and his followers spread the Irish model of monastic institutions to the continent. A whole series of new monastic foundations under Irish influence sprang up, starting with Columbanus 's foundations of Luxeuil and Fontaine - lès - Luxeuil and, sponsored by the Frankish King Childebert II. After Childebert 's death Columbanus traveled east to Metz, where Theudebert II allowed him to establish a new monastery among the semi-pagan Alemanni in what is now Switzerland. One of Columbanus 's followers founded the monastery of St. Gall on the shores of Lake Constance, while Columbanus continued onward across the Alps to the kingdom of the Lombards in Italy. There King Agilulf and his wife Theodolinda granted Columbanus land in the mountains between Genoa and Milan, where he established the monastery of Bobbio. From about 698 until the reign of Charlemagne in the 770s, the Hiberno - Scottish efforts in the Frankish Empire were continued by the Anglo - Saxon mission. The rule of St. Columbanus, which was originally followed in most of these monasteries, was eventually superseded by that of St. Benedict.
Benedict of Nursia is the most influential of Western monks and is called "the father of western monasticism ''. He was educated in Rome but soon sought the life of a hermit in a cave at Subiaco, outside the city. He then attracted followers with whom he founded the monastery of Monte Cassino around 520, between Rome and Naples. He established the Rule, adapting in part the earlier anonymous Rule of the Master (Regula magistri), which was written somewhere south of Rome around 500, and defined the activities of the monastery, its officers, and their responsibilities. By the ninth century, largely under the inspiration of the Emperor Charlemagne, Benedict 's Rule became the basic guide for Western monasticism.
While the Celtic monasteries had a stronger connection to the semi-eremitical tradition of Egypt via Lérins and Tours, Benedict and his followers were more influenced by the cenobitism of St Pachomius and Basil the Great. Early Benedictine monasteries were relatively small and consisted of an oratory, refectory, dormitory, scriptorium, guest accommodation and out - buildings, a group of often quite separate rooms more reminiscent of a decent sized Roman villa than a large medieval abbey. A monastery of about a dozen monks would have been normal during this period.
Medieval monastic life consisted of prayer, reading, and manual labor. Prayer was a monk 's first priority. Apart from prayer, monks performed a variety of tasks, such as preparing medicine, lettering, reading, and others. Also, these monks would work in the gardens and on the land. They might also spend time in the Cloister, a covered colonnade around a courtyard, where they would pray or read. Some monasteries held a scriptorium where monks would write or copy books. When the monks wrote, they used very neat handwriting and would draw illustrations in the books. As a part of their unique writing style, they decorated the first letter of each paragraph.
The efficiency of Benedict 's cenobitic Rule in addition to the stability of the monasteries made them very productive. The monasteries were the central storehouses and producers of knowledge. Vikings started attacking Irish monasteries famous for learning in 793. One monk wrote about how he did not mind the bad weather one evening because it kept the Vikings from coming: "Bitter is the wind tonight, it tosses the ocean 's white hair, I need not fear -- as on a night of calm sea -- the fierce raiders from Lochlann. ''
In the eleventh and twelfth centuries the growing pressure of monarchies and the nation states undermined the wealth and power of the orders. Monasticism continued to play a role in Catholicism, but after the Protestant reformation many monasteries in Northern Europe were shut down and their assets seized.
Many distinct monastic orders developed within Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. Monastic communities in the West, broadly speaking, are organized into orders and congregations guided by a particular religious rule, such as the Rule of St Augustine or especially Rule of St Benedict. Eastern Orthodoxy does not have a system of orders per se, though some of the Eastern Catholic Churches do.
After the foundation of the Lutheran Churches, some monasteries in Lutheran lands (such as Amelungsborn Abbey near Negenborn and Loccum Abbey in Rehburg - Loccum) and convents (such as Ebstorf Abbey near the town of Uelzen and Bursfelde Abbey in Bursfelde) adopted the Lutheran Christian faith.
Loccum Abbey and Amelungsborn Abbey have the longest traditions as Lutheran monasteries. Since the 19th century there have been a renewal in the monastic life among Protestants. There are many present - day Lutherans who practice the monastic teaching of the Roman Catholic Church.
In 1947 Mother Basilea Schlink and Mother Martyria founded the Evangelical Sisterhood of Mary, in Darmstadt, Germany. This movement is largely considered Evangelical or Lutheran in its roots.
In 1948 Bavarian Lutheran pastor Walter Hümmer and his wife Hanna founded the Communität Christusbruderschaft Selbitz.
In other Lutheran traditions "The Congregation of the Servants of Christ '' was established at St. Augustine 's House in Oxford, Michigan, in 1958 when some other men joined Father Arthur Kreinheder in observing the monastic life and offices of prayer. These men and others came and went over the years. The community has always remained small; at times the only member was Father Arthur. During the 35 years of its existence over 25 men tested their vocations to monastic life by living at the house for some time, from a few months to many years, but at Father Arthur 's death in 1989 only one permanent resident remained. At the beginning of 2006, there are 2 permanent professed members and 2 long - term guests. Strong ties remain with this community and their brothers in Sweden (Östanbäck monastery) and in Germany the (Priory of St. Wigbert). In Germany, Communität Casteller Ring is a Lutheran Benedictine community for women. In 2011, an Augustinian religious order, the Priestly Society of St. Augustine (Societas Sacerdotalis Sancti Augustini) was established by the Anglo - Lutheran Catholic Church. It follows the Rule of St. Augustine, its headquarters is at Christ Lutheran Church ALCC. Kent Island, Maryland, and Fr. Jens Bargmann, Ph. D., is the Grand Prior.
In Lutheran Sweden, religious life for women had been established already in 1954, when Sister Marianne Nordström made her profession through contacts with The Order of the Holy Paraclete and Mother Margaret Cope (1886 -- 1961) at St Hilda 's Priory, Whitby, Yorkshire.
In England, John Wycliffe, organized the Lollard Preacher Order (the "Poor Priests '') to promote his views, many of which resounded with those held by the later Protestant Reformers.
Monastic life in England came to an abrupt end with Dissolution of the Monasteries during the reign of King Henry VIII. The property and lands of the monasteries were confiscated and either retained by the king or sold to catholic landowners or given to loyal protestant nobility. Monks and nuns were pensioned off and retired or some were forced to either flee for the continent or to abandon their vocations. For around 300 years, there were no monastic communities within any of the Anglican churches.
Shortly after the Oxford Movement began to advocate restoring catholic faith and practice to the Church of England (see Anglo - Catholicism), there was felt to be a need for a restoration of the monastic life. Anglican priest John Henry Newman established a community of men at Littlemore near Oxford in the 1840s while he was vicar of Church of St Mary and St Nicholas, Littlemore. From then forward, there have been many communities of monks, friars, sisters, and nuns established within the Anglican Communion. In 1848, Mother Priscilla Lydia Sellon founded the Anglican Sisters of Charity and became the first woman to take religious vows within the Anglican Communion since the Reformation. In October 1850 the first building specifically built for the purpose of housing an Anglican Sisterhood was consecrated at Abbeymere in Plymouth. It housed several schools for the destitute, a laundry, printing press and soup kitchen. From the 1840s and throughout the following one hundred years, religious orders for both men and women proliferated in the UK and the United States, as well as in various countries of Africa, Asia, Canada, India and the Pacific.
Some Anglican religious communities are contemplative, some active, but a distinguishing feature of the monastic life among Anglicans is that most practice the so - called "mixed life '', a combination of a life of contemplative prayer with active service. Anglican religious life closely mirrors that of Roman Catholicism. Like Roman Catholic religious, Anglican religious also take the three vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Religious communities live together under a common rule, reciting the Divine Office and celebrating the Eucharist daily.
In the early 20th century when the Anglo - Catholic movement was at its height, the Anglican Communion had hundreds of orders and communities, and thousands of religious. However, since the 1960s there has been a sharp falling off in the numbers of religious in many parts of the Anglican Communion, most notably in the United Kingdom and the United States. Many once large and international communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery composed of elderly men or women. In the last few decades of the 20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct. There are however, still thousands of Anglican religious working today in religious communities around the world. While vocations remain few in some areas, Anglican religious communities are experiencing exponential growth in Africa, Asia, and Oceania.
Around 1964, Reuben Archer Torrey III, an Episcopal missionary, grandson of R.A. Torrey, founded Jesus Abbey as a missionary community in Korea. It has some links with the Episcopal Church and holds an Evangelical doctrine.
In February 2001, the United Methodist Church organized the Saint Brigid of Kildare Monastery. It is a Methodist - Benedictine residential double monastery in Collegeville, Minnesota. Besides monastic orders, the Order of Saint Luke is a dispersed religious order within Methodism.
The Community of the Sisterhood Emmanuel was founded in 1973 in Makak - in the Centre Province by Mother Marie, one of the first female Pastors of the Presbyterian Church in Cameroon. In 1975 she moved the community to the present site - at Agyati in Bafut. It has 10 finally consecrated Sisters, four in simple vows and a handful of others in formation. The Sisters are trained in strong collaboration with the sister Institutes of the Catholic Church. They say that one of their charisms is ecumenism. The Sisterhood Emmanuel is the only Presbyterian Monastery in Cameroon.
The Shakers, who are also known as the "Shaking Quakers '', have been characterized as a "Protestant monastic order providing refuge and otherworldly compensation ''. They practice a celibate and communal lifestyle, pacifism, and their model of equality of the sexes, which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s. They are also known for their simple living, architecture, and furniture. Sincere newcomers are invited to become Shakers:
If someone wants to become a Shaker, and the Shakers assent, the would - be member can move into the dwelling house. If the novices, as they are called, stay a week, they sign an articles of agreement, which protects the colony from being sued for lost wages. After a year, the Shakers will take a vote whether to allow the novice in, but it takes another four years to be granted full Shaker status in sharing in the colony 's finances and administrative and worship decisions.
Currently, there are two remaining Shakers, Brother Arnold Hadd and Sister June Carpenter, though they hope that others will join them at the only remaining Shaker community, the Sabbathday Lake Shaker Village.
Christian monasticism is experiencing renewal in the form of several new foundations with an ' inter-Christian ' vision for their respective communities.
In 1944 Roger Schütz, a pastor of the Swiss Reformed Church, founded a small religious brotherhood in France which became known as the Taizé Community. Although he was partly inspired by the hope of reviving monasticism in the Protestant tradition, the brotherhood was interdenominational, accepting Roman Catholic brothers, and is thus an ecumenical rather than a specifically Protestant community.
The Order of Ecumenical Franciscans is a religious order of men and women devoted to following the examples of Saint Francis of Assisi and Saint Clare of Assisi in their life and understanding of the Christian gospel: sharing a love for creation and those who have been marginalized. It includes members of many different denominations, including Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and a range of Protestant traditions. The Order understands its charism to include not only ecumenical efforts and the traditional emphases of the Franciscans in general, but also to help to develop relationships between the various Franciscan orders.
Additional expressions of ecumenical monasticism can be seen in the Bose Monastic Community and communities of the New Monasticism movement arising from Protestant Evangelicalism.
In 1999 an independent Protestant order was founded named The Knights of Prayer Monastic Order. The community maintains several monks in its Portland, Oregon, cloister and has an international network of associated lay people. It is not affiliated with any particular congregation.
In traditional Catholic societies, monastic communities often took charge of social services such as education and healthcare. The legacy of monasteries outside remains an important current in modern society. Max Weber compared the closeted and Puritan societies of the English Dissenters, who sparked much of the industrial revolution, to monastic orders. Many Utopian thinkers (starting with Thomas More) felt inspired by the common life of monks to apply it to the whole society (an example is the phalanstère). Modern universities have also attempted to emulate Christian monasticism. Even in the Americas, universities are built in the gothic style of twelfth century monasteries. Communal meals, dormitory residences, elaborate rituals and dress all borrow heavily from the monastic tradition. Today monasticism remains an important part of the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Anglican faiths.
The capitulary of 789 reads: "Let every monastery and every abbey have its school, in which boys may be taught the Psalms, the system of musical notation, singing, arithmetic and grammar ''. There can be no doubt that by boys are meant not only the candidates for the monastery and the wards (generally the children of nobles) committed to the care of the monks, but also the children of the village or country district around the monastery, for whom there was usually an external school attached to groups of monastic buildings.
In the Middle Ages, monasteries conserved and copied ancient manuscripts in their scriptoria. A prospective monk first learned grammar, logic, and oratory. Later, he would take up mathematics, astronomy, and music. The students would use a stylus on wax. Later, when their handwriting improved, they would be given ink and parchment. Eventually, many of those schools became universities. Monks in scriptoria copied texts of Greece and Rome, as well as religious texts, and kept these manuscripts from being lost during the tumultuous Middle Ages.
Monastic pharmacies stored and studied medicaments. Some of the works that the monks copied were by medical writers, and reading and copying these works helped create a store of medical knowledge. Monasteries had infirmaries to treat the monks, travelers, the poor, old, weak and sick. In 2005, archeologists uncovered waste at Soutra Aisle which helped scientists figure out how people in the Middle Ages treated certain diseases, such as scurvy; because of the vitamin C in watercress, patients would eat it to stop their teeth from falling out. The same archeological group discovered hemlock, a known pain killer, in the drains of the hospital.
Monasteries also aided in the development of agricultural techniques. The requirement of wine for the Mass led to the development of wine culture, as shown in the discovery of the méthode champenoise by Dom Perignon. Several liquors like Bénédictine and the Trappist beers were also developed in monasteries. Even today many monasteries and convents are locally renowned for their cooking specialties.
The consequence of this centralisation of knowledge was that they initially controlled both public administration and education, where the trivium led through the quadrivium to theology. Christian monks cultivated the arts as a way of praising God. Gregorian chant and miniatures are examples of the practical application of quadrivium subjects.
The status of monks as apart from secular life (at least theoretically) also served a social function. Dethroned Visigothic kings were tonsured and sent to a monastery so that they could not claim the crown back. Monasteries became a place for second sons to live in celibacy so that the family inheritance went to the first son; in exchange the families donated to the monasteries. Few cities lacked both a St Giles house for lepers outside the walls and a Magdalene house for prostitutes and other women of notoriety within the walls, and some orders were favored by monarchs and rich families to keep and educate their maiden daughters before arranged marriage.
The monasteries also provided refuge to those like Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor who retired to Yuste in his late years, and his son Philip II of Spain, who was functionally as close to a monastic as his regal responsibilities permitted.
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who sings whatever tomorrow brings i'll be there | Drive (Incubus song) - wikipedia
"Drive '' is a song recorded by American rock band Incubus. It was released in November 2000 as a single from their third album Make Yourself. It is considered the band 's biggest hit and breakthrough single, eventually reaching the top of Billboard 's modern rock charts on March 3, 2001, and # 9 on the Billboard Hot 100 on July 28. In 2001, "Drive '' won Billboard 's award for Modern Rock Single of the Year. Director Bill Draheim documented the making of "Drive ''. ' Save Me from my Half - Life Drive ' is the result of that edited EPK footage.
The song is featured in the video games Donkey Konga 2 and Guitar Hero Live in addition to the film Surf 's Up. This single was also certified gold in Australia in the year 2001.
According to lead singer, Brandon Boyd, "The lyric is basically about fear, about being driven all your life by it and making decisions from fear. It 's about imagining what life would be like if you did n't live it that way ''.
The song 's main lyric is "I 'll Be There '', but because there was a song by that name by The Jackson 5, the song 's final title ended up being "Drive ''.
The song is what is widely described as mellow, featuring mostly acoustic instruments and grounded both musically and lyrically in a very relaxing and positive ambience making the song a departure and exception from their original alternative metal, nu metal and funk metal roots.
When played live, the song is performed in a number of different ways; unplugged with Mike and Brandon, the full band with Mike playing guitar, or the remixed version, centering on Ben Kenney 's amplified and reconstructed bass melodies, with Mike playing an electric piano (as seen on the Alive at Red Rocks DVD).
The music video is based on M.C. Escher 's Drawing Hands. Directed by Phil Harder, it features a simple musical session intercut with a rotoscoped animation of Brandon Boyd drawing himself. The animation was handled by both Boyd and drummer Jose Pasillas. The scenes from the official music video were shot in the McNamara Alumni Center on the University of Minnesota. The video was nominated for Best Group Video at the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards but lost to ' N Sync.
US Chillum promo single record
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who was the first european to visit africa | Exploration of Africa - wikipedia
The geography of North Africa has been reasonably well known among Europeans since classical antiquity in Greco - Roman geography. Northwest Africa (the Maghreb) was known as either Libya or Africa, while Egypt was considered part of Asia.
European exploration of Sub-Saharan Africa begins with the Age of Discovery in the 15th century, pioneered by Portugal under Henry the Navigator. The Cape of Good Hope was first reached by Bartolomeu Dias on 12 March 1488, opening the important sea route to India and the Far East, but European exploration of Africa itself remained very limited during the 16th and 17th centuries. The European powers were content to establish trading posts along the coast while they were actively exploring and colonizing the New World. Exploration of the interior of Africa was thus mostly left to the Arab slave traders, who in tandem with the Muslim conquest of the Sudan established far - reaching networks and supported the economy of a number of Sahelian kingdoms during the 15th to 18th centuries.
At the beginning of the 19th century, European knowledge of geography of the interior of Sub-Saharan Africa was still rather limited. Expeditions exploring Southern Africa were made during the 1830s and 1840s, so that around the midpoint of the 19th century and the beginning of the colonial Scramble for Africa, the unexplored parts were now limited to what would turn out to be the Congo Basin and the African Great Lakes. This "Heart of Africa '' remained one of the last remaining "blank spots '' on world maps of the later 19th century (alongside the Arctic, Antarctic and the interior of the Amazon basin). It was left for 19th - century European explorers (including those searching for the famed sources of the Nile, notably John Hanning Speke, David Livingstone and Henry Morton Stanley, to complete the exploration of Africa by the 1870s. After this, the general geography of Africa was known, but it was left to further expeditions during the 1880s onward, notably those led by Oskar Lenz, to flesh more detail such as the continent 's geological makeup.
The Phoenicians explored North Africa, establishing a number of colonies, the most prominent of which was Carthage. Carthage itself conducted exploration of West Africa. The first circumnavigation of the African continent was probably made by Phoenician sailors, in an expedition commissioned by Egyptian pharaoh Necho II, in c. 600 BC and took three years. A report of this expedition is provided by Herodotus (4.37). They sailed south, rounded the Cape heading west, made their way north to the Mediterranean and then returned home. He states that they paused each year to sow and harvest grain. Herodotus himself is sceptical of the historicity of this feat, which would have taken place close about 120 years before his birth; however, the reason he gives for disbelieving the story is the sailors ' reported claim that when they sailed along the southern coast of Africa, they found the Sun stood to their right, in the north; Herodotus, who was unaware of the spherical shape of the Earth found this impossible to believe. Some commentators took this circumstance as proof that the voyage is historical, but other scholars still dismiss the report as unlikely.
The West African coast was explored by Hanno the Navigator in an expedition in c. 500 BC. The report of this voyage survives in a short Periplus in Greek, which was first cited by Greek authors in the 3rd century BC. There is some uncertainty as to how far precisely Hanno reached, he clearly sailed as far as Sierra Leone, and may have continued as far as Guinea or even Gabon.
Africa is named for the Afri people who settled in the area of current - day Tunisia. The Africa Province of the Roman Empire spanned the Mediterranean coast of what is now Libya, Tunisia and Algeria. The parts of North Africa north of the Sahara were well known in antiquity. Prior to the 2nd century BC, however, Greek geographers were unaware that the land mass then known as Libya expanded south of the Sahara, assuming that the desert bounded on the outer Ocean. Indeed, Alexander the Great, according to Plutarchus ' Lives, considered sailing from the mouths of the Indus back to Macedonia passing south of Africa as a shortcut compared to the land route. Even Eratosthenes around 200 BC still assumed an extent of the landmass no further south than the Horn of Africa.
By the Roman imperial period the Horn of Africa was well - known to Mediterranean geographers. The trading post of Rhapta, described as "the last marketplace of Azania, '' may correspond to the coast of Tanzania. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, dated to the 1st century AD, appears to extend geographical knowledge further south, to Southeast Africa. Ptolemy 's world map of the 2nd century is well aware that the African continent extents significantly further south than the Horn of Africa, but has no geographic detail south of the equator (it is unclear whether it is aware of the Gulf of Guinea)
In the medieval period, the exploration of the interior of the Sahara and the Sahel as well as along the Swahili coast as far as Mozambique was the project of Muslim conquests and slave trade. It was at Mozambique that the Arab "clockwise '' and the Portuguese "counter-clockwise '' routes of exploration would meet at the end of the 15th century.
Following its 8th - century conquest of North Africa, Arab Muslims ventured into Sub-Saharan Africa first along the Nile Valley towards Nubia, and later also across the Sahara towards West Africa. They were interested in the trans - Saharan trade, especially in slaves. This expansion of Arab and Islamic culture was a gradual process, lasting throughout most of the Middle Ages. The Christian kingdoms of Nubia came under pressure from the 7th century, but they resisted for several centuries. The Kingdom of Makuria and Old Dongola collapsed by the beginning of the 14th century. A significant role in the spread of Islam in Africa was taken by Sufi orders during the 9th to 14th centuries, who spread south along trade routes between North Africa and the sub-Saharan kingdoms of Ghana and Mali. On the West African coast, they set up zawiyas on the shores of the River Niger. The Mali Empire became Islamic following the pilgrimage of Musa I of Mali in 1324. Timbuktu became an important center of Islamic culture south of the Sahara. Alodia, the last remnant of Christian Nubia, was destroyed by the Funj in 1504.
Portuguese explorer Prince Henry, known as the Navigator, was the first European to methodically explore Africa and the oceanic route to the Indies. From his residence in the Algarve region of southern Portugal, he directed successive expeditions to circumnavigate Africa and reach India. In 1420, Henry sent an expedition to secure the uninhabited but strategic island of Madeira. In 1425, he tried to secure the Canary Islands as well, but these were already under firm Castilian control. In 1431, another Portuguese expedition reached and annexed the Azores.
Naval charts of 1339 show that the Canary Islands were already known to Europeans. In 1341, Portuguese and Italian explorers prepared a joint expedition. In 1342 the Catalans organized an expedition captained by Francesc Desvalers to the Canary Islands that set sail from Majorca. In 1344, Pope Clement VI named French admiral Luis de la Cerda Prince of Fortune, and sent him to conquer the Canaries. In 1402, Jean de Bethencourt and Gadifer de la Salle sailed to conquer the Canary Islands but found them already plundered by the Castilians. Although they did conquer the isles, Bethencourt 's nephew was forced to cede them to Castile in 1418.
In 1455 and 1456 two Italian explorers, Alvise Cadamosto from Venice and Antoniotto Usodimare from Genoa, together with an unnamed Portuguese captain and working for Prince Henry, the Navigator, of Portugal, followed the Gambia river, visiting the land of Senegal, while another Italian sailor from Genoa, Antonio de Noli, also on behalf of Prince Henry, explored the Bijagós islands, and, together with the Portuguese Diogo Gomes, the Cape Verde archipelago. Antonio de Noli, who became the first governor of Cape Verde (and the first European colonial governor in Sub-Saharan Africa), is also considered the discoverer of the First Islands of Cape Verde.
Along the western and eastern coasts of Africa, progress was also steady; Portuguese sailors reached Cape Bojador in 1434 and Cape Blanco in 1441. In 1443, they built a fortress on the island of Arguin, in modern - day Mauritania, trading European wheat and cloth for African gold and slaves. It was the first time that the semi-mythic gold of the Sudan reached Europe without Muslim mediation. Most of the slaves were sent to Madeira, which became, after thorough deforestation, the first European plantation colony. Between 1444 and 1447, the Portuguese explored the coasts of Senegal, Gambia, and Guinea. In 1456, the Venetian captain Alvise Cadamosto, under Portuguese command, explored the islands of Cape Verde. In 1462, two years after Prince Henry 's death, Portuguese sailors explored the Bissau islands and named Serra Leoa (Lioness Mountains).
In 1469, Fernão Gomes rented the rights of African exploration for five years. Under his direction, in 1471, the Portuguese reached modern Ghana and settled in A Mina (the mine), later renamed Elmina. They had finally reached a country with an abundance of gold, hence the historical name of "Gold Coast '' that Elmina would eventually receive.
In 1472, Fernão do Pó discovered the island that would bear his name for centuries (now Bioko) and an estuary abundant in shrimp (Portuguese: camarão,), giving its name to Cameroon.
Soon after, the equator was crossed by Europeans. Portugal established a base in Sāo Tomé that, after 1485, was settled with criminals. After 1497, expelled Spanish and Portuguese Jews also found a safe haven there.
In 1482, Diogo Cão found the mouth of a large river and learned of the existence of a great kingdom, Kongo. In 1485, he explored the river upstream as well.
But the Portuguese wanted, above anything else, to find a route to India and kept trying to circumnavigate Africa. In 1485, the expedition of João Afonso d'Aveiros, with the German astronomer Martin of Behaim as part of the crew, explored the Bight of Benin (Kingdom of Benin), returning information about African king Ogane.
In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias and his pilot Pêro de Alenquer, after putting down a mutiny, turned a cape where they were caught by a storm, naming it Cape of Storms. They followed the coast for a while realizing that it kept going eastward with even some tendency to the north. Lacking supplies, they turned around with the conviction that the far end of Africa had finally been reached. Upon their return to Portugal the promising cape was renamed Cape of Good Hope.
Some years later, Christopher Columbus landed in America under rival Castilian command. Pope Alexander VI decreed the Inter caetera bull, dividing the non-Christian parts of the world between the two rival Catholic powers, Spain and Portugal.
Finally, in the years 1497 to 1498, Vasco da Gama, again with Alenquer as pilot, took a direct route to Cape of Good Hope, via St. Helena. He went beyond the farthest point reached by Dias and named the country Natal. Then he sailed northward, making land at Quelimane (Mozambique) and Mombasa, where he found Chinese traders, and Malindi (both in modern Kenya). In this town, he recruited an Arab pilot and set sail directly to Calicut. On August 28, 1498, King Manuel of Portugal informed the Pope of the good news that Portugal had reached India.
Egypt and Venice reacted to this news with hostility; from the Red Sea, they jointly attacked the Portuguese ships that traded with India. The Portuguese defeated these ships near Diu in 1509. The Ottoman Empire 's indifferent reaction to Portuguese exploration left Portugal in almost exclusive control of trade through the Indian Ocean. They established many bases along the eastern coast of Africa except for Somalia (See Ajuran - Portuguese wars), The Portuguese also captured Aden in 1513.
One of the ships under command of Diogo Dias arrived at a coast that was not in East Africa. Two years later, a chart already showed an elongated island east of Africa that bore the name Madagascar. But only a century later, between 1613 and 1619, did the Portuguese explore the island in detail. They signed treaties with local chieftains and sent the first missionaries, who found it impossible to make locals believe in Hell, and were eventually expelled.
Portuguese presence in Africa soon interfered with existing Arab trade interests. By 1583, the Portuguese established themselves in Zanzibar and on the Swahili coast. The Kingdom of Congo was converted to Christianity in 1495, its king taking the name of João I. The Portuguese also established their trade interests in the Kingdom of Mutapa in the 16th century, and in 1629 placed a puppet ruler on the throne.
The Portuguese (and later also the Dutch) also became involved in the local slave economy, supporting the state of the Jaggas, who performed slave raids in the Congo.
They also used the Kongo to weaken the neighbour realm of Ndongo, where Queen Nzinga put a fierce but eventually doomed resistance to Portuguese and Jagga ambitions. Portugal intervened militarily in these conflicts, creating the basis for their colony of Angola. In 1663, after another conflict, the royal crown of Kongo was sent to Lisbon. Nevertheless, a diminished Kongo Kingdom would still exist until 1885, when the last Manicongo, Pedro V, ceded his almost non-existent domain to Portugal.
The Portuguese dealt with the other major state of Southern Africa, the Monomotapa (in modern Zimbabwe), in a similar manner: Portugal intervened in a local war hoping to get abundant mineral riches, imposing a protectorate. But with the authority of the Monomotapa diminished by the foreign presence, anarchy took over. The local miners migrated and even buried the mines to prevent them from falling into Portuguese hands. When in 1693 the neighbouring Cangamires invaded the country, the Portuguese accepted their failure and retreated to the coast.
Beginning in the 17th century, the Netherlands began exploring and colonizing Africa. While the Dutch were waging a long war of independence against Spain, Portugal had temporarily united with Spain, starting in 1580 and ending in 1640. As a result, the growing colonial ambitions of the Netherlands were mostly directed against Portugal.
For this purpose, two Dutch companies were founded: the West Indies Company, with power over all the Atlantic Ocean, and the East Indies Company, with power over the Indian Ocean.
The West India Company conquered Elmina in 1637 and Luanda in 1640. In 1648, they were expelled from Luanda by the Portuguese. Overall the Dutch built 16 forts in different places, including Gorée in Senegal, partly overtaking Portugal as the main slave - trading power.
The Dutch left a lasting impact in South Africa, a region ignored by Portugal that the Dutch eventually decided to use as station in their route to East Asia. Jan van Riebeeck founded Cape Town in 1652, starting the European exploration and colonization of South Africa.
Almost at the same time as the Dutch, other European powers attempted to create their own outposts for the African slave trade.
As early as 1530, English merchant adventurers started trading in West Africa, coming into conflict with Portuguese troops. In 1581, Francis Drake reached the Cape of Good Hope. In 1663, the English built Fort James in Gambia. One year later, another English colonial expedition attempted to settle southern Madagascar, resulting in the death of most of the colonists. The English forts on the West African coast were eventually taken by the Dutch.
In 1626, the French Compagnie de l'Occident was created. This company expelled the Dutch from Senegal, making it the first French domain in Africa.
France also set her eyes on Madagascar, the island that had been used since 1527 as a stop in travels to India. In 1642, the French East India Company founded a settlement in southern Madagascar called Fort Dauphin. The commercial results of this settlement were scarce and, again, most of the settlers died. One of the survivors, Etienne de Flacourt, published a History of the Great Island of Madagascar and Relations, which was for a long time the main European source of information about the island. Further settlement attempts had no more success but, in 1667, François Martin led the first expedition to the Malgasy heartland, reaching Lake Alaotra. In 1665, France officially claimed Madagascar, under the name of Île Dauphine. However, little colonial activity would take place in Madagascar until the 19th century.
In 1657, Swedish merchants founded Cape Coast in modern Ghana, but were soon displaced by Denmark - Norway, founding Fort Christiansborg near modern - day Accra.
In 1677, King Frederick William I of Prussia sent an expedition to the western coast of Africa. The commander of the expedition, Captain Blonk, signed agreements with the chieftains of the Gold Coast. There, the Prussians built a fort named Gross Friederichsburg and restored the abandoned Portuguese fort of Arguin. But in 1720, the king decided to sell these bases to the Netherlands for 7,000 ducats and 12 slaves, six of them chained with pure gold chains.
The British expressed their interest by the formation in 1788 of The Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa. The individuals who formed this club were inspired in part by the Scotsman James Bruce, who had ventured to Ethiopia in 1769 and reached the source of the Blue Nile.
Overall, European exploration of Africa in the 17th and 18th centuries was very limited. Instead they were focused on the slave trade, which only required coastal bases and items to trade. The real exploration of the African interior would start well into the 19th century.
Although the Napoleonic Wars distracted the attention of Europe from exploratory work in Africa, those wars nevertheless exercised great influence on the future of the continent, both in Egypt and South Africa. The occupation of Egypt (1798 -- 1803), first by France and then by Great Britain, resulted in an effort by the Ottoman Empire to regain direct control over that country. In 1811, Mehemet Ali established an almost independent state, and from 1820 onward established Egyptian rule over the eastern Sudan. In South Africa, the struggle with Napoleon caused the United Kingdom to take possession of the Dutch settlements at the Cape. In 1814, Cape Colony, which had been continuously occupied by British troops since 1806, was formally ceded to the British crown.
Meanwhile, considerable changes had been made in other parts of the continent. The occupation of Algiers by France in 1830 put an end to the piracy of the Barbary states. Egyptian authority continued to expand southward, with the consequent additions to knowledge of the Nile. The city of Zanzibar, on the island of that name, rapidly attained importance. Accounts of a vast inland sea, and the discovery of the snow - clad mountains of Kilimanjaro in 1840 -- 1848, stimulated the desire for further knowledge about Africa in Europe.
In the mid-19th century, Protestant missions were carrying on active missionary work on the Guinea coast, in South Africa and in the Zanzibar dominions. Missionaries visited little - known regions and peoples, and in many instances became explorers and pioneers of trade and empire. David Livingstone, a Scottish missionary, had been engaged since 1840 in work north of the Orange River. In 1849, Livingstone crossed the Kalahari Desert from south to north and reached Lake Ngami. Between 1851 and 1856, he traversed the continent from west to east, discovering the great waterways of the upper Zambezi River. In November 1855, Livingstone became the first European to see the famous Victoria Falls, named after the Queen of the United Kingdom. From 1858 to 1864, the lower Zambezi, the Shire River and Lake Nyasa were explored by Livingstone. Nyasa had been first reached by the confidential slave of António da Silva Porto, a Portuguese trader established at Bié in Angola, who crossed Africa during 1853 -- 1856 from Benguella to the mouth of the Rovuma. A prime goal for explorers was to locate the source of the River Nile. Expeditions by Burton and Speke (1857 -- 1858) and Speke and Grant (1863) located Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria. It was eventually proved to be the latter from which the Nile flowed.
Henry Morton Stanley, who had in 1871 succeeded in finding and succouring Livingstone (originating the famous line "Dr. Livingstone, I presume ''), started again for Zanzibar in 1874. In one of the most memorable of all exploring expeditions in Africa, Stanley circumnavigated Victoria Nyanza (Lake Victoria) and Lake Tanganyika. Striking farther inland to the Lualaba, he followed that river down to the Atlantic Ocean -- which he reached in August 1877 -- and proved it to be the Congo.
In 1895, the British South Africa Company hired the American scout Frederick Russell Burnham to look for minerals and ways to improve river navigation in the central and southern Africa region. Burnham oversaw and led the Northern Territories British South Africa Exploration Company expedition that first established that major copper deposits existed north of the Zambezi in North - Eastern Rhodesia. Along the Kafue River, Burnham saw many similarities to copper deposits he had worked in the United States, and he encountered native peoples wearing copper bracelets. Copper rapidly became the primary export of Central Africa and it remains essential to the economy even today.
Explorers were also active in other parts of the continent. Southern Morocco, the Sahara and the Sudan were traversed in many directions between 1860 and 1875 by Georg Schweinfurth and Gustav Nachtigal. These travellers not only added considerably to geographical knowledge, but obtained invaluable information concerning the people, languages and natural history of the countries in which they sojourned. Among the discoveries of Schweinfurth was one that confirmed Greek legends of the existence beyond Egypt of a "pygmy race ''. But the first western discoverer of the pygmies of Central Africa was Paul Du Chaillu, who found them in the Ogowe district of the west coast in 1865, five years before Schweinfurth 's first meeting with them. Du Chaillu had previously, through journeys in the Gabon region between 1855 and 1859, made popular in Europe the knowledge of the existence of the gorilla, whose existence was thought to be as legendary as that of the Pygmies of Aristotle.
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when was the shot clock introduced to basketball | Shot clock - wikipedia
A shot clock is used in some sports to quicken the pace of the game. It is normally associated with basketball, but is also used in snooker, pro lacrosse, water polo, korfball, and ten - pin bowling. It is analogous with the play clock used in American and Canadian football.
In basketball, the shot clock is a timer designed to increase the game 's pace and scoring. The offensive team must attempt to get the ball into the basket by the ball leaving the player 's hand before the shot clock expires, and the shot must either touch the rim or enter the basket. If the offensive team fails to register a field goal attempt within the time limit, they are assessed a violation resulting in a turnover to their opponents; if the ball hits or enters the rim after the clock expires, it is not a violation so long as it left the player 's hand before expiration. The maximum time limit of the shot clock varies by level of play and league: The National Basketball Association has had a 24 - second limit since first introducing the clock in the 1950s; and college basketball for both men and women has a 30 - second limit. The WNBA had a 30 - second clock originally; since 2006 the limit is 24 seconds, just like in the NBA.
The NBA (National Basketball Association) had problems attracting fans (and positive media coverage) before the shot clock 's inception. This was due to teams running out the clock once they were leading in a game; without the shot clock, teams passed the ball nearly endlessly without penalty. If one team chose to stall, the other team (especially if behind) would often commit fouls to get the ball back following the free throw. Very low - scoring games with many fouls were common, which bored fans. The most extreme case occurred on November 22, 1950, when the Fort Wayne Pistons defeated the Minneapolis Lakers by a record - low score of 19 -- 18, including 3 -- 1 in the fourth quarter. The Pistons held the ball for minutes at a time without shooting (they attempted 13 shots for the game) in order to limit the impact of the Lakers ' dominant George Mikan. The Pistons ' performance led the St. Paul Dispatch to write "(The Pistons) gave pro basketball a great black eye. '' NBA President Maurice Podoloff said, "In our game, with the number of stars we have, we of necessity run up big scores. '' A few weeks after the Pistons / Lakers game, the Rochester Royals and Indianapolis Olympians played a six - overtime game with only one shot in each overtime - in each overtime period, the team who had the ball first held the ball for the entirety of the period before attempting a last - second shot. The NBA tried several rule changes in the early 1950s to speed up the game and reduce fouls before eventually adopting the shot clock.
The shot clock first came to use in 1954 in Syracuse, New York, where Syracuse Nationals (now the Philadelphia 76ers) owner Danny Biasone and general manager Leo Ferris experimented using a 24 - second version during a scrimmage game. According to Biasone, "I looked at the box scores from the games I enjoyed, games where they did n't screw around and stall. I noticed each team took about 60 shots. That meant 120 shots per game. So I took 2,880 seconds (48 minutes) and divided that by 120 shots. The result was 24 seconds per shot. '' Biasone and Ferris then convinced the NBA to adopt it for the 1954 -- 55 season, a season in which the Nationals won the NBA Championship.
Syracuse Nationals General Manager Leo Ferris has emerged in the discussion as one of those involved in the creation and development of the shot clock. Along with Danny Biasone and Emil Barboni, a scout for the Nats, Leo Ferris was a key figure in developing the 24 - second clock. Jack Andrews, longtime basketball writer for The Syracuse Post-Standard, often recalled how Ferris would sit at Danny Biasone 's Eastwood bowling alley, scribbling potential shot clock formulas onto a napkin. Ferris, who loved mathematics, ended up dividing the number of seconds in a 48 - minute game (2,880) by the average number of shots taken in a game (120) to get to the 24 - second time limit per possession. While he and Biasone often share in the credit for the shot clock, it was Ferris who was singled out by business manager Bob Sexton at the 1954 team banquet for pushing the shot clock rule.
When it was first introduced by the NBA, the 24 - second shot clock made players so nervous that it hardly came into play, as players were taking fewer than 20 seconds to shoot. According to Syracuse star Dolph Schayes, "We thought we had to take quick shots -- a pass and a shot was it -- maybe 8 -- 10 seconds... But as the game went on, we saw the inherent genius in Danny 's 24 seconds -- you could work the ball around (the offensive zone) for a good shot. ''
The shot clock, together with some rule changes concerning fouls, revolutionized NBA basketball. In the last pre-clock season (1953 -- 54), teams averaged 79 points per game; in the first year with the clock (1954 -- 55), the average was 93 points, which went up to 107 points by its fourth year in use (1957 -- 58). The advent of the shot clock (and the resulting increase in scoring) coincided with an increase in attendance, which increased 40 % within a few years to an average of 4,800 per game.
The shot clock received near - universal praise for its role in improving the style of play in the NBA. Coach and referee Charley Eckman said, "Danny Biasone saved the NBA with the 24 - second rule. '' Boston Celtic all - star Bob Cousy said, "Before the new rule, the last quarter could be deadly. The team in front would hold the ball indefinitely, and the only way you could get it was by fouling somebody. In the meantime, nobody dared take a shot and the whole game slowed up. With the clock, we have constant action. I think it saved the NBA at that time. It allowed the game to breathe and progress. '' League president Maurice Podoloff called the adoption of the shot clock "the most important event in the NBA. '' The league itself states, "Biasone 's invention rescue (d) the league. ''
Two later pro leagues that rivaled the NBA adopted a modified version of the shot clock. The American Basketball League used a 30 - second shot clock for its two years in existence (1961 -- 1963). The American Basketball Association also adopted a 30 - second clock when it launched in 1967 -- 68, switching to the NBA 's 24 - second length for its final season (1975 -- 76).
In the 1969 -- 70 season, women 's collegiate basketball (at the time sanctioned by the Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics for Women) used a 30 - second shot clock on an experimental basis, officially adopting it for the 1970 -- 71 season. Unlike the women 's side, there was initial resistance to the implementation of a shot clock for men 's NCAA basketball, due to fears that smaller colleges would be unable to compete with powerhouses in a running game. However, after extreme results like an 11 -- 6 Tennessee win over Temple in 1973, support for a men 's shot clock began to build. The NCAA introduced a 45 - second shot clock for the men 's game in the 1985 -- 86 season, reducing it to 35 seconds in the 1993 -- 94 season and 30 seconds in the 2015 -- 16 season. The NAIA also reduced the shot clock to 30 seconds for men 's basketball starting in 2015 -- 16.
From its inception in 1975, the Philippine Basketball Association adopted a 25 - second shot clock. This was because the shot clocks then installed at the league 's main venues, the Araneta Coliseum and Rizal Memorial Coliseum (the latter no longer used by the league), could only be set at 5 - second intervals. The league later adopted a 24 - second clock starting from the 1995 season. The Metropolitan Basketball Association in the Philippines used the 23 - second clock from its maiden season in 1998. In Filipino college basketball, the NCAA Basketball Championship (Philippines) and the UAAP Basketball Championship adopted a 30 - second clock; they switched to 24 seconds starting with the 2001 -- 02 season, the first season to start after the FIBA rule change in 2001.
In the NBA (since 1954), Women 's National Basketball Association (since 2006), and FIBA play (since 2000; 30 - second from 1956 to 2000), the shot clock counts down 24 seconds, thus often being called the "24 - second clock. '' If a shot is attempted and hits or enters the rim, or if the defensive team gains possession via a rebound, steal, or out - of - bounds play, the shot clock resets. Failure by the offense to attempt a shot that hits the rim within the prescribed time results in a "shot clock violation '' and a loss of possession to the other team. Three signals indicate when the shot clock expires -- a shot clock signal, illuminated lights on the shot clock (NBA, FIBA, Euroleague, and many venues using an NBA - style transparent shot clock), and in the (W) NBA and FIBA play (starting in July 2018), a yellow LED light strip on the backboard. In the 2011 -- 12 NBA season and 2014 -- 15 Euroleague, the last five seconds of the shot clock were modified to include tenths of a second, allowing offensive players to see precisely how much time they have to shoot and officials to determine any last - second shots easily. The rule has been adopted by FIBA starting in 2018. In the 2016 - 17 NBA season, a new ' official timekeeper ' deal for the NBA with Swiss watch manufacturer Tissot introduced a new united official game clock / shot clock system, putting both timing systems under the same system for the first time. Tissot also became official timekeeper for the WNBA in the 2017 season.
Furthermore, the shot clock is not reset on a foul in the frontcourt. Rule changes in the NBA since 1998, and in FIBA after 2010 state the shot clock will be reset only if 13 seconds or fewer are on the shot clock, after which it is reset to 14 seconds.
The (W) NBA and Euroleague have different rules on the shot clock reset on jump balls; while both leagues have jump balls retained by the offense are reset to 14 seconds (if 13 seconds or fewer are on the shot clock), in the (W) NBA, if the defence causes the jump ball, the shot clock is not reset if the offense keeps control of the ball unless under 5.0 seconds of time remain, where it is reset to 5.0 seconds.
Also in FIBA play, if the offense retains control of a ball following a rebound, the shot clock is reset to 14 seconds.
Since the 2015 -- 16 season, all American college basketball uses a 30 - second shot clock, while Canadian university basketball uses a 24 - second clock. The American women 's game has used a 30 - second clock since the 1970s, but the men 's game did not adopt a shot clock until 1985. The men 's limit was originally 45 seconds, and was shortened to 35 seconds in 1993 before going to 30 seconds in 2015. The National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS), which sets rules for high school basketball in the U.S., does not mandate the use of a shot clock, instead leaving the choice to use a clock and its duration up to each individual state association. Proposals to adopt a national shot clock for high school basketball have been voted down by the NFHS as recently as 2011. Currently, eight U.S. states require the use of a shot clock of 30 / 35 seconds in high school competition: California, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York, North Dakota, Rhode Island, South Dakota, and Washington.
The shot clock and its enforcement is used in concert with the rule that requires an offensive team to advance the ball across half - court and into the offensive zone (or front court) within a referee 's count (this rule was first introduced in 1933, predating the shot clock by over 2 decades). In men 's college basketball, the offense must advance the ball to the front court within 10 seconds, the same length used by FIBA and the NBA until they adopted an 8 - second limit in 2000 and 2001, respectively. Failure by the offense to advance the ball to the front court within the time limit results in a turnover to the other team.
Generally, the 10 - second (or 8 - second) count is independent from the shot clock 's operation; in fact, a referee may count the 8 or 10 seconds through a visible motion of his hand or arm. Women 's college basketball introduced the 10 - second limit in 2013 -- 2014, and provided that officials will not count the ten seconds but "will use the shot clock to determine if a 10 - second violation has occurred. '' As a general reference, it refers to the shot clock reaching 15 (FIBA / (W) NBA; because the NBA shot clock registers tenths in the final five seconds, the violation occurs once the clock registers 15.9 seconds on the console, which is posted as 15 on the clock) or 20 (college) before a violation can be called.
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where is the rocky mountain national park located | Rocky Mountain National Park - wikipedia
Rocky Mountain National Park is a United States national park located approximately 76 mi (122 km) northwest of Denver International Airport in north - central Colorado, within the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. The park is situated between the towns of Estes Park to the east and Grand Lake to the west. The eastern and westerns slopes of the Continental Divide run directly through the center of the park with the headwaters of the Colorado River located in the park 's northwestern region. The main features of the park include mountains, alpine lakes and a wide variety of wildlife within various climates and environments, from wooded forests to mountain tundra.
The Rocky Mountain National Park Act was signed by then -- President Woodrow Wilson on January 26, 1915, establishing the park boundaries and protecting the area for future generations. The Civilian Conservation Corps built the main automobile route, named Trail Ridge Road, in the 1930s. In 1976, UNESCO designated the park as one of the first World Biosphere Reserves. In 2016, more than four and a half million recreational visitors entered the park, which is an increase of about nine percent from the prior year.
The park has a total of five visitor centers with park headquarters located at the Beaver Meadows Visitor Center -- a National Historic Landmark designed by the Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture at Taliesin West. National Forest lands surround the park including Roosevelt National Forest to the north and east, Routt National Forest to the north and west, and Arapaho National Forest to the west and south, with the Indian Peaks Wilderness area located directly south of the park.
The history of Rocky Mountain National Park began when Paleo - Indians traveled along what is now Trail Ridge Road to hunt and forage for food. Ute and Arapaho people subsequently hunted and camped in the area. In 1820, the Long Expedition, led by Stephen H. Long for whom Longs Peak was named, approached the Rockies via the Platte River. Settlers began arriving in the mid-1800s, displacing the Native Americans who mostly left the area voluntarily by 1860, while others were removed to reservations by 1878.
Lulu City, Dutchtown, and Gaskill in the Never Summer Mountains were established in the 1870s when prospectors came in search of gold and silver. The boom ended by 1883 with miners deserting their claims. The railroad reached Lyons, Colorado in 1881 and the Big Thompson Canyon Road -- a section of U.S. Route 34 from Loveland to Estes Park -- was completed in 1904. The 1920s saw a boom in building lodges and roads in the park, culminating with the construction of Trail Ridge Road to Fall River Pass between 1929 and 1932, then to Grand Lake by 1938.
Prominent individuals in the effort to create a national park included Enos Mills from the Estes Park area, James Grafton Rogers from Denver, and J. Horace McFarland of Pennsylvania. The national park was established on January 26, 1915.
Precambrian metamorphic rock formed the core of the North American continent during the Precambrian eon 4.5 -- 1 billion years ago. During the Paleozoic era, western North America was submerged beneath a shallow sea, with a seabed composed of limestone and dolomite deposits many kilometers thick. Pikes Peak granite formed during the late Precambrian eon, continuing well into the Paleozoic era, when mass quantities of molten rock flowed, amalgamated, and formed the continents about 1 billion -- 300 million years ago. Concurrently, in the period from 500 -- 300 million years ago, the region began to sink while lime and mud sediments were deposited in the vacated space. Eroded granite produced sand particles that formed strata -- layers of sediment -- in the sinking basin.
About 300 million years ago, the land was uplifted creating the ancestral Rocky Mountains. Fountain Formation was deposited during the Pennsylvanian period of the Paleozoic era, 290 -- 296 million years ago. Over the next 150 million years, the mountains uplifted, continued to erode, and covered themselves in their own sediment. Wind, gravity, rainwater, snow, and glacial ice eroded the granite mountains over geologic time scales. The Ancestral Rockies were eventually buried under subsequent strata.
The Pierre Shale formation was deposited during the Paleogene and Cretaceous periods about 70 million years ago. The region was covered by a deep sea -- the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway -- which deposited massive amounts of shale on the seabed. Both the thick stratum of shale and embedded marine life fossils -- including ammonites and skeletons of fish and such marine reptiles as mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, and extinct species of sea turtles, along with rare dinosaur and bird remains -- were created during this time period. The area now known as Colorado was eventually transformed from being at the bottom of an ocean to dry land again, giving yield to another fossiliferous rock layer known as the Denver Formation.
At about 68 million years ago, the Front Range began to rise again due to the Laramide orogeny in the west. During the Cenozoic era, block uplift formed the present Rocky Mountains. The geologic composition of Rocky Mountain National Park was also affected by deformation and erosion during that era. The uplift disrupted the older drainage patterns and created the present drainage patterns.
Glacial geology in Rocky Mountain National Park can be seen from the mountain peaks to the valley floors. Ice is a powerful sculptor of this natural environment and large masses of moving ice are the most powerful tools. Telltale marks of giant glaciers can be seen all throughout the park. Streams and glaciations during the Quaternary period cut through the older sediment, creating mesa tops and alluvial plains, and revealing the present Rocky Mountains. The glaciation removed as much as 5,000 feet (1,500 m) of sedimentary rocks from earlier inland sea deposits. This erosion exposed the basement rock of the Ancestral Rockies. Evidence of the uplifting and erosion can be found on the way to Rocky Mountain National Park in the hogbacks of the Front Range foothills. Many sedimentary rocks from the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras exist in the basins surrounding the park.
While the glaciation periods are largely in the past, the park still has several small glaciers. The glaciers include Andrews, Sprague, Tyndall, Taylor, Rowe, Mills, and Moomaw Glaciers.
Rocky Mountain National Park encompasses 265,461 acres (414.78 sq mi; 1,074.28 km) of federal land, with an additional 253,059 acres (395.40 sq mi; 1,024.09 km) of U.S. Forest Service wilderness adjoining the park boundaries. The Continental Divide runs generally north -- south through the center of the park, with rivers and streams on the western side of the divide flowing toward the Pacific Ocean while those on the eastern side flow toward the Atlantic.
A geographical anomaly is found along the slopes of the Never Summer Mountains where the Continental Divide forms a horseshoe -- shaped bend for about 6 miles (9.7 km), heading from south -- to -- north but then curving sharply southward and westward out of the park. The sharp bend results in streams on the eastern slopes of the range joining the headwaters of the Colorado River that flow south and west, eventually reaching the Pacific. Meanwhile, streams on the western slopes join rivers that flow north and then east and south eventually reaching the Atlantic.
The headwaters of the Colorado River are located in the park 's northwestern region. The park contains approximately 450 miles (724 km) of rivers and streams, 350 miles (563 km) of trails, and 150 lakes.
Rocky Mountain National Park is one of the highest national parks in the nation, with elevations from 7,860 to 14,259 feet (2,396 to 4,346 m), the highest point of which is Longs Peak. Sixty mountain peaks over 12,000 feet (3,658 m) high provide scenic vistas. On the north side of the park, the Mummy Range contains a number of thirteener peaks, including Hagues Peak, Mummy Mountain, Fairchild Mountain, Ypsilon Mountain, and Mount Chiquita. Several small glaciers and permanent snowfields are found in the high mountain cirques.
Colorado has one of the most diverse plant and animal environments of the United States, partially due to the dramatic temperature differences arising from varying elevation levels and topography. In dry climates, the average temperature drops 5.4 degrees Fahrenheit with every 1,000 foot increase in elevation (9.8 degrees Celsius per 1,000 meters). Most of Colorado is semi-arid with the mountains receiving the greatest amount of precipitation in the state.
The Continental Divide runs north to south through the park, creating a climatic division. Ancient glaciers carved the topography into a range of ecological zones. The east side of the Divide tends to be drier with heavily glaciated peaks and cirques. The west side of the park is wetter with more lush, deep forests.
There are four ecosystems, or zones, in Rocky Mountain National Park: montane, subalpine, alpine tundra, and riparian. The riparian zone occurs throughout all of the three other zones. Each individual ecosystem is composed of organisms interacting with one other and with their surrounding environment. Living organisms (biotic), along with the dead organic matter they produce, and the abiotic (non-living) environment that impacts those living organisms (water, weather, rocks, and landscape) are all members of an ecosystem.
The park was designated a World Biosphere Reserve by the United Nations in 1976 to protect its natural resources. The park 's biodiversity includes afforestation and reforestation, ecology, inland bodies of water, and mammals, while its ecosystems are managed for nature conservation, environmental education and public recreation purposes. The areas of research and monitoring include ungulate ecology and management, high - altitude revegetation, global change, acid precipitation effects, and aquatic ecology and management.
The montane ecosystem is at the lowest elevations in the park, between 5,600 to 9,500 feet (1,700 to 2,900 m), where the slopes and large meadow valleys support the widest range of plant and animal life, including montane forests, grasslands, and shrublands. The area has meandering rivers and during the summer, wildflowers grow in the open meadows. Ponderosa pine trees, grass, shrubs and herbs live on dry, south - facing slopes. North - facing slopes retain moisture better than those that face south. The soil better supports dense populations of trees, like Douglas fir, lodgepole pine, and ponderosa pine. There are also occasional Engelmann spruce and blue spruce trees. Quaking aspens thrive in high - moisture montane soils. Other water - loving small trees like willows, grey alder, and water birch may be found along streams or lakeshores. Water - logged soil in flat montane valleys may be unable to support growth of evergreen forests. The following areas are part of the montane ecosystem: Moraine Park, Horseshoe Park, Kawuneeche Valley, and Upper Beaver Meadows.
Some of the mammals that inhabit the montane ecosystem include snowshoe hares, coyotes, cougars, beavers, mule deer, moose, bighorn sheep, black bears, and Rocky Mountain elk. During the fall, visitors often flock to the park to witness the elk rut.
From 9,000 ft (2,700 m) to 11,000 ft (3,400 m), the montane forests give way to subalpine forests. Forests of fir and Engelmann spruce cover the mountainsides in subalpine areas. Trees grow straight and tall in the lower subalpine forests, but become shorter and more deformed the nearer they are to the tree line. At the tree line, seedlings may germinate on the lee side of rocks and grow only as high as the rock provides wind protection, with any further growth being more horizontal than vertical. The low growth of dense trees is called krummholz, which may become well - established and live for several hundred to a thousand years old.
In the subalpine zone, lodgepole pines and huckleberry have established themselves in previous burn areas. Crystal clear lakes and fields of wildflowers are hidden among the trees. Mammals of the subalpine zone include bobcats, cougars, coyotes, elk, mule deer, chipmunks, shrews, porcupines and yellow - bellied marmots. Black bears are attracted by the berries and seeds of subalpine forests. Clark 's nutcracker, Steller 's jay, mountain chickadee and yellow - rumped warbler are some of the many birds found in the subalpine zone. Sprague Lake and Odessa Lake are two of the park 's subalpine lakes.
Above tree line, at approximately 11,000 ft (3,400 m), trees disappear and the vast alpine tundra takes over. Over one third of the park resides above the tree line, an area which limits plant growth due to the cold climate and strong winds. The few plants that can survive under such extreme conditions are mostly perennials. Many alpine plants are dwarfed at high elevations, though their occasional blossoms may be full - sized.
Cushion plants have long taproots that extend deep into the rocky soil. Their diminutive size, like clumps of moss, limits the effect of harsh winds. Many flowering plants of the tundra have dense hairs on stems and leaves to provide wind protection or red - colored pigments capable of converting the sun 's light rays into heat. Some plants take two or more years to form flower buds, which survive the winter below the surface and then open and produce fruit with seeds in the few weeks of summer. Grasses and sedges are common where tundra soil is well - developed.
Non-flowering lichens cling to rocks and soil. Their enclosed algal cells can photosynthesize at any temperature above 32 degrees Fahrenheit (0 ° C), and the outer fungal layers can absorb more than their own weight in water. Adaptations for survival amidst drying winds and cold temperatures may make tundra vegetation seem very hardy, but in some respects it remains very fragile. Footsteps can destroy tundra plants and it may take hundreds of years to recover. Mammals that live on the alpine tundra, or visit during the summer season, include bighorn sheep, elk, badgers, pikas, yellow - bellied marmots, and snowshoe hares. Birds include prairie falcons, white - tailed ptarmigans, and common ravens. Flowering plants include mertensia, sky pilot, alpine sunflowers, alpine dwarf columbine, and alpine forget - me - not. Grasses include kobresia, spike trisetum, spreading wheatgrass, and tufted hairgrass.
The riparian ecosystem runs through the montane, subalpine, and alpine tundra zones and creates a foundation for life, especially for species that thrive next to streams, rivers, and lakes. The headwaters of the Colorado River, which provides water to many of the southwestern states, are located on the west side of the park. The Fall River, Cache la Poudre River and Big Thompson Rivers are located on the east side of the park. Just like the other ecosystems in the park, the riparian zone is affected by the climatic variables of temperature, precipitation, and elevation. Generally, riparian zones in valleys will have cooler temperatures than communities located on slopes and ridge tops. Depending on elevation, a riparian zone may have more or less precipitation than other riparian zones in the park, with the difference creating a shift in the types of plants and animals found in a specific zone.
Rocky Mountain National Park is home to many species of animals, including nearly 70 mammals and almost 300 species of birds. This diversity is due to the park 's varying topography, which creates a variety of habitats. However, some species have been extirpated from the park, including the gray wolf, the wolverine, the grizzly bear, and the American bison.
The park is home to some 2,000 to 3,000 elk in summer, and between 800 and 1,000 elk spend the winter within its boundaries. Because of lack of predation, the National Park Service culls around 50 elk each winter. Overgrazing by elk has become a major problem in the park 's riparian areas, so much so that the NPS fences them out of many critical wetland habitats to let willows and aspens grow. The program seems to be working, as the deciduous wetland plants thrive within the fencing. Many people think the elk herd is too large, but are reluctant to reintroduce predators because of its proximity to large human populations and ranches.
Apart from elk, many other ungulates reside in the park, including bighorn sheep, moose, and mule deer. Bison were eliminated from the park in the 1800s, as were pronghorn and moose, the latter of which was restored to the area in 1978. Moose are now frequently seen in the park, especially on the park 's west side. The park 's bighorn sheep population has recovered and is estimated at 350 animals.
The park is home to many predatory animals, including Canada lynx, bobcat, mountain lion, American black bear, foxes, and coyotes. Wolves and grizzly bears were extirpated in the early 1900s. Most of these predators kill smaller animals, but mountain lions and coyotes kill deer and occasionally elk. Bears also eat larger prey. Moose have no predators in the park. Black bears are relatively uncommon in the park, numbering only 24 - 35 animals. They also have fewer cubs and the bears seem skinnier than they do in most areas. Canada lynx are quite rare within the park, and they have probably spread north from the San Juan Mountains, where they were reintroduced in 1999. Mountain lions feed mainly on mule deer in the park, and live 10 - 13 years. Mountain lion territories can be as large as 500 square miles. Coyotes hunt both alone and in loose packs. They mainly feed on rodents but occasionally bring down larger animals, including deer, and especially fawns and elk calves. Scat studies in Moraine Park showed that their primary foods were deer and rodents. They form strong family bonds and are very vocal.
The complex interactions of elevation, slope, exposure and regional - scale air masses determine the climate within the park, which is noted for its extreme weather patterns. A "collision of air masses '' from several directions produces some of the key weather events in the region. When cold arctic air from the north meets warm moist air from the Gulf of Mexico at the Front Range, "intense, very wet snowfalls with total snow depth measured in the feet '' accumulate in the park.
Higher elevation areas within the park receive twice as much precipitation as lower elevation areas, generally in the form of deep winter snowfall. Arctic conditions are prevalent during the winter, with sudden blizzards, high winds, and deep snowpack. High country overnight trips require gear suitable for - 35 ° F or below.
The subalpine region does not begin to experience spring - like conditions until June. Wildflowers bloom from late June to early August.
Below 9,400 feet (2,865 m), temperatures are often moderate, although nighttime temperatures are cool, as is typical of mountain weather. Spring comes to the montane area by early May, when wildflowers begin to bloom. Spring weather is subject to unpredictable changes in temperature and precipitation, with potential for snow along trails through May. In July and August, temperatures are generally in the 70s or 80s ° F during the day, and as low as the 40s ° F at night. Lower elevations receive rain as most of their summer precipitation.
Sudden dramatic changes in the weather may occur during the summer, typically due to afternoon thunderstorms that can cause as much as a 20 ° F drop in temperature and windy conditions.
The park 's climate is also affected by the Continental Divide, which runs northwest to southeast through the center of the park atop the high peaks. The Continental Divide creates two distinct climate patterns - one typical of the east side near Estes Park and the other associated with the Grand Lake area on the park 's west side. The west side of the park experiences more snow, less wind, and clear cold days during the winter months.
Rocky Mountain National Park was selected to participate in a climate change study, along with two other National Park Service areas in the Rocky Mountain region and three in the Appalachian Mountain region. The study began in 2011, orchestrated by members of the academic scientific community in cooperation with the National Park Service and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The stated objective: "develop and apply decision support tools that use NASA and other data and models to assess vulnerability of ecosystems and species to climate and land use change and evaluate management options. ''
As of 2010, the preceding one hundred years of records indicated an increase in the average annual temperature of approximately 3 ° F (1.7 ° C). The average low temperature has increased more than the average high temperature during the same time period. As a result of the temperature increase, snow is melting from the mountains earlier in the year, leading to drier summers and probably to an earlier, longer fire season. Since the 1990s, mountain pine beetles have reproduced more rapidly and have not died off at their previous mortality rate during the winter months. Consequently, the increased beetle population has led to an increased rate of tree mortality in the park.
The climate change study projects further temperature increases, with greater warming in the summer and higher extreme temperatures by 2050. Due to the increased temperature, there is a projected moderate increase in the rate of water evaporation. Reduced snowfall -- perhaps 15 % to 30 % less than current amounts -- and the elimination of surface hail, along with the higher likelihood of intense precipitation events are predicted by 2050. Droughts may be more likely due to increased temperatures, increased evaporation rates, and potential changes in precipitation.
There are five regions, or geographical zones, within the park.
Region 1 is known for moose and big meadows and is located on the west, or Grand Lake, side of the Continental Divide. Thirty miles of the Continental Divide National Scenic Trail loop through the park and pass through alpine tundra and scenery.
The Big Meadows area with its grasses and wildflowers can be reached via the Onahu, Tonahutu, or Green Mountain trail. Other scenic areas include Long Meadows and the Kawuneeche Valley (Coyote Valley) of the upper Colorado River which is a good place for birdwatching, as well as snowshoeing and cross-country skiing in winter. The valley trail loops through Kawuneeche Valley which contained as many as 39 mines, though less than 20 of those have archived records and archeological remains. LuLu City is the site of an abandoned silver mining town of the early 1880s located along the Colorado River Trail. According to a 1985 report prepared for the NRHP, there were only three cabin ruins remaining along with remnants of six other buildings.
Baker Pass crosses the Continental Divide through the Never Summer Mountains and into the Michigan River drainage to the west of Mount Nimbus -- a drainage that feeds streams and rivers that drain into the Gulf of Mexico. Other mountain passes are La Poudre Pass and Thunder Pass, which was once used by stage coaches and is a route to Michigan Lakes. Little Yellowstone has unique geological features similar to the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone. The Green Mountain trail once was a wagon road used to haul hay from Big Meadows. Flattop Mountain, which can be accessed from the eastern and western sides of the park, is near Green Mountain. Shadow Mountain Lookout -- a wildfire observation tower -- is on the National Register of Historic Places. Paradise Park is an essentially hidden and protected wild area with no maintained trails penetrating it.
Skeleton Gulch, Cascade Falls, North Inlet Falls, Granite Falls, and Adams Falls are found in the west side of the park. The west side lakes include Bowen Lake, Lake Verna, Lake of the Clouds, Haynach Lakes, Timber Lake, Lone Pine Lake, Lake Nanita, and Lake Nokoni.
Region 2 is the alpine region of the park with accessible tundra trails at high elevations -- an area known for its spectacular vistas. Within the region are Mount Ida, with tundra slopes and a wide - open view of the Continental Divide, and Specimen Mountain, which has a steep trail and the opportunity to view bighorn sheep and marmots. Forest Canyon Pass is near the top of the Old Ute Trail that once linked villages across the Continental Divide.
Chapin Pass trail traverses a dense forest to beautiful views of the Chapin Creek valley, proceeding onward above timberline to the western flank of Mount Chapin. Tundra Communities Trail, accessible from Trail Ridge Road, is a hike offering tundra views and alpine wildflowers. Other trails are Tombstone Ridge and Ute Trail, which starts at the tundra and is mostly downhill from Ute Crossing to Upper Beaver Meadows, with one backcountry camping site. Cache La Poudre River trail begins north of Poudre Lake on the west side of the valley near Milner Pass and heads downward toward the Mummy Pass trail junction. Lake Irene is a recreation and picnic area.
Region 3, known for wilderness escape, is in the northern part of the park and is accessed from the Estes Park area.
The Mummy Range is a short mountain range in the north of the park. The Mummies tend to be gentler and more forested than the other peaks in the park, though some slopes are rugged and heavily glaciated, particularly around Ypsilon Mountain and Mummy Mountain. Bridal Veil Falls is a scenic point and trail accessible from the Cow Creek trailhead, at the Continental Divide Research Center. West Creek Falls and Chasm Falls, near Old Fall River Road, are also in this region. The Alluvial Fan trail leads to a bridge over the river that had been the site of the Lawn Lake Flood.
Lumpy Ridge Trail leads to Paul Bunyan 's Boot at about 1.5 mi (2.4 km) from the trailhead, then Gem Lake, and a further 2.2 mi (3.5 km) to Balanced Rock. Black Canyon Trail intersects Cow Creek Trail, forming part of the Gem Lake loop which goes through the old McGregor Ranch valley, passing Lumpy Ridge rock formations, with a loop hike that goes into the McGraw Ranch valley.
Cow Creek Trail follows Cow Creek, with its many beaver ponds, extending past the Bridal Falls turnoff as the Dark Mountain trail, then joining the Black Canyon trail to intersect the Lawn Lake trail shortly below the lake. North Boundary Trail connects to the Lost Lake trail system. North Fork Trail begins outside of the park in the Comanche Peak Wilderness before reaching the park boundary and ending at Lost Lake. Stormy Peaks Trail connects Colorado State University 's Pingree Park campus in the Comanche Peak Wilderness and the North Fork Trail inside the park.
Beaver Mountain Loop, also used by horseback riders, passes through forests and meadows, crosses Beaver Brook and several aspen - filled drainages, and has a great view of Longs Peak. Deer Mountain Trail gives a 360 degree view of eastern part of the park. The summit plateau of Deer Mountain offers expansive views of the Continental Divide. During the winter, the lower trail generally has little snow, though packed and drifted snow are to be expected on the switchbacks. Snow cover on the summit may be three to five feet deep, requiring the use of snowshoes or skis.
The trail to Lake Estes in Estes Park meanders through a bird sanctuary, beside a golf course, along the Big Thompson River and Fish Creek, through the lakeside picnic area and along the lakeshore. The trail is used by birdwatchers, bikers and hikers.
Lawn Lake Trail climbs to Lawn Lake and Crystal Lake, one of the parks deepest lakes, in the alpine ecosystem and along the course of the Roaring River. The river shows the massive damage caused by a dam failure in 1982 that claimed the lives of three campers. The trail is a strenuous snowshoe hike in the winter. Ypsilon Lake Trail leads to its namesake as well as Chipmunk Lake, with views of Longs Peak, while traversing pine forests with grouseberry and bearberry bushes. The trail also offers views of the canyon gouged out by rampaging water that broke loose from Lawn Lake Dam in 1982. Visible is the south face of Ypsilon Mountain, with its Y shaped gash rising sharply from the shoreline.
Gem Lake is high among the rounded granite domes of Lumpy Ridge. Untouched by glaciation, this outcrop of 1.8 billion - year - old granite has been sculpted by wind and chemical erosion into a backbone - like ridge. Pillars, potholes, and balanced rocks are found around the midpoint of the trail, along with views of the Estes Valley and Continental Divide. Potts Puddle trail is accessible from the Black Canyon trail.
Region 4 is the heart of the park with easy road and trail access, great views, and lake hikes including the most popular trails. Flattop Mountain is a tundra hike and the easiest hike to the Continental Divide. The hike up Hallett Peak passes through three climate zones, crossing over Flattop Mountain, traversing the ridge that supports Tyndall Glacier, and finally ascending to the summit of Hallett Peak.
Bear Lake is a high - elevation lake in a spruce and fir forest at the base of Hallett Peak and Flattop Mountain. Bierstadt Lake sits atop a lateral moraine named Bierstadt Moraine, and drains into Mill Creek. There are several trails that lead to Bierstadt Lake through groves of aspens and lodgepole pines. North of Bierstadt Moraine is Hollowell Park, a large and marshy meadow along Mill Creek. The Hollowell Park trail runs along Steep Mountain 's south side. Ranches, lumber and sawmill enterprises operated in Hollowell Park into the early 1900s.
Glacial Basin was the site of a resort run by Abner and Alberta Sprague, after whom Sprague Lake is named. The lake is a shallow body of water that was created when the Spragues dammed Boulder Brook to create a fish pond. Sprague Lake is a popular place for birdwatching, hiking and viewing the mountain peaks, along with camping at the Glacier Basin campground.
Dream Lake is one of the most - photographed lakes and is also noted for its winter snowshoeing. Emerald Lake is located directly below the saddle between Hallett Peak and Flattop Mountain, only a short hike beyond Dream Lake. The shore of Lake Haiyaha (a Native American word for "big rocks '') is surrounded by boulders along with ancient, twisted and picturesque pine trees growing out of rock crevices. Nymph Lake is named for the yellow lily, Nymphaea polysepala, on its surface. Lake Helene is at the head of Odessa Gorge, east of Notchtop Mountain. Two Rivers Lake is found along the hike to Odessa Lake from Bear Lake, and has one backcountry campsite. The Cub Lake trail passes Big Thompson River, flowery meadows, and stands of pine and aspen trees. Ice and deep snow are present during the winter, requiring the use of skis or snowshoes.
The Fern Lake trail passes Arch Rock formations, The Pool, and the cascading water of Fern Falls. Two backcountry campsites are located near the lake, and two more are closer to the trailhead. Odessa Lake has two approaches: one is along the Flattop trail from Bear Lake while the other is from the Fern Lake trailhead, along which are Fern Creek, The Pool, Fern Falls, and Fern Lake itself. One backcountry campsite is available. Other lakes are Jewel Lake, Mills Lake, Black Lake, Blue Lake, Lake of Glass, and Spruce Lake.
The Pool is a large turbulent water pocket formed below where Spruce and Fern Creeks join the Big Thompson River. The winter route is along a gravel road, which leads to a trail at the Fern Lake trailhead. Along the route are beaver - cut aspen, frozen waterfalls on the cliffs, and the Arch Rocks. The trail to Alberta Falls runs by Glacier Creek and Glacier Gorge.
Wind River Trail leaves the East Portal and follows the Wind River to join with the Storm Pass trail. There are three backcountry campsites. Other sites in the area are The Loch, Loch Vale, Mill Creek Basin, Andrews Glacier, Sky Point, Timberline Falls, Upper Beaver Meadows, and Storm Pass.
