StivenLancheros/all_datasets_wikis · Datasets at Hugging Face

src_title stringlengths 1 140 ⌀	tgt_title stringlengths 1 140 ⌀	src_summary stringlengths 41 2.74k ⌀	tgt_summary stringlengths 41 2.64k ⌀	input_ids sequence	attention_mask sequence	labels sequence	text stringlengths 946 37.7k ⌀	summary stringlengths 29 3.02k ⌀	gem_id stringlengths 10 19 ⌀	gem_parent_id stringlengths 10 19 ⌀	id stringlengths 1 7 ⌀	src_document sequence
Aspect-oriented programming	Programmation orientée aspect	In computing, aspect-oriented programming (AOP) is a programming paradigm that aims to increase modularity by allowing the separation of cross-cutting concerns. It does so by adding additional behavior to existing code (an advice) "without" modifying the code itself, instead separately specifying which code is modified via a "pointcut" specification, such as "log all function calls when the function's name begins with'set. This allows behaviors that are not central to the business logic (such as logging) to be added to a program without cluttering the code, core to the functionality. AOP forms a basis for aspect-oriented software development.	La programmation orientée aspect ou POA (en anglais, "aspect oriented programming" ou "AOP") est un paradigme de programmation qui permet de traiter séparément les préoccupations transversales (en anglais, ), qui relèvent souvent de la technique, des préoccupations métier, qui constituent le cœur d'une application. Un exemple classique d'utilisation est la journalisation, mais certains principes architecturaux ou modèles de conception peuvent être implémentés à l'aide de ce paradigme de programmation, comme l'inversion de contrôle.	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Kaiserslautern	Kaiserslautern	Kaiserslautern () is a city in southwest Germany, located in the "Bundesland" (State) of Rhineland-Palatinate ("Rheinland-Pfalz") at the edge of the Palatinate Forest ("Pfälzerwald"). The historic centre dates to the 9th century. It is from Paris, from Frankfurt am Main, and from Luxembourg.	Kaiserslautern (parfois francisé Caseloutre) est une ville allemande et un district du Land de Rhénanie-Palatinat. C'est la ville la plus importante du Palatinat rhénan avec quelque 100 000 habitants.	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Motivation	Motivation	Motivation is the experience of desire or aversion ("you want something, or want to avoid or escape something"). As such, motivation has both an objective aspect ("a goal or thing you aspire to") and an internal or subjective aspect ("it is "you" that wants the thing or wants it to go away").	La motivation est, dans un organisme vivant, la composante ou le processus qui règle son engagement pour une activité précise.	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Aulnay-sous-Bois	Aulnay-sous-Bois	Aulnay-sous-Bois () is a commune in the Seine-Saint-Denis department in the Île-de-France region in the north-eastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located from the Kilometre zero.	Aulnay-sous-Bois () est une commune française située dans le département de Seine-Saint-Denis en région Île-de-France. Ses habitants sont appelés les "Aulnaysiens".	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Courbevoie	Courbevoie	Courbevoie () is a commune located in the Hauts-de-Seine Department of the Île-de-France region of France. It is in the suburbs of the city of Paris, from the center of Paris. The centre of Courbevoie is situated 2 kilometres from the city limits of Paris.	Le quartier de la Défense, principal quartier d'affaires de l'agglomération parisienne, s'étend en partie sur Courbevoie (le reste étant partagé entre les communes de Puteaux, Nanterre et La Garenne-Colombes).	[ 250004, 250054, 581, 9351, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 32497, 1295, 42845, 44, 33177, 26091, 15502, 58, 136, 26950, 44, 16820, 4126, 11192, 7514, 830, 747, 17704, 538, 23, 91067, 47, 10, 12610, 33816, 1295, 7270, 47, 111413, 1459, 3129, 7228, 10, 189173, 15504, 47, 194637, 70, 130473, 645, 3129, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 509, 88303, 5, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 83, 101637, 71, 3934, 6626, 831, 67772, 12, 4171, 1507, 111, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 5759, 136, 4171, 1507, 111, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 5428, 5, 62, 109412, 33, 6, 80728, 509, 88303, 41421, 214, 70, 108574, 99, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 390, 12989, 111, 18813, 45233, 7610, 3229, 23, 611, 9016, 1919, 121678, 53865, 77736, 3934, 70, 96113, 12960, 8035, 6181, 297, 390, 1592, 1294, 5, 853, 978, 24908, 23, 6, 34165, 20271, 70, 136659, 5997, 927, 142642, 4, 903, 509, 91995, 71, 390, 10, 12924, 6, 80728, 23, 41906, 5, 581, 65229, 18, 111, 70, 217350, 933, 14037, 297, 23, 611, 10057, 390, 16162, 9, 8023, 17332, 824, 1326, 86, 509, 105866, 23, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 24189, 70, 135555, 111, 196208, 5, 22376, 105866, 23, 70, 59444, 509, 70, 56197, 22824, 111, 70, 140434, 135440, 111, 70, 185610, 53, 5, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 83, 149976, 390, 6626, 29398, 7, 98, 70, 11062, 2104, 33, 7270, 46, 12190, 9, 2729, 49264, 165473, 761, 6, 68823, 13315, 12, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 136, 37768, 2271, 9, 1577, 9, 132010, 53, 50908, 5, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 83, 2843, 149976, 390, 241, 32311, 2873, 8, 239, 17848, 6211, 184, 29398, 98, 7270, 39447, 2955, 16777, 106, 4, 23, 70, 8063, 103724, 111, 239, 17848, 6211, 184, 5, 8622, 621, 2843, 10, 21334, 14012, 111, 26349, 5324, 90, 450, 1380, 8305, 70, 373, 271, 2069, 239, 17848, 6211, 184, 29398, 5, 14847, 442, 32497, 47, 1831, 6181, 2320, 4, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 831, 186, 149976, 390, 7270, 25, 7, 28166, 8, 26336, 1229, 48938, 237, 5299, 237, 7270, 9, 19060, 538, 47, 70, 127067, 136, 91006, 78453, 48938, 47, 70, 144477, 5, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 1556, 48716, 479, 48738, 7, 136, 131830, 53, 115215, 5, 41921, 11192, 115215, 26698, 12, 49952, 11192, 115215, 26698, 12, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 83, 138241, 14534, 678, 12, 33867, 159, 5, 284, 5, 1556, 6863, 10336, 23179, 23, 70, 11330, 33867, 23, 239, 17848, 6211, 184, 136, 23, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 5, 15901, 330, 1556, 6863, 10336, 23179, 23, 70, 11330, 15901, 330, 23, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 5, 12190, 9, 17903, 402, 73, 2843, 1556, 6863, 10336, 23179, 23, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 5, 581, 10336, 167565, 1314, 111, 5881, 15185, 4, 70, 92265, 27759, 23179, 100, 33407, 7, 4, 112341, 7, 4, 136, 52350, 88832, 4, 83, 23, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 5, 2 ]	[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]	[ 250008, 636, 62649, 8, 21, 17848, 6211, 184, 4, 7893, 62649, 104, 25, 66491, 7, 8, 96, 25, 11, 9815, 6511, 85945, 213375, 86, 4, 91, 25, 2305, 3611, 22, 17875, 613, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 15, 133, 20192, 72005, 203573, 1148, 199, 45556, 7, 8, 19577, 73075, 4, 37226, 720, 107, 82, 239, 6389, 16270, 9, 78457, 54013, 7, 194, 2 ]	null	null	null	null	null	null
Colombes	Colombes	Colombes () is a commune in the northwestern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located from the centre of Paris. In 2012, Colombes was the 53rd largest city in France.	Colombes ( ) est une commune française du département des Hauts-de-Seine en région Île-de-France. Située dans la banlieue nord-ouest de Paris, Colombes est la septième commune d'Île-de-France et la troisième commune des Hauts-de-Seine. Plus grande cité pavillonnaire de la petite couronne parisienne, elle demeure néanmoins un territoire diversifié.	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Darwin, Northern Territory	Darwin (Australie)	Darwin ( ) is the capital city of the Northern Territory of Australia, situated on the Timor Sea. It is the largest city in the sparsely populated Northern Territory, with a population of 148,564. It is the smallest, wettest, and most northerly of the Australian capital cities and acts as the Top End's regional centre.	Darwin ( ) est la capitale du Territoire du Nord ("Northern Territory") en Australie, située sur la mer de Timor. C'est la ville la plus peuplée du Territoire du Nord, comptant. C'est la ville la plus petite et la plus au nord des capitales australiennes, agissant comme le centre régional du Top End.	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Wollongong	Wollongong	Wollongong ( ), informally referred to as "The Gong", is a seaside city located in the Illawarra region of New South Wales, Australia. Wollongong lies on the narrow coastal strip between the Illawarra Escarpment and the Pacific Ocean, 68 kilometres (42 miles) south of central Sydney. Wollongong had an estimated urban population of 302,739 at June 2018, making it the third-largest city in New South Wales after Sydney and Newcastle, and the tenth-largest city in Australia. The city's current Lord Mayor is Gordon Bradbery AM who was elected in 2018.	Wollongong est une ville de Nouvelle-Galles du Sud, en Australie. Elle est située sur la « South Coast », au sein de la région de l'Illawarra. Sa population s'élevait à habitants en 2012. C'est la troisième ville de l'État par le nombre d'habitants.	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Grana Padano	Grana Padano	Grana Padano is a cheese originating in the Po river Valley in northern Italy that is similar to Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese. There are fewer regulations governing its production compared to Parmigiano-Reggiano. This hard, crumbly-textured cheese is made with unpasteurized cow's milk that is semi-skimmed through a natural creaming process. To preserve the authenticity of the manufacturing processes and raw materials used to make this cheese, European Union law has protected the name Grana Padano under the "protected designation of origin" since 1996 (PDO).	Le grana padano est un fromage italien traditionnel à base de lait de vache, à pâte pressée cuite, produit dans les vallées d'Italie septentrionale.	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Brisbane	Brisbane	Brisbane () is the capital of and the most populous city in the Australian state of Queensland, and the third most populous city in Australia. Brisbane's metropolitan area has a population of over 2.5 million, and the South East Queensland metropolitan region, centred on Brisbane, encompasses a population of more than 3.6 million. The Brisbane central business district stands on the historic European settlement and is situated inside a peninsula of the Brisbane River, about from its mouth at Moreton Bay, a bay of the Coral Sea. The metropolitan area extends in all directions along the hilly floodplain of the Brisbane River Valley between Moreton Bay and the Taylor and D'Aguilar mountain ranges. It sprawls across several of Australia's most populous local government areas (LGAs)—most centrally the City of Brisbane, which is by far the most populous LGA in the nation. The demonym of Brisbane is "Brisbanite", whilst common nicknames include "Brissy", "River City" and "Brisvegas".	Brisbane ( ) est la capitale et la ville la plus peuplée de l'État du Queensland, en Australie. Elle est située à au nord-nord-est de Sydney, à au nord-est de Melbourne, à à l'est-nord-est d'Adélaïde et à à l'est de Perth. Elle borde le fleuve Brisbane et s'étend sur une plaine humide bordée de collines, limitée par Moreton Bay et par les premiers contreforts de la cordillère australienne. À quelques kilomètres du centre-ville, le mont Coot-Tha accueille une plate-forme panoramique, un planetarium et des jardins botaniques.	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Yalta	Yalta	Yalta (; ; ) is a resort city on the south coast of the Crimean Peninsula surrounded by the Black Sea. It serves as the administrative center of Yalta Municipality, one of the regions within Crimea. Population:	Yalta (russe et en ; du signifiant alpage) est une ville de Crimée. Elle est située au bord de la mer Noire, entourée de montagnes boisées à au sud de Simferopol. Selon certains, le nom originel de la ville "Etalita", "Galita", "Jalita" proviendrait d'une ancienne colonie grecque qui aurait été fondée par des marins cherchant une côte sécurisée (, "gialos", signifiant rivage en grec) sur laquelle accoster. Pour d'autres, son nom serait d'origine tatare, à l'instar du mont éponyme "Yaltai Dagh" qui la domine et signifierait « alpage ». Elle jouit d'un climat méditerranéen chaud, entourée par un grand nombre de vignobles et de vergers. Elle comptait en 2013 ; son agglomération, le, en compte environ.	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Pecorino Romano	Pecorino Romano	Pecorino Romano () is a hard, salty Italian cheese, often used for grating, made with sheep's milk. The name "pecorino" simply means "ovine" or "of sheep" in Italian; the name of the cheese, although protected, is a simple description rather than a brand: "[formaggio] pecorino romano" is simply "sheep's [cheese] of Rome".	Le Pecorino Romano est un fromage traditionnel à base de lait entier de brebis, à pâte pressée cuite, provenant du territoire des régions de la Sardaigne, du Latium et de la province de Grosseto.	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Gorgonzola	Gorgonzola (fromage)	Gorgonzola (; ) is a veined Italian blue cheese, made from unskimmed cow's milk. It can be buttery or firm, crumbly and quite salty, with a "bite" from its blue veining.	Le gorgonzola est l'appellation d'origine d'un fromage traditionnel à base de lait de vache, à pâte persillée, fabriqué dans les régions de Lombardie et du Piémont.	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Queensland	Queensland	Queensland (, abbreviated as Qld, officially the State of Queensland) is a state of Australia. It is the second-largest and third-most populous Australian state. It is a federated state and a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Situated in the north-east of the country, it is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west and south respectively. To the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean. To its north is the Torres Strait, separating the Australian mainland from Papua New Guinea. With an area of, Queensland is the world's sixth-largest sub-national entity, and is larger than all but 15 countries. Due to its size, Queensland's geographical features and climates are diverse, including tropical rainforests, rivers, coral reefs, mountain ranges and sandy beaches in its tropical and sub-tropical coastal regions, as well as deserts and savanna in the semi-arid and desert climactic regions of its interior.	Le Queensland (prononcé localement ; abrégé Qld) est le deuxième État de l'Australie par la superficie, le troisième par la population. Il se trouve au nord de la Nouvelle-Galles du Sud et à l'est du Territoire du Nord. L’État est bordé par la mer de Corail et l'océan Pacifique.	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Mozzarella	Mozzarella	Mozzarella (, ; ) is a traditionally southern Italian cheese made from Italian buffalo's milk by the pasta filata method. Mozzarella received a Traditional Specialities Guaranteed (TSG) certification from the European Union in 1998. This protection scheme requires that mozzarella sold in the European Union is produced according to a traditional recipe.	La mozzarella, ou mozzarelle, est un fromage à pâte filée d'origine italienne à base de lait de vache ou de bufflonne. La mozzarella di Bufala Campana, produite en Campanie avec du lait de bufflonne, est l'objet d'une appellation d'origine protégée (AOP) depuis 1996. En Italie, la mozzarella de lait de vache est fabriquée et commercialisée sous le nom de « mozzarella », ou « mozzarella di latte vaccino », ou « fior di latte ». Ailleurs dans le monde, la mozzarella est un fromage industriel qui fait partie des fromages de lait de vache les plus produits et consommés. Ce fromage industriel, commercialisé sous le nom de mozzarella, crée une confusion avec la mozzarella traditionnelle au lait de bufflonne.	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Ivar Aasen	Ivar Aasen	Ivar Andreas Aasen (; 5 August 1813 – 23 September 1896) was a Norwegian philologist, lexicographer, playwright, and poet. He is best known for having assembled from dialects one of the two official written versions of the Norwegian language, Nynorsk.	Ivar Andreas Aasen est un linguiste, poète et écrivain norvégien (né à Volden et mort à Christiania, aujourd'hui Oslo, le ).	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Dacia	Dacie	Dacia (, ; ) was the land inhabited by the Dacians. The Greeks referred to them as the Getae (east of Dacia) and the Romans called them Daci.	La Dacie () est, dans l’Antiquité, un territoire de la région des Carpates, du bas-Danube et du littoral pontique occidental, correspondant approximativement aux actuelles Roumanie, Moldavie et aux régions adjacentes. Le mot "Dacie" (du latin "Dacia") vient du nom romain de ses occupants principaux, les Daces, qui sont très proches des Thraces. Il a servi aussi à dénommer la marque d'automobiles roumaines Dacia et la roche volcanique Dacite.	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Understanding Comics	L'Art invisible	Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art is a 1993 non-fiction work of comics by American cartoonist Scott McCloud. It explores formal aspects of comics, the historical development of the medium, its fundamental vocabulary, and various ways in which these elements have been used. It expounds theoretical ideas about comics as an art form and medium of communication, and is itself written in comic book form.	L'Art invisible ("Understanding Comics") est un essai sur la bande dessinée réalisé lui-même sous forme de bande dessinée, par l'auteur américain de comics Scott McCloud en 1993.	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Antibes	Antibes	Antibes (,, ; ) is a Mediterranean resort in the Alpes-Maritimes department of southeastern France, on the Côte d'Azur between Cannes and Nice.	Antibes ( ; en provençal : "Antíbol") est une commune française de l'aire urbaine de Nice située dans le département des Alpes-Maritimes en région Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. Ses habitants sont appelés les "Antibois" et "Antiboises". Antibes est, en 2017, la troisième ville la plus peuplée du département, après Nice et Cannes. Cette ville est connue pour sa chaleur, pour ses plages et ses restaurants.	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Provolone	Provolone piquant	Provolone (, ) is an Italian cheese. It is an aged "pasta filata" (stretched-curd) cheese originating in Casilli near Vesuvius, where it is still produced in pear, sausage, or cone shapes long. Provolone-type cheeses are also produced in other countries. The most important provolone production region today is Northwestern Italy and the city of Cremona. Provolone, provola, and provoleta are versions of the same basic cheese. Some versions of provolone are smoked.	Le provolone piquant (en ) est un fromage italien originaire du sud du pays, mais surtout produit dans les régions du Nord (Piémont, Lombardie, et Vénétie).	[ 250004, 250054, 581, 13579, 44, 159613, 51684, 58, 15, 37440, 592, 44, 320, 429, 53605, 143, 18939, 118775, 10932, 70, 3564, 111, 70, 953, 927, 142642, 4, 3229, 442, 26859, 47, 186, 142901, 71, 23, 70, 127067, 9022, 10776, 7, 111, 98848, 136, 41591, 71, 6863, 43581, 21334, 13267, 5, 581, 164917, 13267, 71, 20117, 83, 35839, 53605, 143, 136, 32497, 23, 111719, 136, 2614, 12225, 24073, 62566, 8289, 36437, 18939, 285, 68794, 5, 18799, 53605, 51684, 83, 10, 4393, 9, 7834, 552, 434, 25, 7, 124111, 96967, 678, 10, 156100, 21722, 4, 181653, 5201, 538, 23, 70, 663, 32547, 70237, 10776, 7, 111, 213050, 53, 136, 187468, 5, 1650, 83, 181653, 23, 12921, 115700, 7, 12, 1884, 10, 4552, 21334, 57, 147152, 3129, 1543, 186, 1257, 47, 23, 148064, 136, 4989, 4, 23, 10, 14617, 16336, 3674, 144521, 115700, 4, 136, 23, 10, 21334, 280, 147, 115700, 678, 70, 62816, 48242, 68807, 17075, 3522, 100, 10756, 214, 5, 581, 222201, 57888, 83, 5, 165240, 51684, 83, 10, 36137, 9, 25612, 96967, 678, 90365, 285, 38543, 6782, 538, 1295, 44, 159613, 51684, 8834, 43632, 58, 15, 89280, 254, 4, 2147, 44764, 247, 10, 17704, 100, 10, 15440, 111, 22759, 21775, 136, 678, 10, 4552, 189173, 90365, 4, 47, 44, 159613, 51684, 102557, 58, 15, 7, 1177, 126, 16, 678, 10, 4552, 126561, 90365, 5, 360, 44, 159613, 51684, 8834, 43632, 830, 70, 117781, 5844, 2147, 44764, 90365, 83, 181653, 678, 37538, 6991, 15, 33, 3285, 282, 16, 16406, 4126, 1295, 738, 257, 5, 581, 44, 5876, 329, 58, 11389, 4527, 7, 6510, 420, 25, 7, 37538, 6991, 64457, 5, 149766, 44, 159613, 51684, 3502, 14334, 76, 58, 136, 44, 159613, 51684, 146, 138550, 44, 132, 161063, 70, 353, 99726, 16128, 111, 98848, 16, 765, 75204, 70, 6197, 683, 15, 127942, 297, 11724, 2320, 111, 119862, 16, 28704, 1295, 70, 28811, 32528, 4, 91084, 110, 23295, 3789, 3501, 98848, 1543, 8437, 538, 27489, 10, 96967, 35839, 450, 5, 360, 30089, 4, 34170, 4, 192777, 136, 168919, 4, 19336, 17116, 7, 111, 4000, 538, 181653, 198932, 9, 16820, 71, 53605, 51684, 111, 23, 148064, 136, 23, 155955, 621, 68018, 28223, 297, 24189, 2878, 25958, 21501, 3674, 136, 73203, 33, 237, 10, 44177, 4, 27983, 34003, 297, 678, 604, 16145, 5, 581, 96967, 3229, 149976, 903, 3917, 83, 27983, 35839, 44, 159613, 28819, 58, 23, 195374, 5, 2 ]	[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]	[ 250008, 636, 53605, 51684, 2147, 44764, 15, 33, 1388, 437, 51, 1295, 4588, 143735, 62038, 2149, 115, 8932, 115, 19859, 4, 732, 30160, 42414, 807, 199, 38038, 7, 115, 7370, 15, 29348, 446, 15477, 4, 213050, 478, 4, 82, 36408, 733, 2061, 194, 2 ]	null	null	null	null	null	null
