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Although data is available for a few countries, it needs to be re-packaged to allow for disaggregation by relevant variables. Local materials provide efficient ways for energy conservation and protection from disasters. In developing economies between 7 and 10% of the labour force are involved in residential construction.
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sdg11
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In meeting multi-faceted sustainability challenges, governments are, for example, increasingly using open data and big data analytics to improve accuracy in forecasting citizens’ demand for public utilities or to screen for irregularities in public procurement. Predictive analysis is also used to identify issues before problematic scenarios develop, and sentiment analysis is deployed in engaging citizens in public consultation and decision-making processes, notably through e-participation. As this collective global effort, led by the United Nations, gains momentum towards greater acceptance, and the institutional linkages among the economic, social and environmental pillars of sustainable development are strengthened, there is a need for awareness of the importance of e-government that is for and with the people, in achieving higher standards of living for future generations.
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sdg9
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The division between peace and war has become increasingly blurred in factual terms in recent decades. Similarly, the law has progressed in a manner that has not necessarily been consistent. The author reviews how the laws covering the use of force in both peace and war have developed separately under the respective headings of the laws of war (also known as the law of armed conflict or international humanitarian law) and human rights law. The increasing overlap between these two bodies of public international law has led to tensions particularly in relation to the conduct of hostilities. The author suggests a way forward to ensure the applicability of the highest standards of protection whilst still enabling military operations to be carried out efficiently within a legal framework.
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sdg16
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Between 2007 and 2013, the Czech authorities observed an increasing prevalence of high-risk methamphetamine abuse, including by injection. In 2014, an increase in amphetamine abuse was reported by Germany while stable or decreasing trends in amphetamine abuse were reported by Cyprus, Finland, Portugal and the United Kingdom. It is estimated that some 1.8 million Western and Central European young adults between 15 and 34 years of age have used “ecstasy” in the past year.
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sdg3
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Eighteen is the minimum legal age for marriage for women without parental consent in 158 countries (UNFPA, 2012). However, in 146 countries, state or customary law allows girls younger than 18 to marry with the consent of parents or other authorities, in 52 countries, girls under age 15 can marry with parental consent. A recent UNICEF paper reported, for example, that in India, where 47 per cent of girls are married before 18, only 11 people were convicted of perpetuating children marriage in 2010, despite a law forbidding it (UNICEF, 201 la). Such interventions seek to equip girls with knowledge and skills in areas relevant to their lives, including sexual and reproductive health, nutrition, and their rights under the law.
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sdg5
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To maximise the potential of Health Boards as local planners, purchasers and providers the centre may have to step back in and play a more supportive - and prescriptive - role. With the introduction of the Integrated Medium Tenn Plans Wales has taken a step in the right direction, but more work is needed to get the balance between local freedom, innovation and sensitivity to population needs, and core standards that should be centrally driven, right. Similarly, the introduction of an Escalation and Integration Framework in 2014 seems to be an appropriate development. More can be done to set, and publicise, core minimum expectations of all local Health Boards.
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sdg3
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In the case of the public sector, this theory holds that adoption of an innovation among government departments and agencies may grow slowly and gradually in the beginning. The adoption will then have a period of rapid growth that will taper off and become stable and eventually decline (Rogers, 1995). The Bass model, however, suggests other representations (Robert-Ribes and Wing, 2004). This is because innovations are seen to be communicated across space and through time.
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sdg9
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Responding to these changes demands a deeper reform in the development cooperation system. The perceived need for additional and more assured funding has led to a search for innovative sources of development financing to complement traditional ODA66 (see box 3). Adjustment to payments imbalances should be equitably shared between deficit and surplus countries.
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sdg1
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The online training programme designed by the CPEIP is a good opportunity to make this happen. In addition, if multigrade schools continue as a strategy in rural areas, it would be beneficial to include multigrade methodologies in the curriculum of both initial teacher education and teacher professional development. Rural micro-centres should be monitored more closely and supported to make sure that they focus sufficiently on pedagogical innovation and less on administrative issues.
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sdg4
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This article presents the contribution that critical discourse analysis (CDA) can make to critical policy studies through comparison with two other approaches which also advocate a ‘discursive turn’ in policy studies and that have been discussed in the journal: cultural political economy (CPE), and poststructuralist discourse analysis (PDA). I suggest that there are significant differences between CDA, CPE and PDA in their view of the discursive turn, and that a version of CDA which integrates argumentation theory and analysis with CDA can add significantly to the contributions that CPE and PDA might make to policy analysis. In the Conclusion, I address a suspicion that using argumentation analysis entails a commitment to Habermasian/Rawlsian ‘deliberative democracy,’ suggesting that argumentation analysis is also not only consistent with but also necessary for Gramscian approaches to political and policy analysis, including CPE and PDA.
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sdg16
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What is important in this case is not so much the security of the single shipment but rather the security of the system in which both producers and consumers have a stake. In these cases, it can be argued that countries should strive for a certain degree of energy self-sufficiency, in addition to establishing the conditions for the market to resume its role. More recently, the interruptions in Russian gas supplies that repeatedly struck Europe since 2006 encouraged an orientation towards alternative suppliers, a different vector of delivery (substituting pipeline gas by LNG) and domestic resources such as renewable energy.
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sdg7
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An exceptional case, however, is provided by the United States practice of targeting poor households, where such diversity is extensively taken into account. Ignoring household-specific diversities constitutes a fatal methodological flaw if poverty lines and gaps are to be used. Public transfers of goods and services are usually excluded. This produces a significant gap when it comes to health and education services, particularly in developing economies, where the role of public provision is usually substantial. In the absence of such information, one can only speculate over actual outcomes with respect to these key basic needs.
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sdg1
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Roughly 40% of people found fit for work appeal the decision and around 38% of those people who appeal have the decision overturned. Overall, 15% of fit for work decisions are overturned on appeal. The second Independent Review of the WCA (Harrington, 2011) found that improvements had been made, but also that more needs to be done.
