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The NHS manages data reported from providers in primary care and secondary care on activities and expenditures. On its website, it reports hospital data such as average length of stay (ALOS), use of hospital and observation beds, and hospital admission rates. The NHS also reports waiting times, although this is not always considered up-to-date.
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A 2007 study found that the maximum share of energy consumption that could be produced in Luxembourg from renewable sources was 4.5%. Price guarantees and subsidies have sparked a notable increase in photovoltaic solar energy production capacity (from 54 kW in 1999 to 23 500kW in 2005). Thus, over the period 2001-08, investment in photovoltaic solar power received EUR 70 million in subsidies. It would be useful to reconsider the various systems in place for promoting renewable energy and to assess and review them from the viewpoints of economic efficiency and environmental effectiveness. Opportunity costs of the funds allocated to promoting renewable energy and those devoted to energy savings should be assessed. Luxembourg’s electricity prices before tax are the highest in the OECD, particularly for small companies and households.
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The global trend of reshoring by multinational enterprises (MNEs) -which may also affect Costa Rica - might impact on growth prospects through FDI. After the failure of the import-substitution model in fostering domestic industrial development and the global crisis of the 1980s, the country adopted a new' economic paradigm based on global economic integration. By the early 1990s, Costa Rica had started to see the benefits of this new outw'ard-oriented model of development, and became one of the leaders in the region in terms of market openness and liberalisation.
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To achieve impact in increasing farming systems resilience or reducing greenhouse gas emissions, climate finance must focus on using strategic leverage points to direct broader financing volumes towards climate outcomes. At the same time, capacity constraints are a major obstacle to the effectiveness of all climate finance mechanisms. This applies to funds such as the GEF and the GCF, where a major impediment to impact is the high cost of project development.
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Among the regions, the population of Europe is projected to peak around 2025 at 0.74 billion and decline thereafter. The pace of growth poses enormous challenges for many of the poorest countries, which lack the resources not only to keep up with demand for infrastructure, basic health and education services and job opportunities for the rising number of young people, but also to adapc to climate change.” These services must be based on and reinforce human rights and should include sexuality education for young people, particularly adolescent girls.
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These include informality, nonregularity and part-time work. In order to quantify deprivation inthe quality of work of men and women, indices of multi-dimensional deprivations are derived using Alkire and Foster’s (2007, 2011) multidimensional poverty assessment method. The headcount ratio of multi-dimensionally deprived persons is computed by dividing the number of deprived persons with total number of persons.
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The RECS certificates can be voluntary traded. The last-resort electricity suppliers (mainly EDP Servigo Universal) are obliged to purchase all the electricity from renewables (and cogeneration plants) produced under the PRE for resale to end-customers. Portugal should consider shifting from such a system to one in which all suppliers must source a quota of their output from renewables (IEA, 2009a).
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This allows men and women to have their own moments of learning, as well as common moments, which can improve participation and the opportunities for women and men to speak freely. It can also help them to articulate their concerns, which may be more difficult in mixed groups. Providing childcare during sessions can be a major incentive in persuading women to attend.
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This is the second of two articles concerned with the acquisition by Indigenous Australians of civil rights. The first article considered the background to the legislative changes that saw Indigenous people acquire two important civil rights at the Common‐ wealth level: the vote and access to social security. Here the analysis extends to consider the three other important civil rights ‘moments’ for Indigenous people at the Commonwealth level: the 1966 equal wage decision, the 1967 referendum and the passage of the Racial Discrimination Act in 1975. Consistent with the argument developed in the first article, two factors are crucial in understanding why these three civil rights developments occurred when they did: the pressure applied to governments by activists within Australia, and the ongoing international embarrassment caused to Australia by its continued breach of international human rights instruments.
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Indicators 4.a.l (previously multi-tier I/ll) and 4.C.1 are now tier II, reflecting limited data availability. The TCG consists of representatives from the lAEG-SDGs member states and selected international agencies and institutions. Work continues or is about to begin on other thematic indicators, including language of instruction, distribution of resources and teacher professional development.
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Women also face higher labour market insecurity, as captured by the risk of extreme low pay, but their risk of unemployment is similar to that experienced by men. However, women are less exposed than men to very long working hours. Most importantly, it is crucial to observe that between-group disparities tend to decrease with the aggregate level of job quality.
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As people grow older, they face shifting pressures to fulfil community and familial expectations related to sex, marriage, and childbearing. As their roles evolve, their need for family planning often recedes from the view of policymakers and programme designers. The younger a girl is at the time of marriage, the greater the challenges she feces in controlling her own fertility, and the more subject she is to closely spaced and repeated pregnancies (Rutstein 2008). Often overlooked in the design of family planning policies and programmes are men over the age of 49 whose fertility declines only gradually as they age.
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International Water Management Institute, Pretoria. Depressive symptoms in youth heads of household in Rwanda: correlates and implications for intervention. Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, 162(9), 836-43. Gender and Food Security: Towards Gender-Just Food and Nutrition Security. Overview Report, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton, UK.
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Despite these successes, challenges remain: there are tensions between public policies that focus on regulatory or restrictive approaches and those that support development. There can also be tension between collective and private rights, with different stakeholders having different priorities, and difficulties in balancing tradition and innovation. Its population growth is 0.36 percent per year.
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Training is being provided and public awareness and education programs have been implemented. Reviews recommend that a new agency (Center for Crisis Management) be established to manage emergency situations. State Statistical Office, 2009. State Statistical Office, 2009. Total carbon in above-ground biomass is 47.9 million tons, which is about the same as in 1990. All State-owned forests are guided by 10-year management plans.