Collaborative learning	Apprentissage collaboratif	Collaborative learning is a situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn something together. Unlike individual learning, people engaged in collaborative learning capitalize on one another's resources and skills (asking one another for information, evaluating one another's ideas, monitoring one another's work, etc.). More specifically, collaborative learning is based on the model that knowledge can be created within a population where members actively interact by sharing experiences and take on asymmetric roles. Put differently, collaborative learning refers to methodologies and environments in which learners engage in a common task where each individual depends on and is accountable to each other. These include both face-to-face conversations and computer discussions (online forums, chat rooms, etc.). Methods for examining collaborative learning processes include conversation analysis and statistical discourse analysis.	Dans le domaine de l'apprentissage et de la gestion communautaire des savoirs, la collaboration repose sur un but commun, chaque membre réalisant une part de la tâche globale, en puisant dans les ressources de l'environnement (mémoire organisationnelle), dans ses ressources propres (compétence individuelle) et dans celles du groupe : on parle alors de communauté de pratique voire de communauté d'apprentissage et d'apprentissage collaboratif.	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Tenor saxophone	Saxophone ténor	The tenor saxophone is a medium-sized member of the saxophone family, a group of instruments invented by Adolphe Sax in the 1840s. The tenor and the alto are the two most commonly used saxophones. The tenor is pitched in the key of B (while the alto is pitched in the key of E), and written as a transposing instrument in the treble clef, sounding an octave and a major second lower than the written pitch. Modern tenor saxophones which have a high F key have a range from A to E (concert) and are therefore pitched one octave below the soprano saxophone. People who play the tenor saxophone are known as "tenor saxophonists", "tenor sax players", or "saxophonists".	Le saxophone ténor est membre du registre medium de la famille des saxophones. Cet instrument est en siformula_1, mais peut aussi exister en ut. Dans ce cas, l'instrument s'appelle le saxophone C-mélody (cet instrument a un son légèrement différent des saxophones en siformula_1, et est souvent considéré comme un autre instrument). C'est l'instrument qui est considéré comme l'emblème typique du jazz.	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Formative assessment	Évaluation formative	Formative assessment, formative evaluation, formative feedback, or assessment for learning, including "diagnostic testing", is a range of formal and informal assessment procedures conducted by teachers during the learning process in order to modify teaching and learning activities to improve student attainment. The goal of a formative assessment is to "monitor student learning" to provide ongoing feedback that can help students identify their strengths and weaknesses and target areas that need work. It also helps faculty recognize where students are struggling and address problems immediately. It typically involves qualitative feedback (rather than scores) for both student and teacher that focuses on the details of content and performance. It is commonly contrasted with summative assessment, which seeks to monitor educational outcomes, often for purposes of external accountability.	Les concepts d’évaluation formative et sommative ont été apportés par Michael Scriven en 1967, dans le contexte de l’évaluation de programmes éducatifs ("Curriculum evaluation"). Pour Scriven, une évaluation formative devait permettre à un établissement scolaire d’estimer la capacité de ses programmes scolaires à atteindre leurs objectifs, de façon à guider les choix de l’école pour les améliorer progressivement, au contraire d’une évaluation sommative qui cherche à poser un jugement final sur les programmes : « marchent-ils » ou pas? Et en conséquence, faut-il les maintenir, les étendre ou les abandonner?	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Adobe Flash	Adobe Flash	Adobe Flash is a deprecated multimedia software platform used for production of animations, rich Internet applications, desktop applications, mobile applications, mobile games and embedded web browser video players. Flash displays text, vector graphics and raster graphics to provide animations, video games and applications. It allows streaming of audio and video, and can capture mouse, keyboard, microphone and camera input. Related development platform Adobe AIR continues to be supported.	', ou ', anciennement, est un logiciel qui ne sera plus mis à jour après fin 2020, permettant la manipulation de graphiques vectoriels, d'images matricielles et de scripts ActionScript en vue de créer des contenus multimédia (animations, vidéos, jeux, applications...) destinés à être publiés sur Internet. Flash Player, développé et distribué par Macromedia et racheté en 2005 par Adobe Systems, est quant à elle, une application client fonctionnant sur la plupart des navigateurs web. Ce logiciel permet la diffusion de flux ("") bi-directionnels audio et vidéo. En résumé, Adobe Flash est un environnement de développement intégré (IDE), une machine virtuelle utilisée par un lecteur Flash ou serveur Flash pour lire les fichiers Flash. Mais le terme « Flash » peut se référer à un lecteur, un environnement ou à un fichier d’application.	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Machine learning	Apprentissage automatique	"" Machine learning (ML) is the study of computer algorithms that improve automatically through experience. It is seen as a subset of artificial intelligence. Machine learning algorithms build a mathematical model based on sample data, known as "training data", in order to make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed to do so. Machine learning algorithms are used in a wide variety of applications, such as email filtering and computer vision, where it is difficult or infeasible to develop conventional algorithms to perform the needed tasks.	L'apprentissage automatique (en anglais : ', « apprentissage machine »), apprentissage artificiel ou apprentissage statistique est un champ d'étude de l'intelligence artificielle qui se fonde sur des approches mathématiques et statistiques pour donner aux ordinateurs la capacité d' « apprendre » à partir de données, c'est-à-dire d'améliorer leurs performances à résoudre des tâches sans être explicitement programmés pour chacune. Plus largement, il concerne la conception, l'analyse, l'optimisation, le développement et l'implémentation de telles méthodes.	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Parmigiano-Reggiano	Parmigiano Reggiano	Parmigiano-Reggiano or Parmesan (, ) is an Italian hard, granular cheese that is produced from cow's milk and has aged 12–36 months.	Le parmigiano reggiano, (souvent francisé en parmesan), est l'appellation d'origine d'un fromage italien de lait de vache, fabriqué dans une zone limitée de l'Émilie-Romagne, au sud de la Lombardie. Depuis le, l'appellation "parmigiano reggiano" est préservée dans l'Union européenne par une AOP. La Cour de justice de l'Union européenne a statué en 2008 que c'était également le cas pour sa traduction "parmesan".	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Pyrolysis	Pyrolyse	Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperatures in an inert atmosphere. It involves a change of chemical composition. The word is coined from the Greek-derived elements "pyro" "fire" and "lysis" "separating".	La pyrolyse, ou thermolyse, est la décomposition chimique d'un composé organique par une augmentation importante de sa température pour obtenir d'autres produits (gaz et matière) qu'il ne contenait pas. L'opération est réalisée en l'absence d'oxygène ou en atmosphère pauvre en oxygène pour éviter l'oxydation et la combustion (l’opération ne produit donc pas de flamme). Il s'agit du premier stade de transformation thermique après la déshydratation.	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Problem-based learning	Apprentissage par problèmes	Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn about a subject through the experience of solving an open-ended problem found in trigger material. The PBL process does not focus on problem solving with a defined solution, but it allows for the development of other desirable skills and attributes. This includes knowledge acquisition, enhanced group collaboration and communication. The PBL process was developed for medical education and has since been broadened in applications for other programs of learning. The process allows for learners to develop skills used for their future practice. It enhances critical appraisal, literature retrieval and encourages ongoing learning within a team environment.	Dans l'apprentissage par problèmes (APP), ou apprentissage par résolution de problèmes, les apprenants, regroupés par équipes, travaillent ensemble à résoudre un problème généralement proposé par l'enseignant, problème pour lequel ils n'ont reçu aucune formation particulière, de façon à faire des apprentissages de contenu et de savoir-faire, à découvrir des notions nouvelles de façon active (il s’instruit lui-même) en y étant poussé par les nécessités du problème soumis.	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Elias Lönnrot	Elias Lönnrot	Elias Lönnrot (; 9 April 1802 – 19 March 1884) was a Finnish physician, philologist and collector of traditional Finnish oral poetry. He is best known for creating the Finnish national epic, "Kalevala", (1835, enlarged 1849), from short ballads and lyric poems gathered from the Finnish oral tradition during several expeditions in Finland, Russian Karelia, the Kola Peninsula and Baltic countries.	Elias Lönnrot (né le à Sammatti et mort le à Sammatti) est un médecin, un explorateur, un lexicographe, un linguiste, un écrivain, enseignant du folklore, un pionnier de la botanique, un journaliste et éditeur, un scientifique et un professeur de finnois et de littérature finlandais. Il est l'auteur, entre autres, du "Kalevala" et de la "Kanteletar", recueils des anciens chants et épopées du peuple finnois. Il est considéré, au même titre que Mikael Agricola, comme étant le second père du finnois écrit.	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Ukrainian language	Ukrainien	Ukrainian ( ) is an East Slavic language. It is the official state language of Ukraine and one of the three official languages in the unrecognized state of Transnistria, the other two being Moldovan and Russian. Written Ukrainian uses a variant of the Cyrillic script (see Ukrainian alphabet).	L'ukrainien (en ukrainien :, ) est une des quatre langues appartenant à la famille orientale des groupes slaves — de la famille des langues indo-européennes, les trois autres étant le biélorusse, le russe et le rusyn (ruthène). L'ukrainien est la langue officielle de l'Ukraine.	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Arto Paasilinna	Arto Paasilinna	Arto Tapio Paasilinna (20 April 1942 – 15 October 2018) was a Finnish writer, being a former journalist turned comic novelist. One of Finland's most successful novelists, he won a broad readership outside of Finland in a way few other Finnish authors have before. Translated into 27 languages, over seven million copies of his books have been sold worldwide, and he has been claimed as "instrumental in generating the current level of interest in books from Finland".	Arto Paasilinna (), né le à Kittilä et mort le à Espoo, est un écrivain, journaliste et poète finlandais de langue finnoise.	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Taiga	Taïga	Taiga (; ; relates to Mongolic and Turkic languages), generally referred to in North America as boreal forest or snow forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruces, and larches.	La taïga, du russe venant de l'altaï ', aussi appelée forêt boréale ou encore forêt hudsonienne"' est l'un des principaux biomes terrestres. Fortement liée au climat subarctique, elle consiste en une formation végétale de type forestière parcourue par un vaste réseau lacustre résultant de l'érosion fluvioglaciaire. Sa végétation a la particularité d'être la plus vaste continuité boisée de la planète et occupe à elle seule 10 % des terres émergées. Elle couvre la majorité des territoires intérieurs de l'Alaska (États-Unis), du Canada, de la Scandinavie (Norvège, Suède), de la Finlande, du Nord de l'Écosse (Highlands), de la Russie, de l'Islande, de Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon, du nord-ouest de la Chine et du nord de l'île d'Hokkaidō (Japon). Elle abrite une avifaune fortement diversifiée et sert de refuge à de nombreuses espèces animales par ailleurs menacées telles le loup, l'ours brun, le grizzli, l'ours kodiak, le lynx, le renard polaire, le castor, le glouton (ou carcajou), le bison des bois, le renne (ou caribou) ou encore l'élan (ou orignal).	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Mecca	La Mecque	Mecca, also spelled Makkah, is a city in the Hejazi region of Saudi Arabia. The city is located inland from Jeddah, in a narrow valley above sea level and south of Medina. Its population in 2012 was 2 million, although visitors more than triple this number every year during the "Ḥajj" ("Pilgrimage"), held in the twelfth Muslim lunar month of "Dhūl-Ḥijjah".	La Mecque (en arabe :, "makka") est une ville de l'ouest de l'Arabie saoudite, non loin de la charnière séparant le Hedjaz de l'Asir, à de la mer Rouge, et capitale de la province de la Mecque.	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Processed cheese	Fromage à pâte fondue	Processed cheese (also known as prepared cheese, cheese product, plastic cheese or cheese singles) is a food product made from cheese and other unfermented dairy ingredients mixed with emulsifiers. Additional ingredients, such as vegetable oils, salt, food coloring, or sugar may be included. As a result, many flavors, colors, and textures of processed cheese exist. Its invention is credited to Walter Gerber of Thun, Switzerland, in 1911.	Un fromage à pâte fondue est un fromage fabriqué à partir d'autres fromages dont on a fondu la pâte.	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Blue cheese	Fromage à pâte persillée	Blue cheese or bleu cheese is cheese made with cultures of the mold "Penicillium", giving it blue spots or veins. This carries a distinct smell, either from that or various specially cultivated bacteria. Some blue cheeses are injected with spores before the curds form, and others have spores mixed in with the curds after they form. Blue cheeses are typically aged in a temperature-controlled environment such as a cave. Blue cheese can be eaten by itself or can be spread, crumbled or melted into or over a range of other foods.	Les fromages à pâte persillée ou à pâte à moisissure interne ou encore bleus sont des appellations appliquées à des fromages dont le caillé est ensemencé de penicillium. Le fromage sera aussi parfois percé pour que le champignon ("Penicillium glaucum" ou "Penicillium roqueforti") se développe.	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Ophthalmology	Ophtalmologie	Ophthalmology () is a branch of medicine and surgery which deals with the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders. An ophthalmologist is a specialist in ophthalmology. The credentials include a degree in medicine, followed by additional four to five years of ophthalmology residency training. Ophthalmology residency training programs may require a one-year pre-residency training in internal medicine, pediatrics, or general surgery. Additional specialty training (or fellowship) may be sought in a particular aspect of eye pathology. Ophthalmologists are allowed to use medications to treat eye diseases, implement laser therapy, and perform surgery when needed. Ophthalmologists may participate in academic research on the diagnosis and treatment for eye disorders.	L’ophtalmologie est la branche de la médecine chargée du traitement des maladies de l’œil et de ses annexes. C’est une spécialité médico-chirurgicale. Le médecin spécialisé pratiquant l'ophtalmologie est appelé « ophtalmologiste » ou « ophtalmologue ».	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Goat cheese	Fromage au lait de chèvre	Goat cheese, goats' cheese, or chèvre ( or ; from the French word for "goat"), is cheese made from goat's milk. Goat cheeses are made in a wide variety of styles, from soft fresh cheese to hard aged cheese.	Un fromage de chèvre est un fromage obtenu en transformant du lait de chèvre. Né en Égypte ancienne, la recette de fabrication du fromage de chèvre était détenue uniquement par les prêtres. Un parchemin, vieux de 3 000 ans a notamment été découvert dans la tombe d’un dignitaire égyptien.	[ 250004, 250054, 1311, 434, 25, 7, 124111, 136, 738, 257, 25, 7, 124111, 765, 21373, 128512, 19780, 10941, 7, 5, 33306, 4, 70, 77546, 123875, 111, 57646, 9, 115097, 1071, 15145, 43840, 7, 6044, 237, 377, 3454, 1771, 4, 3540, 1294, 9120, 136, 160366, 238, 43840, 23, 738, 257, 25, 7, 124111, 162466, 7, 47, 70, 62816, 48242, 15250, 196634, 111, 738, 257, 25, 7, 124111, 96967, 5, 15, 3957, 184, 1071, 15145, 43840, 7, 5646, 2363, 9351, 1295, 70, 42845, 100, 44, 519, 257, 58, 12, 44, 408, 6471, 740, 16, 2016, 257, 96967, 1556, 2809, 7228, 100, 137107, 111, 5369, 136, 509, 31895, 1632, 111, 70, 67896, 150, 525, 7228, 22886, 53, 38742, 5, 360, 70, 2684, 8781, 3173, 4, 738, 257, 96967, 83, 7228, 390, 6, 190358, 49649, 124111, 47, 6083, 538, 9709, 19298, 4, 136, 7068, 8167, 14653, 136, 24234, 214, 70, 9709, 6468, 5, 64511, 53088, 4527, 142, 43840, 15, 7, 12665, 237, 27888, 1970, 707, 107466, 130090, 16, 707, 10670, 1179, 47, 5798, 173857, 13, 70, 124111, 5, 73118, 738, 257, 96967, 7, 621, 7228, 23, 98483, 7, 756, 645, 70, 8999, 4, 678, 110309, 7, 10756, 214, 57134, 1577, 111, 96967, 63499, 927, 152382, 678, 9709, 6468, 23, 70, 24814, 98483, 100, 40368, 13312, 47, 8167, 73, 136, 96907, 5, 4263, 70, 96967, 83, 47, 186, 10, 17704, 4, 442, 83, 27983, 41210, 297, 221, 442, 1221, 3173, 10, 125987, 4, 136, 7068, 4343, 71, 23, 10, 21185, 96967, 143383, 100, 40368, 21775, 47, 96907, 5, 2016, 257, 96967, 32977, 1755, 3229, 172554, 71, 47, 80097, 4, 102971, 442, 14602, 959, 6, 76681, 23, 70, 5701, 3917, 5941, 552, 434, 96967, 7, 54, 5, 35526, 1991, 738, 257, 96967, 7, 678, 125987, 7, 621, 68018, 3472, 297, 23, 142, 56190, 47, 28282, 10, 32977, 56, 4, 1286, 4498, 12600, 7, 168286, 5, 9942, 27489, 7, 10, 6782, 14012, 111, 738, 257, 25, 7, 124111, 96967, 7, 4, 41866, 23, 70, 2091, 2149, 70237, 136, 663, 86464, 4, 7440, 738, 9821, 621, 2804, 47, 765, 2809, 91048, 390, 70, 2501, 25251, 23, 70, 382, 927, 142642, 5, 89536, 99726, 111, 92265, 6, 57753, 13567, 7, 26698, 18363, 22493, 4, 4841, 6454, 4, 4841, 61399, 6077, 4, 51053, 142190, 4, 72813, 54749, 78429, 125216, 4, 313, 40337, 73, 8, 4841, 24299, 23111, 15, 320, 177, 525, 181653, 738, 257, 96967, 62, 29065, 247, 3036, 11999, 1229, 4, 12982, 22898, 126, 15, 87336, 6967, 1459, 247, 63910, 320, 4445, 4, 27860, 132571, 4, 37962, 1746, 299, 12190, 9, 196243, 4, 2777, 9779, 1138, 474, 4, 12190, 13, 9, 4613, 3408, 8, 11330, 16182, 4, 4841, 964, 75695, 115, 663, 86464, 4, 32783, 20511, 53, 4, 136, 166259, 1191, 112, 5, 1650, 83, 68018, 149976, 8010, 237, 6, 57753, 13567, 81876, 5, 2 ]	[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]	[ 250008, 992, 1295, 4588, 8, 6, 57753, 13567, 437, 51, 1295, 4588, 175681, 22, 23511, 660, 115, 74687, 8, 6, 57753, 13567, 5, 51136, 22, 14118, 53, 31385, 184280, 4, 21, 76682, 8, 187298, 115, 1295, 4588, 8, 6, 57753, 13567, 14283, 52635, 33, 13388, 120065, 366, 199, 49961, 2109, 5, 992, 366, 1430, 1249, 4, 166903, 8, 138, 2445, 7210, 10, 40721, 5325, 179657, 807, 21, 142298, 104, 26, 309, 109989, 44386, 4529, 30400, 29764, 5, 2 ]	null	null	null	null	null	null
Complex conjugate	Conjugué	In mathematics, the complex conjugate of a complex number is the number with an equal real part and an imaginary part equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. For example, (if "a" and "b" are real, then) the complex conjugate of formula_1 is formula_2	En mathématiques, le conjugué d'un nombre complexe est le nombre complexe formé de la même partie réelle que mais de partie imaginaire opposée.	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Porus	Poros (roi)	Porus () or Poros (from Ancient, "Pôros"), was an ancient Indian king whose territory spanned the region between the Hydaspes (River of Jhelum) and Acesines (Chenab River), in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent. He is credited to have been a legendary warrior with exceptional skills. Porus fought against Alexander the Great in the Battle of the Hydaspes (326 BC), thought to be fought at the site of modern-day Mong, Punjab, which is now part of Pakistan. Though not recorded in any available ancient Indian source, Ancient Greek historians describe the battle and the aftermath of Alexander's victory. Anecdotally, after the defeat and arrest of Porus in the war, Alexander asked Porus how he would like to be treated. Porus, although defeated, proudly stated that he would like to be treated like a king. Alexander was reportedly so impressed by his adversary that he not only reinstated him as a satrap of his own kingdom but also granted him dominion over lands to the south-east extending until the Hyphasis (Beas). Porus reportedly died sometime between 321 and 315 BC.	Pôros (en grec ancien ), Porus chez les Romains, ou encore Por, Pûru ou Purushottam, est un roi du royaume indien des Paurava au Le royaume des Pauravas se situe dans l'actuel Pendjab pakistanais, entre les rivières Jhelum et Chenâb. Poros est connu pour avoir affronté le conquérant macédonien Alexandre le Grand.	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Bengal	Bengale	Bengal (; ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Geographically, it is made up by the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta system, the largest such formation in the world; along with mountains in its north bordering the Himalayan states of Nepal and Bhutan and east bordering Burma.	Le Bengale désigne aujourd'hui une zone géographique de l'est du sous-continent indien partagée entre l'Inde et le Bangladesh. Le nom de Bengale n'a pas recouvert exactement la même zone au fil des siècles. Cette zone recoupe également plus ou moins l'aire de distribution de la langue bengali. Au total, le Bengale historique couvre une superficie d'environ 250 000 kilomètres carrés, et de nos jours, l'État du Bangladesh recouvre plus de 50 % de la superficie du Bengale historique.	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Jean Bureau	Jean Bureau	Jean Bureau (c. 1390 – 1463) was a French artillery commander active primarily during the later years of the Hundred Years' War. Along with his brother, Gaspard, he is credited with making French artillery the most effective in the world. As Master Gunner of Artillery in the armies of Charles VII, Bureau acquired a reputation as an effective artillery officer during the Normandy campaign (1449–1450), when his bombardments helped capture the towns of Rouen, Harfleur, and Honfleur, and aided in the French victory at Formigny. Bureau commanded the victorious French army at the decisive Battle of Castillon in 1453.	Jean Bureau, né à Semoine vers 1390 et mort à Paris le 2 ou le, seigneur de Montglat (ou Montglas), de La Houssaye-en-Brie (1450), de Fontenay-en-France, de Thieux et Noisy-le-Sec, de Marle et la Malmaison, est un Grand maître de l'artillerie du roi Charles VII qui, en utilisant massivement l'artillerie pour la première fois en Occident, a remporté la victoire contre les Anglais à la bataille de Castillon, mettant ainsi un terme à la guerre de Cent Ans.	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Types of cheese	Types de pâtes de fromage	Types of cheese are grouped or classified according to criteria such as length of fermentation, texture, methods of production, fat content, animal milk, and country or region of origin. The method most commonly and traditionally used is based on moisture content, which is then further narrowed down by fat content and curing or ripening methods. The criteria may either be used singly or in combination, with no single method being universally used.	Plusieurs classifications des fromages sont possibles. Ottogalli (2000) a proposé une classification des fromages du monde en 8 classes et 45 familles reposant sur des critères microbiologiques. La FAO propose une classification suivant la consistance de la pâte (liée à la teneur en eau), la teneur en matière grasse et les principales caractéristiques d'affinage (voir le tableau en annexe). Cette approche de type « anglo-saxonne » qui groupe les fromages suivant un critère de texture utilise les termes de « fromage à pâte dure, molle » employés aussi dans la classification européenne mais avec un sens différent. L'approche européenne, plus spécifique de l'Europe du Sud d'ailleurs, groupe les fromages sur la base des processus technologiques C'est la classification présentée dans cet article, la plus utilisée en France.	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Rennet	Présure	Rennet is a complex set of enzymes produced in the stomachs of ruminant mammals. Chymosin, its key component, is a protease enzyme that curdles the casein in milk. In addition to chymosin, rennet contains other enzymes, such as pepsin and a lipase.	La présure est un coagulant du lait d'origine animale extrait de la caillette (le quatrième estomac) de jeunes ruminants. Elle est constituée d'enzymes actives appelées chymosine et pepsine. La plupart des fromages contiennent de la présure, employée pour la coagulation du lait nécessaire à la fabrication de ces derniers. Il existe toutefois d'autres types de coagulants (d'origine végétale, microbienne, fermentaire). Le caillage peut aussi être spontané, sous l'effet de la fermentation lactique réalisée par les bactéries lactiques (dans le cas du lait fermenté).	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Bern	Berne	Bern or Berne ( ; ; ; ; ) is the de facto capital of Switzerland, referred to by the Swiss as their "federal city", in German "Bundesstadt", French "ville fédérale", and Italian "città federale". With a population of about 140,000 (as of 2019), Bern is the fifth-most populous city in Switzerland. The Bern agglomeration, which includes 36 municipalities, had a population of 406,900 in 2014. The metropolitan area had a population of 660,000 in 2000. Bern is also the capital of the canton of Bern, the second-most populous of Switzerland's cantons.	Berne (en, en italien et en ) est la capitale "de facto" de la Suisse, la capitale du canton homonyme et la cinquième plus grande ville de Suisse. Depuis 1848, Berne est la « ville fédérale », à savoir le siège permanent du gouvernement fédéral et de l'Assemblée fédérale suisses, mais pas des tribunaux fédéraux (le Tribunal fédéral est situé à Lausanne).	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Food	Nourriture	Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. Food is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth.	De manière générale, la nourriture désigne les aliments d'origine animale, végétale, fongique (parfois bactérienne ou minérale) ou chimique, consommés par des êtres vivants à des fins d'alimentation ou de récréation.	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Whey	Lactosérum	Whey is the liquid remaining after milk has been curdled and strained. It is a byproduct of the manufacture of cheese or casein and has several commercial uses. Sweet whey is a byproduct resulting from the manufacture of rennet types of hard cheese, like cheddar or Swiss cheese. Acid whey (also known as sour whey) is a byproduct brought out during the making of acid types of dairy products, such as cottage cheese or strained yogurt.	Le lactosérum, également appelé petit-lait ou sérum, est la partie liquide issue de la coagulation du lait. Le lactosérum est un liquide jaune-verdâtre, composé d'environ 94 % d'eau, de sucre (le lactose), de protéines et de très peu de matières grasses.	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Cheese ripening	Affinage du fromage	Cheese ripening, alternatively cheese maturation or affinage, is a process in cheesemaking. It is responsible for the distinct flavour of cheese, and through the modification of ""ripening agents"", determines the features that define many different varieties of cheeses, such as taste, texture, and body. The process is "characterized by a series of complex physical, chemical and microbiological changes" that incorporates the agents of "bacteria and enzymes of the milk, lactic culture, rennet, lipases, added moulds or yeasts, and environmental contaminants". The majority of cheese is ripened, save for fresh cheese.	L’affinage est la période de maturation pendant laquelle le fromage, ou d'autres aliments, reposent et reçoivent des soins à la cave ou dans un hâloir. Plus la période de maturation est longue, plus le fromage sera corsé.	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Federal Charter of 1291	Pacte fédéral	The Federal Charter or Letter of Alliance () is one of the earliest constitutional documents of Switzerland. A treaty of alliance from 1291 between the cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, the Charter is one of a series of alliances from which the Old Swiss Confederacy emerged. In the 19th and 20th century, after the establishment of the Swiss federal state, the Charter became "the" founding document of Switzerland in the popular imagination.	