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sdg10
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But in the case of non-poor households not contributing to health insurance programmes, policy challenges differ. While some public subsidy is required to make them join a health protection programme, full subsidisation should be avoided, because it could reduce the incentives to join the contributory programme. In China, given that there is no contributory programme in the rural areas, the problem is not to render it incentive compatible, but more to ensure fiscal sustainability in the long run, as the scope and depth of coverage of the programme progress. Besides, the geographical segmentation between programmes may also constitute an obstacle to labour mobility between rural and urban areas.
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sdg10
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In the case of renewable power plants, the produced energy is provided for local consumers for a usage fee, which is in return proportionally distributed among the investors as return on investment. Utility tokens could be used for future services that will be provided by the project initiator, for example receiving verified renewable energy from a wind power station. Essentially, a cryptocurrency value based on the underlying commodity (e.g. power) is created and exchanged among the investors and consumers. This concept also enables investors to sell their tokens on the market at any given time.
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sdg9
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Prior to granting the building license, the municipality must set up a general plan (designating residential, commercial and industrial areas) and a detailed plan (defining the type of building). These public institutions were expected to make up for any construction shortfalls by private competitors and eventually were aimed at competing on the open market. The specific tenure of municipally owned housing was intended to play an important role in achieving the goals of housing policy after the war, namely to raise the average housing standard, to equalise the distribution of housing consumption, to restrict wealth transfers to private property owners and to counter housing segregation. While in the 1970s and 1980s, public construction was responsible for more than 75% of new rental dwellings, its importance has declined somewhat but still remains at around one half. The rent level they aim to set is used to cover direct costs, but they are not managed on a strict non-profit-making objective as they provide a return for the capital invested by the municipalities (the share of the initial municipal equity capital, though, has declined significantly over time since many MHCs were created in the 1960s and have grown since then).
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sdg11
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The Ulugbek National University as well as the Andijan, Bukhara, Karakalpakstan, Samarkand and Termez Universities train bachelors on Ecology and Nature Use curriculum. The Tashkent Economic University trains bachelors on Environmental Economist curriculum. There appear to be no curricula on important subjects such as environmental management, environmental law and environmental monitoring.
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sdg6
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An individual small farm has a relatively small amount of surplus production that can be sold after household consumption is met, and it is usually hard to develop a relationship with a broker, distributor or processor that allows the residual production to be sold. The typical fallback option is to rely on direct marketing either through a farm stand or through a farmers' market. Commercial food distribution channels cannot easily deal with individual small farms due to: high fixed costs of contracting for a small volume of product, potential problems with the farmer meeting required quality standards and intermittent supply from a single farm. While a large-scale farm may be able to contract directly with a processor or distributor, small-scale farms require an intermediary who can aggregate small amounts from multiple producers to obtain a large enough amount of uniform quality to be attractive to the processor or distributor.
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sdg9
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This would ensure that both parents have broadly similar financial incentives to work. This would reduce the role played by family background on youth’s education and career choices. It would also ensure that students take informed decisions which are aligned with their interests, preferences, merit, and real labour market needs.
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sdg4
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In this exploratory paper, we examine community capacity building over ten-years via an online e-government sponsored forum. Using social network analytics, we postulate that as communities evolve over time, the pattern of communication becomes denser and less centralized. We also postulate that there are clear patterns of assortativity where similar actors engage in communication with each other over time. Results show that there are mixed results in terms of growth in density and centralization values. Using sliding windows analysis, we observe a clear pattern of networks losing their disassortative character in the early years followed by disassortative networks in the later years. These network-level results add further insights to government-level metrics of communitybuilding success such as unique visitors per month or webpage hits. The research also suggests network analytics as an empirical avenue for achieving richer understanding of social processes involved in the very nature of community building.
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sdg16
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Nonetheless, meat-to-feed price margins are expected to improve compared to those experienced when feed costs reached their peak. After accounting for general price inflation, real meat prices will average higher than in the previous decade, although they trend marginally down from their current highs. Milk and dairy product prices increased strongly in 2013 due to reduced production in major countries from increasing feed costs. In the near term, prices of all dairy products are expected to decline sharply as production in the major dairy exporting countries expands in to the current high prices and feed costs decrease.
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sdg2
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Warsaw municipality, for example, could compensate Kampinos National Park for providing free access to Warsaw residents. A comprehensive national survey of adults revealed that forest recreation is highly valued in Poland, suggesting that there may be a willingness to pay (Bartczak et al., On the other hand, there is often opposition when proposals are made to start charging for an “acquired right” such as free access to national parks.
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sdg15
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Decisions about whether, when or how often to become pregnant must be made free from any form of discrimination, coercion or violence. Reproductive health and reproductive rights are specific aims under one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals, and integral to realizing all the goals. People have more information about their reproductive rights and choices, along with a greater capacity to demand their rights. Each set feces national policy concerns about population trends.
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sdg5
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The expected high level of monetary expansion is likely to pin the inflation rate in Egypt at the 10 per cent mark for 2016. Yemen is set to suffer from hyperinflation as a result of its severe balance-of-payments situation and monetary factors. The currency of Kuwait, which is pegged to a basket of currencies, including the euro, also remained weak against the dollar.
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sdg5
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It is projected that four countries will experience slow urbanisation, increasing less than 2 percentage points in urbanisation levels between 2010 and 2030: Djibouti, Mauritius (which will continue to experience negative urbanisation), Swaziland and Zimbabwe. While African urbanisation patterns are diverse, up to now few may be deemed sustainable economically, socially or environmentally, as confirmed by the AEO 2016 experts’ survey (Figure 6.1S). Without productive jobs in rural areas, most economies have seen labour move from agriculture into urban, low-skilled and informal service activities.
