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Global experience has shown that consistent policy commitment at the highest levels of government is key to accelerating women's entrepreneurship development. The level of policy support for women’s economic activity varies across the MENA region. Some governments have implemented national development plans or national gender strategies, others have engaged in efforts to promote women entrepreneurs and showcase their accomplishments.
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Income standards are known as functions that summarise the income distribution by a single "representative” level of income, which can then be used in comparison of material living standards across countries and over time. Widely-used income standards reflect the general affluence of the distribution - the case of the average - or the affluence of some parts of the distribution - the case e.g. of the average income in the lowest quintile. Compared with those, the family of income standards defined in this paper, based on the general mean approach, do not restrict attention to income below an arbitrary cut-off point while ignoring incomes across the line.
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The region deviates widely from the world trend in wheat consumption, where, on average, the per-capita consumption is almost double that of the world average. This higher wheat consumption translates into its elevated contribution to the calorie and protein intake of the population. Although the tendency is to think of the Arab region as homogenous in their diet habits and food preferences, a closer look at the data shows some discrepancies. For example, while generally there is high reliance on wheat across all countries, the GCC countries tend to have moderate contribution of rice to the calorie and protein intake with 18 per cent and 11 per cent, respectively, in Kuwait, 15 per cent and 9 per cent in the United Arab Emirates, and 13 per cent and 9 per cent in Saudi Arabia.
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The term was formerly LUZ (larger urban zone). The perimeters used in this report were defined by Eurostat (2015) as part of the Urban Audit 2011-2014. Casualty figures at FUA level were taken from CARE, a database managed by the European Commission's Directorate General for Mobility and Transport (DG MOVE).
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Most of the Captagon tablets are smuggled across the non-official border crossings between Jordan and the Syrian Arab Republic, transiting Jordan, with Saudi Arabia as the main final destination. In October 2015, 2 tons of Captagon destined for Saudi Arabia were reportedly seized at the international airport in Beirut. Trafficking and abuse of amphetamine among countries in the Middle East continued to be reported. Saudi Arabia is among the countries that registered a significant increase in the amount of amphetamine tablets seized, as the country seized more than 100 million tablets in 2014, compared with 57 million in 2013.
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Requests for information are regulated by the 2011 Law on Information Transparency and Right to Information. The petitions and complaints are handled in accordance with the 2015 Law on General Administrative Procedures. In accordance to the Law', public (citizens and legal entities) requests for information should be answered within seven working days, w'hich may be extended by another seven days if producing the requested information requires more time.
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We describe briefly how to value these benefits - which are dependent on ecosystem contributions - using economic tools and methods. We also define a framework for assessing this cultural ecosystem service and explain relevant economic concepts. Increased leisure time, in turn, is strongly correlated with a rising demand for recreation and outdoor activities including walking in the forest, swimming, running, cycling, skiing, fishing, berry-picking, etc. (
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In order to estimate the financial burden of ADEs in Germany, Stark et al (2011) based the cost study on a model originating from the American healthcare system. Their estimations quantified health care costs related to ADEs emerging from ambulator)’ care settings to a total of €816 million, or 0.22% of German health expenditure in 2011. Almost 60% was due to hospitalisations, 11% to emergency department visits and the remaining 21% from expenditures made in long-term care. However, these costs are only approximations.
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With the goal to become one of the top performing higher education institutions worldwide as an APEX university, USM has set forth an agenda, Transforming Higher Education for a Sustainable Tomorrow in order to “support the drive to improve the wellbeing of humanity, the bottom billion.” The strengthening of the post-graduate programmes, in medical health, life sciences, health sciences, engineering and technology, and information technology is directly in line with regional priorities. Developing the pool of highly-qualified researchers and engineers is critical to the capacity of the region to compete on the basis of design and development and innovation in the electrical and electronics industry and other industries.
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This article explores judicial methodology in the mixed legal system of Quebec and examines, in particular, how the nature of its legal system as a mixed legal system influences the judicial methodology of its judges, especially with respect to the de facto use of precedent. Features of the mixity, including the institutional setting of Quebec courts as courts of inherent jurisdiction, the nature of Quebec’s civil justice system and procedural law, as well as the judicial role and the effect of a supreme precedential authority (in the Supreme Court of Canada) are examined in turn as influential factors.
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Increased social dialogue can alter society’s attitude and educate communities about the role of the police in protecting rights. Broader campaigns are needed to change deeply rooted beliefs and social perceptions about the acceptability of reporting gender-based discrimination, abuses and crimes. In addition, countries in the region may need to strengthen discreetness protocols such that complaints and court proceedings that involve sensitive areas of personal integrity remain excluded from personnel files or employment forms.
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In addition to the reinforcement and extension of the grid, the need to cover strongly varying residual load would not only continue to generate long-run adequacy costs but also impose added ramp costs on dispatchable operators. The latter have not been accounted for explicitly in this study due to data issues but have been qualitatively discussed in the context of load following of nuclear plants and should not be neglected in a more complete analysis. For instance in California, where peak demand is reached in the middle of the day due to air conditioning, solar power, which reaches its maximum contribution with some regularity during almost the same hours, has a relatively high capacity credit (this rather favourable situation in California and the south-western United States cannot be extrapolated to the rest of the United States).
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Hummels and Schaur (2010) quantify the costs of time delays, suggesting that each additional day in transit is equivalent to an ad valorem tariff of between 0.6 per cent and 2.3 per cent, and that trade in intermediate inputs is 60 per cent more time-sensitive. The use of GPS (i.e. Global Positioning System) for navigation and route planning has become ubiquitous in recent years. New technologies, such as artificial intelligence (Al), promise to have a similarly pervasive influence, as Al applications currently include autonomous driving capabilities and real time itinerary mapping. This network connects drivers to trucks so that several drivers can divide long drives into four to five hours each, rather than one driver having to cover the entire length of the journey.