Le Pacte fédéral, ou Pacte de 1291, fut choisi en 1891 comme pacte fondateur de la Suisse. Ce document étant daté de début août 1291 (la date exacte est inconnue), la fête nationale suisse a été placée symboliquement le. Ce pacte renouvelle une alliance précédente, qui ne nous est pas parvenue, à caractère juridique et défensif, conclue par les représentants des trois cantons primitifs : Uri, Schwytz et Nidwald. Il fut oublié des siècles durant, pour être redécouvert dans la tour des archives de Schwyz lors d’un inventaire effectué en 1724. Johann Heinrich Gleser publia sa version latine originale en 1760. Sur les trois exemplaires originaux, seul celui de Schwyz a survécu, et est conservé actuellement au musée des chartes fédérales à Schwytz.	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Koblenz	Coblence	Koblenz (; ), spelled Coblenz before 1926, is a German city situated on both banks of the Rhine where it is joined by the Moselle.	Coblence (en allemand : ', en latin : ') est une ville et un arrondissement d'Allemagne, situés dans le nord du Land de la Rhénanie-Palatinat. Au, la ville comptait habitants.	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Canillo	Canillo	Canillo () is one of the parishes of Andorra. Canillo is also the name of the main town of the parish. The parish is considered the religious center of Andorra with the Sanctuary and Chapel of Our Lady of Meritxell, patron saint of Andorra, and contains one of the best-preserved romanesque churches in the Pyrenees, Sant Joan de Caselles. It has a population of 4,826, as of 2011. Despite having a tourist vocation, the parish of Canillo still retains many livestock and agricultural traits.	Canillo est une paroisse d'Andorre située dans le Nord-Est du pays, première paroisse dans l'ordre protocolaire. Les habitants de la paroisse sont les Canillencs. La fête patronale est le 29 novembre, "festa major" le troisième dimanche de juillet.	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Ordino	Ordino	Ordino () is the most northerly parish in the Principality of Andorra. It's mostly the main area of Valira del Nord or "Valira d'Ordino" river valley. Ordino is also the name of the main town of the parish. Other settlements in the parish are El Serrat, Ansalonga, Sornàs, La Cortinada, Llorts, Segudet, Arans, Les Salines and Arcalís. It is home to the Sorteny National Park, the largest nature area of Andorra. It has a population of 4,858, as of 2017. The town preserves a vast medieval center, mainly linked to the culture of the country.	Ordino est une des sept paroisses d'Andorre, située dans le Nord-Ouest du pays, dans la vallée du Valira del Nord. Les habitants sont les "".	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Château de Valençay	Château de Valençay	Château de Valençay was a residence of the d'Estampes and Talleyrand-Périgord families in the commune of Valençay, in the Indre "département" of France. Although it is part of the province of Berry, its architecture invites comparison with the Renaissance châteaux of the Loire Valley, notably the Château de Chambord. The manor was praised as "one of the most beautiful on earth" by George Sand, who also noted that "no king has owned a more picturesque park". It is at an elevation of 135 m.	Le château de Valençay se trouve à Valençay, en Indre (France). Il fut la propriété de la Maison d'Estampes de 1451 à 1747, puis du prince de Talleyrand.	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Histone	Histone	In biology, histones are highly basic proteins found in eukaryotic cell nuclei that pack and order the DNA into structural units called nucleosomes. Histones are abundant in lysine and arginine. Histone are the chief protein components of chromatin, acting as spools around which DNA winds, and playing a role in gene regulation. Without histones, the unwound DNA in chromosomes would be very long (a length to width ratio of more than 10 million to 1 in human DNA). For example, each human diploid cell (containing 23 pairs of chromosomes) has about 1.8 meters of DNA; wound on the histones, the diploid cell has about 90 micrometers (0.09 mm) of chromatin. When the diploid cells are duplicated and condensed during mitosis, the result is about 120 micrometers of chromosomes.	Les histones sont des protéines localisées dans le noyau des cellules eucaryotes et dans les archées. Elles sont les principaux constituants protéiques des chromosomes. Elles sont en effet étroitement associées à l’ADN dont elles permettent la compaction, cette action forme des structures appelées nucléosomes : l'ADN est enroulé autour des histones comme du fil autour d'une bobine. Les histones sont très riches en acides aminés basiques (lysine et arginine), dont la charge positive à pH physiologique permet une interaction forte avec les groupements phosphate de l'ADN qui portent des charges négatives.	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Casein	Caséine	Casein (, from Latin "caseus" "cheese") is a family of related phosphoproteins (αS1, αS2, β, κ). These proteins are commonly found in mammalian milk, comprising c. 80% of the proteins in cow's milk and between 20% and 45% of the proteins in human milk. Sheep and buffalo milk have a higher casein content than other types of milk with human milk having a particularly low casein content.	Les caséines sont des protéines qui constituent la majeure partie des composants azotés du lait. La première phase de la fabrication du fromage est leur précipitation par adjonction d'un acide ou de présure. Le mot "caséine" est issu du latin "caseus", « fromage ».	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Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni	Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni	Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni ( is a commune of French Guiana, an overseas region and department of France located in South America. Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni is one of the two sub-prefectures of French Guiana and the seat of the Arrondissement of Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni. It is the second most populous city of French Guiana, with 42,612 inhabitants at the January 2017 census.	Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni, appelé simplement Saint-Laurent, est une commune française située dans le département de la Guyane. En 2010, elle est la deuxième commune la plus peuplée de Guyane après Cayenne.	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Yasukuni Shrine	Yasukuni-jinja	The shrine lists the names, origins, birthdates, and places of death of 2,466,532 men, women and children, including various pet animals. Among those are 1,068 convicted war criminals, 14 of whom are A-Class (convicted of having been involved in the planning, preparation, initiation, or waging of the war). This has led to many controversies surrounding the shrine. Another memorial at the Honden building commemorates anyone who died on behalf of Japan, but includes Koreans and Taiwanese who served Japan at the time. In addition, the Chinreisha building is a shrine built to inter the souls of all the people who died during WWII, regardless of their nationality. It is located directly south of the Yasukuni Honden.	Le est un sanctuaire shinto, situé dans l'arrondissement de Chiyoda à Tokyo, au Japon. Il a été construit en 1869 pour rendre hommage aux Japonais. Les âmes de plus de deux millions de soldats japonais morts de 1868 à 1951 y sont déifiées.	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David Kelly (weapons expert)	David Christopher Kelly	David Christopher Kelly (14 May 1944 – 17 July 2003) was a Welsh scientist and authority on biological warfare (BW). In July 2003 he had an off-the-record conversation with Andrew Gilligan, a BBC journalist; during their discussion they talked about the 2002 dossier on Iraqi weapons of mass destruction, which stated that some of Iraq's chemical and biological weapons were deployable within 45 minutes. When Gilligan reported this on BBC Radio 4's "Today" programme, he stated that the 45 minute claim was included at the insistence of Alastair Campbell, the Downing Street Director of Communications—something Kelly denied. The government complained to the BBC about the claim, but they refused to recant on the claim; political tumult between Downing Street and the BBC developed. Kelly informed his line managers in the MoD that he may have been the source, but did not think he was the only one, as Gilligan had reported points he had not mentioned. Kelly's name became known to the media, and he was called to appear on 15 July before the parliamentary Intelligence and Security and Foreign Affairs Select committees. Two days later Kelly was found dead near his home.	David Christopher Kelly ( - ) était un employé du ministère de la défense britannique et un expert en guerre biologique. Il était inspecteur de l'ONU en Irak, où il est allé 37 fois.	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Stan Lee	Stan Lee	Stan Lee (born Stanley Martin Lieber ; December 28, 1922 – November 12, 2018) was an American comic book writer, editor, publisher, and producer. He rose through the ranks of a family-run business to become Marvel Comics' primary creative leader for two decades, leading its expansion from a small division of a publishing house to a multimedia corporation that dominated the comics industry.	Stanley Lieber, dit Stan Lee, né le à New York et mort le à Los Angeles, est un scénariste et éditeur américain de comics. Son nom est associé à Marvel Comics, une maison d'édition pour laquelle il a imaginé de nombreux personnages de super-héros. Il se surnommait lui-même « Stan the Man ».	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Records of the Three Kingdoms	Chroniques des Trois Royaumes	The Records of the Three Kingdoms is a Chinese historical text which covers the history of the late Eastern Han dynasty (c. 184–220 CE) and the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 CE). The primary body of the text was written by Chen Shou in the third century and combines the smaller histories of Cao Wei, Shu Han and Eastern Wu into a single text.	Les Chroniques des Trois Royaumes, ou San guo Zhi ), est la chronique historique officielle couvrant la fin de la dynastie Han (184 — 220), et la période des Trois Royaumes de Chine (220-280).	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Kijūrō Shidehara	Kijūrō Shidehara	Baron was a prominent pre–World War II Japanese diplomat and Prime Minister of Japan from 1945 to 1946. He was a leading proponent of pacifism in Japan before and after World War II, and was also the last Japanese Prime Minister who was a member of the "kazoku". His wife, Masako, was the fourth daughter of Iwasaki Yatarō, founder of the Mitsubishi "zaibatsu."	Kijūrō Shidehara (幣原喜重郎, à Kadoma - ) est un homme d'État, Premier ministre du Japon du au. Il a alors joué un rôle important lors des négociations entre le Japon et les USA au sujet de l’établissement d'une nouvelle constitution. Des historiens pensent que ce serait Shidehara qui aurait eu l’idée de l'article 9 de ce texte, qui garantit le pacifisme du Japon.	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Tangut people	Tangoutes	The Tangut people (Tangut:, "mjɨ nja̱" or, "mji dzjwo"; Chinese: 党項, dǎngxiàng) were a Tibeto-Burman tribal union that inhabited Western Xia. The group lived under Tuyuhun authority and moved to Northwest China sometime before the 10th century to found the Western Xia or Tangut Empire (1038–1227). They spoke the Tangut language, one of the Qiangic languages that belong to the Tibeto-Burman family.	Les Tangoutes ou Tangouts (du mongol :, romanisation : (pluriel mongol de "tang") ; mongol cyrillique :, romanisation Tangad ; en ; appelés en ) sont un peuple d'Asie, dont l'histoire remonte à la dynastie Tang, et qui ont formé un empire connu sous le nom de Xia occidentaux (du ) entre 1036 et 1227. Leur langue, le tangoute, est une des rares langues tibéto-birmanes à avoir disposé d'une écriture indigène.	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Nihon Shoki	Nihon shoki	The, sometimes translated as The Chronicles of Japan, is the second-oldest book of classical Japanese history. The book is also called the. It is more elaborate and detailed than the "Kojiki", the oldest, and has proven to be an important tool for historians and archaeologists as it includes the most complete extant historical record of ancient Japan. The "Nihon Shoki" was finished in 720 under the editorial supervision of Prince Toneri and with the assistance of Ō no Yasumaro dedicated to Empress Genshō.	Le, aussi appelé et achevé en 720, a été rédigé par le prince Toneri, Ō no Yasumaro et d’autres historiens de l’époque, dédicacé à l'impératrice Genshō.	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Amaterasu	Amaterasu	,, or is the Shinto sun goddess. She is also seen as the goddess of the universe. As a major deity, she also appears in Japanese mythology, especially in the two earliest written records, the "Kojiki" and the "Nihon Shoki".	On accole parfois à son nom le qualificatif ou signifiant « grande déesse ». Le "Kojiki" et le "Nihon shoki" évoquent tous deux cette déesse. Dans ce dernier, elle est aussi appelée « Amaterasu-sume-okami » (天照皇大神), littéralement « grande déesse impériale illuminant le ciel », signifiant son lien avec les empereurs du Japon.	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Old Testament	Ancien Testament	The Old Testament (abbreviated OT) is the first part of the Christian biblical canon, which is based primarily upon the twenty-four books of the Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh), a collection of ancient religious Hebrew writings by the Israelites believed by most Christians and religious Jews to be the sacred Word of God. The second part of Christian Bibles is the New Testament, written in the Koine Greek language.	L'Ancien Testament (en koinè (grec) : // ), aussi appelé Ancienne Alliance, Écrits vétérotestamentaires, Premier Testament ou Bible hébraïque, désigne l'ensemble des écrits de la Bible antérieurs à Jésus-Christ. L'Ancien Testament est donc la Bible juive, le "Tanakh". Pour les chrétiens, il forme la première partie de la Bible, la deuxième partie, appelée Nouveau Testament, étant constituée de l'ensemble des livres relatifs à la vie de Jésus-Christ (Évangiles, Actes des Apôtres, Épîtres de Paul et épîtres universelles, Apocalypse).	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Hestia	Hestia	In Ancient Greek religion, Hestia (;, "hearth" or "fireside") is the virgin goddess of the hearth, the right ordering of domesticity, the family, the home, and the state. In Greek mythology, she is the eldest daughter and firstborn child of the Titans Kronos and Rhea.	Dans la mythologie grecque, Hestia (en grec ancien ) (en latin Vesta) est la divinité du feu sacré et du foyer. Fille aînée de Cronos et de Rhéa, sœur de Zeus, Poséidon, Hadès, Héra et Déméter, elle appartient à la génération des dieux mineurs, bien que sa présence dans le canon olympien soit variable. Hestia est la déesse vierge du foyer domestique.	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Protist	Protista	A protist () is any eukaryotic organism (one with cells containing a nucleus) that is not an animal, plant, or fungus. The protists do not form a natural group, or clade, since they exclude certain eukaryotes with whom they share a common ancestor i.e. some protists are more closely related to plants or animals than they are to other protists. However, like algae or invertebrates, the grouping is used for convenience. In some systems of biological classification, such as the popular five-kingdom scheme proposed by Robert Whittaker in 1969, the protists make up a kingdom called Protista, composed of eukaryotic "organisms which are unicellular or unicellular-colonial and which form no tissues".	Les Protista sont un règne et un taxon obsolète qui regroupait la plupart des eucaryotes unicellulaires. Le terme protiste, forgé par Ernst Haeckel en 1866, à partir du grec "protestos", superlatif de "protos", « premier », le biologiste plaçant dans ce taxon les organismes qu'il considérait comme les premiers êtres vivants sur terre, est un microorganisme eucaryote à organisation cellulaire dite simple, unicellulaire le plus souvent, multicellulaire parfois mais sans tissus spécialisés. C'est donc un eucaryote autre qu'un animal (métazoaire), champignon (eumycète), chromiste ou plante. Ce groupe est très hétérogène, tant du point de vue anatomique que physiologique. Certains protistes sont des organismes autotrophes comme les protophytes, d'autres sont hétérotrophes comme les protozoaires et d'autres encore sont mixotrophes comme certains dinoflagellés.	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Arhat	Arhat	In Buddhism, an arhat (Sanskrit) or arahant (Pali) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved "nirvana". Mahayana Buddhist traditions have used the term for people far advanced along the path of Enlightenment, but who may not have reached full Buddhahood.	Dans le bouddhisme theravâda, arhat ou arhant (terme sanskrit ; en pâli: arahant, ou plus couramment, Coréen : Hangeul : 아라한 (hanja : 阿羅漢, romanisation révisée : arahan) ; japonais ) ou "Ougu" (應供) ;, désigne le dernier échelon de la sagesse. Celui qui y est parvenu est un "arhat". En sanskrit, le terme est le participe présent du verbe "arh-", « mériter ». C'est donc proprement un « méritant ». Une étymologie populaire veut en faire un mot composé de "ari-", « ennemi » et de la racine "han-", « tuer ». Ce serait alors « (celui qui a) vaincu l'ennemi », c'est-à-dire ici la cupidité, la colère et les illusions, l'ignorance. Cette étymologie "a posteriori" s'explique par une confusion possible avec un autre terme sanskrit, "arihan-", qui est bien composé de "ari-" et "han-".	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Vertebrate	Vertébrés	Vertebrates () comprise all species of animals within the subphylum Vertebrata () (chordates with backbones). Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the phylum Chordata, with currently about 69,963 species described. Vertebrates include such groups as the following:	Les Vertébrés, Vertebrata, sont un sous-embranchement du règne animal. Ces animaux bilatériens appartiennent à l'embranchement des Chordés et regroupent l'ensemble des poissons ( avec ou sans manchoire) ainsi que les Tétrapodes. Ils possèdent un squelette osseux ou cartilagineux, qui comporte en particulier une colonne vertébrale. On y inclut aujourd'hui les Myxines (des poissons sans mâchoire) bien qu'elles n'aient pas de véritable colonne.	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Habibullah Khan	Habibullah Khan	Habibullah Khan (June 3, 1872 – February 20, 1919) was the Emir of Afghanistan from 1901 until 1919. He was the eldest son of the Emir Abdur Rahman Khan, whom he succeeded by right of primogeniture in October 1901. His grandfather was Mohammad Afzal Khan.	Habibullah Khan (né à Tachkent en Ouzbékistan en 1872 - mort à Kalagosh le ), émir d'Afghanistan régna du au en Afghanistan le déclarant indépendant des Britanniques.	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Amanullah Khan	Amanullah Khan	Amānullāh Khān () was the sovereign of the Kingdom of Afghanistan from 1919 to 1929, first as Emir and after 1926 as King. After the Third Anglo-Afghan War, Afghanistan was able to relinquish from a protected state status to proclaim independence and pursue an independent foreign policy free from the influence of the British Raj.	Amanullah Khan, appelé aussi Ghazi Amanullah Khan (en persan : أمان الله خان) ou Shah Amanullah Khan, né le à Paghman et mort le à Zurich en Suisse, est émir puis roi d’Afghanistan du au.	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Mohammed Nadir Shah	Mohammad Nadir Shah	Muhammad Nadir Shah (, – born Muhammad Nadir Khan; 9 April 1883 – 8 November 1933) was King of Afghanistan from 15 October 1929 until his assassination in November 1933. Previously, he served as Minister of War, Afghan Ambassador to France, and as a general in the military of Afghanistan. He and his son Muhammad Zahir Shah, who succeeded him, are part of the Musahiban.	Mohammad Nadir Shah, né Mohammad Nadir Khan le à Dehra Dun et mort assassiné le à Kaboul, est roi d'Afghanistan du au. Après sa mort, il va être connu sous le nom d"'Ala-Hazrat Shahid" c'est-à-dire le « roi martyr ».	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Al Jazeera	Al Jazeera	Al Jazeera (,, literally "The Island", though referring to the Arabian Peninsula in context) is a Qatari state-owned broadcaster in Doha, Qatar, owned by the Al Jazeera Media Network. Initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel, Al Jazeera has since expanded into a network with several outlets, including the internet and specialty television channels in multiple languages.	Al Jazeera (en arabe - parfois transcrit en français "al-Jazira", "al-Jezira" ou "al-Djezira"), est une chaîne de télévision satellitaire qatarienne qui émet en arabe, en anglais, en turc et en serbo-croate.	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Information society	Société de l'information	Some of the markers of this steady change may be technological, economic, occupational, spatial, cultural, or a combination of all of these. Information society is seen as a successor to industrial society. Closely related concepts are the post-industrial society (post-fordism), post-modern society, computer society and knowledge society, telematic society, society of the spectacle (postmodernism), Information Revolution and Information Age, network society (Manuel Castells) or even liquid modernity.	La société de l'information désigne un état de la société dans lequel les technologies de l'information et de la communication jouent un rôle fondamental. Elle est en général placée dans la continuité de la société industrielle. De même, la notion de société de l'information a été inspirée par les programmes des grands pays industriels. Par ailleurs, l'expression de société de la connaissance est parfois préférée à celle de société de l'information. Elle est au centre de différents débats dont celui concernant la « fracture numérique ».	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World Economic Forum	Forum économique mondial	The World Economic Forum (WEF), based in Cologny-Geneva, Switzerland, is an NGO, founded in 1971. The WEF's mission is cited as "committed to improving the state of the world by engaging business, political, academic, and other leaders of society to shape global, regional, and industry agendas". It is a membership-based organization, and membership is made up of the world's largest corporations.	Le Forum économique mondial ou FEM (en, abrégé WEF), souvent appelé forum de Davos, est une fondation à but non lucratif dont le siège est à Genève. Ce forum est connu pour sa réunion annuelle à Davos, en Suisse, qui réunit des dirigeants d’entreprise, des responsables politiques du monde entier ainsi que des intellectuels et des journalistes, afin de débattre les problèmes les plus urgents de la planète, y compris dans les domaines de la santé et de l’environnement. Le forum organise également la « Réunion annuelle des nouveaux champions » en Chine et plusieurs réunions régionales qui se tiennent tout au long de l’année. Il a été créé en 1971 par Klaus M. Schwab, professeur d’économie en Suisse. Parallèlement aux réunions, le forum publie un certain nombre de rapports économiques et implique ses membres dans différentes initiatives liées à des secteurs spécifiques.	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Anny Duperey	Anny Duperey	Anny Duperey (born Annie Legras; 28 June 1947 in Rouen, Seine-Maritime, France) is a French actress and best-selling author. She is a Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur.	Anny Duperey, née le à Rouen, est une actrice et romancière française. Elle est connue en particulier pour le film de 1976 "Un éléphant ça trompe énormément" et pour son rôle de Catherine Beaumont dans la série télévisée "Une famille formidable."	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Abdur Rahman Khan	Abdur Rahman Khan	Abdur Rahman Khan () (between 1840 and 1844October 1, 1901) was Emir of Afghanistan from 1880 to 1901. He is known for uniting the country after years of internal fighting and negotiation of the Durand Line Agreement with British India.	Abdur Rahman Khan (), surnommé l'« émir de fer », né vers 1840-1844 et mort à Kaboul le, fut émir d'Afghanistan de 1880 à 1901.	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Love	Amour	Love encompasses a range of strong and positive emotional and mental states, from the most sublime virtue or good habit, the deepest interpersonal affection and to the simplest pleasure. An example of this range of meanings is that the love of a mother differs from the love of a spouse, which differs from the love of food. Most commonly, love refers to a feeling of strong attraction and emotional attachment.	Lamour désigne un sentiment intense d'affection et d'attachement envers un être vivant ou une chose qui pousse ceux qui le ressentent à rechercher une proximité physique, intellectuelle ou même imaginaire avec l'objet de cet amour. Dans le cas d'une autre personne, l'amour peut conduire à adopter un comportement particulier et aboutir à une relation amoureuse si cet amour est partagé.	