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sdg11
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It harms the US growth potential (via a lower labour input from those that are supposed to be the most productive), fuels poverty and inequality and potentially harms individual well-being. In particular, inactivity does not only mean foregone revenues but also poorer health, and lower social engagement and even reduced marriage prospects for men.2 Lower prime-age adult labour force participation also means that an increasing number of children are growing in poverty, with higher risks of developing health issues later on, higher risks of school failure and ultimately lower employment and income prospects (OECD, 2016a). Artificial intelligence, automation and the take-up of robots are expected to trigger further job dislocations (see for instance Amtz et al, (2016) for an estimate of the share of jobs threatened by automation) and may push more workers out of labour force.
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sdg8
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This issue however is far from being settled in the literature. See Arnold et al. ( See inter alia, Ruiz and Trannoy (2008), for a microsimulation study on the short-term (that is immediate) distributional effects of consumption taxes in France. The paper runs against the prior that consumption taxes are strongly regressive.
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sdg10
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However, this was primarily because, until relatively recently, liberalization of the capital account was limited, and India was not an attractive destination for finance capital until 2004. In the past four years, changes occurred on both these fronts, and the Indian economy experienced a surge in capital inflows that exerted upward pressure on the exchange rate and reduced macroeconomic flexibility. It is in this context of much greater global economic integration than even a decade earlier (with the value of all current account transactions amounting to more than 110 per cent of GDP in 2007—2008) that India is now experiencing the unfortunate collateral damage of the global financial crisis and economic slowdown. These have already affected output and employment quite substantially.
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sdg1
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It aims to assist donors and partner countries to apply lessons from development cooperation to the management of climate finance, focusing on supporting the development of national capacities and country systems in order to effectively allocate, manage and track domestic and international climate finance in partner countries. Under this voluntary partnership, 27 countries and institutions, including the OECD and UNDP, are working together to promote coherence and collaboration. Safeguards introduced to ensure specific standards are met for international climate finance can also influence the effectiveness of this finance.
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sdg13
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The development of new technological options that promote low carbon intensity, as well as the economic costs of mitigation processes, will certainly be significant in areas such as energy, transportation and forest conservation, which will modify the current patterns of economic development (Galindo, 2009). Although these actions can have marginal mitigation effects at the global scale, they are important for ensuring environmentally sustainable development in the region. Building a culture of risk prevention and developing a large-scale climate change adaptation strategy are essential steps. Of its 550 million people, 77% live in cities of more than 2,000 inhabitants, a rate that approaches 90% in the Southern Cone and is forecast to rise across the region to 85% by 2030. Cities with more than 20,000 inhabitants alone are home to two thirds of the region's population, the highest rate in the world (ECLAC, 2012d). The system of cities in Latin America is highly varied in terms of size and conformation, but in general, the countries tend to have several megalopolises alongside strong urbanization and growing importance for medium-sized cities.
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sdg10
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For example, the application process by the Solomon Islands to GEF took more than two years (Maclellan, 2011). Different modalities of climate finance access have been used over the years (Box 5). Newer funds are increasingly using direct access or enhanced direct access. Executing body is at national or international level. These entities can be at the national, regional or multilateral level, and can also include non-governmental actors (e.g. as in the case of the Senegalese NIE) (AF, 2011b). The Bangladeshi Climate Change Resilience Fund (BCCRF), funded by international donors, has a management committee comprising representatives government departments (with limited donor input) which decides on funding priorities (Khan, 2012).
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sdg13
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Fishery management systems that have already implemented most if not all of the best practices are the most capable to produce positive results from climate adaptation measures. Fishery management systems that lack some elements can still benefit from management actions although the options are more limited and the condition of the ecosystem may limit responses.
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sdg14
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As ever, the OECD stands ready to contribute to these efforts to design and implement better skills policies for better jobs and better lives. This inter-ministerial project team funded the project work, worked closely with the OECD team and was responsible for organising workshops with stakeholders. Members of the inter-ministerial project team included: Ann Kristin Nilsen, Joakim Bakke, Lars Nerdrum and Lene Guthu from the Ministry of Education and Research, Lene Rathe, Agnes Marie Simensen and Thomas Saheim from the Ministry of Labour, Yngve Schroder Tufteland from the Ministry of Trade and Industry, Kari Mette Lullau from the Ministry of Local Government and Modernisation and Tonje Lauritzen from the Ministry of Finance.
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sdg4
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The DC current generated by the solar panel is stored in the battery and then converted to AC using an inverter. The bottom one labeled EMBOXO also plays the role of a load balancer and cluster manager because the load of these two modules is less than 1% of the CPU usage when handling 10 000 requests per second. The aggregation of the functions into one server reduces the number of machines and the total power consumption of the system. An embedded Linux platform with Intel Atom Z530P/Z510P was selected.
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sdg7
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Like the black church and the black press, the role of black institutions of higher learning also goes beyond the civil rights movements and extends to the Pan-African struggle. In much the same way as the black church and the black press, the existent scholarship has yet to catch up with the evidence. As with the cases of the black church and the black press, the original proceedings of the major Pan-African Congresses demonstrate that the scope and mission of black institutions of higher education transcend the bounds of continental U.S.A. This chapter analyzes the role of black institutions of higher learning in the Pan-African movement through (1) the role of the Historically Black Colleges and Universities, (2) the creation of institutions of higher learning in Africa by major proponents of Pan-Africanism, and (3) the rise of discipline-specific organizations designed to pursue the Pan-African ideal.
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sdg16
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These are: the investment necessary to build domestic capital stock (physical capital, human capital, and so forth), which economists refer to as capital accumulation, structural change (or structural transformation), and building the capabilities of the domestic enterprise sector. The policy framework proposed here is intended to contribute to thinking about how this might be done, given the specific conditions of a typical LDC. The main novelty in the framework is that it explicitly links employment creation with the three processes through which productive capacities develop.
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sdg8
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Recent studies26 have shown that all countries in South Asia would derive huge economic benefits from transport connectivity improvements, irrespective of their size. The bulk of trade takes place through maritime corridors rather than inland corridors because of poorly developed road and rail connectivity, requiring multiple trans-shipments and explaining the high cost of bilateral trade within the subregion. A number of inland cross-border transport corridor development projects have already been proposed to remedy this situation. India, Myanmar and Thailand have been developing a trilateral highway (the IMT Highway) that links the key trade centres.