Region 5, known for waterfalls and backcountry, is south of Estes Park and contains Longs Peak -- the park 's iconic fourteener -- and the Wild Basin area. Other peaks and passes include Lily Mountain, Estes Cone, Twin Sisters, Boulder - Grand Pass, and Granite Pass. Eugenia Mine operated about the late - 19th to early - 20th century, with some old equipment and a log cabin remaining. Sites and trails include Boulder Field, Wild Basin Trail, and Homer Rouse Memorial Trail.
Enos Mills, the main figure behind the creation of Rocky Mountain National Park, enjoyed walking to Lily Lake from his nearby cabin. Wildflowers are common in the spring and early summer. In the winter, the trail around the lake is often suitable for walking in boots, or as a short snowshoe or ski. Other lakes in the Wild Basin include Chasm Lake, Snowbank Lake, Lion Lakes 1 and 2, Thunder Lake, Ouzel Lake, Finch Lake, Bluebird Lake, Pear Lake, and Sandbeach Lake. Many of the lakes have backcountry campsites. Waterfalls include Ouzel Falls, Trio Falls, Copeland Falls, and Calypso Cascades.
The park contains a network of trails that range from easy, paved paths suitable for all visitors including those with disabilities, to strenuous mountain trails for experienced, conditioned hikers as well as off - trail routes for backcountry hikes. Most trails are for summer use only, since at other times of the year many trails are not safe due to weather conditions. The park provides dozens of designated backcountry campsites and horseback riding is permitted on most trails. Llamas and other pack animals are also allowed on most of the trails.
Rock climbing and mountaineering opportunities include Lumpy Ridge, Hallett Peak, and Longs Peak, the highest peak in the park, with the easiest route being the Keyhole Route. This 8 mi (13 km) one - way climb has an elevation gain of 4,850 ft (1,480 m). The vast east face, including the area known as The Diamond, is home to many classic big wall rock climbing routes. Many of the highest peaks have technical ice and rock routes on them, ranging from short scrambles to long multi-pitch climbs.
Fishing is found in the many lakes and streams in the park, and camping is allowed at several designated campgrounds.
During the winter, only the edges of the park are accessible for recreational activities since most of Trail Ridge Road is closed due to heavy snow. Winter activities include snowshoeing and cross-country skiing which are possible from either the Estes Park or Grand Lake entrances. On the east side near Estes Park, skiing and snowshoeing trails are available off Bear Lake Road, such as the Bear Lake, Bierstadt Lake, and Sprague Lake trails and at Hidden Valley. Slopes for sledding are also available at Hidden Valley. The west side of the park near Grand Lake also has viable snowshoeing trails. Backcountry - style Telemark skiing and snowboarding can be enjoyed after climbing up one of the higher slopes, late in the snow season after avalanche danger has subsided.
The park may be accessed through Estes Park or via the western entrance at Grand Lake. Trail Ridge Road, also known as U.S. Route 34, connects the eastern and western sides of the park. The park has a total of five visitor centers. The Alpine Visitor Center is located in the tundra environment along Trail Ridge Road, while Beaver Meadows and Fall River are both near Estes Park, with Kawuneeche in the Grand Lake area, and the Moraine Park Discovery Center near the Beaver Meadows entrance and visitor center.
Trail Ridge Road is 48 miles (77 km) long and connects the entrances in Grand Lake and Estes Park. Running generally east -- west through many hairpin turns, the road crosses Milner Pass through the Continental Divide at an elevation of 10,758 ft (3,279 m). The highest point of the road is 12,183 feet (3,713 m), with eleven miles of the road being above tree line which is approximately 11,500 feet (3,505 m). The road is the highest continuously paved highway in the country, and includes many large turnouts at key points to stop and observe the scenery.
Most visitors to the park drive over the famous Trail Ridge Road, but other roads include Fall River Road and Bear Lake Road. The park is open every day of the year, weather permitting. Due to the extended winter season in higher elevations, Trail Ridge Road between Many Parks Curve and the Colorado River Trailhead is closed much of the year. The road is usually open again by Memorial Day and closes in mid-October, generally after Columbus Day. Fall River Road does not open until about July 4 and closes by, or in, October for vehicular traffic. Snow may also fall in sufficient quantities in higher elevations to require temporary closure of the roads into July, which is reported on the road status site.
Most visitors enter the park through the eastern entrances near Estes Park, which is about 71 miles (114 km) northwest of Denver. The most direct route to Trail Ridge Road is the Beaver Meadows entrance, located just west of Estes Park on U.S. Route 36, which leads to the Beaver Meadows Visitor Center and the park 's headquarters. North of the Beaver Meadows entrance station is the Fall River entrance, which also leads to Trail Ridge Road and Old Fall River Road. There are three routes into Estes Park: I - 25 to U.S. 34 west which runs alongside the Big Thompson River; U.S. 36 west (northwest) from Boulder connecting to U.S. 34 west; and the Peak to Peak Highway, also known as State Highway 7, from points south.
The nearest airport is Denver International Airport and the closest train station is the Denver Union Station. Estes Park may be reached by rental car, shuttle or RTD bus. During peak tourist season, there is free shuttle service within the park and the town of Estes Park provides shuttle service to Estes Park Visitor Center, surrounding campgrounds, and the Rocky Mountain National Park 's shuttles.
Visitors may also enter at the western side of the park from U.S. 34 near Grand Lake. U.S. 34 is reached by taking U.S. 40 north from I - 70. The closest railroad station is the Amtrak station in Granby, which is 20 miles (32 km) from the western entrance of the park. Taxi service is available into the park.
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love it or list it season 13 episode 1 location | Love It or List It - wikipedia
Love It or List It is a Canadian home design TV show currently airing on HGTV, W Network, and on OWN Canada, and is the original show in the Love it or List It franchise. The show is produced by Big Coat Productions and was based in Toronto and other surrounding areas in Ontario, Canada. The show premiered as a primetime program on W Network on September 8, 2008, and has since aired on OWN Canada as well as HGTV in the United States. In September 2014, the show began filming in the United States in North Carolina.
In September 2017, HGTV ordered 20 additional episodes of the program. The next season is to start airing in June 2018.
Every episode of Love It or List It follows the same formula. A couple (usually, but not in all cases) presents their living situation in the current house that they own. In most episodes, the couple is split on whether or not they want to stay in the house.
Interior designer Hilary Farr and real estate agent David Visentin tour the couple 's home before meeting with them. The tour usually consists of David finding mostly negative things to say about the residence while Hilary is convinced that she can work magic with whatever plans she is given.
At the meetup between the couple and the hosts of the show, both Hilary and David are briefed as to what the couple 's desires are. Hilary is given a list of renovations the couple wants for the current house and her budget for the entire project. David, meanwhile, is tasked with searching for a new home for the couple that both meets their needs and stays within their desired budget.
Common challenges faced by Hilary are an inadequate budget to complete the entire request list from the homeowners, often due to discovery of unforeseen issues with the house that are uncovered during the renovation such as lack of compliance with modern building codes. Common issues for David, meanwhile, depend on the homeowners ' desires; for instance, the couple has children enrolled in the neighborhood school and they do not desire to change, or the potential house is too distant from family members or a workplace.
After Hilary 's renovation is complete, the homeowners are given a tour of their current home to see what she was able to accomplish. After the tour, David meets with them and hands them an evaluation of the home 's current market value following the renovations. He will then remind the couple what they could have in one of the new homes they looked at and that they would not get that in their current home.
After a moment to deliberate, Hilary and David pose a question to the homeowners. They must choose to either Love It, meaning that they will continue to live in their current home with the renovations, or to List It, meaning that they will buy one of the homes David showed them and sell their current home. After they reveal their decision, the homeowners explain their reasoning to Hilary and David (who, if they decided to Love It, reacts with incredulity) before bidding them farewell.
Hosts
Assistant Designer
Contractors
Behind the Scenes
Victories for Hilary are families or clients who decided to love their home and stay. Victories for David are families and clients who decided to list and move into a new or better home.
Love It or List It has spawned five spinoffs. The first, known as Love It or List It Vancouver (or Love it or List it Too in the US), was launched in winter 2012 and is hosted by Jillian Harris and Todd Talbot. The second spin - off, a British version known as Love It or List It UK, debuted in 2015, is hosted by Kirstie Allsopp and Phil Spencer. The third spin off, Love It or List It Vacation Homes debuted in spring 2016 and is hosted by Dan Vickery and Elisa Goldhawke. A fourth spin off, Vendre ou renover au Quebec debuted in January 2017 and is hosted by Maika Desnoyers and Daniel Corbin. The fifth spin off, Love It Or List It Australia debuted in September 2017 and is hosted by Andrew Winter and Neale Whittaker.
On August 31, 2010, Love It or List It was nominated for two Gemini Awards: Best Reality Program or Series and Best Direction in a Reality Program or Series. When HGTV premiered the show on the network, the company stated that Love It or List It has been the highest rating reality series since Candice Olson 's Candice Tells All.
In 2012, New York Times ' columnist Gail Collins noted that it was US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton 's favorite TV show. According to Collins, Clinton finds the show "very calming '' after being interviewed about her departure from politics.
In a 2013 interview with Las Vegas Magazine, Vanna White from Wheel of Fortune said it was one of her favourite HGTV programs. Actress Julianne Moore also gave similar praise for the show in an interview with Katie Couric and the Daily Mail.
According to the Wall Street Journal, the show and its Vancouver spinoff is one of Canada 's beloved reality series.
In April 2016, homeowners Deanna Murphy and Tim Sullivan who had participated in a 2015 Love It or List It episode filed suit against production company Big Coat TV, as well as the North Carolina contractor (Aaron Fitz Construction) who had been hired by the show to do the renovations on their home. The couple alleges that the renovation funds that they provided were not properly disbursed, and that the work on their home was done to a substandard quality. Moreover, the lawsuit states that the television personalities on the show do not play an active role in the renovation process, and that they were not shown homes on the market by any licensed North Carolina real estate agent. Big Coat TV has commented that they "do intend to vigorously defend what (they) consider to be false allegations. ''
The suit was settled in April 2017. The plaintiffs had signed a confidentiality agreement; their lawyer would not comment on the settlement. Big Coat had previously filed a countersuit for libel, slander and product disparagement; parts of that suit had been dismissed by the time of the settlement but that was under appeal by Big Coat. After the agreements had been concluded, both suits were dismissed.
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what is the most common cause of extinction | Extinction - wikipedia
In biology, extinction is the termination of an organism or of a group of organisms (taxon), normally a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point. Because a species ' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly "reappears '' (typically in the fossil record) after a period of apparent absence,
More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to have died out. Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one - thousandth of one percent described.
Through evolution, species arise through the process of speciation -- where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche -- and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition. The relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been firmly established. A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first appearance, although some species, called living fossils, survive with virtually no morphological change for hundreds of millions of years.
Mass extinctions are relatively rare events; however, isolated extinctions are quite common. Only recently have extinctions been recorded and scientists have become alarmed at the current high rate of extinctions. Most species that become extinct are never scientifically documented. Some scientists estimate that up to half of presently existing plant and animal species may become extinct by 2100.
A dagger symbol (†) placed next to the name of a species or other taxon is often done to indicate its status as extinct.
A species is extinct when the last existing member dies. Extinction therefore becomes a certainty when there are no surviving individuals that can reproduce and create a new generation. A species may become functionally extinct when only a handful of individuals survive, which can not reproduce due to poor health, age, sparse distribution over a large range, a lack of individuals of both sexes (in sexually reproducing species), or other reasons.
Pinpointing the extinction (or pseudoextinction) of a species requires a clear definition of that species. If it is to be declared extinct, the species in question must be uniquely distinguishable from any ancestor or daughter species, and from any other closely related species. Extinction of a species (or replacement by a daughter species) plays a key role in the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis of Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge.
In ecology, extinction is often used informally to refer to local extinction, in which a species ceases to exist in the chosen area of study, but may still exist elsewhere. This phenomenon is also known as extirpation. Local extinctions may be followed by a replacement of the species taken from other locations; wolf reintroduction is an example of this. Species which are not extinct are termed extant. Those that are extant but threatened by extinction are referred to as threatened or endangered species.
Currently an important aspect of extinction is human attempts to preserve critically endangered species. These are reflected by the creation of the conservation status "extinct in the wild '' (EW). Species listed under this status by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) are not known to have any living specimens in the wild, and are maintained only in zoos or other artificial environments. Some of these species are functionally extinct, as they are no longer part of their natural habitat and it is unlikely the species will ever be restored to the wild. When possible, modern zoological institutions try to maintain a viable population for species preservation and possible future reintroduction to the wild, through use of carefully planned breeding programs.
The extinction of one species ' wild population can have knock - on effects, causing further extinctions. These are also called "chains of extinction ''. This is especially common with extinction of keystone species.
Extinction of a parent species where daughter species or subspecies are still extant is called pseudoextinction or phyletic extinction. Effectively, the old taxon vanishes, transformed (anagenesis) into a successor, or split into more than one (cladogenesis).
Pseudoextinction is difficult to demonstrate unless one has a strong chain of evidence linking a living species to members of a pre-existing species. For example, it is sometimes claimed that the extinct Hyracotherium, which was an early horse that shares a common ancestor with the modern horse, is pseudoextinct, rather than extinct, because there are several extant species of Equus, including zebra and donkey. However, as fossil species typically leave no genetic material behind, one can not say whether Hyracotherium evolved into more modern horse species or merely evolved from a common ancestor with modern horses. Pseudoextinction is much easier to demonstrate for larger taxonomic groups.
The coelacanth, a fish related to lungfish and tetrapods, was considered to have been extinct since the end of the Cretaceous Period until 1938 when a specimen was found, off the Chalumna River (now Tyolomnqa) on the east coast of South Africa. Museum curator Marjorie Courtenay - Latimer discovered the fish among the catch of a local angler, Captain Hendrick Goosen, on December 23, 1938. A local chemistry professor, JLB Smith, confirmed the fish 's importance with a famous cable: "MOST IMPORTANT PRESERVE SKELETON AND GILLS = FISH DESCRIBED ''.
Far more recent possible or presumed extinctions of species which may turn out still to exist include the thylacine, or Tasmanian tiger (Thylacinus cynocephalus), the last known example of which died in Hobart Zoo in Tasmania in 1936; the Japanese wolf (Canis lupus hodophilax), last sighted over 100 years ago; the ivory - billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis), last sighted for certain in 1944; and the slender - billed curlew (Numenius tenuirostris), not seen since 2007.
As long as species have been evolving, species have been going extinct. It is estimated that over 99.9 % of all species that ever lived are extinct. The average lifespan of a species is 1 -- 10 million years, although this varies widely between taxa. There are a variety of causes that can contribute directly or indirectly to the extinction of a species or group of species. "Just as each species is unique '', write Beverly and Stephen C. Stearns, "so is each extinction... the causes for each are varied -- some subtle and complex, others obvious and simple ''. Most simply, any species that can not survive and reproduce in its environment and can not move to a new environment where it can do so, dies out and becomes extinct. Extinction of a species may come suddenly when an otherwise healthy species is wiped out completely, as when toxic pollution renders its entire habitat unliveable; or may occur gradually over thousands or millions of years, such as when a species gradually loses out in competition for food to better adapted competitors. Extinction may occur a long time after the events that set it in motion, a phenomenon known as extinction debt.
Assessing the relative importance of genetic factors compared to environmental ones as the causes of extinction has been compared to the debate on nature and nurture. The question of whether more extinctions in the fossil record have been caused by evolution or by catastrophe is a subject of discussion; Mark Newman, the author of Modeling Extinction, argues for a mathematical model that falls between the two positions. By contrast, conservation biology uses the extinction vortex model to classify extinctions by cause. When concerns about human extinction have been raised, for example in Sir Martin Rees ' 2003 book Our Final Hour, those concerns lie with the effects of climate change or technological disaster.
Currently, environmental groups and some governments are concerned with the extinction of species caused by humanity, and they try to prevent further extinctions through a variety of conservation programs. Humans can cause extinction of a species through overharvesting, pollution, habitat destruction, introduction of invasive species (such as new predators and food competitors), overhunting, and other influences. Explosive, unsustainable human population growth is an essential cause of the extinction crisis. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 784 extinctions have been recorded since the year 1500, the arbitrary date selected to define "recent '' extinctions, up to the year 2004; with many more likely to have gone unnoticed. Several species have also been listed as extinct since 2004.
If adaptation increasing population fitness is slower than environmental degradation plus the accumulation of slightly deleterious mutations, then a population will go extinct. Smaller populations have fewer beneficial mutations entering the population each generation, slowing adaptation. It is also easier for slightly deleterious mutations to fix in small populations; the resulting positive feedback loop between small population size and low fitness can cause mutational meltdown.
Limited geographic range is the most important determinant of genus extinction at background rates but becomes increasingly irrelevant as mass extinction arises. Limited geographic range is a cause both of small population size and of greater vulnerability to local environmental catastrophes.
Extinction rates can be affected not just by population size, but by any factor that affects evolvability, including balancing selection, cryptic genetic variation, phenotypic plasticity, and robustness. A diverse or deep gene pool gives a population a higher chance in the short term of surviving an adverse change in conditions. Effects that cause or reward a loss in genetic diversity can increase the chances of extinction of a species. Population bottlenecks can dramatically reduce genetic diversity by severely limiting the number of reproducing individuals and make inbreeding more frequent.
Purebred wild species evolved to a specific ecology can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution -- i.e., uncontrolled hybridization, introgression genetic swamping which leads to homogenization or out - competition from the introduced (or hybrid) species. Endemic populations can face such extinctions when new populations are imported or selectively bred by people, or when habitat modification brings previously isolated species into contact. Extinction is likeliest for rare species coming into contact with more abundant ones; interbreeding can swamp the rarer gene pool and create hybrids, depleting the purebred gene pool (for example, the endangered wild water buffalo is most threatened with extinction by genetic pollution from the abundant domestic water buffalo). Such extinctions are not always apparent from morphological (non-genetic) observations. Some degree of gene flow is a normal evolutionarily process, nevertheless, hybridization (with or without introgression) threatens rare species ' existence.
The gene pool of a species or a population is the variety of genetic information in its living members. A large gene pool (extensive genetic diversity) is associated with robust populations that can survive bouts of intense selection. Meanwhile, low genetic diversity (see inbreeding and population bottlenecks) reduces the range of adaptions possible. Replacing native with alien genes narrows genetic diversity within the original population, thereby increasing the chance of extinction.
Habitat degradation is currently the main anthropogenic cause of species extinctions. The main cause of habitat degradation worldwide is agriculture, with urban sprawl, logging, mining and some fishing practices close behind. The degradation of a species ' habitat may alter the fitness landscape to such an extent that the species is no longer able to survive and becomes extinct. This may occur by direct effects, such as the environment becoming toxic, or indirectly, by limiting a species ' ability to compete effectively for diminished resources or against new competitor species.
Habitat degradation through toxicity can kill off a species very rapidly, by killing all living members through contamination or sterilizing them. It can also occur over longer periods at lower toxicity levels by affecting life span, reproductive capacity, or competitiveness.
Habitat degradation can also take the form of a physical destruction of niche habitats. The widespread destruction of tropical rainforests and replacement with open pastureland is widely cited as an example of this; elimination of the dense forest eliminated the infrastructure needed by many species to survive. For example, a fern that depends on dense shade for protection from direct sunlight can no longer survive without forest to shelter it. Another example is the destruction of ocean floors by bottom trawling.
Diminished resources or introduction of new competitor species also often accompany habitat degradation. Global warming has allowed some species to expand their range, bringing unwelcome competition to other species that previously occupied that area. Sometimes these new competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other times they may merely outcompete vulnerable species for limited resources. Vital resources including water and food can also be limited during habitat degradation, leading to extinction.
In the natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not limited to: extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, inter-species competition, inability to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions (particularly sudden changes) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. Recently in geological time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction (many people would say premature extinction) of some species, either as a new mega-predator or by transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another. Such introductions have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally (e.g. livestock released by sailors on islands as a future source of food) and sometimes accidentally (e.g. rats escaping from boats). In most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an invasive alien species does become established, the consequences can be catastrophic. Invasive alien species can affect native species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken or kill them; or indirectly by destroying or degrading their habitat. Human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. According to the "overkill hypothesis '', the swift extinction of the megafauna in areas such as Australia (40,000 years before present), North and South America (12,000 years before present), Madagascar, Hawaii (300 -- 1000 CE), and New Zealand (1300 -- 1500 CE), resulted from the sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before, and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques.
Coextinction refers to the loss of a species due to the extinction of another; for example, the extinction of parasitic insects following the loss of their hosts. Coextinction can also occur when a species loses its pollinator, or to predators in a food chain who lose their prey. "Species coextinction is a manifestation of the interconnectedness of organisms in complex ecosystems... While coextinction may not be the most important cause of species extinctions, it is certainly an insidious one ''. Coextinction is especially common when a keystone species goes extinct. Models suggest that coextinction is the most common form of biodiversity loss. There may be a cascade of coextinction across the trophic levels. Such effects are most severe in mutualistic and parasitic relationships. An example of coextinction is the Haast 's eagle and the moa: the Haast 's eagle was a predator that became extinct because its food source became extinct. The moa were several species of flightless birds that were a food source for the Haast 's eagle.
Extinction as a result of climate change has been confirmed by fossil studies. Particularly, the extinction of amphibians during the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse, 305 million years ago. A 2003 review across 14 biodiversity research centers predicted that, because of climate change, 15 -- 37 % of land species would be "committed to extinction '' by 2050. The ecologically rich areas that would potentially suffer the heaviest losses include the Cape Floristic Region, and the Caribbean Basin. These areas might see a doubling of present carbon dioxide levels and rising temperatures that could eliminate 56,000 plant and 3,700 animal species. Climate change has also been found to be a factor in habitat loss and desertification.
There have been at least five mass extinctions in the history of life on earth, and four in the last 350 million years in which many species have disappeared in a relatively short period of geological time. A massive eruptive event is considered to be one likely cause of the "Permian -- Triassic extinction event '' about 250 million years ago, which is estimated to have killed 90 % of species then existing. There is also evidence to suggest that this event was preceded by another mass extinction, known as Olson 's Extinction. The Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event (K - Pg) occurred 66 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period, and is best known for having wiped out non-avian dinosaurs, among many other species.
According to a 1998 survey of 400 biologists conducted by New York 's American Museum of Natural History, nearly 70 % believed that the Earth is currently in the early stages of a human - caused mass extinction, known as the Holocene extinction. In that survey, the same proportion of respondents agreed with the prediction that up to 20 % of all living populations could become extinct within 30 years (by 2028). A 2014 special edition of Science declared there is widespread consensus on the issue of human - driven mass species extinctions.
Biologist E.O. Wilson estimated in 2002 that if current rates of human destruction of the biosphere continue, one - half of all plant and animal species of life on earth will be extinct in 100 years. More significantly, the current rate of global species extinctions is estimated as 100 to 1000 times "background '' rates (the average extinction rates in the evolutionary time scale of planet Earth), while future rates are likely 10,000 times higher. However, some groups are going extinct much faster. Biologists Paul R. Ehrlich and Stuart Pimm, among others, contend that human population growth and overconsumption are the main drivers of the modern extinction crisis.
For much of history, the modern understanding of extinction as the end of a species was incompatible with the prevailing worldview. Through the 18th century, much of Western society adhered to the belief that the world was created by God and as such was complete and perfect. This concept reached its heyday in the 1700s with the peak popularity of a theological concept called the Great Chain of Being, in which all life on earth, from the tiniest microorganism to God, is linked in a continuous chain. The extinction of a species was impossible under this model, as it would create gaps or missing links in the chain and destroy the natural order. Thomas Jefferson was a firm supporter of the Great Chain of Being and an opponent of extinction, famously denying the extinction of the wooly mammoth on the grounds that nature never allows a race of animals to become extinct.
A series of fossils were discovered in the late 17th century that appeared unlike any living species. As a result, the scientific community embarked on a voyage of creative rationalization, seeking to understand what had happened to these species within a framework that did not account for total extinction. In October 1686, Robert Hooke presented an impression of a nautilus to the Royal Society that was more than two feet in diameter, and morphologically distinct from any known living species. Hooke theorized that this was simply because the species lived in the deep ocean and no one had discovered them yet. While he contended that it was possible a species could be "lost '', he thought this highly unlikely. Similarly, in 1695, Thomas Molyneux published an account of enormous antlers found in Ireland that did not belong to any extant taxa in that area. Molyneux reasoned that they came from the North American moose and that the animal had once been common on the British Isles. Rather than suggest that this indicated the possibility of species going extinct, he argued that although organisms could become locally extinct, they could never be entirely lost and would continue to exist in some unknown region of the globe. Using the antlers as evidence for this position, Molyneux described how moose had continued to exist in North America even as they were lost to the British Isles. The antlers were later confirmed to be from the extinct Irish elk Megaloceros. Hooke and Molyneux 's line of thinking was difficult to disprove. When parts of the world had not been thoroughly examined and charted, scientists could not rule out that animals found only in the fossil record were not simply "hiding '' in unexplored regions of the Earth.
Georges Cuvier is credited with establishing the modern conception of extinction in a 1796 lecture to the French Institute, though he would spend most of his career trying to convince the wider scientific community of his theory. Cuvier was a well - regarded geologist, lauded for his ability to reconstruct the anatomy of an unknown species from a few fragments of bone. His primary evidence for extinction came from mammoth skulls found in the Paris basin. Cuvier recognized them as distinct from any known living species of elephant, and argued that it was highly unlikely such an enormous animal would go undiscovered. In 1812, Cuvier, along with Alexandre Bronigniart & Geoffroy Saint - Hilaire, mapped the strata of the Paris basin. They saw alternating saltwater and freshwater deposits, as well as patterns of the appearance and disappearance of fossils throughout the record. From these patterns, Cuvier inferred historic cycles of catastrophic flooding, extinction, and repopulation of the earth with new species.
Cuvier 's fossil evidence showed that very different life forms existed in the past than those that exist today, a fact that was accepted by most scientists. The primary debate focused whether this turnover caused by extinction was gradual or abrupt in nature. Cuvier understood extinction to be the result of cataclysmic events that wipe out huge numbers of species, as opposed to the gradual decline of a species over time. His catastrophic view of the nature of extinction garnered him many opponents in the newly emerging school of uniformitarianism.
Jean - Baptist Lamarck, a gradualist and colleague of Cuvier, saw the fossils of different life forms as evidence of the mutable character of species. While Lamarck did not deny the possibility of extinction, he believed that it was exceptional and rare and that most of the change in species over time was due to gradual change. Unlike Cuvier, Lamarck was skeptical that catastrophic events of a scale large enough to cause total extinction were possible. In his geological history of the earth titled Hydrogeologie, Lamarck instead argued that the surface of the earth was shaped by gradual erosion and deposition by water, and that species changed over time in response to the changing environment.
Charles Lyell, a noted geologist and founder of uniformitarianism, believed that past processes should be understood using present day processes. Like Lamarck, Lyell acknowledged that extinction could occur, noting the total extinction of the dodo and the extirpation of indigenous horses to the British Isles. He similarly argued against mass extinctions, believing that any extinction must be a gradual process. Lyell also showed that Cuvier 's original interpretation of the Parisian strata was incorrect. Instead of the catastrophic floods inferred by Cuvier, Lyell demonstrated that patterns of saltwater and freshwater deposits, like those seen in the Paris basin, could be formed by a slow rise and fall of sea levels.
The concept of extinction was integral to Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species, with less fit lineages disappearing over time. For Darwin, extinction was a constant side effect of competition. Because of the wide reach of On the Origin of Species, it was widely accepted that extinction occurred gradually and evenly (a concept we now refer to as background extinction). It was not until 1982, when David Raup and Jack Sepkoski published their seminal paper on mass extinctions, that Cuvier was vindicated and catastrophic extinction was accepted as an important mechanism. The current understanding of extinction is a synthesis of the cataclysmic extinction events proposed by Cuvier, and the background extinction events proposed by Lyell and Darwin.
Extinction is an important research topic in the field of zoology, and biology in general, and has also become an area of concern outside the scientific community. A number of organizations, such as the Worldwide Fund for Nature, have been created with the goal of preserving species from extinction. Governments have attempted, through enacting laws, to avoid habitat destruction, agricultural over-harvesting, and pollution. While many human - caused extinctions have been accidental, humans have also engaged in the deliberate destruction of some species, such as dangerous viruses, and the total destruction of other problematic species has been suggested. Other species were deliberately driven to extinction, or nearly so, due to poaching or because they were "undesirable '', or to push for other human agendas. One example was the near extinction of the American bison, which was nearly wiped out by mass hunts sanctioned by the United States government, to force the removal of Native Americans, many of whom relied on the bison for food.
Biologist Bruce Walsh of the University of Arizona states three reasons for scientific interest in the preservation of species: genetic resources, ecosystem stability, and ethics; and today the scientific community "stress (es) the importance '' of maintaining biodiversity.
In modern times, commercial and industrial interests often have to contend with the effects of production on plant and animal life. However, some technologies with minimal, or no, proven harmful effects on Homo sapiens can be devastating to wildlife (for example, DDT). Biogeographer Jared Diamond notes that while big business may label environmental concerns as "exaggerated '', and often cause "devastating damage '', some corporations find it in their interest to adopt good conservation practices, and even engage in preservation efforts that surpass those taken by national parks.
Governments sometimes see the loss of native species as a loss to ecotourism, and can enact laws with severe punishment against the trade in native species in an effort to prevent extinction in the wild. Nature preserves are created by governments as a means to provide continuing habitats to species crowded by human expansion. The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity has resulted in international Biodiversity Action Plan programmes, which attempt to provide comprehensive guidelines for government biodiversity conservation. Advocacy groups, such as The Wildlands Project and the Alliance for Zero Extinctions, work to educate the public and pressure governments into action.
People who live close to nature can be dependent on the survival of all the species in their environment, leaving them highly exposed to extinction risks. However, people prioritize day - to - day survival over species conservation; with human overpopulation in tropical developing countries, there has been enormous pressure on forests due to subsistence agriculture, including slash - and - burn agricultural techniques that can reduce endangered species 's habitats.
Antinatalist philosopher David Benatar concludes that any popular concern about non-human species extinction usually arises out of concern about how the loss of a species will impact human wants and needs, that "we shall live in a world impoverished by the loss of one aspect of faunal diversity, that we shall no longer be able to behold or use that species of animal. '' He notes that typical concerns about possible human extinction, such as the loss of individual members, are not considered in regards to non-human species extinction.
The poliovirus is now confined to small parts of the world due to extermination efforts.
Dracunculus medinensis, a parasitic worm which causes the disease dracunculiasis, is now close to eradication thanks to efforts led by the Carter Center.
Treponema pallidum pertenue, a bacterium which causes the disease yaws, is in the process of being eradicated.
Biologist Olivia Judson has advocated the deliberate extinction of certain disease - carrying mosquito species. In a September 25, 2003 New York Times article, she advocated "specicide '' of thirty mosquito species by introducing a genetic element which can insert itself into another crucial gene, to create recessive "knockout genes ''. She says that the Anopheles mosquitoes (which spread malaria) and Aedes mosquitoes (which spread dengue fever, yellow fever, elephantiasis, and other diseases) represent only 30 species; eradicating these would save at least one million human lives per annum, at a cost of reducing the genetic diversity of the family Culicidae by only 1 %. She further argues that since species become extinct "all the time '' the disappearance of a few more will not destroy the ecosystem: "We 're not left with a wasteland every time a species vanishes. Removing one species sometimes causes shifts in the populations of other species -- but different need not mean worse. '' In addition, anti-malarial and mosquito control programs offer little realistic hope to the 300 million people in developing nations who will be infected with acute illnesses this year. Although trials are ongoing, she writes that if they fail: "We should consider the ultimate swatting. ''
Biologist E.O. Wilson has advocated the eradication of several species of mosquito, including malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. Wilson stated, "I 'm talking about a very small number of species that have co-evolved with us and are preying on humans, so it would certainly be acceptable to remove them. I believe it 's just common sense. ''
Some, such as Harvard geneticist George M. Church, believe that ongoing technological advances will let us "bring back to life '' an extinct species by cloning, using DNA from the remains of that species. Proposed targets for cloning include the mammoth, the thylacine, and the Pyrenean ibex. For this to succeed, enough individuals would have to be cloned, from the DNA of different individuals (in the case of sexually reproducing organisms) to create a viable population. Though bioethical and philosophical objections have been raised, the cloning of extinct creatures seems theoretically possible.
In 2003, scientists tried to clone the extinct Pyrenean ibex (C. p. pyrenaica). This attempt failed: of the 285 embryos reconstructed, 54 were transferred to 12 mountain goats and mountain goat - domestic goat hybrids, but only two survived the initial two months of gestation before they too died. In 2009, a second attempt was made to clone the Pyrenean ibex: one clone was born alive, but died seven minutes later, due to physical defects in the lungs.
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how many cuts did tiger woods make in a row | List of career achievements by Tiger Woods - wikipedia
This page details statistics, records, and other achievements pertaining to Tiger Woods.
Defeated May in three - hole aggregate playoff by 1 stroke: Woods (3 - 4 - 5 = 12), May (4 - 4 - 5 = 13) Defeated DiMarco in a sudden - death playoff: Woods (3) and DiMarco (4). Defeated Mediate with a par on 1st sudden death hole after 18 - hole playoff was tied at even par 71
LA = Low amateur CUT = missed the half - way cut WD = withdrew "T '' = tied
Won on the first hole of a sudden - death playoff Won on the seventh hole of a sudden - death playoff Won on the second hole of a sudden - death playoff Won on the fourth hole of a sudden - death playoff
Accenture Match Play
Cadillac Championship
Note: All Cadillac Championship records were set in 2006, when the tournament was known as the American Express Championship
Bridgestone Invitational
Note: All records were set in 2000 and 2013 (18 - hole record)
Cancelled due to 9 / 11 DNP = Did not play QF, R16, R32, R64 = Round in which player lost in match play "T '' = tied NT = No Tournament WD = Withdrew Green background for wins. Yellow background for top - 10. Note that the HSBC Champions did not become a WGC event until 2009.
Performance summary
Note that the HSBC Champions was not an official PGA Tour event. This means that the money earned in that event did not count toward his official earnings on that tour.
Co-sanctioned with the PGA Tour of Australasia
Note: This table is the European Tour 's official Woods ' victories on their tour, which gives Woods a total of 40 European Tour wins. Woods ' worldwide tournament playoff record is 15 - 2, including a loss to Pádraig Harrington at the 2006 Dunlop Phoenix.
Co-sanctioned with the European Tour
M = Medalist DNQ = Did not qualify for match play portion R32, R16, QF, SF = Round in which player lost in match play Green background for wins. Yellow background for top - 10
Source:
Woods holds the record for most consecutive weeks at No. 1, 281, and the most total number of weeks, 683. Since 1997, he has spent over twelve years atop the Official World Golf Ranking, and has been the number one player for all 52 weeks of a year a record eight times -- 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009. He has spent 860 weeks ranked in the top - 10, and overtook Ernie Els as the golfer with the most weeks ranked in the top 10 in 2013.
This list is complete as of May 18, 2014.
Amateur
Professional
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2013
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where are old stars located in the milky way | Milky Way - wikipedia
The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System. The descriptive "milky '' is derived from the appearance from Earth of the galaxy -- a band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that can not be individually distinguished by the naked eye. The term Milky Way is a translation of the Latin via lactea, from the Greek γαλαξίας κύκλος (galaxías kýklos, "milky circle ''). From Earth, the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk - shaped structure is viewed from within. Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610. Until the early 1920s, most astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe. Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies.
The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter between 100,000 and 180,000 light - years. The Milky Way is estimated to contain 100 -- 400 billion stars. There are probably at least 100 billion planets in the Milky Way. The Solar System is located within the disk, about 26,000 light - years from the Galactic Center, on the inner edge of the Orion Arm, one of the spiral - shaped concentrations of gas and dust. The stars in the inner ≈ 10,000 light - years form a bulge and one or more bars that radiate from the bulge. The very center is marked by an intense radio source, named Sagittarius A *, which is likely to be a supermassive black hole.
Stars and gases at a wide range of distances from the Galactic Center orbit at approximately 220 kilometers per second. The constant rotation speed contradicts the laws of Keplerian dynamics and suggests that much of the mass of the Milky Way does not emit or absorb electromagnetic radiation. This mass has been termed "dark matter ''. The rotational period is about 240 million years at the position of the Sun. The Milky Way as a whole is moving at a velocity of approximately 600 km per second with respect to extragalactic frames of reference. The oldest stars in the Milky Way are nearly as old as the Universe itself and thus probably formed shortly after the Dark Ages of the Big Bang.
The Milky Way has several satellite galaxies and is part of the Local Group of galaxies, which is a component of the Virgo Supercluster, which is itself a component of the Laniakea Supercluster.
The "Milky Way '' can be seen as a hazy band of white light some 30 degrees wide arcing across the sky. Although all the individual naked - eye stars in the entire sky are part of the Milky Way, the light in this band originates from the accumulation of unresolved stars and other material located in the direction of the galactic plane. Dark regions within the band, such as the Great Rift and the Coalsack, are areas where light from distant stars is blocked by interstellar dust. The area of the sky obscured by the Milky Way is called the Zone of Avoidance.
The Milky Way has a relatively low surface brightness. Its visibility can be greatly reduced by background light such as light pollution or stray light from the Moon. The sky needs to be darker than about 20.2 magnitude per square arcsecond in order for the Milky Way to be seen. It should be visible when the limiting magnitude is approximately + 5.1 or better and shows a great deal of detail at + 6.1. This makes the Milky Way difficult to see from any brightly lit urban or suburban location, but very prominent when viewed from a rural area when the Moon is below the horizon. The new world atlas of artificial night sky brightness shows that more than one - third of Earth 's population can not see the Milky Way from their homes due to light pollution.
As viewed from Earth, the visible region of the Milky Way 's Galactic plane occupies an area of the sky that includes 30 constellations. The center of the Galaxy lies in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius; it is here that the Milky Way is brightest. From Sagittarius, the hazy band of white light appears to pass around to the Galactic anticenter in Auriga. The band then continues the rest of the way around the sky, back to Sagittarius. The band divides the night sky into two roughly equal hemispheres.
The Galactic plane is inclined by about 60 degrees to the ecliptic (the plane of Earth 's orbit). Relative to the celestial equator, it passes as far north as the constellation of Cassiopeia and as far south as the constellation of Crux, indicating the high inclination of Earth 's equatorial plane and the plane of the ecliptic, relative to the Galactic plane. The north Galactic pole is situated at right ascension 12 49, declination + 27.4 ° (B1950) near β Comae Berenices, and the south Galactic pole is near α Sculptoris. Because of this high inclination, depending on the time of night and year, the arc of the Milky Way may appear relatively low or relatively high in the sky. For observers from approximately 65 degrees north to 65 degrees south on Earth 's surface, the Milky Way passes directly overhead twice a day.
The Milky Way is the second - largest galaxy in the Local Group, with its stellar disk approximately 100,000 ly (30 kpc) in diameter, and, on average, approximately 1,000 ly (0.3 kpc) thick. As a guide to the relative physical scale of the Milky Way, if the Solar System out to Neptune were the size of a US quarter (24.3 mm (0.955 in)), the Milky Way would be approximately the size of the continental United States. A ring - like filament of stars wrapping around the Milky Way may belong to the Milky Way itself, rippling above and below the relatively flat galactic plane. If so, that would mean a diameter of 150,000 -- 180,000 light - years (46 -- 55 kpc).
Estimates of the mass of the Milky Way vary, depending upon the method and data used. At the low end of the estimate range, the mass of the Milky Way is 5.8 × 10 solar masses (M), somewhat less than that of the Andromeda Galaxy. Measurements using the Very Long Baseline Array in 2009 found velocities as large as 254 km / s (570,000 mph) for stars at the outer edge of the Milky Way. Because the orbital velocity depends on the total mass inside the orbital radius, this suggests that the Milky Way is more massive, roughly equaling the mass of Andromeda Galaxy at 7 × 10 M within 160,000 ly (49 kpc) of its center. In 2010, a measurement of the radial velocity of halo stars found that the mass enclosed within 80 kilo parsecs is 7 × 10 M. According to a study published in 2014, the mass of the entire Milky Way is estimated to be 8.5 × 10 M, which is about half the mass of the Andromeda Galaxy.
Much of the mass of the Milky Way appears to be dark matter, an unknown and invisible form of matter that interacts gravitationally with ordinary matter. A dark matter halo is spread out relatively uniformly to a distance beyond one hundred kiloparsecs from the Galactic Center. Mathematical models of the Milky Way suggest that the mass of dark matter is 1 -- 1.5 × 10 M. Recent studies indicate a range in mass, as large as 4.5 × 10 M and as small as 8 × 10 M.
The total mass of all the stars in the Milky Way is estimated to be between 4.6 × 10 M and 6.43 × 10 M. In addition to the stars, there is also interstellar gas, comprising 90 % hydrogen and 10 % helium by mass, with two thirds of the hydrogen found in the atomic form and the remaining one - third as molecular hydrogen. The mass of this gas is equal to between 10 % and 15 % of the total mass of the galaxy 's stars. Interstellar dust accounts for an additional 1 % of the total mass of the gas.
The Milky Way contains between 200 and 400 billion stars and at least 100 billion planets. The exact figure depends on the number of very - low - mass stars, which are hard to detect, especially at distances of more than 300 ly (90 pc) from the Sun. As a comparison, the neighboring Andromeda Galaxy contains an estimated one trillion (10) stars. Filling the space between the stars is a disk of gas and dust called the interstellar medium. This disk has at least a comparable extent in radius to the stars, whereas the thickness of the gas layer ranges from hundreds of light years for the colder gas to thousands of light years for warmer gas.
The disk of stars in the Milky Way does not have a sharp edge beyond which there are no stars. Rather, the concentration of stars decreases with distance from the center of the Milky Way. For reasons that are not understood, beyond a radius of roughly 40,000 ly (13 kpc) from the center, the number of stars per cubic parsec drops much faster with radius. Surrounding the galactic disk is a spherical Galactic Halo of stars and globular clusters that extends further outward but is limited in size by the orbits of two Milky Way satellites, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, whose closest approach to the Galactic Center is about 180,000 ly (55 kpc). At this distance or beyond, the orbits of most halo objects would be disrupted by the Magellanic Clouds. Hence, such objects would probably be ejected from the vicinity of the Milky Way. The integrated absolute visual magnitude of the Milky Way is estimated to be around − 20.9.
Both gravitational microlensing and planetary transit observations indicate that there may be at least as many planets bound to stars as there are stars in the Milky Way, and microlensing measurements indicate that there are more rogue planets not bound to host stars than there are stars. The Milky Way contains at least one planet per star, resulting in 100 -- 400 billion planets, according to a January 2013 study of the five - planet star system Kepler - 32 with the Kepler space observatory. A different January 2013 analysis of Kepler data estimated that at least 17 billion Earth - sized exoplanets reside in the Milky Way. On November 4, 2013, astronomers reported, based on Kepler space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth - sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun - like stars and red dwarfs within the Milky Way. 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting Sun - like stars. The nearest such planet may be 4.2 light - years away, according to a 2016 study. Such Earth - sized planets may be more numerous than gas giants. Besides exoplanets, "exocomets '', comets beyond the Solar System, have also been detected and may be common in the Milky Way.
360 - degree panorama view of the Milky Way (an assembled mosaic of photographs) by ESO. The galactic centre is in the middle of the view, with galactic north up.
The Milky Way consists of a bar - shaped core region surrounded by a disk of gas, dust and stars. The mass distribution within the Milky Way closely resembles the type Sbc in the Hubble classification, which represents spiral galaxies with relatively loosely wound arms. Astronomers began to suspect that the Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy, rather than an ordinary spiral galaxy, in the 1990s. Their suspicions were confirmed by the Spitzer Space Telescope observations in 2005 that showed the Milky Way 's central bar to be larger than previously thought.
A galactic quadrant, or quadrant of the Milky Way, refers to one of four circular sectors in the division of the Milky Way. In actual astronomical practice, the delineation of the galactic quadrants is based upon the galactic coordinate system, which places the Sun as the origin of the mapping system.
Quadrants are described using ordinals -- for example, "1st galactic quadrant '', "second galactic quadrant '', or "third quadrant of the Milky Way ''. Viewing from the north galactic pole with 0 degrees (°) as the ray that runs starting from the Sun and through the Galactic Center, the quadrants are as follows:
The Sun is 25,000 -- 28,000 ly (7.7 -- 8.6 kpc) from the Galactic Center. This value is estimated using geometric - based methods or by measuring selected astronomical objects that serve as standard candles, with different techniques yielding various values within this approximate range. In the inner few kpc (around 10,000 light - years radius) is a dense concentration of mostly old stars in a roughly spheroidal shape called the bulge. It has been proposed that the Milky Way lacks a bulge formed due to a collision and merger between previous galaxies, and that instead it has a pseudobulge formed by its central bar.
The Galactic Center is marked by an intense radio source named Sagittarius A * (pronounced Sagittarius A-star). The motion of material around the center indicates that Sagittarius A * harbors a massive, compact object. This concentration of mass is best explained as a supermassive black hole (SMBH) with an estimated mass of 4.1 -- 4.5 million times the mass of the Sun. The rate of accretion of the SMBH is consistent with an inactive galactic nucleus, being estimated at around 6995100000000000000 ♠ 1 × 10 M y. Observations indicate that there are SMBH located near the center of most normal galaxies.
The nature of the Milky Way 's bar is actively debated, with estimates for its half - length and orientation spanning from 1 to 5 kpc (3,000 -- 16,000 ly) and 10 -- 50 degrees relative to the line of sight from Earth to the Galactic Center. Certain authors advocate that the Milky Way features two distinct bars, one nestled within the other. However, RR Lyrae variables do not trace a prominent Galactic bar. The bar may be surrounded by a ring called the "5 - kpc ring '' that contains a large fraction of the molecular hydrogen present in the Milky Way, as well as most of the Milky Way 's star formation activity. Viewed from the Andromeda Galaxy, it would be the brightest feature of the Milky Way. X-ray emission from the core is aligned with the massive stars surrounding the central bar and the Galactic ridge.
In 2010, two gigantic spherical bubbles of high energy emission were detected to the north and the south of the Milky Way core, using data from the Fermi Gamma - ray Space Telescope. The diameter of each of the bubbles is about 25,000 light - years (7.7 kpc); they stretch up to Grus and to Virgo on the night - sky of the southern hemisphere. Subsequently, observations with the Parkes Telescope at radio frequencies identified polarized emission that is associated with the Fermi bubbles. These observations are best interpreted as a magnetized outflow driven by star formation in the central 640 ly (200 pc) of the Milky Way.
Later, on January 5, 2015, NASA reported observing an X-ray flare 400 times brighter than usual, a record - breaker, from Sagittarius A *. The unusual event may have been caused by the breaking apart of an asteroid falling into the black hole or by the entanglement of magnetic field lines within gas flowing into Sagittarius A *.
Outside the gravitational influence of the Galactic bars, the structure of the interstellar medium and stars in the disk of the Milky Way is organized into four spiral arms. Spiral arms typically contain a higher density of interstellar gas and dust than the Galactic average as well as a greater concentration of star formation, as traced by H II regions and molecular clouds.
The Milky Way 's spiral structure is uncertain, and there is currently no consensus on the nature of the Milky Way 's spiral arms. Perfect logarithmic spiral patterns only crudely describe features near the Sun, because galaxies commonly have arms that branch, merge, twist unexpectedly, and feature a degree of irregularity. The possible scenario of the Sun within a spur / Local arm emphasizes that point and indicates that such features are probably not unique, and exist elsewhere in the Milky Way. Estimates of the pitch angle of the arms range from about 7 ° to 25 °. There are thought to be four spiral arms that all start near the Milky Way 's center. These are named as follows, with the positions of the arms shown in the image at right:
Two spiral arms, the Scutum -- Centaurus arm and the Carina -- Sagittarius arm, have tangent points inside the Sun 's orbit about the center of the Milky Way. If these arms contain an overdensity of stars compared to the average density of stars in the Galactic disk, it would be detectable by counting the stars near the tangent point. Two surveys of near - infrared light, which is sensitive primarily to red giants and not affected by dust extinction, detected the predicted overabundance in the Scutum -- Centaurus arm but not in the Carina -- Sagittarius arm: the Scutum - Centaurus Arm contains approximately 30 % more red giants than would be expected in the absence of a spiral arm. This observation suggests that the Milky Way possesses only two major stellar arms: the Perseus arm and the Scutum -- Centaurus arm. The rest of the arms contain excess gas but not excess old stars. In December 2013, astronomers found that the distribution of young stars and star - forming regions matches the four - arm spiral description of the Milky Way. Thus, the Milky Way appears to have two spiral arms as traced by old stars and four spiral arms as traced by gas and young stars. The explanation for this apparent discrepancy is unclear.
The Near 3 kpc Arm (also called Expanding 3 kpc Arm or simply 3 kpc Arm) was discovered in the 1950s by astronomer van Woerden and collaborators through 21 - centimeter radio measurements of HI (atomic hydrogen). It was found to be expanding away from the central bulge at more than 50 km / s. It is located in the fourth galactic quadrant at a distance of about 5.2 kpc from the Sun and 3.3 kpc from the Galactic Center. The Far 3 kpc Arm was discovered in 2008 by astronomer Tom Dame (Harvard - Smithsonian CfA). It is located in the first galactic quadrant at a distance of 3 kpc (about 10,000 ly) from the Galactic Center.
A simulation published in 2011 suggested that the Milky Way may have obtained its spiral arm structure as a result of repeated collisions with the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy.
It has been suggested that the Milky Way contains two different spiral patterns: an inner one, formed by the Sagittarius arm, that rotates fast and an outer one, formed by the Carina and Perseus arms, whose rotation velocity is slower and whose arms are tightly wound. In this scenario, suggested by numerical simulations of the dynamics of the different spiral arms, the outer pattern would form an outer pseudoring, and the two patterns would be connected by the Cygnus arm.
Outside of the major spiral arms is the Monoceros Ring (or Outer Ring), a ring of gas and stars torn from other galaxies billions of years ago. However, several members of the scientific community recently restated their position affirming the Monoceros structure is nothing more than an over-density produced by the flared and warped thick disk of the Milky Way.
The Galactic disk is surrounded by a spheroidal halo of old stars and globular clusters, of which 90 % lie within 100,000 light - years (30 kpc) of the Galactic Center. However, a few globular clusters have been found farther, such as PAL 4 and AM1 at more than 200,000 light - years from the Galactic Center. About 40 % of the Milky Way 's clusters are on retrograde orbits, which means they move in the opposite direction from the Milky Way rotation. The globular clusters can follow rosette orbits about the Milky Way, in contrast to the elliptical orbit of a planet around a star.
Although the disk contains dust that obscures the view in some wavelengths, the halo component does not. Active star formation takes place in the disk (especially in the spiral arms, which represent areas of high density), but does not take place in the halo, as there is little gas cool enough to collapse into stars. Open clusters are also located primarily in the disk.
Discoveries in the early 21st century have added dimension to the knowledge of the Milky Way 's structure. With the discovery that the disk of the Andromeda Galaxy (M31) extends much further than previously thought, the possibility of the disk of the Milky Way extending further is apparent, and this is supported by evidence from the discovery of the Outer Arm extension of the Cygnus Arm and of a similar extension of the Scutum - Centaurus Arm. With the discovery of the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy came the discovery of a ribbon of galactic debris as the polar orbit of the dwarf and its interaction with the Milky Way tears it apart. Similarly, with the discovery of the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy, it was found that a ring of galactic debris from its interaction with the Milky Way encircles the Galactic disk.
The Sloan Digital Sky Survey of the northern sky shows a huge and diffuse structure (spread out across an area around 5,000 times the size of a full moon) within the Milky Way that does not seem to fit within current models. The collection of stars rises close to perpendicular to the plane of the spiral arms of the Milky Way. The proposed likely interpretation is that a dwarf galaxy is merging with the Milky Way. This galaxy is tentatively named the Virgo Stellar Stream and is found in the direction of Virgo about 30,000 light - years (9 kpc) away.
In addition to the stellar halo, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, XMM - Newton, and Suzaku have provided evidence that there is a gaseous halo with a large amount of hot gas. The halo extends for hundreds of thousand of light years, much further than the stellar halo and close to the distance of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds. The mass of this hot halo is nearly equivalent to the mass of the Milky Way itself. The temperature of this halo gas is between 1 and 2.5 million K (1.8 and 4.5 million F).
Observations of distant galaxies indicate that the Universe had about one - sixth as much baryonic (ordinary) matter as dark matter when it was just a few billion years old. However, only about half of those baryons are accounted for in the modern Universe based on observations of nearby galaxies like the Milky Way. If the finding that the mass of the halo is comparable to the mass of the Milky Way is confirmed, it could be the identity of the missing baryons around the Milky Way.
The Sun is near the inner rim of the Orion Arm, within the Local Fluff of the Local Bubble, and in the Gould Belt, at a distance of 26.4 ± 1.0 kly (8.09 ± 0.31 kpc) from the Galactic Center. The Sun is currently 5 -- 30 parsecs (16 -- 98 ly) from the central plane of the Galactic disk. The distance between the local arm and the next arm out, the Perseus Arm, is about 2,000 parsecs (6,500 ly). The Sun, and thus the Solar System, is located in the Milky Way 's galactic habitable zone.
There are about 208 stars brighter than absolute magnitude 8.5 within a sphere with a radius of 15 parsecs (49 ly) from the Sun, giving a density of one star per 69 cubic parsecs, or one star per 2,360 cubic light - years (from List of nearest bright stars). On the other hand, there are 64 known stars (of any magnitude, not counting 4 brown dwarfs) within 5 parsecs (16 ly) of the Sun, giving a density of about one star per 8.2 cubic parsecs, or one per 284 cubic light - years (from List of nearest stars). This illustrates the fact that there are far more faint stars than bright stars: in the entire sky, there are about 500 stars brighter than apparent magnitude 4 but 15.5 million stars brighter than apparent magnitude 14.
The apex of the Sun 's way, or the solar apex, is the direction that the Sun travels through space in the Milky Way. The general direction of the Sun 's Galactic motion is towards the star Vega near the constellation of Hercules, at an angle of roughly 60 sky degrees to the direction of the Galactic Center. The Sun 's orbit about the Milky Way is expected to be roughly elliptical with the addition of perturbations due to the Galactic spiral arms and non-uniform mass distributions. In addition, the Sun passes through the Galactic plane approximately 2.7 times per orbit. This is very similar to how a simple harmonic oscillator works with no drag force (damping) term. These oscillations were until recently thought to coincide with mass lifeform extinction periods on Earth. However, a reanalysis of the effects of the Sun 's transit through the spiral structure based on CO data has failed to find a correlation.
It takes the Solar System about 240 million years to complete one orbit of the Milky Way (a galactic year), so the Sun is thought to have completed 18 -- 20 orbits during its lifetime and 1 / 1250 of a revolution since the origin of humans. The orbital speed of the Solar System about the center of the Milky Way is approximately 220 km / s (490,000 mph) or 0.073 % of the speed of light. The Sun moves through the heliosphere at 84,000 km / h (52,000 mph). At this speed, it takes around 1,400 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light - year, or 8 days to travel 1 AU (astronomical unit). The Solar System is headed in the direction of the zodiacal constellation Scorpius, which follows the ecliptic.
The stars and gas in the Milky Way rotate about its center differentially, meaning that the rotation period varies with location. As is typical for spiral galaxies, the orbital speed of most stars in the Milky Way does not depend strongly on their distance from the center. Away from the central bulge or outer rim, the typical stellar orbital speed is between 210 and 240 km / s (470,000 and 540,000 mph). Hence the orbital period of the typical star is directly proportional only to the length of the path traveled. This is unlike the situation within the Solar System, where two - body gravitational dynamics dominate, and different orbits have significantly different velocities associated with them. The rotation curve (shown in the figure) describes this rotation. Toward the center of the Milky Way the orbit speeds are too low, whereas beyond 7 kpcs the speeds are too high to match what would be expected from the universal law of gravitation.
If the Milky Way contained only the mass observed in stars, gas, and other baryonic (ordinary) matter, the rotation speed would decrease with distance from the center. However, the observed curve is relatively flat, indicating that there is additional mass that can not be detected directly with electromagnetic radiation. This inconsistency is attributed to dark matter. The rotation curve of the Milky Way agrees with the universal rotation curve of spiral galaxies, the best evidence for the existence of dark matter in galaxies. Alternatively, a minority of astronomers propose that a modification of the law of gravity may explain the observed rotation curve.
The Milky Way began as one or several small overdensities in the mass distribution in the Universe shortly after the Big Bang. Some of these overdensities were the seeds of globular clusters in which the oldest remaining stars in what is now the Milky Way formed. Nearly half the matter in the Milky Way may have come from other distant galaxies. Nonetheless, these stars and clusters now comprise the stellar halo of the Milky Way. Within a few billion years of the birth of the first stars, the mass of the Milky Way was large enough so that it was spinning relatively quickly. Due to conservation of angular momentum, this led the gaseous interstellar medium to collapse from a roughly spheroidal shape to a disk. Therefore, later generations of stars formed in this spiral disk. Most younger stars, including the Sun, are observed to be in the disk.
Since the first stars began to form, the Milky Way has grown through both galaxy mergers (particularly early in the Milky Way 's growth) and accretion of gas directly from the Galactic halo. The Milky Way is currently accreting material from two of its nearest satellite galaxies, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, through the Magellanic Stream. Direct accretion of gas is observed in high - velocity clouds like the Smith Cloud. However, properties of the Milky Way such as stellar mass, angular momentum, and metallicity in its outermost regions suggest it has undergone no mergers with large galaxies in the last 10 billion years. This lack of recent major mergers is unusual among similar spiral galaxies; its neighbour the Andromeda Galaxy appears to have a more typical history shaped by more recent mergers with relatively large galaxies.
According to recent studies, the Milky Way as well as the Andromeda Galaxy lie in what in the galaxy color -- magnitude diagram is known as the "green valley '', a region populated by galaxies in transition from the "blue cloud '' (galaxies actively forming new stars) to the "red sequence '' (galaxies that lack star formation). Star - formation activity in green valley galaxies is slowing as they run out of star - forming gas in the interstellar medium. In simulated galaxies with similar properties, star formation will typically have been extinguished within about five billion years from now, even accounting for the expected, short - term increase in the rate of star formation due to the collision between both the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy. In fact, measurements of other galaxies similar to the Milky Way suggest it is among the reddest and brightest spiral galaxies that are still forming new stars and it is just slightly bluer than the bluest red sequence galaxies.
Globular clusters are among the oldest objects in the Milky Way, which thus set a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way. The ages of individual stars in the Milky Way can be estimated by measuring the abundance of long - lived radioactive elements such as thorium - 232 and uranium - 238, then comparing the results to estimates of their original abundance, a technique called nucleocosmochronology. These yield values of about 12.5 ± 3 billion years for CS 31082 - 001 and 13.8 ± 4 billion years for BD + 17 ° 3248. Once a white dwarf is formed, it begins to undergo radiative cooling and the surface temperature steadily drops. By measuring the temperatures of the coolest of these white dwarfs and comparing them to their expected initial temperature, an age estimate can be made. With this technique, the age of the globular cluster M4 was estimated as 12.7 ± 0.7 billion years. Age estimates of the oldest of these clusters gives a best fit estimate of 12.6 billion years, and a 95 % confidence upper limit of 16 billion years.
Several individual stars have been found in the Milky Way 's halo with measured ages very close to the 13.80 - billion - year age of the Universe. In 2007, a star in the galactic halo, HE 1523 - 0901, was estimated to be about 13.2 billion years old. As the oldest known object in the Milky Way at that time, this measurement placed a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way. This estimate was made using the UV - Visual Echelle Spectrograph of the Very Large Telescope to measure the relative strengths of spectral lines caused by the presence of thorium and other elements created by the R - process. The line strengths yield abundances of different elemental isotopes, from which an estimate of the age of the star can be derived using nucleocosmochronology. Another star, HD 140283, is 14.5 ± 0.7 billion years old.
The age of stars in the galactic thin disk has also been estimated using nucleocosmochronology. Measurements of thin disk stars yield an estimate that the thin disk formed 8.8 ± 1.7 billion years ago. These measurements suggest there was a hiatus of almost 5 billion years between the formation of the galactic halo and the thin disk. Recent analysis of the chemical signatures of thousands of stars suggests that stellar formation might have dropped by an order of magnitude at the time of disk formation, 10 to 8 billion years ago, when interstellar gas was too hot to form new stars at the same rate as before.
The satellite galaxies surrounding the Milky way are not randomly distributed, but seemed to be the result of a break - up of some larger system producing a ring structure 500,000 light years in diameter and 50,000 light years wide. Close encounters between galaxies, like that expected in 4 billion years with the Andromeda Galaxy rips off huge tails of gas, which, over time can coalesce to form dwarf galaxies in a ring at right angles to the main disc.
The Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are a binary system of giant spiral galaxies belonging to a group of 50 closely bound galaxies known as the Local Group, surrounded by a Local Void, itself being part of the Virgo Supercluster. Surrounding the Virgo Supercluster are a number of voids, devoid of many galaxies, the Microscopium Void to the "north '', the Sculptor Void to the "left '', the Bootes Void to the "right '' and the Canes - Major Void to the South. These voids change shape over time, creating filamentous structures of galaxies. The Virgo Supercluster, for instance, is being drawn towards the Great Attractor, which in turn forms part of a greater structure, called Laniakea.
Two smaller galaxies and a number of dwarf galaxies in the Local Group orbit the Milky Way. The largest of these is the Large Magellanic Cloud with a diameter of 14,000 light - years. It has a close companion, the Small Magellanic Cloud. The Magellanic Stream is a stream of neutral hydrogen gas extending from these two small galaxies across 100 ° of the sky. The stream is thought to have been dragged from the Magellanic Clouds in tidal interactions with the Milky Way. Some of the dwarf galaxies orbiting the Milky Way are Canis Major Dwarf (the closest), Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy, Ursa Minor Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Fornax Dwarf, and Leo I Dwarf. The smallest dwarf galaxies of the Milky Way are only 500 light - years in diameter. These include Carina Dwarf, Draco Dwarf, and Leo II Dwarf. There may still be undetected dwarf galaxies that are dynamically bound to the Milky Way, which is supported by the detection of nine new satellites of the Milky Way in a relatively small patch of the night sky in 2015. There are also some dwarf galaxies that have already been absorbed by the Milky Way, such as Omega Centauri.
In 2014 researchers reported that most satellite galaxies of the Milky Way actually lie in a very large disk and orbit in the same direction. This came as a surprise: according to standard cosmology, the satellite galaxies should form in dark matter halos, and they should be widely distributed and moving in random directions. This discrepancy is still not fully explained.
In January 2006, researchers reported that the heretofore unexplained warp in the disk of the Milky Way has now been mapped and found to be a ripple or vibration set up by the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds as they orbit the Milky Way, causing vibrations when they pass through its edges. Previously, these two galaxies, at around 2 % of the mass of the Milky Way, were considered too small to influence the Milky Way. However, in a computer model, the movement of these two galaxies creates a dark matter wake that amplifies their influence on the larger Milky Way.
Current measurements suggest the Andromeda Galaxy is approaching us at 100 to 140 km / s (220,000 to 310,000 mph). In 3 to 4 billion years, there may be an Andromeda -- Milky Way collision, depending on the importance of unknown lateral components to the galaxies ' relative motion. If they collide, the chance of individual stars colliding with each other is extremely low, but instead the two galaxies will merge to form a single elliptical galaxy or perhaps a large disk galaxy over the course of about a billion years.
Although special relativity states that there is no "preferred '' inertial frame of reference in space with which to compare the Milky Way, the Milky Way does have a velocity with respect to cosmological frames of reference.
One such frame of reference is the Hubble flow, the apparent motions of galaxy clusters due to the expansion of space. Individual galaxies, including the Milky Way, have peculiar velocities relative to the average flow. Thus, to compare the Milky Way to the Hubble flow, one must consider a volume large enough so that the expansion of the Universe dominates over local, random motions. A large enough volume means that the mean motion of galaxies within this volume is equal to the Hubble flow. Astronomers believe the Milky Way is moving at approximately 630 km / s (1,400,000 mph) with respect to this local co-moving frame of reference. The Milky Way is moving in the general direction of the Great Attractor and other galaxy clusters, including the Shapley supercluster, behind it. The Local Group (a cluster of gravitationally bound galaxies containing, among others, the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy) is part of a supercluster called the Local Supercluster, centered near the Virgo Cluster: although they are moving away from each other at 967 km / s (2,160,000 mph) as part of the Hubble flow, this velocity is less than would be expected given the 16.8 million pc distance due to the gravitational attraction between the Local Group and the Virgo Cluster.
Another reference frame is provided by the cosmic microwave background (CMB). The Milky Way is moving at 552 ± 6 km / s (1,235,000 ± 13,000 mph) with respect to the photons of the CMB, toward 10.5 right ascension, − 24 ° declination (J2000 epoch, near the center of Hydra). This motion is observed by satellites such as the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) as a dipole contribution to the CMB, as photons in equilibrium in the CMB frame get blue - shifted in the direction of the motion and red - shifted in the opposite direction.
In Babylonia, the Milky Way was said to be the tail of Tiamat, set in the sky by Marduk after he had slain the salt water goddess. It is believed this account, from the Enuma Elish had Marduk replace an earlier Sumerian story when Enlil of Nippur had slain the goddess.
Llys Dôn (literally "The Court of Dôn '') is the traditional Welsh name for the constellation Cassiopeia. At least three of Dôn 's children also have astronomical associations: Caer Gwydion ("The fortress of Gwydion '') is the traditional Welsh name for the Milky Way, and Caer Arianrhod ("The Fortress of Arianrhod '') being the constellation of Corona Borealis.
In western culture the name "Milky Way '' is derived from its appearance as a dim un-resolved "milky '' glowing band arching across the night sky. The term is a translation of the Classical Latin via lactea, in turn derived from the Hellenistic Greek γαλαξίας, short for γαλαξίας κύκλος (galaxías kýklos, "milky circle ''). The Ancient Greek γαλαξίας (galaxias) -- from root γαλακτ -, γάλα ("milk '') + - ίας (forming adjectives) -- is also the root of "galaxy '', the name for our, and later all such, collections of stars. In Greek mythology it was supposedly made from the forceful suckling of Heracles, when Hera acted as a wetnurse for the hero.
The Milky Way, or "milk circle '', was just one of 11 "circles '' the Greeks identified in the sky, others being the zodiac, the meridian, the horizon, the equator, the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, Arctic and Antarctic circles, and two colure circles passing through both poles.
In Meteorologica (DK 59 A80), Aristotle (384 -- 322 BC) wrote that the Greek philosophers Anaxagoras (c. 500 -- 428 BC) and Democritus (460 -- 370 BC) proposed that the Milky Way might consist of distant stars. However, Aristotle himself believed the Milky Way to be caused by "the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars which were large, numerous and close together '' and that the "ignition takes place in the upper part of the atmosphere, in the region of the world which is continuous with the heavenly motions. '' The Neoplatonist philosopher Olympiodorus the Younger (c. 495 -- 570 A.D.) criticized this view, arguing that if the Milky Way were sublunary, it should appear different at different times and places on Earth, and that it should have parallax, which it does not. In his view, the Milky Way is celestial. This idea would be influential later in the Islamic world.
The Persian astronomer Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī (973 -- 1048) proposed that the Milky Way is "a collection of countless fragments of the nature of nebulous stars ''. The Andalusian astronomer Avempace (d 1138) proposed the Milky Way to be made up of many stars but appears to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction in Earth 's atmosphere, citing his observation of a conjunction of Jupiter and Mars in 1106 or 1107 as evidence. Ibn Qayyim Al - Jawziyya (1292 -- 1350) proposed that the Milky Way is "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars '' and that these stars are larger than planets.
According to Jamil Ragep, the Persian astronomer Naṣīr al - Dīn al - Ṭūsī (1201 -- 1274) in his Tadhkira writes: "The Milky Way, i.e. the Galaxy, is made up of a very large number of small, tightly clustered stars, which, on account of their concentration and smallness, seem to be cloudy patches. Because of this, it was likened to milk in color. ''
Actual proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study the Milky Way and discovered that it is composed of a huge number of faint stars. In a treatise in 1755, Immanuel Kant, drawing on earlier work by Thomas Wright, speculated (correctly) that the Milky Way might be a rotating body of a huge number of stars, held together by gravitational forces akin to the Solar System but on much larger scales. The resulting disk of stars would be seen as a band on the sky from our perspective inside the disk. Kant also conjectured that some of the nebulae visible in the night sky might be separate "galaxies '' themselves, similar to our own. Kant referred to both the Milky Way and the "extragalactic nebulae '' as "island universes '', a term still current up to the 1930s.
The first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun within it was carried out by William Herschel in 1785 by carefully counting the number of stars in different regions of the visible sky. He produced a diagram of the shape of the Milky Way with the Solar System close to the center.
In 1845, Lord Rosse constructed a new telescope and was able to distinguish between elliptical and spiral - shaped nebulae. He also managed to make out individual point sources in some of these nebulae, lending credence to Kant 's earlier conjecture.
In 1917, Heber Curtis had observed the nova S Andromedae within the Great Andromeda Nebula (Messier object 31). Searching the photographic record, he found 11 more novae. Curtis noticed that these novae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than those that occurred within the Milky Way. As a result, he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 150,000 parsecs. He became a proponent of the "island universes '' hypothesis, which held that the spiral nebulae were actually independent galaxies. In 1920 the Great Debate took place between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, concerning the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the Universe. To support his claim that the Great Andromeda Nebula is an external galaxy, Curtis noted the appearance of dark lanes resembling the dust clouds in the Milky Way, as well as the significant Doppler shift.
The controversy was conclusively settled by Edwin Hubble in the early 1920s using the Mount Wilson observatory 2.5 m (100 in) Hooker telescope. With the light - gathering power of this new telescope, he was able to produce astronomical photographs that resolved the outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars. He was also able to identify some Cepheid variables that he could use as a benchmark to estimate the distance to the nebulae. He found that the Andromeda Nebula is 275,000 parsecs from the Sun, far too distant to be part of the Milky Way.
The ESA spacecraft Gaia provides distance estimates by determining the parallax of a billion stars and is mapping the Milky Way with four planned releases of maps in 2022.
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who played kris kringle in the original miracle on 34th street | Miracle on 34th Street - wikipedia
Miracle on 34th Street (originally released in the United Kingdom as The Big Heart) is a 1947 American Christmas comedy - drama film written and directed by George Seaton and based on a story by Valentine Davies. It stars Maureen O'Hara, John Payne, Natalie Wood and Edmund Gwenn. The story takes place between Thanksgiving Day and Christmas Day in New York City, and focuses on the impact of a department store Santa Claus who claims to be the real Santa. The film has become a perennial Christmas favorite.
The film won Academy Awards for Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Edmund Gwenn), Best Writing, Original Story (Valentine Davies) and Best Writing, Screenplay. It was also nominated for Best Picture, losing to Gentleman 's Agreement. In 2005, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant ''. The Academy Film Archive preserved Miracle on 34th Street in 2009.
Davies also penned a short novelization of the tale, which was published by Harcourt Brace simultaneously with the film 's release.
Kris Kringle (Edmund Gwenn) is indignant to find that the man (Percy Helton) assigned to play Santa in the annual Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade is intoxicated. When he complains to event director Doris Walker (Maureen O'Hara), she persuades Kris to take his place. He does so well, he is hired to play Santa at Macy 's flagship New York City store on 34th Street.
Ignoring instructions to steer parents to buy from Macy 's, Kris directs one shopper (Thelma Ritter) to a competitor. Impressed, she tells Julian Shellhammer (Philip Tonge), head of the toy department, that she will become a loyal customer.
Attorney Fred Gailey (John Payne), Doris 's neighbor, takes the young divorcée 's daughter Susan (Natalie Wood) to see Santa. Doris has raised her to not believe in fairy tales, but Susan is shaken after seeing Kris speak Dutch with a girl who does not know English. Doris asks Kringle to tell Susan that he is not Santa, but he insists that he is.
Worried, Doris decides to fire him. However, Kris has generated so much positive publicity and goodwill for Macy 's that Macy (Harry Antrim) promises Doris and Julian bonuses. To alleviate Doris 's misgivings, Julian has Granville Sawyer (Porter Hall) administer a "psychological evaluation ''. Kris passes, and questions Sawyer 's own mental health.