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Three Kingdoms	Trois Royaumes de Chine	The Three Kingdoms () from 220–280 CE was the tripartite division of China among the states of Wei, Shu, and Wu. The Three Kingdoms period started with the end of the Han dynasty and was followed by the Jin dynasty. The short-lived Yan kingdom in Manchuria, which lasted from 237 to 238 CE, is sometimes considered as a "4th kingdom".	La période des « Trois Royaumes » () est une période de l'histoire chinoise qui commence en 220, après la chute de la dynastie Han () et s'achève avec la réunification de la Chine par la dynastie des Jin occidentaux, en 280. Les Trois Royaumes sont ceux de Wei () au nord le long du fleuve Jaune, de Wu () dans le sud-est, et de Shu () au sud-ouest dans le bassin du Sichuan.	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Digital divide	Fracture numérique (géographique)	A digital divide is any uneven distribution in the access to, use of, or impact of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) between any number of distinct groups. These groups may be defined based on social, geographical, or geopolitical criteria, or otherwise. Because of ICT high cost, its adoption and utilization is highly uneven across the globe.	La fracture numérique est la disparité d'accès aux technologies informatiques, notamment Internet. Elle recouvre parfois le clivage entre « les info-émetteurs et les info-récepteurs ». Cette disparité est fortement marquée d'une part entre les pays riches et les pays pauvres, d'autre part entre les zones urbaines denses et les zones rurales. Elle existe également à l'intérieur des zones moyennement denses.	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The Crimson Rivers	Les Rivières pourpres (film)	The Crimson Rivers () is a 2000 French psychological thriller film starring Jean Reno and Vincent Cassel. The film, which was directed by Mathieu Kassovitz, is based on the best-selling novel "Red Blood Rivers". Its screenplay was co-written by the book's author, Jean-Christophe Grangé.	Les Rivières pourpres est un thriller policier français de Mathieu Kassovitz sorti en 2000, d'après le roman du même nom de Jean-Christophe Grangé. L'un de ses thèmes est l'eugénisme.	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Jean Reno	Jean Reno	Juan Moreno y Herrera–Jiménez (born 30 July 1948), known as Jean Reno (), is a French actor. He has worked in French, English, Japanese, Spanish and Italian productions; Reno appeared in films such as "Crimson Rivers", "Godzilla", "The Da Vinci Code", "", "The Pink Panther", "Ronin", "Les Visiteurs", "Wasabi", "The Big Blue", "Hector and the Search for Happiness" and "".	Juan Moreno y Herrera-Jiménez, dit Jean Reno, né le à Casablanca (Maroc), est un acteur français. Découvert par Luc Besson qui lui permet d'accéder à la célébrité en lui offrant des rôles principaux dans "Le Grand Bleu", "Nikita" et "Léon", il connaît également une grande popularité grâce à la comédie de Jean-Marie Poiré, "Les Visiteurs" et ses suites. Il est l'un des rares acteurs français à faire une carrière importante aux États-Unis, tournant notamment dans "French Kiss" avec le tandem Meg Ryan / Kevin Kline", Mission impossible" avec Tom Cruise, "Godzilla" avec Matthew Broderick, "Ronin" avec Robert De Niro, "La Panthère rose" avec Steve Martin ou encore "Da Vinci Code" avec Tom Hanks.	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Inner product space	Espace préhilbertien	In linear algebra, an inner product space is a vector space with an additional structure called an inner product. This additional structure associates each pair of vectors in the space with a scalar quantity known as the inner product of the vectors. Inner products allow the rigorous introduction of intuitive geometrical notions such as the length of a vector or the angle between two vectors. They also provide the means of defining orthogonality between vectors (zero inner product). Inner product spaces generalize Euclidean spaces (in which the inner product is the dot product, also known as the scalar product) to vector spaces of any (possibly infinite) dimension, and are studied in functional analysis. The first usage of the concept of a vector space with an inner product is due to Giuseppe Peano, in 1898.	En mathématiques, un espace préhilbertien est défini comme un espace vectoriel réel ou complexe muni d'un produit scalaire. Cette notion généralise celles d'espace euclidien ou hermitien dans le cas d'une dimension quelconque, tout en conservant certaines bonnes propriétés géométriques des espaces de dimension finie grâce aux propriétés du produit scalaire, mais en perdant un atout de taille : un espace préhilbertien de dimension infinie n'est pas nécessairement complet. On peut cependant le compléter, pour obtenir un espace de Hilbert.	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Type safety	Sûreté du typage	In computer science, type safety is the extent to which a programming language discourages or prevents type errors. A type error is erroneous or undesirable program behaviour caused by a discrepancy between differing data types for the program's constants, variables, and methods (functions), e.g., treating an integer (int) as a floating-point number (float). Type safety is sometimes alternatively considered to be a property of a computer program rather than the language in which that program is written; that is, some languages have type-safe facilities that can be circumvented by programmers who adopt practices that exhibit poor type safety. The formal type-theoretic definition of type safety is considerably stronger than what is understood by most programmers.	La sûreté du typage est un principe permettant d'améliorer la qualité de la programmation. Dans les langages à typage statique, l'un des objectifs est d'intercepter les erreurs de type de données lors de la compilation.	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Three-letter acronym	Sigle de trois caractères	A three-letter acronym (TLA), or three-letter abbreviation, is an abbreviation consisting of three letters. These are usually the initial letters of the words of the phrase abbreviated, and are written in capital letters (upper case); three-letter "abbreviations" such as "etc." and "Mrs." are not three-letter "acronyms", but "TLA" is a TLA (an example of an autological abbreviation).	Les sigles de trois caractères sont extrêmement courants dans à peu près tous les champs des activités humaines :, DOS,, HAS, IBM, JPG, PIB, RPR, USB, VGE, WWW, XML,,	[ 250004, 250054, 581, 24763, 113860, 44, 927, 107, 13, 9, 63049, 10, 15322, 5264, 58, 118775, 23, 70, 19633, 25443, 163136, 23, 26527, 5, 129335, 9, 63049, 10, 15322, 5264, 7, 3542, 11814, 237, 49097, 3796, 28021, 23, 333, 109622, 41664, 7, 4, 1295, 27193, 136, 2363, 138155, 92940, 509, 125568, 71, 390, 4002, 56, 23, 24427, 5, 10660, 621, 11814, 23, 5941, 3789, 44457, 7, 4, 1284, 70, 13579, 384, 8356, 83, 106480, 137272, 678, 242122, 5, 360, 15643, 4, 70, 23009, 100, 70, 6610, 186827, 567, 1542, 13556, 5368, 13909, 11814, 136, 189050, 384, 8356, 5, 581, 29458, 58093, 111, 17262, 9, 63049, 10, 15322, 5264, 7, 23, 242122, 509, 119056, 23, 10, 821, 21130, 13416, 111, 24427, 5, 360, 18592, 4, 23, 10, 15122, 44759, 71, 44, 20320, 70, 41649, 6704, 53, 111, 5120, 538, 172030, 214, 159415, 214, 28745, 830, 192471, 13909, 172647, 10462, 7, 1505, 601, 5, 212946, 2816, 54397, 44, 6766, 408, 4032, 110, 28117, 141775, 83, 15072, 2886, 6097, 13312, 15490, 10, 384, 8356, 7673, 3311, 12839, 442, 509, 23, 10, 7244, 3535, 14137, 5, 581, 14012, 111, 7722, 17262, 9, 63049, 1563, 105160, 14, 21094, 15, 748, 117, 14311, 21094, 16, 17368, 70, 1381, 120820, 111, 70, 6, 229231, 1295, 62, 47, 567, 15, 284, 15467, 4, 62, 11040, 27, 47, 567, 86823, 4, 567, 76362, 16, 83, 1381, 34070, 1381, 34070, 1381, 2203, 106, 109631, 11835, 5, 116267, 1381, 34070, 1381, 34070, 209, 2203, 305, 110216, 831, 186, 181653, 2174, 70, 50960, 12830, 83, 107003, 47, 186, 10, 153939, 757, 15205, 4, 68772, 10, 3622, 111, 744, 4, 363, 8659, 5, 360, 5570, 14941, 4, 105510, 83, 70, 384, 8356, 124901, 92217, 1363, 144570, 70, 2684, 954, 1165, 13566, 4210, 205794, 300, 86, 5, 581, 80234, 7432, 111, 20602, 19659, 205794, 32497, 1295, 442, 8035, 63773, 56, 47, 5154, 70, 10, 15322, 5264, 3501, 70, 113860, 442, 33636, 7, 74, 49903, 54433, 242, 1456, 95162, 25, 23, 14941, 144570, 17262, 20028, 237, 5941, 954, 1165, 13566, 237, 70, 113860, 442, 83, 131148, 47, 1563, 105160, 101426, 15, 70646, 160670, 4002, 194, 1657, 184, 26513, 18, 538, 4, 44, 1574, 58, 83, 68018, 1563, 105160, 14, 27686, 237, 44, 42629, 42629, 42629, 58, 23, 116483, 5, 2 ]	[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]	[ 250008, 1734, 1144, 1577, 8, 29866, 119818, 7, 2045, 1119, 4448, 13033, 5911, 100079, 7, 807, 253, 6253, 44488, 5849, 199, 91714, 7, 224, 63503, 125386, 7, 152, 4, 86559, 4, 4, 6, 101413, 4, 90540, 4, 6, 124906, 4, 139707, 4, 627, 17255, 4, 10273, 4, 310, 11679, 4, 105510, 4, 92537, 4, 4, 2 ]	null	null	null	null	null	null
Platanaceae	Platanaceae	The Platanaceae are a family of flowering plants belonging to the order Proteales. This family has been recognized by almost all taxonomists, and is sometimes called the "plane-tree family". The family consists of only a single extant genus "Platanus", with eight known species. The plants are tall trees, native to temperate and subtropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The hybrid London plane is widely planted in cities worldwide.	Les Platanaceae (Platanacées) sont une famille de plantes Eudicotylédones comprenant une dizaine d'espèces du genre "Platanus". Ce sont de grands arbres, à feuilles caduques, des zones tempérées d'Amérique du Nord, du Sud-Est de l'Europe et d'Extrême-Orient.	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Emergency medical services	Aide médicale urgente	Emergency medical services (EMS), also known as ambulance services or paramedic services, are emergency services that provide urgent pre-hospital treatment and stabilisation for serious illness and injuries and transport to definitive care. They may also be known as a first aid squad, FAST squad, emergency squad, rescue squad, ambulance squad, ambulance corps, life squad or by other initialisms such as EMAS or EMARS.	L'aide médicale urgente, désignée aussi par l'acronyme AMU, est le dispositif mis en place par un État pour apporter une aide médicale aux personnes victimes d'un accident ou d'une affection brutale et inattendue. Elle comporte en général un système d'alerte, par lequel la victime ou les témoins peuvent demander cette aide médicale urgente, et des services mobiles d'intervention.	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Proteaceae	Proteaceae	The Proteaceae are a family of flowering plants predominantly distributed in the Southern Hemisphere. The family comprises 83 genera with about 1,660 known species. Together with the Platanaceae and Nelumbonaceae, they make up the order Proteales. Well-known genera include "Protea", "Banksia", "Embothrium", "Grevillea", "Hakea" and "Macadamia". Species such as the New South Wales waratah ("Telopea speciosissima"), king protea ("Protea cynaroides"), and various species of "Banksia", "Grevillea", and "Leucadendron" are popular cut flowers, while the nuts of "Macadamia integrifolia" are widely grown commercially and consumed. Australia and South Africa have the greatest concentrations of diversity.	La famille des Protéacées, ou "Proteaceae" en Latin, est une famille de plantes dicotylédones qui comprend près de 2000 espèces réparties en presque 80 genres. Ce sont des arbres et des arbustes, (quelques plantes herbacées), généralement des zones arides, à feuilles persistantes, des régions tempérées, sub-tropicales à tropicales, principalement dans l'hémisphère sud.	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Trochodendraceae	Trochodendraceae	Trochodendraceae is the only family of flowering plants in the order Trochodendrales. It comprises two extant genera, each with a single species found in south east Asia. The two living species ("Tetracentron sinense" and "Trochodendron aralioides") both have secondary xylem without vessel elements, which is quite rare in angiosperms. As the vessel-free wood suggests primitiveness, these two species have attracted much taxonomic attention.	La famille des Trochodendraceae est une famille de plantes qui ne comprend qu’une ou deux espèces. Ce sont des arbres (-20m) à feuilles persistantes des régions tempérées à sub-tropicales, originaires du Japon et de Taïwan.	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Eisaku Satō	Eisaku Satō	Satō entered the National Diet in 1949 as a member of the Liberal Party. Gradually rising through the ranks of Japanese politics, he held a series of cabinet positions and was in charge of organizing the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. In 1964 he succeeded Hayato Ikeda as Prime Minister of Japan, becoming the first Prime Minister to have been born in the 20th century.	Il fut le, et Premier ministre du Japon, respectivement entre le et le, entre le et le, et entre le et le. Il obtint le Prix Nobel de la paix en 1974 pour avoir mené une politique pacifiste et opposée à la prolifération nucléaire. Celle-ci fut toutefois mise en question en 2010 après la révélation d'accords secrets liant le Japon aux États-Unis.	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Superconductivity	Supraconductivité	Superconductivity is the set of physical properties observed in certain materials, wherein electrical resistance vanishes and from which magnetic flux fields are expelled. Any material exhibiting these properties is a superconductor. Unlike an ordinary metallic conductor, whose resistance decreases gradually as its temperature is lowered even down to near absolute zero, a superconductor has a characteristic critical temperature below which the resistance drops abruptly to zero. An electric current through a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.	La supraconductivité (ou supraconduction) est un phénomène caractérisé par l'absence de résistance électrique et l'expulsion du champ magnétique — l'effet Meissner — à l'intérieur de certains matériaux dits supraconducteurs.	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Boxing	Boxe	Boxing is a combat sport in which two people, usually wearing protective gloves, throw punches at each other for a predetermined amount of time in a boxing ring.	La boxe est un sport de combat pratiqué depuis le à un contre un, qui recourt à des frappes de percussion à l'aide de gants matelassés.	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Nanomaterials	Nanomatériau	Nanomaterials describe, in principle, materials of which a single unit small sized (in at least one dimension) between 1 and 100 nm (the usual definition of nanoscale).	Un nanomatériau est un matériau (sous forme de poudre, aérosol ou quasi-gaz, suspension liquide, gel) possédant des propriétés particulières à cause de sa taille et structure nanométrique. Les nanomatériaux sont habituellement issus de la nanotechnologie, à la différence des nanoparticules qui peuvent être d'origine naturelle ou résulter de processus tels que le soudage, le fumage, le polissage. Le, la Commission européenne publie ses recommandations relatives à la définition des nanomatériaux (recommandation 2011/696/UE) :.	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Parnassiaceae	Parnassiaceae	Parnassiaceae Gray were a family of flowering plants in the eudicot order Celastrales. The family is not recognized in the APG III system of plant classification. When that system was published in 2009, Parnassiaceae were treated as subfamily Parnassioideae of an expanded family Celastraceae.	La famille des Parnassiacées est constituée de plantes dicotylédones. En et en cette famille peut inclure "Lepuropetalon spathulatum", une petite plante plus ou moins succulente originaire d'Amérique du Nord et du Chili, qui était auparavant classée, comme le genre "Parnassia", dans la famille des Saxifragacées. Mais, alternativement, cette espèce peut constituer les Lépuropetalacées.	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Smenkhkare	Smenkhkarê	Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare Djeser Kheperu (sometimes spelled "Smenkhare", "Smenkare" or "Smenkhkara") was a short-lived pharaoh in the late 18th dynasty. The names of this pharaoh translate as 'Living are the Forms of Re' and 'Vigorous is the Soul of Re – Holy of Forms'. His or her reign, for it is uncertain whether Smenkhkare was male or female, was during the Amarna Period, a time when Akhenaten sought to impose new religious views. He or she is sometimes distinguished from the immediate predecessor (successor?), the female ruler Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten (usually identified as Nefertiti). Unlike Neferneferuaten, Smenkhkare did not use epithets in his or her royal name or cartouche.	Smenkhkarê est un pharaon de la (période du Nouvel Empire) s'il a vraiment régné, car son histoire est sujette à un débat entre les égyptologues. Manéthon donne au successeur du roi Oros, que l'on considère généralement comme identique à Amenhotep / Akhenaton, le nom de Ouaenrê, Acenchêrês ou Acherrês ou encore Achencherês et l'appelle « sa fille ». Manéthon lui attribue deux ans et un mois de règne (d'après Flavius Josèphe). Smenkhkarê ne figure pas sur les tables d'Abydos.	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Icacinaceae	Icacinaceae	The Icacinaceae are a family of flowering plants, consisting of trees, shrubs, and lianas, primarily of the tropics. The family was traditionally circumscribed quite broadly, with around 55 genera totalling over 400 species. In 2001, though, this circumscription was found to be polyphyletic, and the family was split into four families in three different orders: Icacinaceae "sensu stricto" (then unplaced at order rank), Pennantiaceae (Apiales), Stemonuraceae (Aquifoliales) and Cardiopteridaceae (also Aquifoliales). Other genera have later been moved to Metteniusaceae (Metteniusales), so that Icacinaceae now include c. 23 genera and 160 species. One genus, "Sleumeria", was described as late as 2005. "Icacina senegalensis" extracts have shown activity against malaria parasites. Icacinaceae belongs to the order Icacinales along with Oncothecaceae.	La famille des Icacinacées est une famille de plantes dicotylédones comprenant 400 espèces réparties en 52 genres. Ce sont des arbres, des arbustes ou des lianes, des milieux humides ou non, des régions sub-tropicales à tropicales.	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Cardiopteridaceae	Cardiopteridaceae	Cardiopteridaceae is a eudicot family of flowering plants. It consists of about 43 species of trees, shrubs, and woody vines, mostly of the tropics, but with a few in temperate regions. It contains six genera, the largest of which is "Citronella", with 21 species. The other genera are much smaller.	La famille des Cardioptéridacées regroupe des plantes dicotylédones. Classiquement elle comprend trois espèces appartenant au genre "Cardiopteris". Ce sont des plantes herbacées rampantes, à latex, des régions tempérées à sub-tropicales de l'hémisphère sud, originaires d'Asie du Sud-Est et d'Australie.	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Knowledge society	Société de la connaissance	A knowledge society generates, shares and makes available to all members of the society knowledge that may be used to improve the human condition. A knowledge society differs from an information society in that the former serves to transform information into resources that allow society to take effective action while the latter only creates and disseminates the raw data. The capacity to gather and analyze information has existed throughout human history. However, the idea of the present-day knowledge society is based on the vast increase in data creation and information dissemination that results from the innovation of information technologies. The UNESCO World Report addresses the definition, content and future of knowledge societies.	La société de la connaissance ("knowledge society"), ou société du savoir, est une expression employée pour la première fois en 1969 par l'Américain Peter Drucker, dans son livre "The Age of Discontinuity".	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Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt	XXVe dynastie égyptienne	<br> The Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXV, alternatively 25th Dynasty or Dynasty 25), also known as the Nubian Dynasty or the Kushite Empire, was the last dynasty of the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt that occurred after the Nubian invasion.	La pharaonique a la particularité d'être uniquement nubienne, originaire du royaume de Napata. Ces rois sont de grands adorateurs du dieu Amon, de Napata. Leur origine les fera surnommer "pharaons noirs", "pharaons éthiopiens" ou encore "pharaons koushites", à telle enseigne que cette dynastie est parfois qualifiée aussi de « XXV dynastie éthiopienne », et l'un de ses représentants infra, Taharqa, « d'Éthiopien ».	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Ay	Aÿ	Ay II, commonly known just as Ay, was the penultimate pharaoh of Ancient Egypt's 18th dynasty. He held the throne of Egypt for a brief four-year period (1323–1319 BC or 1327–1323 BC, depending on which chronology is followed), although he was a close advisor to two and perhaps three of the pharaohs who ruled before him and is thought to have been the power behind the throne during Tutankhamun's reign. Ay's "prenomen" or royal name—Kheperkheperure—means "Everlasting are the Manifestations of Ra" while his "nomen" "Ay it-netjer" reads as "Ay, Father of the God". Records and monuments that can be clearly attributed to Ay are rare, not only due to his short length of reign, but also because his successor, Horemheb, instigated a campaign of "damnatio memoriae" against him and other pharaohs associated with the unpopular Amarna Period.	Aÿ () est le douzième et avant-dernier pharaon de la (Nouvel Empire). Manéthon l’appelle Aî () (Acherres). On situe son règne aux alentours de -1327 à -1323. Beaucoup d'incertitudes demeurent sur les événements de cette époque contemporaine de la vie du Père Divin Aÿ, et des circonstances de son accession au trône.	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Raymond Devos	Raymond Devos	Raymond Devos (; 9 November 1922 – 15 June 2006) was a Belgian-French humorist, stand-up comedian and clown. He is best known for his sophisticated puns and surreal humour.	Raymond Devos (prononcer /dəvos/ ), né le à Mouscron en Belgique et mort le à Saint-Rémy-lès-Chevreuse dans les Yvelines, est un humoriste français.	[ 250004, 250054, 136050, 7, 509, 103122, 23, 45709, 10382, 1900, 4, 199458, 4, 20903, 47, 70, 92265, 132988, 5, 149766, 1919, 27863, 3542, 92265, 136, 764, 109133, 47, 11330, 587, 214, 4, 9942, 99, 70, 32070, 111, 6626, 5, 132556, 5369, 14432, 4, 1919, 14449, 109133, 47, 7270, 5, 133698, 70, 77648, 6661, 5550, 764, 509, 9325, 4, 1884, 5941, 27150, 453, 111, 1919, 58093, 4, 47, 102126, 47, 4488, 5, 2161, 1919, 30646, 47, 9942, 4, 764, 34739, 1030, 1916, 136, 324, 282, 182417, 99, 70, 3050, 18, 58258, 786, 15322, 6077, 10696, 4, 7440, 764, 435, 76012, 34890, 8918, 5, 360, 31100, 4, 764, 509, 2831, 111, 10, 6818, 1577, 944, 104713, 15, 73, 70, 114210, 10422, 111, 70, 2565, 44, 5992, 1577, 944, 51029, 136050, 7, 25, 7, 80997, 34739, 5773, 23, 70, 27631, 7, 3229, 764, 80723, 32562, 1919, 10002, 1632, 332, 45831, 136, 509, 70, 73432, 27992, 100, 204990, 5024, 7013, 56, 5, 106073, 1919, 27992, 7464, 75412, 80854, 111, 1919, 39395, 5369, 237, 10, 20450, 7710, 15, 7, 12665, 237, 1129, 9815, 2069, 16, 764, 509, 153161, 125296, 71, 6637, 111, 1919, 31347, 53, 111, 70, 92265, 46876, 5, 18763, 36998, 8796, 111, 195195, 6, 201507, 136, 221, 11727, 71412, 3674, 1992, 7, 3671, 86, 2822, 4049, 5045, 15072, 87420, 70, 36160, 26551, 8999, 5, 136050, 7, 83, 10, 105207, 62816, 23, 180478, 2177, 246, 15555, 4922, 25, 7, 613, 187466, 44321, 34377, 16610, 1346, 44, 68016, 42369, 7, 1940, 814, 2449, 58, 15, 11, 324, 282, 6, 202444, 111, 14978, 14912, 25, 7, 27712, 11301, 44, 3957, 11062, 144429, 44816, 7, 51029, 181799, 1919, 2965, 9, 69723, 19, 21640, 170894, 83, 10, 21449, 31, 23, 16162, 9, 116742, 3430, 5861, 25, 7, 44, 29348, 56, 16210, 95, 9572, 34, 58, 31017, 237, 10, 332, 129842, 98, 10, 182, 38648, 8752, 2750, 83, 107250, 5281, 678, 70, 98323, 111, 10, 759, 824, 93905, 5161, 11531, 5, 1529, 51339, 297, 100, 70, 4568, 1733, 23, 8272, 23, 7270, 25, 7, 142297, 76115, 5, 1529, 68, 71, 23, 12190, 9, 1052, 446, 1176, 9, 35258, 7, 9, 98914, 13567, 4032, 4, 990, 272, 59801, 4, 9942, 5, 88949, 764, 509, 103122, 23, 199458, 4, 70, 15889, 2481, 111, 136050, 7, 509, 27983, 4, 136, 7464, 83, 4, 10, 31344, 111, 169463, 5, 31384, 2450, 113771, 1919, 47219, 390, 15005, 2852, 47, 44, 80172, 34958, 131259, 136050, 7, 58, 707, 44, 919, 982, 206, 136, 41267, 66, 131259, 136050, 7, 740, 1529, 2843, 1556, 10, 174705, 64, 919, 133, 78192, 14449, 9351, 5, 136050, 7, 509, 103122, 111, 92265, 27863, 136, 165249, 23, 9942, 4, 1284, 509, 11343, 15072, 7844, 111, 1919, 23295, 111, 127319, 136, 24145, 569, 48398, 450, 764, 509, 7464, 4, 7103, 756, 4, 10, 44, 1021, 350, 41267, 66, 740, 2 ]	[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]	[ 250008, 161597, 136050, 7, 15, 101322, 191, 3443, 248, 1477, 8091, 64, 6, 247, 18673, 95, 253, 45709, 10382, 1900, 22, 41267, 944, 82, 17904, 95, 253, 12190, 9, 1052, 446, 1176, 9, 35258, 7, 9, 98914, 13567, 4032, 807, 199, 990, 272, 59801, 4, 437, 51, 16000, 4435, 43054, 5, 2 ]	null	null	null	null	null	null