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sdg9
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The emphasis is on understanding how increasing gender equality in the labour market will affect larger processes of growth and what kinds of limits the structure of social reproduction places on the potential for development and growth. Nous relions en-suite ces regimes a des groupes de pays organises en fonction de leur structure economique et leur niveau de developpement et evaluons les consequences macroeconomiques d'un recul des inegalites entre les sexes sur le marche du travail. La reproduction sociale est definie en termes de temps et d’argent necessaires pour produire, maintenirde la main-d’ceuvre,et investir dans celle-ci.
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sdg5
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In general it is possible to obtain data on quoted international prices, but there may be opaqueness in terms of the prices that are agreed privately between buyers and sellers, and in terms of other determinants of domestic prices, such the levels of private and public stocks. Following the 2007-08 price spike, an Agricultural Market Information Service (AMIS) was created by the G20 in order to improve market transparency, by providing a common pool of information on prices, production, trade, utilisation and stocks for major crops (wheat, maize, rice, soybeans) as well as on the policies that affect prices. This system is progressively improving information on the markets for key food staples and the policies that govern those markets.
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sdg2
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Recent debates on changes in Dutch land-use policy have led some academics to conclude that active land policy has reached its limits (Boelens, 2010, Buitelaar, 2010, Munoz-Gielen, 2010, van der Krabben, 2011). One reason is financial: it requires long-term, front-end investment by government bodies (mainly municipalities) on the expectation that they will be able to recoup the costs by selling building plots. But the downturn of the property market since 2008 has resulted in building plots being sold much more slowly and for less than forecast. In some cases, this has resulted in municipalities suffering huge losses that will never be recovered.
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sdg11
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The experience of Oportunidades suggests that as CT programmes grow in emerging economies, more resources will be invested in means-tests and hence these are more likely to capture the real welfare situation of the household. First, different thresholds for entry into and exit out of the programme could be established. Second, a gradual benefit withdrawal with additional earned income could be introduced and enforced.
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sdg10
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This paper views the UN Office on Drugs and Crime's (UNODC) efforts to facilitate the implementation of the UN Convention of Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC) through the lens of Michel Foucault's notion of disciplinary power. Viewing its endeavours in this way brings into focus the unequal power relations generated on the underside of the binding treaty law. In particular, the paper focuses on the way state recipients of technical and financial assistance for the purposes of UNTOC implementation are disciplined through processes of development programming. The paper considers how, given the non-binding nature of its micro-norms, disciplinary power effects are resistant to challenge particularly when disciplinary processes are seen as part of a collective security initiative.
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sdg16
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The aim of TVET is to develop a skilled workforce and, if this objective is achieved, this will in turn enhance the public perception of TVET so that it is no longer seen as a second-rate source of education. Skills recognition is a mechanism for facilitating the incorporation of informal and non-formal modalities because it gives credit for learning gained through any number of pathways. Skills recognition can also provide a pathway into formal programmes and can support the mobility of the workforce across the region if mutual recognition systems are in place in the various countries.
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sdg4
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Progress was made with Complementary Law 140/2011 and Presidential Decree 8437/2015, which clarified the boundaries of federal, state and local jurisdiction over environmental issues. However, implementation and co-ordination challenges remain. Co-ordination bodies are abundant but often lack the decision-making tools, capacity and resources to get to grips with vested institutional interests. Addressing their weakness and the low capacity of most subnational authorities would help establish a nationwide level playing field in setting and enforcing environmental requirements.
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sdg15
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Recent years have seen further internationally pioneering activities related to patient safety, such as the Danish Safer Hospital Programme. Another important component is the Danish system for adverse event reporting, co-ordinated by the National Agency for Patient Rights and Complaints (NAPRC). In doing so, many actors across the health care landscape have concurred in making quality of care a key priority.
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sdg3
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Micro-regions in Hungary are statistical sub-regions. There are 149 micro-regions in total and Budapest is not included in the system. Day care comprises health care services delivered to patients who are formally admitted to hospitals, ambulatory premises or self standing centres but with the intention to discharge the patient on the same day.
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sdg3
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Next, employment and welfare officers develop an individual action plan for the client through a joint interview. The client is registered for work at the PES office and is referred to vacancies once his or her job preparation is completed. The Employment Support Programme for welfare recipients (cont.)
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sdg8
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Amenable mortalily refers to cremature deaths that could have been avoided through trnely and effective health care. Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer mortality in men and the second highest for women after breast cancer. Deaths have increased over the past few years and are now higher than the EU average (62 per 100 000 population versus 54 in 2014). While mortality rates are lower than the EU average for women, the picture for men is quite different, recording significantly higher mortality (110 deaths per 100 000 versus 85 in the EU). Although male smoking rates are higher, the figures may also suggest issues around utilisation of care. However, enforcement has been weak and the ban appears to be widely ignored except for on public transport and in medical facilities.
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sdg3
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Some programmes prefer the use of coarse measures of biodiversity to facilitate simpler exchanges whereas others have opted for more a detailed representation of biodiversity through more fine-scale measurement of individual characteristics (Thomas, Brandao and Chomitz, 2004). Successful indicators capture the key components of biodiversity that must be protected, according to regulatory requirements, or in the absence of such requirements, that society wants protected. These choices may be informed by the types of biodiversity and ecosystem services that are valued by stakeholders, the latest scientific understanding and the availability of data to populate the indicator at a reasonable cost/benefit ratio (Figure 4.2).
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sdg15
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It should also be recognised that not all reforms have gone to plan. As outlined in the regular reviews conducted by the European Commission and European Central Bank, there have been delays in implementing some reforms and in some instances have led to unintended consequences including, for example, shortages in medical supplies and continuing arrears in paying providers of health care. The following discussion provides examples of some of the main instruments used by countries in their efforts to reduce health care expenditure and restructure national health care systems. While a substantial number of papers have been written on crisis-related reforms, the literature does not provide complete coverage. The summary reported here does not attempt to list all reforms.