The store expands on the concept. To avoid looking greedy, competitor Gimbels implements the same policy, forcing Macy 's and others to escalate. Eventually, Kris does the impossible: he reconciles bitter rivals Macy and Gimbel (Herbert Heyes).
Pierce (James Seay), the doctor at Kris ' nursing home, assures Doris that Kris is harmless. Kris makes a pact with Fred -- he will work on Susan 's cynicism while Fred does the same with Doris, disillusioned by her failed marriage. When Susan reveals she wants a house, Kris reluctantly promises to do his best.
Kris learns that Sawyer has convinced young employee Alfred that he is unstable simply because he is kind - hearted. Finding Sawyer unwilling to budge, Kris hits him on the head with Sawyer 's umbrella, which was on the desk. Sawyer exaggerates his pain in order to have Kris confined to Bellevue Hospital. Tricked into cooperating, and believing Doris to be in on the deception, Kris deliberately fails his examination and is recommended for permanent commitment. However, Fred persuades Kris not to give up.
At a hearing before Judge Henry X. Harper (Gene Lockhart), District Attorney Thomas Mara (Jerome Cowan) gets Kris to assert that he is Santa Claus and rests his case. Fred argues that Kris is not insane because he actually is Santa. Mara requests Harper rule that Santa does not exist. In private, Harper 's political adviser, Charlie Halloran (William Frawley), warns him that doing so would be disastrous for his upcoming reelection bid. The judge buys time by hearing evidence.
Doris quarrels with Fred when he quits his job at a prestigious law firm to defend Kris. Fred calls Macy as a witness. When Mara asks if he believes Kris to be Santa, Macy starts to equivocate, but when pressed, he remembers the good Kris has done and states, "I do! '' Afterward, Macy fires Sawyer. Fred then calls Mara 's own young son (Bobby Hyatt), who testifies that his father told him that Santa was real. Mara concedes the point.
Mara then demands that Fred prove that Kris is "the one and only '' Santa Claus on the basis of some competent authority. While Fred searches frantically, Susan writes Kris a letter to cheer him up, which Doris also signs. When a mail sorter (Jack Albertson) sees Susan 's letter, he suggests delivering the many letters to Santa taking up space in the dead letter office too. Fred presents Judge Harper with three of them (from 21 full mailbags), addressed simply to "Santa Claus '' and delivered to Kris, asserting the Post Office has acknowledged that he is the Santa Claus. Harper dismisses the case.
On Christmas morning, Susan is disappointed that Kris could not get her what she wanted. Kris gives Fred and Doris a route home that avoids traffic. Along the way, Susan sees her dream house with a "For Sale '' sign in the front yard. Fred learns that Doris had encouraged Susan to have faith and suggests they get married and purchase the house. He then boasts that he must be a great lawyer since he proved Kris was Santa. However, when they spot a cane inside that looks just like Kris 's, he is not so sure.
Uncredited (alphabetically):
Although the film is set during the Christmas season, studio head Darryl F. Zanuck insisted that it be released in May, arguing that more people go to the movies in warmer weather. The studio rushed to promote it while keeping its Christmas setting a secret. Fox 's promotional trailer depicted a fictional producer roaming the studio backlot and encountering such stars as Rex Harrison, Anne Baxter, Peggy Ann Garner, and Dick Haymes extolling the virtues of the film. In addition, the movie posters prominently featured O'Hara and Payne, with Gwenn 's character kept in the background. The film opened in New York City at the Roxy Theatre on June 4, 1947. By contrast, modern home video packaging has Gwenn and Wood dominating the imagery, with the DVD release having Kringle in his Santa Claus costume.
O'Hara was initially reluctant to take the role, having recently moved back to Ireland. She immediately changed her mind after reading the script and came back to the United States for the film.
The Christmas window displays seen in the film were originally made by Steiff for Macy 's. Macy 's later sold the window displays to FAO Schwarz in New York. FAO Schwarz then sold the windows to the Marshall & Ilsley Bank of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where they are on display every December in the bank 's lobby on North Water Street.
The house shown at the end of the film is a 1703 square foot single family home built in 1943 at 24 Derby Road, Port Washington, New York. The home looks practically the same as it did in 1947, except that the roof line has been altered by the addition of a window.
Rowland Hussey Macy, called R.H. Macy in the film, died 70 years prior to the film (in 1877).
In the book Reel Justice, the authors claim that Judge Harper could have dismissed the case early without the political repercussions he feared. In their theory, once the prosecutor rested his case immediately after Kris Kringle admitted in court simply that he believed he was Santa Claus, Judge Harper could have ruled that prosecution had forfeited its opportunity to prove that Kringle was dangerous (the basic point of such hearings; Kringle 's actual mental state itself being irrelevant), and ordered him immediately released. However, this high standard for involuntary commitment was not instituted until 1975 with the U.S. Supreme Court 's decision O'Connor v. Donaldson.
When demonstrating that he has taken several mental examinations in the past, Kris Kringle answers his own question about who was the Vice President under John Quincy Adams as Daniel D. Tompkins. Tompkins actually served under James Monroe. John C. Calhoun is the correct answer to Kringle 's question. Tompkins was the 6th vice-president and Quincy Adams was the 6th president, leading to confusion in the script.
The film was re-released in theatres on December 20 and 23, 2015, as part of the "TCM Presents '' series by Turner Classic Movies and Fathom Events.
Miracle on 34th Street received mostly positive reviews from critics. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times said: "For all those blasé skeptics who do not believe in Santa Claus -- and likewise for all those natives who have grown cynical about New York -- but most especially for all those patrons who have grown weary of the monotonies of the screen, let us heartily recommend the Roxy 's new picture, Miracle on 34th Street. As a matter of fact, let 's go further: let 's catch its spirit and heartily proclaim that it is the freshest little picture in a long time, and maybe even the best comedy of this year. '' Today, it is considered by many as one of the best films of 1947. The film currently holds a 96 % "Fresh '' rating on the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes.
The Catholic Legion of Decency gave the movie a "B '', "morally objectionable in part '' rating. This was mainly due to the fact that O'Hara was portraying a divorcée in the film.
The film won Academy Awards for Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Edmund Gwenn), Best Writing, Original Story (Valentine Davies) and Best Writing, Screenplay. It was also nominated for Best Picture, losing to Gentleman 's Agreement.
It was ranked ninth by the American Film Institute on 100 Years... 100 Cheers, a list of America 's most inspiring films. Miracle on 34th Street was listed as the fifth best film in the fantasy genre in the American Film Institute 's "Ten top Ten '' lists in 2008.
In 2005, Miracle on 34th Street was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
American Film Institute Lists
Miracle on 34th Street was first released on VHS and laserdisc in 1987.
In 1985, it became one of the first full - length black and white films to be colorized. The 41⁄2 - month process was carried out by Color Systems Technology, Inc. In 1993, this version was released on laserdisc and VHS and was followed four years later by a "50th Anniversary Edition '', remastered by THX.
The first DVD release was in October 1999, featuring the B&W version alongside the original theatrical trailer and a TV spot. In November 2006, it was re-released as a two - disc "Special Edition '' DVD, with disc one containing an "all new colorized version '' carried out by Legend Films. The second disc had the original black - and - white version and numerous extras, including The 20th Century Fox Hour 's 1955 TV remake. Both discs also included a full - length audio commentary by Maureen O'Hara. The B&W disc has since been re-released several times, including in a pairing with the 1994 remake.
In October 2009, 20th Century Fox released the B&W version on Blu - ray with all previous extras, bar the TV remake.
A 1994 feature film starred Richard Attenborough, Elizabeth Perkins, Dylan McDermott, J.T. Walsh, Timothy Shea, James Remar, Jane Leeves, Simon Jones, William Windom and Mara Wilson. It was adapted by John Hughes from the Seaton script, and directed by Les Mayfield. Due to Macy 's refusal to give permission to use its name, it was replaced by the fictitious "Cole 's ''. Gimbels no longer existed by 1994 and was replaced with the fictional "Shopper 's Express ''. Alvin Greenman (Alfred in the original version) played a doorman. This version had a more serious tone than the original and a large portion was rewritten, although the majority of the plot and characters remained intact. The film also added a subtext concerning religious faith.
There are four remakes of the movie and a Broadway musical.
Lux Radio Theater broadcast an adaptation in 1947 which starred the original cast including Natalie Wood. In 1948 it was done again on Lux, without Natalie Wood 's participation, and it was adapted as a half - hour radio play on two broadcasts of Screen Director 's Playhouse, all featuring Edmund Gwenn in his screen role. In these production Kris correctly cites James Monroe as the President for whom Daniel D. Tompkins was the Vice-President.
A 1963 Broadway musical version, entitled Here 's Love, was written by Meredith Willson.
The novella was adapted into a stage play by Will Severin, Patricia Di Benedetto Snyder and John Vreeke in 2000. It is a favorite in many community and regional theaters during the Christmas season. The characters ' names are those used in the novella, and the stage setting is distinctly late 1940s. Production rights are held by Samuel French, Inc.
A 1955 one - hour television adaptation of the movie starred Thomas Mitchell as Kris, Macdonald Carey as Fred, Teresa Wright as Doris, and Sandy Descher as Susan. This version did not show the drunken Santa at all. Titled "The Miracle on 34th Street '', it originally aired as an episode of The 20th Century Fox Hour. It was later re-run as "Meet Mr. Kringle ''.
Ed Wynn played Kris in a 1959 television adaptation of the movie. Also featured was Orson Bean. It was broadcast live and in color on NBC the day after Thanksgiving. NBC made a kinescope of the program, probably for broadcasting opening night on the West Coast. The copy was in a large collection of kinescopes donated by NBC to the Library of Congress and recently unearthed by Richard Finegan, who reported his experiences in the December 2005 issue of Classic Images.
A 1973 television version featured Jane Alexander, David Hartman, Roddy McDowall, Sebastian Cabot as Kris (without his natural beard; he was forced to shave and wear a false beard for the role), Suzanne Davidson, Jim Backus, David Doyle and Tom Bosley. It was adapted by Jeb Rosebrook from the George Seaton screenplay, and directed by Fielder Cook. Mrs. Walker 's first name is changed to Karen in this version. This would prove to be the final version in which the department store was actually Macy 's. David Doyle, who played R.H. Macy in this version had played Mr. Sawyer in the original Broadway cast of Here 's Love 10 years earlier.
The flagship Macy 's Department Store at Herald Square in New York features a 30 - minute puppet version of the story within its Santaland display, featuring the voice talents of Broadway stars Brian Stokes Mitchell and Victoria Clark.
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who is usually credited with popularizing the scientific method | History of scientific method - wikipedia
The history of scientific method considers changes in the methodology of scientific inquiry, as distinct from the history of science itself. The development of rules for scientific reasoning has not been straightforward; scientific method has been the subject of intense and recurring debate throughout the history of science, and eminent natural philosophers and scientists have argued for the primacy of one or another approach to establishing scientific knowledge. Despite the disagreements about approaches, scientific method has advanced in definite steps. Rationalist explanations of nature, including atomism, appeared both in ancient Greece in the thought of Leucippus and Democritus, and in ancient India, in the Nyaya, Vaisesika and Buddhist schools, while Charvaka materialism rejected inference as a source of knowledge in favour of an empiricism that was always subject to doubt. Aristotle pioneered scientific method in ancient Greece alongside his empirical biology and his work on logic, rejecting a purely deductive framework in favour of generalisations made from observations of nature.
Some of the most important debates in the history of scientific method center on: rationalism, especially as advocated by René Descartes; inductivism, which rose to particular prominence with Isaac Newton and his followers; and hypothetico - deductivism, which came to the fore in the early 19th century. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a debate over realism vs. antirealism was central to discussions of scientific method as powerful scientific theories extended beyond the realm of the observable, while in the mid-20th century some prominent philosophers argued against any universal rules of science at all.
There are few explicit discussions of scientific methodologies in surviving records from early cultures. The most that can be inferred about the approaches to undertaking science in this period stems from descriptions of early investigations into nature, in the surviving records. An Egyptian medical textbook, the Edwin Smith papyrus, (c. 1600 BCE), applies the following components: examination, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis, to the treatment of disease, which display strong parallels to the basic empirical method of science and according to G.E.R. Lloyd played a significant role in the development of this methodology. The Ebers papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) also contains evidence of traditional empiricism.
By the middle of the 1st millennium BCE in Mesopotamia, Babylonian astronomy had evolved into the earliest example of a scientific astronomy, as it was "the first and highly successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena. '' According to the historian Asger Aaboe, "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West -- if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences -- depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways. ''
The early Babylonians and Egyptians developed much technical knowledge, crafts, and mathematics used in practical tasks of divination, as well as a knowledge of medicine, and made lists of various kinds. While the Babylonians in particular had engaged in the earliest forms of an empirical mathematical science, with their early attempts at mathematically describing natural phenomena, they generally lacked underlying rational theories of nature. It was the ancient Greeks who engaged in the earliest forms of what is today recognized as a rational theoretical science, with the move towards a more rational understanding of nature which began at least since the Archaic Period (650 -- 480 BCE) with the Presocratic school. Thales was the first to use natural explanations, proclaiming that every event had a natural cause, even though he is known for saying "all things are full of gods '' and sacrificed an ox when he discovered his theorem. Leucippus, went on to develop the theory of atomism -- the idea that everything is composed entirely of various imperishable, indivisible elements called atoms. This was elaborated in great detail by Democritus.
Similar atomist ideas emerged independently among ancient Indian philosophers of the Nyaya, Vaisesika and Buddhist schools. In particular, like the Nyaya, Vaisesika, and Buddhist schools, the Cārvāka epistemology was materialist, and skeptical enough to admit perception as the basis for unconditionally true knowledge, while cautioning that if one could only infer a truth, then one must also harbor a doubt about that truth; an inferred truth could not be unconditional.
Towards the middle of the 5th century BCE, some of the components of a scientific tradition were already heavily established, even before Plato, who was an important contributor to this emerging tradition, thanks to the development of deductive reasoning, as propounded by his student, Aristotle. In Protagoras (318d - f), Plato mentioned the teaching of arithmetic, astronomy and geometry in schools. The philosophical ideas of this time were mostly freed from the constraints of everyday phenomena and common sense. This denial of reality as we experience it reached an extreme in Parmenides who argued that the world is one and that change and subdivision do not exist.
In the 3rd and 4th centuries BCE, the Greek physicians Herophilos (335 -- 280 BCE) and Erasistratus of Chios employed experiments to further their medical research; Erasistratus at one time repeatedly weighing a caged bird, and noting its weight loss between feeding times.
Aristotle 's inductive - deductive method used inductions from observations to infer general principles, deductions from those principles to check against further observations, and more cycles of induction and deduction to continue the advance of knowledge.
The Organon (Greek: Ὄργανον, meaning "instrument, tool, organ '') is the standard collection of Aristotle 's six works on logic. The name Organon was given by Aristotle 's followers, the Peripatetics. The order of the works is not chronological (the chronology is now difficult to determine) but was deliberately chosen by Theophrastus to constitute a well - structured system. Indeed, parts of them seem to be a scheme of a lecture on logic. The arrangement of the works was made by Andronicus of Rhodes around 40 BCE.
The Organon comprises the following six works:
Aristotle 's Metaphysics has some points of overlap with the works making up the Organon but is not traditionally considered part of it; additionally there are works on logic attributed, with varying degrees of plausibility, to Aristotle that were not known to the Peripatetics.
Aristotle introduced what may be called a scientific method. His demonstration method is found in Posterior Analytics. He provided another of the ingredients of scientific tradition: empiricism. For Aristotle, universal truths can be known from particular things via induction. To some extent then, Aristotle reconciles abstract thought with observation, although it would be a mistake to imply that Aristotelian science is empirical in form. Indeed, Aristotle did not accept that knowledge acquired by induction could rightly be counted as scientific knowledge. Nevertheless, induction was for him a necessary preliminary to the main business of scientific enquiry, providing the primary premises required for scientific demonstrations.
Aristotle largely ignored inductive reasoning in his treatment of scientific enquiry. To make it clear why this is so, consider this statement in the Posterior Analytics:
We suppose ourselves to possess unqualified scientific knowledge of a thing, as opposed to knowing it in the accidental way in which the sophist knows, when we think that we know the cause on which the fact depends, as the cause of that fact and of no other, and, further, that the fact could not be other than it is.
It was therefore the work of the philosopher to demonstrate universal truths and to discover their causes. While induction was sufficient for discovering universals by generalization, it did not succeed in identifying causes. For this task Aristotle used the tool of deductive reasoning in the form of syllogisms. Using the syllogism, scientists could infer new universal truths from those already established.
Aristotle developed a complete normative approach to scientific inquiry involving the syllogism, which he discusses at length in his Posterior Analytics. A difficulty with this scheme lay in showing that derived truths have solid primary premises. Aristotle would not allow that demonstrations could be circular (supporting the conclusion by the premises, and the premises by the conclusion). Nor would he allow an infinite number of middle terms between the primary premises and the conclusion. This leads to the question of how the primary premises are found or developed, and as mentioned above, Aristotle allowed that induction would be required for this task.
Towards the end of the Posterior Analytics, Aristotle discusses knowledge imparted by induction.
Thus it is clear that we must get to know the primary premises by induction; for the method by which even sense - perception implants the universal is inductive. (...) it follows that there will be no scientific knowledge of the primary premises, and since except intuition nothing can be truer than scientific knowledge, it will be intuition that apprehends the primary premises. (...) If, therefore, it is the only other kind of true thinking except scientific knowing, intuition will be the originative source of scientific knowledge.
The account leaves room for doubt regarding the nature and extent of Aristotle 's empiricism. In particular, it seems that Aristotle considers sense - perception only as a vehicle for knowledge through intuition. He restricted his investigations in natural history to their natural settings, such as at the Pyrrha lagoon, now called Kalloni, at Lesbos. Aristotle and Theophrastus together formulated the new science of biology, inductively, case by case, for two years before Aristotle was called to tutor Alexander. Aristotle performed no modern - style experiments in the form in which they appear in today 's physics and chemistry laboratories. Induction is not afforded the status of scientific reasoning, and so it is left to intuition to provide a solid foundation for Aristotle 's science. With that said, Aristotle brings us somewhat closer an empirical science than his predecessors.
In his work Kαvώv (' canon ', a straight edge or ruler, thus any type of measure or standard, referred to as ' canonic '), Epicurus laid out his first rule for inquiry in physics: ' that the first concepts be seen, and that they not require demonstration '.
His second rule for inquiry was that prior to an investigation, we are to have self - evident concepts, so that we might infer (έχωμεν οις σημειωσόμεύα) both what is expected (τò ποσμένον), and also what is non-apparent (τò άδηλον).
Epicurus applies his method of inference (the use of observations as signs, Asmis ' summary, p. 333: the method of using the phenomena as signs (σημεīα) of what is unobserved) immediately to the atomic theory of Democritus. In Aristotle 's Prior Analytics, Aristotle himself employs the use of signs. But Epicurus presented his ' canonic ' as rival to Aristotle 's logic. See: Lucretius (c. 99 BCE -- c. 55 BCE) De rerum natura (On the nature of things) a didactic poem explaining Epicurus ' philosophy and physics.
During the Middle Ages issues of what is now termed science began to be addressed. There was greater emphasis on combining theory with practice in the Islamic world than there had been in Classical times, and it was common for those studying the sciences to be artisans as well, something that had been "considered an aberration in the ancient world. '' Islamic experts in the sciences were often expert instrument makers who enhanced their powers of observation and calculation with them. Muslim scientists used experiment and quantification to distinguish between competing scientific theories, set within a generically empirical orientation, as can be seen in the works of Jābir ibn Hayyān (721 -- 815) and Alkindus (801 -- 873) as early examples. Several scientific methods thus emerged from the medieval Muslim world by the early 11th century, all of which emphasized experimentation as well as quantification to varying degrees.
The Arab physicist Ibn al - Haytham (Alhazen) used experimentation to obtain the results in his Book of Optics (1021). He combined observations, experiments and rational arguments to support his intromission theory of vision, in which rays of light are emitted from objects rather than from the eyes. He used similar arguments to show that the ancient emission theory of vision supported by Ptolemy and Euclid (in which the eyes emit the rays of light used for seeing), and the ancient intromission theory supported by Aristotle (where objects emit physical particles to the eyes), were both wrong.
Experimental evidence supported most of the propositions in his Book of Optics and grounded his theories of vision, light and colour, as well as his research in catoptrics and dioptrics. His legacy was elaborated through the ' reforming ' of his Optics by Kamal al - Din al - Farisi (d.c. 1320) in the latter 's Kitab Tanqih al - Manazir (The Revision of (Ibn al - Haytham 's) Optics).
Alhazen viewed his scientific studies as a search for truth: "Truth is sought for its own sake. And those who are engaged upon the quest for anything for its own sake are not interested in other things. Finding the truth is difficult, and the road to it is rough...
Alhazen 's work included the conjecture that "Light travels through transparent bodies in straight lines only '', which he was able to corroborate only after years of effort. He stated, "(This) is clearly observed in the lights which enter into dark rooms through holes... the entering light will be clearly observable in the dust which fills the air. '' He also demonstrated the conjecture by placing a straight stick or a taut thread next to the light beam.
Ibn al - Haytham also employed scientific skepticism and emphasized the role of empiricism. He also explained the role of induction in syllogism, and criticized Aristotle for his lack of contribution to the method of induction, which Ibn al - Haytham regarded as superior to syllogism, and he considered induction to be the basic requirement for true scientific research.
Something like Occam 's razor is also present in the Book of Optics. For example, after demonstrating that light is generated by luminous objects and emitted or reflected into the eyes, he states that therefore "the extramission of (visual) rays is superfluous and useless. '' He may also have been the first scientist to adopt a form of positivism in his approach. He wrote that "we do not go beyond experience, and we can not be content to use pure concepts in investigating natural phenomena '', and that the understanding of these can not be acquired without mathematics. After assuming that light is a material substance, he does not further discuss its nature but confines his investigations to the diffusion and propagation of light. The only properties of light he takes into account are those treatable by geometry and verifiable by experiment.
The Persian scientist Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī introduced early scientific methods for several different fields of inquiry during the 1020s and 1030s. For example, in his treatise on mineralogy, Kitab al - Jawahir (Book of Precious Stones), al - Biruni is "the most exact of experimental scientists '', while in the introduction to his study of India, he declares that "to execute our project, it has not been possible to follow the geometric method '' and thus became one of the pioneers of comparative sociology in insisting on field experience and information. He also developed an early experimental method for mechanics.
Al - Biruni 's methods resembled the modern scientific method, particularly in his emphasis on repeated experimentation. Biruni was concerned with how to conceptualize and prevent both systematic errors and observational biases, such as "errors caused by the use of small instruments and errors made by human observers. '' He argued that if instruments produce errors because of their imperfections or idiosyncratic qualities, then multiple observations must be taken, analyzed qualitatively, and on this basis, arrive at a "common - sense single value for the constant sought '', whether an arithmetic mean or a "reliable estimate. '' In his scientific method, "universals came out of practical, experimental work '' and "theories are formulated after discoveries '', as with inductivism.
In the On Demonstration section of The Book of Healing (1027), the Persian philosopher and scientist Avicenna (Ibn Sina) discussed philosophy of science and described an early scientific method of inquiry. He discussed Aristotle 's Posterior Analytics and significantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper procedure for scientific inquiry and the question of "How does one acquire the first principles of a science? '' He asked how a scientist might find "the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises? '' He explained that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a "relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty. '' Avicenna added two further methods for finding a first principle: the ancient Aristotelian method of induction (istiqra), and the more recent method of examination and experimentation (tajriba). Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that "it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide. '' In its place, he advocated "a method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry. ''
Earlier, in The Canon of Medicine (1025), Avicenna was also the first to describe what is essentially methods of agreement, difference and concomitant variation which are critical to inductive logic and the scientific method. However, unlike his contemporary al - Biruni 's scientific method, in which "universals came out of practical, experimental work '' and "theories are formulated after discoveries '', Avicenna developed a scientific procedure in which "general and universal questions came first and led to experimental work. '' Due to the differences between their methods, al - Biruni referred to himself as a mathematical scientist and to Avicenna as a philosopher, during a debate between the two scholars.
During the European Renaissance of the 12th century, ideas on scientific methodology, including Aristotle 's empiricism and the experimental approaches of Alhazen and Avicenna, were introduced to medieval Europe via Latin translations of Arabic and Greek texts and commentaries. Robert Grosseteste 's commentary on the Posterior Analytics places Grosseteste among the first scholastic thinkers in Europe to understand Aristotle 's vision of the dual nature of scientific reasoning. Concluding from particular observations into a universal law, and then back again, from universal laws to prediction of particulars. Grosseteste called this "resolution and composition ''. Further, Grosseteste said that both paths should be verified through experimentation to verify the principles.
Roger Bacon was inspired by the writings of Grosseteste. In his account of a method, Bacon described a repeating cycle of observation, hypothesis, experimentation, and the need for independent verification. He recorded the way he had conducted his experiments in precise detail, perhaps with the idea that others could reproduce and independently test his results.
About 1256 he joined the Franciscan Order and became subject to the Franciscan statute forbidding Friars from publishing books or pamphlets without specific approval. After the accession of Pope Clement IV in 1265, the Pope granted Bacon a special commission to write to him on scientific matters. In eighteen months he completed three large treatises, the Opus Majus, Opus Minus, and Opus Tertium which he sent to the Pope. William Whewell has called Opus Majus at once the Encyclopaedia and Organon of the 13th century.
Aristotle 's ideas became a framework for critical debate beginning with absorption of the Aristotelian texts into the university curriculum in the first half of the 13th century. Contributing to this was the success of medieval theologians in reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Within the sciences, medieval philosophers were not afraid of disagreeing with Aristotle on many specific issues, although their disagreements were stated within the language of Aristotelian philosophy. All medieval natural philosophers were Aristotelians, but "Aristotelianism '' had become a somewhat broad and flexible concept. With the end of Middle Ages, the Renaissance rejection of medieval traditions coupled with an extreme reverence for classical sources led to a recovery of other ancient philosophical traditions, especially the teachings of Plato. By the 17th century, those who clung dogmatically to Aristotle 's teachings were faced with several competing approaches to nature.
The discovery of the Americas at the close of the 15th century showed the scholars of Europe that new discoveries could be found outside of the authoritative works of Aristotle, Pliny, Galen, and other ancient writers.
Galen of Pergamon (129 -- c. 200 AD) had studied with four schools in antiquity -- Platonists, Aristotelians, Stoics, and Epicureans, and at Alexandria, the center of medicine at the time. In his Methodus Medendi, Galen had synthesized the empirical and dogmatic schools of medicine into his own method, which was preserved by Arab scholars. After the translations from Arabic were critically scrutinized, a backlash occurred and demand arose in Europe for translations of Galen 's medical text from the original Greek. Galen 's method became very popular in Europe. Thomas Linacre, the teacher of Erasmus, thereupon translated Methodus Medendi from Greek into Latin for a larger audience in 1519. Limbrick 1988 notes that 630 editions, translations, and commentaries on Galen were produced in Europe in the 16th century, eventually eclipsing Arabic medicine there, and peaking in 1560, at the time of the scientific revolution.
By the late 15th century, the physician - scholar Niccolò Leoniceno was finding errors in Pliny 's Natural History. As a physician, Leoniceno was concerned about these botanical errors propagating to the materia medica on which medicines were based. To counter this, a botanical garden was established at Orto botanico di Padova, University of Padua (in use for teaching by 1546), in order that medical students might have empirical access to the plants of a pharmacopia. Other Renaissance teaching gardens were established, notably by the physician Leonhart Fuchs, one of the founders of botany.
The first published work devoted to the concept of method is Jodocus Willichius, De methodo omnium artium et disciplinarum informanda opusculum (1550).
In 1562 "Outlines of Pyrrhonism '' by Sextus Empiricus (c. 160 - 210 AD) appeared in print and in Latin, quickly placing the arguments of classical skepticism in the European mainstream. Skepticism either denies or strongly doubts (depending on the school) the possibility of certain knowledge. Descartes ' famous "Cogito '' argument is an attempt to overcome skepticism and reestablish a foundation for certainty but other thinkers responded by revising what the search for knowledge, particularly physical knowledge, might be.
The first of these, philosopher and physician Francisco Sanches, was led by his medical training at Rome, 1571 -- 73, to search for a true method of knowing (modus sciendi), as nothing clear can be known by the methods of Aristotle and his followers -- for example, 1) syllogism fails upon circular reasoning; 2) Aristotle 's modal logic was not stated clearly enough for use in medieval times, and remains a research problem to this day. Following the physician Galen 's method of medicine, Sanches lists the methods of judgement and experience, which are faulty in the wrong hands, and we are left with the bleak statement That Nothing is Known (1581, in Latin Quod Nihil Scitur). This challenge was taken up by René Descartes in the next generation (1637), but at the least, Sanches warns us that we ought to refrain from the methods, summaries, and commentaries on Aristotle, if we seek scientific knowledge. In this, he is echoed by Francis Bacon who was influenced by another prominent exponent of skepticism, Montaigne; Sanches cites the humanist Juan Luis Vives who sought a better educational system, as well as a statement of human rights as a pathway for improvement of the lot of the poor.
"Sanches develops his scepticism by means of an intellectual critique of Aristotelianism, rather than by an appeal to the history of human stupidity and the variety and contrariety of previous theories. '' -- Popkin 1979, p. 37, as cited by Sanches, Limbrick & Thomson 1988, pp. 24 -- 5
"To work, then; and if you know something, then teach me; I shall be extremely grateful to you. In the meantime, as I prepare to examine Things, I shall raise the question anything is known, and if so, how, in the introductory passages of another book, a book in which I will expound, as far as human frailty allows, the method of knowing. Farewell.
WHAT IS TAUGHT HAS NO MORE STRENGTH THAN IT DERIVES FROM HIM WHO IS TAUGHT.
WHAT? '' -- Francisco Sanches (1581) Quod Nihil Scitur p. 100
"If a man will begin with certainties, he shall end in doubts; but if he will be content to begin with doubts, he shall end in certainties. '' -- Francis Bacon (1605) The Advancement of Learning, Book 1, v, 8
Francis Bacon (1561 -- 1626) entered Trinity College, Cambridge in April 1573, where he applied himself diligently to the several sciences as then taught, and came to the conclusion that the methods employed and the results attained were alike erroneous; he learned to despise the current Aristotelian philosophy. He believed philosophy must be taught its true purpose, and for this purpose a new method must be devised. With this conception in his mind, Bacon left the university.
Bacon attempted to describe a rational procedure for establishing causation between phenomena based on induction. Bacon 's induction was, however, radically different than that employed by the Aristotelians. As Bacon put it,
(A) nother form of induction must be devised than has hitherto been employed, and it must be used for proving and discovering not first principles (as they are called) only, but also the lesser axioms, and the middle, and indeed all. For the induction which proceeds by simple enumeration is childish. -- Novum Organum section CV
Bacon 's method relied on experimental histories to eliminate alternative theories. Bacon explains how his method is applied in his Novum Organum (published 1620). In an example he gives on the examination of the nature of heat, Bacon creates two tables, the first of which he names "Table of Essence and Presence '', enumerating the many various circumstances under which we find heat. In the other table, labelled "Table of Deviation, or of Absence in Proximity '', he lists circumstances which bear resemblance to those of the first table except for the absence of heat. From an analysis of what he calls the natures (light emitting, heavy, colored, etc.) of the items in these lists we are brought to conclusions about the form nature, or cause, of heat. Those natures which are always present in the first table, but never in the second are deemed to be the cause of heat.
The role experimentation played in this process was twofold. The most laborious job of the scientist would be to gather the facts, or ' histories ', required to create the tables of presence and absence. Such histories would document a mixture of common knowledge and experimental results. Secondly, experiments of light, or, as we might say, crucial experiments would be needed to resolve any remaining ambiguities over causes.
Bacon showed an uncompromising commitment to experimentation. Despite this, he did not make any great scientific discoveries during his lifetime. This may be because he was not the most able experimenter. It may also be because hypothesising plays only a small role in Bacon 's method compared to modern science. Hypotheses, in Bacon 's method, are supposed to emerge during the process of investigation, with the help of mathematics and logic. Bacon gave a substantial but secondary role to mathematics "which ought only to give definiteness to natural philosophy, not to generate or give it birth '' (Novum Organum XCVI). An over-emphasis on axiomatic reasoning had rendered previous non-empirical philosophy impotent, in Bacon 's view, which was expressed in his Novum Organum:
XIX. There are and can be only two ways of searching into and discovering truth. The one flies from the senses and particulars to the most general axioms, and from these principles, the truth of which it takes for settled and immoveable, proceeds to judgment and to the discovery of middle axioms. And this way is now in fashion. The other derives axioms from the senses and particulars, rising by a gradual and unbroken ascent, so that it arrives at the most general axioms last of all. This is the true way, but as yet untried.
In Bacon 's utopian novel, The New Atlantis, the ultimate role is given for inductive reasoning:
Lastly, we have three that raise the former discoveries by experiments into greater observations, axioms, and aphorisms. These we call interpreters of nature.
In 1619, René Descartes began writing his first major treatise on proper scientific and philosophical thinking, the unfinished Rules for the Direction of the Mind. His aim was to create a complete science that he hoped would overthrow the Aristotelian system and establish himself as the sole architect of a new system of guiding principles for scientific research.
This work was continued and clarified in his 1637 treatise, Discourse on Method, and in his 1641 Meditations. Descartes describes the intriguing and disciplined thought experiments he used to arrive at the idea we instantly associate with him: I think therefore I am.
From this foundational thought, Descartes finds proof of the existence of a God who, possessing all possible perfections, will not deceive him provided he resolves "(...) never to accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be such; that is to say, carefully to avoid precipitancy and prejudice, and to comprise nothing more in my judgment than what was presented to my mind so clearly and distinctly as to exclude all ground of methodic doubt. ''
This rule allowed Descartes to progress beyond his own thoughts and judge that there exist extended bodies outside of his own thoughts. Descartes published seven sets of objections to the Meditations from various sources along with his replies to them. Despite his apparent departure from the Aristotelian system, a number of his critics felt that Descartes had done little more than replace the primary premises of Aristotle with those of his own. Descartes says as much himself in a letter written in 1647 to the translator of Principles of Philosophy,
a perfect knowledge (...) must necessarily be deduced from first causes (...) we must try to deduce from these principles knowledge of the things which depend on them, that there be nothing in the whole chain of deductions deriving from them that is not perfectly manifest.
And again, some years earlier, speaking of Galileo 's physics in a letter to his friend and critic Mersenne from 1638,
without having considered the first causes of nature, (Galileo) has merely looked for the explanations of a few particular effects, and he has thereby built without foundations.
Whereas Aristotle purported to arrive at his first principles by induction, Descartes believed he could obtain them using reason only. In this sense, he was a Platonist, as he believed in the innate ideas, as opposed to Aristotle 's blank slate (tabula rasa), and stated that the seeds of science are inside us.
Unlike Bacon, Descartes successfully applied his own ideas in practice. He made significant contributions to science, in particular in aberration - corrected optics. His work in analytic geometry was a necessary precedent to differential calculus and instrumental in bringing mathematical analysis to bear on scientific matters.
During the period of religious conservatism brought about by the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, Galileo Galilei unveiled his new science of motion. Neither the contents of Galileo 's science, nor the methods of study he selected were in keeping with Aristotelian teachings. Whereas Aristotle thought that a science should be demonstrated from first principles, Galileo had used experiments as a research tool. Galileo nevertheless presented his treatise in the form of mathematical demonstrations without reference to experimental results. It is important to understand that this in itself was a bold and innovative step in terms of scientific method. The usefulness of mathematics in obtaining scientific results was far from obvious. This is because mathematics did not lend itself to the primary pursuit of Aristotelian science: the discovery of causes.
Whether it is because Galileo was realistic about the acceptability of presenting experimental results as evidence or because he himself had doubts about the epistemological status of experimental findings is not known. Nevertheless, it is not in his Latin treatise on motion that we find reference to experiments, but in his supplementary dialogues written in the Italian vernacular. In these dialogues experimental results are given, although Galileo may have found them inadequate for persuading his audience. Thought experiments showing logical contradictions in Aristotelian thinking, presented in the skilled rhetoric of Galileo 's dialogue were further enticements for the reader.
As an example, in the dramatic dialogue titled Third Day from his Two New Sciences, Galileo has the characters of the dialogue discuss an experiment involving two free falling objects of differing weight. An outline of the Aristotelian view is offered by the character Simplicio. For this experiment he expects that "a body which is ten times as heavy as another will move ten times as rapidly as the other ''. The character Salviati, representing Galileo 's persona in the dialogue, replies by voicing his doubt that Aristotle ever attempted the experiment. Salviati then asks the two other characters of the dialogue to consider a thought experiment whereby two stones of differing weights are tied together before being released. Following Aristotle, Salviati reasons that "the more rapid one will be partly retarded by the slower, and the slower will be somewhat hastened by the swifter ''. But this leads to a contradiction, since the two stones together make a heavier object than either stone apart, the heavier object should in fact fall with a speed greater than that of either stone. From this contradiction, Salviati concludes that Aristotle must, in fact, be wrong and the objects will fall at the same speed regardless of their weight, a conclusion that is borne out by experiment.
In his 1991 survey of developments in the modern accumulation of knowledge such as this Charles Van Doren considers that the Copernican Revolution really is the Galilean Cartesian (René Descartes) or simply the Galilean revolution on account of the courage and depth of change brought about by the work of Galileo.
Both Bacon and Descartes wanted to provide a firm foundation for scientific thought that avoided the deceptions of the mind and senses. Bacon envisaged that foundation as essentially empirical, whereas Descartes provides a metaphysical foundation for knowledge. If there were any doubts about the direction in which scientific method would develop, they were set to rest by the success of Isaac Newton. Implicitly rejecting Descartes ' emphasis on rationalism in favor of Bacon 's empirical approach, he outlines his four "rules of reasoning '' in the Principia,
But Newton also left an admonition about a theory of everything:
To explain all nature is too difficult a task for any one man or even for any one age. ' Tis much better to do a little with certainty, and leave the rest for others that come after you, than to explain all things.
Newton 's work became a model that other sciences sought to emulate, and his inductive approach formed the basis for much of natural philosophy through the 18th and early 19th centuries. Some methods of reasoning were later systematized by Mill 's Methods (or Mill 's canon), which are five explicit statements of what can be discarded and what can be kept while building a hypothesis. George Boole and William Stanley Jevons also wrote on the principles of reasoning.
Attempts to systematize a scientific method were confronted in the mid-18th century by the problem of induction, a positivist logic formulation which, in short, asserts that nothing can be known with certainty except what is actually observed. David Hume took empiricism to the skeptical extreme; among his positions was that there is no logical necessity that the future should resemble the past, thus we are unable to justify inductive reasoning itself by appealing to its past success. Hume 's arguments, of course, came on the heels of many, many centuries of excessive speculation upon excessive speculation not grounded in empirical observation and testing. Many of Hume 's radically skeptical arguments were argued against, but not resolutely refuted, by Immanuel Kant 's Critique of Pure Reason in the late 18th century. Hume 's arguments continue to hold a strong lingering influence and certainly on the consciousness of the educated classes for the better part of the 19th century when the argument at the time became the focus on whether or not the inductive method was valid.
Hans Christian Ørsted, (Ørsted is the Danish spelling; Oersted in other languages) (1777 -- 1851) was heavily influenced by Kant, in particular, Kant 's Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft (Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science). The following sections on Ørsted encapsulate our current, common view of scientific method. His work appeared in Danish, most accessibly in public lectures, which he translated into German, French, English, and occasionally Latin. But some of his views go beyond Kant:
Ørsted 's "First Introduction to General Physics '' (1811) exemplified the steps of observation, hypothesis, deduction and experiment. In 1805, based on his researches on electromagnetism Ørsted came to believe that electricity is propagated by undulatory action (i.e., fluctuation). By 1820, he felt confident enough in his beliefs that he resolved to demonstrate them in a public lecture, and in fact observed a small magnetic effect from a galvanic circuit (i.e., voltaic circuit), without rehearsal;
In 1831 John Herschel (1792 -- 1871) published A Preliminary Discourse on the study of Natural Philosophy, setting out the principles of science. Measuring and comparing observations was to be used to find generalisations in "empirical laws '', which described regularities in phenomena, then natural philosophers were to work towards the higher aim of finding a universal "law of nature '' which explained the causes and effects producing such regularities. An explanatory hypothesis was to be found by evaluating true causes (Newton 's "vera causae '') derived from experience, for example evidence of past climate change could be due to changes in the shape of continents, or to changes in Earth 's orbit. Possible causes could be inferred by analogy to known causes of similar phenomena. It was essential to evaluate the importance of a hypothesis; "our next step in the verification of an induction must, therefore, consist in extending its application to cases not originally contemplated; in studiously varying the circumstances under which our causes act, with a view to ascertain whether their effect is general; and in pushing the application of our laws to extreme cases. ''
William Whewell (1794 -- 1866) regarded his History of the Inductive Sciences, from the Earliest to the Present Time (1837) to be an introduction to the Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences (1840) which analyzes the method exemplified in the formation of ideas. Whewell attempts to follow Bacon 's plan for discovery of an effectual art of discovery. He named the hypothetico - deductive method (which Encyclopædia Britannica credits to Newton); Whewell also coined the term scientist. Whewell examines ideas and attempts to construct science by uniting ideas to facts. He analyses induction into three steps:
Upon these follow special techniques applicable for quantity, such as the method of least squares, curves, means, and special methods depending on resemblance (such as pattern matching, the method of gradation, and the method of natural classification (such as cladistics). But no art of discovery, such as Bacon anticipated, follows, for "invention, sagacity, genius '' are needed at every step. Whewell 's sophisticated concept of science had similarities to that shown by Herschel, and he considered that a good hypothesis should connect fields that had previously been thought unrelated, a process he called consilience. However, where Herschel held that the origin of new biological species would be found in a natural rather than a miraculous process, Whewell opposed this and considered that no natural cause had been shown for adaptation so an unknown divine cause was appropriate.
John Stuart Mill (1806 -- 1873) was stimulated to publish A System of Logic (1843) upon reading Whewell 's History of the Inductive Sciences. Mill may be regarded as the final exponent of the empirical school of philosophy begun by John Locke, whose fundamental characteristic is the duty incumbent upon all thinkers to investigate for themselves rather than to accept the authority of others. Knowledge must be based on experience.
In the mid-19th century Claude Bernard was also influential, especially in bringing the scientific method to medicine. In his discourse on scientific method, An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865), he described what makes a scientific theory good and what makes a scientist a true discoverer. Unlike many scientific writers of his time, Bernard wrote about his own experiments and thoughts, and used the first person.
William Stanley Jevons ' The Principles of Science: a treatise on logic and scientific method (1873, 1877) Chapter XII "The Inductive or Inverse Method '', Summary of the Theory of Inductive Inference, states "Thus there are but three steps in the process of induction: -
Jevons then frames those steps in terms of probability, which he then applied to economic laws. Ernest Nagel notes that Jevons and Whewell were not the first writers to argue for the centrality of the hypothetico - deductive method in the logic of science.
In the late 19th century, Charles Sanders Peirce proposed a schema that would turn out to have considerable influence in the further development of scientific method generally. Peirce 's work quickly accelerated the progress on several fronts. Firstly, speaking in broader context in "How to Make Our Ideas Clear '' (1878), Peirce outlined an objectively verifiable method to test the truth of putative knowledge on a way that goes beyond mere foundational alternatives, focusing upon both Deduction and Induction. He thus placed induction and deduction in a complementary rather than competitive context (the latter of which had been the primary trend at least since David Hume a century before). Secondly, and of more direct importance to scientific method, Peirce put forth the basic schema for hypothesis - testing that continues to prevail today. Extracting the theory of inquiry from its raw materials in classical logic, he refined it in parallel with the early development of symbolic logic to address the then - current problems in scientific reasoning. Peirce examined and articulated the three fundamental modes of reasoning that play a role in scientific inquiry today, the processes that are currently known as abductive, deductive, and inductive inference. Thirdly, he played a major role in the progress of symbolic logic itself -- indeed this was his primary specialty.
Charles S. Peirce was also a pioneer in statistics. Peirce held that science achieves statistical probabilities, not certainties, and that chance, a veering from law, is very real. He assigned probability to an argument 's conclusion rather than to a proposition, event, etc., as such. Most of his statistical writings promote the frequency interpretation of probability (objective ratios of cases), and many of his writings express skepticism about (and criticize the use of) probability when such models are not based on objective randomization. Though Peirce was largely a frequentist, his possible world semantics introduced the "propensity '' theory of probability. Peirce (sometimes with Jastrow) investigated the probability judgments of experimental subjects, pioneering decision analysis.
Peirce was one of the founders of statistics. He formulated modern statistics in "Illustrations of the Logic of Science '' (1877 -- 1878) and "A Theory of Probable Inference '' (1883). With a repeated measures design, he introduced blinded, controlled randomized experiments (before Fisher). He invented an optimal design for experiments on gravity, in which he "corrected the means ''. He used logistic regression, correlation, and smoothing, and improved the treatment of outliers. He introduced terms "confidence '' and "likelihood '' (before Neyman and Fisher). (See the historical books of Stephen Stigler.) Many of Peirce 's ideas were later popularized and developed by Ronald A. Fisher, Jerzy Neyman, Frank P. Ramsey, Bruno de Finetti, and Karl Popper.
Karl Popper (1902 -- 1994) is generally credited with providing major improvements in the understanding of the scientific method in the mid-to - late 20th century. In 1934 Popper published The Logic of Scientific Discovery, which repudiated the by then traditional observationalist - inductivist account of the scientific method. He advocated empirical falsifiability as the criterion for distinguishing scientific work from non-science. According to Popper, scientific theory should make predictions (preferably predictions not made by a competing theory) which can be tested and the theory rejected if these predictions are shown not to be correct. Following Peirce and others, he argued that science would best progress using deductive reasoning as its primary emphasis, known as critical rationalism. His astute formulations of logical procedure helped to rein in the excessive use of inductive speculation upon inductive speculation, and also helped to strengthen the conceptual foundations for today 's peer review procedures.
Critics of Popper, chiefly Thomas Kuhn, Paul Feyerabend and Imre Lakatos, rejected the idea that there exists a single method that applies to all science and could account for its progress. In 1962 Kuhn published the influential book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions which suggested that scientists worked within a series of paradigms, and argued there was little evidence of scientists actually following a falsificationist methodology. Kuhn quoted Max Planck who had said in his autobiography, "a new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it. ''
These debates clearly show that there is no universal agreement as to what constitutes the "scientific method ''. There remain, nonetheless, certain core principles that are the foundation of scientific inquiry today.
In Quod Nihil Scitur (1581), Francisco Sanches refers to another book title, De modo sciendi (on the method of knowing). This work appeared in Spanish as Método universal de las ciencias.
In 1833 Robert and William Chambers published their ' Chambers 's information for the people '. Under the rubric ' Logic ' we find a description of investigation that is familiar as scientific method,
Investigation, or the art of inquiring into the nature of causes and their operation, is a leading characteristic of reason (...) Investigation implies three things -- Observation, Hypothesis, and Experiment (...) The first step in the process, it will be perceived, is to observe...
In 1885, the words "Scientific method '' appear together with a description of the method in Francis Ellingwood Abbot 's ' Scientific Theism ',
Now all the established truths which are formulated in the multifarious propositions of science have been won by the use of Scientific Method. This method consists in essentially three distinct steps (1) observation and experiment, (2) hypothesis, (3) verification by fresh observation and experiment.
The Eleventh Edition of Encyclopædia Britannica did not include an article on scientific method; the Thirteenth Edition listed scientific management, but not method. By the Fifteenth Edition, a 1 - inch article in the Micropædia of Britannica was part of the 1975 printing, while a fuller treatment (extending across multiple articles, and accessible mostly via the index volumes of Britannica) was available in later printings.
In the past few centuries, some statistical methods have been developed, for reasoning in the face of uncertainty, as an outgrowth of methods for eliminating error. This was an echo of the program of Francis Bacon 's Novum Organum of 1620. Bayesian inference acknowledges one 's ability to alter one 's beliefs in the face of evidence. This has been called belief revision, or defeasible reasoning: the models in play during the phases of scientific method can be reviewed, revisited and revised, in the light of further evidence. This arose from the work of Frank P. Ramsey (1903 -- 1930), of John Maynard Keynes (1883 -- 1946), and earlier, of William Stanley Jevons (1835 -- 1882) in economics.
Later in the 20th century, methodological naturalism was emphasized by Robert T. Pennock as central to scientific method, partly in response to rise of creation science.
The question of how science operates and therefore how to distinguish genuine science from pseudoscience has importance well beyond scientific circles or the academic community. In the judicial system and in public policy controversies, for example, a study 's deviation from accepted scientific practice is grounds for rejecting it as junk science or pseudoscience. However, the high public perception of science means that pseuodoscience is widespread. An advertisement in which an actor wears a white coat and product ingredients are given Greek or Latin sounding names is intended to give the impression of scientific endorsement. Richard Feynman has likened pseudoscience to cargo cults in which many of the external forms are followed, but the underlying basis is missing. Fringe or alternative theories often present themselves with a pseudoscientific appearance.
"In reforming optics he, as it were, adopted ' ' positivism ' ' (before the term was invented): we do not go beyond experience, and we can not be content to use pure concepts in investigating natural phenomena. Understanding of these can not be acquired without mathematics. Thus, once he has assumed light is a material substance, Ibn al - Haytham does not discuss its nature further, but confines himself to considering its propagation and diffusion. In his optics ' ' the smallest parts of light ' ', as he calls them, retain only properties that can be treated by geometry and verified by experiment; they lack all sensible qualities except energy. ''
"Using a whole body of mathematical methods (not only those inherited from the antique theory of ratios and infinitesimal techniques, but also the methods of the contemporary algebra and fine calculation techniques), Arabic scientists raised statics to a new, higher level. The classical results of Archimedes in the theory of the centre of gravity were generalized and applied to three - dimensional bodies, the theory of ponderable lever was founded and the ' science of gravity ' was created and later further developed in medieval Europe. The phenomena of statics were studied by using the dynamic approach so that two trends -- statics and dynamics -- turned out to be inter-related within a single science, mechanics. The combination of the dynamic approach with Archimedean hydrostatics gave birth to a direction in science which may be called medieval hydrodynamics. (...) Numerous fine experimental methods were developed for determining the specific weight, which were based, in particular, on the theory of balances and weighing. The classical works of al - Biruni and al - Khazini can by right be considered as the beginning of the application of experimental methods in medieval science. ''
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where are the ovaries located in the female | Female reproductive system - wikipedia
The female reproductive system (or female genital system) is made up of the internal and external sex organs that function in human reproduction. The female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, and to carry a fetus to full term. The internal sex organs are the uterus and Fallopian tubes, and the ovaries. The uterus or womb accommodates the embryo which develops into the fetus. The uterus also produces vaginal and uterine secretions which help the transit of sperm to the Fallopian tubes. The ovaries produce the ova (egg cells). The external sex organs are also known as the genitals and these are the organs of the vulva including the labia, clitoris and vaginal opening. The vagina is connected to the uterus at the cervix.
At certain intervals, the ovaries release an ovum, which passes through the Fallopian tube into the uterus. If, in this transit, it meets with sperm, a single sperm can enter and merge with the egg, fertilizing it. The corresponding equivalent among males is the male reproductive system.
Fertilization usually occurs in the Fallopian tubes and marks the beginning of embryogenesis. The zygote will then divide over enough generations of cells to form a blastocyst, which implants itself in the wall of the uterus. This begins the period of gestation and the embryo will continue to develop until full - term. When the fetus has developed enough to survive outside the uterus, the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus propel the newborn through the birth canal (the vagina).
The female internal reproductive organs are the vagina, uterus, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries.
The vagina is a fibromuscular (made up of fibrous and muscular tissue) canal leading from the outside of the body to the cervix of the uterus or womb. It is also referred to as the birth canal in the context of pregnancy. The vagina accommodates the male penis during sexual intercourse. Semen containing spermatazoa is ejaculated from the male at orgasm, into the vagina potentially enabling fertilization of the egg cell (ovum) to take place.
The cervix is the neck of the uterus, the lower, narrow portion where it joins with the upper part of the vagina. It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper anterior vaginal wall. Approximately half its length is visible, the remainder lies above the vagina beyond view. The vagina has a thick layer outside and it is the opening where the fetus emerges during delivery.
The uterus or womb is the major female reproductive organ. The uterus provides mechanical protection, nutritional support, and waste removal for the developing embryo (weeks 1 to 8) and fetus (from week 9 until the delivery). In addition, contractions in the muscular wall of the uterus are important in pushing out the fetus at the time of birth.
The uterus contains three suspensory ligaments that help stabilize the position of the uterus and limits its range of movement. The uterosacral ligaments keep the body from moving inferiorly and anteriorly. The round ligaments restrict posterior movement of the uterus. The cardinal ligaments also prevent the inferior movement of the uterus.
The uterus is a pear - shaped muscular organ. Its major function is to accept a fertilized ovum which becomes implanted into the endometrium, and derives nourishment from blood vessels which develop exclusively for this purpose. The fertilized ovum becomes an embryo, develops into a fetus and gestates until childbirth. If the egg does not embed in the wall of the uterus, a female begins menstruation.
The Fallopian tubes are two tubes leading from the ovaries into the uterus. On maturity of an ovum, the follicle and the ovary 's wall rupture, allowing the ovum to escape and enter the Fallopian tube. There it travels toward the uterus, pushed along by movements of cilia on the inner lining of the tubes. This trip takes hours or days. If the ovum is fertilized while in the Fallopian tube, then it normally implants in the endometrium when it reaches the uterus, which signals the beginning of pregnancy.
The ovaries are small, paired organs located near the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity. These organs are responsible for the production of the egg cells (ova) and the secretion of hormones. The process by which the egg cell (ovum) is released is called ovulation. The speed of ovulation is periodic and impacts directly to the length of a menstrual cycle.
After ovulation, the egg cell is captured by the Fallopian tube, after traveling down the Fallopian tube to the uterus, occasionally being fertilized on its way by an incoming sperm. During fertilization the egg cell plays a role; it releases certain molecules that are essential to guiding the sperm and allows the surface of the egg to attach to the sperm 's surface. The egg can then absorb the sperm and fertilization can then begin. The Fallopian tubes are lined with small hairs (cilia) to help the egg cell travel.
The vulva consists of all of the external parts and tissues and includes the mons pubis, pudendal cleft, labia majora, labia minora, Bartholin 's glands, clitoris and vaginal opening.
Chromosome characteristics determine the genetic sex of a fetus at conception. This is specifically based on the 23rd pair of chromosomes that is inherited. Since the mother 's egg contains an X chromosome and the father 's sperm contains either an X or Y chromosome, it is the male who determines the fetus 's sex. If the fetus inherits the X chromosome from the father, the fetus will be a female. In this case, testosterone is not made and the Wolffian duct will degrade thus, the Müllerian duct will develop into female sex organs. The clitoris is the remnants of the Wolffian duct. On the other hand, if the fetus inherits the Y chromosome from the father, the fetus will be a male. The presence of testosterone will stimulate the Wolffian duct which will bring about the development of the male sex organs and the Müllerian duct will degrade.
The reproductive tract (or genital tract) is the lumen that starts as a single pathway through the vagina, splitting up into two lumens in the uterus, both of which continue through the Fallopian tubes, and ending at the distal ostia that open into the abdominal cavity.
In the absence of fertilization, the ovum will eventually traverse the entire reproductive tract from the fallopian tube until exiting the vagina through menstruation.
The reproductive tract can be used for various transluminal procedures such as fertiloscopy, intrauterine insemination and transluminal sterilization.
Vaginitis is inflammation of the vagina and largely caused by an infection. It is the most common gynaecological condition presented. It is difficult to determine any one organism most responsible for vaginitis because it varies from range of age, sexual activity, and method of microbial identification. Vaginitis is not necessarily caused by a sexually transmitted infection as there are many infectious agents that make use of the close proximity to mucous membranes and secretions. Vaginitis is usually diagnosed based on the presence of vaginal discharge, which can have a certain color, odor, or quality.
This is a vaginal infection in women. It is differs from vaginitis in that there is no inflammation. Bacterial vaginosis is polymicrobial, consisting many bacteria species. The diagnosis for bacterial vaginosis is made if three of the following four criteria are present: (1) Homogenous, thin discharge, (2) a pH of 4.5 in the vagina, (3) epithelial cells in the vagina with bacteria attached to them, or (4) a fishy odor. It has been associated with an increased risk of other genital tract infections such as endometritis.
This is a common cause of vaginal irritation and according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at least 75 % of adult women have experienced one at least once in their lifetime. Yeast infections are caused by an overgrowth of fungus in the vagina known as Candida. Yeast infections are usually caused by an imbalance of the pH in the vagina, which is usually acidic. Other factors such as pregnancy, diabetes, weakened immune systems, tight fitting clothing, or douching can also be a cause. Symptoms of yeast infections include itching, burning, irritation, and a white cottage - cheese - like discharge from the vagina. Women have also reported that they experience painful intercourse and urination as well. Taking a sample of the vaginal secretions and placing them under a microscope for evidence of yeast can diagnose a yeast infection. Treatment varies from creams that can be applied in or around the vaginal area to oral tablets that stop the growth of fungus.
There are many practices of mutilating female genitalia in different cultures. The most common two types of genital mutilation practiced are clitoridectomy, the circumcision of the clitoris and the excision of the prepuce the skin around the clitoris. They can all involve a range of adverse health consequences such as bleeding, irreparable tissue damage, and sepsis which can sometimes prove fatal.
Genitoplasty refers to surgery that is carried out to repair damaged sex organs particularly following cancer and its treatment. There are also elective surgical procedures which change the appearance of the external genitals.
The International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics was founded in 1954 to promote the well - being of women particularly in raising the standards of gynaecological practice and care. As of 2010 there were 124 countries involved.
Reproductive rights are legal rights related to reproduction and reproductive health. Women have the right to control matters involving their sexuality including their sexual and reproductive health. Violation of these rights include forced pregnancy, forced sterilization, forced abortion and genital mutilation. Female genital mutilation is the complete or partial removal of a female 's external genitals.
It is claimed in the Hippocratic writings that both males and females contribute their seed to conception; otherwise, children would not resemble either or both of their parents. Four - hundred years later, Galen "identified '' the source of ' female semen ' as the ovaries in female reproductive organs.
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do anyone win money on american ninja warrior | American Ninja Warrior - wikipedia
American Ninja Warrior (sometimes abbreviated as ANW) is an American sports entertainment competition that is a spin - off of the Japanese television series Sasuke. It features hundreds of competitors attempting to complete a series of obstacle courses of increasing difficulty, trying to make it to the national finals on the Las Vegas Strip, in hopes of becoming an "American Ninja Warrior ''. To date only two competitors, rock - climbers Isaac Caldiero and Geoff Britten, have won the course and achieved "Total Victory ''. Caldiero is the only competitor to win the cash prize. The series began on the now - defunct cable channel G4 and now airs on NBC with encore episodes airing on USA Network and NBC Sports Network.
American Ninja Warrior succeeded G4 's American Ninja Challenge as the qualifying route for Americans to enter Sasuke. Beginning with the fourth season in 2012, regional finalists and wild card competitors competed on a nearly identical Mount Midoriyama course in Las Vegas, Nevada, rather than traveling to Japan to compete on Sasuke.
American Ninja Warrior was originally hosted by G4 's American television personality Blair Herter, and actress and former television correspondent Alison Haislip. In the second season, American actor, comedian, and television host Matt Iseman joined the show, replacing Herter. Additionally, Jimmy Smith was brought in as a co-host, while Haislip was the sideline reporter. The panel remained the same throughout season three.
For season 4, skier Jonny Moseley was brought in as the new co-host, replacing Smith. American journalist, sportscaster, and documentary filmmaker Angela Sun replaced Haislip.
For season 5, two newcomers were added. Sports analyst and former NFL football player Akbar Gbaja - Biamila replaced Moseley, while ESPN sportscaster and model Jenn Brown replaced Sun as sideline reporter. The season five panel remained the same through the sixth season.
For season 7, CBS Sports reporter Kristine Leahy joined the show as the new sideline reporter, replacing Brown. The roster stayed the same through season 9. The current panel consists of Iseman, Gbaja - Biamila, and Leahy.
Potential contestants go through a rigorous series of steps before the possibility of becoming the next American Ninja Warrior. Over 3,500 athletes have attempted to conquer Mount Midoriyama and become an American Ninja Warrior since the series began in 2009.
There are some requirements possible contestants have to meet before participating at a regional qualifier. Contestants must be legal residents of the US and be in decent physical shape. There is no upper age limit, but participants must be at least 21 years old. Contestants have to fill out a 20 - page questionnaire and make a video about themselves. The required length of the video has differed over the years. Submission video length requirements have varied from 2 to 8 minutes, depending on the season. Producers select 100 applicants from each region to participate in their regional qualifiers. Producers also select 20 to 30 "walk - ons '' who in some cases wait for weeks camping outside to get a chance on the course. 1,000 people applied to compete in season one, 5,000 people in season 6, 50,000 in season 7, and 70,000 in season 8.
In each city, the competitors the producers have selected competing on a 6 - obstacle course in hopes of making it to the city finals. The top 30 finishers make it to the city finals. Also, in Season 9, the top 5 women make it. The first obstacle is the quintuple steps or the floating steps and is the same for the rest of the cities for that season. Then comes an obstacle that moves along tracks. Next is either a balance obstacle or an upper - body obstacle. The other type will be fourth. Fifth is usually a grip obstacle, and sixth is the Warped Wall. In Season 9, the balance or the grip obstacle is an obstacle previously found in Stage 1 of Mount Midoryama. The obstacles are given by the sideline reporter at the beginning of every episode.
City finals courses are the follow - up to each city qualifying course. Qualifying and finals courses are filmed back - to - back, usually over two days. The top 15 finishers overall from each city finals course move on to compete in the National Finals. In addition, as of season 9, the top two women in each city finals are guaranteed to advance, even if they do not finish in the top 15. Small prizes ranging from $1,000 to $5,000 are awarded to first, second, and third finishers who complete the finals course.
Mount Midoriyama is the finals course for American Ninja Warrior. Located on the Las Vegas strip, it consists of four stages, each containing various obstacles of increasing difficulty. Competitors must complete all of the 23 obstacles. Should they complete the first three stages, competitors will advance to Stage 4, where competitors attempt to climb the 75 - foot rope climb, known as Mount Midoriyama, in 30 seconds or less. Should a competitor achieve Total Victory, he or she receives a money prize of $500,000 from season 4 to season 6, and $1,000,000 from season 7. Beginning in season 8, if multiple competitors complete stage 4, the competitors split the prize money, although in prior years the fastest competitor would receive the full amount.
The first season of American Ninja Warrior was held in Los Angeles, where hundreds of competitors came to challenge themselves against the course and qualify for a shot at making it to Japan to compete in Sasuke 23 later in the year. The special premiered on December 12, 2009, on G4 TV and was hosted by G4 's Blair Herter and Alison Haislip. Notable competitors this season included freerunners Levi Meeuwenberg and Brian Orosco, mixed martial artist Jason "Mayhem '' Miller, and Hollywood stuntman Rich King.
Out of the ten Americans who qualified to compete at Mount Midori in Japan, only Rich King, Levi Meeuwenberg and Brian Orosco successfully completed Stage 1. The majority of the American Ninja Warrior competitors ran out of time or failed the obstacles. Levi Meeuwenberg was the only American competitor to complete Stage 2. The sole American competitor on Stage 3, he fell on the "Shin - Cliffhanger '', and his run came to an end.
The second season premiered on December 8, 2010, on G4 and concluded on January 2, 2011. It began in Venice Beach, California, where 300 competitors took on the course. The 15 semi-finalists moved on to the "Ninja Warrior Boot Camp '' in the remote California mountains, where they competed in a series of team challenges. Then the finalists moved on to compete in the season finale of American Ninja Warrior 2 as a part of Sasuke 26 at Mount Midori in Japan. No competitor made it beyond Stage 3.
The third season began airing on July 31, 2011, on G4 and concluded with the finale airing on August 22, 2011, as a two - hour primetime special on NBC. Tryouts took place in May 2011 at Venice Beach, California. After the tryouts, the top 15 competitors competed in Ninja Warrior Boot Camp with the top 10 moving on to Japan for the finals of the competition as a part of Sasuke 27 and a chance at becoming the first American to conquer the course and win a $500,000 endorsement deal with K - Swiss. No competitors made it beyond Stage 3.
The fourth season of American Ninja Warrior began airing on May 20, 2012, on both G4 and NBC. There were six regional competitions held in three locations: Venice Beach (Southwest and Northwest), Dallas (Midwest and Midsouth), and Miami (Northeast and Southeast), that determined the 100 competitors to participate in the qualifying rounds. The winner of the ANW season 4 competition would receive $500,000 and the coveted "American Ninja Warrior '' title. The season finale, held in Las Vegas, was the first time that Mount Midori was held on U.S. soil. Submission videos for American Ninja Warrior season 4 had been collected since January 25, 2012.
The entire format was changed as well -- regional qualifiers in different parts of the country were aired, and the Mt. Midori course was recreated just off the Las Vegas Strip for the national finals. The regional qualifiers would narrow down its selections down to 30 contestants who finished its qualifying course in the fastest time as well as the contestants who finished the furthest the fastest. Qualifying obstacles would include common Stage 1 obstacles such as the Quintuple steps and the Warped wall, but its contents would change from city to city. The 30 contestants were then cut in half in the regional finals where the course would extend to include common Stage 2 and Stage 3 obstacles such as the Salmon Ladder, Cliffhanger and Body Prop. The 90 contestants who qualified (including wild cards) earned tickets to Las Vegas to challenge Mt. Midori. Brent Steffensen was the first American to defeat the Ultimate Cliffhanger on Stage 3, and he made it the farthest that season, falling on the Hang Climb. He was the only competitor to reach Stage 3 in this competition.
The fifth season of American Ninja Warrior premiered on June 30, 2013, on G4 with subsequent shows airing on NBC and G4. Notably, the sideboard advertising along the course listed Esquire Network as the broadcaster as the fifth season was to premiere after G4 's transition to Esquire on April 22, 2013. The network switch was eventually delayed to September 23, 2013, and Esquire took over Style Network 's channel space instead. Because of this, additional reruns of the season aired on Saturday nights on NBC through the summer to maintain ratings momentum due to G4 's lame duck status, with ANW being their only new program since they wound down all their original programming in January 2013. The success of the NBC re-airings led to the series being considered for NBC 's main summer schedule for the next season.
Regional competitions were held in Venice Beach, Baltimore, Miami, and Denver. Tryouts for the season began in February 2013 and ended with the last of the regional rounds taking place the following May. The finale was once again held in Las Vegas. No one defeated Stage 3, but Brian Arnold fell on the last obstacle, the Flying Bar, making him the farthest - going American on the Mount Midori course since Kane Kosugi reached the final stage on Sasuke 8.
The sixth season of American Ninja Warrior premiered on May 26, 2014, on NBC with subsequent shows airing on Monday nights at 9: 00 pm EST and Tuesday nights at 8: 00 pm EST on Esquire Network. Regional competitions were held at Venice Beach, Dallas, St. Louis, Miami, and Denver. The season finale was again held in Las Vegas, the permanent home of the U.S. version of Mount Midori. Notable competitors this season included The Biggest Loser personal trainer Kim Lyons, U.S. Olympic gymnasts Jonathan Horton and Terin Humphrey, among others. Female competitor Kacy Catanzaro became the first female to make it up the "Warped Wall '' in the Dallas Qualifiers. Later in the Dallas Finals, she became the first woman to complete that finals course, in 8 minutes, 59 seconds. Again, no competitor achieved "total victory ''. Kacy 's run has over ten million views. Joe Moravsky, the "Weatherman '', made it farther than anyone on Season 6, falling on the Hang Climb, where Brent Steffensen failed two years ago.
The seventh season of American Ninja Warrior premiered on NBC on May 25, 2015. This season 's grand prize was increased from $500,000 to $1,000,000. Qualifying and finals courses were held in Venice Beach, Kansas City, Houston, Orlando, Pittsburgh, as well as a special military - only course in San Pedro. Stage 1 had a total of 38 finishers including Brent Steffensen and Dustin McKinney. In Stage 2, 30 of the 38 competitors failed. Only eight were remaining in Stage 3 including Drew Dreschel, Abel Gonzalez, Isaac Caldiero, Ian Dory, Jeremiah Morgan, Kevin Bull, Joe Moravsky and Geoff Britten. Only two competitors finished the course: Isaac Caldiero and Geoff Britten. It was the first time that any American had finished Stage 3. The season concluded with a victory: Geoff Britten was the first to complete Stage 4 with a second remaining; however, Isaac Caldiero achieved the Stage 4 rope climb in a faster time and was awarded the grand prize of $1,000,000 and the title of "American Ninja Warrior ''. Geoff Britten was the first Ninja to complete all six courses in a single season.
Season 8 of American Ninja Warrior began on June 1, 2016, on NBC, with encore episodes airing the following day on Esquire Network. Regional competitions were held in Los Angeles, Atlanta, Indianapolis, Oklahoma City, and Philadelphia, with 28 new obstacles. Over 40 percent more women registered for season 8 compared to the previous season. Additionally, prize money for possible Stage 4 winners would now be split equally among competitors who complete the rope climb in under 30 seconds.
In Philadelphia 's city finals, no competitors completed the finals course, a first in American Ninja Warrior history. In Stage 1 of the National Finals, many veterans of the show such as Geoff Britten and Brent Steffensen were eliminated early, while Jessie Graff became the first woman to complete Stage 1, placing fifth. Tyler Yamauchi became the shortest person ever to complete the Jumping Spider obstacle at 5'1 ". Only 17 competitors successfully completed Stage 1, the lowest in ANW history. On Stage 2, all athletes were eliminated except Drew Drechsel and Daniel Gil. During Stage 3, both Drechsel and Gil could not complete the course. Gil fell on the Ultimate Cliffhanger, while Drechsel went the farthest, but fell on the Hang Climb. Contrary to season 7 's multiple winners, no season 8 competitor was even able to complete Stage 3.
Season 9 of American Ninja Warrior began on June 12, 2017, on NBC; Esquire Network ended over-the - air operations fifteen days later on June 27, thus encore episodes shifted over to NBCSN on non-event nights with this season. The premiere was preceded by a special episode, "Celebrity Ninja Warrior '' on May 25, 2017, the U.S. Red Nose Day, which was followed by a "USA vs. the World '' special on June 4. New for season 9, the top five women in each city qualifying course qualified for the city finals course, and the top two women in each city finals qualified for national finals, regardless of their placement overall. Also this season, fans were given the opportunity to design their own obstacles through ANW Obstacle Design Challenge and seven fan - submitted obstacles have been featured on the show.
During the season 5 finale of American Ninja Warrior, NBC announced that a special "USA vs. Japan '' matchup would take place, the first - ever team competition in American Ninja Warrior 's history. The two - hour special premiered on January 13, 2014, at 8 pm EST on NBC and matched five Japanese Sasuke All - Stars and New Stars - heroes of the original Ninja Warrior - against five American stars representing American Ninja Warrior at the American reconstruction of the Mount Midoriyama course in Las Vegas. At stake was the United States vs. Japan championship; also branded as the first world championship for Sasuke / American Ninja Warrior, and a trophy to match. The special featured American Ninja Warrior 's regular broadcasting crew: analysts Matt Iseman and Akbar Gbaja - Biamila along with sideline reporter Jenn Brown.
The teams faced off on each stage in turn, with each stage hosting its own round of five one - on - one matches and no competitor allowed to run the same stage twice. The first national team to win three matches out of five earned the point (s) for that stage. Stage One was worth one point, while Stage Two was worth two points and Stage Three was worth three. In the event of a 3 - 3 tie after the first three stages, the tiebreaker would be a one - off showdown where each country would pick one team member for a race to the top of the Final Stage.
The winners of the special were the Americans over Japan.
Final Score: Americans: 6, Japan: 0.
Rosters
During the Season 6 finale, NBC announced that another special entitled "USA vs. the World '' matchup would take place in Las Vegas under a new format. On September 15, Team USA competed against a returning Team Japan, and a new team, Team Europe. This was the "Second Annual International Competition '' that pitted top competitors from the United States American Ninja Warrior, Japan Ninja Warrior (Sasuke), and also European All Stars. The three - hour special aired on September 15, 2014, on NBC with an encore airing September 16, 2014, on Esquire. The special once again was hosted by hosts Matt Iseman and Akbar Gbaja - Biamila as well as sideline reporter Jenn Brown.