Aspect-oriented programming

Programmation orientée aspect

In computing, aspect-oriented programming (AOP) is a programming paradigm that aims to increase modularity by allowing the separation of cross-cutting concerns. It does so by adding additional behavior to existing code (an advice) "without" modifying the code itself, instead separately specifying which code is modified via a "pointcut" specification, such as "log all function calls when the function's name begins with'set. This allows behaviors that are not central to the business logic (such as logging) to be added to a program without cluttering the code, core to the functionality. AOP forms a basis for aspect-oriented software development.

La programmation orientée aspect ou POA (en anglais, "aspect oriented programming" ou "AOP") est un paradigme de programmation qui permet de traiter séparément les préoccupations transversales (en anglais, ), qui relèvent souvent de la technique, des préoccupations métier, qui constituent le cœur d'une application. Un exemple classique d'utilisation est la journalisation, mais certains principes architecturaux ou modèles de conception peuvent être implémentés à l'aide de ce paradigme de programmation, comme l'inversion de contrôle.

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Kaiserslautern

Kaiserslautern () is a city in southwest Germany, located in the "Bundesland" (State) of Rhineland-Palatinate ("Rheinland-Pfalz") at the edge of the Palatinate Forest ("Pfälzerwald"). The historic centre dates to the 9th century. It is from Paris, from Frankfurt am Main, and from Luxembourg.

Kaiserslautern (parfois francisé Caseloutre) est une ville allemande et un district du Land de Rhénanie-Palatinat. C'est la ville la plus importante du Palatinat rhénan avec quelque 100 000 habitants.

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Motivation

Motivation is the experience of desire or aversion ("you want something, or want to avoid or escape something"). As such, motivation has both an objective aspect ("a goal or thing you aspire to") and an internal or subjective aspect ("it is "you" that wants the thing or wants it to go away").

La motivation est, dans un organisme vivant, la composante ou le processus qui règle son engagement pour une activité précise.

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Aulnay-sous-Bois

Aulnay-sous-Bois () is a commune in the Seine-Saint-Denis department in the Île-de-France region in the north-eastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located from the Kilometre zero.

Aulnay-sous-Bois () est une commune française située dans le département de Seine-Saint-Denis en région Île-de-France. Ses habitants sont appelés les "Aulnaysiens".

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Courbevoie

Courbevoie () is a commune located in the Hauts-de-Seine Department of the Île-de-France region of France. It is in the suburbs of the city of Paris, from the center of Paris. The centre of Courbevoie is situated 2 kilometres from the city limits of Paris.

Le quartier de la Défense, principal quartier d'affaires de l'agglomération parisienne, s'étend en partie sur Courbevoie (le reste étant partagé entre les communes de Puteaux, Nanterre et La Garenne-Colombes).

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Colombes

Colombes () is a commune in the northwestern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located from the centre of Paris. In 2012, Colombes was the 53rd largest city in France.

Colombes ( ) est une commune française du département des Hauts-de-Seine en région Île-de-France. Située dans la banlieue nord-ouest de Paris, Colombes est la septième commune d'Île-de-France et la troisième commune des Hauts-de-Seine. Plus grande cité pavillonnaire de la petite couronne parisienne, elle demeure néanmoins un territoire diversifié.

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Darwin, Northern Territory

Darwin (Australie)

Darwin ( ) is the capital city of the Northern Territory of Australia, situated on the Timor Sea. It is the largest city in the sparsely populated Northern Territory, with a population of 148,564. It is the smallest, wettest, and most northerly of the Australian capital cities and acts as the Top End's regional centre.

Darwin ( ) est la capitale du Territoire du Nord ("Northern Territory") en Australie, située sur la mer de Timor. C'est la ville la plus peuplée du Territoire du Nord, comptant. C'est la ville la plus petite et la plus au nord des capitales australiennes, agissant comme le centre régional du Top End.

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Wollongong

Wollongong ( ), informally referred to as "The Gong", is a seaside city located in the Illawarra region of New South Wales, Australia. Wollongong lies on the narrow coastal strip between the Illawarra Escarpment and the Pacific Ocean, 68 kilometres (42 miles) south of central Sydney. Wollongong had an estimated urban population of 302,739 at June 2018, making it the third-largest city in New South Wales after Sydney and Newcastle, and the tenth-largest city in Australia. The city's current Lord Mayor is Gordon Bradbery AM who was elected in 2018.

Wollongong est une ville de Nouvelle-Galles du Sud, en Australie. Elle est située sur la « South Coast », au sein de la région de l'Illawarra. Sa population s'élevait à habitants en 2012. C'est la troisième ville de l'État par le nombre d'habitants.

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Grana Padano

Grana Padano is a cheese originating in the Po river Valley in northern Italy that is similar to Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese. There are fewer regulations governing its production compared to Parmigiano-Reggiano. This hard, crumbly-textured cheese is made with unpasteurized cow's milk that is semi-skimmed through a natural creaming process. To preserve the authenticity of the manufacturing processes and raw materials used to make this cheese, European Union law has protected the name Grana Padano under the "protected designation of origin" since 1996 (PDO).

Le grana padano est un fromage italien traditionnel à base de lait de vache, à pâte pressée cuite, produit dans les vallées d'Italie septentrionale.

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Brisbane

Brisbane () is the capital of and the most populous city in the Australian state of Queensland, and the third most populous city in Australia. Brisbane's metropolitan area has a population of over 2.5 million, and the South East Queensland metropolitan region, centred on Brisbane, encompasses a population of more than 3.6 million. The Brisbane central business district stands on the historic European settlement and is situated inside a peninsula of the Brisbane River, about from its mouth at Moreton Bay, a bay of the Coral Sea. The metropolitan area extends in all directions along the hilly floodplain of the Brisbane River Valley between Moreton Bay and the Taylor and D'Aguilar mountain ranges. It sprawls across several of Australia's most populous local government areas (LGAs)—most centrally the City of Brisbane, which is by far the most populous LGA in the nation. The demonym of Brisbane is "Brisbanite", whilst common nicknames include "Brissy", "River City" and "Brisvegas".

Brisbane ( ) est la capitale et la ville la plus peuplée de l'État du Queensland, en Australie. Elle est située à au nord-nord-est de Sydney, à au nord-est de Melbourne, à à l'est-nord-est d'Adélaïde et à à l'est de Perth. Elle borde le fleuve Brisbane et s'étend sur une plaine humide bordée de collines, limitée par Moreton Bay et par les premiers contreforts de la cordillère australienne. À quelques kilomètres du centre-ville, le mont Coot-Tha accueille une plate-forme panoramique, un planetarium et des jardins botaniques.

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Yalta

Yalta (; ; ) is a resort city on the south coast of the Crimean Peninsula surrounded by the Black Sea. It serves as the administrative center of Yalta Municipality, one of the regions within Crimea. Population:

Yalta (russe et en ; du signifiant alpage) est une ville de Crimée. Elle est située au bord de la mer Noire, entourée de montagnes boisées à au sud de Simferopol. Selon certains, le nom originel de la ville "Etalita", "Galita", "Jalita" proviendrait d'une ancienne colonie grecque qui aurait été fondée par des marins cherchant une côte sécurisée (, "gialos", signifiant rivage en grec) sur laquelle accoster. Pour d'autres, son nom serait d'origine tatare, à l'instar du mont éponyme "Yaltai Dagh" qui la domine et signifierait « alpage ». Elle jouit d'un climat méditerranéen chaud, entourée par un grand nombre de vignobles et de vergers. Elle comptait en 2013 ; son agglomération, le, en compte environ.

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Pecorino Romano

Pecorino Romano () is a hard, salty Italian cheese, often used for grating, made with sheep's milk. The name "pecorino" simply means "ovine" or "of sheep" in Italian; the name of the cheese, although protected, is a simple description rather than a brand: "[formaggio] pecorino romano" is simply "sheep's [cheese] of Rome".

Le Pecorino Romano est un fromage traditionnel à base de lait entier de brebis, à pâte pressée cuite, provenant du territoire des régions de la Sardaigne, du Latium et de la province de Grosseto.

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Gorgonzola

Gorgonzola (fromage)

Gorgonzola (; ) is a veined Italian blue cheese, made from unskimmed cow's milk. It can be buttery or firm, crumbly and quite salty, with a "bite" from its blue veining.

Le gorgonzola est l'appellation d'origine d'un fromage traditionnel à base de lait de vache, à pâte persillée, fabriqué dans les régions de Lombardie et du Piémont.

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Queensland

Queensland (, abbreviated as Qld, officially the State of Queensland) is a state of Australia. It is the second-largest and third-most populous Australian state. It is a federated state and a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Situated in the north-east of the country, it is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west and south respectively. To the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean. To its north is the Torres Strait, separating the Australian mainland from Papua New Guinea. With an area of, Queensland is the world's sixth-largest sub-national entity, and is larger than all but 15 countries. Due to its size, Queensland's geographical features and climates are diverse, including tropical rainforests, rivers, coral reefs, mountain ranges and sandy beaches in its tropical and sub-tropical coastal regions, as well as deserts and savanna in the semi-arid and desert climactic regions of its interior.

Le Queensland (prononcé localement ; abrégé Qld) est le deuxième État de l'Australie par la superficie, le troisième par la population. Il se trouve au nord de la Nouvelle-Galles du Sud et à l'est du Territoire du Nord. L’État est bordé par la mer de Corail et l'océan Pacifique.

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Mozzarella

Mozzarella (, ; ) is a traditionally southern Italian cheese made from Italian buffalo's milk by the pasta filata method. Mozzarella received a Traditional Specialities Guaranteed (TSG) certification from the European Union in 1998. This protection scheme requires that mozzarella sold in the European Union is produced according to a traditional recipe.

La mozzarella, ou mozzarelle, est un fromage à pâte filée d'origine italienne à base de lait de vache ou de bufflonne. La mozzarella di Bufala Campana, produite en Campanie avec du lait de bufflonne, est l'objet d'une appellation d'origine protégée (AOP) depuis 1996. En Italie, la mozzarella de lait de vache est fabriquée et commercialisée sous le nom de « mozzarella », ou « mozzarella di latte vaccino », ou « fior di latte ». Ailleurs dans le monde, la mozzarella est un fromage industriel qui fait partie des fromages de lait de vache les plus produits et consommés. Ce fromage industriel, commercialisé sous le nom de mozzarella, crée une confusion avec la mozzarella traditionnelle au lait de bufflonne.