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Integrated, holistic and linked data bases have been established in leading countries to match the records of crashes contained in police records with data from health, insurers and other sources to form a complete picture of the road crash problem and more recently the level of severity of injury occurring. These “matched databases” involves establishing memoranda of understanding between agencies to manage issue such as privacy and, integrity and confidentiality. Both the police report number and the real number are published annually since 1996.
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Studies on experts' understanding of the public have mainly focused on the views of scientists. We add to the literature on constructions of the public by analyzing the views of decision-makers, professional science communicators and scientists involved in 'space' communication on the public and public participation in policy. Findings show that contextual situations and roles determine the way the public is conceptualised: the public is sophisticated and knowledgeable to participate in space activities/citizen science, but in matters of policy, a gullible image of the public is brought up. Despite the democratic talk on participation, practitioners delimited public involvement in policy in some way or other to protect their own power and decision-making capabilities. This conception of the public competes with the stated aims of scientific and political institutions for public engagement and the substantive value of public participation, leaving a limited role for the public in space policymaking.
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Even though mortality from lung cancer is lower in Austria than in many other EU countries, it remains the leading cause of death after cardiovascular diseases (see Section 2). While the development of a comprehensive policy on the protection of nonsmokers started relatively late compared to other countries, Austria introduced a number of measures in recent years, including smoking bans in public places (see Box 1). In addition, Austria published its first Addiction Prevention Strategy - covering illegal and legal drugs including tobacco and alcohol - in 2016, providing the basis for the direction of addiction policy in the coming years. This development potentially contributes to increased mortality from cardiovascular diseases and other health issues in the longer term.
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For example, the OPFII/UNDP Global MPI covers a similar number of developing countries as the World Bank's PPP$1.90/day measure, drawing on national and international datasets, the Economic Community of Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) published a regional MPI in their 2014 Social Panorama, and Alkire and Apablaza (2016) created a preliminary MPI across European Countries using EU-SILC data (See Box 5.3). In the short term, countries can report existing national MPIs or the value of their global MPI published by UNDP. In this sense, the flexibility of the Alkire-Foster method used to build any MPI allows the index to capture national and international concerns of poverty and development (e.g., national development plans and SDGs). The current MPIs that are in place include a range of indicators pertinent to SDG goals such as health, education, living standards, social inclusion, violence, and employment, among others.
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At the same time, long-term trends in inequality, population growth, urbanization, economic globalization, technological change and other socioeconomic processes will exert profound impacts on the changing climate which are difficult to envisage (see chap. In addition, future climate trends will depend on national and international actions aimed at mitigation over the next few decades. The uncertainty associated with forecasting long-term climate trends and their effect on weather patterns is complicated by the need to be geographically precise, since the effects of climate hazards are felt at the local level.
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The economic outcomes capture three concepts: the participation gap (the difference in labour force participation rates), the remuneration gap (ratio of estimated female-to-male earned income) and the advancement gap (the ratio of women to men among legislators, senior officials and managers and technical and professional workers). The political outcomes refer to the gap between men and women at the highest level of political decision making, through the ratio of women to men in minister-level and parliamentary positions. First-Year Law Students’ Work Expectations and Aspirations”, Legal Education Review.
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Self-appraisal and/or the preparation of portfolios may also require considerable time and efforts from school leaders. Bearing in mind the often heavy workload and range of responsibilities of school leaders, this is an important point to consider (Ginsberg and Berry, 1990). Opinions about the effectiveness of portfolios were divided. Different school principals perceived their work on portfolios either as a compliance tool, documenting their past achievements, or as a forward-looking tool for goal-setting and professional development. Johnston and Thomas argued that it was the contextualisation of portfolios in a larger supportive social network of professional practice that enabled portfolios to function as a learning tool. They, ultimately, suggested that, considering the time and efforts involved, portfolios can mainly serve as a tool for formative appraisal.
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The cross-checking of information on needs, social transfers and taxes could be improved by using a unique identification number (e.g. the cedula). If targeting systems cannot be updated swiftly, alternative insurance mechanisms that allow individuals to cope with temporary shocks and that smooth withdrawal rates for social benefits maybe needed. A.B. Atkinson andT. Piketty), Oxford University Press.
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This goal-by-goal review shows that gender inequalities remain pervasive in each and every dimension of sustainable development. In 89 countries with available data, there are 4.4 million more women than men living on less than US$1.90 a day. Unequal access to and control over economic resources lie at the root of women's poverty. Gender inequalities in the labour market persist, largely due to occupational segregation and gender pay gaps. Women continue to be underrepresented in leadership positions, and in other areas, such as maternal mortality, child marriage and female genital mutilation (FGM), progress is unacceptably slow and uneven. In situations of unrest, instances of sexual and lethal violence increase and are commonly perpetrated not only by intimate partners but also by police and military personnel.
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For "Total number of classes failed", this is the number of classes failed by per member of sample group (asked at age 23). Results are from a study of different curriculum models impact on disadvantaged children in New Jersey. The sample groups are randomly selected and have comparable socio-economic backgrounds and other background characteristics. “ Child Centred (constructivist)" is a High/Scope curriculum model, "Child Centred (social)" is a Nursery School programme with a focus on social skills.
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This pricing system was developed to ensure farmers would not be forced to pay the full cost of water supply and to avoid driving out smaller farms (DiSegni, 2013[49]).21 Since this pricing system was introduced during a time of severe shortages, it sent the message that the more water is consumed, the higher the price. While freshwater prices increased, recycled effluent water (REW) was increasingly available at a lower price. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law. This new Authority centralised the oversight of Israel’s water, moving from cross-ministerial co-ordination to a single dedicated agency.
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Barriers to participation and constraints on offset exchanges affect the overall level of competition, and have the capacity to see offset prices rise to levels disproportionate with the social costs of biodiversity loss (DSE, 2012). Additional factors influencing the level of exchange activity in an offsets programme are discussed in Box 2.2.