The winners of the special were the Europeans, winning over America and Japan.
Rosters
Team rosters were revealed late summer 2014.
Final Score: Europe: 10, USA: 9, Japan: 0
Highlights
Joe Moravsky beat Brent Steffenson 's record (from ANW 4) for the fastest time in Stage 1, beating Steffenson 's time of 1: 14.53 with a time of 1: 12.72. However, Tim Shieff beat Moravsky 's time in a subsequent heat by finishing in 1: 02.70 - the fastest time ever on Stage 1 in ANW history.
Travis Rosen achieved the fastest time by an American on Stage 2 with 1: 48.00, but Sean McColl finished with a time of 1: 46.51, the fastest of the season. All three Americans (Travis Rosen, Elet Hall, and Brian Arnold) completed Stage 2, with Sean McColl also completing it for Team Europe.
Yusuke Morimoto made ANW history by becoming the first athlete to ever finish Stage 3 with a time of 5: 38.91. Stefano Ghisolfi also completed Stage 3 in the same heat, beating Morimoto 's time finishing in 4: 46.89. Ryo Matachi followed by becoming the third athlete to complete Stage 3 with a time of 5: 04.67. In the last run of Stage 3, Brian Arnold became the second American athlete to complete the stage (after Kane Kosugi did it in Sasuke 8) with a time of 4: 39.90, the fastest time of the four finishers. Arnold 's finish moved USA into a tie with Team Europe, forcing a deciding tie - break on Stage 4.
For the first time in ANW history, the athletes competed on Stage 4. Travis Rosen was selected as the first competitor on ANW to attempt the final stage and he made it all the way up Midoriyama 's 90 - foot tower with a 77 - foot rope with a time of 0: 35.77. However, Sean McColl beat Rosen 's time by 3 / 10th of a second (0: 00.31), winning the competition for Team Europe as they became the World Champions of ANW. Rosen missed on his first attempt at hitting the buzzer at the end of the rope climb.
NBC announced that another USA vs. the World matchup would again take place in Las Vegas. It was the second such worldwide special to unite ANW alumni, Sasuke all - stars, and European competitors for the season 7 finale. The 3 - hour special aired on January 31, 2016, on NBC. It was hosted by the current American Ninja Warrior hosts, Matt Iseman, Akbar Gbaja - Biamila, and co-host Kristine Leahy.
The winners of the special were the Americans, winning over Europe and Japan.
Rosters
Team rosters were revealed in December 2015.
Note: * Britten was unable to compete due to flu - like symptoms with a fever of 103 and was replaced by alternate Joe Moravsky who was standing by.
Highlights
On Stage 1, Drew Drechsel gets the fastest time of the season with a time of 1: 18.61, beating Tim Shieff 's time of 1: 25.33.
On Stage 2, Sean McColl edged out both Drew Drechsel 's time of 1: 34.46, and Joe Moravsky 's time of 1: 23.69, beating them with a speedy time of 1: 19.86, the fastest of the ANW season.
On Stage 3, in the last heat, Yusuke Morimoto was the only member of Team Japan to finish this stage with a time of 6: 29.38. However, Sean McColl got a faster time with 5: 42.25, putting Team Europe in the lead. Isaac Caldiero was the last to compete and needed the 3 - point win in order to put Team USA on top. Caldiero brought his team to victory with an impressive time of 4: 28.84, the fastest of the season.
Final Score: USA: 10, Europe: 9, Japan: 0
The 3 - hour special episode aired on June 4, 2017; it was unofficially the first episode of season 9. Once again, it was hosted by the current American Ninja Warrior hosts, Matt Iseman, Akbar Gbaja - Biamila, and co-host Kristine Leahy. This year, Team USA and Team Europe faced a new challenger; Team Latin America.
Highlights
Jessie Graff became the first woman in ANW history, and to compete and successfully finish, Stage 2 in Las Vegas. This was the POM Wonderful "Run of the Night ''. She was also the first woman representing the United States in the USA vs. The World competition. Josh Levin and Drew Drechsel both completed Stage 3, putting them on a list of only a handful of athletes to do so.
Final Score: Team USA: 10, Team Europe: 7, Team Latin America: 1.
On May 29, 2016, prior to the premiere of season eight, NBC aired a two - hour all - star special in which hosts Matt Iseman and Akbar Gbaja - Biamila chose their own all - star teams composed of three veterans, one rookie, and one woman. Teams competed on stages two, three, and four of the regular season finals course, Mt. Midoriyama, as well as competitions on a supersized course by testing their skills in competitions on the giant peg board, 40 - foot Salmon Ladder, Flying Shelf Grab, Jump Hang, and concluded with a race to the top of the "Mega '' Warped Wall.
The all - star winners were Team Akbar who won the team competition, beating Team Matt 5 - 3. Additionally, competitor Joe Moravsky completed Stage 2 in a record time of 1: 08: 52.
On February 20, 2017, NBC aired a second two - hour all - star special. Like the previous year 's competition, ANW hosts Matt Iseman and Akbar Gbaja - Biamila chose their own all - star teams, this year composed of one veteran, one breakout star, and one woman. Team Matt featured Chris Wilczewski, Najee Richardson, and Jesse "Flex '' Lebreck. Team Akbar featured Grant McCartney, Neil "Crazy '' Craver, and Meagan Martin. Also, sideline interviewer Kristine Leahy got to pick her own team, which consisted of Jessie Graff, Flip Rodriguez, and Nicholas Coolridge. Teams competed as a relay race to finish sections of stages one, two, and three of the regular season finals course, Mt. Midoriyama. Next, was the skills competition on a supersized course where individual contestants tested their skills in competition on the 75 - feet tall Endless Invisible Ladder, the 4 - story high Super Salmon Ladder, Supersonic Shelf Grab, Striding Steps, and the Mega Wall, which is now 20 feet high.
The all - star winners were Team Kristine who won the team relay race competition, beating Team Matt and last year 's champions Team Akbar. Their highlight of the night was completing Stage 3 in a record time of 5: 30: 62, making this the POM Wonderful Run of the Night.
NBC announced a special entitled "Celebrity Ninja Warrior for Red Nose Day '' which aired on May 25, 2017. Celebrity Ninja Warrior featured celebrities competing on the American Ninja Warrior course while being coached by ANW favorites. The course featured modified obstacles: Floating Steps, Cannonball Drop, Fly Wheels, Block Run, Battering Ram, and the Warped Wall. After completing the course, Stephen Amell, also completed the Salmon Ladder (which he performed in a scene on Arrow) and unsuccessfully attempted a new obstacle, the Swinging Pegboard; Amell 's run was named the M&M 's "Run of the Night. ''
For every obstacle the celebrities completed, M&M 's and The Rockefeller Foundation pledged to donate $5,000 to Red Nose Day.
On October 9, 2015, Esquire Network announced a spin - off of American Ninja Warrior which would feature 24 three - person teams (two men and one woman) of popular ANW alumni. The teams compete head - to - head against each other, running the course simultaneously, thus creating a new live duel dynamic. The two teams with the fastest times advance to the finale where one team will be crowned the winners and receive a cash prize. Matt Iseman and Akbar Gbaja - Biamila host alongside actor and journalist, Alex Curry. The series is Esquire Network 's most - watched program in the channel 's history.
On May 31, 2016, Esquire Network ordered a sixteen - episode second season that also included a five - episode special college edition that had college - aged competitors go head - to - head against rival schools. On March 6, 2017, it was announced that Team Ninja Warrior will be moving to sibling cable channel USA Network as Esquire Network winds down its linear channel operations and relaunches as an online only service. The show 's second season premiered proper on April 18.
In Australia and New Zealand, the show is broadcast on SBS 2, TV3 and Four. On April 25, 2016, it was announced Canadian broadcaster CTV picked up American Ninja Warrior for its 2016 summer broadcast schedule. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the show is broadcast on Challenge. In Israel, the show is broadcast on Yes Action. In 2016 Croatian RTL started broadcasting the show. The show is also shown in Finland on Sub-TV. In the Netherlands the show was first broadcast in 2017 on SBS 6, where their own Ninja Warrior NL has been broadcast.
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sargent peppers lonely hearts club band the movie | Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club band (film) - wikipedia
Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band is a 1978 American musical comedy film directed by Michael Schultz and written by Henry Edwards. The film tells the loosely constructed story of a band as they wrangle with the music industry and battle evil forces bent on stealing their instruments and corrupting their home town of Heartland. The film is presented in a form similar to that of a rock opera, with the songs providing "dialogue '' to carry the story. Only George Burns has spoken lines that act to clarify the plot and provide further narration.
The film 's soundtrack, released as an accompanying double album, features new versions of songs originally written and performed by the Beatles. The film draws primarily from two of the band 's albums, 1967 's Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band and 1969 's Abbey Road. The film covers all of the songs from the Sgt. Pepper album with the exceptions of "Within You, Without You '' and "Lovely Rita '', and also includes nearly all of Abbey Road.
The production was loosely adapted from Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band on the Road, a 1974 off - Broadway production directed by Tom O'Horgan.
The film was produced by Robert Stigwood, founder of RSO Records, who had earlier produced Saturday Night Fever. RSO Records also released the soundtrack to the film Grease in 1978, which had Barry Gibb producing and Peter Frampton playing lead guitar on the title track. In 1976, the Bee Gees had recorded three Beatles cover songs, "Golden Slumbers / Carry That Weight '', "She Came In Through the Bathroom Window '' and "Sun King '', for the musical documentary All This and World War II.
The Beatles ' former producer, George Martin, served as musical director, conductor, arranger and producer of the film 's soundtrack album. Before the film 's release, Robin Gibb of the Bee Gees announced: "There is no such thing as the Beatles now. They do n't exist as a band and never performed Sgt Pepper live in any case. When ours comes out, it will be, in effect, as if theirs never existed. ''
Mr. Kite (George Burns), the elderly mayor of the wholesome small town of Heartland, recounts the history of Heartland 's celebrated marching band, Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band, who brought happiness through their music, even causing troops in World War I to stop fighting. When the bandleader died in 1958, he left the band 's magical musical instruments to the town, and as long as they remain in Heartland, people will live happily ever after. The City Hall contains the instruments, and is topped with a Magical Weather Vane in the shape of a marching band trumpeter that foresees good and ominous developments. The bandleader left his musical legacy to his handsome and good - hearted grandson, Billy Shears (Peter Frampton), who forms a successor Sgt. Pepper 's band with his best friends the Hendersons (The Bee Gees). Billy 's jealous and money - hungry stepbrother, Dougie (Paul Nicholas), serves as the band 's manager.
Heartland loves the new band, and soon record company executive B.D. (Donald Pleasence) invites them to Hollywood with the promise of a record deal. Billy bids farewell to his sweet hometown girlfriend, Strawberry Fields (Sandy Farina). Once in Hollywood, B.D. gets the naive band to sign an exploitative contract by plying them with drugs and alcohol and getting sexy singers Lucy (Dianne Steinberg) and the Diamonds (Stargard) to seduce them. Lucy starts an affair with Billy, who momentarily forgets Strawberry. The band quickly succeeds with hit records and sold - out shows.
Meanwhile, the villain Mr. Mustard (Frankie Howerd) and his henchman the Brute drive to Heartland in their computer - and robot - equipped van. Mustard gets his orders via computer from a mysterious entity called F.V.B., who directs him to steal the magical instruments from City Hall, keep the drum, and bring the other instruments to them and others. Mustard does as directed. Without the instruments, Heartland, now under Mustard 's control, quickly degenerates into a hotbed of vice and urban decay. Strawberry travels to Hollywood, manages to find Billy and the band at a recording session, and tells them of Heartland 's plight. The band and Strawberry steal Mustard 's van and use its computer to locate the stolen instruments. They manage to recover the cornet from the deranged, money - driven anti-aging specialist Dr. Maxwell Hammer (Steve Martin), the tuba from mind - controlling cult leader Father Sun (Alice Cooper), and the drum, which Mustard kept in his van. However, the computer malfunctions before they can locate the final missing instrument.
As Heartland continues to deteriorate, the band plans a benefit concert to save the town. B.D., Lucy and Dougie go along with the plan, exploiting the situation for financial gain. Dougie and Lucy, who have bonded over their shared love of money, plot to steal the show proceeds and run off, and to that end hide the bags of money in Mustard 's van while Billy, Strawberry and the Hendersons are watching Earth, Wind & Fire perform at the benefit. Mustard and the Brute suddenly arrive and take back the van, which also contains the recovered instruments. They kidnap Strawberry, with whom Mustard has fallen in love from afar, drag her into the van, and drive off with Dougie, Lucy and the money hidden on board. Billy and the Hendersons see the van leave and pursue it in the town 's hot air balloon.
Mustard drives to F.V.B. 's headquarters where F.V.B. plans to suppress the magical instruments and take over the world. It is revealed that F.V.B. stands for "Future Villain Band '', an Orwellian hard - rock band (Aerosmith) in contrast to the wholesomeness of Sgt. Pepper 's band. F.V.B. is described as "the evil force that would poison young minds, pollute the environment, and subvert the democratic process ''; they perform in militaristic uniforms on a high platform stage made to look like stacks of money, accompanied by uniformed youth twirling flags. To turn Strawberry into a "helpless groupie '', F.V.B. chains her up onstage while the band plays "Come Together '' and the lead singer (Steven Tyler) fondles her. Dougie and Lucy are also tied up and forced to watch. Billy and the Hendersons arrive and engage in hand - to - hand combat with F.V.B. When the lead singer chokes Billy, Strawberry despite her chains manages to push him off Billy and off the raised stage to his death, but Strawberry then falls and is also killed.
The town of Heartland, now cleaned up, holds an elaborate funeral for Strawberry, after which a depressed Billy attempts suicide by jumping from a rooftop. Before he can hit the ground, in a form of Deus ex machina, the Magical Weather Vane on top of City Hall comes to life (as Billy Preston) and catches him with a magical lightning bolt. The Magical Weather Vane then dances through the town square, tossing magical lightning bolts that transform Mr. Mustard and the Brute into a bishop and a monk, Mustard 's van into a VW Beetle, Dougie and Lucy into an altar boy and a nun, and finally restore Strawberry to life. As Billy and Strawberry happily embrace, one last lightning bolt transforms his and the Hendersons ' mourning suits into shiny new Sgt. Pepper uniforms. In the finale, the cast appear with numerous celebrities (of the time the film was made) in a tribute to the original Beatles album cover.
The cast also features:
Additionally, the film becomes a time capsule of late 1970s pop culture with the last scene in which the cast is joined by "Our Guests at Heartland '' to sing the reprise of the title track while standing in a formation imitating the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper album cover. The scene was filmed at MGM Studios on December 16, 1977; indeed, according to co-star Carel Struycken (Mustard 's henchman, "Brute ''), Sgt. Pepper was the last film to be made at MGM under that studio 's then existing management.
The "guests '' were:
The film began as a 1974 live Broadway show called Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band on the Road, which was produced by The Robert Stigwood Organization. Stigwood had purchased the rights to use 29 Beatles songs for the play and was determined to do something with them, so he brought the songs to Henry Edwards to write a script. Edwards had never written a script for a film, but had impressed Stigwood with musical analysis he 'd written for The New York Times. "I spread the songs out on my apartment floor and went to work, '' said Edwards. "Mr Stigwood wanted a concept. I told him I 'd like to do a big MGM - like musical. We 'd synthesize forms and end up with an MGM musical but with the music of today. ''
With a script in place, the cast was assembled. In the spring of 1977, Frampton, The Bee Gees, and Martin met to begin work on the soundtrack. Filming started in October 1977 on the backlot of MGM Studios in Culver City, where the set of Heartland, USA was built. Interiors were filmed at Universal City Studios.
Upon release, Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band received scathingly negative reviews, with critics taking issue with its thin plot and incomprehensibility. As of September 1, 2014, review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes reports that 15 % of 20 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average score of 2.9 out of 10. The film has been praised for its musical renditions of classic Beatles songs, however, and has since gained a cult following.
In a contemporary review for The New York Times, Janet Maslin wrote that the "musical numbers are strung together so mindlessly that the movie has the feel of an interminable variety show ''; she said that while it may have been "conceived in a spirit of merriment,... watching it feels like playing shuffleboard at the absolute insistence of a bossy shipboard social director. When whimsy gets to be this overbearing, it simply is n't whimsy any more. '' Maslin admired Martin 's "completely unhinged rendition of "Maxwell 's Silver Hammer '', but added that his scene is a "reminder that the film is otherwise humorless ''. In Rolling Stone, Paul Nelson ridiculed virtually every aspect of the production. He said that Frampton had "absolutely no future in Hollywood '' while Schultz "would seem to need direction merely to find the set, let alone the camera ''. Nelson commented on the musical soundtrack: "The album proves conclusively that you ca n't go home again in 1978. Or, if you do, you 'd better be aware of who 's taken over the neighborhood. ''
David Ansen of Newsweek dismissed Sgt. Pepper as "a film with a dangerous resemblance to wallpaper ''. Writing in The Valley Independent, Ron Paglia called it "Good, campy fun '', citing Steve Martin 's performance as "a high point '' and the celebrity - filled finale as "something special '' before concluding "there 's much to enjoy. '' The Intelligencer 's Lou Gaul described the production as "A sort of modern Fantasia for today 's teens ''.
In the opinion of film historian Leonard Maltin, the picture "ranges from tolerable to embarrassing and just does n't work. As for the Bee Gees ' acting talents, if you ca n't say something nice... '' Perry Seibert of AllMovie calls the film "quite possibly the silliest movie ever conceived '', with a "handful of high camp moments '' featuring Martin, Burns; Earth, Wind & Fire; Aerosmith, and Billy Preston who "somehow transcend the jaw - dropping inanity that poisons the rest of the cast ''. Writing for Mojo in 2007, John Harris described Stigwood 's film as "mind - bogglingly awful ''. He cited this as an example of how the Beatles ' 1967 album was "vulnerable to iconoclasm '' and a reason why its critical standing had suffered beside other works by the band, particularly Revolver, the White Album and Rubber Soul. When asked about the film in a 1979 interview, George Harrison expressed his sympathy for Stigwood, Frampton and the Bee Gees, acknowledging that they had all worked hard to achieve success before making Sgt. Pepper. He said of Frampton and the Bee Gees: "I think it 's damaged their images, their careers, and they did n't need to do that. It 's just like the Beatles trying to do the Rolling Stones. The Rolling Stones can do it better. ''
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who sings goodbye horses in silence of the lambs | Goodbye Horses - wikipedia
"Goodbye Horses '' is a 1988 song sung by Q Lazzarus. It was written and produced by William Garvey. There are three versions of the song, of lengths 3: 12, 4: 20, and the extended version at 6: 28.
According to its writer, "the song is about transcendence over those who see the world as only earthly and finite. The horses represent the five senses from Hindu philosophy (The Bhagavad Gita) and the ability to lift one 's perception above these physical limitations and to see beyond this limited Earthly perspective. ''
In 1996, Psyche 's cover version of "Goodbye Horses '' was released as the B - side to their single "You Ran Away ''. This recording became popular enough that the band decided to make an extended version and include it on their album Strange Romance at the end of the same year. When the trailer for Clerks 2 appeared promoting the movie, Psyche entered the Top Ten downloads on iTunes Electronic chart. The song is featured on two best of compilations, Misguided Angels (2000) and Legacy (2004), as well as a recent limited Australian tour CD collection entitled Club Salvation, and remains a staple in the band 's live repertoire to this day.
Over the last decade, the song has been covered by other performers including Gil Mantera 's Party Dream. In 2009, The Airborne Toxic Event began performing a cover of the song in their live performances. The Whitest Boy Alive covered the song during Lowlands ' 09. In October 2009, Brad Sucks released a cover of "Goodbye Horses '' on his website. At their NYE 2010 / 2011 show, Snowden debuted a cover featuring Corinne on lead vocals. However, aside from the original, only Psyche 's interpretation has maintained its popularity.
Electronic band Fan Death and garage - revival band Harlem have also covered the song, and it is currently being performed at live shows by Liverpudlian band Lovecraft, recently signed to the Probe Plus label.
In 2009, a compilation on Metropolis Records entitled "Until The Shadows '' contains Psyche 's re-recording entitled "Goodbye Horses (21st Century Version) '' which corrects the previously misinterpreted verse "lying over you '' to "flying over you ''.
In 2010, indie band Venus Infers released two different mixes of their version of the song on their album You 'll Understand When You 're Older. Also, Island Def Jam artists The Airborne Toxic Event released a live CD / DVD containing a performance of this song, entitled "All I 've Ever Wanted ''. In 2011, The Airborne Toxic Event released its second studio album, All At Once, containing a studio remake of this song.
In 2011, Kele Okereke, lead singer and rhythm guitarist of indie rock band Bloc Party, released a cover of "Goodbye Horses '' on his EP The Hunter. This cover of the song is 4 minutes and 12 seconds long. It was produced by Daniel Lindegren, with additional production by Fred Falke. A fan made video for the song was uploaded to YouTube on March 25, 2011, many months before the release of the EP. Kele posted the video on his blog.
On March 5, 2012 Psyche released an updated extended mix of their 2009 re-recording of "Goodbye Horses '' (previously released on the Metropolis Records compilation Until the Shadows), now retitled "21st Century Immortality Mix ''. This version is featured on the A-side of "All Things Pass Into the Night '' on the Optimo music label, and distributed by Kompakt. There is also an official video for the "Immortality Mix '' on YouTube.
In 2013, Wild Beasts frontman Hayden Thorpe and Jon Hopkins recorded a sparse piano - driven cover of the track which accompanied the re-release of Lazzarus 's original.
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who sings i want to be with you everywhere | Everywhere (Fleetwood Mac song) - wikipedia
"Everywhere '' is a song by British - American rock band Fleetwood Mac from their fourteenth studio album Tango in the Night (1987), written by Fleetwood Mac member Christine McVie, who also performs lead vocals on the song. "Everywhere '' was released as the fourth single from Tango in the Night on November 28, 1987 in the United States, where it reached number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and number - one on the Adult Contemporary chart, remaining there for three weeks. "Everywhere '' was released in the United Kingdom on 21 March 1988 and reached number four. It also reached number 45 in Australia.
A 12 '' single was also issued and featured an extended dance version and dub version. "Everywhere '' also marked the first CD single release by the band in most territories. All formats included the B - side "When I See You Again '', a song taken from the Tango in the Night album; the 12 '' format featured an extended mix of "Everywhere '' and the CD single contained bonus tracks "Rhiannon '' and "Say You Love Me '' from Fleetwood Mac 's tenth studio album Fleetwood Mac (1975).
After featuring in an advert for UK mobile phone provider 3, "Everywhere '' re-entered the UK Singles Chart and peaked at number 15 in March 2013. As a result of this newfound success, the song was featured on the compilation album Now That 's What I Call Music! 84 in March 2013.
The music video of the song is a visual depiction of the poem The Highwayman by Alfred Noyes. There are two versions of the video; one features the story with members of the band appearing throughout, while the other does not feature the band at all.
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prince of persia full movie download in hindi khatrimaza | Satyameva Jayate (2018 film) - Wikipedia
Satyameva Jayate (transl. Truth alone triumphs; Hindi pronunciation: (sət̪jəmeːʋə dʒəjət̪eː)) is a 2018 Indian vigilante action film directed by Milap Milan Zaveri. The film features John Abraham, Manoj Bajpayee and Aisha Sharma in lead roles. It was released on 15 August 2018 along with Akshay Kumar 's film Gold.
The shooting for the film began on 5 March 2018 and it premiered on 5 April 2018. The official trailer for the film was released on 28 June 2018. The film was released on the Indian Independence Day, 15 August 2018.
The safety of Mumbai city has been assigned to a police department with roughly 200,000 officers, the majority of whom are corrupt. When four such police inspectors are burnt alive in a series of merciless killings, the entire police force is rocked with terror. The media is looking for answers. The public is on the fence over these killings. These crimes reflect upon Vir, a bold, calculating, and unapologetic vigilante. Fearing the next attack, the Commissioner calls upon DCP Shivansh, their best bet to catch Vir. What follows is a confrontation of epic proportions which takes us through the corrupt underbelly of the Financial Capital. Vir and Shivansh are against the same enemy, but they are divided by a fine line.
The film was released on 15 August 2018 to coincide with Indian Independence Day. The film was released along with Akshay Kumar 's Gold. It was released on 2500 screens in India. The film had it 's digital premiere on 19th October 2018 on Amazon Prime Video.
The music for the film is composed by Sajid - Wajid, Tanishk Bagchi, Rochak Kohli and Arko Pravo Mukherjee while lyrics are penned by Shabbir Ahmed, Kumaar, Arko Pravo Mukherjee, Danish Sabri and Ikka. The background score is composed by Sanjoy Chowdhury. The first song of the film, "Dilbar '' from the 1999 film Sirf Tum originally sung by Alka Yagnik and composed by Nadeem - Shravan has been recreated for this film by Tanishk Bagchi in the voices of Neha Kakkar, Dhvani Bhanushali and Ikka and it was released on 4 July 2018. The second song of the film titled as "Paniyon Sa '' which is sung by Atif Aslam and Tulsi Kumar was released on 12 July 2018. The third song of the film to be released was "Tajdar - E-Haram '' which is sung by Wajid Khan was released on 26 July 2018. The fourth and the last song, "Tere Jaisa '' sung by Arko Pravo Mukherjee and Tulsi Kumar was released on 1 August 2018. The album of the film was by released T - Series on 1 August 2018.
Satyameva Jayate collected ₹ 20.52 crore in India on Day 1 which is the highest opening for a John Abraham film and the 5th highest opener film of 2018 after Sanju, Race 3, Gold and Baaghi 2. On day 2 it saw a big dip and collected ₹ 7.92 crore which makes a total of ₹ 28.44 crore at Box Office. The film collected ₹ 9.18 crore on day 3. The film collected ₹ 9.03 crore on its fourth day and ₹ 10.26 crore on day 5 which makes its collections to ₹ 56.91 crore. The film collected ₹ 90 Crore in India. Box Office India declared the film "Super Hit ''.
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what happened to alexa bliss mixed match challenge | WWE Mixed Match Challenge - wikipedia
WWE Mixed Match Challenge, also known simply as Mixed Match Challenge, is a seasonal professional wrestling web television series and tournament produced by WWE, where all matches are mixed tag team matches. Like all professional wrestling events it is based on scripted storylines and its outcomes are predetermined. The 12 - episode first season premiered on January 16, 2018 on Facebook Watch. Each episode was 20 - 25 minutes in length and featured one match. The show filled WWE 's 10: 00pm ET timeslot previously held by 205 Live. Following the show 's premiere, 205 Live began to air at 10: 20pm ET. On September 4, 2018, WWE announced a second season of Mixed Match Challenge, with the season premiering on September 18 immediately following SmackDown Live. Season 2 will consist of 14 30 - minute episodes, with each featuring two matches. Episodes of season 2 will air at 10: 00pm ET, with a weekly pre-show starting at 9: 50pm ET.
The teams, which were made up of both male and female wrestlers from both the Raw and SmackDown brands, were picked by their respective general managers, Kurt Angle and Daniel Bryan. Each team wrestled for the chance to give $100,000 to a charity of the winner 's choice, all other charities received $10,000 each. During the second episode, Kurt Angle and Daniel Bryan announced that the first week of Mixed Match Challenge received 35 million total engagements. The Miz and Asuka won the inaugural Mixed Match Challenge tournament, earning the $100,000 for the Rescue Dogs Rock charity.
Enzo Amore was originally supposed to take part, but was replaced with Apollo Crews after catching the flu. Samoa Joe was originally Bayley 's tag team partner after winning a fan vote, but was injured and replaced by Elias, who finished second in the fan vote. Alicia Fox suffered a broken tailbone and was replaced by Mandy Rose. Big E became the partner for Carmella after winning a fan vote between all three members of The New Day.
The full tournament bracket was revealed on January 11, 2018 on WWE.com. In one of the semifinal matches, fans were able to vote on a Facebook poll, for an eliminated team to be given a second chance in the tournament.
^ 1 - Daniel Bryan was the special guest referee for this match after winning a fan vote.
^ 2 - This team won a Second Chance poll, earning 40 % of the votes, to re-enter the tournament.
^ 3 - Becky Lynch replaced Charlotte Flair for this match after Flair had dental surgery.
The second season premiered on September 18, 2018 on Facebook Watch. In the second season, teams will compete in a round robin - style tournament throughout the fourteen 30 - minute, two match episodes. The finals of season two will take place at the TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs pay - per - view event on December 16.
Alexa Bliss was originally supposed to take part in the tournament again alongside her partner, Braun Strowman, to reform "Team Little Big. '' However, due to an arm injury suffered at Hell in a Cell at the hands of Ronda Rousey, Ember Moon replaced Bliss to form "Team Monster Eclipse. '' If Bliss is cleared to compete before Strowman and Moon are eliminated, Bliss will resume her partnership with Strowman.
Sasha Banks was also supposed to take part in the tournament alongside her partner Bobby Lashley, but it was announced on September 21, 2018 that Banks was injured and unable to compete in the tournament. Mickie James replaced Banks as Lashley 's partner.
Kevin Owens was originally part of the tournament alongside his partner, Natalya, to form "Team Pawz, '' but it was announced on October 9, 2018 that Owens suffered an ankle injury the previous night on Raw at the hands of Lashley, leaving Natalya looking for a new teammate. On October 12, 2018, Bobby Roode, who was Charlotte Flair 's partner during season one, was chosen as Natalya 's new partner.
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when was season 11 of greys anatomy filmed | Grey 's Anatomy (season 11) - wikipedia
The eleventh season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy premiered on September 25, 2014 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) and consists of 25 episodes. The season was produced by ABC Studios, in association with ShondaLand Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunner being Shonda Rhimes. The season commenced airing with the episode "I Must Have Lost it on the Wind '' and concluded with the season finale "You 're My Home '' airing on May 14, 2015. The season was officially released on DVD as a six - disc boxset under the title of Grey 's Anatomy: The Complete Eleventh Season -- Life Changes on August 18, 2015 by Buena Vista Home Entertainment.
The season is the first in which Dr. Cristina Yang, portrayed by Sandra Oh, is not included in the main cast of characters following her departure in previous season 's finale. The season 's main storylines include Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) dealing with "her person 's '' departure, her problematic love - life with male - lead of the show Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), and new replacement for Yang, Dr. Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) learning that Meredith is her half - sister. The biggest storyline of Season 11 was the death of Derek who is involved in a car accident in How to Save a Life. Other story - arcs include Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone) moving to Seattle, learning the ropes at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) and Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) try to save their marriage by going to marriage counseling, April Kepner (Sarah Drew) and Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) end up having a boy, named Samuel, who dies moments after birth having being diagnosed to have Osteogenesis imperfecta, a lethal birth defect. The season also focuses on the deepening friendship between Meredith and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) causing problems for him and girlfriend Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington).
The season ended with 11.08 million viewers ranking 36th overall in total viewers. This is much lower than the tenth season, which was ranked 15th. In the 18 -- 49 key demographic, Grey 's Anatomy ranked 13th down 8 places from the previous season, it is the lowest ranking in the series ' history. For the 2014 - 2015 Primetime TV schedule, it was the no. 5 drama in the 18 -- 49 key demographic. The season was well received among television critics with several praising the writing and performances of the cast, especially lead Ellen Pompeo. In terms of awards and accolades the season garnered six nominations at the 41st People 's Choice Awards winning four including Favorite Network TV Drama, Dempsey and Pompeo won Favorite Dramatic TV Actor and Actress respectively and Oh winning for Favorite TV Character We Miss Most. On May 7, 2015, ABC announced the renewal of Grey 's Anatomy for a twelfth season as part of their 2015 - 16 TV lineup.
The season follows the story of surgical residents, fellows, and attendings as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington.
The doctors at Grey Sloan Memorial must get used to the fact that Dr. Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) is now in Switzerland, but they find it difficult to like her new replacement, Dr. Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary). She tries making friends with the doctors, but the one she 's really interested in learning more about is her half - sister, Dr. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). Upon hearing Maggie 's news, Meredith does n't believe her. Trying to prove her wrong, Meredith pores over her mother 's journals to see if there might have been any evidence of truth. What she finds is that the pieces fit, and that she and Maggie are in fact half - sisters. Not too keen on the fact that she has a sister whom she did n't know about until now, Dr. Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) uses his love for his big family to draw Meredith and Maggie together.
Dr. Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) and Dr. Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) talk about having another baby, but Arizona develops an interest in a fetal surgery fellowship. The fellowship is with Dr. Nicole Herman (Geena Davis), one of the only female fetal surgeons in the world. It 's soon revealed that the reason Dr. Herman wanted Arizona to learn from her is that she has an inoperable tumor. The tumor is growing, and the prognosis is not good. In due time, the tumor would kill her. Trying to learn as much as she can in such little time, Callie and Arizona grow apart. They try to save their marriage by going to marriage counseling, but it does n't work and they end up calling it quits.
Dr. Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone) has moved in with Derek and Meredith, and is quickly learning the ropes at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. She finds out about Dr. Herman 's supposedly inoperable tumor, and she thinks that she can save her. She spends hours trying to learn every single detail of the tumor. Once she thinks she has it figured out and every step of the surgery planned, she gives a lecture. During the lecture, her colleagues question her motives and wonder why her brother, the famous Dr. Derek Shepherd, is n't coming back from Washington, D.C. to help her. She assures them she knows what she 's doing and that she does n't need her brother 's help. Dr. Herman 's tumor quickly advances as she neglects to continue chemotherapy, so Amelia is forced to perform the surgery sooner than she 'd like. Now that Dr. Herman 's vision has become impaired, she must act quickly. Amelia is able to save her life, but not her vision. Dr. Herman is rendered blind and must go away to a blind school.
Dr. April Kepner (Sarah Drew) and Dr. Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) enjoy the exciting ride of preparing for their baby 's arrival, but differences in opinions on how to raise their child create tension that proves to be more than they can handle. April wishes to raise their baby in a Christian home, but Jackson is n't a believer and thinks it 's silly. During one of the ultrasounds, osteogenesis imperfecta, a lethal birth defect, is detected. Of course, the news breaks their hearts, but April wishes to carry the baby to full - term believing that abortion is a sin. Jackson wishes to abort knowing that if they carry to full - term, it will only be that much more devastating when their baby dies. They end up having a boy, named Samuel, who dies moments after birth.
Meredith must deal with the absence of her husband after he begins to work in Washington, D.C. She does n't understand why he wants to leave, but she knows that she does n't want to be the reason keeping him from doing what his heart desires. Months go by without him there, which allows her to focus more on her work. She 's able to accrue a successful surgery streak, but when she calls to share her success with Derek, a strange woman answers his phone. Not knowing who it is, she begins to worry that he might be cheating on her. Derek shows up at her house, unannounced, to explain. He tells Meredith that he loves her and that he ca n't live without her. He says that he 's only going back to Washington, D.C. once more to tell them he 's quitting and moving back to Seattle. However, on his way to the airport, he 's severely injured in a car crash. He 's rushed to a hospital, but they are n't trauma certified. Derek is eventually declared brain - dead after the neurosurgeon arrives too late. Not able to feel at home without her husband, Meredith takes off leaving only a note that she and her kids are safe. A year passes, and no one has heard from her. It turns out that she was pregnant with her third child, and she did n't know how to cope with losing her husband and being pregnant. Had it not been for her emergency trip to the hospital to give birth, Dr. Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) would have never known where to find her. He ends up bringing them all back to Seattle, but Meredith is still not able to move on. She asks Alex if she and the kids can move back into her old house, which is where Alex and his girlfriend, Dr. Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington) are currently residing. Jo does n't like the idea of them all sharing a place, so she buys a fixer - upper for only the two of them.
Dr. Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.) and Dr. Catherine Avery (Debbie Allen) continue their on - again, off - again relationship. With differing opinions on how to be in a relationship, how to run the hospital, and who should be in charge, the two call off their wedding. However, Meredith intervenes and tells them that they are both lucky to still be alive and to cherish the fact that they can still talk to each other. Dr. Webber and Avery work out their differences and decide to get married after all. With her son as her maid of honor, the two tie the knot in the hospital 's chapel. Their reception is held at Derek and Meredith house, where Meredith says she 's glad this will be her last memory of the place before she moves back into her old house; Derek always wanted his home to be filled with loud, happy people.
On August 13, 2013, Sandra Oh revealed that she would be leaving after Season 10 of Grey 's Anatomy, making the eleventh season the first season in which Dr. Cristina Yang did not appear. It was announced on March 25, 2014 that Gaius Charles and Tessa Ferrer did not receive a contract renewal for the eleventh season, and left at the end of the tenth season. Jerrika Hinton and Camilla Luddington however, returned as residents for the eleventh season. On January 23, 2014 it was reported that Ellen Pompeo and Patrick Dempsey had renewed their contracts for another two seasons, as Drs. Meredith Grey and Derek Shepherd, respectively, meaning their characters would be staying on the medical drama for seasons 11 and 12. On May 2, 2014, the rest of the six original cast mates, Justin Chambers, Chandra Wilson and James Pickens Jr., excluding Sandra Oh, renewed their contracts for another two seasons (11 and 12) as Drs. Alex Karev, Miranda Bailey, and Richard Webber, respectively. Sara Ramirez also renewed her contract for another two seasons as Dr. Callie Torres.
E! News reported on June 23, 2014, that Caterina Scorsone was upgraded to a series regular to continue her role as Dr. Amelia Shepherd, one of Dr. Derek Shepherd 's four sisters. Scorsone had played the character since the seventh season as a recurring role, and played the character as a series regular on the show 's spin - off series, Private Practice. After speculations about who would portray the character Ellis Grey, either Kate Burton or Sarah Paulson, it was announced that Sally Pressman would replace Paulson as Ellis in flashbacks with J. August Richards reprising his role as a young Richard Webber in the same episode. On August 6, 2014, it was confirmed that Burton would return to portray Ellis in flashbacks.
Geena Davis was announced to appear in the season and would have a major guest arc as Dr. Nicole Herman, a fetal surgeon at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. On September 2, 2014, Annet Mahendru of The Americans was announced to guest star for one episode, and she played Ana, an undocumented immigrant whose daughter had an 8 - pound tumor. It was announced on September 23, 2014 that Connie Ray, known from Space Jam and Stuart Little, would guest star as Dr. April Kepner 's mother, Karen, and would appear in the sixth episode. On October 23, 2014, Kelly McCreary was promoted to a series regular after being credited as guest - starring until the eleventh episode. On April 15, 2015, Giacomo Gianniotti, known from Reign, was announced to be cast on the show as a possible recurring role for Season 12. On April 28, 2015 it was announced that Joe Adler was cast for the show, and would appear in the final two episodes of the season.
Despite signing on for two more years after the tenth season, Patrick Dempsey decided that the eleventh season would be his last. The announcement was made on April 23, 2015, just a few hours before his final episode, "How to Save a Life, '' premiered. Showrunner Shonda Rhimes spoke out about the departure as she said "Derek Shepherd is and will always be an incredibly important character -- for Meredith, for me and for the fans. I absolutely never imagined saying goodbye to our ' McDreamy. ' ''
Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for an eleventh season by ABC on May 8, 2014. On May 13, 2014, ABC announced their new schedule, as well as a new timeslot for Grey 's Anatomy. The show remained on Thursday night, but it was moved to 8: 00 PM E.T. to make room for ShondaLand Production Company 's new TV series, How to Get Away with Murder. Even though Paul Lee, the president of ABC, moved Grey 's Anatomy to a new timeslot, he announced at ABC 's 2014 - 15 upfront that the eleventh season would air in the same order as the previous season with two batches consisting of 12 interrupted episodes.
For the 2014 - 15 TV season, ABC programmed its entire Thursday primetime lineup with Shondaland dramas Grey 's Anatomy, Scandal and How To Get Away With Murder, then branded the night as "Thank God It 's Thursday '' (or "TGIT ''). This echoes ABC 's former TGIF branding of its Friday night family sitcoms and even NBC 's Must See TV promotion of formidable Thursday night television hits in the 1990s.
The remaining fall schedule for ABC was announced on October 30, 2014, where it was announced that Grey 's Anatomy would be split into two batches. However, instead of the 12 and 12, there will be eight episodes in the fall which will end with a winter finale on November 20, 2014 like the rest of ABC 's primetime lineup "TGIT '' Scandal and How To Get Away with Murder. The remaining 16 episodes will air after the winter break, beginning on January 29, 2015.
Not even a week after the Season 10 finale episode aired, the Grey 's Anatomy team of writers began collaborating on ideas for Season 11 storylines. Shonda Rhimes tweeted that they were hard at work in the writing room, but would have the month of June off before coming back in full swing to write actual episodes. After the 4th of July weekend, Rhimes tweeted that the writers ' room was once again buzzing, as the team had returned from vacation to start writing new episodes for Season 11. Camilla Luddington confirmed that the filming for the eleventh season would begin on July 25, 2014.
During an interview, Shonda Rhimes stated that "Season 11 is really a Meredith - centric season. She lost her ' person ', her half - sister has shown up, her husband is chafing to go someplace else... '' She went on to reveal that she 's been wanting to do the "familial grenade '' storyline for a long time, and at the end of Season 10, she knew it was the time to do it. Rhimes also claimed that Season 11 will pick up right where Season 10 left us, so there wo n't be much that the audience wo n't see. In another interview, Rhimes revealed that she and the writers were thinking about doing flashback periods to the younger days of Dr. Ellis Grey and Dr. Richard Webber. Sarah Drew 's character Dr. April Kepner became pregnant at the end of the tenth season, which coincided with Drew 's real - life pregnancy.
The number in the "No. overall '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live.
Grey 's Anatomy 's eleventh season opened up to 10.14 million viewers with a 3.1 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic. The premiere episode "I Must Have Lost it on the Wind '', was the season 's most viewed episode. "When I Grow Up '' was the season and series ' least viewed episode, with 6.64 million viewers and a 1.9 / 7 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic. The season finale was the series lowest watched season finale with 8.33 million viewers and 2.2 / 8 in the 18 -- 49 rating demo.
Grey 's Anatomy, in its eleventh season, ranked 36th overall in total viewers (11.08 million). This is much lower than Season 10, which was ranked 15th. In the 18 -- 49 key demographic, Grey 's Anatomy ranked 13th (the lowest ranking in the series ' history). The highest ranking for the 18 -- 49 key demographic was 3rd for Seasons 3, 4, and 5. Last season, Grey 's Anatomy was ranked 5th. For the 2014 - 2015 primetime TV schedule, Grey 's Anatomy was the # 5 drama in the 18 -- 49 key demographic.
The first half of the season opened to critical acclaim with many calling it the best season in the past few years, the second half however, garnered mixed reviews. With Season 11 being the first in Grey 's Anatomy history to be without Cristina Yang, TV.com wrote, "So, the question I had heading into Grey 's Anatomy 's Season 11 premiere was just how much Cristina 's absence would be felt. And at the end, I have to say - while the lack of Yang was definitely noticeable, I think the show will be just fine with out her. ''
Perhaps the biggest storyline of Season 11 was the death of Derek Shepherd. After his last episode, How to Save a Life premiered, many fans were outraged with Shonda Rhimes for how the episode was written and vowed to never watch the show again. Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly wrote: "Of all the ways he could 've gone -- dying while saving that family in a shocking but heroic moment, or dying at Grey Sloan and getting a chance to say goodbye to everyone -- this felt cheap. And quite frankly, it felt a little rude to the man himself. He was called McDreamy for a reason, and he deserved better than this. '' Citing the storylines of Derek 's death, Callie and Arizona splitting up, and April and Jackson losing their baby, The Hollywood Reporter wrote that Season 11 is one of the most depressing seasons of Grey 's Anatomy.
Despite all that, the season garnered positive reviews. Entertainment Weekly wrote, "It 's nice to see Grey 's pull back on the throttle on its soap opera tendencies (and I hate using that word as pejorative) and aim for drama that feels a bit more grounded. '' TV Fanatic gave a hugely positive review stating, "The acting remains stellar, the drama is mixed with just the right amount of humor and darn it if I 'm not now wrapped up in the future of MerDer. '' TV Equals stated that, "This season certainly had its strong points, the sad loss of Jackson and April 's son was a tearjerker in all the right ways. It was great to see Amelia move past an uncomfortable incident with someone from her past and go on to save Dr. Herman 's life. Maggie Pierce was a great addition to the show and the writers managed to revisit this premise in a way that felt fresh. The storyline was also well - paced and it 's been great to watch Maggie become a larger part of Meredith 's life and to watch her get fully integrated into Grey Sloan. ''
BuddyTV gave the finale a positive review, "You 're My Home, proved to be so bright and shiny. This is an episode that nearly could have served as a series finale, though we know that is not the case. Indeed, a few characters notwithstanding, most of our beloved surgeons are in a shockingly good place as season eleven draws to a close. '' adding, "I was very impressed tonight as Meredith, who can be very selfish but - in fairness - has suffered great personal loss in the death of Derek, stepped up to the plate on behalf of others. When one considers how this character has grown over eleven seasons, it really is amazing. Kudos to Ellen Pompeo for her fine work. She 's actually done the impossible, because I actually care what happens to Meredith Grey in season twelve. '' The episode Only Mama Knows received critical acclaim with numerous critics calling it "one of the best of Grey 's ''. Spoilertv lauded the episode and wrote, "Outstanding. It 's been a very long time since an episode came along which truly lived and breathed the very core of Grey 's Anatomy. It was faithfully and beautifully written, directed, edited and acted. '' Entertainment Weekly called the show a "great drama series '' stating, "It was also throwing us back to the type of episode we expected from this show in the early seasons, the type of episode that gave you chills and reminded you why this show is so good at drama. ''
Ellen Pompeo garnered huge praise towards the later half of the season for her portrayal of Meredith Grey. Rick Porter of Zap2it lauded Pompeo 's performance in How to Save a Life, may not be the ideal Emmy - submission episode for Ellen Pompeo, considering Meredith is off screen for more than half of it. But it 's among the best work she 's ever done on the show. '' USA Today also lauded Pompeo 's performance saying, "In some ways, the episode was even more of a showcase for Pompeo. She did n't play a prominent part until late in the hour, but she had some of the more memorable and well - played scenes, from her angry response to the doctor who tries to tell her what her choices are, to her resignation when she realizes she has to comfort and motivate the young doctor whose mistakes cost Derek his life. '' Reviewing the episode She 's Leaving Home CarterMatt called her the "anchor '' for Grey 's saying, "Throughout, this was an episode completely anchored by Ellen Pompeo, who has done some of her best work ever on the show the past couple of weeks. Tonight, she cried, she fought, and she learned that she was carrying his child. '' and added that Pompeo is often "overlooked '' saying, "Her subtlety is probably why she is often overlooked. ''
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how many lines of symmetry has an equilateral triangle | Equilateral triangle - wikipedia
In geometry, an equilateral triangle is a triangle in which all three sides are equal. In the familiar Euclidean geometry, equilateral triangles are also equiangular; that is, all three internal angles are also congruent to each other and are each 60 °. They are regular polygons, and can therefore also be referred to as regular triangles.
Denoting the common length of the sides of the equilateral triangle as a, we can determine using the Pythagorean theorem that:
Denoting the radius of the circumscribed circle as R, we can determine using trigonometry that:
Many of these quantities have simple relationships to the altitude ("h '') of each vertex from the opposite side:
In an equilateral triangle, the altitudes, the angle bisectors, the perpendicular bisectors and the medians to each side coincide.
A triangle ABC that has the sides a, b, c, semiperimeter s, area T, exradii r, r, r (tangent to a, b, c respectively), and where R and r are the radii of the circumcircle and incircle respectively, is equilateral if and only if any one of the statements in the following nine categories is true. Thus these are properties that are unique to equilateral triangles.
Three kinds of cevians are equal for (and only for) equilateral triangles:
Every triangle center of an equilateral triangle coincides with its centroid, which implies that the equilateral triangle is the only triangle with no Euler line connecting some of the centers. For some pairs of triangle centers, the fact that they coincide is enough to ensure that the triangle is equilateral. In particular:
For any triangle, the three medians partition the triangle into six smaller triangles.
Morley 's trisector theorem states that, in any triangle, the three points of intersection of the adjacent angle trisectors form an equilateral triangle.
Napoleon 's theorem states that, if equilateral triangles are constructed on the sides of any triangle, either all outward, or all inward, the centers of those equilateral triangles themselves form an equilateral triangle.
A version of the isoperimetric inequality for triangles states that the triangle of greatest area among all those with a given perimeter is equilateral.
Viviani 's theorem states that, for any interior point P in an equilateral triangle with distances d, e, and f from the sides and altitude h,
independent of the location of P.
Pompeiu 's theorem states that, if P is an arbitrary point in an equilateral triangle ABC, then there exists a triangle with sides of lengths PA, PB, and PC. That is, PA, PB, and PC satisfy the triangle inequality that any two of them sum to at least as great as the third.
By Euler 's inequality, the equilateral triangle has the smallest ratio R / r of the circumradius to the inradius of any triangle: specifically, R / r = 2.
The triangle of largest area of all those inscribed in a given circle is equilateral; and the triangle of smallest area of all those circumscribed around a given circle is equilateral.
The ratio of the area of the incircle to the area of an equilateral triangle, π 3 3 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ pi) (3 (\ sqrt (3))))), is larger than that of any non-equilateral triangle.
The ratio of the area to the square of the perimeter of an equilateral triangle, 1 12 3, (\ displaystyle (\ frac (1) (12 (\ sqrt (3)))),) is larger than that for any other triangle.
If a segment splits an equilateral triangle into two regions with equal perimeters and with areas A and A, then
If a triangle is placed in the complex plane with complex vertices z, z, and z, then for either non-real cube root ω (\ displaystyle \ omega) of 1 the triangle is equilateral if and only if
Given a point P in the interior of an equilateral triangle, the ratio of the sum of its distances from the vertices to the sum of its distances from the sides is greater than or equal to 2, equality holding when P is the centroid. In no other triangle is there a point for which this ratio is as small as 2. This is the Erdős -- Mordell inequality; a stronger variant of it is Barrow 's inequality, which replaces the perpendicular distances to the sides with the distances from P to the points where the angle bisectors of ∠ APB, ∠ BPC, and ∠ CPA cross the sides (A, B, and C being the vertices).
For any point P in the plane, with distances p, q, and t from the vertices A, B, and C respectively,
For any point P on the inscribed circle of an equilateral triangle, with distances p, q, and t from the vertices,
and
For any point P on the minor arc BC of the circumcircle, with distances p, q, and t from A, B, and C respectively,
and
moreover, if point D on side BC divides PA into segments PD and DA with DA having length z and PD having length y, then
which also equals t 3 − q 3 t 2 − q 2 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (t ^ (3) - q ^ (3)) (t ^ (2) - q ^ (2)))) if t ≠ q; and
which is the optic equation.
There are numerous triangle inequalities that hold with equality if and only if the triangle is equilateral.
An equilateral triangle is the most symmetrical triangle, having 3 lines of reflection and rotational symmetry of order 3 about its center. Its symmetry group is the dihedral group of order 6 D.
Equilateral triangles are the only triangles whose Steiner inellipse is a circle (specifically, it is the incircle).
Equilateral triangles are found in many other geometric constructs. The intersection of circles whose centers are a radius width apart is a pair of equilateral arches, each of which can be inscribed with an equilateral triangle. They form faces of regular and uniform polyhedra. Three of the five Platonic solids are composed of equilateral triangles. In particular, the regular tetrahedron has four equilateral triangles for faces and can be considered the three - dimensional analogue of the shape. The plane can be tiled using equilateral triangles giving the triangular tiling.
An equilateral triangle is easily constructed using a compass and straightedge, as 3 is a Fermat prime. Draw a straight line, and place the point of the compass on one end of the line, and swing an arc from that point to the other point of the line segment. Repeat with the other side of the line. Finally, connect the point where the two arcs intersect with each end of the line segment
An alternative method is to draw a circle with radius r, place the point of the compass on the circle and draw another circle with the same radius. The two circles will intersect in two points. An equilateral triangle can be constructed by taking the two centers of the circles and either of the points of intersection.
In both methods a by - product is the formation of vesica piscis.
The proof that the resulting figure is an equilateral triangle is the first proposition in Book I of Euclid 's Elements.
The area formula A = 3 4 a 2 (\ displaystyle A = (\ frac (\ sqrt (3)) (4)) a ^ (2)) in terms of side length a can be derived directly using the Pythagorean theorem or using trigonometry.
The area of a triangle is half of one side a times the height h from that side:
The legs of either right triangle formed by an altitude of the equilateral triangle are half of the base a, and the hypotenuse is the side a of the equilateral triangle. The height of an equilateral triangle can be found using the Pythagorean theorem
so that
Substituting h into the area formula (1 / 2) ah gives the area formula for the equilateral triangle:
Using trigonometry, the area of a triangle with any two sides a and b, and an angle C between them is
Each angle of an equilateral triangle is 60 °, so
The sine of 60 ° is 3 2 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (\ sqrt (3)) (2))). Thus
since all sides of an equilateral triangle are equal.
Equilateral triangles have frequently appeared in man made constructions:
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eminem love the way you lie music video | Love the Way You Lie - wikipedia
"Love the Way You Lie '' is a song recorded by the American rapper Eminem, featuring Barbadian singer Rihanna, from Eminem 's seventh studio album Recovery (2010). The singer and songwriter Skylar Grey wrote and recorded a demo of the song alongside the producer Alex da Kid when she felt she was in an abusive romantic relationship with the music industry. Eminem wrote the verses and chose Rihanna to sing the chorus, resulting in a collaboration influenced by their past experiences in difficult relationships. Recording sessions were held in Ferndale, Michigan, and Dublin, Ireland. Backed by guitar, piano and violin, the track is a midtempo hip - hop ballad with a pop refrain, sung by Rihanna, and describes two lovers who refuse to separate despite being in a dangerous love -- hate relationship.
Interscope Records released the song in August 2010 as the second single from Recovery. Critics praised its melody but were divided on thematic aspects such as poignancy and accuracy. Eminem promoted the single with performances at the 2010 Electronic Entertainment Expo, the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards and festivals. The music video, directed by Joseph Kahn, stars Dominic Monaghan and Megan Fox in a violent relationship and shows Eminem and Rihanna in front of a burning house. The clip had a mixed reception due to scenes of domestic violence. Reporters suggested that the song and its accompanying video were influenced by Eminem 's and Rihanna 's relationships with their respective ex-lovers Kimberly Scott and Chris Brown.
Critics listed "Love the Way You Lie '' among the best tracks of 2010 and of Eminem 's career. The song won many awards and received five Grammy nominations. It is Eminem 's best - selling single and ranked number one on several record charts, including the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 for seven weeks. The single sold six million copies in the US and was the best - selling song of 2010 in the United Kingdom. Musical acts such as Cher Lloyd and The Band Perry have performed cover versions. Rihanna has said that the theme of domestic violence, a topic on which she claims many people do not have insight, is what makes the song effective. She later recorded "Love the Way You Lie (Part II) '', narrated mostly from her perspective.
Development of "Love the Way You Lie '' began with the backing track and hook melody, which were created by the British hip hop producer Alex da Kid. When making a track, he said he spends hours making loops and produces an electronic drum rhythm before adding live instrumentation. The drums are sampled from live recordings he saves. Alex da Kid recorded an acoustic guitar for the verses with a Georg Neumann U87 microphone and an Avid Mbox audio interface. He told Sound on Sound magazine that this song had given him an opportunity to reintroduce live guitar in hip hop music. During the session, he used Waves RVerb and REQ equalization on his main kick track and a MaxxBass plug - in on two others.
Writing began in late 2009, when the American singer Holly Hafermann resided at the Artula Retreat in Bandon, Oregon, and composed songs. Later, in New York City, under her new stage name Skylar Grey, she visited her Universal Music publisher, Jennifer Blakeman, to seek help presenting her work; Blakeman suggested she collaborate with Alex da Kid. The producer emailed Grey his track, which suggested a theme of abusive romantic relationships to her as she spontaneously sang lyrics to the melody. She told the Los Angeles Times that she was in an abusive relationship with the music industry: "I love it so much, and I give it all that I have, yet it beats me down. '' This idea inspired her writing, a process she found came naturally, as if she were creating an alternative pop song for herself. She wrote the chorus to "Love the Way You Lie '' in fifteen minutes and recorded vocals for Alex da Kid 's demo.
In early 2010, Alex da Kid offered the Shady Records Senior Director Rigo "Riggs '' Morales some backing tracks. Morales enjoyed the tracks and sent them to Eminem, who was seeking a different musical approach for his next album. Impressed with Alex da Kid 's work, Eminem asked for more tracks and subsequently heard "Love the Way You Lie ''. He chose it and told his manager Paul Rosenberg he wanted to collaborate with the Barbadian singer Rihanna. Eminem told Skyrock, "It 's one of those tracks that I felt like only she could pull it off. '' Rosenberg sent the track to Rihanna, who accepted Eminem 's request "at the last moment. '' Eminem then wrote the rapped verses.
Rihanna said she joined the collaboration because she could relate to the theme of the song, as she and Eminem had been in difficult relationships on "different ends of the table ''. Eminem had released the songs "' 97 Bonnie & Clyde '' (1998) and "Kim '' (2000), in which he fantasizes, respectively, about murdering and verbally abusing his then - wife Kimberly Scott. They had divorced in 2001 and again in 2006 after a remarriage. In February 2009, Rihanna 's relationship with the American singer Chris Brown had ended following his felony assault on her. Rihanna described "Love the Way You Lie '' as unique, realistic and deep, saying that it "broke down the cycle of domestic violence '' because few people had insight on the topic.
Mike Strange recorded and mixed Eminem 's vocals at Effigy Studios in Ferndale, Michigan. The sessions took two days. Strange edited the vocals with D - Verb -- a reverberation software -- and an Extra Long Delay plug - in. He preferred to make few changes; for "Love the Way You Lie '' he almost exclusively used board compression and console equalization. Strange used the Bricasti and Eventide Reverb 2016 mixing tools for "brighter '' reverberation. Detroit musician Luis Resto has contributed to the arrangement on many of Eminem 's songs, but did not do so for "Love the Way You Lie ''. According to Strange, "Everything we needed was already in the track, apart from the vocals. '' Two to three weeks after the sessions, Alex da Kid arrived to help mix and master the track. He wanted to replace the acoustic guitar on the demo, but Eminem chose to keep it. Strange said, "It was simply a matter of trying to match and then to improve on the demo (Alex da Kid) 'd sent us. '' Strange 's brother Joe engineered the track.
Rihanna 's recording sessions took place at Sun Studios in Dublin, Ireland. Marcos Tovar mixed her vocals, which were engineered by Spike Lindsey and mastered from Detroit over the Internet. The American songwriter Makeba Riddick provided additional vocal production. Strange used equalization, compression and reverberation but left the vocal balance. He assumed that Rihanna was satisfied with her recorded vocals and did not make major changes on her seven stereo vocal tracks.
"Love the Way You Lie '' is a midtempo hip hop ballad. The lyrics describe a couple 's refusal to separate despite having an abusive relationship. According to the sheet music from Universal Music Publishing Group, the song is in the key of B ♭ major with a common time signature and a tempo of 84 beats per minute. The vocal range spans from B ♭ to D. "Love the Way You Lie '' opens as Rihanna sings the pop refrain over a piano:
Just gon na stand there and watch me burn But that 's alright, because I like the way it hurts. Just gon na stand there and hear me cry
The refrain is based on a Gm -- E ♭ -- B ♭ -- F / A chord progression. Fraser McAlphine of the BBC wrote that Rihanna feels confined "in a cell of (her) own creation ''. She sings without vibrato, a pulsating musical effect used to add expression. One commentator, The New York Times ' David Brownie, wrote that despite this, her voice subtly shows grief and regret. Eminem then "zap (s) out into a ballady rap '': "I ca n't tell you what it really is / I can only tell you what it feels like. '' The verses follow a Gm -- E ♭ B ♭ -- Fsus / A chord progression. Eminem regrets an end to an abusive, failed relationship, describing mutual violence and expressing both fondness and anger. The two artists ' characters are portrayed in a romantic relationship when he responds to Rihanna by concluding the verse: "I laid hands on her. I 'll never stoop so low again / I guess I do n't know my own strength. '' Rihanna sings the chorus again, backed by an electric guitar and a piano.
Acoustic guitar, violin and drums accompany Eminem 's verses. The lyrics transition from discussing positive aspects of love to describing violent events. Eminem raps, "It 's the rage that took over, it controls you both, so they say it 's best to go your separate ways. Guess that they do n't know ya, cause today that was yesterday. '' Sady Doyle of The Atlantic interpreted these lyrics as the rapper 's confession to having abused Scott, as he "turns the anger and accusations toward himself ''. In the second verse, Eminem accepts the outcome after feeling sorry, admitting, "Yesterday is over, it 's a different day. '' His frustration increases and he raps that two personalities can clash and devastate: "maybe that 's what happens when a tornado meets a volcano ''. The described love -- hate relationship worsens and leads to domestic violence. Eminem admits to lying about promises he makes and says late in the song, "If she ever tries to fuckin ' leave again, I'ma tie her to the bed and set this house on fire '', a reference to Rihanna 's lyrics.
On May 27, 2010, Eminem revealed the title of "Love the Way You Lie '' as part of the track list of his seventh studio album Recovery, which came out on June 21. Initially a radio single, the song was released later by Polydor Records as a CD in the United Kingdom on August 9, 2010. Interscope Records distributed it in Germany on August 20.
"Love the Way You Lie '' received generally favorable reviews. An editor for Rap - Up listed it among the four best tracks from the album. New York Times writer Jon Caramanica considered it "one of the album 's most engaging songs '' and praised Eminem 's ability to assess issues from the perspectives of both sexes. MTV 's Rodriguez wrote that the song echoes content from Eminem 's earlier albums, but finds him "sober '' and "more mature ''. He added that the lyrics allude to Eminem 's relationship with Scott and that "Love the Way You Lie '' is his closest approach to a love song. Editors of The A.V. Club compared the single with "Kim '' and "' 97 Bonnie & Clyde ''; they found he is more tempered in "Love the Way You Lie '' when discussing a "mutually destructive relationship '' and that Rihanna 's involvement creates an eerie mood.
Critics especially praised Rihanna 's contribution. Michael Menachem of Billboard complimented her "exquisitely melodic and surprisingly hopeful '' vocal performance and "Eminem 's dark, introspective '' rapping. He noted that the percussion complements both artists and that Alex da Kid gave the classical arrangement a mainstream touch. Kyle Anderson, writing for MTV, remarked that the song showcases Rihanna 's emotional vocals and Eminem 's "most intense rhymes about his tumultuous relationships ''. He regarded "Love the Way You Lie '' as an honest, "well - constructed pop song with a killer hook '' and likened the "slow - burning '' music to that of "Someone like You '', a 2011 single by the British singer Adele. The Houston Chronicle pop critic Joey Guerra commented that Rihanna brought a "sandpaper and silk sheen '' to the track.
Critics have commented on the message in the lyrics. Anderson noted a dark theme, while Nick Levine of Digital Spy, Allie Townsend of Time magazine and Jocelyn Noveck of The Associated Press suggested the previous relationships of both artists influenced the song. Levine gave it four stars out of five. According to Eric Hayden of The Atlantic Wire, the song refers to an alcoholic couple, possibly inspired by Rihanna 's relationship with Brown. McAlphine awarded "Love the Way You Lie '' four stars out of five. According to him, the song would not have been effective if it had featured only Eminem 's point of view and feelings of regret; he wrote that Rihanna 's representing the opposite side of the relationship shows "proper storytelling '' and "sends a message '' because of her breakup with Brown. McAlphine wrote that as a result the song depicts a more realistic abusive relationship and could be featured in a campaign for women 's shelters. He praised Eminem 's accuracy and understanding of the topic. Winston Robbins from Consequence of Sound attributed the song 's poignancy to Rihanna 's past abusive relationship, and a theme of infidelity and abuse.
On the critical side, The Daily Telegraph 's Jenny McCartney dismissed the metaphors in the chorus and thought the song 's topic was over-hyped. She disagreed with the critical praise, arguing that women accept abusive relationships for deeper reasons than sexual and emotional pleasure, such as family and financial issues and helplessness. In an NPR article, the writer Maura Johnston commented that the lyrics portray Rihanna as the subject of Eminem 's violence. Jay Smooth, a New York radio personality, responded that "while Eminem explores the psyche of the abuser with an almost disturbing amount of depth and detail, '' Rihanna 's perspective is downplayed and not explained fully. Johnston and Smooth wrote that such imbalances are a prevalent issue in popular music duets. To Sady Doyle, although "Love the Way You Lie '' is one of Eminem 's most affecting tracks and finds him remorseful, it does not make up for his past misogynistic actions and hateful songs. Noveck questioned whether the lyrics are "a treatise against (or apology for) domestic violence, or an irresponsible glorification of it? Or, is it something uncomfortable in between? ''
Marjorie Gilberg, executive director of the anti-teenage violence group Break the Cycle, commented that "Love the Way You Lie '' can teach listeners about the dangers of abusive relationships if interpreted correctly. She believed that because popular culture often depicts what is socially acceptable, people may accept such violence more easily. She added, "One problem, though,... is that the song reflects myths about domestic violence -- myths that lead to blaming the victim. '' Gilberg said the victim is often accused of being as guilty as the partner but wants to be loved, not abused. Terry O'Neill, a feminist and the president of the National Organization for Women, criticized the lyric, "But your temper 's just as bad as mine is / You 're the same as me '', saying it is a typical excuse used by abusive men for aggression and that "it 's only 2 - year - olds and violent men who use violence to get what they want. '' She added that Rihanna unintentionally glorifies domestic violence in the song despite attempting to fight it.
"Love the Way You Lie '' ranked in various best - of - 2010 lists. Claire Suddath of Time placed it at number five on her top - ten list and wrote, "That this song did n't come across sounding clichéd or tasteless is a testament to both artists ' skill. '' AOL Radio considered the song the best of 2010 hip hop music, regarding Eminem as imaginative and passionate. It ranked ninth on MTV News ' top - twenty - five list. Its editor James Montgomery attributed the song 's success to its theme and relation to the artists ' past abusive relationships. He concluded, "You can not write a song any better than that, because that 's how this kind of thing happens in real life. '' The New York Post placed the song at second place on their "top 210 songs from 2010 '' list and regarded it as a "comeback club anthem. '' In April 2011, Gabriel Alvarez of Complex magazine ranked it at number 100 on their "100 Best Eminem Songs '' list, calling it a love song and praising Rihanna 's vocals as beautiful. "Love the Way You Lie '' and its accompanying music video were nominated for five Grammy Awards at the 2011 ceremony, including "Record of the Year '', "Song of the Year '' and "Best Short Form Music Video ''. It won the People 's Choice Awards for "Favorite Music Video '' and "Favorite Song ''.
"Love the Way You Lie '' reached number one on several record charts worldwide. It entered the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 at number two in the issue dated July 10, 2010. The single debuted at number one on the US Digital Songs after selling 338,000 digital copies in its first week. From July 31 to September 11, 2010, it had a seven - week run at the top of the Hot 100, giving Eminem his fourth, and Rihanna her seventh, number - one US hit. The single sold more than 300,000 digital copies in the week of August 14, 2010, rising to number two on the Pop Songs and Radio Songs charts. In the Billboard issue for August 21, 2010, Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems recognized the single with the BDS Certified Award for 50,000 radio spins. It topped the Pop Songs chart in the same issue, giving Eminem his third number - one track on the chart and Rihanna her sixth. "Love the Way You Lie '' was the first number - one hit on the Rap Songs chart with Eminem as the lead artist since his 2000 single "The Real Slim Shady ''. With sales of 4,245,000 copies, "Love the Way You Lie '' was the third - best - selling single of 2010 in the US. There, it sold 6 million copies by October 2013 and 6.5 million copies by October 2015.
The song entered the Australian Singles Chart on July 4, 2010, at number fourteen. It rose to the top three weeks later, occupying the position for six weeks and staying on the chart for 38 weeks in total. In Austria, "Love the Way You Lie '' debuted at number 31, on July 2, 2010, and ascended to number one on September 4. After making a final consecutive appearance on March 4, 2011, it reappeared at number 75 on August 26. The song spent 47 weeks on the chart. "Love the Way You Lie '' charted for 30 weeks in France, where debuted and peaked at number three on July 2, 2010. It was South Korea 's third - best - selling song in 2010 by a foreign artist, with 1,200,653 downloads.
On the UK Singles Chart, the song debuted at number seven on June 27, 2010, and peaked at number two four weeks later. By the end of 2010, "Love the Way You Lie '' had sold 854,000 copies in the UK, making it the country 's biggest - selling song of the year. In October 2011, it became the 109th song to reach 1 million sales there. By November 2012, the single had sold 1.05 million copies in the UK, placing at number 100 on the Official Charts Company 's "The Million Sellers '' list. As of June 2015, it is the 17th best - selling single of the 2010s in the UK. According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry, "Love the Way You Lie '' sold 9.3 million copies worldwide in 2010. In December 2011, it was certified as Eminem 's best - selling single.
The music video for "Love the Way You Lie '' was Eminem 's third to be directed by the American filmmaker Joseph Kahn. Despite having planned to shoot a feature film and stop directing pop videos, Kahn chose to work on "Love the Way You Lie '' because, according to him, the song discusses an important topic. This was an opportunity for him to direct a video for Eminem without the comedic themes of their previous collaborations. For the video, Kahn considered the British actor Dominic Monaghan as a co-star for his versatility, which he thought would help him play an antagonist. Kahn cast the American actress Megan Fox, which he had presumed would be almost impossible because of her popularity with directors. Fox, a fan of Eminem, accepted the role unhesitatingly.
Rosenberg gave Kahn one day to write a treatment, which Kahn finished in 45 minutes. He filmed Eminem 's and Rihanna 's parts on July 20, 2010; scenes with Fox and Monaghan were shot three days later. By July 24, 2010, they finished the shoot. Kahn confirmed the completion of the director 's cut the next day. He said Fox 's involvement made the video powerful, commenting for Vibe:
We wanted to make a specific story about two people -- Meg and Dom -- not a video that was representative of all couples or all domestic violence situations. I 'm not saying that all couples fight this way. I just want people just to be able to identify with the characters and recognize that they 've seen relationships like this where two people are together that are completely wrong for each other and things spiral out of control... Megan was the key to this video... I 'll tell you as a director the reason why (Fox and Monaghan 's) scenes in the video feel so real is because in the moment they were real.
Monaghan told MTV he thought the couple represents Eminem and Scott. The clip was produced by Kathy Angstadt and MaryAnn Tanedo of HSI Productions. Shortly before its release, Eminem reported in a press statement: "Joseph and I worked pretty closely together to make sure we got this right ''. He said the difficult topic resulted in a powerful video because of the contributions of Rihanna, Fox and Monaghan. Fox donated her appearance fee to the Soujourn House, a battered women 's shelter. On August 5, 2010, the video premiered on MTV and the music video website Vevo.
Rihanna sings the chorus in front of a burning house, while an interspersing scene shows fire on a woman 's (Fox) palms. In another scene, the woman is asleep with her lover (Monaghan) and wakes up. As Eminem begins to rap in an open field, the woman attacks her lover after seeing the name "Cindy '' and a phone number written on his hand. He unsuccessfully tries to kiss the woman and brings her back after she attempts to leave him. The man then pushes her onto the wall and aims his fist at her, puncturing the wall instead. After Rihanna sings again, the video flashes back to when the couple first meet "at a seedy dive bar next door '' to a liquor store. The man steals a bottle of vodka and they kiss on the rooftop.
During the present, the man apologizes to his lover and they are reconciled. In another flashback, he attacks someone who plays pool with his lover. Eminem joins Rihanna in front of the burning house for the final verse. Meanwhile, after the flashback, the woman comes home and locks herself in the bathroom to stop her abusive lover from entering. In another scene, the fire on her palms vanishes as she clasps her hands. Flames later engulf Eminem and the couple, who are then shown fighting in front of the burning house. In the end, the couple stays together and the video returns to their first scene, in which they sleep.
The clip broke what was a YouTube record at the time of its release for the most views in one day, with 6.6 million. It had a mixed reception from critics, most of whom commented on scenes of domestic violence. NPR 's Zoe Chace deemed the video sickening, while AOL Music listed it at number five on their list of the "Top 10 Most Controversial Music Videos in Pop ''. Stephanie Nilva -- the executive director of trauma resource center Day One -- told MTV News that it mainly raises "the topic of dating violence among young people ''. Nilva praised the clip 's accurate depiction of patterns in an abusive relationship and thought the video 's potency came from Eminem 's history of violence - themed songs and Brown 's assault on Rihanna.