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Ivar Aasen

Ivar Andreas Aasen (; 5 August 1813 – 23 September 1896) was a Norwegian philologist, lexicographer, playwright, and poet. He is best known for having assembled from dialects one of the two official written versions of the Norwegian language, Nynorsk.

Ivar Andreas Aasen est un linguiste, poète et écrivain norvégien (né à Volden et mort à Christiania, aujourd'hui Oslo, le ).

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Dacia

Dacie

Dacia (, ; ) was the land inhabited by the Dacians. The Greeks referred to them as the Getae (east of Dacia) and the Romans called them Daci.

La Dacie () est, dans l’Antiquité, un territoire de la région des Carpates, du bas-Danube et du littoral pontique occidental, correspondant approximativement aux actuelles Roumanie, Moldavie et aux régions adjacentes. Le mot "Dacie" (du latin "Dacia") vient du nom romain de ses occupants principaux, les Daces, qui sont très proches des Thraces. Il a servi aussi à dénommer la marque d'automobiles roumaines Dacia et la roche volcanique Dacite.

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Understanding Comics

L'Art invisible

Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art is a 1993 non-fiction work of comics by American cartoonist Scott McCloud. It explores formal aspects of comics, the historical development of the medium, its fundamental vocabulary, and various ways in which these elements have been used. It expounds theoretical ideas about comics as an art form and medium of communication, and is itself written in comic book form.

L'Art invisible ("Understanding Comics") est un essai sur la bande dessinée réalisé lui-même sous forme de bande dessinée, par l'auteur américain de comics Scott McCloud en 1993.

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Antibes

Antibes (,, ; ) is a Mediterranean resort in the Alpes-Maritimes department of southeastern France, on the Côte d'Azur between Cannes and Nice.

Antibes ( ; en provençal : "Antíbol") est une commune française de l'aire urbaine de Nice située dans le département des Alpes-Maritimes en région Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. Ses habitants sont appelés les "Antibois" et "Antiboises". Antibes est, en 2017, la troisième ville la plus peuplée du département, après Nice et Cannes. Cette ville est connue pour sa chaleur, pour ses plages et ses restaurants.

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Provolone

Provolone piquant

Provolone (, ) is an Italian cheese. It is an aged "pasta filata" (stretched-curd) cheese originating in Casilli near Vesuvius, where it is still produced in pear, sausage, or cone shapes long. Provolone-type cheeses are also produced in other countries. The most important provolone production region today is Northwestern Italy and the city of Cremona. Provolone, provola, and provoleta are versions of the same basic cheese. Some versions of provolone are smoked.

Le provolone piquant (en ) est un fromage italien originaire du sud du pays, mais surtout produit dans les régions du Nord (Piémont, Lombardie, et Vénétie).

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Collaborative learning

Apprentissage collaboratif

Collaborative learning is a situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn something together. Unlike individual learning, people engaged in collaborative learning capitalize on one another's resources and skills (asking one another for information, evaluating one another's ideas, monitoring one another's work, etc.). More specifically, collaborative learning is based on the model that knowledge can be created within a population where members actively interact by sharing experiences and take on asymmetric roles. Put differently, collaborative learning refers to methodologies and environments in which learners engage in a common task where each individual depends on and is accountable to each other. These include both face-to-face conversations and computer discussions (online forums, chat rooms, etc.). Methods for examining collaborative learning processes include conversation analysis and statistical discourse analysis.

Dans le domaine de l'apprentissage et de la gestion communautaire des savoirs, la collaboration repose sur un but commun, chaque membre réalisant une part de la tâche globale, en puisant dans les ressources de l'environnement (mémoire organisationnelle), dans ses ressources propres (compétence individuelle) et dans celles du groupe : on parle alors de communauté de pratique voire de communauté d'apprentissage et d'apprentissage collaboratif.

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Tenor saxophone

Saxophone ténor

The tenor saxophone is a medium-sized member of the saxophone family, a group of instruments invented by Adolphe Sax in the 1840s. The tenor and the alto are the two most commonly used saxophones. The tenor is pitched in the key of B (while the alto is pitched in the key of E), and written as a transposing instrument in the treble clef, sounding an octave and a major second lower than the written pitch. Modern tenor saxophones which have a high F key have a range from A to E (concert) and are therefore pitched one octave below the soprano saxophone. People who play the tenor saxophone are known as "tenor saxophonists", "tenor sax players", or "saxophonists".

Le saxophone ténor est membre du registre medium de la famille des saxophones. Cet instrument est en siformula_1, mais peut aussi exister en ut. Dans ce cas, l'instrument s'appelle le saxophone C-mélody (cet instrument a un son légèrement différent des saxophones en siformula_1, et est souvent considéré comme un autre instrument). C'est l'instrument qui est considéré comme l'emblème typique du jazz.

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Formative assessment

Évaluation formative

Formative assessment, formative evaluation, formative feedback, or assessment for learning, including "diagnostic testing", is a range of formal and informal assessment procedures conducted by teachers during the learning process in order to modify teaching and learning activities to improve student attainment. The goal of a formative assessment is to "monitor student learning" to provide ongoing feedback that can help students identify their strengths and weaknesses and target areas that need work. It also helps faculty recognize where students are struggling and address problems immediately. It typically involves qualitative feedback (rather than scores) for both student and teacher that focuses on the details of content and performance. It is commonly contrasted with summative assessment, which seeks to monitor educational outcomes, often for purposes of external accountability.

Les concepts d’évaluation formative et sommative ont été apportés par Michael Scriven en 1967, dans le contexte de l’évaluation de programmes éducatifs ("Curriculum evaluation"). Pour Scriven, une évaluation formative devait permettre à un établissement scolaire d’estimer la capacité de ses programmes scolaires à atteindre leurs objectifs, de façon à guider les choix de l’école pour les améliorer progressivement, au contraire d’une évaluation sommative qui cherche à poser un jugement final sur les programmes : « marchent-ils » ou pas? Et en conséquence, faut-il les maintenir, les étendre ou les abandonner?

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Adobe Flash

Adobe Flash is a deprecated multimedia software platform used for production of animations, rich Internet applications, desktop applications, mobile applications, mobile games and embedded web browser video players. Flash displays text, vector graphics and raster graphics to provide animations, video games and applications. It allows streaming of audio and video, and can capture mouse, keyboard, microphone and camera input. Related development platform Adobe AIR continues to be supported.

', ou ', anciennement, est un logiciel qui ne sera plus mis à jour après fin 2020, permettant la manipulation de graphiques vectoriels, d'images matricielles et de scripts ActionScript en vue de créer des contenus multimédia (animations, vidéos, jeux, applications...) destinés à être publiés sur Internet. Flash Player, développé et distribué par Macromedia et racheté en 2005 par Adobe Systems, est quant à elle, une application client fonctionnant sur la plupart des navigateurs web. Ce logiciel permet la diffusion de flux ("") bi-directionnels audio et vidéo. En résumé, Adobe Flash est un environnement de développement intégré (IDE), une machine virtuelle utilisée par un lecteur Flash ou serveur Flash pour lire les fichiers Flash. Mais le terme « Flash » peut se référer à un lecteur, un environnement ou à un fichier d’application.

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Machine learning

Apprentissage automatique

"" Machine learning (ML) is the study of computer algorithms that improve automatically through experience. It is seen as a subset of artificial intelligence. Machine learning algorithms build a mathematical model based on sample data, known as "training data", in order to make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed to do so. Machine learning algorithms are used in a wide variety of applications, such as email filtering and computer vision, where it is difficult or infeasible to develop conventional algorithms to perform the needed tasks.

L'apprentissage automatique (en anglais : ', « apprentissage machine »), apprentissage artificiel ou apprentissage statistique est un champ d'étude de l'intelligence artificielle qui se fonde sur des approches mathématiques et statistiques pour donner aux ordinateurs la capacité d' « apprendre » à partir de données, c'est-à-dire d'améliorer leurs performances à résoudre des tâches sans être explicitement programmés pour chacune. Plus largement, il concerne la conception, l'analyse, l'optimisation, le développement et l'implémentation de telles méthodes.

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Parmigiano-Reggiano

Parmigiano Reggiano

Parmigiano-Reggiano or Parmesan (, ) is an Italian hard, granular cheese that is produced from cow's milk and has aged 12–36 months.

Le parmigiano reggiano, (souvent francisé en parmesan), est l'appellation d'origine d'un fromage italien de lait de vache, fabriqué dans une zone limitée de l'Émilie-Romagne, au sud de la Lombardie. Depuis le, l'appellation "parmigiano reggiano" est préservée dans l'Union européenne par une AOP. La Cour de justice de l'Union européenne a statué en 2008 que c'était également le cas pour sa traduction "parmesan".

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Pyrolysis

Pyrolyse

Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperatures in an inert atmosphere. It involves a change of chemical composition. The word is coined from the Greek-derived elements "pyro" "fire" and "lysis" "separating".

La pyrolyse, ou thermolyse, est la décomposition chimique d'un composé organique par une augmentation importante de sa température pour obtenir d'autres produits (gaz et matière) qu'il ne contenait pas. L'opération est réalisée en l'absence d'oxygène ou en atmosphère pauvre en oxygène pour éviter l'oxydation et la combustion (l’opération ne produit donc pas de flamme). Il s'agit du premier stade de transformation thermique après la déshydratation.

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Problem-based learning

Apprentissage par problèmes

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn about a subject through the experience of solving an open-ended problem found in trigger material. The PBL process does not focus on problem solving with a defined solution, but it allows for the development of other desirable skills and attributes. This includes knowledge acquisition, enhanced group collaboration and communication. The PBL process was developed for medical education and has since been broadened in applications for other programs of learning. The process allows for learners to develop skills used for their future practice. It enhances critical appraisal, literature retrieval and encourages ongoing learning within a team environment.

Dans l'apprentissage par problèmes (APP), ou apprentissage par résolution de problèmes, les apprenants, regroupés par équipes, travaillent ensemble à résoudre un problème généralement proposé par l'enseignant, problème pour lequel ils n'ont reçu aucune formation particulière, de façon à faire des apprentissages de contenu et de savoir-faire, à découvrir des notions nouvelles de façon active (il s’instruit lui-même) en y étant poussé par les nécessités du problème soumis.

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Elias Lönnrot

Elias Lönnrot (; 9 April 1802 – 19 March 1884) was a Finnish physician, philologist and collector of traditional Finnish oral poetry. He is best known for creating the Finnish national epic, "Kalevala", (1835, enlarged 1849), from short ballads and lyric poems gathered from the Finnish oral tradition during several expeditions in Finland, Russian Karelia, the Kola Peninsula and Baltic countries.

Elias Lönnrot (né le à Sammatti et mort le à Sammatti) est un médecin, un explorateur, un lexicographe, un linguiste, un écrivain, enseignant du folklore, un pionnier de la botanique, un journaliste et éditeur, un scientifique et un professeur de finnois et de littérature finlandais. Il est l'auteur, entre autres, du "Kalevala" et de la "Kanteletar", recueils des anciens chants et épopées du peuple finnois. Il est considéré, au même titre que Mikael Agricola, comme étant le second père du finnois écrit.

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Ukrainian language

Ukrainien

Ukrainian ( ) is an East Slavic language. It is the official state language of Ukraine and one of the three official languages in the unrecognized state of Transnistria, the other two being Moldovan and Russian. Written Ukrainian uses a variant of the Cyrillic script (see Ukrainian alphabet).

L'ukrainien (en ukrainien :, ) est une des quatre langues appartenant à la famille orientale des groupes slaves — de la famille des langues indo-européennes, les trois autres étant le biélorusse, le russe et le rusyn (ruthène). L'ukrainien est la langue officielle de l'Ukraine.

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Arto Paasilinna

Arto Tapio Paasilinna (20 April 1942 – 15 October 2018) was a Finnish writer, being a former journalist turned comic novelist. One of Finland's most successful novelists, he won a broad readership outside of Finland in a way few other Finnish authors have before. Translated into 27 languages, over seven million copies of his books have been sold worldwide, and he has been claimed as "instrumental in generating the current level of interest in books from Finland".

Arto Paasilinna (), né le à Kittilä et mort le à Espoo, est un écrivain, journaliste et poète finlandais de langue finnoise.

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Taiga

Taïga

Taiga (; ; relates to Mongolic and Turkic languages), generally referred to in North America as boreal forest or snow forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruces, and larches.

La taïga, du russe venant de l'altaï ', aussi appelée forêt boréale ou encore forêt hudsonienne"' est l'un des principaux biomes terrestres. Fortement liée au climat subarctique, elle consiste en une formation végétale de type forestière parcourue par un vaste réseau lacustre résultant de l'érosion fluvioglaciaire. Sa végétation a la particularité d'être la plus vaste continuité boisée de la planète et occupe à elle seule 10 % des terres émergées. Elle couvre la majorité des territoires intérieurs de l'Alaska (États-Unis), du Canada, de la Scandinavie (Norvège, Suède), de la Finlande, du Nord de l'Écosse (Highlands), de la Russie, de l'Islande, de Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon, du nord-ouest de la Chine et du nord de l'île d'Hokkaidō (Japon). Elle abrite une avifaune fortement diversifiée et sert de refuge à de nombreuses espèces animales par ailleurs menacées telles le loup, l'ours brun, le grizzli, l'ours kodiak, le lynx, le renard polaire, le castor, le glouton (ou carcajou), le bison des bois, le renne (ou caribou) ou encore l'élan (ou orignal).

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Mecca

La Mecque

Mecca, also spelled Makkah, is a city in the Hejazi region of Saudi Arabia. The city is located inland from Jeddah, in a narrow valley above sea level and south of Medina. Its population in 2012 was 2 million, although visitors more than triple this number every year during the "Ḥajj" ("Pilgrimage"), held in the twelfth Muslim lunar month of "Dhūl-Ḥijjah".

La Mecque (en arabe :, "makka") est une ville de l'ouest de l'Arabie saoudite, non loin de la charnière séparant le Hedjaz de l'Asir, à de la mer Rouge, et capitale de la province de la Mecque.

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Processed cheese

Fromage à pâte fondue

Processed cheese (also known as prepared cheese, cheese product, plastic cheese or cheese singles) is a food product made from cheese and other unfermented dairy ingredients mixed with emulsifiers. Additional ingredients, such as vegetable oils, salt, food coloring, or sugar may be included. As a result, many flavors, colors, and textures of processed cheese exist. Its invention is credited to Walter Gerber of Thun, Switzerland, in 1911.

Un fromage à pâte fondue est un fromage fabriqué à partir d'autres fromages dont on a fondu la pâte.

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Blue cheese

Fromage à pâte persillée

Blue cheese or bleu cheese is cheese made with cultures of the mold "Penicillium", giving it blue spots or veins. This carries a distinct smell, either from that or various specially cultivated bacteria. Some blue cheeses are injected with spores before the curds form, and others have spores mixed in with the curds after they form. Blue cheeses are typically aged in a temperature-controlled environment such as a cave. Blue cheese can be eaten by itself or can be spread, crumbled or melted into or over a range of other foods.

Les fromages à pâte persillée ou à pâte à moisissure interne ou encore bleus sont des appellations appliquées à des fromages dont le caillé est ensemencé de penicillium. Le fromage sera aussi parfois percé pour que le champignon ("Penicillium glaucum" ou "Penicillium roqueforti") se développe.

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Ophthalmology

Ophtalmologie

Ophthalmology () is a branch of medicine and surgery which deals with the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders. An ophthalmologist is a specialist in ophthalmology. The credentials include a degree in medicine, followed by additional four to five years of ophthalmology residency training. Ophthalmology residency training programs may require a one-year pre-residency training in internal medicine, pediatrics, or general surgery. Additional specialty training (or fellowship) may be sought in a particular aspect of eye pathology. Ophthalmologists are allowed to use medications to treat eye diseases, implement laser therapy, and perform surgery when needed. Ophthalmologists may participate in academic research on the diagnosis and treatment for eye disorders.

L’ophtalmologie est la branche de la médecine chargée du traitement des maladies de l’œil et de ses annexes. C’est une spécialité médico-chirurgicale. Le médecin spécialisé pratiquant l'ophtalmologie est appelé « ophtalmologiste » ou « ophtalmologue ».

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Goat cheese

Fromage au lait de chèvre

Goat cheese, goats' cheese, or chèvre ( or ; from the French word for "goat"), is cheese made from goat's milk. Goat cheeses are made in a wide variety of styles, from soft fresh cheese to hard aged cheese.

Un fromage de chèvre est un fromage obtenu en transformant du lait de chèvre. Né en Égypte ancienne, la recette de fabrication du fromage de chèvre était détenue uniquement par les prêtres. Un parchemin, vieux de 3 000 ans a notamment été découvert dans la tombe d’un dignitaire égyptien.

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Complex conjugate

Conjugué

In mathematics, the complex conjugate of a complex number is the number with an equal real part and an imaginary part equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. For example, (if "a" and "b" are real, then) the complex conjugate of formula_1 is formula_2

En mathématiques, le conjugué d'un nombre complexe est le nombre complexe formé de la même partie réelle que mais de partie imaginaire opposée.

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Porus

Poros (roi)

Porus () or Poros (from Ancient, "Pôros"), was an ancient Indian king whose territory spanned the region between the Hydaspes (River of Jhelum) and Acesines (Chenab River), in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent. He is credited to have been a legendary warrior with exceptional skills. Porus fought against Alexander the Great in the Battle of the Hydaspes (326 BC), thought to be fought at the site of modern-day Mong, Punjab, which is now part of Pakistan. Though not recorded in any available ancient Indian source, Ancient Greek historians describe the battle and the aftermath of Alexander's victory. Anecdotally, after the defeat and arrest of Porus in the war, Alexander asked Porus how he would like to be treated. Porus, although defeated, proudly stated that he would like to be treated like a king. Alexander was reportedly so impressed by his adversary that he not only reinstated him as a satrap of his own kingdom but also granted him dominion over lands to the south-east extending until the Hyphasis (Beas). Porus reportedly died sometime between 321 and 315 BC.

Pôros (en grec ancien ), Porus chez les Romains, ou encore Por, Pûru ou Purushottam, est un roi du royaume indien des Paurava au Le royaume des Pauravas se situe dans l'actuel Pendjab pakistanais, entre les rivières Jhelum et Chenâb. Poros est connu pour avoir affronté le conquérant macédonien Alexandre le Grand.

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Bengal

Bengale

Bengal (; ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Geographically, it is made up by the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta system, the largest such formation in the world; along with mountains in its north bordering the Himalayan states of Nepal and Bhutan and east bordering Burma.

Le Bengale désigne aujourd'hui une zone géographique de l'est du sous-continent indien partagée entre l'Inde et le Bangladesh. Le nom de Bengale n'a pas recouvert exactement la même zone au fil des siècles. Cette zone recoupe également plus ou moins l'aire de distribution de la langue bengali. Au total, le Bengale historique couvre une superficie d'environ 250 000 kilomètres carrés, et de nos jours, l'État du Bangladesh recouvre plus de 50 % de la superficie du Bengale historique.

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Jean Bureau

Jean Bureau (c. 1390 – 1463) was a French artillery commander active primarily during the later years of the Hundred Years' War. Along with his brother, Gaspard, he is credited with making French artillery the most effective in the world. As Master Gunner of Artillery in the armies of Charles VII, Bureau acquired a reputation as an effective artillery officer during the Normandy campaign (1449–1450), when his bombardments helped capture the towns of Rouen, Harfleur, and Honfleur, and aided in the French victory at Formigny. Bureau commanded the victorious French army at the decisive Battle of Castillon in 1453.

Jean Bureau, né à Semoine vers 1390 et mort à Paris le 2 ou le, seigneur de Montglat (ou Montglas), de La Houssaye-en-Brie (1450), de Fontenay-en-France, de Thieux et Noisy-le-Sec, de Marle et la Malmaison, est un Grand maître de l'artillerie du roi Charles VII qui, en utilisant massivement l'artillerie pour la première fois en Occident, a remporté la victoire contre les Anglais à la bataille de Castillon, mettant ainsi un terme à la guerre de Cent Ans.

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Types of cheese

Types de pâtes de fromage

Types of cheese are grouped or classified according to criteria such as length of fermentation, texture, methods of production, fat content, animal milk, and country or region of origin. The method most commonly and traditionally used is based on moisture content, which is then further narrowed down by fat content and curing or ripening methods. The criteria may either be used singly or in combination, with no single method being universally used.

Plusieurs classifications des fromages sont possibles. Ottogalli (2000) a proposé une classification des fromages du monde en 8 classes et 45 familles reposant sur des critères microbiologiques. La FAO propose une classification suivant la consistance de la pâte (liée à la teneur en eau), la teneur en matière grasse et les principales caractéristiques d'affinage (voir le tableau en annexe). Cette approche de type « anglo-saxonne » qui groupe les fromages suivant un critère de texture utilise les termes de « fromage à pâte dure, molle » employés aussi dans la classification européenne mais avec un sens différent. L'approche européenne, plus spécifique de l'Europe du Sud d'ailleurs, groupe les fromages sur la base des processus technologiques C'est la classification présentée dans cet article, la plus utilisée en France.

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Rennet

Présure

Rennet is a complex set of enzymes produced in the stomachs of ruminant mammals. Chymosin, its key component, is a protease enzyme that curdles the casein in milk. In addition to chymosin, rennet contains other enzymes, such as pepsin and a lipase.