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The focus of the 2006-2009 plan was on the creation of e-learning content and continued improvement of curriculum quality through the use of ICTs. Indeed, the biggest challenge for many education systems is to be able to offer training or learning opportunities to traditionally underserved or marginalized groups. This includes girls and women who face barriers to schooling, rural populations that are too dispersed to populate regular schools cost-effectively with reasonable class sizes, children from families in extreme poverty, and special needs groups or persons with disabilities who have no access to learning centres. On the one hand, monitoring will track the outputs of ICT-adapted curricula.
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Since January 2013, the county LDCs are mandatory pre-trial bodies, except, until July 2017, in cases of termination of employment contract, suspension from work, non-pecuniary damages, as well as collective labour disputes, which were the unique prerogative of courts. The new labour code expands the role of the LDCs by making them the mandatory pre-trial body in all cases of labour dispute. Up to now, LDCs have managed to solve all the cases, with no case being brought forward to court.13 This may nevertheless change with the extension of the scope of LDCs notably to termination of employment contract and collective labour dispute. Cases are rare and mostly relate to contract termination, representing less than one per 1 000 of the total number of terminations. Since July 2017, the SLI is also in charge of collecting new data such as the number of employees’ representatives, the number of temporary labour contracts, and the number of termination of labour contracts as well as grounds for it. The county divisions of the SLI will also have to assess reasons for firing or changing work conditions in a less favourable way for an employees’ representative.
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This is largely due to, firstly, the fact that social protection in the Pacific is relatively a new field of government activity (WB, 2006a). Secondly, the formal social security system offers low coverage and the vast majority of informal sector employment is not covered under any social security measures. Thirdly, most of PICs are witnessing slow economic growth and have low social protection spending. Finally, since family, community and the traditional support systems still remain stronger, although declining, governments rely heavily upon them for social welfare services.
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It details the 10-year framework of programmes for SCP (10YFP) and concludes with a discussion of global collaboration on SCP policy. Through initiatives at local and national level, sub-regional and regional platforms that highlighted common characteristics and the work of the Marrakech Process that galvanised and propelled the international SCP agenda, the 10YFP highlights both the needs and opportunities for governments, UN Agencies and stakeholders to operate in concert. To better understand the 10YFP, it is useful to know the evolution of SCP within the international policy agenda. This was the same year as the release by the Club of Rome of the landmark publication The Limits to Growth with a clarion call to shift course away from the economic growth paradigm in order to avoid overshoot and collapse (Meadows et al.
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This article analyzes the property rights of indigenous peoples to the lands they occupy both according to the Brazilian domestic legal system and the Inter-American Human Rights System. It discusses the Supreme Court jurisprudence in the case of Raposa Serra do Sol, aiming at verifying the possibility of Brazilian accountability by the judiciary act that restricted the internal protective rules of indigenous land rights.
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The 2030 Agenda lists rising inequalities, natural resource depletion, environmental degradation and climate change as some of the world's greatest challenges. It recognizes that social development and economic prosperity depend on the sustainable management of freshwater resources and ecosystems and highlights the integrated nature of SDGs. The goal on partnerships (SDG 17) is reviewed annually at each HLPF.
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This programme is funded by the Ministry of the Economy and other sources. Information for other years is not available.____________________________________________________ Of note, budgets that are lower when executed than when planned are common in Portugal. Only programmes with information publicly accessible to the OECD team were included, hence some funding sources may be missing.
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Finally, it looks at how apprenticeships can be a tool for social inclusion at the local level, considering the role of social enterprises and how apprenticeships can be used to further the labour market integration of refugees. Boosting participation amongst SMEs, who face specific barriers, may be particularly important. This includes offering more part-time, online, and innovative training arrangements.
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Drawing on case studies documenting the experience of water allocation reform of 10 OECD and BRIICS countries, this chapter draws out useful insights and lessons learned. It examines common themes related to drivers of reform, the process of identifying and selecting reform options, the reform process itself, and assessments of reforms that seek to determine if they reached their aims. Often the reform is driven by an accumulation of factors over time.
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The unequal tax treatment of income from different asset classes increases inequality in some cases and distorts the allocation of capital. However, the present paper suggests that it is even more important to focus on inequality at the bottom of the income distribution. Government transfers have an important role to play in guaranteeing that low-income households do not fall further back in the income distribution. This is not only restricted to cash transfers.
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This will, however, require a quantum increase in support for research and deployment in a relatively neglected area. In order for macrolevel gains to be reaped from end-use efficiencies, it is important that improved energy efficiency not be allowed to become the basis for an increase in activity and consumption in developed countries and that such increases be permitted only in countries that are still overcoming energy and income deficits. Most experts concur that Governments, in particular advanced economies, should promote the development of a broad portfolio of technologies (including renewables such as solar, wind, geothermal and hydropower) along the full chain of technology development (research, development and demonstration, market formation, diffusion and commercial adaptation). Most developing countries may opt for a more focused portfolio, given that their entry into energy technological transformation would take place at mature stages of the process.
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However, a considerable proportion of wastewater is not treated before being discharged or reused. Japan is the second largest producer of wastewater with 16.9 billion m3 generated in 2011, and 11.6 billion m3, or 69 per cent of the total treated. Singapore is the only country in Asia and the Pacific where all wastewater is treated, or 0.5 billion m3 in 2013. (
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These hubs would provide an open space to innovate and create solutions aimed at solving development problems. Coders4Africa is currently in the process of securing support from donors and the private sector. In view of the need for tailored skills to perform various kinds of software development, it is often necessary for enterprises to invest in training their staff. The emphasis in recruitment on the ability to learn and the importance of tacit knowledge for some of the skills required further underline the need for firms develop in-house and on-the-job training.
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The insufficient number of centres and trained teachers, poor remuneration and weak enforcement of standards are among the challenges acknowledged by education authorities.15 Alternatively, some countries arrange for family-based day-care facilities, as occurs in the Colombian Community Mothers programme. Latin America and the Caribbean will experience an increase of more than 70 percent, and Africa and Asia over 60 percent, in the number of older persons by 2030. An already older population puts this figure at 23 percent in Europe.24 In contrast, the demographic transition is at an early stage in most sul>Saharan African countries, so the share of the population over 60 years of age is still, and will continue to be, small. They also include basic income security throughout the lifecycle, including for persons with disabilities.