A writer for Rap - Up considered the video realistic, as "art imitates life ''. Conor Friedersdorf of The Atlantic called it an inaccurate portrayal of domestic violence due to insufficient violence, as evidenced by the lack of injuries after punching through a wall. Mariel Concepcion of Billboard suggested the video was inspired by the lyric, "Just gon na stand there and watch me burn, but that 's alright because I like the way it hurts. '' Rihanna 's appearance was criticized. Writing for Rolling Stone magazine, Daniel Kreps called it "especially striking '' and noted her relationship with Brown. An editor from The Boston Globe commented that although the video is realistic, it hinders Rihanna 's ability to set an example for women in abusive relationships. Billy Johnson Jr. from Yahoo! Music wrote that Fox 's character alternated between vulnerable and confrontational personalities, while Monaghan 's character is similar to Eminem. Kahn, who understood why viewers thought Eminem 's and Rihanna 's relationships influenced the video, asked that they realize this is untrue. He said the team had been conscious of such personal matters and Fox 's and Monaghan 's characters are only significant to each other.
Reviewers discussed the acting. Peter Gicas of E! News noted that Fox and Monaghan portray "combustible behavior the tune is hellbent on describing. '' The New York Post 's Jarett Wieselman wrote that they play their roles perfectly and help make the video powerful. Entertainment Weekly 's Whitney Pastorek found the violent acting sexually appealing, while Willa Paskin of New York magazine wrote that the cast 's appeal "hypnotize (s) '' viewers. Paskin noted the use of sepia toning in the burning - house scenes. Matthew Wilkening of AOL Radio commented that the video leaves viewers to decide "if it 's a good thing or a bad thing that the pair always end up reconciling. '' Mikey Fresh of Vibe commented that Fox 's natural reaction when Monaghan pierces the wall and almost hits her is an "incredible act of vulnerability ''. L Magazine 's Benjamin Sutton likened the scene in which the characters burn to the Marvel Comics character Chris Bradley, whom Monaghan portrays in the 2009 action film X-Men Origins: Wolverine. As of December 2017, the video is the site 's 34th most viewed video, with more than 1.4 billion views.
Eminem has promoted "Love the Way You Lie '' at concerts. On June 15, 2010, he and Rihanna performed the song at Los Angeles ' Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010, accompanied by the drummer Travis Barker and D12 's Mr. Porter. Eminem sang "Love the Way You Lie '' at the Scottish festival T in the Park on July 10, 2010, dedicating it to "everybody who ' (d) been in a fucked - up relationship. '' He then performed the song at Ireland 's annual Oxegen festival on July 11, 2010. James Hendicott from State wrote that the rapper 's personality "fill (ed) the stage '' and that his vocals were sharp and packed "plenty of punch ''. He criticized the use of a pre-recorded backing track and noted the lack of live music and female vocals. Eamon Sweeney from the Irish Independent called Eminem 's performance only "mildly impressive ''.
On July 21, 2010, the rapper joined Rihanna on her Last Girl on Earth Tour to perform in Los Angeles. He then performed at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards and was voted the best performer of the ceremony in an MTV poll, earning 34 percent of votes. Rihanna made a surprise appearance despite having said she could not perform because of her schedule. Suddath of Time called their duet dull. Eminem sang "Love the Way You Lie '' without Rihanna at the 2011 Bonnaroo Music Festival for almost 80,000 people. According to MTV News ' Montgomery, the "sheer tenacity with which he attacked '' was his strength. Patrick Doyle of Rolling Stone felt Eminem delivered a triumphal act by "constantly bouncing across the stage '' and singing energetically.
Eminem performed "Love the Way You Lie '' on the second day of Chicago 's annual Lollapalooza festival on August 6, 2011. Members of the audience sang the chorus to compensate for Rihanna 's absence. Piet Levy of USA Today named the show a "tragic stunner '', while Katie Hasty of HitFix added that it displayed competition between the sexes. Eminem and Rihanna performed in Staffordshire on the first day of V2011 (V Festival), on August 20, 2011. James Lachno of The Daily Telegraph considered it an "affecting '' rendition. The Guardian called their performance thrilling and an editor for the British newspaper Metro felt that it was the best part of the evening. Eminem closed the festival on the night of August 21 in Chelmsford, Essex, for an audience of 120,000. A reporter for the International Business Times thought that Eminem 's duet with Rihanna was the highlight of the show.
Various musical acts have performed cover versions of "Love the Way You Lie ''. Eric Stanley, an American violinist, remixed the song on the violin. The country music group The Band Perry sang the song at the June 2010 CMT Music Awards. Two months later, Taylor Momsen -- the lead singer of the American rock band The Pretty Reckless -- performed a cover version for BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge as part of a mashup with the song "Islands '' by the English pop band The xx. Assisted by a guitarist from her band, she began with a section of "Islands '' and transitioned into the chorus of "Love the Way You Lie ''. Cher Lloyd, a British singer, performed the song in the final five of The X Factor UK 's seventh season. A writer from The Sun called the performance "stripped - back '' and "without any of her usual stage gimmicks. '' Mernie Gilmore of the Daily Express commented that the song is "a duet for a reason '' as Lloyd performed both Eminem 's and Rihanna 's parts. In 2010, the Russian guitarist Alex Feather Akimov, released "Love The Way You Lie (Heavy Remix) '', a recording that was recognized by Billboard.biz (Web Trends). The American post-hardcore band A Skylit Drive recorded a cover of the single for Punk Goes Pop 4, the 2011 release of the Punk Goes... series.
On November 3, 2010, an alternative version titled "Love the Way You Lie (Part II) '' leaked onto the Internet. Rihanna is the lead vocalist and Eminem is a featured guest. The song mainly views matters from Rihanna 's perspective and is based on Grey 's demo. Rihanna agreed to record a sequel despite initially thinking "the original could n't be beaten ''. She said that the sequel involved less production, with only piano and drums. It is the eleventh and final track on her 2010 studio album Loud. Grey 's version appears on her 2012 extended play The Buried Sessions of Skylar Grey and her 2013 studio album Do n't Look Down as "Love the Way You Lie (Part III) ''.
Rihanna performed a short medley that comprised "Love the Way You Lie (Part II) '', "What 's My Name? '' and "Only Girl (In the World) '' at the American Music Awards of 2010. Another medley, consisting of "Love the Way You Lie (Part II) '' and "I Need a Doctor '', was performed at the 2011 Grammy Awards. While the Chicago Sun - Times considered the track an unnecessary sequel, the BBC reviewer James Skinner wrote, "' Love the Way You Lie (Part II) ' even bests the original, Eminem 's verse exuding the kind of volatile, simmering menace that got everyone so excited about him in the first place. But it is Rihanna 's vocal -- at once commanding, soulful and vulnerable -- that anchors the song ''.
The credits for "Love the Way You Lie '' are adapted from the liner notes of Recovery.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Since May 9, 2013, RIAA certifications for digital singles include on - demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads.
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when was the term word processing first used | Word processor - wikipedia
A word processor is an electronic device or computer software application that performs the task of composing, editing, formatting, and printing of documents.
The word processor was a stand - alone office machine in the 1960s, combining the keyboard text - entry and printing functions of an electric typewriter with a recording unit, either tape or floppy disk (as used by the Wang machine) with a simple dedicated computer processor for the editing of text. Although features and designs varied among manufacturers and models, and new features were added as technology advanced, word processors typically featured a monochrome display and the ability to save documents on memory cards or diskettes. Later models introduced innovations such as spell - checking programs, and improved formatting options.
As the more versatile combination of personal computers and printers became commonplace, and computer software applications for word processing became popular, most business machine companies stopped manufacturing dedicated word processor machines. As of 2009 there were only two U.S. companies, Classic and AlphaSmart, which still made them. Many older machines, however, remain in use. Since 2009, Sentinel has offered a machine described as a "word processor '', but it is more accurately a highly specialised microcomputer used for accounting and publishing.
Word processing was one of the earliest applications for the personal computer in office productivity, and was the most widely used application on personal computers until the World Wide Web rose to prominence in the mid-1990s.
Although the early word processors evolved to use tag - based markup for document formatting, most modern word processors take advantage of a graphical user interface providing some form of what - you - see - is - what - you - get ("WYSIWYG '') editing. Most are powerful systems consisting of one or more programs that can produce a combination of images, graphics and text, the latter handled with type - setting capability. Typical features of a modern word processor include multiple font sets, spell checking, grammar checking, a built - in thesaurus, automatic text correction, web integration, HTML conversion, pre-formatted publication projects such as newsletters and to - do lists, and much more.
Microsoft Word is the most widely used word processing software according to a user tracking system built into the software. Microsoft estimates that roughly half a billion people use the Microsoft Office suite, which includes Word. Many other word processing applications exist, including WordPerfect (which dominated the market from the mid-1980s to early - 1990s on computers running Microsoft 's MS - DOS operating system, and still (2014) is favored for legal applications), Apple 's Pages application, and open source applications such as OpenOffice.org Writer, LibreOffice Writer, AbiWord, KWord, and LyX. Web - based word processors such as Office Online or Google Docs are a relatively new category.
Word processors evolved dramatically once they became software programs rather than dedicated machines. They can usefully be distinguished from text editors, the category of software they evolved from.
A text editor is a program that is used for typing, copying, pasting, and printing text (a single character, or strings of characters). Text editors do not format lines or pages. (There are extensions of text editors which can perform formatting of lines and pages: batch document processing systems, starting with TJ - 2 and RUNOFF and still available in such systems as LaTeX, as well as programs that implement the paged - media extensions to HTML and CSS). Text editors are now used mainly by programmers, website designers, computer system administrators, and, in the case of LaTeX, by mathematicians and scientists (for complex formulas and for citations in rare languages). They are also useful when fast startup times, small file sizes, editing speed, and simplicity of operation are valued, and when formatting is unimportant. Due to their use in managing complex software projects, text editors can sometimes provide better facilities for managing large writing projects than a word processor.
Word processing added to the text editor the ability to control type style and size, to manage lines (word wrap), to format documents into pages, and to number pages. Functions now taken for granted were added incrementally, sometimes by purchase of independent providers of add - on programs. Spell checking, grammar checking and mail merge were some of the most popular add - ons for early word processors. Word processors are also capable of hyphenation, and the management and correct positioning of footnotes and endnotes.
More advanced features found in recent word processors include:
Later desktop publishing programs were specifically designed with elaborate pre-formatted layouts for publication, offering only limited options for changing the layout, while allowing users to import text that was written using a text editor or word processor, or type the text in themselves.
Word processors have a variety of uses and applications within the business world, home, education, journalism, publishing, and the literary arts.
Within the business world, word processors are extremely useful tools. Some typical uses include: creating legal documents, company reports, publications for clients, letters, and internal memos. Businesses tend to have their own format and style for any of these, and additions such as company letterhead. Thus, modern word processors with layout editing and similar capabilities find widespread use in most business.
While many homes have word processors on their computers, word processing in the home tends to be educational, planning or business related, dealing with school assignments or work being completed at home. Occasionally word processors are used for recreational purposes, e.g. writing short stories, poems or personal correspondence. Some use word processors to create résumés and greeting cards, but many of these home publishing processes have been taken over by web apps or desktop publishing programs specifically oriented toward home uses. The rise of email and social networks has also reduced the home role of the word processor as uses that formerly required printed output can now be done entirely online.
Word processors are descended from the Friden Flexowriter, which had two punched tape stations and permitted switching from one to the other (thus enabling what was called the "chain '' or "form letter '', one tape containing names and addresses, and the other the body of the letter to be sent). It did not wrap words, which was begun by IBM 's Magnetic Tape Selectric Typewriter (later, Magnetic Card Selectric Typewriter).
The IBM Selectric typewriter was a highly successful model line of electric typewriters introduced in 1961. Expensive Typewriter, written and improved between 1961 and 1962 by Steve Piner and L. Peter Deutsch, was a text editing program that ran on a DEC PDP - 1 computer at MIT. Since it could drive an IBM Selectric typewriter (a letter - quality printer), it may be considered the first word processing program, but the term word processing itself was only introduced, by IBM 's Böblingen Laboratory in the late 1960s.
In 1969, two software based text editing products (Astrotype and Astrocomp) were developed and marketed by Information Control Systems (Ann Arbor Michigan). Both products used the Digital Equipment Corporation PDP - 8 mini computer, DECtape (4 '' reel) randomly accessible tape drives, and a modified version of the IBM Selectric typewriter (the IBM 2741 Terminal). These 1969 products preceded CRT display - based word processors. Text editing was done using a line numbering system viewed on a paper copy inserted in the Selectric typewriter.
By 1971 word processing was recognized by the New York Times as a "buzz word ''. A 1974 Times article referred to "the brave new world of Word Processing or W / P. That 's International Business Machines talk... I.B.M. introduced W / P about five years ago for its Magnetic Tape Selectric Typewriter and other electronic razzle - dazzle. ''
IBM defined the term in a broad and vague way as "the combination of people, procedures, and equipment which transforms ideas into printed communications, '' and originally used it to include dictating machines and ordinary, manually operated Selectric typewriters. By the early seventies, however, the term was generally understood to mean semiautomated typewriters affording at least some form of editing and correction, and the ability to produce perfect "originals. '' Thus, the Times headlined a 1974 Xerox product as a "speedier electronic typewriter '', but went on to describe the product, which had no screen, as "a word processor rather than strictly a typewriter, in that it stores copy on magnetic tape or magnetic cards for retyping, corrections, and subsequent printout. ''
In the late 1960s IBM provided a program called FORMAT for generating printed documents on any computer capable of running Fortran IV. Written by Gerald M. Berns, FORMAT was described in his paper "Description of FORMAT, a Text - Processing Program '' (Communications of the ACM, Volume 12, Number 3, March, 1969) as "a production program which facilitates the editing and printing of ' finished ' documents directly on the printer of a relatively small (64k) computer system. It features good performance, totally free - form input, very flexible formatting capabilities including up to eight columns per page, automatic capitalization, aids for index construction, and a minimum of nontext (control elements) items. '' Input was normally on punched cards or magnetic tape, with up to 80capital letters and non-alphabetic characters per card. The limited typographical controls available were implemented by control sequences; for example, letters were automatically converted to lower case unless they followed a full stop, that is, the "period '' character. Output could be printed on a typical line printer in all - capitals -- or in upper and lower case using a special ("TN '') printer chain -- or could be punched as a paper tape which could be printed, in better than line printer quality, on a Flexowriter. A workalike program with some improvements, DORMAT, was developed and used at University College London.
Electromechanical paper - tape - based equipment such as the Friden Flexowriter had long been available; the Flexowriter allowed for operations such as repetitive typing of form letters (with a pause for the operator to manually type in the variable information), and when equipped with an auxiliary reader, could perform an early version of "mail merge ''. Circa 1970 it began to be feasible to apply electronic computers to office automation tasks. IBM 's Mag Tape Selectric Typewriter (MT / ST) and later Mag Card Selectric (MCST) were early devices of this kind, which allowed editing, simple revision, and repetitive typing, with a one - line display for editing single lines. The first novel to be written on a word processor, the IBM MT / ST, was Len Deighton 's Bomber, published in 1970.
The New York Times, reporting on a 1971 business equipment trade show, said
In 1971, a third of all working women in the United States were secretaries, and they could see that word processing would affect their careers. Some manufacturers, according to a Times article, urged that "the concept of ' word processing ' could be the answer to Women 's Lib advocates ' prayers. Word processing will replace the ' traditional ' secretary and give women new administrative roles in business and industry. ''
The 1970s word processing concept did not refer merely to equipment, but, explicitly, to the use of equipment for "breaking down secretarial labor into distinct components, with some staff members handling typing exclusively while others supply administrative support. A typical operation would leave most executives without private secretaries. Instead one secretary would perform various administrative tasks for three or more secretaries. '' A 1971 article said that "Some (secretaries) see W / P as a career ladder into management; others see it as a dead - end into the automated ghetto; others predict it will lead straight to the picket line. '' The National Secretaries Association, which defined secretaries as people who "can assume responsibility without direct supervision, '' feared that W / P would transform secretaries into "space - age typing pools. '' The article considered only the organizational changes resulting from secretaries operating word processors rather than typewriters; the possibility that word processors might result in managers creating documents without the intervention of secretaries was not considered -- not surprising in an era when few managers, but most secretaries, possessed keyboarding skills.
In 1972, Stephen Bernard Dorsey, Founder and President of Canadian company Automatic Electronic Systems (AES), introduced the world 's first programmable word processor with a video screen. The real breakthrough by Dorsey 's AES team was that their machine stored the operator 's texts on magnetic disks. Texts could be retrieved from the disks simply by entering their names at the keyboard. More importantly, a text could be edited, for instance a paragraph moved to a new place, or a spelling error corrected, and these changes were recorded on the magnetic disk.
The AES machine was actually a sophisticated computer that could be reprogrammed by changing the instructions contained within a few chips.
In 1975, Dorsey started Micom Data Systems and introduced the Micom 2000 word processor. The Micom 2000 improved on the AES design by using the Intel 8080 single - chip microprocessor, which made the word processor smaller, less costly to build and supported multiple languages.
Around this time, DeltaData and Wang word processors also appeared, again with a video screen and a magnetic storage disk.
The competitive edge for Dorsey 's Micom 2000 was that, unlike many other machines, it was truly programmable. The Micom machine countered the problem of obsolescence by avoiding the limitations of a hard - wired system of program storage. The Micom 2000 utilized RAM, which was mass - produced and totally programmable. The Micom 2000 was said to be a year ahead of its time when it was introduced into a marketplace that represented some pretty serious competition such as IBM, Xerox and Wang Laboratories.
In 1978, Micom partnered with Dutch multinational Philips and Dorsey grew Micom 's sales position to number three among major word processor manufacturers, behind only IBM and Wang.
In the early 1970s, computer scientist Harold Koplow was hired by Wang Laboratories to program calculators. One of his programs permitted a Wang calculator to interface with an IBM Selectric typewriter, which was at the time used to calculate and print the paperwork for auto sales.
In 1974, Koplow 's interface program was developed into the Wang 1200 Word Processor, an IBM Selectric - based text - storage device. The operator of this machine typed text on a conventional IBM Selectric; when the Return key was pressed, the line of text was stored on a cassette tape. One cassette held roughly 20 pages of text, and could be "played back '' (i.e., the text retrieved) by printing the contents on continuous - form paper in the 1200 typewriter 's "print '' mode. The stored text could also be edited, using keys on a simple, six - key array. Basic editing functions included Insert, Delete, Skip (character, line), and so on.
The labor and cost savings of this device were immediate, and remarkable: pages of text no longer had to be retyped to correct simple errors, and projects could be worked on, stored, and then retrieved for use later on. The rudimentary Wang 1200 machine was the precursor of the Wang Office Information System (OIS), introduced in 1976. It was a true office machine, affordable by organizations such as medium - sized law firms, and easily learned and operated by secretarial staff.
The Wang was not the first CRT - based machine nor were all of its innovations unique to Wang. In the early 1970s Linolex, Lexitron and Vydec introduced pioneering word - processing systems with CRT display editing. A Canadian electronics company, Automatic Electronic Systems, had introduced a product in 1972, but went into receivership a year later. In 1976, refinanced by the Canada Development Corporation, it returned to operation as AES Data, and went on to successfully market its brand of word processors worldwide until its demise in the mid-1980s. Its first office product, the AES - 90, combined for the first time a CRT - screen, a floppy - disk and a microprocessor, that is, the very same winning combination that would be used by IBM for its PC seven years later. The AES - 90 software was able to handle French and English typing from the start, displaying and printing the texts side - by - side, a Canadian government requirement. The first eight units were delivered to the office of the then Prime Minister, Pierre Elliot Trudeau, in February 1974. Despite these predecessors, Wang 's product was a standout, and by 1978 it had sold more of these systems than any other vendor.
The phrase "word processor '' rapidly came to refer to CRT - based machines similar to the AES 90. Numerous machines of this kind emerged, typically marketed by traditional office - equipment companies such as IBM, Lanier (marketing AES Data machines, re-badged), CPT, and NBI. All were specialized, dedicated, proprietary systems, with prices in the $10,000 ballpark. Cheap general - purpose computers were still the domain of hobbyists.
Some of the earliest CRT - based machines used cassette tapes for removable - memory storage until floppy diskettes became available for this purpose - first the 8 - inch floppy, then the 51⁄4 - inch (drives by Shugart Associates and diskettes by Dysan).
Printing of documents was initially accomplished using IBM Selectric typewriters modified for ASCII - character input. These were later replaced by application - specific daisy wheel printers, first developed by Diablo, which became a Xerox company, and later by Qume. For quicker "draft '' printing, dot - matrix line printers were optional alternatives with some word processors.
Electric Pencil, released in December 1976, was the first word processor software for microcomputers. Software - based word processors running on general - purpose personal computers gradually displaced dedicated word processors, and the term came to refer to software rather than hardware. Some programs were modeled after particular dedicated WP hardware. MultiMate, for example, was written for an insurance company that had hundreds of typists using Wang systems, and spread from there to other Wang customers. To adapt to the smaller, more generic PC keyboard, MultiMate used stick - on labels and a large plastic clip - on template to remind users of its dozens of Wang - like functions, using the shift, alt and ctrl keys with the 10 IBM function keys and many of the alphabet keys.
Other early word - processing software required users to memorize semi-mnemonic key combinations rather than pressing keys labelled "copy '' or "bold ''. (In fact, many early PCs lacked cursor keys; WordStar famously used the E-S-D-X - centered "diamond '' for cursor navigation, and modern vi - like editors encourage use of hjkl for navigation.) However, the price differences between dedicated word processors and general - purpose PCs, and the value added to the latter by software such as VisiCalc, were so compelling that personal computers and word processing software soon became serious competition for the dedicated machines. Word processing became the most popular use for personal computers, and unlike the spreadsheet (dominated by Lotus 1 - 2 - 3) and database (dBase) markets, WordPerfect, XyWrite, Microsoft Word, pfs: Write, and dozens of other word processing software brands competed in the 1980s; PC Magazine reviewed 57 different programs in one January 1986 issue. Development of higher - resolution monitors allowed them to provide limited WYSIWYG -- What You See Is What You Get, to the extent that typographical features like bold and italics, indentation, justification and margins were approximated on screen.
The mid-to - late 1980s saw the spread of laser printers, a "typographic '' approach to word processing, and of true WYSIWYG bitmap displays with multiple fonts (pioneered by the Xerox Alto computer and Bravo word processing program), PostScript, and graphical user interfaces (another Xerox PARC innovation, with the Gypsy word processor which was commercialised in the Xerox Star product range). Standalone word processors adapted by getting smaller and replacing their CRTs with small character - oriented LCD displays. Some models also had computer - like features such as floppy disk drives and the ability to output to an external printer. They also got a name change, now being called "electronic typewriters '' and typically occupying a lower end of the market, selling for under $200 USD.
During the late 1980s and into the 1990s the predominant word processing program was WordPerfect. It had more than 50 % of the worldwide market as late as 1995, but by 2000 Microsoft Word had up to 95 % market share.
MacWrite, Microsoft Word, and other word processing programs for the bit - mapped Apple Macintosh screen, introduced in 1984, were probably the first true WYSIWYG word processors to become known to many people until the introduction of Microsoft Windows. Dedicated word processors eventually became museum pieces.
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the radical labor group that strongly opposed world war i was | Industrial workers of the World - Wikipedia
The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), members of which are commonly termed "Wobblies '', is an international labor union that was founded in 1905 in Chicago, Illinois in the United States of America. The union combines general unionism with industrial unionism, as it is a general union whose members are further organized within the industry of their employment. The philosophy and tactics of the IWW are described as "revolutionary industrial unionism '', with ties to both socialist and anarchist labor movements.
In the 1910s and early 1920s, the IWW achieved many of their short - term goals, particularly in the American West, and cut across traditional guild and union lines to organize workers in a variety of trades and industries. At their peak in August 1917, IWW membership was more than 150,000. The extremely high rate of IWW membership turnover during this era (estimated at 133 % per decade) makes it difficult for historians to state membership totals with any certainty, as workers tended to join the IWW in large numbers for relatively short periods (e.g., during labor strikes and periods of generalized economic distress).
Due to several factors, membership declined dramatically in the 1920s. There were conflicts with other labor groups, particularly the American Federation of Labor (AFL), which regarded the IWW as too radical, while the IWW regarded the AFL as too conservative and dividing workers by craft. Membership also declined due to government crackdowns on radical, anarchist and socialist groups during the First Red Scare after World War I. The most decisive factor in the decline in IWW membership and influence, however, was a 1924 schism in the organization, from which the IWW never fully recovered.
The IWW promotes the concept of "One Big Union '', and contends that all workers should be united as a social class to supplant capitalism and wage labor with industrial democracy. They are known for the Wobbly Shop model of workplace democracy, in which workers elect their managers and other forms of grassroots democracy (self - management) are implemented. IWW membership does not require that one work in a represented workplace, nor does it exclude membership in another labor union.
In 2012, the IWW moved its General Headquarters offices to 2036 West Montrose, Chicago. The origin of the nickname "Wobblies '' is uncertain.
The IWW was founded in Chicago, Illinois in the United States in June 1905. A convention was held of 200 socialists, anarchists, Marxists (primarily members of the Socialist Party of America and Socialist Labor Party) radical trade unionists from all over the United States (mainly the Western Federation of Miners) who strongly opposed the policies of the American Federation of Labor (AFL). The IWW opposed the American Federation of Labor 's acceptance of capitalism and its refusal to include unskilled workers in craft unions.
The convention had taken place on June 24, 1905, and was referred to as the "Industrial Congress '' or the "Industrial Union Convention ''. It would later be known as the First Annual Convention of the IWW. It later became considered one of the most important events in the history of industrial unionism.
The IWW 's founders included William D. ("Big Bill '') Haywood, James Connolly, Daniel De Leon, Eugene V. Debs, Thomas Hagerty, Lucy Parsons, Mary Harris "Mother '' Jones, Frank Bohn, William Trautmann, Vincent Saint John, Ralph Chaplin, and many others.
Regardless of gender roles, men and women came together to create IWW. Post-industrial theorists concentrated on hierarchies of class, rather than those of gender and, like their predecessors, the new theorists of technology also fail to consider whether this technological revolution might have a differ - ential impact on women and men.
The IWW aimed to promote worker solidarity in the revolutionary struggle to overthrow the employing class; its motto was "an injury to one is an injury to all '', which improved upon the Knights of Labor 's creed, "an injury to one is the concern of all '' which was at its most popular in the 1880s. In particular, the IWW was organized because of the belief among many unionists socialists, anarchists, Marxists, and radicals that the AFL not only had failed to effectively organize the U.S. working class, but it was causing separation rather than unity within groups of workers by organizing according to narrow craft principles. The Wobblies believed that all workers should organize as a class, a philosophy which is still reflected in the Preamble to the current IWW Constitution:
The working class and the employing class have nothing in common. There can be no peace so long as hunger and want are found among millions of the working people and the few, who make up the employing class, have all the good things of life.
Between these two classes a struggle must go on until the workers of the world organize as a class, take possession of the means of production, abolish the wage system, and live in harmony with the Earth.
We find that the centering of the management of industries into fewer and fewer hands makes the trade unions unable to cope with the ever growing power of the employing class. The trade unions foster a state of affairs which allows one set of workers to be pitted against another set of workers in the same industry, thereby helping defeat one another in wage wars. Moreover, the trade unions aid the employing class to mislead the workers into the belief that the working class have interests in common with their employers.
These conditions can be changed and the interest of the working class upheld only by an organization formed in such a way that all its members in any one industry, or in all industries if necessary, cease work whenever a strike or lockout is on in any department thereof, thus making an injury to one an injury to all.
Instead of the conservative motto, "A fair day 's wage for a fair day 's work, '' we must inscribe on our banner the revolutionary watchword, "Abolition of the wage system. ''
The Wobblies, as they were informally known, differed from other union movements of the time by promotion of industrial unionism, as opposed to the craft unionism of the American Federation of Labor. The IWW emphasized rank - and - file organization, as opposed to empowering leaders who would bargain with employers on behalf of workers. The early IWW chapters ' consistently refused to sign contracts, which they believed would restrict workers ' abilities to aid each other when called upon. Though never developed in any detail, Wobblies envisioned the general strike as the means by which the wage system would be overthrown and a new economic system ushered in, one which emphasized people over profit, cooperation over competition.
One of the IWW 's most important contributions to the labor movement and broader push towards social justice was that, when founded, it was the only American union to welcome all workers, including women, immigrants, African Americans and Asians, into the same organization. Many of its early members were immigrants, and some, such as Carlo Tresca, Joe Hill and Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, rose to prominence in the leadership. Finns formed a sizeable portion of the immigrant IWW membership. "Conceivably, the number of Finns belonging to the I.W.W. was somewhere between five and ten thousand. '' The Finnish - language newspaper of the IWW, Industrialisti, published in Duluth, Minnesota, a center of the mining industry, was the union 's only daily paper. At its peak, it ran 10,000 copies per issue. Another Finnish - language Wobbly publication was the monthly Tie Vapauteen ("Road to Freedom ''). Also of note was the Finnish IWW educational institute, the Work People 's College in Duluth, and the Finnish Labour Temple in Port Arthur, Ontario, Canada, which served as the IWW Canadian administration for several years. One example of the union 's commitment to equality was Local 8, a longshoremen 's branch in Philadelphia, one of the largest ports in the nation in the WWI era. Led by Ben Fletcher, an African American, Local 8 had more than 5,000 members, the majority of whom were African American, along with more than a thousand immigrants (primarily Lithuanians and Poles), Irish Americans, and numerous white ethnics.
The IWW was condemned by politicians and the press, who saw them as a threat to the market systems as well as an effort to monopolize labor at a time when efforts to monopolize industries were being fought as anti-market. Factory owners would employ means both non-violent (sending in Salvation Army bands to drown out speakers) and violent to disrupt their meetings. Members were often arrested and sometimes killed for making public speeches, but this persecution only inspired activism.
In 1908 a group led by Daniel DeLeon argued that political action through DeLeon 's Socialist Labor Party (SLP) was the best way to attain the IWW 's goals. The other faction, led by Vincent Saint John, William Trautmann, and Big Bill Haywood, believed that direct action in the form of strikes, propaganda, and boycotts was more likely to accomplish sustainable gains for working people; they were opposed to arbitration and to political affiliation. Haywood 's faction prevailed, and De Leon and his supporters left the organization, forming their own version of the IWW. The SLP 's "Yellow IWW '' eventually took the name Workers ' International Industrial Union, which was disbanded in 1924.
The IWW first attracted attention in Goldfield, Nevada in 1906 and during the Pressed Steel Car Strike of 1909 at McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania. Further fame was gained later that year, when they took their stand on free speech. The town of Spokane, Washington had outlawed street meetings, and arrested Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, a Wobbly organizer, for breaking this ordinance. The response was simple but effective: when a fellow member was arrested for speaking, large numbers of people descended on the location and invited the authorities to arrest all of them, until it became too expensive for the town. In Spokane, over 500 people went to jail and four people died. The tactic of fighting for free speech to popularize the cause and preserve the right to organize openly was used effectively in Fresno, Aberdeen, and other locations. In San Diego, although there was no particular organizing campaign at stake, vigilantes supported by local officials and powerful businessmen mounted a particularly brutal counter-offensive.
By 1912 the organization had around 25,000 members, concentrated in the Northwest, among dock workers, agricultural workers in the central states, and in textile and mining areas. The IWW was involved in over 150 strikes, including the Lawrence textile strike (1912), the Paterson silk strike (1913) and the Mesabi range (1916). They were also involved in what came to be known as the Wheatland Hop Riot on August 3, 1913.
In its first decades, the IWW created more than 900 unions located in more than 350 cities and towns in 38 states and territories of the United States and 5 Canadian provinces. Throughout the country, there were 90 newspapers and periodicals affiliated with the IWW, published in 19 different languages. Members of the IWW were active throughout the country and were involved in the Seattle General Strike, were arrested or killed in the Everett Massacre, organized among Mexican workers in the Southwest, became a largest and powerful longshoremen 's union in Philadelphia, and more.
The IWW assumed a prominent role in 1906 and 1907, in the gold - mining boom town of Goldfield, Nevada. At that time, the Western Federation of Miners was still an affiliate of the IWW (the WFM withdrew from the IWW in the summer of 1907). In 1906, the IWW became so powerful in Goldfield that it could dictate wages and working conditions. Workers not in good standing with the IWW were fired by their employers, on orders by the IWW leadership.
Resisting IWW domination was the AFL - affiliated Carpenters Union. In March 1907, the IWW demanded that the mines deny employment to AFL Carpenters, which led mine owners to challenge the IWW. The mine owners banded together and pledged not to employ any IWW members. The mine and business owners of Goldfield staged a lockout, vowing to remain shut until they had broken the power of the IWW. The lockout prompted a split within the Goldfield workforce, between conservative and radical union members.
The mine owners persuaded the Nevada governor to ask for federal troops. Under the protection of federal troops, the mine owners reopened the mines with non-union labor, breaking the influence of the IWW in Goldfield.
Leaders of the Western Federation of Miners such as Bill Haywood and Vincent St. John were instrumental in forming the IWW, and the WFM affiliated with the new union organization shortly after the IWW was formed. The WFM became the IWW 's "mining section. '' However, many in the rank and file of the WFM were uncomfortable with the open radicalism of the IWW, and wanted the WFM to maintain its independence. Schisms between the WFM and IWW had emerged at the annual IWW convention in 1906, when a majority of WFM delegates walked out.
When WFM executives Blll Haywood, George Pettibone, and Charles Moyer were accused of complicity in the murder of former Idaho governor Frank Steunenberg, the IWW used the case to raise funds and support, and paid for the legal defense. However, even the not guilty verdicts worked against the IWW, because the IWW was deprived of martyrs, and at the same time, a large portion of the public remained convinced of the guilt of the accused. The trials caused a bitter split between Haywood and Moyer. The Haywood trial also provoked a reaction within the WFM against violence and radicalism. In the summer of 1907, the WFM withdrew from the IWW, Vincent St. John left the WFM to spend his time organizing the IWW.
Bill Haywood for a time remained a member of both organizations. His murder trial had made Haywood a celebrity, and he was in demand as a speaker for the WFM. However, his increasingly radical speeches became more at odds with the WFM, and in April 1908, the WFM announced that the union had ended Haywood 's role as a union representative. Haywood left the WFM, and devoted all his time to organizing for the IWW.
Historian Vernon H. Jensen has asserted that the IWW had a "rule or ruin '' policy, under which it attempted to wreck local unions which it could not control. From 1908 to 1921, Jensen and others have written, the IWW attempted to win power in WFM locals which had once formed the federation 's backbone. When it could not do so, IWW agitators undermined WFM locals, which caused the national union to shed nearly half its membership.
The Western Federation of Miners left the IWW in 1907, but the IWW wanted the WFM back. The WFM had made up about a third of the IWW membership, and the western miners were tough union men, and good allies in a labor dispute. In 1908, Vincent St. John tried to organize a stealth takeover of the WFM. He wrote to WFM organizer Albert Ryan, encouraging him to find reliable IWW sympathizers at each WFM local, and have them appointed delegates to the annual convention by pretending to share whatever opinions of that local needed to become a delegate. Once at the convention, they could vote in a pro-IWW slate. St. Vincent promised: "... once we can control the officers of the WFM for the IWW, the big bulk of the membership will go with them. '' But the takeover did not succeed.
In 1914, Butte, Montana erupted into a series of riots as miners dissatisfied with the Western Federation of Miners local at Butte formed a new union, and demanded that all miners join the new union, or be subject to beatings or worse. Although the new rival union had no affiliation with the IWW, it was widely seen as IWW - inspired. The leadership of the new union contained many who were members of the IWW, or agreed with the IWW 's methods and objectives. However, the new union failed to supplant the WFM, and the ongoing fight between the two factions had the result that the copper mines of Butte, which had long been a union stronghold for the WFM, became open shops, and the mine owners recognized no union from 1914 until 1934.
The IWW clashed with the United Mine Workers union in April 1916, when the IWW picketed the anthracite mines around Scranton, Pennsylvania, intending, by persuasion or force, to keep UMWA members from going to work. The IWW considered the UMWA too reactionary, because the United Mine Workers negotiated contracts with the mine owners for fixed time periods; the IWW considered that contracts hindered their revolutionary goals. In what a contemporary writer pointed out was a complete reversal of their usual policy, UMWA officials called for police to protect United Mine Workers members who wished to cross the picket lines. The Pennsylvania State Police arrived in force, prevented picket line violence, and allowed the UMWA members to peacefully pass through the IWW picket lines.
Between 1915 and 1917, the IWW 's Agricultural Workers Organization (AWO) organized more than a hundred thousand migratory farm workers throughout the Midwest and western United States, often signing up and organizing members in the field, in rail yards and in hobo jungles. During this time, the IWW member became synonymous with the hobo riding the rails; migratory farmworkers could scarcely afford any other means of transportation to get to the next jobsite. Railroad boxcars, called "side door coaches '' by the hobos, were frequently plastered with silent agitators from the IWW.
Building on the success of the AWO, the IWW 's Lumber Workers Industrial Union (LWIU) used similar tactics to organize lumberjacks and other timber workers, both in the deep South and the Pacific Northwest of the United States and Canada, between 1917 and 1924. The IWW lumber strike of 1917 led to the eight - hour day and vastly improved working conditions in the Pacific Northwest. Even though mid-century historians would give credit to the US Government and "forward thinking lumber magnates '' for agreeing to such reforms, an IWW strike forced these concessions.
From 1913 through the mid-1930s, the IWW 's Marine Transport Workers Industrial Union (MTWIU), proved a force to be reckoned with and competed with AFL unions for ascendance in the industry. Given the union 's commitment to international solidarity, its efforts and success in the field come as no surprise. Local 8 of the Marine Transport Workers was led by Ben Fletcher, who organized predominantly African - American longshoremen on the Philadelphia and Baltimore waterfronts, but other leaders included the Swiss immigrant Walter Nef, Jack Walsh, E.F. Doree, and the Spanish sailor Manuel Rey. The IWW also had a presence among waterfront workers in Boston, New York City, New Orleans, Houston, San Diego, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Eureka, Portland, Tacoma, Seattle, Vancouver as well as in ports in the Caribbean, Mexico, South America, Australia, New Zealand, Germany and other nations. IWW members played a role in the 1934 San Francisco general strike and the other organizing efforts by rank - and - filers within the International Longshoremen 's Association up and down the West Coast.
Wobblies also played a role in the sit - down strikes and other organizing efforts by the United Auto Workers in the 1930s, particularly in Detroit, though they never established a strong union presence there.
Where the IWW did win strikes, such as in Lawrence, they often found it hard to hold onto their gains. The IWW of 1912 disdained collective bargaining agreements and preached instead the need for constant struggle against the boss on the shop floor. It proved difficult, however, to maintain that sort of revolutionary enthusiasm against employers. In Lawrence, the IWW lost nearly all of its membership in the years after the strike, as the employers wore down their employees ' resistance and eliminated many of the strongest union supporters. In 1938, the IWW voted to allow contracts with employers, so long as they would not undermine any strike.
The IWW 's efforts were met with "unparalleled '' resistance from Federal, state and local governments in America; from company management and labor spies, and from groups of citizens functioning as vigilantes. In 1914, Wobbly Joe Hill (born Joel Hägglund) was accused of murder in Utah and, on what many regarded as flimsy evidence, was executed in 1915. On November 5, 1916 at Everett, Washington a group of deputized businessmen led by Sheriff Donald McRae attacked Wobblies on the steamer Verona, killing at least five union members (six more were never accounted for and probably were lost in Puget Sound). Two members of the police force -- one a regular officer and another a deputized citizen from the National Guard Reserve -- were killed, probably by "friendly fire ''. At least five Everett civilians were wounded.
Many IWW members opposed United States participation in World War I. The organization passed a resolution against the war at its convention in November 1916. This echoed the view, expressed at the IWW 's founding convention, that war represents struggles among capitalists in which the rich become richer, and the working poor all too often die at the hands of other workers.
An IWW newspaper, the Industrial Worker, wrote just before the U.S. declaration of war: "Capitalists of America, we will fight against you, not for you! There is not a power in the world that can make the working class fight if they refuse. '' Yet when a declaration of war was passed by the U.S. Congress in April 1917, the IWW 's general secretary - treasurer Bill Haywood became determined that the organization should adopt a low profile in order to avoid perceived threats to its existence. The printing of anti-war stickers was discontinued, stockpiles of existing anti-war documents were put into storage, and anti-war propagandizing ceased as official union policy. After much debate on the General Executive Board, with Haywood advocating a low profile and GEB member Frank Little championing continued agitation, Ralph Chaplin brokered a compromise agreement. A statement was issued that denounced the war, but IWW members were advised to channel their opposition through the legal mechanisms of conscription. They were advised to register for the draft, marking their claims for exemption "IWW, opposed to war. ''
In spite of the IWW moderating its vocal opposition, the IWW 's antiwar stance made it highly unpopular. Frank Little, the IWW 's most outspoken war opponent, was lynched in Butte, Montana in August 1917, just four months after war had been declared.
During World War I the U.S. government moved strongly against the IWW. On September 5, 1917, U.S. Department of Justice agents made simultaneous raids on dozens of IWW meeting halls across the country. Minutes books, correspondence, mailing lists, and publications were seized, with the U.S. Department of Justice removing five tons of material from the IWW 's General Office in Chicago alone. This seized material was scoured for possible violations of the Espionage Act of 1917 and other laws, with a view to future prosecution of the organization 's leaders, organizers, and key activists.
Based in large measure on the documents seized September 5, one hundred and sixty - six IWW leaders were indicted by a Federal Grand Jury in Chicago for conspiring to hinder the draft, encourage desertion, and intimidate others in connection with labor disputes, under the new Espionage Act. One hundred and one went on trial en masse before Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis in 1918. Their lawyer was George Vanderveer of Seattle. They were all convicted -- including those who had not been members of the union for years -- and given prison terms of up to twenty years. Sentenced to prison by Judge Landis and released on bail, Haywood fled to the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic where he remained until his death.
In 1917, during an incident known as the Tulsa Outrage, a group of black - robed Knights of Liberty, a short - lived faction of the Ku Klux Klan, tarred and feathered seventeen members of the IWW in Oklahoma. The IWW members had been turned over to the Knights of Liberty by local authorities after they were convicted of the crime of not owning war bonds. Five other men who testified in defense of the Wobblies were also fined by the court and subjected to the same torture and humiliations at the hands of the Knights of Liberty.
In 1919, an Armistice Day parade by the American Legion in Centralia, Washington turned into a fight between legionnaires and IWW members in which four legionnaires and a Centralia deputy sheriff were shot dead. Which side initiated the violence of the Centralia massacre is disputed. A number of IWWs were arrested, one of whom, Wesley Everest, was lynched by a mob that night.
Members of the IWW were prosecuted under various State and federal laws and the 1920 Palmer Raids singled out the foreign - born members of the organization.
By the mid-1920s membership was already declining due to government repression and it decreased again substantially during a contentious organizational schism in 1924 when the organization split between the "Westerners '' and the "Easterners '' over a number of issues, including the role of the General Administration (often oversimplified as a struggle between "centralists '' and "decentralists ''), Stalinist atrocities in the Soviet Union and attempts by the Communist Party to dominate the organization. By 1930 membership was down to around 10,000.
At the beginning of the 1949 Smith Act trials, FBI director J. Edgar Hoover was disappointed when prosecutors indicted fewer CPUSA members than he had hoped, and -- recalling the arrests and convictions of over one hundred IWW leaders in 1917 -- complained to the Justice Department, stating, "the IWW was crushed and never revived, similar action at this time would have been as effective against the Communist Party. ''
After the passage of the Taft - Hartley Act in 1946 by Congress, which called for the removal of Communist union leadership, the IWW experienced a loss of membership as differences of opinion occurred over how to respond to the challenge. In 1949, US Attorney General Tom C. Clark placed the IWW on the Attorney General 's List of Subversive Organizations in the category of "organizations seeking to change the government by unconstitutional means '' under Executive Order 9835, which offered no means of appeal, and which excluded all IWW members from Federal employment and federally subsidized housing programs (this order was revoked by Executive Order 10450 in 1953).
At this time, the Cleveland local of the Metal and Machinery Workers Industrial Union (MMWIU) was the strongest IWW branch in the United States. Leading figures such as Frank Cedervall, who had helped build the branch up for over ten years, were concerned about the possibility of raiding from AFL - CIO unions if the IWW had its legal status as a union revoked. In 1950, Cedervall led the 1500 - member MMWIU national organization to split from the IWW, as the Lumber Workers Industrial Union had almost thirty years earlier. Unfortunately for the MMWIU, this act would not save it. Despite its brief affiliation with the Congress of Industrial Organizations, it would face serious raiding from AFL and CIO and would be defunct by the late 1950s, less than ten years after separating from the IWW.
The loss of the MMWIU, at the time the IWW 's largest industrial union, was almost a deathblow to the IWW. The union 's membership fell to its lowest level in the 1950s during the Second Red Scare, and by 1955, the union 's fiftieth anniversary, it was near extinction, though it still appeared on government lists of Communist - led groups.
The 1960s Civil Rights Movement, anti-war protests, and various university student movements brought new life to the IWW, albeit with many fewer new members than the great organizing drives of the early part of the 20th century.
The first signs of new life for the IWW in the 1960s would be organizing efforts among students in San Francisco and Berkeley, which were hotbeds of student radicalism at the time. This targeting of students would result in a Bay Area branch of the union with over a hundred members in 1964, almost as many as the union 's total membership in 1961. Wobblies old and new would unite for one more "free speech fight '': Berkeley 's Free Speech Movement. Riding on this high, the decision in 1967 to allow college and university students to join the Education Workers Industrial Union (IU 620) as full members spurred campaigns in 1968 at the University of Waterloo in Ontario, the University of Wisconsin in Milwaukee, and the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. The IWW would send representatives to Students for a Democratic Society conventions in 1967, 1968, and 1969, and as the SDS collapsed into infighting, the IWW would gain members who were fleeing this discord. These changes would have a profound effect on the union, which by 1972 would have sixty - seven percent of members under the age of thirty, with a total of nearly five hundred members.
The IWW 's links to the 60s counterculture led to organizing campaigns at counterculture businesses, as well as a wave of over two dozen co-ops affiliating with the IWW under its Wobbly Shop model in the 1960s to 1980s. These businesses were primarily in printing, publishing, and food distribution; from underground newspapers and radical print shops to community co-op grocery stores. Some of the printing and publishing industry co-ops and job shops included Black & Red (Detroit), Glad Day Press (New York), RPM Press (Michigan), New Media Graphics (Ohio), Babylon Print (Wisconsin), Hill Press (Illinois), Lakeside (Madison, Wisconsin), Harbinger (Columbia, South Carolina), Eastown Printing in Grand Rapids, Michigan (where the IWW negotiated a contract in 1978), and La Presse Populaire (Montréal). This close affiliation with radical publishers and printing houses sometimes led to legal difficulties for the union, such as when La Presse Populaire was shut down in 1970 by provincial police for publishing pro-FLQ materials, which were banned at the time under an official censorship law. Also in 1970, the San Diego, California "street journal '' El Barrio became an official IWW shop. In 1971 its office was attacked by a fascist organization calling itself the Minutemen, and IWW member Ricardo Gonzalves was indicted for criminal syndicalism along with two members of the Brown Berets.
These ties to anti-authoritarian and radical artistic and literary currents would link the IWW even more heavily to the 60s counterculture, exemplified by the publication in Chicago in the 1960s of Rebel Worker by the surrealists Franklin and Penelope Rosemont. One edition was published in London with Charles Radcliffe, who went on to become involved with the Situationist International. By the 1980s, the Rebel Worker was being published as an official organ again, from the IWW 's headquarters in Chicago, and the New York area was publishing a newsletter as well.
Invigorated by the arrival of enthusiastic new members, the IWW began a wave of organizing drives. These largely took a regional form and they, as well as the union 's overall membership, concentrated in Portland, Chicago, Ann Arbor, and throughout the state of California, which when combined accounted for over half of union drives from 1970 to 1979. In Portland, Oregon, the IWW led campaigns at Winter Products (a brass plating plant) in 1972, at a local Winchell 's Donuts (where a strike was waged and lost), at the Albina Day Care (where key union demands were won, including the firing of the director of the day care), of healthcare workers at West Side School and the Portland Medical Center, and of agricultural workers in 1974. The latter effort led to the founding of an IWW union hall in Burnside, Oregon to compete with extortionate hiring halls and day labor agencies. Organizing efforts led to a growth in membership, but repeated loss of strikes and organizing campaigns would anticipate the decline of the Portland branch after the mid-1970s, a stagnancy period which would last until the 1990s.
In California, union activities were based in Santa Cruz, where in 1977 the IWW engaged in one of its most ambitious campaigns of the 1970s: an attempt in 1977 to organize 3,000 workers hired under the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) in Santa Cruz County. The campaign led to pay raises, the implementation of a grievance procedure, and medical and dental coverage, but the union failed to maintain its foothold, and in 1982 the CETA program would be replaced by the Job Training Partnership Act. The IWW would win some lasting victories in Santa Cruz, however, with successful campaigns at the Janus Alcohol Recovery Center, the Santa Cruz Law Center, Project Hope, and the Santa Cruz Community Switchboard.
Elsewhere in California, the IWW was active in Long Beach in 1972, the where it organized workers at International Wood Products and Park International Corporation (a manufacturer of plastic swimming pool filters) and went on strike after the firing of one worker for union - related activities. Finally, in San Francisco, the IWW ran campaigns for radio station and food service workers.
In Chicago, the IWW was an early opponent of so - called urban renewal programs (now more often termed as gentrification), and supported the creation of the "Chicago People 's Park '' in 1969. The Chicago branch also ran citywide campaigns for healthcare, food service, entertainment, construction, and metal workers, and its success with the latter led to an attempt to revive the national Metal and Machinery Workers Industrial Union, which twenty years earlier had been a major component of the union. Metalworker organizing would largely end in 1978 after a failed strike at Mid-American Metal in Virden, Illinois. The IWW also became one of the first unions to try to organize fast food workers, with an organizing campaign at a local McDonald 's in 1973.
The IWW also built on its existing presence in Ann Arbor, which had existed since student organizing began at the University of Michigan, to launch an organizing campaign at the University Cellar, a college bookstore. The union won National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) certification there in 1979 following a strike, and the store would become a strong job shop for the union until it was closed in 1986. The union launched a similar campaign at another local bookstore, Charing Cross Books, but was unable to maintain its foothold there despite reaching a settlement with management.
In the late 1970s, the IWW came to regional prominence in entertainment industry organizing, with an Entertainment Workers Organizing Committee being founded in Chicago in 1976, followed by campaigns organizing musicians in Cleveland in 1977 and Ann Arbor in 1978. The Chicago committee published a model contract which was distributed to musicians in the hopes of raising industry standards, as well as maintaining an active phone line for booking information. IWW musicians such as Utah Phillips, Faith Petric, Bob Bovee, and Jim Ringer also toured and promoted the union, and in 1987 an anthology album, Rebel Voices, was released.
Other IWW organizing campaigns of the 1970s included a ShopRite supermarket in Milwaukee, at Coronet Foods in Wheeling, West Virginia, chemical and fast food workers (including KFC and Roy Rogers) in State College, Pennsylvania, and hospital workers in Boston, all in 1973; shipyards in Houston, Texas and restaurant workers in Pittsburgh in 1974; unsuccessful campaigns at the Prospect Nursing Home in Cambridge, Massachusetts and a Pizza Hut in Arkadelphia, Arkansas in 1975; and a construction workers organizing drive in Albuquerque, New Mexico in 1978.
In the 1990s, the IWW was involved in many labor struggles and free speech fights, including Redwood Summer, and the picketing of the Neptune Jade in the port of Oakland in late 1997.
In 1996, the IWW launched an organizing drive against Borders Books in Philadelphia. In March, the union lost an NLRB certification vote by a narrow margin but continued to organize. In June, IWW member Miriam Fried was fired on trumped - up charges and a national boycott of Borders was launched in response. IWW members picketed at Borders stores nationwide, including Ann Arbor; Washington, D.C.; San Francisco; Miami; Chicago; Palo Alto; Portland, OR; Portland, ME; Boston; Philadelphia; Albany; Richmond; St. Louis; Los Angeles; and other cities. This was followed up with a National Day of Action in 1997, where Borders stores were again picketed nationwide, and a second organizing campaign in London, England.
Also in 1996, the IWW began organizing at Wherehouse Music in El Cerrito, California. The campaign continued until 1997, when management fired two organizers and laid off over half the employees, as well as reducing the hours of known union members. This directly affected the NLRB certification vote which followed, where the IWW lost over 2: 1.
In 1998, the IWW chartered a San Francisco branch of the Marine Transport Workers Industrial Union (MTWIU), which trained hundreds of waterfront workers in health and safety techniques and attempted to institutionalize these safety practices on the San Francisco waterfront.
In 1999, the IWW chartered a local branch of the Education Workers Industrial Union in Boston, Massachusetts, which started to organize workers at local colleges and universities.
Additionally, IWW organizing drives in the late 90s included a strike at the Lincoln Park Mini Mart in Seattle in 1996, Keystone Job Corps, the community organization ACORN, various homeless and youth centers in Portland, Oregon, sex industry workers, and recycling shops in Berkeley, California. IWW members were also active in the building trades, shipyards, high tech industries, hotels and restaurants, public interest organizations, railroads, bike messengers, and lumber yards.
The IWW stepped in several times to help the rank and file in mainstream unions, including saw mill workers in Fort Bragg in California in 1989, concession stand workers in the San Francisco Bay Area in the late 1990s, and shipyards along the Mississippi River.
In the early 2000s, the IWW organized Stonemountain and Daughter Fabrics, a fabric shop in Berkeley, California. The shop continues to remain an IWW organized shop.
The city of Berkeley 's recycling is picked up, sorted, processed and sent out all through two different IWW - organized enterprises.
In 2003, the IWW began organizing street people and other non-traditional occupations with the formation of the Ottawa Panhandlers Union. A year later, the Panhandlers Union led a strike by the homeless. Negotiations with the city resulted in the city government promising to fund a newspaper written and sold by the homeless.
Between 2003 and 2006, the IWW organized unions at food co-operatives in Seattle, Washington and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The IWW represents administrative and maintenance workers under contract in Seattle, while the union in Pittsburgh lost 22 - 21 in an NLRB election, only to have the results invalidated in late 2006, based on management 's behavior before the election.
In 2004, an IWW union was organized in a New York City Starbucks. In 2006, the IWW continued efforts at Starbucks by organizing several Chicago area shops.
In Chicago the IWW began an effort to organize bicycle messengers with some success.
In September 2004, IWW - organized short haul truck drivers in Stockton, California walked off their jobs and went on a strike. Nearly all demands were met. Despite early victories in Stockton, the truck driver union ceased to exist in mid-2005.
In New York City, the IWW has been organizing immigrant foodstuffs workers since 2005. That summer, workers from Handyfat Trading joined the IWW, and were soon followed by workers from four more warehouses. Workers at these warehouses made gains such as receiving the minimum wage and being paid overtime.
In 2006, the IWW moved its headquarters to Cincinnati, Ohio, and in 2010, headquarters was moved back to Chicago, Illinois.
Also in 2006, the IWW Bay Area Branch organized the Landmark Shattuck Cinemas. The Union has been negotiating for a contract and hopes to gain one through workplace democracy and organizing directly and taking action when necessary.
In May 2007, the NYC warehouse workers came together with the Starbucks Workers Union to form The Food and Allied Workers Union IU 460 / 640. In the summer of 2007, the IWW organized workers at two new warehouses: Flaum Appetizing, a Kosher food distributor, and Wild Edibles, a seafood company. Over the course of 2007 -- 08, workers at both shops were illegally terminated for their union activity. In 2008, the workers at Wild Edibles actively fought to get their jobs back and to secure overtime pay owed to them by the boss. In a workplace justice campaign called Focus on the Food Chain, carried out jointly with Brandworkers International, the IWW workers won settlements against employers including Pur Pac, Flaum Appetizing and Wild Edibles.
Besides IWW 's traditional practice of organizing industrially, the Union has been open to new methods such as organizing geographically: for instance, seeking to organize retail workers in a certain business district, as in Philadelphia.
The union has also participated in such worker - related issues as protesting involvement in the war in Iraq, opposing sweatshops and supporting a boycott of Coca Cola for that company 's support of the suppression of workers rights in Colombia.
On July 5, 2008, the Grand Rapids, Michigan, Starbucks Workers Union and CNT - AIT in Seville, Spain, organized a global day of action against alleged Starbucks union busting, in particular the firing of two union members in Grand Rapids and Seville. According to the Grand Rapids Starbucks Workers Union website, pickets were held in several dozen cities in more than a dozen countries.
The Portland, Oregon General Membership Branch is one of the largest and most active branches of the IWW currently. The branch holds three contracts currently, two with Janus Youth Programs and one with Portland Women 's Crisis Line. There has been some debate within the branch about whether or not union contracts such as this are desirable in the long run, with some members favoring solidarity unionism as opposed to contract unionism and some members believing there is room for both strategies for organizing. The branch has successfully supported workers wrongfully fired from several different workplaces in the last two years. Due to picketing by Wobblies, these workers have received significant compensation from their former employers. Branch membership has been increasing, as has shop organizing. As of 2005, the 100th anniversary of its founding, the IWW had around 5,000 members, compared to 13 million members in the AFL - CIO. Other IWW branches are located in Australia, Austria, Canada, Ireland, Germany, Uganda and the United Kingdom.
In early 2011, Wisconsin Governor Scott Walker announced a budget bill which the IWW held would effectively outlaw unions for state or municipal workers. In response, there was an emergency meeting of the Midwestern IWW member organizations. The participants decided that organizing a general strike was an absolute priority. IWW members presented a proposal at a meeting of South - Central Federation of Labor (SCFL) which would endorse a general strike and create an ad - hoc Committee to instruct affiliated locals in preparations for the general strike. The IWW proposal passed nearly unanimously. The Madison branch made an international appeal translating various materials concerning the strike into Arabic, French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese. Additionally, an appeal was made to European unions (CNT - Spain, CGT - Spain and CGT - France) to send organizers to Madison who could present their experience of general strikes at union meetings and help organize the strike in other ways. The CNT (France) sent letters of solidarity to the IWW. This was considered the largest and most successful intervention in a working - class struggle that the IWW has undertaken since the 1930s. In the aftermath, the strike was said by some to be ' The General Strike that did n't happen ' because eventually ongoing efforts at industrial action were "completely overwhelmed by the recall effort '' against the governor during the crisis.
In 2012, the IWW moved its General Headquarters offices to 2036 West Montrose, Chicago.
The IWW waged an organizing campaign at Chicago - Lake Liquors in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 2013. The store, which advertises itself as the highest - volume liquor store in Minnesota, had a wage cap of $10.50 per hour, but in the face of IWW demands for the wage cap to be lifted, store management fired five organizers. On April 6, the Twin Cities branch of the union responded with a picket around the store informing customers of the situation. This was followed by a second picket on May 4, a day which customarily had heavy business at the store. The union claimed to have made "what should have been an extremely busy Saturday into a quiet afternoon inside the store ''. After several months, the National Labor Relations Board announced that it found merit in the union 's unfair dismissal complaint. As a result, the union and store management agreed to a $32,000 settlement as a form of compensation to the fired workers and the campaign officially ended.
Workers at the Paulo Freire Social Justice Charter School in Holyoke, Massachusetts were organized with the IWW in 2015, hoping to address the "authoritarian leadership '' of the school administration and perceived racial bias in hiring.
On 14 September 2015, after a year long organizing campaign, workers at Sound Stage Production in North Haven Connecticut declared their membership in the IWW. Within a week they were threatened with legal action and fired. After several months of negotiation through the National Labor Relations Board, a settlement was reached and the workers agreed to back pay and severance compensation. As part of the campaign, the workers formed the Production Services Collective and continue as a workers cooperative and organizing with IWW - CT.
The IWW announced the Burgerville Workers Union (BVWU) in April 2016, which focuses on workers at the Oregon regional fast food chain, Burgerville. A subsidiary of the IWW, the BVWU went public on April 26 at a rally of workers and supporters outside a Portland, Oregon Burgerville location. Upon going public, the BVWU was endorsed by a number of local Oregon community organizations, including union locals, the Portland Solidarity Network, and food and racial justice organizations. It was also endorsed by then - Democratic presidential candidate Senator Bernie Sanders (I - Vt.). The union received pushback with a letter from Burgerville 's CEO, Jeff Harvey, being distributed to workers discouraging them from joining the union. In June 2017, Burgerville paid a settlement of $10,000 after an investigation by the Oregon Bureau of Labor and Industries, which found that the company had violated state - mandated break periods for workers.
In August 2016, workers at Ellen 's Stardust Diner in Manhattan formed Stardust Family United (SFU) under the IWW, driven by the firing of thirty employees, as well as an unpopular new scheduling system. After going public, the union accused Stardust management of retaliatory firings and posting anti-union materials in the restaurant.
On 9 September 2016, the 45th anniversary of the Attica Prison Riots, 900 incarcerated workers organized by the IWW and many other prisoners participated in the 9 / 9 National Prison Strike declared by the IWW 's Incarcerated Workers Organizing Committee. Supported by a number of anti-incarceration and prisoners ' organizations such as the Free Alabama Movement, the strike focused on the poor conditions in many American prisons and the low rates of prisoner pay for maintaining prisons and engaging in commercial production of goods for third - party companies. The strike affected an estimated twenty prisons in eleven states and had its epicenter at the William C. Holman Correctional Facility in Alabama. Estimates of the number of inmates affected range from 20,000, to 50,000, to as high as 72,000, with David Fathi of the ACLU National Prison Project judging it to be the "largest prisoner strike in recent memory ''. Initial media coverage was slow, with strike organizers complaining of a "mainstream - media blackout '', which could be attributed to the difficulty in communicating with prisoners, as many prisons went on lockdown either in response to prisoner strike activity or in anticipation of it.
Australia encountered the IWW tradition early. In part this was due to the local De Leonist SLP following the industrial turn of the US SLP. The SLP formed an IWW Club in Sydney in October 1907. Members of other socialist groups also joined it, and the special relationship with the SLP soon proved to be a problem. The 1908 split between the Chicago and Detroit factions in the United States was echoed by internal unrest in the Australian IWW from late 1908, resulting in the formation of a pro-Chicago local in Adelaide in May 1911 and another in Sydney six months later. By mid-1913 the "Chicago '' IWW was flourishing and the SLP - associated pro-Detroit IWW Club in decline. In 1916 the "Detroit '' IWW in Australia followed the lead of the US body and renamed itself the Workers ' International Industrial Union.
The early Australian IWW used a number of tactics from the US, including free speech fights. However, there early appeared significant differences of practice between the Australian IWW and its US parent; the Australian IWW tended to co-operate where possible with existing unions rather than forming its own, and in contrast with the US body took an extremely open and forthright stand against involvement in World War One. The IWW cooperated with many other unions, encouraging industrial unionism and militancy. In particular, the IWW 's strategies had a large effect on the Australasian Meat Industry Employees Union. The AMIEU established closed shops and workers councils and effectively regulated management behaviour toward the end of the 1910s.
The IWW was well known for opposing the First World War from 1914 onwards, and in many ways was at the front of the anti-conscription fight. A narrow majority of Australians voted against conscription in a very bitter hard - fought referendum in October 1916, and then again in December 1917, Australia being the only belligerent in World War One without conscription. In very significant part this was due to the agitation of the IWW, a group which probably never had as many as 500 members in Australia at its peak. The IWW founded the Anti-Conscription League (ACL) in which IWW members worked with the broader labour and peace movement, and also carried on an aggressive propaganda campaign in its own name; leading to the imprisonment of Tom Barker (1887 -- 1970) the editor of the IWW paper Direct Action, sentenced to twelve months in March 1916. A series of arson attacks on commercial properties in Sydney was widely attributed to the IWW campaign to have Tom Barker released. He was indeed released in August 1916, but twelve mostly prominent IWW activists, the so - called Sydney Twelve were arrested in NSW in September 1916 for arson and other offences. (Their trial and eventual imprisonment would become a cause célèbre of the Australian labour movement on the basis that there was no convincing evidence that any of them had been involved in the arson attacks.) A number of other scandals were associated with the IWW, a five - pound note forgery scandal, the so - called Tottenham tragedy in which the murder of a police officer was blamed on the IWW, and above all the IWW was blamed for the defeat of the October 1916 conscription referendum. In December 1916 the Commonwealth government led by Labour Party renegade Billy Hughes declared the IWW an illegal organization under the Unlawful Associations Act. Eighty six IWW members immediately defied the law and were sentenced to six months imprisonment, this was certainly a high percentage of the Australian IWW 's active membership but it is not known how high. Direct Action was suppressed, its circulation was at its peak of something over 12,000. During the war over 100 IWW members Australia - wide were sentenced to imprisonment on political charges, including the veteran activist and icon of the labour, socialist and anarchist movements Monty Miller.
The IWW continued illegally operating with the aim of freeing its class war prisoners and briefly fused with two other radical tendencies -- from the old Socialist parties and Trades Halls -- to form a larval communist party at the suggestion of the militant revolutionist and Council Communist Adela Pankhurst. The IWW, however, left the CPA shortly after its formation.
By the 1930s the IWW in Australia had declined significantly, and took part in unemployed workers movements which were led largely by the CPA. The poet Harry Hooton became involved with it around this time. In 1939 the Australian IWW had four members, according to surveillance by government authorities, and these members were consistently opposed to the Second World War. After the Second World War, the IWW would become one of the influences on the Sydney Libertarians who were in turn a significant cultural and political influence
Today the IWW still exists in Australia, in larger numbers than the 1940s, but due to the nature of the Australian industrial relations system, it is unlikely to win union representation in any workplaces in the immediate future. More significant is its continuing place in the mythology of the militant end of the Australian labour movement. As an extreme example of the integration of ex-IWW militants into the mainstream labour movement one might instance the career of Donald Grant, one of the Sydney Twelve sentenced to fifteen years imprisonment for conspiracy to commit arson and other crimes. Released unbowed from prison in August 1920 he would soon break with the IWW over its anti-political stand, standing for the NSW Parliament for the Industrial Socialist Labour Party unsuccessfully in 1922 and then in 1925 for the mainstream Australian Labor Party (ALP) also unsuccessfully. However, this reconciliation with the ALP and the electoral system did not prevent him being imprisoned again in 1927 for street demonstrations supporting Sacco and Vanzetti. He would eventually represent the ALP in the NSW Legislative Council in 1931 -- 1940 and the Australian Senate 1943 -- 1956. No other member of the Australian IWW actually entered Parliament but Grant 's career is emblematic in the sense that the ex-IWW militants by and large remained in the broader labour movement, bringing some greater or lesser part of their heritage with them.
"Bump Me Into Parliament '' is the most notable Australian IWW song, and is still current. It was written by ship 's fireman William "Bill '' Casey, later Secretary of the Seaman 's Union in Queensland.
The IWW was active in Canada from a very early point in the organization 's history, especially in Western Canada, primarily in British Columbia. The union was active in organizing large swaths of the lumber and mining industry along the coast, in the Interior of BC, and Vancouver Island. Joe Hill wrote the song "Where the Fraser River Flows '' during this period when the IWW was organizing in British Columbia. Some members of the IWW had relatively close links with the Socialist Party of Canada.
Arthur "Slim '' Evans, organizer in the Relief Camp Workers ' Union and the On - to - Ottawa Trek was once a Wobbly, although during the On - to - Ottawa Trek he was with the One Big Union. He was also a friend of another well - known Canadian, Ginger Goodwin, who was shot in Cumberland, British Columbia by a Dominion Police constable when he was resisting the First World War. The impact of Ginger Goodwin influenced various left and progressive groups in Canada, including a progressive group of MPs in the House of Commons called the Ginger Group.
Despite the IWW being banned as a subversive organization in Canada during the First World War, the organization rebounded swiftly after being unbanned after the war, reaching a post-WWI high of 5600 Canadian members in 1923. The union entered a short "golden age '' in Canada with an official Canadian Administration located at the Finnish Labour Temple in Port Arthur (now Thunder Bay, Ontario) and a strong base among immigrant labourers in Northern Ontario and Manitoba, especially Finns, which included harvest workers, lumberjacks, and miners. During this period, the IWW would compete for members with a number of other radical and socialist organizations such as the Finnish Organization of Canada (FOC), with the IWW 's Industrialisti newspaper competing with the FOC 's Vapaus for attention and readership. During this period. Membership slowly decreased during the 1920s and 30s despite continued organizing and strike activity as the IWW lost ground to the One Big Union and Communist Party - controlled organizations such as the Workers ' Unity League (WUL). Despite this competition, the IWW and WUL cooperated during strikes, such as at the Abitibi Pulp & Paper Company near Sault Ste. Marie in 1933, where the Finnish workers in the IWW and WUL faced discrimination and violence from the Anglo citizens of the town. The IWW also successfully unionized Ritchie 's Dairy in Toronto and formed a fishery workers ' branch in MacDiarmid (now Greenstone, Ontario).
In 1936, the IWW in Canada supported the Spanish Revolution and began to recruit for the militia of the anarcho - syndicalist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT), in direct conflict with Communist Party recruiters for the Mackenzie - Papineau Battalion, a conflict which resulted in a number of violent clashes at recruitment rallies in Northern Ontario. Several Canadian IWW members were killed in the Spanish Civil War and the CNT 's ensuing defeat at the hands of both Fascist and Stalinist forces. By the middle of the Second World War, IWW membership had dropped to 500, but had rebounded to 2000 by 1946. After this, the IWW entered a long period of decline, with the Canadian Administration slowly shrinking back to its traditional strongholds in Port Arthur and Vancouver, and becoming more of a social club and mutual aid society of mostly Finnish members in Port Arthur and the co-operative businesses they controlled. An Education Workers Industrial Union branch was established at the University of Waterloo in 1968, but failed to achieve success and dissolved. As well, in 1970 La Presse Populaire du Montréal, an IWW - run print shop, was shut down under the War Measures Act due to its support for the FLQ during the October Crisis. As a sign of the times, the old Canadian Administration in Port Arthur was dissolved in 1973 and replaced by a Canadian Regional Organizing Committee, meaning that Canadian branches would be administrated by the General Administration in the United States. IWW activity in Canada began to shift largely toward strike support and labour activism, such as support for the Artistic Woodwork strike in Toronto in 1974. By the 80s, the Vancouver branch was supporting unemployed activism through the Vancouver Unemployed Action Centre by helping to shut down the scam operation Vancouver Job Mart and supporting the campaign for a fixed - income transit pass.
By the end of the 1990s, the IWW in Canada was following the general pattern of ascendancy, winning government recognition at Harvest Collective in Manitoba, the first shop certified in Canada since 1919. During the 2000s, branches were chartered in several new cities, and existing branches were revitalized. The dissolved Canadian Regional Organizing Committee was refounded in 2011.
Today the IWW remains active in the country with branches in Vancouver, Vancouver Island, Edmonton, Winnipeg, Ottawa / Outaouais, Toronto, Windsor, Sherbrooke, Québec City and Montréal. The largest branch is currently in Montréal. In August 2009, Canadian members voted to ratify the constitution of the Canadian Regional Organizing Committee (CanROC) to improve inter-branch coordination and communication. Affiliated branches are Winnipeg, Ottawa - Outaouais, Toronto, Windsor, Sherbrooke, Montréal and Québec City. Each branch elects a representative to make decisions on the Canadian board. There were originally three officers, the Secretary - Treasurer, Organizing Department Liaison, and Editor of the Canadian Organizing Bulletin. In 2016, CanROC members voted to split the Secretary - Treasurer role into separate Regional Secretary and Regional Treasurer positions.
There are currently five job shops in Canada: Libra Knowledge and Information Services Co-op in Toronto, ParIT Workers Cooperative in Winnipeg, the Windsor Button Collective, the Ottawa Panhandlers ' Union and the Street Labourers of Windsor (SLOW). The Ottawa Panhandlers ' Union continues a tradition in the IWW of expanding the definition of worker. The union members include anyone who makes their living in the street, including buskers, street vendors, the homeless, scrappers and panhandlers. In the summer of 2004, the Union led strike by the Homeless (the Homeless Action Strike) in Ottawa. The strike resulted in the city agreeing to fund a newspaper created and sold by the Homeless on the street. On May 1, 2006, the Union took over the Elgin Street Police Station for a day. A similar IWW organization, the Street Labourers of Windsor (SLOW), has garnered local, provincial, and national news coverage for its organizing efforts in 2015.