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sdg3
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Recently, the burden of such discrimination on economic growth has been estimated to cost up to USD 12 trillion for the global economy. Yet, using standard economic indicators such as GDP as a measure of social progress is inherently limited. What is equally important is assessing the impact of gender inequality on other measures of well-being. Using subjective well-being indicators, for instance, allows a broader perspective of the complex consequences of gender-based discrimination in social institutions.
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sdg5
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While the instrument was initially designed for flood risk assessment, it can be adapted to reflect risks of scarcity or the costs of supplying water in a water scarce region. If they do not, there is a risk that the supplier overspends in infrastructure development. This is one of the major roles of the economic regulator in England and Wales (see Box 3.2). In the Netherlands, recent discussions on financing flood protection by the Regional Water Boards indicate that expenditures should not be driven by the capacity to raise funds (OECD, 2014b).
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sdg6
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The law of international responsiblity serves two main goals: providing reparation of individual states (or other victims) and the preservation of public order. Traditionally it has been held that despite these quite different aims, the law of of international responsibility is of a unitary nature, consisting of a single set of principles that applies to all breaches of all rules of international law. The article argues that in present international law thus unity cannot be maintained. On the one hand there is need for more refined principles of reparation and compensation. On the other hand there is a need for better accountability principles. Just as domestic law does not treat tort law and constitutional or administrative law under one set principles, international responsiblity must be more differentiated if it wishes to remain relevant in the 21st century.
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sdg16
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For example, comparing the labour tax wedge for a single individual at 67% and 167% of the average wage, this wedge increases by only a tenth in Brazil, compared to an increase in the labour tax wedge by one quarter in the average OECD country (Gandullia et al., Social security contributions are currently capped at about twice the average wage, and this could be reconsidered to achieve more progressivity. This is not unique to Brazil, in fact consumption taxes tend to have less favourable distribution effects than personal income taxes in most countries.
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sdg10
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According to ECLAC estimates, disasters dating back to 1972 have caused approximately 311,000 fatalities, displaced 34 million people and caused US$ 140 billion in damages and US$ 70 billion in losses (at 2000 prices) (see Bello, Ortiz and Samaniego, 2012). Analysis of the vulnerability and exposure of coastal regions in Latin America and the Caribbean to the potential alterations of climate change has identified countries in which almost the entire population lives in flood-prone areas. These include the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Cayman Islands, the Bahamas, Barbados, Grenada and Dominica.
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sdg10
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A more stable and credible policy environment is particularly conducive to private investment. Generally, a large number of international organisations and NGOs are active in the above case study countries. Nordic actors have shown to be particularly engaged in the energy and forestry sectors, for example in Peru and in Ethiopia.
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sdg13
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Economic planning and physical planning should be co-ordinated. Move from administratively constrained, short-term subsidising policies to co-operative, multi-actor-based long-term investment strategies. This would make it possible to create mobile, resilient and green environments for residential and economic activities, while reducing the costs of development. Nowadays, rural communities adjacent to large cities are excluded from the official procedure of planning and management of urban development. Cities are treated separately from the neighbouring rural and other urban areas. Regional and urban development instruments are not coherent.
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sdg11
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A small number of NCls and NC2s from Annex I Parties were submitted in hard copy only and the submission dates of these reports are not available on the UNFCCC website. As of May 2016, one non-Annex I Party (Mexico) had submitted its fourth and fifth national communications. Over the past decades, Parties have gained experience that may be useful in designing the future transparency framework under the Paris Agreement. The quality and breadth of emissions inventories has generally been improving over time, including improvements in the quality of underlying data and emissions factors.
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sdg13
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As agreed by 23 international organisations and 192 countries in 2000, MDGs include 8 goals and 18 concrete targets that support sustainable development. Accomplishing this goal would help to tackle most development issues. Access to water is a vehicle to eradicating poverty and hunger, addressing gender equality (women’s empowerment and girls’ education), and reducing child mortality and major water-related diseases. Water accessibility cuts across sectors and is affected by policy decisions in multiple areas, lack of access to water can result in many cumulative impacts.
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sdg6
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There were co-payments for outpatient services across all programmes, except for SSK pensioner and dependents who had to pay TRL 0.8 per outpatient visit. For inpatient services there were no copayments. For outpatient pharmaceuticals, coinsurance rates for active workers and dependents under SSK, Emekli-Sandigi and Bag-Kur were 20%, while for pensioners and dependents they were 10%. At the centre of the Health Transformation Programme was a consolidation of multiple health insurance schemes into a single payer.
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sdg3
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Today, the pastoralists are Arabophone, including the Shuwa and Fula Mbororo from central Nigeria to the Central African Republic and to the northern Democratic Republic of the Congo in the case of the latter. This can create problems with other pastoral populations and farmers who have no tradition of complementary co-existence with nomads (Map 6.2). Unwelcome among the local population, they often carry weapons to deal with livestock raiding and are sometimes taken (rightly or wrongly) for militia. The situations are too complex to speak of simple wars between nomadic pastoralists and farmers.
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sdg2
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During 2013 for example, more than 43 000 inspections were carried out in workplaces to verify the fulfilment of social security obligation (OECD, forthcoming). Together, these policy reforms are encouraging moves to tackle informality in Mexico. First, evidence suggests that public social spending is reduced by informality because informal workers do not contribute to social protection and insurance. Second, the quality of social protection is one of the forces driving informality. A lack of social protection (such as unemployment benefit) might create incentives to search for work in the informal economy, to avoid falling into poverty.
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sdg3
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Roach (2003) shows that US estate and gift taxes were the most progressive elements of federal taxation because they applied only to large estates/gifts and because rates were progressive. Among the countries that reduced or abolished wealth taxes since the mid-1990s, some have increased the taxation of top incomes (Germany) or capital income (Luxembourg and the Netherlands). Spain introduced a wealth tax in September 2011.