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In its first judgment, the Constitutional Court of Saint Martin reviewed the constitutionality of the island’s new penal code in the light of both the government’s positive obligation to ensure the welfare of animals and the Strasbourg Court’s Vinter decision which calls into question the legitimacy of life imprisonment. In doing so, the Court could show the way to courts in The Netherlands and abroad, both for its acceptance of judicial review of statute law against fundamental social rights and its openness towards the European Court of Human Rights’ jurisprudence. In addition, the Court managed to strike a convincing balance between an all-too-conservative form of judicial restraint on the one hand, and excessive interference in political matters on the other.
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Minimum standards of teacher education are ensured by the accreditation and approval of all teacher education programmes by the NZTC. All teacher education providers with programmes approved by the NZTC must demonstrate how they enable students to reach the Graduating Teacher Standards. Providers guarantee that students have met these standards and are “fit to be a teacher” when they graduate from the programme.
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A promising initiative - already exploited by a number of TIPOs - is to build partnerships with other digital platforms. They also have a role in helping SMEs to assess and manage similar risks. This is very difficult given that skills predictions change every few months. Nonetheless, these institutions need to react even if information is lacking.
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The degree of vulnerability of individual LDCs varied with the extent of dependence on trade, nature of demand structure, depth of fiscal space, extent of foreign exchange reserves, and strength of other macroeconomic fundamentals. Individual countries’ abilities to adopt counter-cyclical macroeconomic policies depended on the fiscal capacity to meet the necessary costs and the institutional capacity to implement such policies. This was especially the case if the countries were to contribute to protecting their societies’ poor and the vulnerable groups. Hence, it is important for the LDCs to be prepared to face such crises.
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Similar farm enterprise budgets are published by most U.S. land grant university colleges of agriculture. Agriculture is a significant water user in the dry parts of the OECD countries, and water is an essential input to crop and livestock. Understanding and predicting water use patterns and economic outcomes produced by infrastructure repair and maintenance requires a comprehensive analysis of the economic factors influencing decisions by irrigators on their crop production and water use.
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Support groups appear to be popular with individuals with mental disorders, and with their carers, Meyer et al. ( Approaches that blend peer support and therapeutic approaches from eMental health are also beginning to emerge. Although individuals with mild-to-moderate disorders are much less likely to self-identify as mental health service users, and therefore less likely to seek help from such groups, the support offered by such groups - for example informally, or through an online forum - can be valuable (Box 2.4). Many OECD countries have sought to expand treatments for mild-to-moderate disorders using psychological behavioural therapies. Psychological therapies have come to be well-recognised as an important tool for increasing treatment availability, improving recovery rates, offering choice and quality of treatment, and closing the treatment gap for common mental disorders.
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The proportion of children living in deprived households differs across European countries with the lowest being 4.9% in Switzerland and highest reaching approximately 60% in Bulgaria. This implies immense differences in living standards for children across Europe. In countries such as Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania more than 90% of children in the bottom 10th percentile are living in deprived households. In Bulgaria the share of children reaches approximately 98% meaning that almost every child in the poorest decile lives in a deprived household.
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Water use by households fell by 20%, mostly due to reform of water pricing.30 In 2007, the share of overall consumption for drinking was 46%, higher than industry’s 44% share (the respective shares in 2000 were 36% and 53%) (MoE, 2010a). Flooding of larger rivers typically results from snow melting in around March and April or from heavy rain mostly in July and August. Floods on smaller rivers tend to be flash floods that are caused by heavy short-term rainfall.
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It concludes by offering concrete recommendations to policy makers in the region to enhance compliance with international standards in gender equality and to reduce gender-based discrimination in domestic legislation. Yet some do not explicitly include the principle of equality between women and men, nor do they contain a definition of discrimination against women in the constitution. In additioa many other domestic laws tend to restrict women’s rights in a wide range of areas (e.g. family law, freedom of movement).
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This article addresses the role of formal institutions and informal networks on corporate governance practices. The existing corporate governance literature has mostly examined the formal institutions, such as the effect of legal systems. Our contribution is to consider the effect of informal “small world” characteristics of ownership and board networks. We use the case of Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway and Sweden) to examine these effects. Our empirical results reveal large differences in formal board and ownership structures between the Scandinavian countries, but strong similarities in terms of law enforcement, political stability, government effectiveness, rule of law, control of corruption as well as voice and accountability. We find that all three countries can be characterized as “small worlds” in which trust, information diffusion and reputation mechanisms are active governance mechanisms. (Less)
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A World Bank study has found that subsidising the upfront capital costs - rather than consumption - is more effective to promote investment in electrification projects (World Bank, 2008). In general, tariff subsidies disproportionately benefit the higher-income and higher-electricity-consuming social classes. In fact, connection costs to the electricity grid are still a major barrier (IEG, 2008). Alternative tariff structures could include the cost in monthly payments. Access to electricity increases economic output and income, in some cases, the benefits resulting from connection enable the user to later upgrade to higher power. The projected increased demand provides strong incentive for private companies, however, the need to transform the entire energy system creates additional risk.
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This was not intended to be representative of society in general, but that portion of society that might be considered as being more connected to the issue of marine litter and microplastics. With a sample of just under 4,000 respondents from over 16 mostly European countries, the MARLISCO survey found that the majority of respondents were concerned about marine litter and perceived the marine environment as being highly valuable to society. There was a belief that the situation regarding marine litter was worsening, and that most marine litter was derived from the sea (B. Hartley unpublished data).