Recently, the IWW has also engaged in campaigns among harm reduction workers (resulting in the Toronto Harm Reduction Workers Union in 2014) and workers at the Québec fast food chain Frite Alors! in 2016.
Historically the IWW started to organise in Germany during the German revolution. A German Language Membership Regional Organizing Committee (GLAMROC) was founded in December 2006 in Cologne. It encompasses the German - language area of Germany, Luxembourg, Austria, and Switzerland with branches or contacts in 16 cities. In 2015, the GLAMROC is reported as having 200 members in good standing
The regional body of the union in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland is the Wales, Ireland, Scotland, England Regional Administration (WISERA). Formerly known as the Britain and Ireland Regional Administration (BIRA), its name was changed as a result of a referendum vote by WISERA members.
The British Advocates of Industrial Unionism, founded in 1906, supported the IWW. This group split in 1908, with the majority supporting Daniel De Leon and a minority supporting E.J.B. Allen founding the Industrialist Union and developing links with the Chicago - based IWW. Allen 's group soon disappeared, but the first IWW group in Britain was founded by members of the Industrial Syndicalist Education League led by Guy Bowman in 1913.
The IWW was present to varying extents in many of the struggles in the early decades of the 20th century, including the UK General Strike of 1926, and the dockers ' strike of 1947. A Neath Wobbly who had been active in Mexico trained volunteers who went to the International Brigade to fight against Franco but did not return.
During the decade after World War II, the IWW had two active branches in London and Glasgow. These soon died off, before a modest resurgence in northwest England during the 1970s.
Between 2001 and 2003, there was a marked increase in UK membership, with the creation of the Hull General Membership Branch. During this time the Hull branch had 27 members of good standing, being at that time the largest branch outside of the United States. By 2005, there were around 100 members in the United Kingdom. For the IWW 's centenary, a stone was laid (51 ° 41'598N 4 ° 17.135 W Geocacher), in a public access forest in Wales, commemorating the centenary of the union. As well, Sequoias were planted as a memorial to US IWW and Earth First! activist Judi Bari. 2006 saw the IWW formally registered by the UK government as a recognised trade union.
The IWW currently has a presence in several major urban areas as well as regional centres, with chartered branches in London, Glasgow (Clydeside GMB), Bradford, Bristol, Edinburgh, Leeds, Manchester, Nottingham, Reading, Sheffield, in the Tyne and Wear and West Midlands areas, and most recently in Wales.
Overall, membership has increased rapidly; in 2014, the union reported a total UK membership of 750, which increased to 1000 by April 2015. In 2016, the 1,500 member limit was passed
IWW members were involved in the Liverpool dockers ' strike that took place between 1995 and 1998, and numerous other events and struggles throughout the 1990s and 2000s, including the successful unionising of several workplaces, such as support workers for the Scottish Socialist Party.
Recently, the IWW has focused its efforts on health and education workers, publishing a national industrial newsletter for health workers and a specific bulletin for workers in the National Blood Service. In 2007 it launched a campaign alongside the anti-capitalist group No Sweat which attempted to replicate some of the successes of the US IWW 's organising drives amongst Starbucks workers. In the same year its health - workers ' network launched a national campaign against cuts in the National Blood Service, which is ongoing.
Also in 2007, IWW branches in Glasgow and Dumfries were a key driving force in a successful campaign to prevent the closure of one of Glasgow University 's campuses, (The Crichton) in Dumfries. The campaign united IWW members, other unions, students and the local community to build a powerful coalition. Its success, coupled with the National Blood Service campaign, has raised the IWW 's profile significantly since then.
In 2011, the IWW representing cleaners at the Guildhall won back - pay and the right to collective negotiation with their employers, Ocean. Also in 2011, branches of the IWW were set up in Lincoln, Manchester and Sheffield (notably workers employed by Pizza Hut).
The Edinburgh General Membership Branch of the IWW along with other branches of the IWW 's Scottish section voted in 2014 to become a signatory to the "From Yes to Action Statement '' produced by the Autonomous Centre of Edinburgh. In 2015, along with similar groups such as the Edinburgh Coalition Against Poverty and Edinburgh Anarchist Federation, they joined the Scottish Action Against Austerity network.
In 2016, WISERA promoted a campaign targeting couriers working for companies such as Deliveroo.
The IWW has been involved in organizing prisoners since 2012, with The Incarcerated Worker 's Organizing Committee being formed in 2013. IWOC was pivotal in organizing The 2016 American Prisoners Strike against what it calls "slave labor conditions '' in prison work programs. IWOC, allied with the Free State Movements (a collection of prisoner rights organizations aligned with The Free Alabama Movement).
In addition, the IWW has organized several high - profile restaurants and fast food chains including Burgerville, Ellen 's Stardust Diner and Jimmy Johns. In many ways the IWW is responsible for the rise of larger movements like Fight for 15 and 15 Now that have sought to organize food service and retail workers into the larger unions.
An Iceland Regional Organizing Committee (IceROC) was chartered in 2015. The union has become a trailblazer in supporting sex workers in Iceland, who lack access to services which do not automatically treat them as victims of abuse. In particular, the IWW in Iceland has taken a strong position against the Swedish model of policing sex work, where sex workers are not criminalized but their customers are, and instead has argued in favour of "organizing all workers without moral or legal judgement ''.
Also in 2015, a Greek Regional Organizing Committee (GreROC) was chartered. In July of that year, it released a statement condemning the Greek government 's response to the results of the 2015 Greek bailout referendum, saying that "despite the Left tone of dignity that the Left governmental administrators use, this is a one - way blackmail. We need a radical change of shift, not in words but in action. ''
The IWW has a rich and complex history in South Africa, with an original South African IWW organization being founded in 1910 and existing through most of the 1910s until disintegrating by around 1916. The union 's insistence on multiracial unionism set it at odds with the white trade union movement and brought severe political repression from the apartheid - era South African government. The major South African port of Durban was an important link in the IWW 's international network which was largely maintained by its Marine Transport Workers Industrial Union, that connected the mainline North American IWW to ports in Africa, India, South America, and Australasia.
After the collapse of the formal IWW organization in South Africa, it would be succeeded by an Industrial Socialist League, the Industrial Workers of Africa, and finally the Industrial and Commercial Workers ' Union (ICU), which would become the major black union in South Africa in the 1920s and 30s. Nevertheless, IWW and syndicalist influences would decline as the black workers ' movement was brought into the trade union fold and came under the domination of the Communist Party of South Africa, which opposed syndicalist tendencies in the unions.
Almost a hundred years later, multiple attempts were made to rebuild the South African IWW, with a short - lived South African Regional Organising Committee being founded in the early 2000s in Durban and attempts made to build a branch in Cape Town in the early 2010s, with neither resulting in success.
In 1997, there was a total of 3,240 workers in Sierra Leone, mostly miners, who registered themselves as IWW members in Sierra Leone government records largely independently of the international General Administration in Chicago (i.e. without the official issuing of membership cards or taking of dues). Contact between the Sierra Leone members and General Headquarters was lost after a military coup which was an episode in the Sierra Leone Civil War, which would last until 2002. The intensification of the civil war caused a number of IWW members, including the only official union delegate in the country, to flee to Guinea.
In 2012, IWW members in Uganda formed a Ugandan Regional Organizing Committee (ROC) and began to raise funds to establish a Ugandan office for the IWW. However, it was discovered that the union officers in Uganda had been violating the Constitution of the IWW in multiple ways, such as by permitting employers to join the union, and the ROC was dissolved.
A branch of the IWW has existed since 2012.
One Wobbly characteristic since their inception has been a penchant for song. To counteract management sending in the Salvation Army band to cover up the Wobbly speakers, Joe Hill wrote parodies of Christian hymns so that union members could sing along with the Salvation Army band, but with their own purposes. For example, "In the Sweet By and By '' became "There 'll Be Pie in the Sky When You Die (That 's a Lie) ''. From that start in exigency, Wobbly song writing became common because they "articulated the frustrations, hostilities, and humor of the homeless and the dispossessed. '' The IWW collected its official songs in the Little Red Songbook and continues to update this book to the present time. In the 1960s, the American folk music revival in the United States brought a renewed interest in the songs of Joe Hill and other Wobblies, and seminal folk revival figures such as Pete Seeger and Woody Guthrie had a pro-Wobbly tone, while some were members of the IWW. Among the protest songs in the book are "Hallelujah, I 'm a Bum '' (this song was never popular among members), "Union Maid '', and "I Dreamed I Saw Joe Hill Last Night ''. Perhaps the best known IWW song is "Solidarity Forever ''. The songs have been performed by dozens of artists, and Utah Phillips performed the songs in concert and on recordings for decades. Other prominent IWW songwriters include Ralph Chaplin who authored "Solidarity Forever '', and Leslie Fish.
The Finnish IWW community produced several folk singers, poets and songwriters, the most famous being Matti Valentine Huhta (better known as T - Bone Slim), who penned "The Popular Wobbly '' and "The Mysteries of a Hobo 's Life ''. Slim 's poem, "The Lumberjack 's Prayer '' was recorded by Studs Terkel on labor singer Bucky Halker 's Do n't Want Your Millions. Hiski Salomaa, whose songs were composed entirely in Finnish (and Finglish), remains a widely recognized early folk musician in his native Finland as well as in sections of the Midwest United States, Northern Ontario, and other areas of North America with high concentrations of Finns. Salomaa, who was a tailor by trade, has been referred to as the Finnish Woody Guthrie. Arthur Kylander, who worked as a lumberjack, is a lesser known, but important Finnish IWW folk musician. Kylander 's lyrics range from the difficulties of the immigrant labourer 's experience to more humorous themes. Arguably, the wanderer, a recurring theme in Finnish folklore dating back to pre-Christian oral tradition (as with Lemminkäinen in the Kalevala), translated quite easily to the music of Huhta, Salomaa, and Kylander; each of whom have songs about the trials and tribulations of the hobo.
Wobbly lingo is a collection of technical language, jargon, and historic slang used by the Wobblies, for more than a century. Many Wobbly terms derive from or are coextensive with hobo expressions used through the 1940s. The origin of the name "Wobbly '' itself is uncertain. For several decades, many hobos in the United States were members of, or were sympathetic to, the IWW. Because of this, some of the terms describe the life of a hobo such as "riding the rails '', living in "jungles '', dodging the "bulls ''. The IWW 's efforts to organize all trades allowed the lingo to expand to include terms relating to mining camps, timber work, and farming.
Some words and phrases believed to have originated within Wobbly lingo have gained cultural significance outside of the IWW. For example, from Joe Hill 's song "The Preacher and the Slave '', the expression pie in the sky has passed into common usage, referring to a "preposterously optimistic goal. ''
Notable members of the Industrial Workers of the World have included:
Former lieutenant governor of Colorado, David C. Coates was a labor militant, and was present at the founding convention, although it is unknown if he became a member. It has long been rumored, but not yet proven, that baseball legend Honus Wagner was also a Wobbly. Senator Joe McCarthy accused Edward R. Murrow of having been an IWW member, which Murrow denied. Some of the organization 's most famous current members include Noam Chomsky, Tom Morello, mixed martial arts fighter Jeff Monson and anthropologist David Graeber.
* Charbonneau, Karen Marble Creek
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im gonna soak up the sun song | Soak up the Sun - wikipedia
"Soak Up the Sun '' is the title of a song recorded by American artist Sheryl Crow. It was released in March 2002 as the lead single from her album C'mon C'mon. The song, which features backing vocals by Liz Phair, peaked at number - one on the Billboard Adult Top 40 chart and hit number 5 on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart and # 17 on the Hot 100 chart. In addition, "Soak Up the Sun '' (remixed by noted DJ Victor Calderone) spent one week at # 1 on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart in June 2002; to date, this is Crow 's only song to top this chart. It reached # 16 on the UK Singles Chart. It was covered by the Kidz Bop Kids in 2003. The song was also included on the album "Nolee Mix '' which was released to promote the My Scene dolls. The song was a staple of radio airplay during the summer of 2002.
The video directed by Wayne Isham and shot on the North Shore of Oahu, Hawaii features Crow performing on the beach, as well as various vacationers surfing in the ocean and jumping off a waterfall.
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describe three functions of the protective tissue in plants | Tissue (biology) - wikipedia
In biology, tissue is a cellular organizational level between cells and a complete organ. A tissue is an ensemble of similar cells and their extracellular matrix from the same origin that together carry out a specific function. Organs are then formed by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues.
The English word is derived from the French tissu, meaning something that is woven, from the verb tisser, "to weave ''.
The study of human and animal tissues is known as histology or, in connection with disease, histopathology. For plants, the discipline is called plant anatomy. The classical tools for studying tissues are the paraffin block in which tissue is embedded and then sectioned, the histological stain, and the optical microscope. In the last couple of decades, developments in electron microscopy, immunofluorescence, and the use of frozen tissue sections have enhanced the detail that can be observed in tissues. With these tools, the classical appearances of tissues can be examined in health and disease, enabling considerable refinement of medical diagnosis and prognosis.
Animal tissues are grouped into four basic types: connective, muscle, nervous, and epithelial. Collections of tissues joined in structural units to serve a common function compose organs. While all animals can generally be considered to contain the four tissue types, the manifestation of these tissues can differ depending on the type of organism. For example, the origin of the cells comprising a particular tissue type may differ developmentally for different classifications of animals.
The epithelium in all birds and animals is derived from the ectoderm and endoderm with a small contribution from the mesoderm, forming the endothelium, a specialized type of epithelium that composes the vasculature. By contrast, a true epithelial tissue is present only in a single layer of cells held together via occluding junctions called tight junctions, to create a selectively permeable barrier. This tissue covers all organismal surfaces that come in contact with the external environment such as the skin, the airways, and the digestive tract. It serves functions of protection, secretion, and absorption, and is separated from other tissues below by a basal lamina.
Connective tissues are fibrous tissues. They are made up of cells separated by non-living material, which is called an extracellular matrix. This matrix can be liquid or rigid. For example, blood contains plasma as its matrix and bone 's matrix is rigid. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place. Blood, bone, tendon, ligament, adipose and areolar tissues are examples of connective tissues. One method of classifying connective tissues is to divide them into three types: fibrous connective tissue, skeletal connective tissue, and fluid connective tissue.
Muscle cells form the active contractile tissue of the body known as muscle tissue or muscular tissue. Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle tissue is separated into three distinct categories: visceral or smooth muscle, found in the inner linings of organs; skeletal muscle, typically attached to bones, which generate gross movement; and cardiac muscle, found in the heart where it contracts to pump blood throughout an organism.
Cells comprising the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified as nervous (or neural) tissue. In the central nervous system, neural tissues form the brain and spinal cord. In the peripheral nervous system, neural tissues forms the cranial nerves and spinal nerves, inclusive of the motor neurons.
The epithelial tissues are formed by cells that cover the organ surfaces such as the surface of skin, the airways, the reproductive tract, and the inner lining of the digestive tract. The cells comprising an epithelial layer are linked via semi-permeable, tight junctions; hence, this tissue provides a barrier between the external environment and the organ it covers. In addition to this protective function, epithelial tissue may also be specialized to function in secretion, excretion and absorption. Epithelial tissue helps to protect organs from microorganisms, injury, and fluid loss.
Functions of epithelial tissue:
There are many kinds of epithelium, and nomenclature is somewhat variable. Most classification schemes combine a description of the cell - shape in the upper layer of the epithelium with a word denoting the number of layers: either simple (one layer of cells) or stratified (multiple layers of cells). However, other cellular features, such as cilia may also be described in the classification system. Some common kinds of epithelium are listed below:
In plant anatomy, tissues are categorized broadly into three tissue systems: the epidermis, the ground tissue, and the vascular tissue.
Plant tissues can also be divided differently into two types:
Meristematic tissue consists of actively dividing cells, and leads to increase in length and thickness of the plant. The primary growth of a plant occurs only in certain, specific regions, such as in the tips of stems or roots. It is in these regions that meristematic tissue is present. Cells in these tissues are roughly spherical or polyhedral, to rectangular in shape, and have thin cell walls. New cells produced by meristem are initially those of meristem itself, but as the new cells grow and mature, their characteristics slowly change and they become differentiated as components of the region of occurrence of meristimatic tissues, they are classified as:
The cells of meristematic tissues are similar in structure and have thin and elastic primary cell wall made up of cellulose. They are compactly arranged without inter-cellular spaces between them. Each cell contains a dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus. Dense protoplasm of meristematic cells contains very few vacuoles. Normally the meristematic cells are oval, polygonal or rectangular in shape.
Meristemetic tissue cells have a large nucleus with small or no vacuoles, they have no inter cellular spaces.
The meristematic tissues that take up a specific role lose the ability to divide. This process of taking up a permanent shape, size and a function is called cellular differentiation. Cells of meristematic tissue differentiate to form different types of permanent tissue. There are 3 types of permanent tissues:
A group of cells which are similar in origin; similar in structure and similar in function are called simple permanent tissue. They are of four types:
Parenchyma (para - ' beside '; enchyma - ' tissue ') is the bulk of a substance. In plants, it consists of relatively unspecialised living cells with thin cell walls that are usually loosely packed so that intercellular spaces are found between cells of this tissue. This tissue provides support to plants and also stores food. In some situations, a parenchyma contains chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis, in which case it is called a chlorenchyma. In aquatic plants, large air cavities are present in parenchyma to give support to them to float on water. Such a parenchyma type is called aerenchyma. some of parenchyma cells have metabolic waste and is known as idioblast. Spindle shape fibre also contained into this cell to support them and known as prosenchyma, succulent parenchyma also noted.
Collenchyma is Greek word where "Collen '' means gum and "chyma '' means infusion. It is a living tissue of primary body like Parenchyma. Cells are thin - walled but possess thickening of cellulose, water and pectin substances (pectocellulose) at the corners where number of cells join together. This tissue gives a tensile strength to the plant and the cells are compactly arranged and have very little inter-cellular spaces. It occurs chiefly in hypodermis of stems and leaves. It is absent in monocots and in roots. sometimes it contains chlorophyll which can help them photosynthesis.
Collenchymatous tissue acts as a supporting tissue in stems of young plants. It provides mechanical support, elasticity, and tensile strength to the plant body. It helps in manufacturing sugar and storing it as starch. It is present in the margin of leaves and resist tearing effect of the wind.
Sclerenchyma is Greek word where "Scleren '' means hard and "chyma '' means infusion. This tissue consists of thick - walled, dead cells and protoplasm is very less i.e. negligible. These cells have hard and extremely thick secondary walls due to uniform distribution and high secretion of lignin. Lignin deposition is so thick that the cell walls become strong, rigid and impermeable to water which is also known as stone cell or sclereids. This type of tissues are mainly of two divisions: 1) Sclerenchyma fiber and 2) Sclereids. Schlerenchyma cells have a narrow lumen and are long and narrow and unicellular
The entire surface of the plant consists of a single layer of cells called epidermis or surface tissue. The entire surface of the plant has this outer layer of epidermis. Hence it is also called surface tissue. Most of the epidermal cells are relatively flat. The outer and lateral walls of the cell are often thicker than the inner walls. The cells forms a continuous sheet without inter cellular spaces. It protects all parts of the plant.
The complex tissue consists of more than one type of cells which work together as a unit. Complex tissues help in the transportation of organic material, water and minerals up and down the plants. That is why it is also known as conducting and vascular tissue. The common types of complex permanent tissue are:
Xylem and phloem together form vascular bundles.
Xylem consists of:
Xylem serves as a chief conducting tissue of vascular plants. It is responsible for the conduction of water and mineral ions / salt.
Xylem tissue is organized in a tube - like fashion along the main axes of stems and roots. It consists of a combination of parenchyma cells, fibers, vessels, tracheids, and ray cells. Longer tubes made up of individual cells are vessels (tracheae), while vessel members are open at each end. Internally, there may be bars of wall material extending across the open space. These cells are joined end to end to form long tubes. Vessel members and tracheids are dead at maturity. Tracheids have thick secondary cell walls and are tapered at the ends. They do not have end openings such as the vessels. The tracheids ends overlap with each other, with pairs of pits present. The pit pairs allow water to pass from cell to cell.
Though most conduction in xylem tissue is vertical, lateral conduction along the diameter of a stem is facilitated via rays. Rays are horizontal rows of long - living parenchyma cells that arise out of the vascular cambium. In trees and other woody plants, rays radiate out from the center of stems and roots, and appear like spokes on a wheel in cross section. Rays, unlike vessel members and tracheids, are alive at functional maturity.
Phloem consists of:
Phloem is an equally important plant tissue as it also is part of the ' plumbing system ' of a plant. Primarily, phloem carries dissolved food substances throughout the plant. This conduction system is composed of sieve - tube member and companion cells, that are without secondary walls. The parent cells of the vascular cambium produce both xylem and phloem. This usually also includes fibers, parenchyma and ray cells. Sieve tubes are formed from sieve - tube members laid end to end. The end walls, unlike vessel members in xylem, do not have openings. The end walls, however, are full of small pores where cytoplasm extends from cell to cell. These porous connections are called sieve plates. In spite of the fact that their cytoplasm is actively involved in the conduction of food materials, sieve - tube members do not have nuclei at maturity. It is the companion cells that are nestled between sieve - tube members that function in some manner bringing about the conduction of food. Sieve - tube members that are alive contain a polymer called callose, a carbohydrate polymer, forming the callus pad / callus, the colourless substance that covers the sieve plate. Callose stays in solution as long as the cell contents are under pressure. Phloem transports food and materials in plants upwards and downwards as required.
Mineralized tissues are biological tissues that incorporate minerals into soft matrices. Such tissues may be found in both plants and animals, as well as algae. Typically these tissues form a protective shield against predation or provide structural support.
The term was introduced in anatomy by Marie François Xavier Bichat in 1801. He argued that the body functions would be better understood taking as unity of study the tissues, and not the organs. Bichat distinguished 21 types of elementary tissues for the human body, a number later reduced by other authors.
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what kind of fuel does the sr-71 use | JP - 7 - wikipedia
Turbine Fuel, Low Volatility, JP - 7, commonly known as JP - 7, was referred to as Jet Propellant 7, to MIL - DTL - 38219 is a specific jet fuel that was developed for the United States Air Force (USAF), for use in its supersonic military aircraft that required a jet fuel with a high flash point, and high thermal stability. JP - 7 is the fuel that was developed, which was required by the Pratt & Whitney J58 (JT11D - 20) turbojet engines, which was used primarily in the now retired Lockheed SR - 71 Blackbird. During flight, the SR - 71 could attain speeds in excess of Mach 3 +, which was the most efficient cruising speed for the J58 engines. However, very high skin temperatures are generated at this speed due to friction with the air. A new jet fuel was needed that was not affected by the heat, so JP - 7 jet fuel was developed for this purpose.
The Boeing X-51 Waverider also uses JP - 7 fuel to run the Pratt & Whitney SJY61 scramjet engine, with fuel capacity of some 270 pounds (120 kg). As with the SR - 71, the X-51A design super-cools this fuel (cooled by extended subsonic flight in the stratosphere; prior to acceleration to supersonic speeds); then, when in supersonic flight, the fuel is heated by its circulation through heat exchangers which transfer to it the heat load of the interior spaces of the airframe. The fuel is then pumped through rotating mechanical parts of the engines and auxiliary mechanical equipment, providing both lubrication and cooling. Finally, at a temperature of nearly 550 ° F (290 ° C), it is pumped into the fuel nozzles of the engines.
JP - 7 is a compound mixture composed primarily of hydrocarbons; including alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkylbenzenes, indanes / tetralins, and naphthalenes; with addition of fluorocarbons to increase its lubricant properties, an oxidizing agent to make it burn more efficiently, and a cesium - containing compound known as A-50, which is to aid in disguising the radar and infrared signatures of the exhaust plume. The SR - 71 Blackbirds used approximately 36,000 -- 44,000 pounds (16,000 -- 20,000 kg) of fuel per hour of flight.
JP - 7 is unusual, in that it is not a conventional distillate fuel, but is created from special blending stocks in order to have very low (< 3 %) concentration of highly volatile components like benzene or toluene, and almost no sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen impurities. It has a low vapor pressure, and high thermal oxidation stability. The fuel must operate across a wide range of temperatures: from near freezing at high altitude, to the high temperatures of the airframe and engine parts that are being cooled by it at high speed. Its volatility must be low enough to make it flash - resistant at these high temperatures.
The very low volatility, and relative unwillingness of JP - 7 to be ignited, required triethylborane (TEB) to be injected into the engine in order to initiate combustion, and allow afterburner operation in flight. The SR - 71 had a limited capacity for TEB, and therefore had a limited number of available ' shots ' of TEB (usually 16) for re-starts, and those had to be managed carefully on long - duration flights with multiple stages of relatively low - altitude air refueling and normal high - altitude cruise flight.
Shell Oil developed JP - 7 in 1955. Company vice president Jimmy Doolittle arranged for Shell to develop the fuel for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and United States Air Force 's (USAF) secret Lockheed U-2 spy plane, which needed a low - volatility fuel that would not evaporate at high altitude. Manufacturing several hundred thousand gallons of the new fuel required the petroleum byproducts Shell normally used to make its Flit insecticide, causing a nationwide shortage of that product that year.
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who was involved in the moral reform movement | Birth control movement in the United States - wikipedia
The birth control movement in the United States was a social reform campaign from 1914 to around 1945 that aimed to increase the availability of contraception in the U.S. through education and legalization. The movement began in 1914 when a group of political radicals in New York City, led by Emma Goldman, Mary Dennett, and Margaret Sanger, became concerned about the hardships that childbirth and self - induced abortions brought to low - income women. Sanger, in particular, simultaneously sought to connect birth control to the organized eugenics movement, regularly appealing to the authority of eugenic scientists Karl Pearson, Charles Davenport, and others in her Birth Control Review from the early 1920s Such figures sought to prevent population segments they deemed genetically ' undesirable ' from reproducing. While seeking legitimacy for the birth control movement partly through the approval of organized eugenics, Sanger and other activists also worked on the political front. Since contraception was considered to be obscene at the time, the activists targeted the Comstock laws, which prohibited distribution of any "obscene, lewd, and / or lascivious '' materials through the mail. Hoping to provoke a favorable legal decision, Sanger deliberately broke the law by distributing The Woman Rebel, a newsletter containing a discussion of contraception. In 1916, Sanger opened the first birth control clinic in the United States, but the clinic was immediately shut down by police, and Sanger was sentenced to 30 days in jail.
A major turning point for the movement came during World War I, when many U.S. servicemen were diagnosed with venereal diseases. The government 's response included an anti-venereal disease campaign that framed sexual intercourse and contraception as issues of public health and legitimate topics of scientific research. This was the first time a U.S. government institution had engaged in a sustained, public discussion of sexual matters; as a consequence, contraception transformed from an issue of morals to an issue of public health.
Encouraged by the public 's changing attitudes towards birth control, Sanger opened a second birth control clinic in 1923, but this time there were no arrests or controversy. Throughout the 1920s, public discussion of contraception became more commonplace, and the term "birth control '' became firmly established in the nation 's vernacular. The widespread availability of contraception signaled a transition from the stricter sexual mores of the Victorian era to a more sexually permissive society.
Legal victories in the 1930s continued to weaken anti-contraception laws. The court victories motivated the American Medical Association in 1937 to adopt contraception as a core component of medical school curricula, but the medical community was slow to accept this new responsibility, and women continued to rely on unsafe and ineffective contraceptive advice from ill - informed sources. In 1942, the Planned Parenthood Federation of America was formed, creating a nationwide network of birth control clinics. After World War II, the movement to legalize birth control came to a gradual conclusion, as birth control was fully embraced by the medical profession, and the remaining anti-contraception laws were no longer enforced.
The practice of birth control was common throughout the U.S. prior to 1914, when the movement to legalize contraception began. Longstanding techniques included the rhythm method, withdrawal, diaphragms, contraceptive sponges, condoms, prolonged breastfeeding, and spermicides. Use of contraceptives increased throughout the nineteenth century, contributing to a 50 percent drop in the fertility rate in the United States between 1800 and 1900, particularly in urban regions. The only known survey conducted during the nineteenth century of American women 's contraceptive habits was performed by Clelia Mosher from 1892 to 1912. The survey was based on a small sample of upper - class women, and shows that most of the women used contraception (primarily douching, but also withdrawal, rhythm, condoms and pessaries) and that they viewed sex as a pleasurable act that could be undertaken without the goal of procreation.
Although contraceptives were relatively common in middle - class and upper - class society, the topic was rarely discussed in public. The first book published in the United States which ventured to discuss contraception was Moral Physiology; or, A Brief and Plain Treatise on the Population Question, published by Robert Dale Owen in 1831. The book suggested that family planning was a laudable effort, and that sexual gratification -- without the goal of reproduction -- was not immoral. Owen recommended withdrawal, but he also discussed sponges and condoms. That book was followed by Fruits of Philosophy: The Private Companion of Young Married People, written in 1832 by Charles Knowlton, which recommended douching. Knowlton was prosecuted in Massachusetts on obscenity charges, and served three months in prison.
Birth control practices were generally adopted earlier in Europe than in the United States. Knowlton 's book was reprinted in 1877 in England by Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant, with the goal of challenging Britain 's obscenity laws. They were arrested (and later acquitted) but the publicity of their trial contributed to the formation, in 1877, of the Malthusian League -- the world 's first birth control advocacy group -- which sought to limit population growth to avoid Thomas Malthus 's dire predictions of exponential population growth leading to worldwide poverty and famine. By 1930, similar societies had been established in nearly all European countries, and birth control began to find acceptance in most Western European countries, except Catholic Ireland, Spain, and France. As the birth control societies spread across Europe, so did birth control clinics. The first birth control clinic in the world was established in the Netherlands in 1882, run by the Netherlands ' first female physician, Aletta Jacobs. The first birth control clinic in England was established in 1921 by Marie Stopes, in London.
Contraception was legal in the United States throughout most of the 19th century, but in the 1870s a social purity movement grew in strength, aimed at outlawing vice in general, and prostitution and obscenity in particular. Composed primarily of Protestant moral reformers and middle - class women, the Victorian - era campaign also attacked contraception, which was viewed as an immoral practice that promoted prostitution and venereal disease. Anthony Comstock, a postal inspector and leader in the purity movement, successfully lobbied for the passage of the 1873 Comstock Act, a federal law prohibiting mailing of "any article or thing designed or intended for the prevention of conception or procuring of abortion '' as well as any form of contraceptive information. Many states also passed similar state laws (collectively known as the Comstock laws), sometimes extending the federal law by outlawing the use of contraceptives, as well as their distribution. Comstock was proud of the fact that he was personally responsible for thousands of arrests and the destruction of hundreds of tons of books and pamphlets.
Comstock and his allies also took aim at the libertarians and utopians who comprised the free love movement -- an initiative to promote sexual freedom, equality for women, and abolition of marriage. The free love proponents were the only group to actively oppose the Comstock laws in the 19th century, setting the stage for the birth control movement.
The efforts of the free love movement were not successful and, at the beginning of the 20th century, federal and state governments began to enforce the Comstock laws more rigorously. In response, contraception went underground, but it was not extinguished. The number of publications on the topic dwindled, and advertisements, if they were found at all, used euphemisms such as "marital aids '' or "hygienic devices ''. Drug stores continued to sell condoms as "rubber goods '' and cervical caps as "womb supporters ''.
At the turn of the century, an energetic movement arose, centered in Greenwich Village, that sought to overturn bans on free speech. Supported by radicals, feminists, anarchists, and atheists such as Ezra Heywood, Moses Harman, D.M. Bennett, and Emma Goldman, these activists regularly battled anti-obscenity laws and, later, the government 's effort to suppress speech critical of involvement in World War I. Prior to 1914, the free speech movement focused on politics, and rarely addressed contraception.
Goldman 's circle of radicals, socialists, and bohemians was joined in 1912 by a nurse, Margaret Sanger, whose mother had been through 18 pregnancies in 22 years, and died at age 50 of tuberculosis and cervical cancer. In 1913, Sanger worked in New York 's Lower East Side, often with poor women who were suffering due to frequent childbirth and self - induced abortions. After one particularly tragic medical case, Sanger wrote: "I threw my nursing bag in the corner and announced... that I would never take another case until I had made it possible for working women in America to have the knowledge to control birth. '' Sanger visited public libraries, searching for information on contraception, but nothing was available. She became outraged that working - class women could not obtain contraception, yet upper - class women who had access to private physicians could.
Under the influence of Goldman and the Free Speech League, Sanger became determined to challenge the Comstock laws that outlawed the dissemination of contraceptive information. With that goal in mind, in 1914 she launched The Woman Rebel, an eight - page monthly newsletter which promoted contraception using the slogan "No Gods, No Masters '', and proclaimed that each woman should be "the absolute mistress of her own body. '' Sanger coined the term birth control, which first appeared in the pages of Rebel, as a more candid alternative to euphemisms such as family limitation.
Sanger 's goal of challenging the law was fulfilled when she was indicted in August 1914, but the prosecutors focused their attention on articles Sanger had written on assassination and marriage, rather than contraception. Afraid that she might be sent to prison without an opportunity to argue for birth control in court, she fled to England to escape arrest.
While Sanger was in Europe, her husband continued her work, which led to his arrest after he distributed a copy of a birth control pamphlet to an undercover postal worker. The arrest and his 30 - day jail sentence prompted several mainstream publications, including Harper 's Weekly and the New - York Tribune, to publish articles about the birth control controversy. Emma Goldman and Ben Reitman toured the country, speaking in support of the Sangers, and distributing copies of Sanger 's pamphlet Family Limitation. Sanger 's exile and her husband 's arrest propelled the birth control movement into the forefront of American news.
In the spring of 1915 supporters of the Sangers -- led by Mary Dennett -- formed the National Birth Control League (NBCL), which was the first American birth control organization. Throughout 1915, smaller regional organizations were formed in San Francisco, Portland, Oregon, Seattle, and Los Angeles.
Sanger returned to the United States in October 1915. She planned to open a birth control clinic modeled on the world 's first such clinic, which she had visited in Amsterdam. She first had to fight the charges outstanding against her. Noted attorney Clarence Darrow offered to defend Sanger free of charge but, bowing to public pressure, the government dropped the charges early in 1916. No longer under the threat of jail, Sanger embarked on a successful cross-country speaking tour, which catapulted her into the leadership of the U.S. birth control movement. Other leading figures, such as William J. Robinson and Mary Dennett, chose to work in the background, or turned their attention to other causes. Later in 1916, Sanger traveled to Boston to lend her support to the Massachusetts Birth Control League and to jailed birth control activist Van Kleeck Allison.
During Sanger 's 1916 speaking tour, she promoted birth control clinics based on the Dutch model she had observed during her 1914 trip to Europe. Although she inspired many local communities to create birth control leagues, no clinics were established. Sanger therefore resolved to create a birth control clinic in New York that would provide free contraceptive services to women. New York state law prohibited the distribution of contraceptives or even contraceptive information, but Sanger hoped to exploit a provision in the law which permitted doctors to prescribe contraceptives for the prevention of disease. On October 16, 1916, she, partnering with Fania Mindell and Ethel Byrne, opened the Brownsville clinic in Brooklyn. The clinic was an immediate success, with over 100 women visiting on the first day. A few days after opening, an undercover policewoman purchased a cervical cap at the clinic, and Sanger was arrested. Refusing to walk, Sanger and a co-worker were dragged out of the clinic by police officers. The clinic was shut down, and it was not until 1923 that another birth control clinic was opened in the United States.
Sanger 's trial began in January 1917. She was supported by a large number of wealthy and influential women who came together to form the Committee of One Hundred, which was devoted to raising funds for Sanger and the NBCL. The committee also started publishing the monthly journal Birth Control Review, and established a network of connections to powerful politicians, activists, and press figures. Despite the strong support, Sanger was convicted; the judge offered a lenient sentence if she promised not to break the law again, but Sanger replied "I can not respect the law as it exists today. '' She served a sentence of 30 days in jail.
In protest to her arrest as well, Byrne was sentenced to 30 days in jail at Blackwell 's Island Prison and responded to her situation with a hunger strike protest. With no signs of ending her demonstration anytime soon, Byrne was force fed by prison guards. Weakened and ill, Byrne refused to end her hunger strike at the cost of securing early release from prison. However, Sanger accepted the plea bargain on her sister 's behalf, agreeing that Byrne would be released early from prison if she ended her birth control activism. Horrified, Byrne 's relationship quickly eroded with her sister and, both forcefully and willingly, she left the birth control movement. Due to the drama of Byrne 's demonstration, the birth control movement became a headline news story in which the organization 's purpose was distributed across the country.
Other activists were also pushing for progress. Emma Goldman was arrested in 1916 for circulating birth control information, and Abraham Jacobi unsuccessfully tried to persuade the New York medical community to push for a change in law to permit physicians to dispense contraceptive information.
The publicity from Sanger 's trial and Byrne 's hunger strike generated immense enthusiasm for the cause, and by the end of 1917 there were over 30 birth control organizations in the United States. Sanger was always astute about public relations, and she seized on the publicity of the trial to advance her causes. After her trial, she emerged as the movement 's most visible leader. Other leaders, such as William J. Robinson, Mary Dennett, and Blanche Ames Ames, could not match Sanger 's charisma, charm and fervor.
The movement was evolving from radical, working - class roots into a campaign backed by society women and liberal professionals. Sanger and her fellow advocates began to tone down their radical rhetoric and instead emphasized the socioeconomic benefits of birth control, a policy which led to increasing acceptance by mainstream Americans. Media coverage increased, and several silent motion pictures produced in the 1910s featured birth control as a theme (including Birth Control, produced by Sanger and starring herself).
Opposition to birth control remained strong: state legislatures refused to legalize contraception or the distribution of contraceptive information; religious leaders spoke out, attacking women who would choose "ease and fashion '' over motherhood; and eugenicists were worried that birth control would exacerbate the birth rate differential between "old stock '' white Americans and "coloreds '' or immigrants.
Sanger formed the New York Woman 's Publishing Company (NYWPC) in 1918 and, under its auspices, became the publisher for the Birth Control Review. British suffragette activist Kitty Marion, standing on New York street corners, sold the Review at 20 cents per copy, enduring death threats, heckling, spitting, physical abuse, and police harassment. Over the course of the following ten years, Marion was arrested nine times for her birth control advocacy.
Sanger appealed her 1917 conviction and won a mixed victory in 1918 in a unanimous decision by the New York Court of Appeals written by Judge Frederick E. Crane. The court 's opinion upheld her conviction, but indicated that the courts would be willing to permit contraception if prescribed by doctors. This decision was only applicable within New York, where it opened the door for birth control clinics, under physician supervision, to be established. Sanger herself did not immediately take advantage of the opportunity, wrongly expecting that the medical profession would lead the way; instead she focused on writing and lecturing.
The birth control movement received an unexpected boost during World War I, as a result of a crisis the U.S. military experienced when many of its soldiers were diagnosed with syphilis or gonorrhea. The military undertook an extensive education campaign, focusing on abstinence, but also offering some contraceptive guidance. The military, under pressure from purity advocates, did not distribute condoms, or even endorse their use, making the U.S. the only military force in World War I that did not supply condoms to its troops. When U.S. soldiers were in Europe, they found rubber condoms readily available, and when they returned to America, they continued to use condoms as their preferred method of birth control.
The military 's anti-venereal disease campaign marked a major turning point for the movement: it was the first time a government institution had engaged in a sustained, public discussion of sexual matters. The government 's public discourse changed sex from a secret topic into a legitimate topic of scientific research, and it transformed contraception from an issue of morals to an issue of public health.
In 1917, advocate Emma Goldman was arrested for protesting World War 1 and American military conscription. Goldman 's commitment to free speech on topics such as socialism, anarchism, birth control, labor / union rights, and free love eventually cost her American citizenship and the right to live in the United States. Due to her commitment to socialist welfare and anti-capitalism, Goldman was associated with communism which led to her expulsion from the country during the First Red Scare. While World War 1 led to a breakthrough on American acceptance of birth control relating to public health, anti-communist WW1 propaganda sacrificed one of the birth control movement 's most dedicated members.
While an important birth control activist and leader, Mary Dennett advocated for a wide variety of organizations. Starting as a field secretary for the Massachusetts Women 's Suffrage Association, she worked her way up to win an elected seat as a corresponding secretary for the National American Women 's Suffrage Association. Dennett headed the literary department, undertaking assignments such as distributing pamphlets and leaflets. Following disillusionment with the NAWSA 's organizational structure, Dennett, as described above, helped found the National Birth Control League. The NBCL took a strong stance against militant protest strategies and instead focused attention on legislation changes at both the state and federal level. During World War I, Mary Dennett focused her efforts on the peace movement, but she returned to the birth control movement in 1918. She continued to lead the NBCL, and collaborated with Sanger 's NYWPC. In 1919, Dennett published a widely distributed educational pamphlet, The Sex Side of Life, which treated sex as a natural and enjoyable act. However, in the same year, frustrated with the NBCL 's chronic lack of funding, Dennett broke away and formed the Voluntary Parenthood League (VPL). Both Dennett and Sanger proposed legislative changes that would legalize birth control, but they took different approaches: Sanger endorsed contraception but only under a physician 's supervision; Dennett pushed for unrestricted access to contraception. Sanger, a proponent of diaphragms, was concerned that unrestricted access would result in ill - fitting diaphragms and would lead to medical quackery. Dennett was concerned that requiring women to get prescriptions from physicians would prevent poor women from receiving contraception, and she was concerned about a shortage of physicians trained in birth control. Both legislative initiatives failed, partly because some legislators felt that fear of pregnancy was the only thing that kept women chaste. In the early 1920s, Sanger 's leadership position in the movement solidified because she gave frequent public lectures, and because she took steps to exclude Dennett from meetings and events.
Although Sanger was busy publishing the Birth Control Review during the years 1919 -- 1920, she was not formally affiliated with either of the major birth control organizations (NBCL or VPL) during that time. In 1921 she became convinced that she needed to associate with a formal body to earn the support of professional societies and the scientific community. Rather than join an existing organization, she considered creating a new one. As a first step, she organized the First American Birth Control Conference, held in November 1921 in New York City. On the final night of the conference, as Sanger prepared to give a speech in the crowded Town Hall theater, police raided the meeting and arrested her for disorderly conduct. From the stage she shouted: "we have a right to hold (this meeting) under the Constitution... let them club us if they want to. '' She was soon released. The following day it was revealed that Patrick Joseph Hayes, the Archbishop of New York, had pressured the police to shut down the meeting. The Town Hall raid was a turning point for the movement: opposition from the government and medical community faded, and the Catholic Church emerged as its most vocal opponent. After the conference, Sanger and her supporters established the American Birth Control League (ABCL).
Four years after the New York Court of Appeals opened the doors for physicians to prescribe contraceptives, Sanger opened a second birth control clinic, which she staffed with physicians to make it legal under that court ruling (the first clinic had employed nurses). This second clinic, the Clinical Research Bureau (CRB), opened on January 2, 1923. To avoid police harassment the clinic 's existence was not publicized, its primary mission was stated to be conducting scientific research, and it only provided services to married women. The existence of the clinic was finally announced to the public in December 1923, but this time there were no arrests or controversy. This convinced activists that, after ten years of struggle, birth control had finally become widely accepted in the United States. The CRB was the first legal birth control clinic in the United States, and quickly grew into the world 's leading contraceptive research center.
Following the successful opening of the CRB in 1923, public discussion of contraception became more commonplace, and the term "birth control '' became firmly established in the nation 's vernacular. Of the hundreds of references to birth control in magazines and newspapers of the 1920s, more than two - thirds were favorable. The availability of contraception signaled the end of the stricter morality of the Victorian era, and ushered in the emergence of a more sexually permissive society. Other factors that contributed to the new sexual norms included increased mobility brought by the automobile, anonymous urban lifestyles, and post-war euphoria. Sociologists who surveyed women in Muncie, Indiana in 1925 found that all the upper class women approved of birth control, and more than 80 percent of the working class women approved. The birth rate in America declined 20 percent between 1920 and 1930, primarily due to increased use of birth control.
Although clinics became more common in the late 1920s, the movement still faced significant challenges: Large sectors of the medical community were still resistant to birth control; birth control advocates were blacklisted by the radio industry; and state and federal laws -- though generally not enforced -- still outlawed contraception.
The most significant opponent to birth control was the Catholic Church, which mobilized opposition in many venues during the 1920s. Catholics persuaded the Syracuse city council to ban Sanger from giving a speech in 1924; the National Catholic Welfare Conference lobbied against birth control; the Knights of Columbus boycotted hotels that hosted birth control events; the Catholic police commissioner of Albany prevented Sanger from speaking there; the Catholic mayor of Boston, James Curley, blocked Sanger from speaking in public; and several newsreel companies, succumbing to pressure from Catholics, refused to cover stories related to birth control. The ABCL turned some of the boycotted speaking events to their advantage by inviting the press, and the resultant news coverage often generated public sympathy for their cause. However, Catholic lobbying was particularly effective in the legislative arena, where their arguments -- that contraception was unnatural, harmful, and indecent -- impeded several initiatives, including an attempt in 1924 by Mary Dennett to overturn federal anti-contraception laws.
Dozens of birth control clinics opened across the United States during the 1920s, but not without incident. In 1929, New York police raided a clinic in New York and arrested two doctors and three nurses for distributing contraceptive information that was unrelated to the prevention of disease. The ABCL achieved a major victory in the trial, when the judge ruled that use of contraceptives to space births farther apart was a legitimate medical treatment that benefited the health of the mother. The trial, in which many prominent physicians served as witnesses for the defense, brought a large segment of the medical community onto the side of birth control advocates.
Before the advent of the birth control movement, eugenics had become very popular in Europe and the U.S., and the subject was widely discussed in articles, movies, and lectures. Eugenicists had mixed feelings about birth control: they worried that it would exacerbate the birth rate differential between "superior '' and "inferior '' races, but they also recognized its value as a tool to "racial betterment ''. Leaders of the birth control movement never considered eugenics to be their primary goal, focusing instead on free speech and women 's rights, but around 1920 they started to make common cause with eugenicists, hoping to broaden the support base of the birth control movement. Eugenics buttressed the birth control movement 's aims by correlating excessive births with increased poverty, crime and disease. Sanger published two books in the early 1920s that endorsed eugenics: Woman and the New Race and The Pivot of Civilization. Sanger and other advocates endorsed negative eugenics (discouraging procreation of "inferior '' persons), but did not advocate euthanasia or positive eugenics (encouraging procreation of "superior '' persons). Written in an essay titled "The Eugenic Value of Birth Control Propaganda '', Sanger argued that not until parents take control of their own reproduction would it be "possible... to improve the quality of the generations of the future, but (also) to maintain civilization at its present level... Only by intelligent mastery of the procreative powers can the great mass of humanity be awakened.... '' In accordance, Sanger wished to use birth control as means of suppressing undesirable populations. She believed the only way for civilization to become enlightened was for the regeneration of the white race and for the elimination of other ' lesser ' races. Sanger hoped to use birth control to suppress the populations of African - Americans, poverty - stricken Americans, and those perceived to have either cognitive, emotional, or physical disabilities. However, many eugenicists refused to support the birth control movement because of Sanger 's insistence that a woman 's primary duty was to herself, not to the state.
Like many white Americans in the U.S. in the 1930s, some leaders of the birth control movement believed that lighter - skinned races were superior to darker - skinned races. They assumed that African Americans were intellectually backward, would be relatively incompetent in managing their own health, and would require special supervision from whites. The dominance of whites in the movement 's leadership and medical staff resulted in accusations of racism from blacks and suspicions that "race suicide '' would be a consequence of large scale adoption of birth control. These suspicions were misinterpreted by some of the white birth control advocates as lack of interest in contraception.
In spite of these suspicions, many African - American leaders supported efforts to supply birth control to the African - American community. In 1929, James H. Hubert, a black social worker and leader of New York 's Urban League, asked Sanger to open a clinic in Harlem. Sanger secured funding from the Julius Rosenwald Fund and opened the clinic, staffed with African - American doctors, in 1930. The clinic was guided by a 15 - member advisory board consisting of African - American doctors, nurses, clergy, journalists, and social workers. It was publicized in the African - American press and African - American churches, and received the approval of W.E.B. Du Bois, co-founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). In the early 1940s, the Birth Control Federation of America (BCFA) initiated a program called the Negro Project, managed by its Division of Negro Service (DNS). As with the Harlem clinic, the primary aim of the DNS and its programs was to improve maternal and infant health. Based on her work at the Harlem clinic, Sanger suggested to the DNS that African Americans were more likely to take advice from a doctor of their own race, but other leaders prevailed and insisted that whites be employed in the outreach efforts. The discriminatory actions and statements by the movement 's leaders during the 1920s and 1930s have led to continuing allegations that the movement was racist.
Unsurprisingly, the birth control movement 's association with racism, classism, etc., expounds the continual theme of feminist movements fighting only for certain women who fall under specific categories. Examples of this discrimination are common: between the 1820s and the 1840s, middle class voluntary associations looked down upon working women by hurting their societal image, claiming working class women were ' maternally neglectful ' regarding their dual responsibilities of domestic work and waged labor. Between the 1860s and the 1910s, women 's suffrage associations appealed to southern white women by arguing white women 's right to vote would ensure the racial superiority of whites over blacks. These organizations, in turn, discriminated against black women fighting to earn the right to vote for all. In the 1930s, the Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching created an organization designed to fight against the lynching of black men. Yet, the association barred the participation of African - Americans and aimed its purpose, not for the end of racial superiority, but for the freeing of southern white women from forced domesticity. These examples demonstrate how dominant women 's rights movements excluded certain people based on class and skin color. The birth control movement 's racist influence is no different than the years of discrimination prominent organizations have long demonstrated.
Two important legal decisions in the 1930s helped increase the accessibility of contraceptives. In 1930, two condom manufacturers sued each other in the Youngs Rubber case, and the judge ruled that contraceptive manufacturing was a legitimate business enterprise. He went further, and declared that the federal law prohibiting the mailing of condoms was not legally sound. Sanger precipitated a second legal breakthrough when she ordered a diaphragm from Japan in 1932, hoping to provoke a decisive battle in the courts. The diaphragm was confiscated by the U.S. government, and Sanger 's subsequent legal challenge led to the 1936 One Package legal ruling by Judge Augustus Hand. His decision overturned an important provision of the anti-contraception laws that prohibited physicians from obtaining contraceptives. This court victory motivated the American Medical Association in 1937 to finally adopt contraception as a normal medical service and a core component of medical school curricula. However, the medical community was slow to accept this new responsibility, and women continued to rely on unsafe and ineffective contraceptive advice from ill - informed sources until the 1960s.
By 1938, over 400 contraceptive manufacturers were in business, over 600 brands of female contraceptives were available, and industry revenues exceeded $250 million per year. Condoms were sold in vending machines in some public restrooms, and men spent twice as much on condoms as on shaving. Although condoms had become commonplace in the 1930s, feminists in the movement felt that birth control should be the woman 's prerogative, and they continued to push for development of a contraceptive that was under the woman 's control, a campaign which ultimately led to the birth control pill decades later. To increase the availability of high - quality contraceptives, birth control advocates established the Holland -- Rantos company to manufacture contraceptives -- primarily diaphragms, which were Sanger 's recommended method. By the 1930s, the diaphragm with spermicidal jelly had become the most commonly prescribed form of contraception; in 1938, female contraceptives accounted for 85 percent of annual contraceptive sales.
The 1936 One Package court battle brought together two birth control organizations -- the ABCL and the Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau (formerly the CRB) -- who had joined forces to craft the successful defense effort. Leaders of both groups viewed this as an auspicious time to merge the two organizations, so, in 1937, the Birth Control Council of America, under the leadership of Sanger, was formed to effect a consolidation. The effort eventually led to the merger of the two organizations in 1939 as the Birth Control Federation of America (BCFA). Although Sanger continued in the role of president, she no longer wielded the same power as she had in the early years of the movement, and, in 1942, more conservative forces within the organization changed the name to Planned Parenthood Federation of America, a name Sanger objected to because she considered it too euphemistic. After World War II, the leadership of Planned Parenthood de-emphasized radical feminism and shifted focus to more moderate themes such as family planning and population policy.
The movement to legalize birth control came to a gradual conclusion around the time Planned Parenthood was formed. In 1942, there were over 400 birth control organizations in America, contraception was fully embraced by the medical profession, and the anti-contraception Comstock laws (which still remained on the books) were rarely enforced.
After World War II advocacy for reproductive rights transitioned into a new era which focused on abortion, public funding, and insurance coverage.
Birth control advocacy also took on a global aspect as organizations around the world began to collaborate. In 1946, Sanger helped found the International Committee on Planned Parenthood, which evolved into the International Planned Parenthood Federation and soon became the world 's largest non-governmental international family planning organization. In 1952, John D. Rockefeller III founded the influential Population Council. Fear of global overpopulation became a major issue in the 1960s, generating concerns about pollution, food shortages, and quality of life, leading to well - funded birth control campaigns around the world. The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development and the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women addressed birth control and influenced human rights declarations which asserted women 's rights to control their own bodies.
In the early 1950s in the United States, philanthropist Katharine McCormick provided funding for biologist Gregory Pincus to develop the birth control pill, which was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1960. The pill became very popular and had a major impact on society and culture. It contributed to a sharp increase in college attendance and graduation rates for women. New forms of intrauterine devices were introduced in the 1960s, increasing popularity of long acting reversible contraceptives.
In 1965, the Supreme Court ruled in Griswold v. Connecticut that it was unconstitutional for the government to prohibit married couples from using birth control.
In 1967 activist Bill Baird was arrested for distributing a contraceptive foam and a condom to a student during a lecture on birth control and abortion at Boston University. Baird 's appeal of his conviction resulted in the United States Supreme Court case Eisenstadt v. Baird (1972), which extended the Griswold holding to unmarried couples, and thereby legalized birth control for all Americans.
In 1970, Congress finally removed references to contraception from federal anti-obscenity laws; and in 1973, the Roe v. Wade decision legalized abortion during the first trimester of pregnancy.
Also in 1970, Title X of the Public Health Service Act was enacted as part of the war on poverty, to make family planning and preventive health services available to low - income and the uninsured. Without publicly funded family planning services, according to the Guttmacher Institute, the number of unintended pregnancies and abortions in the United States would be nearly two - thirds higher; the number of unintended pregnancies among poor women would nearly double. According to the United States Department of Health and Human Services, publicly funded family planning saves nearly $4 in Medicaid expenses for every $1 spent on services.
In 1982, European drug manufacturers developed mifepristone, which was initially utilized as a contraceptive, but is now generally prescribed with a prostoglandin to induce abortion in pregnancies up to the fourth month of gestation. To avoid consumer boycotts organized by anti-abortion organizations, the manufacturer donated the U.S. manufacturing rights to Danco Laboratories, a company formed by pro-choice advocates, with the sole purpose of distributing mifepristone in the U.S, and thus immune to the effects of boycotts.
In 1997, the FDA approved a prescription emergency contraception pill (known as the morning - after pill), which became available over the counter in 2006. In 2010, ulipristal acetate, a more effective emergency contraceptive was approved for use up to five days after unprotected sexual intercourse. Fifty to sixty percent of abortion patients became pregnant in circumstances in which emergency contraceptives could have been used. These emergency contraceptives, including Plan B and EllaOne, proved to be another battleground in the war over reproductive rights. Opponents of emergency contraception consider it a form of abortion, because it may interfere with the ability of a fertilized embryo to implant in the uterus; while proponents contend that it is not abortion, because the absence of implantation means that pregnancy never commenced.
In 2000, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission ruled that companies that provided insurance for prescription drugs to their employees but excluded birth control were violating the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
President Obama signed the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) on 23 March 2010. As of 1 August 2011, female contraception was added to a list of preventive services covered by the ACA that would be provided without patient co-payment. The federal mandate applied to all new health insurance plans in all states from 1 August 2012. Grandfathered plans did not have to comply unless they changed substantially. To be grandfathered, a group plan must have existed or an individual plan must have been sold before President Obama signed the law; otherwise they were required to comply with the new law. The Guttmacher Institute noted that even before the federal mandate was implemented, twenty - eight states had their own mandates that required health insurance to cover the prescription contraceptives, but the federal mandate innovated by forbidding insurance companies from charging part of the cost to the patient.
In 2017, the Trump administration issued a ruling letting insurers and employers refuse to provide birth control if doing so went against their "religious beliefs '' or "moral convictions ''. However, later that same year federal judge Wendy Beetlestone issued an injunction temporarily stopping the enforcement of the Trump administration ruling.
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who plays gordon's mother on girlfriends guide to divorce | Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce - wikipedia
Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce (also known as Girlfriends ' Guide to Freedom starting with season 3) is an American comedy - drama television series developed by Marti Noxon for the American cable network Bravo. Based on the Girlfriends ' Guides book series by Vicki Iovine, the series revolves around Abby McCarthy, a self - help author who finds solace in new friends and adventures as she faces an impending divorce. Lisa Edelstein portrays the main character Abby. Beau Garrett, Necar Zadegan and Paul Adelstein co-star. Janeane Garofalo was part of the main cast for the first seven episodes of season 1 before departing the cast. She was replaced in episode 8 with Alanna Ubach. Retta recurred during the show 's second season before being promoted to the main cast at the start of season 3.
Produced by Universal Cable Productions, it is the first original scripted series for Bravo. A 13 - episode first season was ordered by the network, which premiered on December 2, 2014. The show debuted to 1.04 million viewers. Critical reception for the series has initially been generally positive, with particular praise towards Edelstein 's performance and the series ' quality over the reality series on Bravo. The show was eventually renewed for a second season, which premiered on December 1, 2015. On April 13, 2016, it was announced that Bravo had renewed the show for a third, fourth and fifth season.
Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce was met with generally positive reviews from television critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from critics, the series received an average score of 69, based on 21 reviews. Lori Rackl of Chicago Sun - Times gave the episode a 4 star rating (out of 4 stars), calling it "a sometimes hilarious, sometimes heartbreaking story about an L.A. - based self - help author '' and added that the first two episodes "reveal a much more nuanced, poignant tale, punctuated by some genuinely funny scenes. '' LaToya Ferguson of The A.V. Club gave the series a grade of "A - '', calling it "a very solid drama '' that should be on HBO or Showtime. Ferguson also praised the characters and the series 's messiness, writing "Visually, it 's almost flawless (there 's one obvious green - screen moment in the pilot, but it 's not Ringer level), but every character here is deeply flawed. '' Los Angeles Times 's Mary McNamara lauded the series ' cast 's portrayal of the characters and deemed the series "smartly acted, crisply written and willing to address all manner of issues -- marriage, betrayal, family economics, friendship, even the pitfalls of public domesticity -- in gratifyingly complex ways. '' Brian Lowry, writing for Variety, applauded the series ' cast and material, noting how it sticks to the network 's demographic while maintaining a level of quality.
Gail Pennington of St. Louis Post-Dispatch called the series "a smart, solid examination of just how messy relationships are and how hard it is to make them work. '' Slate 's Willa Paskin highlighted Edelstein 's portrayal of the lead character, describing her as "very well cast, both commanding and nurturing enough to seem like the ideal advice - giver '' and noted that the series has "a satisfying and complex take on social dynamics in friendship and romance. '' Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times praised Edelstein and Garofalo as "one reason '' the show is entertaining and found the comic side of the series "a lot more fun. '' Time 's writer James Poniewozik praised the writing and Edelstein 's "sympathetic '' performance, noting that the latter "grounds a show that often otherwise plays like young - adult fiction for actual adults. '' However, Poniewozik opined that "there 's one lesson Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce has (over) learned from its Bravo peers: that there 's no reality so compelling that it ca n't be sweetened with a little Photoshop. '' David Hinckley, writing for the New York Daily News, highlighted the series ' best moments as those showing the messy side of marital discourse while heralding Edelstein 's performance as "memorably moving. '' Margaret Lyons of Vulture was critical of the several aspects of the series, including the characters Abby and Lyla 's attitude on giving their spouses child support, but found the series to be its best "at its nastiest. ''
Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce premiered in the United States on Bravo on December 2, 2014, in Canada on Slice on January 9, 2015, and in the United Kingdom on Lifetime UK on September 15, 2015.
The first season was released on DVD in region 1 on October 13, 2015. On November 1, 2015 season 1 of Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce became available to stream in the US for Netflix subscribers. The show is also available from electronic sell - through platforms such as iTunes, Amazon Instant Video, and Vudu.
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what do you understand by socio - cultural environment | Social environment - wikipedia
The social environment, social context, sociocultural context or milieu refers to the immediate physical and social setting in which people live or in which something happens or develops. It includes the culture that the individual was educated or lives in, and the people and institutions with whom they interact.
The interaction may be in person or through communication media, even anonymous or one - way, and may not imply equality of social status. Therefore, the social environment is a broader concept than that of social class or social circle.
People with the same social environment often develop a sense of social solidarity; they often tend to trust and help one another, and to congregate in social groups. They will often think in similar styles and patterns even when their conclusions differ.
In order to enrich their lives, people have used natural resources and in the process have brought about many changes in the natural environment. Human settlements, roads, farmlands, dams and many other things have all developed through this. All these man - made components are included in our cultural environment, Erving Goffman in particular stressing the deeply social nature of the individual environment.
C. Wright Mills contrasted the immediate milieu of jobs / family / neighbourhood with the wider formations of the social structure, highlighting in particular a distinction between "the personal troubles of milieu '' and the "public crises of social structure ''.
Emile Durkheim took a wider view of the social environment (milieu social), arguing that it contained internalised norms and representations of social forces / social facts: "Our whole social environment seems to be filled with forces which really exist only in our own minds '' -- collective representations.
Phenomenologists contrast two alternative visions of society, as a deterministic constraint (milieu) and as a nurturing shell (ambiance).
Max Scheler distinguishes between milieu as an experienced value - world, and the objective social environment on which we draw to create the former, noting that the social environment can either foster or restrain our creation of a personal milieu.
Pierre Janet saw neurosis as in part the product of the identified patient 's social environment -- family, social network, work etc. -- and considered that in some instances what he called "social surgery '' to create more space in that environment would be a beneficial measure.
Similar ideas have since been taken up in community psychiatry and family therapy.
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florida state college at jacksonville north campus address | Florida State College at Jacksonville - wikipedia
Florida State College at Jacksonville (FSCJ) is a state college in Jacksonville, Florida. It is part of the Florida College System and one of several institutions in that system designated a "state college '' as it offers a greater number of four - year bachelor 's degrees than traditional two - year community colleges.
The college was established in 1965. It has four major physical campuses and several additional centers located around the First Coast region and currently enrolls 52,000 students.
The institution was founded in 1965 as Florida Junior College. With the growth of the community college movement, it was renamed Florida Community College at Jacksonville (FCCJ) in 1986.
In 2009, in recognition of a shortage of four - year colleges in the state, the Florida Legislature passed legislation creating the Florida College System, enabling some community colleges to become "state colleges '', meaning they can offer more bachelor 's degrees than traditional community colleges, but no graduate degree programs. FCCJ was one of the first community colleges to make the change, and, also in 2009, announced the change to their current name, "Florida State College at Jacksonville ''.
Florida State College at Jacksonville 's main administrative campus is situated in Downtown Jacksonville adjacent to the historic neighborhood of Springfield. Established in 1977, Its programs focus on college degrees, continuing education and vocational training. The Downtown Campus places particular emphasis on educational outreach; programs of focus include building construction, auto mechanic, electrical and metal trades, and English as a second language. The campus is situated north of State Street and south of First Street between Main and Jefferson streets. Nearby Rosa Parks Transit Station offers both bus and Jacksonville Skyway monorail service.
Other downtown facilities include:
Northern facade of the Advanced Technology Center.
Administration Building at FSCJ Downtown.
FSCJ Urban Resource Center.
Building A at FSCJ Downtown, an example of Brutalist architecture.
The Main Street Building.
Pedestrian bridge located near State Street.
North Campus is located off Dunn Avenue on Jacksonville 's Northside. Built in 1970, it houses many of FSCJ 's health programs, including nursing, dental hygiene, and emergency medical services. North Campus also includes the Culinary Institute of the South, a culinary school with its own restaurant, and a cosmetology program. The North Campus includes baseball, softball, and soccer facilities.
Kent Campus is located on Roosevelt Boulevard in the Riverside and Avondale neighborhood. It opened in 1966 using over 100 World War II - era housing units as classrooms. Originally known as Cumberland Campus, it was later renamed after Fred H. Kent, a prominent Jacksonville attorney, and the first Chairman of the FSCJ District Board of Trustees. In 1979, the buildings that were still structurally sound went into service as residential housing in the community. Kent Campus was rebuilt in an all - brick, closed courtyard design, gaining it a reputation over the years as an aesthetically pleasing area in an urban environment.
South Campus is located on Beach Boulevard on Jacksonville 's Southside. Its programs focus on technical and liberal arts associate 's degrees. South Campus is home to FSCJ 's art, music and theater programs and the Nathan H. Wilson Center for the Arts, as well as the Jacksonville Regional Fire / Rescue Training and Education Center. The campus features the Sports Center, an arena for basketball, volleyball, and tennis.
FSCJ offers intercollegiate athletics for both men and women. The FSCJ Athletic Program competes in Women 's Volleyball, Women 's Fast - Pitch Softball, Women 's Tennis, Men 's Basketball and Men 's Baseball. The college competes as a Division 1 program in the Mid-Florida Conference of the Florida State College Activities Association (FSCAA) in the Mid-Florida Conference. The FSCAA is governed by the rules of the National Junior Community College Athletic Association (NJCAA), of which FSCJ is a member of Region 8.
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how many acts go to the agt finals | America 's Got Talent (Season 12) - wikipedia
Season twelve of the reality competition series America 's Got Talent was ordered on August 2, 2016 and premiered on NBC on Tuesday, May 30, 2017. Howie Mandel, Mel B, Heidi Klum and Simon Cowell returned as judges for their respective eighth, fifth, fifth and second seasons. Supermodel and businesswoman Tyra Banks replaced Nick Cannon, who hosted for eight seasons, making her the first female host of the show. The live shows returned to the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles beginning August 15, 2017.
The format of the show was the same as in season eleven, and Dunkin Donuts sponsors the show for a third consecutive season. A guest judge joined the panel for each episode of the Judge Cuts round: Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox and Seal.
Darci Lynne Farmer was named the winner on the season finale, September 20, 2017. She was the third ventriloquist, third child and third female to win a season of America 's Got Talent. 10 - year - old singer Angelica Hale placed second, and glow light dance troupe Light Balance came in third. Farmer won the show 's prize of $1 million and a headlining performance in Las Vegas.
On October 4, 2016, Simon Cowell signed a contract to remain as a judge through 2019.
Long - time host Nick Cannon announced, on February 13, 2017, that he would not return as host for the twelfth season, soon after he made disparaging remarks about NBC in his 2017 Showtime comedy special, Stand Up, Do n't Shoot. Cannon was still under contract to host, and NBC executives did not initially accept his resignation, but they ultimately searched for a new host.
On March 12, 2017, NBC announced supermodel and host Tyra Banks as the host for Season 12.
The season had preliminary open call auditions in Chicago, Austin, Cleveland, Jacksonville, Philadelphia, Las Vegas, San Diego, New York City, Charleston, Memphis, and Los Angeles. As in years past, prospective contestants could also submit online auditions.
Judges ' auditions were taped in March at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Los Angeles. The premiere aired May 30, 2017.
The Golden Buzzer returned for its fourth consecutive season. Any act that received a golden buzzer during the preliminary auditions was sent directly to the live shows and did not compete in the Judge Cuts round. In the first episode of preliminary auditions, Mel B pressed the golden buzzer for 12 - year - old singing ventriloquist Darci Lynne Farmer. In subsequent episodes, Simon Cowell pressed it for 29 - year - old deaf singer Mandy Harvey, Howie Mandel chose 16 - year - old former blind singer Christian Guardino, Tyra Banks pressed it for Light Balance dance crew, and Heidi Klum chose 13 - year - old singer Angelina Green.
Each Judge Cuts act that received a golden buzzer advanced to the live shows without any voting by the judges. During the Judge Cuts round, guest judges Chris Hardwick pressed his golden buzzer for 9 - year old singer Angelica Hale, DJ Khaled pressed it for 21 - year old singer - songwriter and guitarist Chase Goehring, Laverne Cox pressed it for 9 - year old singer Celine Tam, and Seal pressed it for soul singer Johnny Manuel.
On June 11, 2017, contestant Brandon Rogers died in an automobile accident. Rogers was an American physician who specialized in family medicine. Earlier in 2017, after seeing YouTube videos of Rogers singing, Boyz II Men invited him to sing with them as a guest in three of their Las Vegas shows. His successful AGT audition aired on July 11, 2017, in his memory. He competed in the Judge Cuts round, but his performance in that round was not televised.
The Judge Cuts round began on Tuesday, July 18, 2017. Like the previous season, one guest judge joined the judges ' panel each show and was given one golden buzzer opportunity to send an act straight to the live shows. Twenty acts were shown each week and seven advanced, including the guest judge 's golden buzzer choice. Guest judges were not given a red buzzer to use. Any act that received all four red buzzers was immediately eliminated from the competition. The four guest judges were Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox, and Seal.
After the Judge Cuts, three wildcards were chosen from eliminated acts to perform in the live shows: Final Draft, Bello Nock and Oskar and Gaspar (who did not perform in the Judge Cuts round). All three of these acts were eliminated in the Quarterfinals.
Guest judge: Chris Hardwick
Date: July 18, 2017
Guest judge: DJ Khaled
Date: July 25, 2017
As of 2017, this is the only Judge Cuts episode in the show 's history in which an act with at least one "X '' buzzer was nevertheless promoted to the live shows. This was also the only Judge Cuts episode of the season in which an act received 4 red buzzers.
Guest judge: Laverne Cox
Date: August 1, 2017
This was the first Judge Cuts episode in which no acts received a red buzzer from any of the judges.
Guest judge: Seal
Date: August 8, 2017
The quarterfinals were broadcast live from the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles starting on August 15, 2017. They featured the nine golden buzzer acts, the 24 other acts promoted during the Judge Cuts round, and three wildcard acts chosen by the producers and judges. Twelve acts performed each week, with results announced the on following nights; each week seven acts were sent through to the semifinals. Puddles Pity Party and Mirror Image received an "X '' in the Quarterfinals. Demian Aditya received "X 's '' by Mel B and Cowell in the second Quarterfinals.
Guests: Grace VanderWaal, August 16
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Yoli Mayor was announced to have received more of America 's votes than Just Jerk, and she advanced to the semi-finals.
Guests: Circus 1903, August 23
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Eric Jones was announced to have received more of America 's votes than The Masqueraders, and he advanced to the semi-finals.
^ 2 Due to a technical issue, Light Balance 's performance was based on their dress rehearsal.
^ 3 Another technical issue occurred when the sealed box Aditya was in did n't fall as planned.
Guests: Mat Franco, Piff the Magic Dragon, and Jon Dorenbos, August 30
^ 1 Sara added another dog named Loki in her act. Loki performed throughout the rest of the competition.
The live semifinals started on September 5, 2017. They featured the 21 acts voted to the semifinals, plus the judges ' semifinal wildcard pick. Each week, eleven acts performed; five went through to the finals, and six were eliminated. No acts were buzzed.
Guests: The Clairvoyants
^ 1 Chase Goehring, DaNell Daymon & Greater Works, and Mike Yung were not initially announced as performing on week one of semifinals.
^ 1 Merrick Hanna and Mandy Harvey were switched to perform on Week 2 although they were on the Week 1 promo.
^ 2 Klum 's voting intention was not revealed.
The final performances took place on September 19, followed by the final results show on September 20, 2017. No acts were buzzed.
Guest performers in the finale included Kelly Clarkson, Shania Twain, James Arthur, Derek Hough and Terry Fator. Other celebrity appearances included Marlee Matlin.
The following chart describes the acts, appearances and segments presented during the finale.
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when do the game of thrones books start | A Game of Thrones - wikipedia
A Game of Thrones is the first novel in A Song of Ice and Fire, a series of fantasy novels by American author George R.R. Martin. It was first published on August 1, 1996. The novel won the 1997 Locus Award and was nominated for both the 1997 Nebula Award and the 1997 World Fantasy Award. The novella Blood of the Dragon, comprising the Daenerys Targaryen chapters from the novel, won the 1997 Hugo Award for Best Novella. In January 2011 the novel became a New York Times bestseller and reached # 1 on the list in July 2011.