La présure est un coagulant du lait d'origine animale extrait de la caillette (le quatrième estomac) de jeunes ruminants. Elle est constituée d'enzymes actives appelées chymosine et pepsine. La plupart des fromages contiennent de la présure, employée pour la coagulation du lait nécessaire à la fabrication de ces derniers. Il existe toutefois d'autres types de coagulants (d'origine végétale, microbienne, fermentaire). Le caillage peut aussi être spontané, sous l'effet de la fermentation lactique réalisée par les bactéries lactiques (dans le cas du lait fermenté).

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Bern

Berne

Bern or Berne ( ; ; ; ; ) is the de facto capital of Switzerland, referred to by the Swiss as their "federal city", in German "Bundesstadt", French "ville fédérale", and Italian "città federale". With a population of about 140,000 (as of 2019), Bern is the fifth-most populous city in Switzerland. The Bern agglomeration, which includes 36 municipalities, had a population of 406,900 in 2014. The metropolitan area had a population of 660,000 in 2000. Bern is also the capital of the canton of Bern, the second-most populous of Switzerland's cantons.

Berne (en, en italien et en ) est la capitale "de facto" de la Suisse, la capitale du canton homonyme et la cinquième plus grande ville de Suisse. Depuis 1848, Berne est la « ville fédérale », à savoir le siège permanent du gouvernement fédéral et de l'Assemblée fédérale suisses, mais pas des tribunaux fédéraux (le Tribunal fédéral est situé à Lausanne).

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null

Food

Nourriture

Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. Food is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth.

De manière générale, la nourriture désigne les aliments d'origine animale, végétale, fongique (parfois bactérienne ou minérale) ou chimique, consommés par des êtres vivants à des fins d'alimentation ou de récréation.

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Whey

Lactosérum

Whey is the liquid remaining after milk has been curdled and strained. It is a byproduct of the manufacture of cheese or casein and has several commercial uses. Sweet whey is a byproduct resulting from the manufacture of rennet types of hard cheese, like cheddar or Swiss cheese. Acid whey (also known as sour whey) is a byproduct brought out during the making of acid types of dairy products, such as cottage cheese or strained yogurt.

Le lactosérum, également appelé petit-lait ou sérum, est la partie liquide issue de la coagulation du lait. Le lactosérum est un liquide jaune-verdâtre, composé d'environ 94 % d'eau, de sucre (le lactose), de protéines et de très peu de matières grasses.

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Cheese ripening

Affinage du fromage

Cheese ripening, alternatively cheese maturation or affinage, is a process in cheesemaking. It is responsible for the distinct flavour of cheese, and through the modification of ""ripening agents"", determines the features that define many different varieties of cheeses, such as taste, texture, and body. The process is "characterized by a series of complex physical, chemical and microbiological changes" that incorporates the agents of "bacteria and enzymes of the milk, lactic culture, rennet, lipases, added moulds or yeasts, and environmental contaminants". The majority of cheese is ripened, save for fresh cheese.

L’affinage est la période de maturation pendant laquelle le fromage, ou d'autres aliments, reposent et reçoivent des soins à la cave ou dans un hâloir. Plus la période de maturation est longue, plus le fromage sera corsé.

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Federal Charter of 1291

Pacte fédéral

The Federal Charter or Letter of Alliance () is one of the earliest constitutional documents of Switzerland. A treaty of alliance from 1291 between the cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, the Charter is one of a series of alliances from which the Old Swiss Confederacy emerged. In the 19th and 20th century, after the establishment of the Swiss federal state, the Charter became "the" founding document of Switzerland in the popular imagination.

Le Pacte fédéral, ou Pacte de 1291, fut choisi en 1891 comme pacte fondateur de la Suisse. Ce document étant daté de début août 1291 (la date exacte est inconnue), la fête nationale suisse a été placée symboliquement le. Ce pacte renouvelle une alliance précédente, qui ne nous est pas parvenue, à caractère juridique et défensif, conclue par les représentants des trois cantons primitifs : Uri, Schwytz et Nidwald. Il fut oublié des siècles durant, pour être redécouvert dans la tour des archives de Schwyz lors d’un inventaire effectué en 1724. Johann Heinrich Gleser publia sa version latine originale en 1760. Sur les trois exemplaires originaux, seul celui de Schwyz a survécu, et est conservé actuellement au musée des chartes fédérales à Schwytz.

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Koblenz

Coblence

Koblenz (; ), spelled Coblenz before 1926, is a German city situated on both banks of the Rhine where it is joined by the Moselle.

Coblence (en allemand : ', en latin : ') est une ville et un arrondissement d'Allemagne, situés dans le nord du Land de la Rhénanie-Palatinat. Au, la ville comptait habitants.

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Canillo

Canillo () is one of the parishes of Andorra. Canillo is also the name of the main town of the parish. The parish is considered the religious center of Andorra with the Sanctuary and Chapel of Our Lady of Meritxell, patron saint of Andorra, and contains one of the best-preserved romanesque churches in the Pyrenees, Sant Joan de Caselles. It has a population of 4,826, as of 2011. Despite having a tourist vocation, the parish of Canillo still retains many livestock and agricultural traits.

Canillo est une paroisse d'Andorre située dans le Nord-Est du pays, première paroisse dans l'ordre protocolaire. Les habitants de la paroisse sont les Canillencs. La fête patronale est le 29 novembre, "festa major" le troisième dimanche de juillet.

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Ordino

Ordino () is the most northerly parish in the Principality of Andorra. It's mostly the main area of Valira del Nord or "Valira d'Ordino" river valley. Ordino is also the name of the main town of the parish. Other settlements in the parish are El Serrat, Ansalonga, Sornàs, La Cortinada, Llorts, Segudet, Arans, Les Salines and Arcalís. It is home to the Sorteny National Park, the largest nature area of Andorra. It has a population of 4,858, as of 2017. The town preserves a vast medieval center, mainly linked to the culture of the country.

Ordino est une des sept paroisses d'Andorre, située dans le Nord-Ouest du pays, dans la vallée du Valira del Nord. Les habitants sont les "".

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Château de Valençay

Château de Valençay was a residence of the d'Estampes and Talleyrand-Périgord families in the commune of Valençay, in the Indre "département" of France. Although it is part of the province of Berry, its architecture invites comparison with the Renaissance châteaux of the Loire Valley, notably the Château de Chambord. The manor was praised as "one of the most beautiful on earth" by George Sand, who also noted that "no king has owned a more picturesque park". It is at an elevation of 135 m.

Le château de Valençay se trouve à Valençay, en Indre (France). Il fut la propriété de la Maison d'Estampes de 1451 à 1747, puis du prince de Talleyrand.

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null

Histone

In biology, histones are highly basic proteins found in eukaryotic cell nuclei that pack and order the DNA into structural units called nucleosomes. Histones are abundant in lysine and arginine. Histone are the chief protein components of chromatin, acting as spools around which DNA winds, and playing a role in gene regulation. Without histones, the unwound DNA in chromosomes would be very long (a length to width ratio of more than 10 million to 1 in human DNA). For example, each human diploid cell (containing 23 pairs of chromosomes) has about 1.8 meters of DNA; wound on the histones, the diploid cell has about 90 micrometers (0.09 mm) of chromatin. When the diploid cells are duplicated and condensed during mitosis, the result is about 120 micrometers of chromosomes.

Les histones sont des protéines localisées dans le noyau des cellules eucaryotes et dans les archées. Elles sont les principaux constituants protéiques des chromosomes. Elles sont en effet étroitement associées à l’ADN dont elles permettent la compaction, cette action forme des structures appelées nucléosomes : l'ADN est enroulé autour des histones comme du fil autour d'une bobine. Les histones sont très riches en acides aminés basiques (lysine et arginine), dont la charge positive à pH physiologique permet une interaction forte avec les groupements phosphate de l'ADN qui portent des charges négatives.

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Casein

Caséine

Casein (, from Latin "caseus" "cheese") is a family of related phosphoproteins (αS1, αS2, β, κ). These proteins are commonly found in mammalian milk, comprising c. 80% of the proteins in cow's milk and between 20% and 45% of the proteins in human milk. Sheep and buffalo milk have a higher casein content than other types of milk with human milk having a particularly low casein content.

Les caséines sont des protéines qui constituent la majeure partie des composants azotés du lait. La première phase de la fabrication du fromage est leur précipitation par adjonction d'un acide ou de présure. Le mot "caséine" est issu du latin "caseus", « fromage ».

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Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni

Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni ( is a commune of French Guiana, an overseas region and department of France located in South America. Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni is one of the two sub-prefectures of French Guiana and the seat of the Arrondissement of Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni. It is the second most populous city of French Guiana, with 42,612 inhabitants at the January 2017 census.

Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni, appelé simplement Saint-Laurent, est une commune française située dans le département de la Guyane. En 2010, elle est la deuxième commune la plus peuplée de Guyane après Cayenne.

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Yasukuni Shrine

Yasukuni-jinja

The shrine lists the names, origins, birthdates, and places of death of 2,466,532 men, women and children, including various pet animals. Among those are 1,068 convicted war criminals, 14 of whom are A-Class (convicted of having been involved in the planning, preparation, initiation, or waging of the war). This has led to many controversies surrounding the shrine. Another memorial at the Honden building commemorates anyone who died on behalf of Japan, but includes Koreans and Taiwanese who served Japan at the time. In addition, the Chinreisha building is a shrine built to inter the souls of all the people who died during WWII, regardless of their nationality. It is located directly south of the Yasukuni Honden.

Le est un sanctuaire shinto, situé dans l'arrondissement de Chiyoda à Tokyo, au Japon. Il a été construit en 1869 pour rendre hommage aux Japonais. Les âmes de plus de deux millions de soldats japonais morts de 1868 à 1951 y sont déifiées.

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David Kelly (weapons expert)

David Christopher Kelly

David Christopher Kelly (14 May 1944 – 17 July 2003) was a Welsh scientist and authority on biological warfare (BW). In July 2003 he had an off-the-record conversation with Andrew Gilligan, a BBC journalist; during their discussion they talked about the 2002 dossier on Iraqi weapons of mass destruction, which stated that some of Iraq's chemical and biological weapons were deployable within 45 minutes. When Gilligan reported this on BBC Radio 4's "Today" programme, he stated that the 45 minute claim was included at the insistence of Alastair Campbell, the Downing Street Director of Communications—something Kelly denied. The government complained to the BBC about the claim, but they refused to recant on the claim; political tumult between Downing Street and the BBC developed. Kelly informed his line managers in the MoD that he may have been the source, but did not think he was the only one, as Gilligan had reported points he had not mentioned. Kelly's name became known to the media, and he was called to appear on 15 July before the parliamentary Intelligence and Security and Foreign Affairs Select committees. Two days later Kelly was found dead near his home.

David Christopher Kelly ( - ) était un employé du ministère de la défense britannique et un expert en guerre biologique. Il était inspecteur de l'ONU en Irak, où il est allé 37 fois.

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Stan Lee

Stan Lee (born Stanley Martin Lieber ; December 28, 1922 – November 12, 2018) was an American comic book writer, editor, publisher, and producer. He rose through the ranks of a family-run business to become Marvel Comics' primary creative leader for two decades, leading its expansion from a small division of a publishing house to a multimedia corporation that dominated the comics industry.

Stanley Lieber, dit Stan Lee, né le à New York et mort le à Los Angeles, est un scénariste et éditeur américain de comics. Son nom est associé à Marvel Comics, une maison d'édition pour laquelle il a imaginé de nombreux personnages de super-héros. Il se surnommait lui-même « Stan the Man ».

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Records of the Three Kingdoms

Chroniques des Trois Royaumes

The Records of the Three Kingdoms is a Chinese historical text which covers the history of the late Eastern Han dynasty (c. 184–220 CE) and the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 CE). The primary body of the text was written by Chen Shou in the third century and combines the smaller histories of Cao Wei, Shu Han and Eastern Wu into a single text.

Les Chroniques des Trois Royaumes, ou San guo Zhi ), est la chronique historique officielle couvrant la fin de la dynastie Han (184 — 220), et la période des Trois Royaumes de Chine (220-280).

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Kijūrō Shidehara

Baron was a prominent pre–World War II Japanese diplomat and Prime Minister of Japan from 1945 to 1946. He was a leading proponent of pacifism in Japan before and after World War II, and was also the last Japanese Prime Minister who was a member of the "kazoku". His wife, Masako, was the fourth daughter of Iwasaki Yatarō, founder of the Mitsubishi "zaibatsu."

Kijūrō Shidehara (幣原喜重郎, à Kadoma - ) est un homme d'État, Premier ministre du Japon du au. Il a alors joué un rôle important lors des négociations entre le Japon et les USA au sujet de l’établissement d'une nouvelle constitution. Des historiens pensent que ce serait Shidehara qui aurait eu l’idée de l'article 9 de ce texte, qui garantit le pacifisme du Japon.

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Tangut people

Tangoutes

The Tangut people (Tangut:, "mjɨ nja̱" or, "mji dzjwo"; Chinese: 党項, dǎngxiàng) were a Tibeto-Burman tribal union that inhabited Western Xia. The group lived under Tuyuhun authority and moved to Northwest China sometime before the 10th century to found the Western Xia or Tangut Empire (1038–1227). They spoke the Tangut language, one of the Qiangic languages that belong to the Tibeto-Burman family.

Les Tangoutes ou Tangouts (du mongol :, romanisation : (pluriel mongol de "tang") ; mongol cyrillique :, romanisation Tangad ; en ; appelés en ) sont un peuple d'Asie, dont l'histoire remonte à la dynastie Tang, et qui ont formé un empire connu sous le nom de Xia occidentaux (du ) entre 1036 et 1227. Leur langue, le tangoute, est une des rares langues tibéto-birmanes à avoir disposé d'une écriture indigène.

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Nihon Shoki

Nihon shoki

The, sometimes translated as The Chronicles of Japan, is the second-oldest book of classical Japanese history. The book is also called the. It is more elaborate and detailed than the "Kojiki", the oldest, and has proven to be an important tool for historians and archaeologists as it includes the most complete extant historical record of ancient Japan. The "Nihon Shoki" was finished in 720 under the editorial supervision of Prince Toneri and with the assistance of Ō no Yasumaro dedicated to Empress Genshō.

Le, aussi appelé et achevé en 720, a été rédigé par le prince Toneri, Ō no Yasumaro et d’autres historiens de l’époque, dédicacé à l'impératrice Genshō.

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Amaterasu

,, or is the Shinto sun goddess. She is also seen as the goddess of the universe. As a major deity, she also appears in Japanese mythology, especially in the two earliest written records, the "Kojiki" and the "Nihon Shoki".

On accole parfois à son nom le qualificatif ou signifiant « grande déesse ». Le "Kojiki" et le "Nihon shoki" évoquent tous deux cette déesse. Dans ce dernier, elle est aussi appelée « Amaterasu-sume-okami » (天照皇大神), littéralement « grande déesse impériale illuminant le ciel », signifiant son lien avec les empereurs du Japon.

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Old Testament

Ancien Testament

The Old Testament (abbreviated OT) is the first part of the Christian biblical canon, which is based primarily upon the twenty-four books of the Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh), a collection of ancient religious Hebrew writings by the Israelites believed by most Christians and religious Jews to be the sacred Word of God. The second part of Christian Bibles is the New Testament, written in the Koine Greek language.

L'Ancien Testament (en koinè (grec) : // ), aussi appelé Ancienne Alliance, Écrits vétérotestamentaires, Premier Testament ou Bible hébraïque, désigne l'ensemble des écrits de la Bible antérieurs à Jésus-Christ. L'Ancien Testament est donc la Bible juive, le "Tanakh". Pour les chrétiens, il forme la première partie de la Bible, la deuxième partie, appelée Nouveau Testament, étant constituée de l'ensemble des livres relatifs à la vie de Jésus-Christ (Évangiles, Actes des Apôtres, Épîtres de Paul et épîtres universelles, Apocalypse).

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Hestia

In Ancient Greek religion, Hestia (;, "hearth" or "fireside") is the virgin goddess of the hearth, the right ordering of domesticity, the family, the home, and the state. In Greek mythology, she is the eldest daughter and firstborn child of the Titans Kronos and Rhea.

Dans la mythologie grecque, Hestia (en grec ancien ) (en latin Vesta) est la divinité du feu sacré et du foyer. Fille aînée de Cronos et de Rhéa, sœur de Zeus, Poséidon, Hadès, Héra et Déméter, elle appartient à la génération des dieux mineurs, bien que sa présence dans le canon olympien soit variable. Hestia est la déesse vierge du foyer domestique.

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null

Protist

Protista

A protist () is any eukaryotic organism (one with cells containing a nucleus) that is not an animal, plant, or fungus. The protists do not form a natural group, or clade, since they exclude certain eukaryotes with whom they share a common ancestor i.e. some protists are more closely related to plants or animals than they are to other protists. However, like algae or invertebrates, the grouping is used for convenience. In some systems of biological classification, such as the popular five-kingdom scheme proposed by Robert Whittaker in 1969, the protists make up a kingdom called Protista, composed of eukaryotic "organisms which are unicellular or unicellular-colonial and which form no tissues".

Les Protista sont un règne et un taxon obsolète qui regroupait la plupart des eucaryotes unicellulaires. Le terme protiste, forgé par Ernst Haeckel en 1866, à partir du grec "protestos", superlatif de "protos", « premier », le biologiste plaçant dans ce taxon les organismes qu'il considérait comme les premiers êtres vivants sur terre, est un microorganisme eucaryote à organisation cellulaire dite simple, unicellulaire le plus souvent, multicellulaire parfois mais sans tissus spécialisés. C'est donc un eucaryote autre qu'un animal (métazoaire), champignon (eumycète), chromiste ou plante. Ce groupe est très hétérogène, tant du point de vue anatomique que physiologique. Certains protistes sont des organismes autotrophes comme les protophytes, d'autres sont hétérotrophes comme les protozoaires et d'autres encore sont mixotrophes comme certains dinoflagellés.

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Arhat

In Buddhism, an arhat (Sanskrit) or arahant (Pali) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved "nirvana". Mahayana Buddhist traditions have used the term for people far advanced along the path of Enlightenment, but who may not have reached full Buddhahood.

Dans le bouddhisme theravâda, arhat ou arhant (terme sanskrit ; en pâli: arahant, ou plus couramment, Coréen : Hangeul : 아라한 (hanja : 阿羅漢, romanisation révisée : arahan) ; japonais ) ou "Ougu" (應供) ;, désigne le dernier échelon de la sagesse. Celui qui y est parvenu est un "arhat". En sanskrit, le terme est le participe présent du verbe "arh-", « mériter ». C'est donc proprement un « méritant ». Une étymologie populaire veut en faire un mot composé de "ari-", « ennemi » et de la racine "han-", « tuer ». Ce serait alors « (celui qui a) vaincu l'ennemi », c'est-à-dire ici la cupidité, la colère et les illusions, l'ignorance. Cette étymologie "a posteriori" s'explique par une confusion possible avec un autre terme sanskrit, "arihan-", qui est bien composé de "ari-" et "han-".

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Vertebrate

Vertébrés

Vertebrates () comprise all species of animals within the subphylum Vertebrata () (chordates with backbones). Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the phylum Chordata, with currently about 69,963 species described. Vertebrates include such groups as the following:

Les Vertébrés, Vertebrata, sont un sous-embranchement du règne animal. Ces animaux bilatériens appartiennent à l'embranchement des Chordés et regroupent l'ensemble des poissons ( avec ou sans manchoire) ainsi que les Tétrapodes. Ils possèdent un squelette osseux ou cartilagineux, qui comporte en particulier une colonne vertébrale. On y inclut aujourd'hui les Myxines (des poissons sans mâchoire) bien qu'elles n'aient pas de véritable colonne.

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Habibullah Khan

Habibullah Khan (June 3, 1872 – February 20, 1919) was the Emir of Afghanistan from 1901 until 1919. He was the eldest son of the Emir Abdur Rahman Khan, whom he succeeded by right of primogeniture in October 1901. His grandfather was Mohammad Afzal Khan.

Habibullah Khan (né à Tachkent en Ouzbékistan en 1872 - mort à Kalagosh le ), émir d'Afghanistan régna du au en Afghanistan le déclarant indépendant des Britanniques.

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Amanullah Khan

Amānullāh Khān () was the sovereign of the Kingdom of Afghanistan from 1919 to 1929, first as Emir and after 1926 as King. After the Third Anglo-Afghan War, Afghanistan was able to relinquish from a protected state status to proclaim independence and pursue an independent foreign policy free from the influence of the British Raj.

Amanullah Khan, appelé aussi Ghazi Amanullah Khan (en persan : أمان الله خان) ou Shah Amanullah Khan, né le à Paghman et mort le à Zurich en Suisse, est émir puis roi d’Afghanistan du au.

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Mohammed Nadir Shah

Mohammad Nadir Shah

Muhammad Nadir Shah (, – born Muhammad Nadir Khan; 9 April 1883 – 8 November 1933) was King of Afghanistan from 15 October 1929 until his assassination in November 1933. Previously, he served as Minister of War, Afghan Ambassador to France, and as a general in the military of Afghanistan. He and his son Muhammad Zahir Shah, who succeeded him, are part of the Musahiban.

Mohammad Nadir Shah, né Mohammad Nadir Khan le à Dehra Dun et mort assassiné le à Kaboul, est roi d'Afghanistan du au. Après sa mort, il va être connu sous le nom d"'Ala-Hazrat Shahid" c'est-à-dire le « roi martyr ».