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Over 2007-10,31 projects were approved and 22 were contracted, and six commercial projects were directed to the Croatian Bank for Reconstruction and Development. It provides support to establish technology transfer centres, business incubators and R&D centres. This includes: setting up specialised technology incubators for life sciences, including nanotechnology and information and communications technology (ICT), setting up technology transfer centres, providing equipment for the aquaculture R&D centre founded by the University of Dubrovnik and co-financed by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
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This means that some children are already advantaged over others when they begin formal schooling, while in turn school results exert a strong influence on their university outcomes (Boarini et al., Moreover, people with higher education and skills are more likely to undertake on-the-job training (OECD, 2010c). The way that inequalities are compounded means that educational deficiencies should be tackled as early as possible and that pupils from a lower socioeconomic background should receive adequate support in schools to compensate for their initial disadvantage.
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Using corn for ethanol increases the price of US beef, chicken, pork, eggs, breads, cereals and milk by more than 10-30 per cent, which exacerbates food and fuel shortages and raises major nutritional and ethical concerns around the world. Much of this effect is the result of deforestation for grazing and the processes that many countries are still using to produce meat, which require the animals to live longer than do other, more economically efficient processes. Nathan Fiala (2008) reported that beef production accounts for the majority of CO2 production and is increasing, though pig products also have a large aggregate impact owing to their high use.
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One example is a family, upon the loss of their home, moving in with extended family or friends. This transitionally homeless but “housed” family may be counted as both homeless and overcrowded. Despite this attempt at a common standard, national data collection strategies and estimates vary significantly.
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As a result, the socio-economic differences across schools are largely predictive of a school’s performance in the OECD PISA assessments. Policies that target disadvantaged schools, but also disadvantaged students, can therefore be particularly effective in raising performance and equity levels. Grade repetition is frequent, and this has proven an ineffective way to support poorly performing students. Around one third of students had repeated grades at least once by age 15 in 2012.
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Improving energy efficiency will require environmental pricing mechanisms, regulatory measures such as building codes and fuel-economy standards, and public awareness and information measures such as labelling, training and education (OECD, 2015a). As of January 2014,23 countries had used the framework to develop indicators that suit their national circumstances, fifteen of which were developing or emerging economies. The environmental productivity of OECD economies in terms of carbon, energy and materials has improved since 1990, but overall carbon emissions continue to rise, fossil fuels continue to dominate the energy mix, the consumption of material resources remains high and many valuable materials continue to be disposed of as waste.
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With heterogeneous methods used for the estimation of trips and distances travelled (Annex A and B), extra care should be taken regarding interpretation of differences across cities. On the other hand, they contribute to a significant risk of VRUs, such as pedestrians, being killed in collisions with cars (Scholes et al., Table 1 does not account for that phenomenon and more research in this area is needed.
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Illicit drug policy has long been an area that has attracted international policy intervention, however, the European Union has declared it an area of subsidiarity, leaving ultimate control to national governments. Nevertheless, European Union preoccupation with the illicit drug issue and international drug trafficking and organised crime concerns have ensured that continued and increased cooperation in illicit drug policy is never off the agenda. This article examines the history of European integration in contrasting areas of policy and considers both the desirability and the viability of an increasingly harmonised drug policy for Europe. Finally, it proposes a model of integrated illicit drug policy that is strongly connected to developing patterns of European social policy, calling on multi-level governance and close involvement at the level of the citizen.
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This problem is also complemented by the overpriced and inefficient private parking spaces that exist. There are also 15,000 temporary parking places that can accommodate 191,500 cars. For example, Polotsk city’s mobility plan, currently under development, envisages the integrated development of different urban mobility modes and the optimization of transport routes (box 13.5).
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While the allowance only covers those affiliate (i.e., in formal jobs), most low-income families are in informal work. Nevertheless, the programme (slightly) reduces income inequality and poverty, as its distribution is less unequal than the distribution of income (Nunez, 2009). In 2013, the benefit’s reference level in Arauca (the highest) was 35% higher than the national average, in Choco (the lowest) the reference level was 25% lower than the national average. Similarly, the proportion of workers eligible to the benefit ranged from 27% in Norte de Santander to 88% in Cordoba.
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The annual number of natural disasters in Southeast Asia increased from 13 in 1970 to 41 in 2014, resulting in a surge of both economic damages and the number of persons affected. Floods, typhoons, hurricanes and earthquakes are the most frequent types of disasters occurring in the region, sometimes bearing severe human and economic losses. The frequency and impacts of such disasters are expected to increase in the future, as a result of a combination of climate change impacts (such as sea-level rise), uibanisation and socio-economic changes.
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A case could also be made for other rights, such as the right to education—years of schooling and highest grade reached differ substantially between poorer and richer segments of the population—or freedom of expression and assembly, which the dispossessed feel unable to exercise for material or psychological reasons. If inequality is an obstacle to the enjoyment of human rights, an equitable distribution of wealth becomes a decisive variable for the overall system of protection of human rights, as well as for the advantages stemming from development. Important among such effects is the increasing vulnerability of people resulting from large-scale development projects.
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sdg1
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An alternative reason is that African women entrepreneurs generally rely on smaller business networks and might have greater difficulty in dealing with bank officials. One indication of the networking disadvantage women face as entrepreneurs is the fact that only 2.5% of African female-owned firms have suppliers who offer them credit or customers who pay advances (versus 5.2% of men-owned firms). Data on micro-enterprises (less than 15 employees) in Brazil, Mexico and South Africa show that the great majority of business owners did not use loans to start up, but relied entirely on their own funds and on support from family and friends (Figure 27.3, Panel A).
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sdg5
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The only ridership growth has taken place in Chicago’s central neighbourhoods (Metropolitan Planning Council, 2013). Although the regional comprehensive plan “GO TO 2040” adopted the goal of doubling public transport ridership by 2040 as a means of increasing mobility and creating more liveable communities, some parallel policies at various government levels are stimulating car use. Such policies include generous parking policies, a gas tax that is relatively low' from an international perspective, and the lack of congestion charges or parking fees in most areas.