In the novel, recounting events from various points of view, Martin introduces the plot - lines of the noble houses of Westeros, the Wall, and the Targaryens. The novel has inspired several spin - off works, including several games. It is also the namesake and basis for the first season of Game of Thrones, an HBO television series that premiered in April 2011. A March 2013 paperback TV tie - in re-edition was also titled Game of Thrones, excluding the indefinite article "A ''.
A Game of Thrones follows three principal storylines simultaneously.
At the beginning of the story, Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark executes a deserter from the Night 's Watch, who has betrayed his vows and fled from the Wall. On the way back, his children adopt six direwolf pups, the animal of his sigil. There are three male and two female direwolf pups, as well as an albino runt, which aligns with his three trueborn sons, two trueborn daughters, and one bastard son. That night, Ned receives word of the death of his mentor, Lord Jon Arryn, the principal advisor to Ned 's childhood friend, King Robert Baratheon. During his own visit to Ned 's castle of Winterfell, Robert recruits Ned to replace Arryn as the King 's Hand. Ned is reluctant, but agrees to go when he learns that Arryn 's widow Lysa believes Queen Cersei Lannister and her family poisoned Arryn. Shortly thereafter, Ned 's son Bran inadvertently discovers Cersei having sex with her twin brother Jaime Lannister, who throws Bran from the tower to conceal their affair.
Ned and his daughters Sansa and Arya depart for the royal capital of King 's Landing, while his wife Catelyn, a comatose Bran, and their other sons Robb and Rickon remain at Winterfell. During the journey south, a physical altercation between Arya and Robert 's son, Prince Joffrey, to whom Sansa has been betrothed, increases both the tension between the Starks and the Lannisters and the sibling rivalry between Arya and Sansa. Arya 's direwolf Nymeria attacks Joffrey to protect her, and Arya chases Nymeria away to protect her from the Lannisters ' wrath, therefore Sansa 's direwolf Lady is executed in Nymeria 's place.
At Winterfell, an assassin attempts to kill Bran, thwarted only by his direwolf. Catelyn departs for King 's Landing to bring word of this to Ned. Shortly after that, Bran awakens as a paraplegic, with no memory of the cause of his fall. Upon Catelyn 's arrival in King 's Landing, she is brought to her childhood friend, Petyr "Littlefinger '' Baelish, who identifies Tyrion Lannister, the dwarf brother of Cersei and Jaime, as the owner of the dagger used against Bran, and agrees to help Ned investigate the possibility of Lannister treason. During her return to Winterfell, Catelyn meets Tyrion by chance on the Kingsroad, arrests him, and takes him to her sister Lysa Arryn 's stronghold in the Vale, where Tyrion demands trial by combat and regains his freedom when his champion, a mercenary named Bronn, is victorious. In retaliation for Tyrion 's abduction, his father Lord Tywin Lannister sends soldiers to raid Catelyn 's homeland, the Riverlands.
In King 's Landing, Ned finds Robert 's eldest brother Stannis Baratheon left the city after Jon Arryn 's death for his island of Dragonstone. Ned begins to investigate into Jon Arryn 's affairs, which leads him to visiting locations where Jon Arryn visited with Stannis - including places where Robert 's bastard children are found. On the way back from one such place, Ned and his soldiers are waylaid by Jaime Lannister, who demands Tyrion 's return, and when he does not get what he wants he orders Ned 's men be killed - in the ensuing skirmish, Ned is crippled in one leg when his horse collapses on top of him. Even afterwards, Ned continues to investigate and eventually discovers that Robert 's legal heirs, including Joffrey, are in fact Cersei 's children by Jaime and that Jon Arryn was killed to conceal his discovery of their incest. Ned offers Cersei a chance to flee before he informs Robert, but she uses this chance to arrange Robert 's death in a hunting accident. Ned, made lord - regent by Robert 's will, enlists Littlefinger 's help to secure the loyalty and assistance of the city guards to challenge Joffrey 's claim on the throne and place Stannis on the throne; but Littlefinger betrays him, resulting in Ned 's arrest, and the death of his men. Whilst Joffrey is crowned King of the Seven Kingdoms, Ned eventually agrees to falsely confess to high treason and join the Night 's Watch in exchange for Sansa and Arya 's safety, but Joffrey has him beheaded anyway. Whilst Sansa is retained into custody, Arya escapes with the help of her fencing instructor, Syrio Forel, and Yoren, a recruiting agent for the Night 's Watch.
Robb Stark has gathered an army and marched south in response to his father 's arrest; and upon learning of Ned 's death, attempts to raise further support from and to aid his maternal grandfather, Lord Hoster Tully. To reach the Tully lands, he agrees to a marital alliance with the notoriously unreliable House Frey, who control the intervening territory but declined to assist the Tullys despite being sworn to Riverrun. Robb proves victorious against Jaime Lannister, who is captured and taken prisoner, while his father Tywin decides to withdraw to the southern border of the Tully lands, sending Tyrion to King 's Landing to keep Joffrey under control. When Robb elects not to ally himself with Robert 's brothers Renly and Stannis, who have both made claims to the throne, the southern and northern lords hail him as "King in the North '': his family 's ancestral title.
The prologue of the novel introduces the Wall: an ancient barrier of stone, ice, and magic, hundreds of feet high and hundreds of miles long, shielding the Seven Kingdoms from the Northern wilderness. The Wall is manned by the Night 's Watch: an order of warriors sworn to serve there for life, forgoing marriage, titles, property, and children. North of the Wall, a small patrol of Rangers from the Night 's Watch encounter the Others, an ancient and hostile race of superhumans. All of the Rangers are killed except the single survivor later executed by Eddard Stark for desertion.
Jon Snow, the bastard son of Eddard Stark, is inspired by his uncle, Benjen Stark, to join the Night 's Watch, but becomes disillusioned when he discovers that its primary use is that of a penal colony for criminals, meant to keep "wildlings '', human tribesmen in relative anarchy north of the Wall, in check. At the Wall, Jon unites the recruits against their harsh instructor and protects the cowardly but good - natured and intelligent Samwell Tarly. Jon hopes that his combat skills will earn him assignment to the Rangers, the military arm of the Night 's Watch, but instead is made a steward to the leader of the Watch, Lord Commander Jeor Mormont, potentially making Jon the successor to Mormont. Benjen, who had led a small party of Rangers beyond the Wall, fails to return, and six months later, the dead bodies of two of the Rangers from his party are recovered beyond the Wall, but soon re-animate as wights, which kill six men and threaten Mormont before being dispatched by Jon.
When word of his father 's execution reaches Jon, he attempts to join Robb against the Lannisters but is prevented by his comrades and persuaded by Mormont to remain loyal to the Watch. Mormont then declares his intention to find Benjen -- dead or alive -- and to investigate the disappearance of many wildlings and the dark rumors surrounding "the King - Beyond - the - Wall '': a deserter from the Night 's Watch known as Mance Rayder.
In Pentos, a city - state of Essos, a continent to the east of Westeros, Viserys Targaryen, son of the king overthrown by Robert Baratheon, betroths his sister Daenerys to Khal Drogo, a warlord of the nomadic Dothraki, in exchange for the use of Drogo 's army to reclaim the throne of Westeros. Illyrio, a wealthy merchant who has been supporting the penniless Targaryens and brokered the marriage, gives Daenerys three petrified dragon eggs as a wedding gift. Jorah Mormont, a knight exiled from Westeros, joins Viserys as an adviser. Initially terrified of her new husband and his people, Daenerys eventually embraces the role of Drogo 's queen. When Drogo shows little interest in conquering Westeros, Viserys tries to browbeat his sister into coercing Drogo, but she refuses. When Viserys publicly threatens Daenerys, Drogo executes him by pouring molten gold on his head. After that, an assassin seeking King Robert 's favor attempts to poison Daenerys and her unborn child, and Drogo agrees to help her conquer Westeros. While sacking villages to fund the invasion, Drogo is wounded, and Daenerys commands a captive folk healer to save him. When he is beyond saving, the healer, angered by the Dothraki raids, sacrifices Daenerys ' unborn child to power the spell to save Drogo 's life, which restores Drogo 's health but leaves him in a vegetative state. Most of the Dothraki army departs to follow a new leader. Daenerys smothers Drogo with a pillow and orders the healer tied to Drogo 's funeral pyre. She places her three dragon eggs on the pyre, enters it herself, and emerges unscathed with three newly hatched dragons suckling at her breasts. The remaining Dothraki and Jorah Mormont, awe - struck, swear allegiance to her.
Throughout the novel, characters are often faced with decisions that match one redeemable trait against another. The Guardian outlines characters who are frequently "forced to choose between their love for those close to them and the greater interests of honour, duty and the realm. '' In Westeros, Ned ultimately decides to venture south with Robert, leaving much of his family in Winterfell. At the Wall, Jon wrestles with the predicament of joining his half - brother Robb in rebellion or staying with his sworn brothers in the Night 's Watch. Daenerys has issue with the Dothraki treatment of those they conquered in Essos. These conflicts characters encounter oftentimes reflect inconsistent decision making. Catelyn initially is overwhelmed by grief and does not leave Bran 's bedside while he is comatose, ignoring her political responsibilities, choosing family over duty. But soon after, Catelyn leaves Bran and her family for Kings Landing to inform Ned of potential Lannister treason, effectively displaying a more duty fulfilling role. Family, duty, and honor play major roles in conflicts that arise in the story arc, and qualities traditionally categorized as noble oppose each other in resolution. Character decision conflicts and consequence analysis are particular to how Martin wants to portray fantasy.
Martin characteristically deviates from the traditional fantasy model and clear - cut lines of good versus evil. Martin reflects: "I think the battle between good and evil is fought largely within the individual human heart, by the decisions that we make. It 's not like evil dresses up in black clothing and you know, they 're really ugly ''. This viewpoint characterizes the book and is evident in the actions of several different families which frequently have conflicts with each other. The Starks ' and Lannisters ' conflict is a central component of the novel, and the reader receives points of view from both sides. Likewise, Daenerys ' storyline develops around the Targaryen 's upheaval in Westeros, in which the Starks played a significant role. Martin argues:
Having multiple viewpoints is crucial to the grayness of the characters. You have to be able to see the struggle from both sides, because real human beings in a war have all these processes of self - justification, telling ourselves why what we 're doing is the right thing.
Each chapter concentrates on the third person limited point of view of a single character; the book presents the perspective of eight main characters. Additionally, a minor character provides the prologue. Chapter headings indicate the perspective.
In the later books, certain viewpoint characters are added while others are removed.
The novel has been translated into many languages and published in multiple editions in hardcover, paperback, e-book, and audio book form. In different languages, the number of books may not be the same.
In June 2000, Meisha Merlin published a limited edition of the book, fully illustrated by Jeffrey Jones.
A Game of Thrones and the subsequent novels in the A Song of Ice and Fire series have been adapted in a HBO television series, a comics series, several card, board and video games, and other media.
A Game of Thrones has received critical acclaim. Lauren K. Nathan of the Associated Press wrote that the book "grip (s) the reader from Page One '' and is set in a "magnificent '' fantasy world that is "mystical, but still believable. '' Steve Perry told readers of The Oregonian that the plot is "complex and fascinating '' and the book is "rich and colorful '' with "all the elements of a great fantasy novel ''. Writing in The Washington Post, John H. Riskind commented that "many fans of sword - and - sorcery will enjoy the epic scope of this book '' but felt that the book "suffers from one - dimensional characters and less than memorable imagery. '' Phyllis Eisenstein of the Chicago Sun - Times wrote that, although the book uses many generic fantasy tropes, Martin 's approach is "so refreshingly human and intimate that it transcends them. '' She described it as "an absorbing combination of the mythic, the sweepingly historical, and the intensely personal. '' John Prior, writing in the San Diego Union - Tribune, called Martin 's writing "strong and imaginative, with plenty of Byzantine intrigue and dynastic struggle '', and compared it to Robert Jordan 's Wheel of Time books, "though much darker, with no comedy or romance to relieve the nastiness. ''
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where is river brahmaputra located in india map | Brahmaputra river - wikipedia
The Brahmaputra (/ ˌbrɑːməˈpuːtrə / is one of the major rivers of Asia, a trans - boundary river which flows through China, India and Bangladesh. As such, it is known by various names in the region: Assamese: ব্ৰহ্মপুত্ৰ নদ (' নদ ' nôd, masculine form of ' নদী ' nôdi "river '') Brôhmôputrô (bɹɔɦmɔputɹɔ); Sanskrit: ब्रह्मपुत्र, IAST: Brahmaputra; Tibetan: ཡར ་ ཀླུངས ་ གཙང ་ པོ ་, Wylie: yar klung gtsang po Yarlung Tsangpo; simplified Chinese: 布 拉 马 普 特 拉 河; traditional Chinese: 布 拉 馬 普 特 拉 河; pinyin: Bùlāmǎpǔtèlā Hé. It is also called Tsangpo - Brahmaputra (when referring to the whole river including the stretch within Tibet). The Manas River, which runs through Bhutan, joins it at Jogighopa, in India. It is the ninth largest river in the world by discharge, and the 15th longest.
With its origin in the Manasarovar Lake, located on the northern side of the Himalayas in Burang County of Tibet as the Yarlung Tsangpo River, it flows across southern Tibet to break through the Himalayas in great gorges (including the Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon) and into Arunachal Pradesh (India). It flows southwest through the Assam Valley as Brahmaputra and south through Bangladesh as the Jamuna (not to be mistaken with Yamuna of India). In the vast Ganges Delta, it merges with the Padma, the popular name of the river Ganges in Bangladesh, and finally the Meghna and from here it is known as Meghna before emptying into the Bay of Bengal.
About 3,848 km (2,391 mi) long, the Brahmaputra is an important river for irrigation and transportation. The average depth of the river is 38 m (124 ft) and maximum depth is 120 m (380 ft). The river is prone to catastrophic flooding in the spring when Himalayas snow melts. The average discharge of the river is about 19,800 m / s (700,000 cu ft / s), and floods can reach over 100,000 m / s (3,500,000 cu ft / s). It is a classic example of a braided river and is highly susceptible to channel migration and avulsion. It is also one of the few rivers in the world that exhibit a tidal bore. It is navigable for most of its length.
The river drains the Himalaya east of the Indo - Nepal border, south - central portion of the Tibetan plateau above the Ganga basin, south - eastern portion of Tibet, the Patkai - Bum hills, the northern slopes of the Meghalaya hills, the Assam plains, and the northern portion of Bangladesh. The basin, especially south of Tibet, is characterized by high levels of rainfall. Kangchenjunga (8,586 m) is the only peak above 8,000 m, hence is the highest point within the Brahmaputra basin.
The Brahmaputra 's upper course was long unknown, and its identity with the Yarlung Tsangpo was only established by exploration in 1884 -- 86. This river is often called Tsangpo - Brahmaputra river.
The lower reaches are sacred to Hindus. While most rivers on the Indian subcontinent have female names, this river has a rare male name, as it means "son of Brahma '' in Sanskrit (putra means "son '').
The Brahmaputra River, also called Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibetan language, originates on the Angsi Glacier located on the northern side of the Himalayas in Burang County of Tibet. The source of the river was earlier thought to be on the Chemayungdung glacier, which covers the slopes of the Himalayas about 97 km (60 mi) southeast of Lake Manasarovar in southwestern Tibet. The river is 3,848 km (2,391 mi) long, and its drainage area is 712,035 km (274,918 sq mi) according to the new findings, while previous documents showed its length varied from 2,900 to 3,350 km and its drainage area between 520,000 and 1.73 million km. This finding has been given by Liu Shaochuang, a researcher with the Institute of Remote Sensing Applications under the analysis using expeditions and satellite imagery from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS).
From its source, the river runs for nearly 1,100 km (680 mi) in a generally easterly direction between the main range of the Himalayas to the south and the Kailas Range to the north. Throughout its upper course, the river is generally known as the Tsangpo ("Purifier ''); it is also known by its Chinese name (Yarlung Zangbo) and by other local Tibetan names.
In Tibet, the Tsangpo receives a number of tributaries. The most important left - bank tributaries are the Raka Zangbo (Raka Tsangpo), which joins the river west of Xigazê (Shigatse), and the Lhasa (Kyi), which flows past the Tibetan capital of Lhasa and joins the Tsangpo at Qüxü. The Nyang Qu (Gyamda) River joins the river from the north at Zela (Tsela Dzong). On the right bank, a second river called the Nyang Qu (Nyang Chu) meets the Tsangpo at Xigazê.
After passing Pi (Pe) in Tibet, the river turns suddenly to the north and northeast and cuts a course through a succession of great narrow gorges between the mountainous massifs of Gyala Peri and Namcha Barwa in a series of rapids and cascades. Thereafter, the river turns south and southwest and flows through a deep gorge (the "Grand Canyon '' of the Tsangpo) across the eastern extremity of the Himalayas with canyon walls that extend upward for 5,000 m (16,000 ft) and more on each side. During that stretch, the river enters northern Arunachal Pradesh state in northeastern India, where it is known as the Dihang (or Siang) River, and turns more southerly.
The Brahmaputra enters India in the state of Arunachal Pradesh, where it is called Siang. It makes a very rapid descent from its original height in Tibet, and finally appears in the plains, where it is called Dihang. It flows for about 35 km (22 mi) and is joined by the Dibang River and the Lohit River at the head of the Assam Valley. Below the Lohit, the river is called Brahmaputra and Burlung - Buthur by native Bodo tribals, it then enters the state of Assam, and becomes very wide -- as wide as 20 km (12 mi) in parts of Assam.
The Dihang, winding out of the mountains, turns toward the southeast and descends into a low - lying basin as it enters northeastern Assam state. Just west of the town of Sadiya, the river again turns to the southwest and is joined by two mountain streams, the Lohit and the Dibang. Below that confluence, about 1,450 km (900 mi) from the Bay of Bengal, the river becomes known conventionally as the Brahmaputra ("Son of Brahma ''). In Assam, the river is mighty, even in the dry season, and during the rains, its banks are more than 8 km (5.0 mi) apart. As the river follows its braided 700 m (2,300 ft) course through the valley, it receives several rapidly rushing Himalayan streams, including the Subansiri, Kameng, Bhareli, Dhansiri, Manas, Champamati, Saralbhanga, and Sankosh Rivers. The main tributaries from the hills and from the plateau to the south are the Burhi Dihing, the Disang, the Dikhu, and the Kopili.
Between Dibrugarh and Lakhimpur Districts, the river divides into two channels -- the northern Kherkutia channel and the southern Brahmaputra channel. The two channels join again about 100 km (62 mi) downstream, forming the Majuli island, which is the largest river island in the world. At Guwahati, near the ancient pilgrimage centre of Hajo, the Brahmaputra cuts through the rocks of the Shillong Plateau, and is at its narrowest at 1 km (1,100 yd) bank - to - bank. Because of the river 's narrow width, the Battle of Saraighat was fought here in March 1671. The first combined rail / road bridge across the Brahmaputra was opened to traffic in April 1962 at Saraighat.
The environment of the Brahmaputra floodplains in Assam have been described as the Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests ecoregion.
In Bangladesh, the Brahmaputra is joined by the Teesta River (or Tista), one of its largest tributaries. Below the Tista, the Brahmaputra splits into two distributary branches. The western branch, which contains the majority of the river 's flow, continues due south as the Jamuna (Jomuna) to merge with the lower Ganga, called the Padma River (Pôdda). The eastern branch, formerly the larger, but now much smaller, is called the lower or old Brahmaputra (Brommoputro). It curves southeast to join the Meghna River near Dhaka. The Padma and Meghna converge near Chandpur and flow out into the Bay of Bengal. This final part of the river is called Meghna.
The Brahmaputra enters the plains of Bangladesh after turning south around the Garo Hills below Dhuburi, India. After flowing past Chilmari, Bangladesh, it is joined on its right bank by the Tista River and then follows a 240 km (150 - mi) course due south as the Jamuna River. (South of Gaibanda, the Old Brahmaputra leaves the left bank of the main stream and flows past Jamalpur and Mymensingh to join the Meghna River at Bhairab Bazar.) Before its confluence with the Ganga, the Jamuna receives the combined waters of the Baral, Atrai, and Hurasagar Rivers on its right bank and becomes the point of departure of the large Dhaleswari River on its left bank. A tributary of the Dhaleswari, the Buriganga ("Old Ganga ''), flows past Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, and joins the Meghna River above Munshiganj.
The Jamuna joins with the Ganga north of Goalundo Ghat, below which, as the Padma, their combined waters flow to the southeast for a distance of about 120 km (75 mi). After several smaller channels branch off to feed the Ganga - Brahmaputra delta to the south, the main body of the Padma reaches its confluence with the Meghna River near Chandpur and then enters the Bay of Bengal through the Meghna estuary and lesser channels flowing through the delta. The growth of the Ganga - Brahmaputra Delta is dominated by tidal processes.
The Ganga Delta, fed by the waters of numerous rivers, including the Ganga and Brahmaputra, is 59,570 square kilometres (23,000 sq mi) the largest river deltas in the world.
The basin of the Brahmaputra river is 651 334 km and it is a good example of a braided river and meanders quite a bit and frequently forms temporary sand bars. A region of significant tectonic activity has developed in the Jamuna River and is associated with the Himalayan uplift and development of the Bengal foredeep. Several researchers has hypothesized that the underlying structural control on the location of the major river systems of Bangladesh. A zone of ' structural weakness ' along the present course of the Ganga - Jamuna - Padma Rivers due to either a subsiding trough or a fault at depth has been observed by Morgan and Melntire. (1959). Scijmonsbergen (1999) contends that width changes in the Jamuna may respond to these faults and they may also cause increased sedimentation upstream of the fault. He presented a few images to argue that a fault downstream of the Bangabandhu Multipurpose Bridge has affected channel migration. Huge accumulations of sediment that have been fed from Himalayan erosion has been produced due to the deepening of the Bengal Basin, with the thickness of sediment above the Precambrian basement increasing from a few hundred metres in the shelf region to over 18 km in the Bengal foredeep to the south. The tectonic and climatic context for the large water and sediment discharges in the rivers of Bangladesh was set by the ongoing subsidence in the Bengal Basin, combined with high rates of Himalayan uplift. The control of uplift and subsidence is, however, clear. The courses of the Jamuna and Ganga Rivers are first - order controls due to the fact that they are most influenced by the uplifted Plcistoccnc terraces of the Barind and Madhupur tracts.
The Ganga - Brahmaputra system has the third - greatest average discharge of the world 's rivers -- roughly 30,770 m (1,086,500 ft) per second; and the river Brahmaputra alone supplies about 19,800 m (700,000 ft) per second of the total discharge. The rivers ' combined suspended sediment load of about 1.87 billion tonnes (1.84 billion tons) per year is the world 's highest.
In the past, the lower course of the Brahmaputra was different and passed through the Jamalpur and Mymensingh districts. In a 7.5 magnitude earthquake on 2 April 1762, however, the main channel of the Brahmaputra at Bhahadurabad point was switched southwards and opened as Jamuna due to the result of tectonic uplift of the Madhupur tract.
Rising temperature is one of the major cause of snow - melting at the upper Brahmaputra catchment. The discharge of the river Brahmaputra is highly affected by the melting of snow at the upper part of its catchment. The attenuation of river flow due to the melting of snow in the river Brahmaputra basin affects the downstream discharge of the river. This increase in discharge due to significant retreat of snow gives rise to severe catastrophic problems such as flood and erosion.
The hydrology of the Brahmaputra River is characterized by its significant rates of sediment discharge, the large and variable flows, along with its rapid channel aggradations and accelerated rates of basin denudation. Over time, the deepening of the Bengal Basin caused by erosion will results in the increase in hydraulic radius, and hence allowing for the huge accumulation of sediments fed from the Himalayan erosion by efficient sediment transportation. The thickness of the sediment accumulated above the Precambrian basement has increased over the years from a few hundred meters to over 18 km in the Bengal fore - deep to the south. The ongoing subsidence of the Bengal Basin and the high rate of Himalayan uplift continues to contribute to the large water and sediment discharges of fine sand and silt, with 1 % clay, in the Brahmaputra River.
Climatic change plays a crucial role in affecting the basin hydrology. Throughout the year, there is a significant rise in hydrograph, with a broad peak between July and September. The Brahmaputra River experiences two high - water seasons, one in early summer caused by snow melt in the mountains, and one in late summer caused by runoff from monsoon rains. The river flow is strongly influenced by snow and ice melting of the glaciers, which are located mainly on the eastern Himalaya regions in the upstream parts of the basin. The snow and glacier melt contribution to the total annual runoff is about 27 %, while the annual rainfall contributes to about 1.9 m and 19,830 m3 / s of discharge. The highest recorded daily discharge in the Brahmaputra at Pandu was 72,726 m3 / s August 1962 while the lowest was 1,757 m3 / s in February 1968. The increased rates of snow and glacial melt are likely to increase summer flows in some river systems for a few decades, followed by a reduction in flow as the glaciers disappear and snowfall diminishes. This is particularly true for the dry season when water availability is crucial for the irrigation systems.
The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed drastically in the past two and a half centuries, moving its river course westwards for a distance of about 80 km (50 mi), leaving its old river course, appropriately named the old Brahmaputra river, behind. In the past, the floodplain of the old river course had soils which were more properly formed compared to graded sediments on the operating Jamuna river. This change of river course resulted in modifications to the soil - forming process, which include acidification, breakdown of clays and buildup of organic matter, with the soils showing an increasing amount of biotic homogenization, mottling, coating arounds Peds and maturing soil arrangement, shape and pattern. In the future, the consequences of local ground subsidence coupled with flood prevention propositions, for instance localised breakwaters, that increase flood - plain water depths outside the water breakers, may alter the water levels of the floodplains. Throughout the years, bars, scroll bars and sand dunes are formed at the edge of the flood plain by deposition. The height difference of the channel topography is often not more than 1m - 2m. Furthermore, flooding over history of the river has caused the formation of river levees due to deposition from overbank flow. The height difference between the levee top and the surrounding floodplains is typically 1m along small channels and 2 - 3m along major channels. Crevasse splay, a sedimentary fluvial deposit which forms when a stream breaks its natural or artificial levees and deposits sediment on a floodplain, are often formed due to a breach in levee, forming a lobe of sediments which progrades onto the adjacent floodplain. Lastly, flood basins are often formed between the levees of adjacent rivers.
During the monsoon season (June -- October), floods are a very common occurrence. Deforestation in the Brahmaputra watershed has resulted in increased siltation levels, flash floods, and soil erosion in critical downstream habitat, such as the Kaziranga National Park in middle Assam. Occasionally, massive flooding causes huge losses to crops, life, and property. Periodic flooding is a natural phenomenon which is ecologically important because it helps maintain the lowland grasslands and associated wildlife. Periodic floods also deposit fresh alluvium, replenishing the fertile soil of the Brahmaputra River Valley. Thus flooding, agriculture, and agricultural practices are closely connected.
The effects of flooding can be devastating and cause significant damage to crops and houses, serious bank erosive with consequent loss of homesteads, school and land, and loss of many lives, livestock and fisheries. During the 1998 flood, over 70 % of the land area of Bangladesh was inundated, affecting 31 million people and 1 million homesteads. In the 1998 flood which had an unusually long duration from July to September, claimed 918 human lives and was responsible for damaging 16 00 and 6000 km of roads and embankments respectively, and affecting 6000 km of standing crops. The 2004 floods, over 25 % of the population of Bangladesh or 36 million people, was affected by the floods; 800 lives were lost; 952 000 houses were destroyed and 1.4 million were badly damaged; 24 000 educational institutions were affected including the destruction of 1200 primary schools, 2 million governments and private tubewells were affected, over 3 million latrines were damaged or washed away, this increases the risks of waterborne diseases including diarrhea and cholera. Also, 1.1 M ha of rice crop was submerged and lost before it could be harvested, with 7 % of the yearly aus (early season) rice crop lost; 270 000 ha of grazing land was affected, 5600 livestock perished together with 254 00 poultry and 63 MT of lost fish production.
Flood - control measures are taken by water resource department and the Brahmaputra Board, but until now the flood problem remains unsolved. At least a third of the land of Majuli island has been eroded by the river. Recently, it is suggested that a highway protected by concrete mat along the river bank and excavation of the river bed can curb this menace. This project, named the Brahmaputra River Restoration Project, is yet to be implemented by the government. Recently the Central Government approved the construction of Brahmaputra Express Highways.
The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed dramatically over the past 250 years, with evidence of large - scale avulsion, in the period 1776 -- 1850, of 80 km from east of the Madhupur tract to the west of it. Prior to 1843, the Brahmaputra flowed within the channel now termed the "old Brahmaputra ''. The banks of the river are mostly weakly cohesive sand and silts, which usually erodes through large scale slab failure, where previously deposited materials undergo scour and bank erosion during flood periods. Presently, the river 's erosion rate has decreased to 30m per year as compared to 150m per year from 1973 to 1992. This erosion has, however, destroyed so much land that it has caused 0.7 million people to become homeless due to loss of land.
Several studies have discussed the reasons for the avulsion of the river into its present course, and have suggested a number of reasons including tectonic activity, switches in upstream course of the Teesta River, the influence of increased discharge, catastrophic floods and river capture into an old river course. From an analysis of maps of the river between 1776 and 1843, it was concluded in a study that the river avulsion was more likely gradual than catastrophic and sudden, and may have been generated by bank erosion, perhaps around a large mid-channel bar, causing a diversion of the channel into the existing floodplain channel.
The Brahmaputra channel is governed by the peak and low flow periods during which its bed undergoes tremendous modification. The Brahmaputra 's bankline migration is inconsistent with time. The Brahmaputra river bed has widened significantly since 1916 and appears to be shifting more towards the south than towards the north. Together with the contemporary slow migration of the river, the left bank is being eroded away faster than the right bank.
The Brahmaputra River experiences high levels of bank erosion (usually via slab failure) and channel migration caused by its strong current, lack of river bank vegetation, and loose sand and silt which compose its banks. It is thus difficult to build permanent structures on the river, and protective structures designed to limit the river 's erosional effects often face numerous issues during and after construction. In fact, a 2004 report by the Bangladesh Disaster and Emergency Sub-Group (BDER) has stated that several of such protective systems have ' just failed '. However, some progress has been made in the form of construction works which stabilize sections of the river, albeit the need for heavy maintenance. The Bangabandhu Bridge, the only bridge to span the river 's major distributary, the Jamuna, was thus opened in June 1998. Constructed at a narrow braid belt of the river, it is 4.8 km long with a platform 18.5 m wide, and it is used to carry railroad traffic as well as gas, power and telecommunication lines. Due to the variable nature of the river, prediction of the river 's future course is crucial in planning upstream engineering to prevent flooding on the bridge.
China had built the Zangmu Dam in the upper course of the Brahmaputra River in the Tibet region and it was operationalised on 13 October 2015. The main purpose of the dam was to generate electricity for China and its operation has caused concerns for downstream neighbours like India as the presence of dams in the upper course of the river will mean unpredictability in the dynamics of downstream flows.
Early accounts give its name as Dyardanes. In the past, the course of the lower Brahmaputra was different and passed through the Jamalpur and Mymensingh districts. Some water still flows through that course, now called the Old Brahmaputra, as a distributary of the main channel.
A question about the river system in Bangladesh is when and why the Brahmaputra changed its main course, at the site of the Jamuna and the "Old Brahmaputra '' fork that can be seen by comparing modern maps to historic maps before the 1800s. The Brahmaputra likely flowed directly south along its present main channel for much of the time since the last glacial maximum, switching back and forth between the two courses several times throughout the Holocene.
One idea about the most recent avulsion is that the change in the course of the main waters of the Brahmaputra took place suddenly in 1787, the year of the heavy flooding of the river Tista.
In the middle of the 18th century, at least three fair - sized streams flowed between the Rajshahi and Dhaka Divisions, viz., the Daokoba, a branch of the Tista, the Monash or Konai, and the Salangi. The Lahajang and the Elengjany were also important rivers. In Renault 's time, the Brahmaputra as a first step towards securing a more direct course to the sea by leaving the Mahdupur Jungle to the east began to send a considerable volume of water down the Jinai or Jabuna from Jamalpur into the Monash and Salangi. These rivers gradually coalesced and kept shifting to the west till they met the Daokoba, which was showing an equally rapid tendency to cut towards the east. The junction of these rivers gave the Brahmaputra a course worthy of her immense power, and the rivers to right and left silted up. In Renault 's Altas they very much resemble the rivers of Jessore, which dried up after the hundred - mouthed Ganga had cut her new channel to join the Meghna at the south of the Munshiganj subdivision.
In 1809, Francis Buchanan - Hamilton wrote that the new channel between Bhawanipur and Dewanranj "was scarcely inferior to the mighty river, and threatens to sweep away the intermediate country ''. By 1830, the old channel had been reduced to its present insignificance. It was navigable by country boats throughout the year and by launches only during rains, but at the point as low as Jamalpur it was formidable throughout the cold weather. Similar was the position for two or three months just below Mymensingh also.
The waters of the River Brahmaputra are shared by China, India, and Bangladesh. In the 1990s and 2000s, there was repeated speculation that mentioned Chinese plans to build a dam at the Great Bend, with a view to divert the waters to the north of the country. This has been denied by the Chinese government for many years. At the Kathmandu Workshop of Strategic Foresight Group in August 2009 on Water Security in the Himalayan Region, which brought together in a rare development leading hydrologists from the basin countries, the Chinese scientists argued that it was not feasible for China to undertake such a diversion. However, on 22 April 2010, China confirmed that it was indeed building the Zangmu Dam on the Brahmaputra in Tibet, but assured India that the project would not have any significant effect on the downstream flow to India. This claim has also been reiterated by the Government of India, in an attempt to assuage domestic criticism of Chinese dam construction on the river, but is one that remains hotly debated. Recent years have seen an intensification of grassroots opposition, especially in the state of Assam, against Chinese upstream dam building, as well as growing criticism of the Indian government for its perceived failure to respond appropriately to Chinese hydropower plans.
In a meeting of scientists at Dhaka at 2010, 25 leading experts from the basin countries issued a Dhaka Declaration on Water Security calling for exchange of information in low - flow periods, and other means of collaboration. Even though the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention does not prevent any of the basin countries from building a dam upstream, customary law offers some relief to the lower riparian countries. There is also potential for China, India, and Bangladesh to cooperate on transboundary water navigation.
The lives of many millions of Indian and Bangladeshi citizens are reliant on the Brahmaputra river. Its delta is home to 130 million people and 600 000 people live on the riverine islands. These people rely on the annual ' normal ' flood to bring moisture and fresh sediments to the floodplain soils, hence providing the necessities for agricultural and marine farming. In fact, two of the three seasonal rice varieties (aus and aman) can not survive without the floodwater. Furthermore, the fish caught both on the floodplain during flood season and from the many floodplain ponds are the main source of protein for many rural populations.
National Waterway 2 (NW2) is 891 km long Sadiya - Dhubri stretch of Brahmaputra River in Assam.
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this is us recap season 1 episode 14 | This is Us (season 1) - Wikipedia
The first season of the American television series This Is Us follows the family lives and connections of several people who all share the same birthday and the ways in which they are similar and different. The season is produced by Rhode Island Ave. Productions, Zaftig Films, and 20th Century Fox Television, with Fogelman and Don Todd serving as showrunners.
The season stars an ensemble cast featuring Milo Ventimiglia, Mandy Moore, Sterling K. Brown, Chrissy Metz, Justin Hartley, Susan Kelechi Watson, Chris Sullivan, and Ron Cephas Jones.
The season, which premiered on NBC on September 20, 2016, and ran until March 14, 2017, over 18 episodes, received generally positive reviews from critics. It was chosen by the American Film Institute as one of the top ten television programs of 2016, and received ten nominations for the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series with Brown winning for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, as well as receiving nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series -- Drama and the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Drama Series. The series was renewed for a second and third season on January 18, 2017.
Dan Fogelman and Don Todd served as the season 's showrunners.
In 2015, Mandy Moore, Milo Ventimiglia, Justin Hartley, Sterling K. Brown, and Ron Cephas Jones were the first to be cast in Dan Fogelman 's pilot. Chrissy Metz was later cast in the pilot, followed by Susan Kelechi Watson. Jon Huertas joined the cast in 2016.
The first season of This Is Us received positive reviews, with critics praising cast performances and series plot. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 89 % based on 56 reviews, with a weighted average of 7.8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Featuring full - tilt heartstring - tugging family drama, This Is Us will provide a suitable surrogate for those who have felt a void in their lives since Parenthood went off the air. ''
On Metacritic, the season has a normalized score of 76 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. TVLine gave the series "A - '' saying, "With emotionally resonant dialogue and top - notch performances, This Is Us should fill that Braverman - sized hole in your heart. '' TV Guide placed This Is Us at ninth among the top ten picks for the most anticipated new shows of the 2016 -- 2017 season and called it, "a well - acted drama about love, life and family. ''
Writing for The Star - Ledger, Vicki Hyman lauded the series and said, "This Is Us (from Crazy, Stupid, Love screenwriter Dan Fogelman) methodically weaves four seemingly disparate stories into a believable and emotional whole through tiny telling details, relateable moments, and conversations and confrontations that are funny, tender or painful, or all three at once. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Jensen wrote, "A 21st century thirtysomething for a TV generation that likes a splash of high concept in their shows and is n't afraid of melodrama. '' Gwen Ihnat of The A.V. Club also reviewed the series positively saying, "The hour accomplishes what it set out to do. It creates characters so compelling that we compulsively want to tune back in to see them again. ''
In a review for The Boston Globe, Matthew Gilbert said, "The pilot is beautifully shaped, the themes of building your own meaning in life are smart, and the actors already seem to know their characters. ''
The Washington Post critic Hank Stuever said, "While I 'd like to see another few episodes to make sure, there 's something comfortably gooey right away about This Is Us, reminding us once more that amid all the high - functioning detectives, emergency - rescue personnel and secret - agent superheroes covered in cryptic tattoos, there are very few network dramas aimed at viewers who are simply interested in everyday people and how they feel. '' Pittsburgh Post-Gazette 's TV critic Rob Owen wrote, "Created and written by Dan Fogelman, This is Us manages the tricky task of telling emotional stories without getting too saccharine. And in each story, the characters are quite relatable. '' James Poniewozik of The New York Times also gave the series positive reviews and said, "The first hour works its way efficiently through an economy - size box of tissues with cleverly turned dialogue and well - inhabited performances. '' The series also received praise from critics at other publications such as USA Today, The Atlantic, The Hollywood Reporter, and The Los Angeles Times.
Some were more critical towards the show, Daniel D'Addario of Time wrote, "The show has promise, but its cynicism in terms of trying to evoke an emotional response is both what viewers will be tuning in for and its least accomplished aspect. If it could work to wring out a real response, not just an easy one, this might be a show worth watching each week. Ben Travers, Chief TV critic of Indiewire, quipped, "' It all works out ' seems to be the main takeaway from the pilot, but where things specifically go from here is one whopping question mark. Perhaps if this was an episodic anthology series with new characters flooding in every week and new arcs every season, This Is Us could repeat the mysterious highs of its subjectively mediocre pilot (depending on how you like that ending). ''
In a moderate review for Variety, Sonia Saraiya said, "It 's deceptively difficult to build a surprising and complete story in just 40 minutes with so many characters. Yet This Is Us manages to both craft an intimate series of portraits and stitch them together. But at the same time, waves of cloying sentiment threaten to submerge everything. ''
This Is Us was included on multiple Best / Top TV Shows of 2016 lists; these are listed below in order of rank.
This Is Us premiered on September 20, 2016, in the U.S. on NBC. The series premiered on CTV in Canada on September 21, 2016, on TVNZ 2 in New Zealand on September 27, 2016, and in the United Kingdom on Channel 4 on December 6, 2016. The series premiered in Australia on Channel Ten on February 8, 2017.
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which way does the st. lawrence river flow | Saint Lawrence River - wikipedia
The Saint Lawrence River (French: Fleuve Saint - Laurent; Tuscarora: Kahnawáʼkye; Mohawk: Kaniatarowanenneh, meaning "big waterway '') is a large river in the middle latitudes of North America. The Saint Lawrence River flows in a roughly north - easterly direction, connecting the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean and forming the primary drainage outflow of the Great Lakes Basin. It traverses the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and is part of the international boundary between Ontario, Canada, and the U.S. state of New York. This river also provides the basis of the commercial Saint Lawrence Seaway.
The Saint Lawrence River begins at the outflow of Lake Ontario and flows adjacent to Gananoque, Brockville, Morristown, Ogdensburg, Massena, Cornwall, Montreal, Trois - Rivières, and Quebec City before draining into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the largest estuary in the world. The estuary begins at the eastern tip of Île d'Orléans, just downstream from Quebec City. The river becomes tidal around Quebec City.
The Saint Lawrence River runs 3,058 kilometres (1,900 mi) from the farthest headwater to the mouth and 1,197 km (743.8 mi) from the outflow of Lake Ontario. These numbers include the estuary; without the estuary the length from Lake Ontario is ca. 500 km (ca. 300 mi). The farthest headwater is the North River in the Mesabi Range at Hibbing, Minnesota. Its drainage area, which includes the Great Lakes, the world 's largest system of freshwater lakes, is 1,344,200 square kilometres (518,998.5 sq mi), of which 839,200 km (324,016.9 sq mi) is in Canada and 505,000 km (194,981.6 sq mi) is in the United States. The basin covers parts of Ontario and Quebec in Canada, parts of Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and Wisconsin, and nearly the entirety of the state of Michigan in the United States. The average discharge below the Saguenay River is 16,800 cubic metres per second (590,000 cu ft / s). At Quebec City, it is 12,101 m / s (427,300 cu ft / s). The average discharge at the river 's source, the outflow of Lake Ontario, is 7,410 m / s (262,000 cu ft / s).
The Saint Lawrence River includes Lake Saint - Louis south of Montreal, Lake Saint Francis at Salaberry - de-Valleyfield and Lac Saint - Pierre east of Montreal. It encompasses four archipelagoes: the Thousand Islands chain near Alexandria Bay, New York and Kingston, Ontario; the Hochelaga Archipelago, including the Island of Montreal and Île Jésus (Laval); the Lake St. Pierre Archipelago (classified biosphere world reserve by the UNESCO in 2000) and the smaller Mingan Archipelago. Other islands include Île d'Orléans near Quebec City and Anticosti Island north of the Gaspé. It is the second longest river in Canada.
Lake Champlain and the Ottawa, Richelieu, Saint - Maurice, Saint - François and Saguenay rivers drain into the Saint Lawrence.
The Saint Lawrence River is in a seismically active zone where fault reactivation is believed to occur along late Proterozoic to early Paleozoic normal faults related to the opening of Iapetus Ocean. The faults in the area are rift related and are called the Saint Lawrence rift system.
According to the United States Geological Survey, the Saint Lawrence Valley is a physiographic province of the larger Appalachian division, containing the Champlain and Northern physiographic section. However, in Canada, where most of the valley is, it is instead considered part of a distinct Saint Lawrence Lowlands physiographic division, and not part of the Appalachian division at all.
Though the Norse explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in the 11th century and were followed by fifteenth and early sixteenth century European mariners, such as John Cabot, the brothers Gaspar, Miguel Corte - Real, and Alonso Sanchez. The first European explorer known to have sailed up the Saint Lawrence River itself was Jacques Cartier. At that time, the land along the river was inhabited by the St. Lawrence Iroquoians; at the time of Cartier 's second voyage in 1535. Because Cartier arrived in the estuary on Saint Lawrence 's feast day, he named it the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The Saint Lawrence River is partly within the U.S. and as such is that country 's sixth oldest surviving European place - name.
The earliest regular Europeans in the area were the Basques, who came to the St Lawrence Gulf and River in pursuit of whales from the early 16th century. The Basque whalers and fishermen traded with indigenous Americans and set up settlements, leaving vestiges all over the coast of eastern Canada and deep into the Saint Lawrence River. Basque commercial and fishing activity reached its peak before the Armada Invencible 's disaster (1588), when the Spanish Basque whaling fleet was confiscated by King Philip II of Spain and largely destroyed. Initially, the whaling galleons from Labourd were not affected by the Spanish defeat.
Until the early 17th century, the French used the name Rivière du Canada to designate the Saint Lawrence upstream to Montreal and the Ottawa River after Montreal. The Saint Lawrence River served as the main route for European exploration of the North American interior, first pioneered by French explorer Samuel de Champlain.
Control of the river was crucial to British strategy to capture New France in the Seven Years ' War. Having captured Louisbourg in 1758, the British sailed up to Quebec the following year thanks to charts drawn up by James Cook. British troops were ferried via the Saint Lawrence to attack the city from the west, which they successfully did at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. The river was used again by the British to defeat the French siege of Quebec under the Chevalier de Lévis in 1760.
Because of the virtually impassable Lachine Rapids, the Saint Lawrence was once continuously navigable only as far as Montreal. Opened in 1825, the Lachine Canal was the first to allow ships to pass the rapids. An extensive system of canals and locks, known as the Saint Lawrence Seaway, was officially opened on 26 June 1959 by Elizabeth II (representing Canada) and President Dwight D. Eisenhower (representing the United States). The Seaway now permits ocean - going vessels to pass all the way to Lake Superior.
During the Second World War, the Battle of the St. Lawrence involved submarine and anti-submarine actions throughout the lower Saint Lawrence River and the entire Gulf of Saint Lawrence, Strait of Belle Isle and Cabot Strait from May to October 1942, September 1943, and again in October and November 1944. During this time, German U-boats sank several merchant marine ships and three Canadian warships.
In the late 1970s, the river was the subject of a successful ecological campaign (called "Save the River ''), originally responding to planned development by the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The campaign was organized, among others, by Abbie Hoffman.
The source of the North River in the Mesabi Range in Minnesota (Seven Beaver Lake) is considered to be the source of the Saint Lawrence River. Because it crosses so many lakes, the water system frequently changes its name. From source to mouth, the names are:
The Saint Lawrence River also passes through Lake Saint - Louis and Lake Saint - Pierre in Quebec.
The Saint Lawrence River is at the heart of many Quebec novels (Anne Hébert 's Kamouraska, Réjean Ducharme 's L'avalée des avalés), poems (in works of Pierre Morency, Bernard Pozier), and songs (Leonard Cohen 's "Suzanne '', Michel Rivard 's "L'oubli '', Joe Dassin 's "Dans les yeux d'Émilie ''), and André Gagnon 's "Le Saint - Laurent ''). The river was the setting for the Canadian television drama series Seaway. The river has also been portrayed in paintings, notably by the Group of Seven. In addition, the river is the namesake of Saint - Laurent Herald at the Canadian Heraldic Authority.
In 1980 Jacques Cousteau traveled to Canada to make two films on the Saint Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, Cries from the Deep and St. Lawrence: Stairway to the Sea.
Musician David Usher released the song "St. Lawrence River '' on his Little Songs album in 1998.
The novel and film Black Robe is set primarily on the St. Lawrence River during the 17th century.
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kimi ni todoke who does sawako end up with | List of Kimi ni Todoke episodes - wikipedia
This is a list of the episodes of the shōjo anime series Kimi ni Todoke, directed by Hiro Kaburagi and produced by Production I.G. The episodes are based on the Kimi ni Todoke manga series by Karuho Shiina. Series composition is led by Tomoko Konparu, with character designs being provided by Yuka Shibata. For season 1, the opening theme music, "Kimi ni Todoke '' (きみ に とどけ) is by Tomofumi Tanizawa, and the ending, "Kataomoi '' (片思い) is by Chara. For season 2, the opening, "Soufuu '', a.k.a. "Sawakaze '' (爽風) is also by Tomofumi Tanizawa, release date 02 / 23 / 2011. The ending theme, "Kimi ni Todoke... '' (君 に 届け...) is by May 's.
The series will be released to Region 2 DVD in Japan with three episodes per disc, starting on December 23, 2009.
A second season was announced in the November 2010 issue of Betsuma magazine and was airing on NTV, starting from 4 January to 30 March 2011.
The first DVD compilation for the series was released on December 23, 2009, with one scheduled for each month until the series is complete. The first 5 volumes have 3 episodes each, the sixth volume has 4 episodes, and the remaining two volumes have 3 episode each.
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toy soldiers eminem what is the song about | Like Toy Soldiers - wikipedia
"Like Toy Soldiers '' is a song by American rapper Eminem, from his fifth album Encore (2004). "Like Toy Soldiers '' received positive reviews from music critics, and peaked at number 34 on the Billboard Hot 100. Outside the United States, "Like Toy Soldiers '' topped the charts in the United Kingdom and peaked within the top 10 of the charts in 12 countries, including Australia and New Zealand. The song samples "Toy Soldiers '' by Martika.
"Like Toy Soldiers '' tells the story of Eminem 's attempts to calm a violent community of rappers. Eminem speaks openly about problems with The Source magazine and its editor Benzino, as well as the situation between 50 Cent and Ja Rule and his label Murder Inc., which Eminem felt went far beyond the Jay Z vs. Nas feud. The song finishes as Eminem offers a truce to his enemies. In addition, this song also reveals that Eminem had tried to stop Ja Rule & 50 Cent 's feud, but lost it when he heard Ja Rule making fun of his daughter on a track called "Loose Change '' -- ("The Ja Shit, I tried to squash it, It was too late to stop it, There 's a certain line you just do n't cross and he crossed it, I heard him say Hailie 's name on a song and I just lost it ''). In the song "Loose Change '', Ja Rule says Eminem claims his then ex-wife is "a known slut '' and his mother "a crackhead '', and then asks him "so what 's Hailie gon na be when she grows up? ''. "Like Toy Soldiers '' was later included on Eminem 's compilation album Curtain Call: The Hits in 2005. Throughout his career, Eminem, at most, only alludes to Suge Knight, completing a line in this song, "my intentions were good, I went through my whole career without ever mentioning -. '' Styles P used the instrumental version in his song "Soldiers Song '', in 2006.
As a result of this song, Eminem refused to get himself involved in some of 50 Cent 's later feuds, including Jadakiss, Fat Joe (both of whom he collaborated with in 2005), and The Game.
AllMusic highlighted the song. A positive overview came from J - 23: "'' Like Toy Soldiers '' is among his best work here, from his production (complete with Martika sample), to his gripping recount, assessment and conclusion of the Benzino and Murder Inc beefs. '' Pitchfork was also positive, calling it:
a public hand - wringing over the feuds that Em and 50 Cent have been drawn into, the consequences of these battles, and -- most importantly -- the toll they 've taken, both physically and emotionally. The martial beat is a bit heavy - handed, but it 's counterbalanced by the pleasantly surprising chorus ' sample of Martika 's "Toy Soldiers '', perhaps a nod to either Kanye 's helium - vocaled samples or the 00s trend toward trance - pop covers of 80s hits.
NME wrote a favorable review:
' Like Toy Soldiers ' is a case in point. The best track of this album, and probably any album this year, it should be appalling. It interpolates (by which we mean ' steals ') the chorus to a long - forgotten ' 80s power ballad by Martika, which would be a surefire route to disaster in anyone else 's hands. Instead, with its martial drumbeat, unashamedly vast - scale soft rock dynamics and that similarly monolithic chorus, it is perhaps hip - hop 's first genuine lighters - in - the - air stadium anthem. And yet it 's probably the most personal track on the album... as Em tries to draw a line under the various beefs he and his cohorts have been embroiled in. "Even though the battle was won / I feel like we lost it / I spent (so much energy) on it / Honestly I 'm exhausted '', he admits. If the sheer volume and widescreen sweep of ' Like Toy Soldiers ' is a cover for this exhaustion, then it sure works.
Rolling Stone Magazine described: "it 's really mature, as when the Martika - sampling "Like Toy Soldiers '' renounces battle rhyming and its deadly consequences. '' USA Today noted: "A military drumbeat drives Like Toy Soldiers, in which Eminem offers an explanation for his beef with the Murder Inc. rap clique, The Source magazine and its rapper / owner Benzino, and his part in a dispute between 50 Cent and Ja Rule. He seems to wish none of it had ever happened, and he 's ready to move on. '' RapReviews was less positive: "Continuing to wring out sympathy from his tear - soaked towel of a life, Eminem doubles - up with "Like Toy Soldiers, '' another self - produced, self - sorry introspection on the Slim Shady saga. '' The Guardian was happy of sampling: "Like Toy Soldiers, about Ja Rule and Benzino, is similarly brilliant. Set to the album 's one genuinely fantastic backing track, involving a military drumbeat and a sample from Martika 's forgotten 1980s hit Toy Soldiers, its lyrics switch from truce - calling to belligerent indignation and back again, often in the space of one line. '' The New York Times described:
"(Like) Toy Soldiers, '' scheduled to be the next single, recycles the 1980s pop hit by Martika so that Eminem can rehash his beefs with Ja Rule and the Source. But the vitriol is mainly gone, and he sounds sad and clear - eyed, ending the rhyme by proposing a truce: "It 's not a plea that I 'm coppin ' / I 'm just willing to be the bigger man / If y'all can (quiet) poppin ' / Off at the jaws (with the knockin '), / ' Cause frankly I 'm sick of talkin ' / I 'm not gon na let someone else 's coffin / Rest on my conscience. ''
Stylus Magazine, however, is a bit negative: "perhaps you do n't mind that Em ruins maybe the best musical moment on the record, the Martika interpolation of "Like Toy Soldiers '', just so he can recapitulate ad nauseum (sic) the details of his pitiful n - word controversy (and somehow indirectly blame Afrocentrism for his youthful idiocy). '' Entertainment Weekly was very critical of the song: "Instead of addressing other matters that extend beyond his immediate universe, he wastes time attacking his sworn enemies at The Source (in both ' Like Toy Soldiers ' and ' Yellow Brick Road '). '' The Boston Phoenix called it a "self - knowing anti-anthem ''. SPIN, however, seemed to put the song in a different light: "On ' Like Toy Soldiers, ' over a stirring, ' Jesus Walks ' - style loop of Martika 's doleful ' 80s hit, Eminem brings light, not heat, to a couple years ' worth of beefs, from 50 Cent 's feud with the Murder Inc. crew to Em 's conflict with rapper Benzino and The Source 's edit staff, stating his case while resisting the urge to pour gas on any fires. ''
Released on December 3, 2004, the song 's video starts with two young boys, one who is white and one who is black, reading a book called "Toy Soldiers, '' which contains the lyrics of this song. It begins at the hospital where Eminem and other rappers are watching, in despair, the doctors trying to save D12 member Bugz (played by fellow D12 member Proof), who was killed in 1999. Eminem is then seen in a series of scenes rapping the song in a deserted alleyway, before the video goes through a series of scenes showing the various feuds mentioned in the song. They include seeing the news, rappers battling in studios, and street encounters. Near the end, Eminem stands shocked seeing the shooting of Bugz. It switches back to the hospital, where Bugz dies, and finishes at his funeral, which has a choir in which the black child and the white child from when Martika starts to sing.
Cameo appearances in the video include 50 Cent, Luis Resto, Dr. Dre, Obie Trice, and D12. Dead rappers including Tupac Shakur, The Notorious B.I.G., Big L, and Bugz are also shown in animation form at the end of the music video to show the fatal consequences of rap wars.
In a case of life imitating art, Proof himself was shot and killed on April 11, 2006 after an altercation broke out at a nightclub in Detroit, Michigan. "In the year after (Proof) died, I would stare at the ceiling and think about that video (Like Toy Soldiers). Did karma cause that to happen in real life? Did I? You always want to point the finger at somebody else when something like that happens, you know? ''
shipments figures based on certification alone
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how many episodes are in the last season of girlfriends guide to divorce | Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce - wikipedia
Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce (also known as Girlfriends ' Guide to Freedom in season 3, Girlfriends ' Guide to Bossing Up in season 4, and Girlfriends ' Guide to Ever After in season 5) is an American comedy - drama television series developed by Marti Noxon for the American cable network Bravo. Based on the Girlfriends ' Guides book series by Vicki Iovine, the series revolves around Abby McCarthy, a self - help author who finds solace in new friends and adventures as she faces an impending divorce. Lisa Edelstein portrays the main character Abby. Beau Garrett, Necar Zadegan and Paul Adelstein co-star. Janeane Garofalo was part of the main cast for the first seven episodes of season 1 before departing the cast. She was replaced in episode 8 with Alanna Ubach. Retta recurred during the show 's second season before being promoted to the main cast at the start of season 3.
Produced by Universal Cable Productions, it is the first original scripted series for Bravo. A 13 - episode first season was ordered by the network, which premiered on December 2, 2014. The show debuted to 1.04 million viewers. Critical reception for the series has initially been generally positive, with particular praise towards Edelstein 's performance and the series ' quality over the reality series on Bravo. The show was eventually renewed for a second season, which premiered on December 1, 2015. On April 13, 2016, it was announced that Bravo had renewed the show for a third, fourth and fifth season. On August 5, 2016, it was announced that the fifth season would be the show 's last.
Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce was met with generally positive reviews from television critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from critics, the series received an average score of 69, based on 21 reviews. Lori Rackl of Chicago Sun - Times gave the episode a 4 star rating (out of 4 stars), calling it "a sometimes hilarious, sometimes heartbreaking story about an L.A. - based self - help author '' and added that the first two episodes "reveal a much more nuanced, poignant tale, punctuated by some genuinely funny scenes. '' LaToya Ferguson of The A.V. Club gave the series a grade of "A - '', calling it "a very solid drama '' that should be on HBO or Showtime. Ferguson also praised the characters and the series 's messiness, writing "Visually, it 's almost flawless (there 's one obvious green - screen moment in the pilot, but it 's not Ringer level), but every character here is deeply flawed. '' Los Angeles Times 's Mary McNamara lauded the series ' cast 's portrayal of the characters and deemed the series "smartly acted, crisply written and willing to address all manner of issues -- marriage, betrayal, family economics, friendship, even the pitfalls of public domesticity -- in gratifyingly complex ways. '' Brian Lowry, writing for Variety, applauded the series ' cast and material, noting how it sticks to the network 's demographic while maintaining a level of quality.
Gail Pennington of St. Louis Post-Dispatch called the series "a smart, solid examination of just how messy relationships are and how hard it is to make them work. '' Slate 's Willa Paskin highlighted Edelstein 's portrayal of the lead character, describing her as "very well cast, both commanding and nurturing enough to seem like the ideal advice - giver '' and noted that the series has "a satisfying and complex take on social dynamics in friendship and romance. '' Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times praised Edelstein and Garofalo as "one reason '' the show is entertaining and found the comic side of the series "a lot more fun. '' Time 's writer James Poniewozik praised the writing and Edelstein 's "sympathetic '' performance, noting that the latter "grounds a show that often otherwise plays like young - adult fiction for actual adults. '' However, Poniewozik opined that "there 's one lesson Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce has (over) learned from its Bravo peers: that there 's no reality so compelling that it ca n't be sweetened with a little Photoshop. '' David Hinckley, writing for the New York Daily News, highlighted the series ' best moments as those showing the messy side of marital discourse while heralding Edelstein 's performance as "memorably moving. '' Margaret Lyons of Vulture was critical of the several aspects of the series, including the characters Abby and Lyla 's attitude on giving their spouses child support, but found the series to be its best "at its nastiest. ''
Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce premiered in the United States on Bravo on December 2, 2014, in Canada on Slice on January 9, 2015, and in the United Kingdom on Lifetime UK on September 15, 2015.
The first season was released on DVD in region 1 on October 13, 2015. On November 1, 2015 season 1 of Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce became available to stream in the US for Netflix subscribers. The show is also available from electronic sell - through platforms such as iTunes, Amazon Instant Video, and Vudu.
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the introduction of radio in the united states allowed | Radio in the United States - wikipedia
Radio broadcasting in the United States is a major mass medium. Unlike radio in most other countries, American radio has historically relied primarily on commercial advertising sponsorship on for - profit stations. The U.S. does not have a national broadcaster that aims its programs at the general public. Nonprofit broadcasting typically comes in three forms: radio evangelism, community radio, and government - subsidized public radio, all of which rely at least to some extent on listener donations. Shortwave broadcasting in the United States includes federal government programs, as well as a limited number of privately managed broadcasts, for overseas audiences. Radio broadcasting became popular in the 1920s, alongside the new film industry. The arrival of television in the 1950s forced radio into a niche role, as leading participants moved into the much larger field of television. In the 21st century, radio has been adjusting to the arrival of the Internet and Internet radio.
In 1912, most amateur - radio transmissions were restricted to wavelengths below 200 meters (i.e., frequencies above 1500 kHz) to prevent interference to future commercial broadcasters. The beginning of regular, commercially licensed radio broadcasting in the United States in 1920, along with the subsequent development of sound and color film in that decade, ended the print monopoly of mass media and opened the doors to the immediate (and pervasive) electronic media. By 1928, the United States had three national radio networks: two owned by NBC (the National Broadcasting Company), and one by CBS (the Columbia Broadcasting System). Until 1943, there were four major national radio networks: two owned by NBC, one owned by CBS and one owned by Mutual Broadcasting System. Stations were connected by broadcast - quality, leased telephone lines. NBC 's second network became ABC, the American Broadcasting Company.
By 1919, after the war, radio pioneers across the country resumed transmissions. The early stations gained new call signs. Some early stations were started by newspapers: the first to do this was 8MK (today WWJ) in Detroit, which was owned by the Detroit News. While many sources cite KDKA in Pittsburgh as the first station, and give its first broadcast as November 2, 1920, the question of who came first is still in dispute among historians. For example, there is evidence 8MK was on the air with Michigan state election returns on August 31, 1920 Many other early stations were owned by small companies, such as AMRAD (the American Radio and Research Company, Medford Hillside MA); by some accounts, it broadcast voice and music as early as March 1916, and was on the air sporadically till it began a daily schedule in May 1921, using call letters 1XE and later, WGI. Perhaps the best - known early station began as experimental station 8XK, which became KDKA in 1920. AM radio signals traveled long distances, and KDKA 's signal covered much of the country. The existence of early experimental radio stations encouraged young men (and a small number of young women) to build crystal sets (with ear phones) to listen to the new technical marvel. Entrepreneurs set up stations primarily with the goal of selling expensive console radio sets that the whole family could listen to, or which restaurants and shops would buy to attract customers.
Until early 1922, there were fewer than forty commercial stations broadcasting. But in mid-1922, the so - called "radio craze '' began, when several hundred new stations took to the airwaves, and thousands of people wanted to buy their own radio set. Even President Warren G. Harding had a radio installed in the White House.
While "direct advertising '' was not allowed in radio 's formative years, per the order of then - head of the Department of Commerce Herbert Hoover, station owners wanted this policy changed, since it was very expensive to operate a radio station. By 1926, when the National Broadcasting Company went on the air, advertising was gradually allowed. Madison Avenue recognized the importance of radio as a new advertising medium. Advertising provided the major funding for most stations. The United States never had a license fee for set users.
The National Broadcasting Company began regular broadcasting in 1926, with telephone links between New York and other Eastern cities. NBC became the dominant radio network, splitting into Red and Blue Networks. The Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) began in 1927 owned and directed by William S. Paley.
Prior to 1927, U.S. radio was supervised by the Department of Commerce. Then, the Radio Act of 1927 created the Federal Radio Commission (FRC). One of the FRC 's early major moves was the implementation of General Order 40, designating AM radio stations as Clear Channel, Regional, and Local. Most stations ' frequencies were changed to implement General Order 40 at 3: 00 am EST on November 11, 1928.
In the early 1930s, a furious battle broke out as the newspaper industry tried to block the transmission of news by radio. Advertising revenues were plunging during the Great Depression, and newspapers were desperate to protect their main flow of income from the upstart 's threat to the status quo. In one particular incident, the newspapers attempted to claim that a broadcast of the H.G. Wells story The War of the Worlds caused a mass hysteria among listeners who thought the broadcast was real news, a myth that continues to the present day. Hollywood briefly became involved, by preventing its stars from appearing on the radio; it soon realized, however, that radio was not a direct competition and the greater visibility for their stars met even larger audiences. The newspaper attack failed, and the networks set up their own newsgathering and reporting system, which played a major role during World War II.
In 1934, the FRC was renamed the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and remains in operation under this name.
An FCC decision in 1939 required NBC to divest itself of its Blue Network. That decision was sustained by the Supreme Court in a 1943 decision, National Broadcasting Co. v. United States, which established the framework that the "scarcity '' of radio - frequency meant that broadcasting was subject to greater regulation than other media. This Blue Network network became the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). Around 1946, ABC, NBC, and CBS began regular television broadcasts. The small DuMont Television Network, was founded earlier; it disbanded in 1956. In 1934, several independent stations formed the Mutual Broadcasting System to exchange syndicated programming, including The Lone Ranger and Amos ' n ' Andy.
Paley at CBS was the first to fully realize that profitability depended primarily on maximizing the sales of commercials, which in turn meant reaching as large an upscale audience as possible. Surveys and polls could be used to determine not only the size of the audience, but their affluence. Frank Stanton, the president of CBS, worked with Columbia University sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld to develop techniques for measuring audiences.
Before Paley, owners typically viewed their stations as stand - alone outlets or as the broadcast equivalent of local newspapers. It was their job to sell ads to local business. Individual stations bought programming from the network and, thus, were considered the network 's clients. Paley changed the business model by looking at national advertisers as the critical element. CBS therefore provided network programming to affiliate stations at a nominal cost, thereby ensuring the widest possible distribution for both the programming and the advertising. The advertisers then became the network 's primary clients and, because of the wider distribution brought by the growing network, Paley was able to charge more for the ad time. Affiliates were required to carry programming offered by the network for part of the broadcast day, receiving a portion of the network 's fees from advertising revenue. At other times in the broadcast day, affiliates were free to offer local programming and sell advertising time locally.
By 1940, the greatest audience attention was on the networks ' evening programs of variety shows, music, and comedy and drama. In the morning and afternoon, smaller audiences (chiefly housewives) listened to 61 soap operas. Phone - in talk shows were rare, but disk jockeys attracted a following through their chatter between records. The most popular radio shows during the Golden Age of Radio. The Jack Benny Program, Fibber McGee and Molly, The Goldbergs and other top - rated American radio shows were heard by 30 -- 35 percent of the radio audience.
In a major technical move, the FCC mandated that 795 of the 883 United States broadcasters on the AM band shift their broadcast frequencies on March 29, 1941, in what was called "Radio Movin ' Day '' in the press, and was the implementation of the North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement. The goal was to improve AM reception inside the United States, and reduce interference to and from stations outside the United States.
President Franklin Roosevelt 's opponents had control of most newspapers in the 1930s; press reports were under their control and involved hostile editorial commentary. Roosevelt 's solution was a series of 30 evening broadcasts in an informal, almost casual setting, dubbed "Fireside chats. '' Historian Douglas B. Craig says that he, "offered voters a chance to receive information unadulterated by newspaper proprietors ' bias '' through the new medium of radio. ''
Roosevelt 's radio audiences averaged 18 percent during peacetime, and 58 percent during the war. His address of May 27, 1941, was heard by 70 percent of the radio audience.
Radio 's instant, on - the - spot reports of dramatic events drew large audiences starting in 1938 in the run - up to World War II.
All broadcast stations are licensed locally, in the past with mandated obligations to their "city of service, '' fulfillment of which for license renewal is today largely passé. For many a "250 - watt station in my hometown, '' expensive facilities emulated the networks ' in the form of multiple, acoustically fine studios in art deco style for local origination of music and variety programs, featuring local, mostly volunteer, talented teens and energetic young adults motivated by the possibility of being discovered. Local programs were "sustaining '' (covered by general ad revenue), or the talent found their own sponsors and bought station time. Often paid just over minimum wage, "combo operator - announcers, '' later called DJs, nevertheless came to consider themselves entertainers, often in fact becoming local celebrities, who cultivated "on - air personalities, '' sometimes pairing one who was straight - laced with one playing the clown. Practical jokes by full - time staff were common, the unseeing audience none the wiser unless someone broke up laughing.
Continuous station operations were manual (until automation debuted in the 1970s), and could originate programming only three ways: live; live via remote telephone line (including network feeds as well as store openings and church services around town); or played from "electrical transcription '' (ET) phonograph discs. ETs up to 16in diameter played 15 minute syndicated programs, mailed to stations by the thousands, many for government sales of savings bonds and military recruiting. Magnetic tape arrived after 1947 and the Bing Crosby / Ampex alliance. All sound was monophonic until introduction of the stereo LP in 1958, when sister stations "simulcast '' the left signal on AM, the right on FM, requiring audiofans to set up two receivers. For both practitioners and attentive listeners, local radio during the Golden Age was fun.
Radio in education began as early as April 1922, when Medford Hillside 's WGI Radio broadcast the first of an ongoing series of educational lectures from Tufts College professors. These lectures were described by the press as a sort of "wireless college. '' Soon, other colleges across the U.S. began adding radio broadcasting courses to their curricula; some, like the University of Iowa, even provided what today would be known as distance - learning credits. Curry College in Massachusetts introduced one of the nation 's first broadcasting majors in 1932 when the college teamed up with WLOE in Boston to have students broadcast programs. In the 1950s, television courses became popular. After 2000, Internet - based transmission of college courses came on line. 2012 was the "year of the MOOC '' (massive open online course).
After 1955 television 's visual images replaced the audio - only limitation of radio as the predominant entertainment and news vehicle. Radio adapted by replacing entertainment programs with schedules of music interspersed with news and features, a free - form format adopted by NBC when it launched its popular weekend - long Monitor in 1955. During the 1950s automobile manufacturers began offering car radios as standard accessories, and radio received a boost as Americans listened to their car radios as they drove to and from work. Although this period saw the overall decline of the AM radio, some new stations, like the WGIV station in Charlotte dedicated to African American Music, were still coming up.
In the 1950s, as a result of television 's increased popularity coupled with dramatically loosened restrictions on playing recorded music on air, the network model of radio dramatically declined. In its place was the first music radio format: top 40, the forerunner to modern contemporary hit radio. Top 40 stations could be operated locally and gave rise to the disc jockeys, who became prominent local celebrities in their own right. Top 40 became the outlet for the relatively new style of music known as rock and roll.
FM radio, which was the successor to the failed Apex band (also known as ultra-shortwave) experiments of the 1930s, arrived in the United States in 1941, but it was not until the 1960s that it saw broad adoption. This was due in large part to a 1945 Federal Communication Commission decision which shifted FM 's allocation of frequencies from 42 - 50 MHZ to 88 - 108 MHz. This allowed FM much more room for growth when listeners arrived after 1960, but rendered hundreds of thousands of already - existing Armstrong - FM sets useless overnight, and set adoption of FM in the United States back years. The FCC later decided to reduce program duplication on AM and FM sister stations, giving the younger medium space to grow. The better sound fidelity of FM, the less static, dated a natural for musical programming. The first FM stations were primarily instrumental, featuring formats that would come to be known as easy listening and beautiful music, and were targeted at shopping centers. Other, later FM sign - ons became known for experimentation; the early freeform stations eventually evolved into progressive rock, the first radio format designed specifically to showcase rock music. From progressive rock came album - oriented rock, which in turn spawned the modern formats of classic rock, active rock and adult album alternative.
Top 40 radio would begin arriving on the FM band in the 1970s as FM reached critical mass. As the amount of archival music from the rock and roll era began to expand, oldies radio stations began to appear, later evolving into the modern classic hits and later adult hits formats. FM radio made a major expansion in the late 1980s with the FCC 's Docket 80 - 90, which expanded the number of available FM licenses in the suburban areas of the United States. Country music in particular, previously only heard on rural AM stations particularly in the Southern and Western United States, benefited from this docket, moving en masse to FM; the beautiful music and easy listening formats mostly died out, with adult contemporary music taking its place.
Meanwhile, the AM band began declining. All - news radio became popular in the major cities in the late 1960s. As each successive radio format moved to FM, AM radio stations were left with fewer and fewer options. One of the last "AM only '' formats was MOR, or "middle - of - the - road '', the direct forerunner of adult contemporary music and adult standards. Talk radio, although it had a small following in the cities, did not achieve mainstream popularity until the 1980s, when a combination of factors led to the rise of conservative talk radio. The politically charged format swept the country, bringing stardom to one of its pioneers, Rush Limbaugh. Also rising to popularity in the late 1980s was sports radio, which was dedicated to talk about sports as well as the broadcasting of sports events. What few country stations remained on AM typically shifted to classic country and focused primarily on older music.
While shock jocks had been in existence since at least the 1970s (see, for example, Don Imus) and the morning zoo radio format was popular among local stations beginning in the 1980s, the first shock jock to make a major national impact was Howard Stern, whose New York - based show was syndicated nationwide beginning in the early 1990s. Stern built a multimedia empire that incorporated television, books and feature films, which led to him bestowing upon himself the title of "King of All Media. '' Stern left terrestrial radio in 2005.