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Al Jazeera

Al Jazeera (,, literally "The Island", though referring to the Arabian Peninsula in context) is a Qatari state-owned broadcaster in Doha, Qatar, owned by the Al Jazeera Media Network. Initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel, Al Jazeera has since expanded into a network with several outlets, including the internet and specialty television channels in multiple languages.

Al Jazeera (en arabe - parfois transcrit en français "al-Jazira", "al-Jezira" ou "al-Djezira"), est une chaîne de télévision satellitaire qatarienne qui émet en arabe, en anglais, en turc et en serbo-croate.

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null

Information society

Société de l'information

Some of the markers of this steady change may be technological, economic, occupational, spatial, cultural, or a combination of all of these. Information society is seen as a successor to industrial society. Closely related concepts are the post-industrial society (post-fordism), post-modern society, computer society and knowledge society, telematic society, society of the spectacle (postmodernism), Information Revolution and Information Age, network society (Manuel Castells) or even liquid modernity.

La société de l'information désigne un état de la société dans lequel les technologies de l'information et de la communication jouent un rôle fondamental. Elle est en général placée dans la continuité de la société industrielle. De même, la notion de société de l'information a été inspirée par les programmes des grands pays industriels. Par ailleurs, l'expression de société de la connaissance est parfois préférée à celle de société de l'information. Elle est au centre de différents débats dont celui concernant la « fracture numérique ».

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null

World Economic Forum

Forum économique mondial

The World Economic Forum (WEF), based in Cologny-Geneva, Switzerland, is an NGO, founded in 1971. The WEF's mission is cited as "committed to improving the state of the world by engaging business, political, academic, and other leaders of society to shape global, regional, and industry agendas". It is a membership-based organization, and membership is made up of the world's largest corporations.

Le Forum économique mondial ou FEM (en, abrégé WEF), souvent appelé forum de Davos, est une fondation à but non lucratif dont le siège est à Genève. Ce forum est connu pour sa réunion annuelle à Davos, en Suisse, qui réunit des dirigeants d’entreprise, des responsables politiques du monde entier ainsi que des intellectuels et des journalistes, afin de débattre les problèmes les plus urgents de la planète, y compris dans les domaines de la santé et de l’environnement. Le forum organise également la « Réunion annuelle des nouveaux champions » en Chine et plusieurs réunions régionales qui se tiennent tout au long de l’année. Il a été créé en 1971 par Klaus M. Schwab, professeur d’économie en Suisse. Parallèlement aux réunions, le forum publie un certain nombre de rapports économiques et implique ses membres dans différentes initiatives liées à des secteurs spécifiques.

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Anny Duperey

Anny Duperey (born Annie Legras; 28 June 1947 in Rouen, Seine-Maritime, France) is a French actress and best-selling author. She is a Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur.

Anny Duperey, née le à Rouen, est une actrice et romancière française. Elle est connue en particulier pour le film de 1976 "Un éléphant ça trompe énormément" et pour son rôle de Catherine Beaumont dans la série télévisée "Une famille formidable."

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Abdur Rahman Khan

Abdur Rahman Khan () (between 1840 and 1844October 1, 1901) was Emir of Afghanistan from 1880 to 1901. He is known for uniting the country after years of internal fighting and negotiation of the Durand Line Agreement with British India.

Abdur Rahman Khan (), surnommé l'« émir de fer », né vers 1840-1844 et mort à Kaboul le, fut émir d'Afghanistan de 1880 à 1901.

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Love

Amour

Love encompasses a range of strong and positive emotional and mental states, from the most sublime virtue or good habit, the deepest interpersonal affection and to the simplest pleasure. An example of this range of meanings is that the love of a mother differs from the love of a spouse, which differs from the love of food. Most commonly, love refers to a feeling of strong attraction and emotional attachment.

Lamour désigne un sentiment intense d'affection et d'attachement envers un être vivant ou une chose qui pousse ceux qui le ressentent à rechercher une proximité physique, intellectuelle ou même imaginaire avec l'objet de cet amour. Dans le cas d'une autre personne, l'amour peut conduire à adopter un comportement particulier et aboutir à une relation amoureuse si cet amour est partagé.

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Three Kingdoms

Trois Royaumes de Chine

The Three Kingdoms () from 220–280 CE was the tripartite division of China among the states of Wei, Shu, and Wu. The Three Kingdoms period started with the end of the Han dynasty and was followed by the Jin dynasty. The short-lived Yan kingdom in Manchuria, which lasted from 237 to 238 CE, is sometimes considered as a "4th kingdom".

La période des « Trois Royaumes » () est une période de l'histoire chinoise qui commence en 220, après la chute de la dynastie Han () et s'achève avec la réunification de la Chine par la dynastie des Jin occidentaux, en 280. Les Trois Royaumes sont ceux de Wei () au nord le long du fleuve Jaune, de Wu () dans le sud-est, et de Shu () au sud-ouest dans le bassin du Sichuan.

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Digital divide

Fracture numérique (géographique)

A digital divide is any uneven distribution in the access to, use of, or impact of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) between any number of distinct groups. These groups may be defined based on social, geographical, or geopolitical criteria, or otherwise. Because of ICT high cost, its adoption and utilization is highly uneven across the globe.

La fracture numérique est la disparité d'accès aux technologies informatiques, notamment Internet. Elle recouvre parfois le clivage entre « les info-émetteurs et les info-récepteurs ». Cette disparité est fortement marquée d'une part entre les pays riches et les pays pauvres, d'autre part entre les zones urbaines denses et les zones rurales. Elle existe également à l'intérieur des zones moyennement denses.

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The Crimson Rivers

Les Rivières pourpres (film)

The Crimson Rivers () is a 2000 French psychological thriller film starring Jean Reno and Vincent Cassel. The film, which was directed by Mathieu Kassovitz, is based on the best-selling novel "Red Blood Rivers". Its screenplay was co-written by the book's author, Jean-Christophe Grangé.

Les Rivières pourpres est un thriller policier français de Mathieu Kassovitz sorti en 2000, d'après le roman du même nom de Jean-Christophe Grangé. L'un de ses thèmes est l'eugénisme.

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Jean Reno

Juan Moreno y Herrera–Jiménez (born 30 July 1948), known as Jean Reno (), is a French actor. He has worked in French, English, Japanese, Spanish and Italian productions; Reno appeared in films such as "Crimson Rivers", "Godzilla", "The Da Vinci Code", "", "The Pink Panther", "Ronin", "Les Visiteurs", "Wasabi", "The Big Blue", "Hector and the Search for Happiness" and "".

Juan Moreno y Herrera-Jiménez, dit Jean Reno, né le à Casablanca (Maroc), est un acteur français. Découvert par Luc Besson qui lui permet d'accéder à la célébrité en lui offrant des rôles principaux dans "Le Grand Bleu", "Nikita" et "Léon", il connaît également une grande popularité grâce à la comédie de Jean-Marie Poiré, "Les Visiteurs" et ses suites. Il est l'un des rares acteurs français à faire une carrière importante aux États-Unis, tournant notamment dans "French Kiss" avec le tandem Meg Ryan / Kevin Kline", Mission impossible" avec Tom Cruise, "Godzilla" avec Matthew Broderick, "Ronin" avec Robert De Niro, "La Panthère rose" avec Steve Martin ou encore "Da Vinci Code" avec Tom Hanks.

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Inner product space

Espace préhilbertien

In linear algebra, an inner product space is a vector space with an additional structure called an inner product. This additional structure associates each pair of vectors in the space with a scalar quantity known as the inner product of the vectors. Inner products allow the rigorous introduction of intuitive geometrical notions such as the length of a vector or the angle between two vectors. They also provide the means of defining orthogonality between vectors (zero inner product). Inner product spaces generalize Euclidean spaces (in which the inner product is the dot product, also known as the scalar product) to vector spaces of any (possibly infinite) dimension, and are studied in functional analysis. The first usage of the concept of a vector space with an inner product is due to Giuseppe Peano, in 1898.

En mathématiques, un espace préhilbertien est défini comme un espace vectoriel réel ou complexe muni d'un produit scalaire. Cette notion généralise celles d'espace euclidien ou hermitien dans le cas d'une dimension quelconque, tout en conservant certaines bonnes propriétés géométriques des espaces de dimension finie grâce aux propriétés du produit scalaire, mais en perdant un atout de taille : un espace préhilbertien de dimension infinie n'est pas nécessairement complet. On peut cependant le compléter, pour obtenir un espace de Hilbert.

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null

Type safety

Sûreté du typage

In computer science, type safety is the extent to which a programming language discourages or prevents type errors. A type error is erroneous or undesirable program behaviour caused by a discrepancy between differing data types for the program's constants, variables, and methods (functions), e.g., treating an integer (int) as a floating-point number (float). Type safety is sometimes alternatively considered to be a property of a computer program rather than the language in which that program is written; that is, some languages have type-safe facilities that can be circumvented by programmers who adopt practices that exhibit poor type safety. The formal type-theoretic definition of type safety is considerably stronger than what is understood by most programmers.

La sûreté du typage est un principe permettant d'améliorer la qualité de la programmation. Dans les langages à typage statique, l'un des objectifs est d'intercepter les erreurs de type de données lors de la compilation.

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Three-letter acronym

Sigle de trois caractères

A three-letter acronym (TLA), or three-letter abbreviation, is an abbreviation consisting of three letters. These are usually the initial letters of the words of the phrase abbreviated, and are written in capital letters (upper case); three-letter "abbreviations" such as "etc." and "Mrs." are not three-letter "acronyms", but "TLA" is a TLA (an example of an autological abbreviation).

Les sigles de trois caractères sont extrêmement courants dans à peu près tous les champs des activités humaines :, DOS,, HAS, IBM, JPG, PIB, RPR, USB, VGE, WWW, XML,,

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Platanaceae

The Platanaceae are a family of flowering plants belonging to the order Proteales. This family has been recognized by almost all taxonomists, and is sometimes called the "plane-tree family". The family consists of only a single extant genus "Platanus", with eight known species. The plants are tall trees, native to temperate and subtropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The hybrid London plane is widely planted in cities worldwide.

Les Platanaceae (Platanacées) sont une famille de plantes Eudicotylédones comprenant une dizaine d'espèces du genre "Platanus". Ce sont de grands arbres, à feuilles caduques, des zones tempérées d'Amérique du Nord, du Sud-Est de l'Europe et d'Extrême-Orient.

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Emergency medical services

Aide médicale urgente

Emergency medical services (EMS), also known as ambulance services or paramedic services, are emergency services that provide urgent pre-hospital treatment and stabilisation for serious illness and injuries and transport to definitive care. They may also be known as a first aid squad, FAST squad, emergency squad, rescue squad, ambulance squad, ambulance corps, life squad or by other initialisms such as EMAS or EMARS.

L'aide médicale urgente, désignée aussi par l'acronyme AMU, est le dispositif mis en place par un État pour apporter une aide médicale aux personnes victimes d'un accident ou d'une affection brutale et inattendue. Elle comporte en général un système d'alerte, par lequel la victime ou les témoins peuvent demander cette aide médicale urgente, et des services mobiles d'intervention.

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Proteaceae

The Proteaceae are a family of flowering plants predominantly distributed in the Southern Hemisphere. The family comprises 83 genera with about 1,660 known species. Together with the Platanaceae and Nelumbonaceae, they make up the order Proteales. Well-known genera include "Protea", "Banksia", "Embothrium", "Grevillea", "Hakea" and "Macadamia". Species such as the New South Wales waratah ("Telopea speciosissima"), king protea ("Protea cynaroides"), and various species of "Banksia", "Grevillea", and "Leucadendron" are popular cut flowers, while the nuts of "Macadamia integrifolia" are widely grown commercially and consumed. Australia and South Africa have the greatest concentrations of diversity.

La famille des Protéacées, ou "Proteaceae" en Latin, est une famille de plantes dicotylédones qui comprend près de 2000 espèces réparties en presque 80 genres. Ce sont des arbres et des arbustes, (quelques plantes herbacées), généralement des zones arides, à feuilles persistantes, des régions tempérées, sub-tropicales à tropicales, principalement dans l'hémisphère sud.

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Trochodendraceae

Trochodendraceae is the only family of flowering plants in the order Trochodendrales. It comprises two extant genera, each with a single species found in south east Asia. The two living species ("Tetracentron sinense" and "Trochodendron aralioides") both have secondary xylem without vessel elements, which is quite rare in angiosperms. As the vessel-free wood suggests primitiveness, these two species have attracted much taxonomic attention.

La famille des Trochodendraceae est une famille de plantes qui ne comprend qu’une ou deux espèces. Ce sont des arbres (-20m) à feuilles persistantes des régions tempérées à sub-tropicales, originaires du Japon et de Taïwan.

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Eisaku Satō

Satō entered the National Diet in 1949 as a member of the Liberal Party. Gradually rising through the ranks of Japanese politics, he held a series of cabinet positions and was in charge of organizing the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. In 1964 he succeeded Hayato Ikeda as Prime Minister of Japan, becoming the first Prime Minister to have been born in the 20th century.

Il fut le, et Premier ministre du Japon, respectivement entre le et le, entre le et le, et entre le et le. Il obtint le Prix Nobel de la paix en 1974 pour avoir mené une politique pacifiste et opposée à la prolifération nucléaire. Celle-ci fut toutefois mise en question en 2010 après la révélation d'accords secrets liant le Japon aux États-Unis.

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Superconductivity

Supraconductivité

Superconductivity is the set of physical properties observed in certain materials, wherein electrical resistance vanishes and from which magnetic flux fields are expelled. Any material exhibiting these properties is a superconductor. Unlike an ordinary metallic conductor, whose resistance decreases gradually as its temperature is lowered even down to near absolute zero, a superconductor has a characteristic critical temperature below which the resistance drops abruptly to zero. An electric current through a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.

La supraconductivité (ou supraconduction) est un phénomène caractérisé par l'absence de résistance électrique et l'expulsion du champ magnétique — l'effet Meissner — à l'intérieur de certains matériaux dits supraconducteurs.

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Boxing

Boxe

Boxing is a combat sport in which two people, usually wearing protective gloves, throw punches at each other for a predetermined amount of time in a boxing ring.

La boxe est un sport de combat pratiqué depuis le à un contre un, qui recourt à des frappes de percussion à l'aide de gants matelassés.

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Nanomaterials

Nanomatériau

Nanomaterials describe, in principle, materials of which a single unit small sized (in at least one dimension) between 1 and 100 nm (the usual definition of nanoscale).

Un nanomatériau est un matériau (sous forme de poudre, aérosol ou quasi-gaz, suspension liquide, gel) possédant des propriétés particulières à cause de sa taille et structure nanométrique. Les nanomatériaux sont habituellement issus de la nanotechnologie, à la différence des nanoparticules qui peuvent être d'origine naturelle ou résulter de processus tels que le soudage, le fumage, le polissage. Le, la Commission européenne publie ses recommandations relatives à la définition des nanomatériaux (recommandation 2011/696/UE) :.

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Parnassiaceae

Parnassiaceae Gray were a family of flowering plants in the eudicot order Celastrales. The family is not recognized in the APG III system of plant classification. When that system was published in 2009, Parnassiaceae were treated as subfamily Parnassioideae of an expanded family Celastraceae.

La famille des Parnassiacées est constituée de plantes dicotylédones. En et en cette famille peut inclure "Lepuropetalon spathulatum", une petite plante plus ou moins succulente originaire d'Amérique du Nord et du Chili, qui était auparavant classée, comme le genre "Parnassia", dans la famille des Saxifragacées. Mais, alternativement, cette espèce peut constituer les Lépuropetalacées.

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Smenkhkare

Smenkhkarê

Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare Djeser Kheperu (sometimes spelled "Smenkhare", "Smenkare" or "Smenkhkara") was a short-lived pharaoh in the late 18th dynasty. The names of this pharaoh translate as 'Living are the Forms of Re' and 'Vigorous is the Soul of Re – Holy of Forms'. His or her reign, for it is uncertain whether Smenkhkare was male or female, was during the Amarna Period, a time when Akhenaten sought to impose new religious views. He or she is sometimes distinguished from the immediate predecessor (successor?), the female ruler Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten (usually identified as Nefertiti). Unlike Neferneferuaten, Smenkhkare did not use epithets in his or her royal name or cartouche.

Smenkhkarê est un pharaon de la (période du Nouvel Empire) s'il a vraiment régné, car son histoire est sujette à un débat entre les égyptologues. Manéthon donne au successeur du roi Oros, que l'on considère généralement comme identique à Amenhotep / Akhenaton, le nom de Ouaenrê, Acenchêrês ou Acherrês ou encore Achencherês et l'appelle « sa fille ». Manéthon lui attribue deux ans et un mois de règne (d'après Flavius Josèphe). Smenkhkarê ne figure pas sur les tables d'Abydos.

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Icacinaceae

The Icacinaceae are a family of flowering plants, consisting of trees, shrubs, and lianas, primarily of the tropics. The family was traditionally circumscribed quite broadly, with around 55 genera totalling over 400 species. In 2001, though, this circumscription was found to be polyphyletic, and the family was split into four families in three different orders: Icacinaceae "sensu stricto" (then unplaced at order rank), Pennantiaceae (Apiales), Stemonuraceae (Aquifoliales) and Cardiopteridaceae (also Aquifoliales). Other genera have later been moved to Metteniusaceae (Metteniusales), so that Icacinaceae now include c. 23 genera and 160 species. One genus, "Sleumeria", was described as late as 2005. "Icacina senegalensis" extracts have shown activity against malaria parasites. Icacinaceae belongs to the order Icacinales along with Oncothecaceae.

La famille des Icacinacées est une famille de plantes dicotylédones comprenant 400 espèces réparties en 52 genres. Ce sont des arbres, des arbustes ou des lianes, des milieux humides ou non, des régions sub-tropicales à tropicales.

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Cardiopteridaceae

Cardiopteridaceae is a eudicot family of flowering plants. It consists of about 43 species of trees, shrubs, and woody vines, mostly of the tropics, but with a few in temperate regions. It contains six genera, the largest of which is "Citronella", with 21 species. The other genera are much smaller.

La famille des Cardioptéridacées regroupe des plantes dicotylédones. Classiquement elle comprend trois espèces appartenant au genre "Cardiopteris". Ce sont des plantes herbacées rampantes, à latex, des régions tempérées à sub-tropicales de l'hémisphère sud, originaires d'Asie du Sud-Est et d'Australie.

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Knowledge society

Société de la connaissance

A knowledge society generates, shares and makes available to all members of the society knowledge that may be used to improve the human condition. A knowledge society differs from an information society in that the former serves to transform information into resources that allow society to take effective action while the latter only creates and disseminates the raw data. The capacity to gather and analyze information has existed throughout human history. However, the idea of the present-day knowledge society is based on the vast increase in data creation and information dissemination that results from the innovation of information technologies. The UNESCO World Report addresses the definition, content and future of knowledge societies.

La société de la connaissance ("knowledge society"), ou société du savoir, est une expression employée pour la première fois en 1969 par l'Américain Peter Drucker, dans son livre "The Age of Discontinuity".

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Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt

XXVe dynastie égyptienne

<br> The Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXV, alternatively 25th Dynasty or Dynasty 25), also known as the Nubian Dynasty or the Kushite Empire, was the last dynasty of the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt that occurred after the Nubian invasion.

La pharaonique a la particularité d'être uniquement nubienne, originaire du royaume de Napata. Ces rois sont de grands adorateurs du dieu Amon, de Napata. Leur origine les fera surnommer "pharaons noirs", "pharaons éthiopiens" ou encore "pharaons koushites", à telle enseigne que cette dynastie est parfois qualifiée aussi de « XXV dynastie éthiopienne », et l'un de ses représentants infra, Taharqa, « d'Éthiopien ».

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Ay

Aÿ

Ay II, commonly known just as Ay, was the penultimate pharaoh of Ancient Egypt's 18th dynasty. He held the throne of Egypt for a brief four-year period (1323–1319 BC or 1327–1323 BC, depending on which chronology is followed), although he was a close advisor to two and perhaps three of the pharaohs who ruled before him and is thought to have been the power behind the throne during Tutankhamun's reign. Ay's "prenomen" or royal name—Kheperkheperure—means "Everlasting are the Manifestations of Ra" while his "nomen" "Ay it-netjer" reads as "Ay, Father of the God". Records and monuments that can be clearly attributed to Ay are rare, not only due to his short length of reign, but also because his successor, Horemheb, instigated a campaign of "damnatio memoriae" against him and other pharaohs associated with the unpopular Amarna Period.

Aÿ () est le douzième et avant-dernier pharaon de la (Nouvel Empire). Manéthon l’appelle Aî () (Acherres). On situe son règne aux alentours de -1327 à -1323. Beaucoup d'incertitudes demeurent sur les événements de cette époque contemporaine de la vie du Père Divin Aÿ, et des circonstances de son accession au trône.

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Raymond Devos

Raymond Devos (; 9 November 1922 – 15 June 2006) was a Belgian-French humorist, stand-up comedian and clown. He is best known for his sophisticated puns and surreal humour.

Raymond Devos (prononcer /dəvos/ ), né le à Mouscron en Belgique et mort le à Saint-Rémy-lès-Chevreuse dans les Yvelines, est un humoriste français.

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