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sdg11
|
Teachers are trained to adapt their teaching to different learning needs and styles of students. There is also emphasis on the teaching practicum which includes a minor portion of basic teaching skill practice in front of peers in student groups, and a more significant portion of required teaching practice at teacher training schools run by the university or at affiliated schools. In addition, other teacher groups, such as pre-primary teachers and vocational teachers, are required to have a tertiary education degree.
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sdg4
|
The medical school selection process will be altered to favour students who excel at teamwork as well as interpersonal and cross-cultural communications. Furthermore, considering the current underinvestment in health infrastructure and personnel in the Galilee, systems of collaboration should be created among hospitals and between hospitals and the new medical school. Joint research centres between hospitals and the medical schools could be established in the areas that focus on the epidemiology of the region, including genetics, metabolic diseases and health promotion. The new school and research institute provide an opportunity to link Israel's leadership in the IT industry with more effective health care delivery - from new individualised computer-based medical records systems to the use of telemedicine to reach isolated populations.
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sdg4
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Coniferous forests are spread in the highlands, mixed forests in the mid altitudes, and broadleaf forests in low-level terrain. The structure of state-owmed forests is better than that of private forests, which could be seen by their lower share of coppices and higher share of high forest. The average stock of all forests is 192.4 m3/ha, with high forests 243.3 m3/ha and coppice forests 85.2 m3/ ha.
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sdg15
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It is also key for ensuring interoperability and facilitating the adoption of new technologies, especially by SMEs. Although private sector actors may have the technical knowledge to develop complex standards,303 without transparency, accountability and other forms of consumer protection, these market players may be tempted to abuse their rule-making power.304 Change in the area of standardization is putting pressure on governments in developing countries to reform and develop their standardization infrastructure.305 For national quality infrastructure bodies, guiding principles in the digital standards system should be mediation, neutrality, consumer protection, and competition. As neutral arbiters, they can mediate between the interests of businesses and consumers of digital goods. They can focus fheir activities on safety and interoperability.
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sdg9
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In the local perspective, the emphasis is on the local and decentralised optimisation of the available resources that are physically close to the final consumer generator or the load. The global approach looks at the system as a whole, and aims at using the best available generation mix by connecting all available resources. The idea is based on integrating the smaller-scale local generation close to the consumers (e.g. PV on rooftops).
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sdg7
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These figures most likely underestimate the contribution of off-farm earnings because they capture only the income coming from activities integrated from the accounting standpoint either fully or partly within the farm business. However, studies on rural diversification indicate that the majority of alternative enterprises of agricultural households are financially and structurally independent of the farm business (OECD, 2009e). For example, around 20% of living expenses of those households involved in dairying and sheep and beef farming originate from off-farm income (MAF, 2009e).
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sdg2
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A wide range of private stakeholders could find commercial interest in the provision of such capital, assuming a conducive political and economic enabling environment, such as energy distribution companies, energy service companies (ESCOs) suppliers of energy efficient materials, and commercial lending services. However, models that mobilize private sector finance for building retrofit have proved difficult to implement in countries worldwide, with the situation in Georgia particularly challenging, due largely to several existing private investment barriers. Key among these is the lack of an adequate legal framework for energy efficiency investments and implementation. In addition, high interest rates and limited delivery of low-cost credit lines from public and private banks have posed challenges.
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sdg13
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I examine the American use of international law on torture to legitimate its torture policies and practices in the 2000s. The case shows a problem in how much international law and political science scholarship conceptualizes compliance and non-compliance with international law. The gap between the legal commitments and the practice of the US is not captured by the suggestion that the US was choosing to violate rather than comply with its obligations under the Convention against Torture and other instruments. Instead, the US used the international law against torture to justify its policies of torture. International law was used as a tool in the legitimation contests of the US and others. I suggest that this is a common practice, which opens a more political understanding of the nature and power of international law.
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sdg16
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Manufacturing and construction, however, could not eliminate negative growth in real wages even by 2011-2012. The real wages of such workers in 2011-2012 were lower than those in 1999-2000 in all segments of economic activity (Table 11-19). In other words, the real wages of over 82 per cent of the workers did not increase in this period.
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sdg5
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The proliferation of local forms of governance problematizes the well‐established and highly normative idea that power and democracy in Denmark are organized in terms of a ‘parliamentary chain of government’, according to which the sovereign people elect the parliament, which in turn controls the government that governs the public administration through bureaucratic control. Consecutive waves of devolution have decentralized the Danish welfare state, and the power of local governments is now being challenged by the emergence of new forms of local governance that involve a plethora of private stakeholders, such as business firms, interest organizations, community groups and individual citizens, in the formulation and implementation of public policy. This article argues that participation of private stakeholders in public policy‐making cannot be reduced to an inferior supplement to traditional forms of representative democracy. The supplement is taking its revenge as the interactive policy arenas are expand...
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sdg16
|
A large share of this funding from other sources is directed to the so-called co-operative sector, including AIT, JR and ACR as well as the COMET centres. In 2015, more than a third of total direct government funding of business R&D went to the co-operative sector.4 For the (non-cooperative) business sector, tax incentives are therefore the most important government funding source, contributing more than two-thirds of total public funding of business R&D. From 2006 to 2015, about 75% of the increase in government funding of (non-cooperative sector) business R&D came from the Research Premium. At the same time, levels of business investment in R&D in Austria are broadly comparable with international competitors, although they have risen sharply over the last decade. As the rate of subsidy offered by the Research Premium has been increased in recent years, and the volume of business R&D in Austria has also increased, government spending on the Research Premium has grown sharply.
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sdg9
|
Initiation of national level work to reform and maintain institutional arrangements requires energy and cost, and financial support for such work is often difficult to find. Regulatory barriers and weak collaboration among state agencies and ministries is another key challenge to collaboration. This echoes responses to the question on benefits of cooperating, indicating that all respondents know that benefits of cooperation exist.