Satellite networks began replacing landline - based models in the 1980s, making possible wider and quicker national distribution of both talk and music radio. At the same time, the traditional networks started collapsing: NBC Radio and Mutual both were acquired by syndication company Westwood One, while ABC (both radio and television) was acquired by Capital Cities Communications. CBS would later acquire Westwood One, only to spin it off in 2007; as of 2015, Westwood One is now in the hands of Cumulus Media. ABC would end up in the hands of The Walt Disney Company, who broke the radio network up in 2007; Disney owns portions of the old network, while the rest of it is in the hands of Cumulus. Mutual was dissolved in 1999, replaced by CNN Radio, which itself was dissolved in 2012. CBS still owns much of its original network, the last of the four major networks of the Golden Age to do so; its programming is mostly funneled through Cumulus.
Two other major commercial networks have appeared since the 1990s: Premiere Networks, the division of iHeartMedia, and the Salem Radio Network. Premiere owns the radio distribution rights to the current "fourth major network '', Fox (which owns no radio stations), and distributes that company 's news and sports radio broadcasts. iHeart 's immediate predecessor, Clear Channel Communications, benefited from the Telecommunications Act of 1996, which allowed for greater media consolidation, and built a large empire of both large and small market radio stations; Clear Channel, having overextended itself, jettisoned most of its small - market stations (as well as its now - dissolved television division) in the late 2000s. The Salem Radio Network, a division of Salem Communications (which outside of radio also has a large Internet operation), primarily has a Christian / conservative focus and specializes in Christian music, preaching stations and conservative talk radio, both owning stations and producing original content. Oaktree Capital Management briefly attempted a foray into building a radio network when it purchased the assets of several struggling radio networks in the late 2000s; while it still owns stations through its Townsquare Media holding company, it has since spun off its network holdings (which operated under the Dial Global brand) to Cumulus.
Direct - to - consumer subscription satellite radio began appearing in the United States in the early 2000s, but despite heavy investment in programming has continually lost money and has less than a tenth of the reach of terrestrial radio. The two competing satellite radio services, Sirius and XM, merged to form Sirius XM Radio in 2009 and now has a government - regulated monopoly on the format.
While broadcast radio stations will often brand themselves with plain - text names, identities such as "cool FM '', "rock 105 '' or "the ABC network '' are not unique. Another station, in another city or country, may (and often will) have a similar brand; the name of a broadcast station for legal purposes is, therefore, normally its ITU call sign.
Broadcast stations in North America generally use call letters in the international series, with common conventions followed in each country. In the United States, the first letter generally is K for stations west of the Mississippi River and W for those east of the Mississippi; all new call signs have had four characters since 1930, although there are historical three - character calls still in use (such as WOR in New York City, WBZ in Boston, WOL in Washington DC, WSB in Atlanta, WMC in Memphis, WGN in Chicago, KOA in Denver, KSL in Salt Lake City, KEX in Portland, Oregon, KUT in Austin, and KFI in Los Angeles).
The expansion and dominance of FM radio, which has better audio quality but a more - limited broadcast range than AM, represented the major technical change in radio during the 1970s and 1980s. FM radio (aided by the development of smaller portable radios and "Walkman '' headsets) dominates music programming, while AM has largely shifted to talk and news formats. Talk radio became more popular during the 1980s as a result of improved satellite communications, the repeal of the Fairness Doctrine and (by the mid-1990s) extensive concentration of media ownership stemming from the Telecommunications Act of 1996. While before the 1980s talk radio was primarily a local phenomenon, the development of national spoken - word programming contributed to the renewed popularity of AM radio. However, this popularity is fading as previously AM - only stations begin moving their operations to FM simulcasts or translators, and as the audience of talk radio ages.
Both FM and AM radio have become increasingly specialized. Music formats (for instance) comprise a variety of specializations, the top five in 1991 being "country and western '', "adult contemporary '', "Top 40 '', "religion '' and "oldies ''. Radio has been shaped by demographics, although to a lesser degree than television; modern radio formats target groups of people by age, gender, urban (or rural) setting and race. As such, freeform stations with broad - spanning playlists have become uncommon on commercial radio.
In an era in which TV is the predominant medium, the reach of radio is still extensive. Ninety - nine percent of American households in 1999 had at least one radio; the average is five per household. Every day, radio reaches 80 percent of the U.S. population. Revenue more than doubled in a decade, from $8.4 billion in 1990 to more than $17 billion in 2000. Radio continues to prevail in automobiles and offices, where attention can be kept on the road (or the task at hand) while radio is an audio background. The popularity of car radios has led to drive time being the most listened - to dayparts on most radio stations, followed by midday (or the "at work '' shift). Transistor radios, a technology that has been available since the 1950s, were the method of choice for listening to music on the go for most of the late 20th century, before digital media players and later smartphones (many of which have FM radios as part of their hardware) took those roles in the 20th century.
The majority of programming in the United States is in English, with Spanish the second-most popular broadcast language; these are the only two languages with domestically produced, national radio networks. In the largest urban areas of the United States, "world ethnic '' stations may be found with a wide variety of languages (including Russian, Chinese, Korean and the languages of India); relatively widespread languages French and German have comparatively few radio outlets (in the case of German, due to the fact that most of its speakers are Amish or from similar sects and thus shun radio technology). French speakers can generally receive programming direct from Canadian broadcasters, which are receivable across the Canada -- US border and a handful of local stations serving the Haitian diaspora and Creole populations also serve areas in the southeast.
Until the 1980s, most commercial radio stations were affiliated with large networks such as ABC, CBS, the Mutual Broadcasting System, NBC, and others (e.g., RKO in the 1980s). The traditional major networks that had dominated the history of American radio up to that point began to be dissolved in the 1980s; RKO was forced to break up in a billing scandal, while NBC Radio and Mutual sold their assets to up - and - coming syndicator Westwood One, which itself would be bought by rival CBS in the 1990s. ABC maintained most of its radio network until 2007, when it sold off most of its stations to Citadel Broadcasting and later Cumulus Media (it maintains two specialty networks, sports - oriented ESPN Radio and youth top 40 Radio Disney, the latter of which has largely shifted to Internet radio; ABC still produces radio programming in addition to its terrestrial networks). CBS sold off Westwood One to private equity interests in the late 2000s as well, but unlike its rivals maintained ownership of its flagship stations. As of 2012, most commercial radio stations are controlled by media conglomerates and private equity firms such as Bain Capital (Clear Channel Communications), Oaktree Capital Management (Townsquare Media) and Cumulus Media.
Unlike most countries, the national and state governments in the U.S. do not operate any stations or networks directed at its own domestic citizens. It does operate networks overseas through the Broadcasting Board of Governors; the most widely known of these networks is Voice of America, which serves a general worldwide audience; other networks target specific geographic regions. Broadcasting Board of Governors networks were, until 2013, expressly forbidden from being marketed to American citizens; they still neither own nor affiliate with any AM or FM station. The U.S. also provides the American Forces Network, a service for American armed servicemen stationed overseas that mostly relays commercial programming; AFN broadcasts are restricted to listeners in Japan, Korea and parts of Europe. In lieu of a national broadcaster, the United States government instead subsidizes nonprofit radio programming through the Corporation for Public Broadcasting.
In 1998, the number of U.S. commercial radio stations had grown to 4,793 AM stations and 5,662 FM stations. In addition, there are 1,460 public radio stations. Most of these stations are run by private foundations, universities and public authorities for educational purposes and are financed by donations, foundations, subscriptions and corporate underwriting. Much public - radio broadcasting is supplied by NPR (formerly National Public Radio). NPR was incorporated in February 1970 under the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967; its television counterpart, PBS, was also created by the same legislation. (NPR and PBS are operated separately from each other.)
The BBC World Service has been distributed in the United States since 1986; until July 2012 by PRI, and since then by APM.
A new form of radio which is gaining popularity is satellite radio. Sirius XM Radio has a monopoly on the technology after the merger of Sirius Satellite Radio and XM Satellite Radio. Unlike terrestrial - radio broadcasting, most channels feature few (or no) commercials. Satellite - radio content is not regulated by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).
Cable radio, a slightly older technology, has also become widespread; Music Choice is the market leader in this field, with its primary competitors being Sirius XM, Muzak, DMX, Sonic Tap and Canada - based Galaxie. CRN Digital Talk Radio Networks specialize in talk radio. Cable radio has the disadvantage that it requires a cable TV hookup, limiting its use outside the home.
Unlike the mandated digital television transition, the U.S. government has not mandated a transition to digital radio, although it allows digital radio to be broadcast. The national standard is HD Radio, a proprietary in - band on - channel format that allows digital and analog signals to be broadcast simultaneously. Radio companies aggressively marketed HD Radio throughout the 2000s, touting its clearer signal and capacity for digital subchannels, but the technology never caught on with the general public. The negatives were cost, signal reception problems, a general lack of quality programming on the subchannels, and (especially on AM HD stations) adjacent - channel interference. HD Radio 's primary use has been to exploit an FCC loophole to allow low - power broadcast translators to carry HD subchannels in analog, thus giving radio station groups the ability to program more program services in a market than the federally mandated maximum number of stations allowed. FMeXtra is another subchannel service authorized for use in the United States, although that service is generally limited to voice transmissions due to lower bandwidth.
Internet radio, digital music players and streaming - capable smartphones are a challenge to terrestrial radio. Unlike satellite radio, most Internet stations do not require a subscription; several of the more popular ones use algorithms which allow listeners to customize the music they want to hear and select new music which may interest them. The proliferation of internet - based stations (which are more numerous and easier to set up than their television counterparts) creates a threat of audience fracturing beyond that experienced by television due to cable and satellite providers.
Although not nearly to the extent that AM radio has declined in neighboring Canada, AM radio has also begun to decline in the United States. To partially combat this, radio ownership groups have increasingly moved their signals to FM, either through low - power broadcast translators (primarily on small, independent and / or rural stations) or through simulcast on full - market FM stations. The AM - to - FM phenomenon began primarily in mid-sized markets, where there is more bandwidth and less competition, but has since progressed even to New York City, where as of 2012 sports - talk AM stations WEPN and WFAN have both acquired FM stations with the intent to either move or simulcast their AM programming. By 2013 most of the AM / FM simulcasts had been discontinued, in part due to redundancy and the fact that most listeners to AM stations stayed with AM while very few new listeners were picked up on the FM side.
Abridged from U.S. State Department IIP publications and other U.S. government materials.
Academy of Radio Arts & Sciences of America
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what do you mean by torque due to alignment of two magnets | Force between magnets - wikipedia
Magnets exert forces and torques on each other due to the rules of electromagnetism. The forces of attraction field of magnets are due to microscopic currents of electrically charged electrons orbiting nuclei and the intrinsic magnetism of fundamental particles (such as electrons) that make up the material. Both of these are modeled quite well as tiny loops of current called magnetic dipoles that produce their own magnetic field and are affected by external magnetic fields. The most elementary force between magnets, therefore, is the magnetic dipole -- dipole interaction. If all of the magnetic dipoles that make up two magnets are known then the net force on both magnets can be determined by summing up all these interactions between the dipoles of the first magnet and that of the second.
It is always more convenient to model the force between two magnets as being due to forces between magnetic poles having magnetic charges ' smeared ' over them. Such a model fails to account for many important properties of magnetism such as the relationship between angular momentum and magnetic dipoles. Further, magnetic charge does not exist. This model works quite well, though, in predicting the forces between simple magnets where good models of how the ' magnetic charge ' is distributed are available.
Two models are used to calculate the magnetic fields of and the forces between magnets. The physically correct method is called the Ampère model while the easier model to use is often the Gilbert model.
Ampère model: In the Ampère model, all magnetization is due to the effect of microscopic, or atomic, circular bound currents, also called Ampèrian currents throughout the material. The net effect of these microscopic bound currents is to make the magnet behave as if there is a macroscopic electric current flowing in loops in the magnet with the magnetic field normal to the loops. The Ampère model gives the exact magnetic field both inside and outside the magnet. It is usually difficult to calculate the Ampèrian currents on the surface of a magnet, though it is often easier to find the effective poles for the same magnet.
Gilbert model: In the Gilbert model, the pole surfaces of a permanent magnet are imagined to be covered with so - called magnetic charge, north pole particles on the north pole and south pole particles ' on the south pole, that are the source of the magnetic field lines. If the magnetic pole distribution is known, then outside the magnet the pole model gives the magnetic field exactly. In the interior of the magnet this model gives the H - field. This pole model is also called the Gilbert model of a magnetic dipole. Griffiths suggests (p. 258): "My advice is to use the Gilbert model, if you like, to get an intuitive ' feel ' for a problem, but never rely on it for quantitative results. ''
Far away from a magnet, its magnetic field is almost always described (to a good approximation) by a dipole field characterized by its total magnetic dipole moment, m. This is true regardless of the shape of the magnet, so long as the magnetic moment is non-zero. One characteristic of a dipole field is that the strength of the field falls off inversely with the cube of the distance from the magnet 's center.
The magnetic moment of a magnet is therefore a measure of its strength and orientation. A loop of electric current, a bar magnet, an electron, a molecule, and a planet all have magnetic moments. More precisely, the term magnetic moment normally refers to a system 's magnetic dipole moment, which produces the first term in the multipole expansion of a general magnetic field.
Both the torque and force exerted on a magnet by an external magnetic field are proportional to that magnet 's magnetic moment. The magnetic moment is a vector: it has both a magnitude and direction. The direction of the magnetic moment points from the south to north pole of a magnet (inside the magnet). For example, the direction of the magnetic moment of a bar magnet, such as the one in a compass is the direction that the north poles points toward.
In the physically correct Ampère model, magnetic dipole moments are due to infinitesimally small loops of current. For a sufficiently small loop of current, I, and area, A, the magnetic dipole moment is:
where the direction of m is normal to the area in a direction determined using the current and the right - hand rule. As such, the SI unit of magnetic dipole moment is ampere meter. More precisely, to account for solenoids with many turns the unit of magnetic dipole moment is Ampere - turn meter.
In the Gilbert model, the magnetic dipole moment is due to two equal and opposite magnetic charges that are separated by a distance, d. In this model, m is similar to the electric dipole moment p due to electrical charges:
where q is the ' magnetic charge '. The direction of the magnetic dipole moment points from the negative south pole to the positive north pole of this tiny magnet.
Magnets are drawn toward regions of higher magnetic field. The simplest example of this is the attraction of opposite poles of two magnets. Every magnet produces a magnetic field that is stronger near its poles. If opposite poles of two separate magnets are facing each other, each of the magnets are drawn into the stronger magnetic field near the pole of the other. If like poles are facing each other though, they are repulsed from the larger magnetic field.
The Gilbert model almost predicts a correct mathematical form for this force and is easier to understand qualitatively. For if a magnet is placed in a uniform magnetic field then both poles will feel the same magnetic force but in opposite directions, since they have opposite magnetic charge. But, when a magnet is placed in the non-uniform field, such as that due to another magnet, the pole experiencing the large magnetic field will experience the large force and there will be a net force on the magnet. If the magnet is aligned with the magnetic field, corresponding to two magnets oriented in the same direction near the poles, then it will be drawn into the larger magnetic field. If it is oppositely aligned, such as the case of two magnets with like poles facing each other, then the magnet will be repelled from the region of higher magnetic field.
In the physically correct Ampère model, there is also a force on a magnetic dipole due to a non-uniform magnetic field, but this is due to Lorentz forces on the current loop that makes up the magnetic dipole. The force obtained in the case of a current loop model is
where the gradient ∇ is the change of the quantity m B per unit distance, and the direction is that of maximum increase of m B. To understand this equation, note that the dot product m B = mBcos (θ), where m and B represent the magnitude of the m and B vectors and θ is the angle between them. If m is in the same direction as B then the dot product is positive and the gradient points ' uphill ' pulling the magnet into regions of higher B - field (more strictly larger m B). B represents the strength and direction of the magnetic field. This equation is strictly only valid for magnets of zero size, but is often a good approximation for not too large magnets. The magnetic force on larger magnets is determined by dividing them into smaller regions having their own m then summing up the forces on each of these regions.
The Gilbert model assumes that the magnetic forces between magnets are due to magnetic charges near the poles. This model produces good approximations that work even close to the magnet when the magnetic field becomes more complicated, and more dependent on the detailed shape and magnetization of the magnet than just the magnetic dipole contribution. Formally, the field can be expressed as a multipole expansion: A dipole field, plus a quadrupole field, plus an octopole field, etc. in the Ampère model, but this can be very cumbersome mathematically.
Calculating the attractive or repulsive force between two magnets is, in the general case, an extremely complex operation, as it depends on the shape, magnetization, orientation and separation of the magnets. The Gilbert model does depend on some knowledge of how the ' magnetic charge ' is distributed over the magnetic poles. It is only truly useful for simple configurations even then. Fortunately, this restriction covers many useful cases.
If both poles are small enough to be represented as single points then they can be considered to be point magnetic charges. Classically, the force between two magnetic poles is given by:
where
The pole description is useful to practicing magneticians who design real - world magnets, but real magnets have a pole distribution more complex than a single north and south. Therefore, implementation of the pole idea is not simple. In some cases, one of the more complex formulas given below will be more useful.
The mechanical force between two nearby magnetized surfaces can be calculated with the following equation. The equation is valid only for cases in which the effect of fringing is negligible and the volume of the air gap is much smaller than that of the magnetized material:
where:
The force between two identical cylindrical bar magnets placed end to end at great distance x ≫ R (\ displaystyle x \ gg R) is approximately:
where
Note that all these formulations are based on the Gilbert 's model, which is usable in relatively great distances. Other models, (e.g., Ampère 's model) use a more complicated formulation that sometimes can not be solved analytically. In these cases, numerical methods must be used.
For two cylindrical magnets with radius R (\ displaystyle R), and length L (\ displaystyle L), with their magnetic dipole aligned, the force can be computed analytically using elliptic integrals. In the limit x ≫ R (\ displaystyle x \ gg R), the force can be approximated by,
Where M (\ displaystyle M) is the magnetization of the magnets and x (\ displaystyle x) is the distance between them. For small values of x (\ displaystyle x), the results are erroneous as the force becomes large for close - to - zero distance.
If the magnet is long (L ≫ R (\ displaystyle L \ gg R)), a measurement of the magnetic flux density very close to the magnet B 0 (\ displaystyle B_ (0)) is roughly related to M (\ displaystyle M) by the formula
The effective magnetic dipole can be written as
Where V (\ displaystyle V) is the volume of the magnet. For a cylinder this is V = π R 2 L (\ displaystyle V = \ pi R ^ (2) L).
When L ≪ x (\ displaystyle L \ ll x) the point dipole approximation is obtained,
Which matches the expression of the force between two magnetic dipoles.
French scientist André Marie Ampère found that the magnetism produced by permanent magnets and the magnetism produced by electromagnets are the same kind of magnetism.
Because of that, the strength of a permanent magnet can be expressed in the same terms as that of an electromagnet.
The strength of magnetism of an electromagnet that is a flat loop of wire through which a current flows, measured at a distance that is great compared to the size of the loop, is proportional to that current and is proportional to the surface area of that loop.
For purpose of expressing the strength of a permanent magnet in same terms as that of an electromagnet, a permanent magnet is thought of as if it contains small current - loops throughout its volume, and then the magnetic strength of that magnet is found to be proportional to the current of each loop (in Ampere), and proportional to the surface of each loop (in square meter), and proportional to the density of current - loops in the material (in units per cubic meter), so the dimension of strength of magnetism of a permanent magnet is Ampere times square meter per cubic meter, is Ampere per meter.
That is why Ampere per meter is the correct unit of magnetism, even though these small current loops are not really present in a permanent magnet.
The validity of Ampere 's model means that it is allowable to think of the magnetic material as if it consists of current - loops, and the total effect is the sum of the effect of each current - loop, and so the magnetic effect of a real magnet can be computed as the sum of magnetic effects of tiny pieces of magnetic material that are at a distance that is great compared to the size of each piece.
This is very useful for computing magnetic force - field of a real magnet; It involves summing a large amount of small forces and you should not do that by hand, but let your computer do that for you; All that the computer program needs to know is the force between small magnets that are at great distance from each other.
In such computations it is often assumed that each (same - size) small piece of magnetic material has an equally strong magnetism, but this is not always true: a magnet that is placed near another magnet can change the magnetization of that other magnet. For permanent magnets this is usually only a small change, but if you have an electromagnet that consists of a wire wound round an iron core, and you bring a permanent magnet near to that core, then the magnetization of that core can change drastically (for example, if there is no current in the wire, the electromagnet would not be magnetic, but when the permanent magnet is brought near, the core of the electromagnet becomes magnetic).
Thus the Ampere model is suitable for computing the magnetic force - field of a permanent magnet, but for electromagnets it can be better to use a magnetic - circuit approach.
If two or more magnets are small enough or sufficiently distant that their shape and size is not important then both magnets can be modeled as being magnetic dipoles having a magnetic moments m and m.
The magnetic field of a magnetic dipole in vector notation is:
where
This is exactly the field of a point dipole, exactly the dipole term in the multipole expansion of an arbitrary field, and approximately the field of any dipole - like configuration at large distances.
If the coordinate system is shifted to center it on m and rotated such that the z - axis points in the direction of m then the previous equation simplifies to
where the variables r and θ are measured in a frame of reference with origin in m and oriented such that m is at the origin pointing in the z - direction. This frame is called Local coordinates and is shown in the Figure on the right.
The force of one magnetic dipole on another is determined by using the magnetic field of the first dipole given above and determining the force due to the magnetic field on the second dipole using the force equation given above. Using vector notation, the force of a magnetic dipole m on the magnetic dipole m is:
where r is the distance - vector from dipole moment m to dipole moment m, with r = r. The force acting on m is in opposite direction. As an example the magnetic force for two magnets pointing in the z - direction and aligned on the z - axis and separated by the distance z is:
The final formulas are shown next. They are expressed in the global coordinate system,
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who won the us women's soccer game | United States Women 's national Soccer team - Wikipedia
The United States women 's national soccer team (USWNT) represents the United States in international women 's soccer. The team is the most successful in international women 's soccer, winning three Women 's World Cup titles (including the first ever Women 's World Cup in 1991), four Olympic women 's gold medals (including the first ever Olympic Women 's soccer tournament in 1996), seven CONCACAF Gold Cup wins, and ten Algarve Cups. It medaled in every single World Cup and Olympic tournament in women 's soccer history from 1991 to 2015, before being knocked out in the quarterfinal of the 2016 Summer Olympics. The team is governed by United States Soccer Federation and competes in CONCACAF (the Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football).
After being ranked No. 2 on average from 2003 to 2008 in the FIFA Women 's World Rankings, the team was ranked No. 1 continuously from March 2008 to November 2014, falling back behind Germany, the only other team to occupy the No. 1 position in the ranking 's history. The team dropped to 2nd on March 24, 2017, due to its last - place finish in the 2017 SheBelieves Cup, then returned to 1st on June 23, 2017, after victories in friendlies against Russia, Sweden, and Norway. The team was selected as the U.S. Olympic Committee 's Team of the Year in 1997 and 1999, and Sports Illustrated chose the entire team as 1999 Sportswomen of the Year for its usual Sportsman of the Year honor. On April 5, 2017, U.S. Women 's Soccer and U.S. Soccer reached a deal on a new collective bargaining agreement that would, among other things, lead to a pay increase.
The team played its first match at the Mundialito tournament on August 18, 1985, coached by Mike Ryan, in which they lost 1 -- 0 to Italy.
The U.S. team 's first major victory came at the 1991 World Championship (retroactively named the 1991 Women 's World Cup). The U.S. cruised to lopsided victories in the quarterfinals and semifinals, before defeating Norway 2 -- 1 in the final. Michelle Akers was the team 's leading scorer with 10 goals, including both of the team 's goals in the final, and Carin Jennings won the Golden Ball as the tournament 's best player.
Julie Foudy, Kristine Lilly, and the rest of the 1999 team started a revolution towards women 's team sports in America. Arguably their most influential and memorable victory came in the 1999 World Cup when they defeated China 5 -- 4 in a penalty shoot - out following a 0 -- 0 draw after extended time. With this win they emerged onto the world stage and brought significant media attention to women 's soccer and athletics. On July 10, 1999, over 90,000 people (the largest ever for a women 's sporting event and one of the largest attendances in the world for a tournament game final) filled the Rose Bowl to watch the United States play China in the Final. After a back and forth game, the score was tied 0 -- 0 at full - time, and remained so after extra time, leading to a penalty kick shootout. With Briana Scurry 's save of China 's third kick, the score was 4 -- 4 with only Brandi Chastain left to shoot. She scored and won the game for the United States. Chastain famously dropped to her knees and whipped off her shirt, celebrating in her sports bra, which later made the cover of Sports Illustrated and the front pages of newspapers around the country and world. This win influenced many girls to want to play on a soccer team.
In the 2003 FIFA Women 's World Cup, the U.S. defeated Norway 1 -- 0 in the quarterfinals, but lost 0 -- 3 to Germany in the semifinals. The team then defeated Canada 3 -- 1 to claim third place. Abby Wambach was the team 's top scorer with three goals; Joy Fawcett and Shannon Boxx made the tournament 's all - star team.
At the 2007 FIFA Women 's World Cup, the U.S. defeated England 3 -- 0 in the quarterfinals but then suffered its most lopsided loss in team history when it lost to Brazil 0 -- 4 in the semifinals. The U.S. recovered to defeat Norway to take third place. Abby Wambach was the team 's leading scorer with 6 goals, and Kristine Lilly was the only American named to the tournament 's all - star team.
In the quarterfinal of the 2011 Women 's World Cup in Germany, the U.S. defeated Brazil 5 -- 3 on penalty kicks. Abby Wambach 's goal in the 122nd minute to tie the game 2 -- 2 has been voted the greatest goal in U.S. soccer history and the greatest goal in Women 's World Cup history. The U.S. then beat France 3 -- 1 in the semifinal, but lost to Japan 3 -- 1 on penalty kicks in the Final after drawing 1 -- 1 in regulation and 2 -- 2 in overtime. Hope Solo was named the tournament 's best goalkeeper and Abby Wambach won the silver ball as the tournament 's second best player.
In the 2012 Summer Olympics, the U.S. won the gold medal for the fourth time in five Olympics by defeating Japan 2 -- 1 in front of 80,203 fans at Wembley Stadium, a record for a women 's soccer game at the Olympics. The United States advanced to face Japan for the gold medal by winning the semifinal against Canada, a 4 -- 3 victory at the end of extra time. The 2012 London Olympics marked the first time the USWNT won every game en route to the gold medal and set an Olympic women 's team record of 16 goals scored.
The National Women 's Soccer League started in 2013, and provided competitive games as well as opportunities to players on the fringes of the squad. The U.S. had a 43 - game unbeaten streak that spanned two years -- the streak began with a 4 -- 0 win over Sweden in the 2012 Algarve Cup, and came to an end after a 1 -- 0 loss against Sweden in the 2014 Algarve Cup.
The USA defeated Japan 5 -- 2 in the final of the 2015 World Cup, becoming the first team in history to win three Women 's World Cup titles. In the 16th minute, Carli Lloyd achieved the fastest hat - trick from kick - off in World Cup history, and Abby Wambach was greeted with a standing ovation for her last World Cup match. Following their 2015 World Cup win, the team was honored with a ticker tape parade in New York City, the first for a women 's sports team. Sports Illustrated celebrated them with 25 covers of the magazine. President Barack Obama welcomed them to the White House, stating, "This team taught all of America 's children that ' playing like a girl ' means you 're a badass, '' before going on to say, "' playing like a girl ' means being the best. ''
On December 16, 2015, however, a 0 -- 1 loss to China in Wambach 's last game meant the team 's first home loss since 2004, ending their 104 - game home unbeaten streak.
In the 2016 Summer Olympics, the U.S. drew against Sweden in the quarterfinal; in the following penalty kick phase, Sweden won the game 4 -- 3. The loss marked the first time that the USWNT did not advance to the gold medal game of the Olympics, and the first time that the USWNT failed to advance to the semifinal round of a major tournament.
After the defeat in the 2016 Olympics, the USWNT underwent a year of experimentation which saw them losing 3 home games. If not for a comeback win against Brazil, the USWNT was on the brink of losing 4 home games in one year, a low never before seen by the USWNT. 2017 saw the USWNT play 12 games against teams ranked in the top - 15 in the world. The USWNT heads into World Cup Qualifying in fall of 2018.
U.S. TV coverage for the five Women 's World Cups from 1995 to 2011 was provided by ESPN / ABC and Univision, while coverage rights for the three Women 's World Cups from 2015 to 2023 were awarded to Fox Sports and Telemundo. In May 2014 a deal was signed to split TV coverage of other USWNT games between ESPN, Fox Sports, and Univision through the end of 2022. The USWNT games in the 2014 CONCACAF Women 's Championship and the 2015 Algarve Cup were broadcast by Fox Sports.
The 1999 World Cup final set the original record for largest US television audience for a women 's soccer match with 18 million viewers on average and was the most viewed English - language US broadcast of any soccer match until the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup Final between the United States and Japan.
The 2015 Women 's World Cup Final between the USA and Japan was the most watched soccer match -- men 's or women 's -- in American broadcast history. It averaged 23 million viewers and higher ratings than the NBA finals and the Stanley Cup finals. The final was also the most watched US - Spanish language broadcast of a FIFA Women 's World Cup match in history.
Overall, there were over 750 million viewers for the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup, making it the most watched Women 's World Cup in history. The FIFA Women 's World Cup is now the second most watched FIFA tournament, with only the men 's FIFA World Cup attracting more viewership.
The 1999 World Cup final, in which the USA defeated China, set a world attendance record for a women 's sporting event of 90,185 in a sellout at the Rose Bowl in Southern California. The record for Olympic women 's soccer attendance was set by the 2012 Olympic final between the USWNT and Japan, with 80,023 spectators at Wembley Stadium.
The following 20 players were named to the preliminary roster for friendlies against China PR on June 7 and 12, 2018.
Caps and goals are current as of June 12, 2018, after match against China PR.
The following players were also named to a squad in the last 12 months.
Notes:
The following is a list of match results from the previous year and the current year, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.
Sources
The two highest - profile tournaments the U.S. team participates in are the quadrennial FIFA Women 's World Cup and the Olympic Games.
The team has participated in every World Cup through 2015 and won a medal in each.
The US team directly qualified for the 1999 FIFA Women 's World Cup as hosts of the event. Because of this, they did not participate in the 1998 CONCACAF Championship, which was the qualification tournament for the World Cup.
The team has participated in every Olympic tournament through 2016 and reached the gold medal game in each until 2016, when they were eliminated in the quarterfinals on a penalty shootout loss to Sweden.
The Algarve Cup is a global invitational tournament for national teams in women 's soccer hosted by the Portuguese Football Federation (FPF). Held annually in the Algarve region of Portugal since 1994, it is one of the most prestigious women 's football events, alongside the Women 's World Cup and Women 's Olympic Football.
The women 's national team boasts the first six players in the history of the game to have earned 200 caps. These players have since been joined in the 200 - cap club by several players from other national teams, as well as by five more Americans: Kate Markgraf, Abby Wambach, Heather O'Reilly, Carli Lloyd and Hope Solo. Kristine Lilly and Christie Rampone are the only players to earn more than 300 caps.
In March 2004, Mia Hamm and Michelle Akers were the only two women and the only two Americans named to the FIFA 100, a list of the 125 greatest living soccer players chosen by Pelé as part of FIFA 's centenary observances.
The USWNT All - Time Best XI was chosen In December 2013 by the United States Soccer Federation:
Source
Source
Source
The record for most goals scored in a match by a member of the USWNT is five, which has been accomplished by seven players.
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who has the most gold gloves in mlb history | Rawlings Gold Glove Award - wikipedia
The Rawlings Gold Glove Award, usually referred to as the Gold Glove, is the award given annually to the Major League Baseball players judged to have exhibited superior individual fielding performances at each fielding position in both the National League (NL) and the American League (AL), as voted by the managers and coaches in each league. Managers are not permitted to vote for their own players. Additionally, a sabermetric component provided by Society for American Baseball Research (SABR) accounts for approximately 25 percent of the vote. Eighteen Gold Gloves are awarded each year (with the exception of 1957, 1985 and 2007), one at each of the nine positions in each league. In 1957, the baseball glove manufacturer Rawlings created the Gold Glove Award to commemorate the best fielding performance at each position. The award was created from a glove made from gold lamé - tanned leather and affixed to a walnut base. Initially, only one Gold Glove per position was awarded to the top fielder at each position in Major League Baseball; however, separate awards were given for the National and American Leagues beginning in 1958.
For the first four seasons of the award (1957 to 1960), individual awards were presented to left fielders, center fielders, and right fielders. From 1961 through 2010, the phrase "at each position '' was no longer strictly accurate, since the prize was presented to three outfielders irrespective of their specific position. Any combination of outfielders, often three center fielders, could win the award in the same year. Critics called for awarding a single Gold Glove for each individual outfield position, arguing that the three outfield positions are not equivalent defensively. Starting in 2011, separate awards for each outfield position were once again presented. In the 1985 American League voting, a tie for third - place resulted in the presentation of Gold Glove Awards to four outfielders (Dwayne Murphy, Gary Pettis, Dwight Evans and Dave Winfield); this scenario was repeated in the National League in 2007 (Andruw Jones, Carlos Beltrán, Aaron Rowand, and Jeff Francoeur).
Before SABR 's involvement in the voting process, The Boston Globe writer Peter Abraham said the Fielding Bible Awards "are far more accurate (and accountable) '' than the Gold Glove awards since statistics are used along with the opinions of an expert panel. The Gold Gloves are selected by managers and coaches that may have seen a player as few as six times during the season. Bill Chuck of Comcast SportsNet New England wrote that Gold Glove voters frequently counted only errors to determine winners. Geoff Baker of The Seattle Times said the votes for the Gold Gloves rely largely on a player 's past reputation. The Associated Press wrote that "some fans have viewed the Gold Gloves as mostly a popularity contest, even suggesting that a player 's performance at the plate helped draw extra attention to his glove. '' After winning the AL Gold Glove at first base in both 1997 and 1998, Rafael Palmeiro won again in 1999 with the Texas Rangers while only appearing in 28 games as a first baseman; he played in 128 games as a designated hitter that season, resulting in a controversy. Derek Jeter, winner of five Gold Gloves, believes that many defensive factors can not be quantified. In 2013, Rawlings collaborated on the Gold Glove Award with SABR, who provided the SABR Defensive Index (SDI) to add a sabermetric component to the selection process. The index accounted for 25 percent of the vote, while managers and coaches continued to provide the majority. Afterwards, Jay Jaffe of Sports Illustrated wrote that the Gold Gloves "appear to have significantly closed the gap on their more statistically - driven counterparts. '' SABR and FiveThirtyEight believed that the impact to the voting results by SDI, which is also included on the voters ' ballots, went beyond its 25 own percent weight and also influenced the managers ' and coaches ' voting.
The most Gold Gloves ever won by one player is 18 by pitcher Greg Maddux. He won 13 consecutive awards from 1990 to 2002, all in the National League. Brooks Robinson has the most wins as a third baseman, with 16 Gold Gloves, and is tied for the second - highest total overall with pitcher Jim Kaat, who won his 16 awards consecutively. Iván Rodríguez has won the most Gold Gloves as a catcher, with 13 career awards in the American League. Ozzie Smith has 13 wins at shortstop; he and Rodríguez are tied for the fourth - highest total among all winners. Among outfielders, Roberto Clemente and Willie Mays, who played primarily right field and center field, respectively, are tied for the lead with 12 Gold Gloves. Keith Hernandez, the leader at first base, has won 11 times, and Roberto Alomar leads second basemen with 10 wins. Other players with 10 or more wins include shortstop Omar Vizquel (11), catcher Johnny Bench (10), third baseman Mike Schmidt (10), and outfielders Ken Griffey Jr., Ichiro Suzuki, Andruw Jones, and Al Kaline (10 each).
The only player to win Gold Gloves as an infielder and outfielder is Darin Erstad, who won Gold Gloves as an outfielder in 2000 and 2002 and as a first baseman in 2004, all with the Anaheim Angels. The only other player to win Gold Gloves at multiple positions is Plácido Polanco, who won at second base (2007, 2009 AL) and third base (2011 NL). Family pairs to win Gold Gloves include brothers Ken and Clete Boyer (third base), brothers Sandy Alomar, Jr. (catcher) and Roberto Alomar (second base), Bengie and Yadier Molina (catcher), father and son Bobby and Barry Bonds (outfield), and father and son Bob (catcher) and Bret Boone (second base).
In 2016, Rawlings announced it would begin awarding a gold glove annually to a female fastpitch softball player in the National Pro Fastpitch league. NPF coaches and managers vote for a winner (excluding those on their respective teams). This award is in addition to the collegiate and high school awards added in 2007, its 50th anniversary.
On February 20, 2007, Major League Baseball and Rawlings announced that an all - time Gold Glove Team would be named during the 50th anniversary of the first Gold Glove Awards. Rawlings asked 70 baseball reporters, former players and former managers to select 50 names for the ballot, from an initial selection of 250 names. The team was selected by fans, who voted at the Rawlings Gold Glove website, at United States Postal Service offices, and at sporting goods stores. The results were announced at the 2007 Major League Baseball All - Star Game.
In the history of the Gold Glove Award, there have been eleven double - play combinations, or pairs of middle infielders, that have won awards in the same year. Shortstops and second basemen depend upon each other for the majority of double plays. The most common type of double play occurs with a runner on first base and a ground ball hit towards the middle of the infield. The player fielding the ball (generally the shortstop or second baseman) throws to the fielder covering second base, who steps on the base before the runner from first arrives to force that runner out, and then throws the ball to the first baseman to force out the batter for the second out. Mark Belanger won four Gold Gloves with the Baltimore Orioles alongside winning partner Bobby Grich, and Joe Morgan paired with Dave Concepción for four combination wins with the Cincinnati Reds. The most recent teammates to accomplish the feat are Brandon Crawford and Joe Panik, who won with the San Francisco Giants in 2016.
Since 1957, there have been five Gold Glove batteries. The pitcher and catcher, collectively known as the battery, are the only two players on the field involved in every pitch. In particular, the pitcher and catcher control the running game with tools such as pickoffs or the strength of the catcher 's throwing arm. The first pitcher and catcher on the same team to win Gold Gloves in the same year were Jim Kaat and Earl Battey, with the Minnesota Twins in 1962. Only two pairs of batterymates have won Gold Gloves together more than once: Iván Rodríguez and Kenny Rogers won with the Texas Rangers in 2000, and again with the Detroit Tigers in 2004 and 2006. Yadier Molina and Adam Wainwright matched the feat, winning in both 2009 and 2013.
In 2011, Rawlings added an annual Platinum Glove Award awarded to the best defensive player in each league as voted by fans.
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which river is not flowing into bay of bengal | Bay of Bengal - wikipedia
India Bangladesh Indonesia Myanmar
The Bay of Bengal (Bengali: বঙ্গোপসাগর (bɔŋgopoʃagoɾ), Hindi: बंगाल की खाड़ी (bəŋgɑːl kɪː khɑːɽɪː)) is the largest bay in the world, with waters flowing straight out of the Himalayas through Bengal region. Roughly triangular, it is bordered by India to the West, Northwest and East (A&N Is.), Myanmar to the East, Sri Lanka to the Southwest, Bangladesh to the North and, Indonesia to the Southeast. Countries dependent on the Bay of Bengal straddle both South Asia and Southeast Asia.
The Bay of Bengal occupies an area of 2,172,000 square kilometres (839,000 sq mi). A number of large rivers -- the Ganges and three major rivers of Bangladesh the Padma, the Jamuna and Meghna, other rivers such as the Irrawaddy River, Godavari, Mahanadi, Brahmani River, Baitarani, Krishna and Kaveri flow into the Bay of Bengal. Among the important ports are Chennai, Kolkata, Paradip Port, Port Blair, Tuticorin, Visakhapatnam, Krishnapatnam Port, Chittagong, Colombo, Yangon. Among the smaller ports are the Dhamra Port, Kakinada Port, Gopalpur Port and Mongla.
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Bay of Bengal as follows:
The bay gets its name from the historical Bengal region (The Indian state of West Bengal and modern - day Bangladesh). In ancient scriptures, this water body may have been referred to as ' Mahodadhi ' (Sanskrit: महोदधि, lit. great water receptacle) while it appears as Sinus Gangeticus or Gangeticus Sinus, meaning "Gulf of the Ganges '', in ancient maps.
The other Sanskrit names for Bay of Bengal are ' Vangopasagara ' (Sanskrit: वङ्गोपसागर, lit. Bengal 's Bay), also simply called as ' Vangasagara ' (Sanskrit: वङ्गसागर, lit. Bengal Sea) and ' Purvapayodhi ' (Sanskrit: पूर्वपयोधि, lit. Eastern Ocean). Even today in Bengali and Odia it is known as "Bongoposagor ''.
Many major Rivers of India flow west to east before draining into the Bay of Bengal. The Ganga is the northernmost of these. Its main channel enters and flows through Bangladesh, where it is known as the Padma River, before joining the Meghna River. However, the Brahmaputra River flows from east to west in Assam before turning south and entering Bangladesh where it is called the Jamuna River. This joins the Padma where upon the Padma joins the Meghna River that finally drains into Bay of Bengal. The Sundarbans mangrove of forest of Bangladesh is a forest at the delta of the Padma, Jamuna and Meghna rivers lies partly in West Bengal and mostly in Bangladesh. The Brahmaputra at 2,948 km (1,832 mi) is the 28th longest River in the world. It originates in Tibet. The Hooghly River, another channel of the Ganga that flows through Calcutta drains into Bay of Bengal.
The Padma -- Meghna - Jamuna rivers deposit nearly 1000 million tons of sediment per year. The sediment from these three rivers form the Bengal Delta and the submarine fan, a vast structure that extends from Bangladesh to south of the Equator, is up to 16.5 kilometres (10.3 mi) thick, and contains at least 1,130 trillion tonnes of sediment, which has accumulated over the last 17 million years at an average rate of 665 million tons per annum. The Bay of Bengal used to be deeper than the Mariana Trench, the present deepest ocean point. The fan has buried organic carbon at a rate of nearly 1.1 trillion mol / yr (13.2 million t / yr) since the early Miocene period. The three rivers currently contribute nearly 8 % of the total organic carbon (TOC) deposited in the world 's oceans. Due to high TOC accumulation in the deep sea bed of the Bay of Bengal, the area is rich in oil and natural gas and gas hydrate reserves. Bangladesh can reclaim land substantially and economically gain from the sea area by constructing sea dikes, bunds, causeways and by trapping the sediment from its rivers.
Further southwest of Bangladesh, the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri Rivers also flow from west to east in South Asia and drain into the Bay of Bengal. Many small rivers also drain directly into the Bay of Bengal; the shortest of them is the Cooum River at 64 km (40 mi).
The Irrawaddy (or Ayeyarwady) River in Myanmar flows into the Andaman Sea of the Bay of Bengal and once had thick mangrove forests of its own.
Indian ports on the bay include Kolkata Port, Haldia Port, Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Kakinada, Pondicherry, Dhamra, Gopalpur and Bangladeshi ports on the Bay are Chittagong, Mongla, Payra Port.
The islands in the bay are numerous, including the Andaman Islands, Nicobar and Mergui groups of India. The Cheduba group of islands, in the north - east, off the Burmese coast, are remarkable for a chain of mud volcanoes, which are occasionally active. Great Andaman is the main archipelago or island group of the Andaman Islands, whereas Ritchie 's Archipelago consists of smaller islands. Only 37, or 6.5 %, of the 572 islands and islets of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are inhabited.
The lithosphere of the earth is broken up into what are called tectonic plates. Underneath the Bay of Bengal, which is part of the great Indo - Australian Plate and is slowly moving north east. This plate meets the Burma Microplate at the Sunda Trench. The Nicobar Islands, and the Andaman Islands are part of the Burma Microplate. The India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate at the Sunda Trench or Java Trench. Here, the pressure of the two plates on each other increase pressure and temperature resulting in the formation of volcanoes such as the volcanoes in Myanmar, and a volcanic arc called the Sunda Arc. The Sumatra - Andaman earthquake and Asian tsunami was a result of the pressure at this zone causing a submarine earthquake which then resulted in a destructive tsunami.
A zone 50 m wide extending from the island of Ceylon and the Coromandel coast to the head of the bay, and thence southwards through a strip embracing the Andaman and Nicobar islands, is bounded by the 100 fathom line of sea bottom; some 50 m. beyond this lies the 500 - fathom limit. Opposite the mouth of the Ganges, however, the intervals between these depths are very much extended by deltaic influence.
Swatch of No Ground is a 14 km - wide deep sea canyon of the Bay of Bengal. The deepest recorded area of this valley is about 1340 m. The submarine canyon is part of the Bengal Fan, the largest submarine fan in the world.
The Bay of Bengal is full of biological diversity, diverging amongst coral reefs, estuaries, fish spawning and nursery areas, and mangroves. The Bay of Bengal is one of the World 's 64 largest marine ecosystems.
Kerilia jerdonii is a sea snake of the Bay of Bengal. Glory of Bengal cone (Conus bengalensis) is just one of the seashells which can be photographed along beaches of the Bay of Bengal. An endangered species, the olive ridley sea turtle can survive because of the nesting grounds made available at the Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary, Gahirmatha Beach, Odisha, India. Marlin, barracuda, skipjack tuna, (Katsuwonus pelamis), yellowfin tuna, Indo - Pacific humpbacked dolphin (Sousa chinensis), and Bryde 's whale (Balaenoptera edeni) are a few of the marine animals. Bay of Bengal hogfish (Bodianus neilli) is a type of wrass which live in turbid lagoon reefs or shallow coastal reefs. Schools of dolphins can be seen, whether they are the bottle nose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), pantropical spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata) or the spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris). Tuna and dolphins usually reside in the same waters. In shallower and warmer coastal waters the Irrawaddy dolphins (Orcaella brevirostris) can be found.
The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve provides sanctuary to many animals some of which include the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), giant leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), and Malayan box turtle (Cuora amboinensis kamaroma) to name a few.
Another endangered species royal Bengal tiger is supported by Sundarbans a large estuarine delta that holds a mangrove area in the Ganges River Delta.
Coastal regions bordering the Bay of Bengal are rich in minerals. Sri Lanka, Serendib, or Ratna -- Dweepa which means Gem Island. Amethyst, beryl, ruby, sapphire, topaz, and garnet are just some of the gems of Sri Lanka. Garnet and other precious gems are also found in abundance in the Indian states of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
From January to October, the current is northward flowing, and the clockwise circulation pattern is called the "East Indian Current ''. The Bay of Bengal monsoon moves in a northwest direction striking the Nicobar Islands, and the Andaman Islands first end of May, then the north eastern coast of India by end of June.
The remainder of the year, the counterclockwise current is southwestward flowing, and the circulation pattern is called the East Indian Winter Jet. September and December see very active weather, season varsha (or monsoon), in the Bay of Bengal producing severe cyclones which affect eastern India. Several efforts have been initiated to cope with storm surge.
A tropical storm with rotating winds blowing at speeds of 74 miles (119 kilometres) per hour is called a cyclone when they originate over the Bay of Bengal; and called a hurricane in the Atlantic. Between 100,000 and 500,000 residents of Bangladesh were killed because of the 1970 Bhola cyclone.
The Bay of Bengal in the stretch of Swargadwar, the gateway to heaven in Sanskrit, in the Indian town of Puri is considered holy by Hindus.
The Samudra arati is a daily tradition started by the present Shankaracharya of Puri 9 years ago to honour the sacred sea. The daily practise includes prayer and fire offering to the sea at Swargadwar in Puri by disciples of the Govardhana matha of the Shankaracharya. On Paush Purnima of every year the Shankaracharya himself comes out to offer prayers to the sea.
One of the first trading ventures along the Bay of Bengal was The Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies more commonly referred to as the British East India Company. Gopalpur - on - Sea was one of their main trading centers. Other trading companies along the Bay of Bengal shorelines were the English East India Company and the French East India Company.
BIMSTEC Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) supports free trade internationally around the Bay of Bengal between Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
The Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project is a new venture proposed which would create a channel for a shipping route to link the Gulf of Mannar with the Bay of Bengal. This would connect India from east to west without the necessity of going around Sri Lanka.
Thoni and catamaran fishing boats of fishing villages thrive along the Bay of Bengal shorelines. Fishermen can catch between 26 and 44 species of marine fish. In one year, the average catch is two million tons of fish from the Bay of Bengal alone. Approximately 31 % of the world 's coastal fishermen live and work on the bay.
The Bay of Bengal is centrally located in South and Southeast Asia. It lies at the center of two huge economic blocks, the SAARC and ASEAN. It influences China 's southern landlocked region in the north and major sea ports of India and Bangladesh. China, India, and Bangladesh have forged naval cooperation agreements with Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia to increase cooperation in checking terrorism in the high seas.
Its outlying islands (the Andaman and Nicobar islands) and, most importantly, major ports such as Kolkata, Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Tuticorin, Chittagong, and Mongla, along its coast with the Bay of Bengal added to its importance.
China has recently made efforts to project influence into the region through tie - ups with Myanmar and Bangladesh. The United States has held major exercises with Bangladesh, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and recently India The largest ever wargame in Bay of Bengal, known as Malabar 2007, was held in 2007 and naval warships from US, Bangladesh, Thailand, Singapore, Japan and Australia took part. India was a participant.
Large deposits of natural gas in the areas within Bangladesh 's sea zone incited a serious urgency by India and Myanmar into a territorial dispute. Disputes over rights of some oil and gas blocks have caused brief diplomatic spats between Myanmar and India with Bangladesh.
The disputed maritime boundary between Bangladesh and Myanmar resulted in military tensions in 2008 and 2009. Bangladesh is pursuing a settlement with Myanmar and India to the boundary dispute through the International Tribunal on the Law of the Sea.
The Asian brown cloud, a layer of air pollution that covers much of South Asia and the Indian Ocean every year between January and March, and possibly also during earlier and later months, hangs over the Bay ofBengal. It is considered to be a combinationof vehicle exhaust, smoke from cooking fires, and industrial discharges.
A transboundary issue is defined as an environmental problem in which either the cause of the problem and / or its impact is separated by a national boundary; or the problem contributes to a global environmental problem and finding regional solutions is considered to be a global environmental benefit. The eight Bay of Bengal countries have (2012) identified three major transboundary problems (or areas of concern) affecting the health of the Bay, that they can work on together. With the support of the Bay Of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Project (BOBLME), the eight countries are now (2012) developing responses to these issues and their causes, for future implementation as the Strategic Action Programme.
Fisheries production in the Bay of Bengal is six million tonnes per year, more than seven percent of the world 's catch. The major transboundary issues relating to shared fisheries are: a decline in the overall availability of fish resources; changes in species composition of catches; the high proportion of juvenile fish in the catch; and changes in marine biodiversity, especially through loss of vulnerable and endangered species. The transboundary nature of these issues are: that many fish stocks are shared between BOBLME countries through the transboundary migration of fish, or larvae. Fishing overlaps national jurisdictions, both legally and illegally -- overcapacity and overfishing in one location forces a migration of fishers and vessels to other locations. All countries (to a greater or lesser degree) are experiencing difficulties in implementing fisheries management, especially the ecosystem approach to fisheries. Bay of Bengal countries contribute significantly to the global problem of loss of vulnerable and endangered species.
The main causes of the issues are: open access to fishing grounds; Government emphasis on increasing fish catches; inappropriate government subsidies provided to fishers; increasing fishing effort, especially from trawlers and purse seiners; high consumer demand for fish, including for seed and fishmeal for aquaculture; ineffective fisheries management; and illegal and destructive fishing.
The Bay of Bengal is an area of high biodiversity, with many endangered and vulnerable species. The major transboundary issues relating to habitats are: the loss and degradation of mangrove habitats; degradation of coral reefs; and the loss of, and damage to, seagrasses. The transboundary nature of these major issues are: that all three critical habitats occur in all BOBLME countries. Coastal development for several varying uses of the land and sea are common in all BOBLME countries. Trade in products from all the habitats is transboundary in nature. Climate change impacts are shared by all BOBLME countries. The main causes of the issues are: food security needs of the coastal poor; lack of coastal development plans; increasing trade in products from coastal habitats; coastal development and industrialization; ineffective marine protected areas and lack of enforcement; upstream development that affects water - flow; intensive upstream agricultural practices; and increasing tourism.
The major transboundary issues relating to pollution and water quality are: sewage - borne pathogens and organic load; solid waste / marine litter; increasing nutrient inputs; oil pollution; persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and persistent toxic substances (PTSs); sedimentation; and heavy metals. The transboundary nature of these issues are: discharge of untreated / partially treated sewage being a common problem. Sewage and organic discharges from the Ganges - Brahmaputra - Meghna River are likely to be transboundary. Plastics and derelict fishing gear can be transported long distances across national boundaries. High nutrient discharges from rivers could intensify largescale hypoxia. Atmospheric transport of nutrients is inherently transboundary. Differences between countries with regard to regulation and enforcement of shipping discharges may drive discharges across boundaries. Tar balls are transported long distances. POPs / PTSs and mercury, including organo - mercury, undergo long - range transport. Sedimentation and most heavy metal contamination tend to be localized and lack a strong transboundary dimension. The main causes of the issues are: increasing coastal population density and urbanization; higher consumption, resulting in more waste generated per person; insufficient funds allocated to waste management; migration of industry into BOBLME countries; and proliferation of small industries.
Northern Circars occupied the western coast of the Bay of Bengal and is now considered to be India 's Madras state. Chola dynasty (9th century to 12th century) when ruled by Rajaraja Chola I occupied the western coastline of the Bay of Bengal circa AD 1014, The Bay of Bengal was also called the Chola Lake. The Kakatiya dynasty reached the western coastline of the Bay of Bengal between the Godavari and the Krishna rivers. Kushanas about the middle of the 1st century AD invaded northern India perhaps extending as far as the Bay of Bengal. Chandragupta Maurya extended the Maurya Dynasty across northern India to the Bay of Bengal. Hajipur was a stronghold for Portuguese Pirates. In the 16th century the Portuguese built trading posts in the north of the Bay of Bengal at Chittagong (Porto Grande) and Satgaon (Porto Pequeno). Before the arrival of British to India it was also known as "Kalinga Sagar ''.
Cellular Jail or "Black Waters '' built in 1896 on Ross Island, a part of the Andaman Island Chain. As early as 1858 this island was used as a British penal colony for political prisoners facing life imprisonment.
Maritime archaeology or marine archaeology is the study of material remains of ancient peoples. A specialized branch, Archaeology of shipwrecks studies the salvaged artifacts of ancient ships. Stone anchors, amphorae shards, elephant tusks, hippopotamus teeth, ceramic pottery, a rare wood mast and lead ingots are examples which may survive the test of time for archaeologists to study and place the salvaged findings into a time line of history. coral reefs, tsunamis, cyclones, mangrove swamps, battles and a criss cross of sea routes in a high trading area combined with pirating have all contributed to shipwrecks in the Bay of Bengal.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bengal, Bay of ''. Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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12 days of giveaways ellen what is it | The Ellen DeGeneres show - wikipedia
The Ellen DeGeneres Show (often shortened to Ellen) is an American television comedy talk show hosted by comedienne / actress Ellen DeGeneres. Debuting on September 8, 2003, it is produced by Telepictures and airs in syndication, including stations owned by NBCUniversal. For its first five seasons, the show was taped in Studio 11 at NBC Studios in Burbank, California. It later moved to Stage 1 on the nearby Warner Bros. lot. Since the beginning of the sixth season, Ellen has been broadcast in high definition.
The show has won 59 Daytime Emmy Awards as of 2017, including four for Outstanding Talk Show and six for Outstanding Talk Show Entertainment, surpassing the record held by The Oprah Winfrey Show, which won nine. The show also won 17 People 's Choice Award. The talk show 's YouTube channel is currently charted as being in the top 20 most - subscribed YouTube channels. On January 20, 2016, it was announced that the show had been renewed for three additional seasons through 2020.
The program combines comedy, celebrity, musical guests, and human - interest stories. The program often features audience participation games where prizes are awarded. During her Twelve Days of Giveaways promotion, audience members receive roughly $1,000 worth of prizes on each of twelve episodes. Because the show has become so popular, not all who arrive hoping to see a taping can fit into the studio, so an offshoot space, dubbed by Tom Hanks "The Riff Raff Room '', was created. Persons seated here are often referenced and shown briefly on camera but watch the taping from off - stage. Other non-celebrities have been featured in an attempt by DeGeneres to give them 15 minutes of fame. Guests in this role have included intelligent children, small business owners, etc. In the show 's third season, DeGeneres began surprising fans by introducing them to their favorite celebrities.
Several recurring sounds, gags, and catchphrases are used by DeGeneres depending on the topic of discussion or theme for a specific episode. For example, after DeGeneres says the phrase, "Aww Snap! '', a sound effect of a whip cracking often is played. In her monologue, DeGeneres frequently thanks the audience 's applause by saying "I feel the same way about you! '' Other video segments include DeGeneres scaring people, playing pranks, taking part in faux - breaking news segments, interacting with crew members, etc. Other recurring segments include those where DeGeneres comments on Internet videos, tabloid - style photographs of celebrities, advertisements on Craigslist, or voicemails left for her on an answering machine. Some segments feature audience members more prominently, including having audience members show hidden talents, pictures of others that resemble DeGeneres, interviewing children, etc.
DeGeneres frequently plays games with audience members and awards prizes based upon their performance. Games have included Pictionary - style drawing games, finding hidden objects within the studio, category, current event or pop - culture - based trivia, and various other stunt and charade - based games. DeGeneres also joked several times on the show about when a sequel to Finding Nemo, in which she famously had a lead role, will eventually release, as well as make references to the film. Eventually, the sequel, Finding Dory, was officially announced by DeGeneres.
The show has many recurring segments throughout the years. Some include:
Heads Up!
Heads Up! is a game that DeGeneres plays with other celebrities. The game originally has players guess the word on the physical cards held to another player 's head as time counts down. DeGeneres and Warner Bros. Entertainment developed an app version of this game. The game became a huge success after its May 2013 launch, and it immediately shot to the top of the App Store and was downloaded over 650,000 times in its first month. Totally, it has been download for more than 25 million times by July 2016. It remains among Apple 's top - paid apps three years after launch.
Since the show 's debut, DeGeneres has segued from her opening monologue by doing a dance. The dancing proved to be extremely popular with viewers, and has since progressed to a segment where DeGeneres dances into the audience, sometimes borrowing a coat or purse from someone 's chair, and taking it with her. She has also featured a segment in which people teach her new dance moves.
One of her most famous dance moves is dancing over the table, where she straddles the coffee table and dances from one end to the other. Although she does not do it every day, dancing over the table is a recurring theme. As an April Fools ' Day prank in 2009, the show 's staff placed a wider table top over her normal table. During the show, when DeGeneres attempted to dance over it, she barely made it across, being forced on her tip - toes and using the table as leverage. On the seventh - season premiere, DeGeneres performed a dance segment with the cast of So You Think You Can Dance.
In September 2009, four major record labels sued the producers of the show for unspecified damages over the dance routine, for allegedly using songs without permission.
Sophia Grace Brownlee (born April 18, 2003) and her cousin Rosie McClelland (born September 7, 2006) were first invited to the show after DeGeneres saw their YouTube video cover of "Super Bass '' by Nicki Minaj, which Sophia Grace and Rosie posted on YouTube on September 19, 2011. The then eight - and five - year - old Essex, England natives became recurring cast members on the show, where they hosted their own segment called "Tea Time with Sophia Grace and Rosie ''. In the segment, the duo invites and interviews guest celebrities such as Taylor Swift, Katy Perry, Hugh Grant, Julie Bowen, Harry Connick Jr., LL Cool J, Justin Bieber, and Reese Witherspoon over to tea. Sophia Grace and Rosie won the "Choice Webstar '' at the 2012 Teen Choice Awards for this segment. They have also been correspondents during the red carpet events such as the Grammy Awards, the American Music Awards, the Billboard Music Awards, and the MTV Video Music Awards. They appeared in the third episode (June 2013) and the eleventh episode (September 2013) of Sam & Cat. According to her representative, Sophia Grace had been cast as Little Red Riding Hood in Walt Disney Pictures ' film adaptation of Stephen Sondheim 's Into the Woods, but she withdrew before production. Sophia Grace & Rosie starred in their own movie called Sophia Grace and Rosie 's Royal Adventure.
DeGeneres 's mother, Betty, attends the show regularly and is frequently featured on camera.
From 2003 to early 2008, the program was originally taped at studio 11 at NBC Studios in Burbank, California. It is now filmed in studio 1 (named "The Ellen Stage '' since her 2,000 th show that took place in November, 2015) on the Warner Bros. lot in Burbank.
The executive producers are DeGeneres, Mary Connelly, Ed Glavin, Andy Lassner and Jim Paratore. The writing staff has included Karen Kilgariff (former head writer), Karen Anderson, Margaret Smith and DeGeneres. Margaret Smith left the show to work on her own projects, including her first book, What Was I Thinking? How Being a Stand Up Did Nothing to Prepare Me to Become a Single Mother (Crossroad Publishing, 2008). Amy Rhodes, a former writer for the program, regularly appeared on camera during various segments.
Unlike most talk shows, the show uses a disc jockey to supply music rather than a band. Originally, the role was filled by Los Angeles - based DJ Scott K, who lasted only a few weeks. He was later replaced by Tony Okungbowa, who DJed through season 3. Due to his growing acting career, Okungbowa left the show, and a few guest DJs were brought in to try out for the position, including New Orleans 's own DJ Chris Guénard aka ' REVIVE. ' Tony was replaced by actor / DJ Jon Abrahams for the fourth - season premiere. Abrahams stayed on the show for one season, and also left as his acting career grew. Ted Stryker of KROQ, who is also co-host of Loveline with Dr. Drew, was the DJ for the fifth season. Stryker stayed for one season until Okungbowa returned. In a recent episode, DJ Pauly D from Jersey Shore deejayed when Okungbowa was promoting his CD.
Starting in season 11, several episodes include celebrity "guest DJs '' filling the DJ position in Okungbowa 's absence. The most frequently appearing guest DJs are Stephen "tWitch '' Boss of So You Think You Can Dance fame, and comedian Loni Love.
Okungbowa made a return appearance on the show in the April 28, 2014 episode, while Loni made a return in the June 5, 2015 episode.
DeGeneres, a member of the Writers Guild of America, supported the 2007 writers ' strike. However, on November 9, 2007, DeGeneres crossed the picket line to tape more episodes of her TV show stating:
DeGeneres decided to abstain from doing a monologue on her show (which is typically written by WGA writers) during the strike. Her show continued production as normal with the exception of her monologue being omitted. The WGAE issued a statement condemning DeGeneres, stating she was "not welcome in NY. '' DeGeneres 's representatives asserted that she did not violate the WGA 's agreement, arguing that she is competing with other first - run syndicated shows like Dr. Phil and Live with Regis and Kelly during the competitive November sweeps period, and that DeGeneres must fulfill her duties as host and producer, lest her show lose its time slot or be held in breach of contract. In addition, a statement defending DeGeneres was subsequently issued by AFTRA, pointing out that DeGeneres also works under the AFTRA TV Code, which bars her from striking. The WGAE then issued a response pointing out that DeGeneres is also a Writers Guild member, and that any writing work she did on her show during the strike constituted struck work.
Several episodes have aired with a special theme or format, including a "Backwards Show '', entire episodes themed around Broadway productions, a Thanksgiving special taped in the Ed Sullivan Theater in New York City, and an entire episode which included Deltalina filmed on a Delta airplane. Other recurring themes feature products from sponsors DeGeneres likes (similar to Oprah 's Favorite Things from the now ended The Oprah Winfrey Show), specials following awards show telecasts (such as the Academy Awards), and numerous milestone episodes (e.g., DeGeneres 's 1,000 th, 1300th, 1500th, etc. broadcast). In 2017, an episode aired commemorating the 20th anniversary of The Puppy Episode, the episode of her sitcom Ellen, in which her character Ellen Morgan came out as a lesbian.
The episode titled "Sirdeaner Walker Interview '' was nominated for a GLAAD Media Award for "Outstanding Talk Show Episode '' during the 21st GLAAD Media Awards.
On January 11, 2013, DeGeneres announced that she was going to Australia in March with her wife, Australian actress Portia de Rossi, after having wanted to go for many years, however being unable to visit in summer (which she preferred) due to taping conflicts of her show. Toward the end of the episode, which featured Nicole Kidman as a guest, she announced to the audience that they will also be going on a holiday to Australia in a giveaway special.
On March 3, 2014, DeGeneres hosted the show live, one day after her being the host of the 86th Academy Awards. This episode features this year 's Oscar winners Cate Blanchett, Jared Leto and Lupita Nyong'o as guests.
On two occasions, DeGeneres was unable to host the show due to sickness. On January 24, 2014, guest DJ for that day Ellie Kemper filled in to be the first guest host on the show. On September 29, 2016, day four of the 7th Annual Cat Week, Miley Cyrus took over as host.
The show has been met with considerable success, and has won 59 Daytime Emmy Awards by 2017. Additionally, as the show 's popularity has increased, the program has appeared in plot elements of storylines in several scripted television programs, including Joey, Six Feet Under and The Bernie Mac Show, among others.
The show averages around 3.9 million viewers per episode, according to daytime television ratings, making it a highly viewed daytime show. It usually only trails behind Live with Kelly, and Dr. Phil in total viewers. By 2017, the show passed Live with Kelly and only trails behind Dr. Phil.
The show has won a total of 59 Daytime Emmy Awards by 2017, including four for Outstanding Talk Show (2004, 2005, 2006, 2007) and six for Outstanding Talk Show Entertainment (2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2017). The show first fourteen seasons surpassed the record held by The Oprah Winfrey Show, which received 47 Daytime Emmy Awards before Winfrey chose to stop submitting it for consideration in 2000. DeGeneres herself has won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Talk Show Host four times (2005, 2006, 2007, 2008). The show has also won Emmys in numerous writing and technical categories. It won the Genesis Award for "Best Talk Show '' in 2010 and 2012. DeGeneres has won the People 's Choice Award for "Favorite Daytime TV Host '' 14 times, making her the most awarded person in the People 's Choice Awards 's history.
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debussy - the girl with the flaxen hair | La fille aux cheveux de lin - wikipedia
La fille aux cheveux de lin is a musical composition by French composer Claude Debussy. It is the eighth piece in the composer 's first book of Préludes, written between late 1909 and early 1910. The title is in French and translates roughly to "The Girl with the Flaxen Hair ''. The piece is 39 measures long and takes approximately two and a half minutes to play. It is in the key of G ♭ major.
The piece, named after the eponymous poem by Leconte de Lisle, is known for its musical simplicity, a divergence from Debussy 's style at the time. Completed in January 1910, it was published three months later and premiered in June of that same year. The prelude is one of Debussy 's most recorded pieces, both in its original version and in subsequent various arrangements.
The title La fille aux cheveux de lin was inspired by Leconte de Lisle 's poem by the same name, one of his Chansons écossaises (Scottish songs) from his 1852 collection Poèmes antiques (Ancient Poems). The image of a girl with flaxen - coloured hair has been utilized in fine art as a symbol of innocence and naivety. Musical writers have suggested that Debussy 's successful portrayal of these emotions was tied in with the musical simplicity of the prelude -- specifically, the technical and harmonic elements. His choice of simplicity for this piece was highly unusual, since it deviated from his style at the time and brought back the simple harmonies that he had utilized in his earlier musical compositions, which were more traditional.
Debussy had previously utilized the title for a mélodie he wrote from 1882 to 1884. However, it does not feature any similarities to the 1910 prelude, and merely has a "distant familial relationship '' with the prelude at most according to James R. Briscoe in the music journal 19th - Century Music. The song, which is one of his earlier works and remains unpublished, was dedicated to Marie - Blanche Vasnier. She had an affair with Debussy at the time, and he dedicated most of the compositions he wrote from 1880 to 1884 to her.
Leconte de Lisle 's original poem was written in French. In English, it is translated as:
On the lucerne midst flowers in bloom, Who sings praises to morning? It is the girl with golden hair, The beauty with lips of cherry. For, love, in clear summer sunlight, Has soared with the lark and sung now. Your mouth has such colours divine, My dear, so tempting to kisses. On grass in bloom, talk to me, please, Girl with fine curls and long lashes. For, love, in clear summer sunlight, Has soared with the lark and sung now. Do not say no, cruel maiden. Do not say yes. Better to know The long lasting gaze of your eyes And your rosy lips, oh, my belle. For, love, in clear summer sunlight, Has soared with the lark and sung now. Farewell, you deer, farewell you hares And the red partridge. I want To stroke the gold of your tresses Smothering lips with my kisses. For, love, in clear summer sunlight, Has soared with the lark and sung now.
The prelude was completed on 15 -- 16 January 1910, and was first published in April of that same year, along with the rest of his preludes from Book I. Its first performance was given by Franz Liebich at the Bechstein Hall in London two months later, on 2 June. This was followed by an American premiere at the Stockbridge Casino in Stockbridge, Massachusetts on 26 July 1910, performed by Walter Morse Rummel. Subsequently, the French premiere took place the following year on 14 January at the Société Nationale de Musique in Paris, with Ricardo Viñes performing the work.
A transcription of the prelude for violin and piano was created by Arthur Hartmann -- a close friend of Debussy -- and released in May 1910.
La fille remains one of the most recorded musical compositions of Debussy 's. Despite its performance on a recurring basis, the prelude remains popular among audiences, partly because of its "memorable tune '' which is juxtaposed with a "mellow accompaniment ''. It has received acclaim for its expansiveness of emotion, with the Richmond Times - Dispatch 's Clarke Bustard describing the piece as "perhaps the most delicately characterful '' out of all his twenty - four preludes.
Debussy was known for his meticulousness in the arrangement of his preludes. Pianist and musical writer Paul Roberts asserts that this prelude, along with the two that immediately precede it, forms "the central arch '' of Book I 's structure, since the three pieces provide the most "dramatic contrast '' out of all the preludes in the first book. The sixth prelude, Des pas sur la neige (Footprints in the Snow), evokes a feeling of sadness and isolation, while Ce qu'a vu le vent d'ouest (What the West wind saw) -- the seventh -- exudes a violent and tumultuous nature. In stark contrast to these two, La fille brings about a sense of gentle "lyricism '' and "warmth '', which is uncharacteristic of Debussy 's music of this kind. By placing these three preludes in this particular order, Debussy ensured that arguably the most technically challenging prelude of the collection (Vent d'ouest) was situated in - between the two that are the simplest to play out of the twenty - four.
The prelude 's central idea takes after its title -- a girl with golden hair in a pastoral setting in Scotland. Thus, it is one of many examples of Debussy 's Impressionist music, since it conjures up images of a foreign place. His utilization of pentatonic scales throughout the piece achieves this, and by blending this in with harmonizing diatonic chords and modal cadences, he creates a folk - like tune. This prelude uses more plagal leading tones than any other piece composed by Debussy, and the prelude 's melody alternates between conjunct and disjunct movement throughout.
The piece begins with its well - known opening theme consisting of three - note phrases, grouped together as one eighth note and two sixteenth notes. It finishes with chords that form a plagal cadence between bars 2 and 3, an element that is not featured in his previous preludes. The second part of the melody enters in bars 3 -- 4, evoking a Scottish ballad or resembling a tune in the style of Edvard Grieg. The melody from the opening returns in bar 8 with added harmony in the left hand. At bar 19, the melody begins its ascent to the climax of the piece, gradually building up through the use of crescendo to propel it to peak at the end of bar 21. Near the end of bar 22, the melody decrescendos to the subsequent measure, where the theme of the climax is repeated an octave lower. A pianissimo drone - like part that moves in parallel motion -- featuring consecutive fifths in some places -- comes in at bars 24 to 27. In the next measure, the prelude 's coda sees the return of the opening theme one last time -- albeit at an octave higher -- followed by the droning motif. Finally, the melody ascends in parallel movement and makes use of a final plagal leading cadence to get to the home key chord in root position. This cadence neither "melodically anticipates the arrival pitch '' nor does it include the tonic in the left hand. Thus, it has been described as "the ideal harmonization of the plagal leading tone. '' The melody ends with two arpeggiated octave chords (D ♭ in the left hand followed by G ♭ in the right), bringing the prelude to a close.
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