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sdg10
|
The monitoring of behaviour, perceptions and attitudes among city dwellers could also add value. It seems natural, however, to focus on casualties as the measurable outcome which matters the most to people. This material should be used to support a more vigorous approach to road safety management, with a goal of closing the gap and matching the best-performing cities. It should also be noted that no single indicator could capture all aspects of performance: a city may perform well on some aspects and poorly on others.
|
sdg11
|
As ODA-supported activities potentially relevant to building capacity for climate change activities can be quite extensive, reporting in BRs may only present a partial picture of such support. Capacity-building support in adaptation is increasingly linked to support for broader development priorities, for example, recognising the need for enhanced capacities across a broad set of economic actors. Donors integrate capacity-building into all funding programmes as a matter of good development practice, making support for climate-related capacity-building more difficult to independently track and report (Ellis et al., Germany notes in its third BR that “technology transfer and capacity-building are components of virtually all of the German government’s bilateral cooperation projects and cannot be categorised separately” (Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, 2017[i7]). Denmark raises this challenge in the context of its biennial reporting, its second BR does not distinguish between public and private sector activities (UNFCCC, 2016(igj).
|
sdg13
|
Creative cities act as loci of experience, exchanging good practices and cooperating on an international level. Aligning with SDG indicator 11.3.2, the "proportion of cities with a direct participation structure of civil society in urban planning and management that operate regularly and democratically',' creative cities have successfully utilized local partnerships and fostered civic participation. The cultural and creative industries account for over 30 million jobs worldwide.
|
sdg11
|
Details on the aggregate budget and the funding sources to implement the cross-cutting strategy are also provided. In addition, environment and climate change are incorporated into the plan as one of six cross-cutting issues. Targets under this section include developing the forest sector (including identification, demarcation and conservation of forest resources, increase in forest cover, and increase in socio-economic benefits of forests) and wildlife conservation and development with targets for PAs (including demarcation of new wildlife zones, monitoring illegal wildlife activities, development of benefits of wildlife zones, and participatory actions in demarcation, conservation, and benefit from PAs).
|
sdg15
|
The development of “managerial and entrepreneurship skills” are also required for higher education programme accreditation. Despite the progress made, the results are still at a low level. In 2004, only 30 out of 2 275 graduate respondents chose to get involved in entrepreneurship either by running a business on their own or by being part of a team. Several universities participate in the government’s incubator programme MTDC, the National Unipreneur Development Programme (NUDP) that stimulates technology-related start-ups and university-industry relationships, and the annual business plan competition (MIBPC).
|
sdg4
|
Stronger female labour participation, in particular in full-time jobs, increases family income and improves career prospects for women. Higher income for women fosters their financial independence, reduces individual, family and child poverty risks, improves resilience against adverse financial shocks and increases retirement entitlements and wealth. The model is based on a growth accounting framework that allows for adjustments in structural parameters that reflect changes in the work-life balance between women and men, namely the transition towards a more balanced dual-earner dual-carer model (Box 2.2). Results suggest that full-time employment of women is likely to benefit most from spending on leave and birth grants, spending on childcare services in general and an the increase in the coverage of formal childcare facilities for children aged 0-2 years in particular.
|
sdg5
|
The post-revolutionary population control policy and the availability of contraceptives through urban health clinics and rural health houses (Salehi-Isfahani, Abbasi-Shavazi and Hosseini-Chavosi, 2010) have been instrumental in the rise in the contraceptive prevalence rate from around 49 per cent in 1989 to around 72 per cent in 2000. The total fertility rate also declined from around 7 children per women in 1980 to around 1.8 children in 2011 (Abbasi-Shavazi, McDonald and Hosseini-Chavosi, 2009, Abbasi-Shavazi and Hosseini-Chavoshi, 2014). In response to the low level of fertility, there has been a population policy reversal towards a pro-natalist approach in recent years. The proponents of the new policy argue that contraception has had a strong impact on fertility decline and, thus, contraceptives should not be provided freely under the new pro-natalist policy (Abbasi-Shavazi and Hosseini-Chavoshi, 2014, Roudi, 2012). This may lead to an increase in the level of unintended pregnancies and abortion.
|
sdg3
|
In Chicago, the city’s Climate Action Plan recognizes the uncertain nature of the challenge and is expected to evolve as new information from assessments and changing priorities comes to light. All three initiatives exemplify clear-cut approaches to avoidance of path dependence, constant re-evaluation of information and redesign of policy interventions so as to improve outcomes. Under the programme, research was conducted and pilot projects were implemented which demonstrated the importance of learning from experiences and from stakeholder dialogue and knowledge exchange.
|
sdg13
|
This has not changed, although youth employment programmes have an indirect impact on these possibilities. Unlike in many Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, there are no robust State policies for subsidized rent, cooperative housing or scholarships for tuition and room and board. Importance of supply in the labour market.
|
sdg5
|
The use of European Union Structural Funds in Slovenia, for example, illustrates how too much local control can lead to a focus on local amenities and needs, to the neglect of wider regional growth objectives (OECD, 2011c). This can make it difficult for cities to budget and plan effectively, to ensure public service delivery and maintenance, and to invest in more strategic long-term priorities. In Antofagasta (Chile), for example, local projects are often designed with little certainty as to whether or not funding will be available, making it difficult to manage funding flows, and ultimately, discouraging potential investors (OECD, 2013g).
|
sdg11
|
It analyzes the social model of disability approach that is adopted by the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Unlike the medical model, disability shall be understood as the interaction between the limitation or natural deterrent suffering person in their physical functions, mental and / or intellectual and social barriers. The paper follows qualitative analysis, basing on bibliographical and documentary research that showed the change in paradigm of international documents on human rights, focusing on the inclusion of people with disabilities and mitigation of social barriers to participate in community life, social and politician.