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sdg15
|
Around 2 billion people worldwide are still unbanked—lacking accounts at banks, other financial institutions or mobile money service providers. Some may be helpful in promoting harmonious coexistence, but others may be discriminatory, prejudicial and exclusive. In employment recruitment in the United States White job applicants are often systematically selected over African American and Latino job applicants, even when the minorities have equal or higher qualifications.
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sdg1
|
Most of this is to support CRGE energy and forestry initiatives. It will predominantly be result-based financing, with some upfront grants for enabling activities such as MRV, and capacity building to the sectors (particularly Ministry of Agriculture, EPA and the Ministry of Water Resources). It will seek to build over time an overall approach to the energy sector on renewable energy and energy efficiency policy.
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sdg13
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For example, the Euroagri Foodchain programme promotes products and technologies developed by its participants through the EuroAgri FoodChain's network, to ensure that they do not go unnoticed abroad. Centres for Creative Economy and Innovation in Korea provide assistance to business startups to help them find investors and enter the global market. The Envoy System in China, for instance, promotes the adoption of advanced technologies in agriculture, by providing technology demonstrations and technology training by experts, among other support services.
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sdg9
|
One step in the right direction would be to set up a single body responsible for co-ordinating the promotion of women’s enterprise development - similar, for example, to the Office of Women’s Business Ownership in the United States or the German National Agency for Women Start-up Activities and Services (OECD, 2012c) - as well as to develop a comprehensive policy to tackle the core barriers to developing female entrepreneurship. Depending on the exact barriers identified, interventions could include: raising awareness of successful female entrepreneurs and women role models, training programmes to build women’s financial literacy and their ability to develop sound business plans and pitch them to potential lenders, promoting businesswomen’s associations and including more women on the boards of chambers of commerce and industry to get the voice of women entrepreneurs heard in policy circles, and improving women’s access to finance. In this respect, practices in Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Pakistan and Turkey could be useful models for Tunisia to explore (OECD, 2012c) - although many MENA countries have also introduced measures recently (see Box 3.10).
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sdg8
|
The MoES is responsible for the development of education policies and strategic plans approved by the government and also co-ordinates municipal education departments in the implementation of the state education policy. It co-ordinates the distribution of school funding from the state budget and the allocation of the EU structural funds. The Ministry is also responsible for quality assurance, the accreditation of the general education curriculum, and school-leaving examinations. Outside of the Ministry a key role is played by the National Audit Office of Lithuania, which regularly conducts financial audits of budget institutions in the field of education, and reviews MoES activities through planned performance audits.
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sdg4
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This chapter addresses the question of how that bill is divided between the public sector and individuals or firms. This is difficult, given rapidly changing skill demands. Forms of public-private collaboration, such as those inherent in technical and vocational training systems, are likely to be instrumental in ensuring that workers get the right skills for the job. This chapter considers what does and does not work, and what can be done differently thanks to new technologies. For customers to trust new technologies, quality, safety and security must be guaranteed.
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sdg9
|
Unlike in many other countries the gross quantity of available water appears to be ample1 and water-saving is not an overriding priority for most users and use sectors, though shortages recur in some Eastern regions of the country. There is also a sizeable non-consumptive abstraction of water for hydropower at a number of plants on the Kura River and its tributaries, and for cooling in the thermal power station at Gardabani. Although largely non-consumptive, these operations in the power sector do have an impact on river flow, hydro morphology and the transport of sediments, which affect w'ater use elsewhere. Irrigation demand has also fallen due to the collapse of some large-scale operations, the total area of irrigated land fell from 370 000 ha in 1990 to 167 000 in 2003, and has fallen further since then.
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sdg6
|
It shows that the prospects for sustained growth are good if reforms along the lines suggested by the OECD Green Growth Strategy are undertaken. Well-managed fisheries can deliver billions more in value and millions of tonnes more fish each year, while aquaculture has the potential for continued strong growth to supply the food requirements of a growing world. An integrated policy view that takes in the whole of the “blue economy” of marine and coastal spaces and which evaluates itself against clear and measureable objectives is required to secure this vision ofgreen growth for fisheries and aquaculture.
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sdg14
|
The concept is accredited to Charles Booth,5 who undertook to classify London's society statistically into four categories on the basis of daily income. Measurability and quantification were crucial for the success of this approach. Since Booth's work, many countries have adopted different criteria for the definition of poverty through income grouping. The World Bank played a major role in establishing the first unified international standard for the measurement of poverty in the 1990s with reference to those earning less than $ 1 a day.6 In 2000 the United Nations consolidated this approach by adopting the Millennium Development Goals, particularly goal 1, aimed at the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger.
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sdg1
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It also includes ITU's esbmate for the number of fixed-broadband subscripbons for each region in 2016, including esbmates for other countries which have not provided data. The number of broadband subscripbons at speeds at or above 10 Mbit/s in Europe25 is 21.8 per hundred inhabitants, more than three-quarters of the total with fixed-broadband subscripbons in that region. Thirty-two countries in Europe and sixteen economies outside that region reported that more than half of their subscripbons have speeds at or above 10 Mbit/s, while only one country in Africa (Mauritius) reported more than 1 per cent of its subscripbons at that level.
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sdg9
|
Yet these policies - largely driven by quantitative objectives - came with high qualitative costs for the country’s urban development. Housing development had been identified as an integral component of the country’s development in previous National Development Plans (2001-2006, 2007-2012) and conceived as a question of ensuring housing in sufficient quantity at a minimum level of quality, particularly for populations in poverty and with lower incomes. Federal housing finance programmes, including subsidies for low-income populations offered by the National Housing Commission (Comision Nacional de Vivienda, CONAVI), the National Trust Fund for Popular Housing (Fondo Nacional de Habitaciones Populares, FONHAPO) and the Ministry of Social Development (Secretaria de Desarrollo Social, SEDESOL) and publicly backed mortgages offered by INFONAVIT, FOVISSSTE and others, have been integral in supporting the push to expand housing access.
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sdg11
|
Amy Allen’s insightful and nuanced feminist critical-theoretical account of the politics of our selves could be strengthened with a more complex and differentiated account of power and of gender, and of the social as a site of multiple conflicting and contesting relations. Such an account would adhere more consistently to Allen’s own project of understanding subjects to be constituted through both relations of power and relations of interdependence and mutuality, care and solidarity. The development of this account, and of a situated account of desire or motivation, is essential for a feminist critical theory of self and social transformation.
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sdg16
|
With the current stalemate in the Doha Round, it is unlikely that an agreement on NTMs will emerge any time soon. Significantly, NTMs have never been an active area of negotiations, which may reflect both a focus on more pressing issues and a tacit acceptance among trade negotiators of the fact that NTMs are here to stay, and so the best strategy is to adapt to them. In this regard, development partners, through the AfT initiative, are making significant efforts to help LDCs design and implement national quality policies, enhance human capacity through training and build the infrastructure needed for testing, accreditation and certification. These include improved quality and food safety standards for Burundi’s coffee producers and Tanzanian cashew processing plants, helping Cambodian rubber obtain international accreditation, and setting up national quality infrastructure in Malawi, Myanmar, Sierra Leone and Zambia, among others.
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sdg10
|
The Global Energy Assessment (forthcoming) has estimated that the required share of zero carbon energy in 2030 would need to be about 22 per cent, in order for the target of staying below a 2° C increase from pre-industrial levels to be achieved with a probability of at least 50 per cent. Only the most ambitious technology-optimistic scenarios achieve such a high share, as illustrated by a literature review of renewable energy scenarios (Hamrin, Hummel and Canapa, 2007). The most technology-optimistic of the IEA scenarios (IEA ETP tech plus) barely reaches this level, the others include the EU World Energy Technology Outlook-2050 (WETO-H2) scenario with C02 constraint, and the Greenpeace “revolution” scenario. Assumptions in these scenarios are heroic indeed, requiring unprecedented technological progress, international cooperation and transfers.
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sdg7
|
Since August 2013, children aged 1 year or older have been legally entitled to an ECEC place. The number of guaranteed preschool ECEC hours varies widely across the Lander (regional governments) w ith, for example, four hours per day in Berlin and ten hours per day in Saxony-Anhalt (BertelsmannStiftung, 2015a). Federal, regional and local governments (Kommunen) project a further expansion of ECEC, aiming to provide 810 000 ECEC places for the under-3s by 2018, compared to 662 701 in 2014 and 286 905 in 2006 (Destatis, 2015a).
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sdg5
|
Authorship is usually collective, but principal authors are named. Such a model should restore public finances and long-term growth while preserving environmental quality and ensuring a sustainable use of natural resources. This paper assesses Japan’s progress in moving towards such an environmentally friendly growth pattern.
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sdg12
|
Nevertheless, the successful implementation of existing management plans, and the elaboration of plans for remaining protected areas, depend on the availability of state budget resources and further support by international donors. In Tajikistan, this work was followed up with the support of WWF in the framework of the project "Integrated river basin management and nature protection in the Tigrovaya Balka" (2008-2012) w'hich resulted in, among other things, development of a management plan for an Econet cluster that included the Tigrovaya Balka state nature reserve as the core area and the surrounding territories ecologically connected to it. The 2014 Fifth National Report to the CBD mentions that the document "Eco-Nets Development System of the Republic of Tajikistan on the Basis of Econet" was adopted by the Government.
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sdg15
|
Notably, the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) founded the original Mekong River Committee in 1957, and continues to support the Commission established in 1995. It assists in the development and strengthening of multicountry river basin institutions, fostering policy and legislative reforms, and promoting broad stakeholder involvement in addressing key threats and priorities. It has allocated USD 9.2 billion, supplemented by more than USD 40 billion in co-financing, for more than 2 700 projects in over 165 countries. For example, GWP has been leading since 2000 the Dialogues on Effective Water Governance with the International Council for Local Environment Initiatives (ICLEI).
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sdg6
|
They now live in the Sahel rather than the Sahara. Nomadic herding has shifted southward from the Sahara Desert to the tree steppes for the camel herders, and from the Sahel to the savannah and even to the tropical forests for the cattle herders, particularly the Fula. This is a long-term movement that intensified during colonisation and during the climatic and political crises of the late 1960s.
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sdg2
|
Some good practices were identified, but there is not enough critical mass to transform the economy in a homogeneous way. There is therefore a need to provide entrepreneurs and small business owners with tools and support schemes tailored to the green economy. Access to finance is also an important aspect. Private capital, but also public funds (for instance through R&D lines or ESF), should be made available more easily to businesses. Subsidies and giants should also be considered. Targeting key sectors (such as those identified in this report) and their supply chains could prove effective in expanding businesses in the green economy, and thus, in creating jobs.
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sdg9
|
Furthermore, the nature of abusive behaviour, especially that of physical and psychological violence, varies greatly among countries and regions. Survey questions should be formulated in such a way as to capture commonly occurring acts in a local sociocultural context. It is recommended that questions on psychological and economic violence should apply only to intimate partners. As discussed in chapter II (see paragraphs 57 to 59), women may experience a wide range of physically abusive acts.
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sdg5
|
Failing to take into account the initial condition problem will lead to overstating the level of state dependence. Indeed, controlling for initial labour market status, demographic characteristics and hoasehold income leads to large drops in the coefficients of the lagged labour market status. This indicates that not controlling for initial conditions would seriously bias the estimates. The coefficients for NSW at time t-1 should be interpreted as the difference in the likelihood of being in standard work at wave t as compared with being unemployed at t-1.
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sdg1
|
From 2011, MINVU carried out several reforms to improve the targeting of the project. Neighbourhood selection is based on a system that combines the selection of priority zones based on a set of social and housing vulnerability indicators (both quantitative and georeferenced), and bottom-up municipal demand within the priority zones. The final selection of the qualifying zones is made by a jury composed by the intendente, SERVIU, MINVU, GORE, a representative from the Chilean Association of Municipalities, SEREMI.
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sdg11
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