|
sdg16
|
ABSTRACTThis article analyses the migration of the common law doctrine of precedent to civil law constitutionalism. Using the case study of Mexico and Colombia, it suggests how this doctrine should be tailored to the civil law context. Historically, the civil law tradition adhered to the doctrine of jurisprudence constante that grants relative persuasiveness to precedents, once they are reiterated. However, the trend is to consider single constitutional precedents as binding. Universalist judges are borrowing common law concepts to interpret precedents joining the global trend while particularists consider such migration a foreign imposition that distorts the civil law theory of sources. This article takes a dialogical approach and occupies a middle ground between universalist and particularist approaches. The doctrine of precedent should be adopted, but it must also be reconfigured considering three distinctive features of the civil law: (a) canonical rationes decidendi, (b) precedent overproduction, and...
|
sdg16
|
This has developed into a separate field of knowledge, which it is crucial that leaders are aware of and that becomes an integral part of the exercise of leadership in academia. The strategy is to concentrate more research resources on large units, programmes and elite environments. In particular, the top-level leadership at the centres of excellence in all of the Nordic countries is highly male dominated (see Table 2).
|
sdg5
|
As the end of a highly favourable cycle for the region draws near, there are a few warning signs on the horizon: although employment and productivity have grown, profound changes in the production structure have failed to materialize. Female workforce participation remains highly stratified (see figure 1.16): women from low-income sectors show much lower participation and employment rales then women from upper-middle- and high-income sectors, with the gap being wider than for men (especially in the case of the participation rate). The high degree of differentiation in female workforce participation by income quintile is associated with the gendered pattern of division of labour, limited capacity to pay for care and household services, and maternity at early ages.
|
sdg10
|
Introduction: security failure versus state failure Paul Kenny and Monica Serrano Part I: The Background 1. The Mexican state and organized crime: an unending story Paul Kenny and Monica Serrano 2. Transition to dystopia: 1994-2008 Paul Kenny and Monica Serrano Part II: Security Failure at Home... 3. Arbitrariness and inefficiency in the Mexican criminal justice system Ana Laura Magaloni 4. Accounting for the unaccountable: the police in Mexico Ernesto Lopez-Portillo 5. Security versus human rights: the case of contemporary Mexico Alejandro Anaya Munoz Part III: ... and Abroad 6. Drug trafficking and US-Mexico relations: causes of conflict Jorge Chabat 7. Mexico's war on terrorism: rhetoric and reality Athanasios Hristoulas 8. The Mesoamerican dilemma: external insecurity, internal vulnerability Raul Benitez and Arturo Sotomayor Conclusion: Authoritarian evolution Paul Kenny and Monica Serrano
|
sdg16
|
Partial double entry of data collected through the paper versions of the questionnaires by two key-entry operators was required as an effective means of detecting and reducing systematic or incidental data cntiy errors. Here, the advantage of the online data collection option becomes evident because data entry is already predefined in terms of value ranges and variable types. The data submitted by national centres was monitored closely by the TALIS 2018 International Research Consortium to verify the completeness and quality of the data received.
|
sdg4
|
Sound environmental management also encompasses major goals such as significantly expanded use of sustainable energy sources and increased energy demand management. This section considers these capacity requirements, first for the government sector and then for energy suppliers, the private sector, and civil society. These requirements are critical, but they are not specifically related to the energy sector and as such are better addressed in a broader, cross-sectoral discussion of environmental capacity requirements. Although increased end use energy efficiency and reduced end use environmental impact are among the goals articulated above in Section 5.2, the sector-specific capacity requirements to achieve this are beyond the scope of this paper.
|
sdg7
|
Limited resources are often spread thinly and there is a lack of critical mass to generate comprehensive regional approach that would have real impact at the cross border regional level. Each institution has responded according to their own mission to the social, cultural and environmental needs. Collaborative mechanisms between the higher education institutions at the state level or Northern Corridor Economic region to build capacity and foster joint efforts remain limited in scope and representation. Inter-ethnic and inter-religious dialogue and collaboration remain limited.
|
sdg4
|
Other pollutants are pesticides, pathogens, salts, and heavy metals (USEPA, 2009). Development of land for non-agricultural uses (e.g. urban development) has replaced agriculture as the key pressure on wetlands area. Area of habitats provided by agricultural lands converted to nonagricuttural uses. However, the growth of concentrated animal operations is leading to new assessments of agriculture and air quality (Aillery et al.,
|
sdg6
|
Migration may be a channel of norms transmission challenging gender inequality in social institutions at home when moving towards countries with low levels of discrimination. It can however reinforce discrimination when moving towards countries with high levels of discrimination. While Naghsh Nejad and Young (2012) and Naghsh Nejad (2013) focus on institutionalised gender inequality in OECD countries, this paper considers migration flows between developing regions.
|
sdg5
|
Demand for "luxury" foods, meat, dairy products and vegetable oils, increases (de Haen et al., It is also associated with dietary shifts towards more processed and pre-prepared foods (Popkin, 2001, de Haen etai, 2003). Many basic food staples consumed today in Africa, such as rice, maize, cassava, banana, groundnuts, etc., Consumption of these products were first introduced in urban centres and then spread to rural areas.
|
sdg2
|
Other technologies, such as 3D printing, which allows the creation of physical objects from digital images, has large potential for manufacturing as it allows customizable products at low prices. However, concerns have been raised about the possibilities of using 3D printing technologies for malicious puiposes, e.g. the creation of weapons, or unintended consequences, e.g. health issues relating to printing process or the plastic used. The popularity of social media and the large amount of data generated from individuals’ digital presence has elevated the need for regulation of the use and protection of user-generated data.
|
sdg9
|
Adulthood stressors, history of childhood adversity, and risk of perpetration of intimate partner violence. American journal of preventive medicine, 40(2), 128-138. Violencia intrafamiliar y transferencias monetarias condicionades. Transfers, behavior change communication, and intimate partner violence: Post-program evidence from rural Bangladesh.
|
sdg5
|
As noted above, all major emitters, including notably China, must participate in abatement efforts for global-climate-change goals to be in reach. Based on the maximum commitments made by other OECD countries, OECD (2010a) estimates that the countries with high emissions intensity (Canada, Australia and New Zealand) would incur somewhat larger income losses while Japan would incur a smaller income loss. According to OECD (2010a), the US target, taken together with the declared targets of other industrialised countries, would lead to a 12-18% reduction in GHG emissions in 2020 compared with 1990 levels.
|
sdg13
|
The project developer can choose whether to create its own offset or to pay into the compensation fund. An example of a developer-created offset is PEMEX’s Jaguaroundi project, in which the state oil company aggregated its required offsets into a single 961 ha tract of tropical rainforest near PEMEX refineries. The compensation amount per hectare is calculated using the average cost of reforestation activities (not including the cost of purchasing the land) instead of an estimate of the value of the environmental service affected.
|
sdg15
|
Only by using longitudinal data one can understand the processes behind cross-sectional statistics: the events leading individuals into and out of poverty, and the associated impact on their living standards. Longitudinal poverty analysis can also identify ways in and out of poverty, which can help policymakers adopt better safety nets or other inclusion policies. Discrepancies between international and national databases often result from differences in the ways in which the associated indicators are defined and reported. Empty cells indicate that the corresponding figures do not appear in either database, for any of the years taken into consideration (from 1990 to 2009).
|
sdg1
|
The value of ecosystem services lost annually worldwide has been estimated at between US$ 2 and 5 trillion a year, as of 2008. With populations and economies continuing to grow, the value of these increasingly scarce services is only going to increase. Extreme weather events and degraded slopes combine to increase the likelihood of flash floods and landslides and.
|
sdg15
|
Source: City of Louisville (2004). Reliability of supply may vary on a daily or weekly basis, as well as on a seasonal basis. Increased reliability avoids first of all the need for households to store water for shortage situations and induces therewith cost savings, as space and material is economized. Furthermore, people might benefit from a feeling of confidence in water supply and from increased comfort.
|
sdg6
|
The key requirement is quick action based on the highest possible levels of accuracy. It is therefore critical that the estimation of post-disaster damage should be made in an objective and reliable manner with evidence-based quantitative information. This combines PDNA sectoral assessment methodology with the use of real or near real-time satellite data including geospatial solutions (Box IV-4).
|
sdg13
|
First, it cannot be assumed that the mere existence of an STI ministry will ensure a net increase in total resources for STI. Second, experience indicates that the ministry option is most effective when the ministry is involved (sometimes as primus inter pares) in an interdepartmental co-ordination body with other ministerial departments. Such a body oversees policies that can affect innovation performance, and the distinction between policy design and policy implementation functions is clear.
|
sdg9
|
The German questionnaire was almost identical to the one used in the other IVAWS countries, in that it included seven acts of physical violence and five acts of sexual violence. However, it omitted two measures: a residual category asking about "other" types of violence and one type of sexual violence that was considered to be extremely rare. The French questionnaire utilized only three screening questions: two related to physical violence and one related to sexual violence.
|
sdg5
|
This book addresses a key issue that confronts emerging democracies in Africa: how to make governments accountable. Combining insights from public law and political studies, the specific focus of this edited volume is on various institutions and mechanisms of accountability, their effectiveness in holding governments to account and how these institutions themselves are being held accountable. The judiciary, national prosecuting authorities, human rights commissions, political parties and informal mechanisms are critically assessed in terms of their contribution to ‘accountable government’. The book also discusses different sources of accountability that are specifically relevant in the context of Africa’s young democracies.
|
sdg16
|
The balance of the overall generation portfolio, as well as the potential costs of environmental externalities that may have to be paid in the longer term should always be an integral part of the discussion whenever countries negotiate with donors on investment in new assets. Although international coal prices have risen dramatically over the past decade, the direct costs of coal-fired generation are often low compared to other sources, especially if the coal can be used close to its source, reducing transport costs. Political economy considerations may well prevent sufficient compensation being paid to developing countries to incentivise them to leave these resources in the ground.
|
sdg7
|
Obviously, this reserve capacity adds to the upfront investment cost, requiring a trade-off between investment and distribution costs. Since the daily peak demand in rural Indian areas typically occurs in the evening through lighting loads, replacing incandescent lights by compact fluorescent lamps can help to reduce the peak load. Around 404 million people in India, or 36% of the population, mostly living in rural areas, have no access to electricity (IEA, 2010c). Rural electrification has been an important issue of India's policies since its independence. Initially the focus was on electrification of irrigation pumps for agriculture, especially during the time of the green revolution in the 1960s.
|
sdg7
|
Although deliberation has a central place in democratic theory, scholars know little about how it actually works. Most deliberative theorists emphasize the many good consequences of deliberation. By contrast, Mansbridge suggests that deliberation in certain circumstances may exacerbate conflict. Scholarship on racial politics suggests that each hypothesis is complicated by implicitly racial language. Using a quasi-experiment, we contrast the rhetoric in two town meetings about school desegregation: a segregated meeting with homogeneous interests, in which segregated Whites unanimously argued against desegregation, and an integrated meeting with heterogeneous interests, in which segregated Whites argued against integrated Whites, Hispanics, and African Americans. We find that (a) deliberation at the segregated meeting maintained consensus among segregated Whites, (b) these citizens used coded rhetoric that appeared universal, well-reasoned, and focused on the common good, but in fact advanced their group i...
|
sdg16
|
Improving policy coherence in managing fisheries can improve efficiency without compromising other objectives for the sector. Waste is both a national and global issue. Information on this subject is scarce, but what evidence there is suggests that the amount of waste, its value and environmental impact are significant.
|
sdg14
|
Finally, employers in some countries appear to be showing a greater propensity to hoard labour than in past recessions.78 By reducing the increase in unemployment, greater reliance on hours adjustment may tend to reduce the build-up of the number of long-term unemployed during the recession and the number of workers withdrawing from the labour force (or postponing labour market entry) due to poor job-search prospects, indirectly reducing hysteresis effects. However, that need not be the case. Labour market segmentation could be further heightened by increased labour hoarding, if the resulting reduction in labour turnover rates places unemployed job seekers at a heightened risk of long-term unemployment, even though there are fewer of them.
|
sdg8
|
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