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Law and public policy is a dynamic, interdisciplinary area of study that has broad appeal to scholars, policymakers, and stakeholders. Scholarship in the subfield is critical to our general understanding of existing public policies and calls for future and reformed policies. While some of the subfield's utility and commonalities are obscured by diverging methodological approaches and topical foci, this review highlights some common fibers that run through the scholarship streams from public policy, public law, and doctrinal disciplines. We focus on several substantive policy areas to illustrate some of the best studies in the subfield and how scholars might better embrace the strength of the subfield's diversity by coordinating with scholars with similar topical interests. In so doing, we attempt to articulate clearer boundaries that integrate discipline, method, and the distinction between law and public policy.
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Their combined trend trajectory (Figure 4) is highly influenced by catches in area 87, the Southeast Pacific, where El Nino oceanographic conditions strongly influence the abundance of anchoveta. The overall trends in the two areas are opposite: In area 34 catches have grown to a peak of 4.8 million tonnes, and in area 47 they have progressively decreased from the overall maximum reached in 1978, although they have been recovering in the past three years. In contrast, total catch in area 87, even if analysed excluding anchoveta, has been decreasing dramatically since its peak in 1991.
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Carbon prices will thus be an increasingly important tool to differentiate between low-carbon and high-carbon dispatchable technologies. By virtue of being connected to the same physical grid and delivering into the same market, they exert impacts on each other as well as on the total load available to satisfy demand at any given time. The interdependencies are heightened by the fact that only small amounts of cost-efficient electricity storage are available.
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Purpose – The Lebanese began their present emigration in the middle of the nineteenth century, heading towards North America, Central and South America, Europe, Africa, and Australia. Today's Lebanese diaspora is made of highly educated and prominent entrepreneurs who have created huge marks in their adopted homelands and the world. In the current study the authors aim to explore this and make suggestions for future research.Design/methodology/approach – The authors use historical literature review and synthesis in order to explore the topic and make suggestions for future research.Findings – The authors find that entrepreneurs from Lebanon have had a significant impact on the economies of many parts of the world.Originality/value – This paper is original in that it brings together the research on entrepreneurship and Lebanon so that future researchers can have good ideas as to ways to pursue future cross‐cultural research.
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This is because it is expected to lead to greater investment as a result of increasing net profits and aggregate savings. In both cases, investment in real productive capacity is understood to be the driving force for economic progress. These policies reduced inequality and led to relatively fast growth and relatively low' unemployment. However, the policy orientation from the late 1970s onwards shifted towards the former approach, resulting in greater inequality, higher unemployment and slower growth.
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Abstract I conduct an ethnography of the public policy processes around urban environmental governance in Boston, MA, Philadelphia, PA, and Baltimore, MD. In particular, I examine the structure and functioning of the public policy networks of the urban tree initiatives in order to investigate the expanding role of NGOs in public service delivery, especially related to sustainability and climate adaptation. This study concludes that urban partnerships often lack network structures that exhibit the centralization and hierarchy to roll out public programs smoothly. An overly horizontal structure leads to overlaps and gaps in management functions. Inadequate hierarchical control by public agencies increases the likelihood of gridlocks in service delivery. From an urban governance perspective, the prominent role of NGOs increases accountability of the public programs in certain limited capacities, while it creates systemic risks that compromise their legitimacy in ways that merit further investigation.
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The laws should empower EMBs to demand accountability on key parameters, including women’s representation as candidates and party leaders. The laws should also ensure adequate independence of EMBs and require gender parity in the composition of key election management personnel. This will help in tracking progress and documenting compliance with international and national norms.
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This requirement would be met to the extent that excessive prices complicate generic production in the market covered by the patent. Appropriate measures include non-enforcement of the patent, but also the granting of a compulsory license under facilitated procedures, as provided under Article 31 (k), TRIPS Agreement. In case of a competitive market, excessive pricing will only push consumers toward purchasing the competitors’ products. As a general rule, excessive pricing by dominant companies may be considered abusive and thus anti-competitive, opening the possibility to issue a compulsory license under facilitated procedures, as provided by Article 31 (k), TRIPS Agreement.
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Specific FEPs are being developed for all general, vocational and technical fields in over 250 fields of education. Articulation of equity among the national goals for education is narrow. The 2005 Education Act states that equal access to education is a principle of the education system but does not specify equity or inclusiveness among the stated education goals (see earlier for a list of educational goals). Similarly, none of the 4-year Long-Term policy objectives is directly associated with equity and inclusion as areas for further policy attention (even if some basic references are made to equity within each of the objectives).
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Only very few countries, however, link appraisal results to financial rewards and/or sanctions. In various states and territories in Australia and France (ISCED levels 1, 2 and 3) school principals and deputy principals may receive a permanent salary increment as a reward for outstanding performance. In France (ISCED levels 1, 2 and 3), the exceptional performance of school principals and deputy school principals may also be rewarded with a one-off financial bonus. In Chile (Performance Appraisal), outstanding school leaders may receive a salary increment for a fixed period of time.
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The strategies, policies and programmes generated by these processes should be embodied in a long-term national development plan aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals, as a basis both for medium-term plans such as Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers and for donor alignment. It is also important to plan for the phasing-out of access to these ISMs following graduation, including through the identification of alternatives (for example, non-LDC-specific preferential market access instruments). Nonetheless, some types of policies can be identified as being of particular relevance to graduation with momentum, having been identified in previous editions of The Least Developed Countries Report as fundamental to accelerating the development of productive capacities through capital accumulation, technological progress and structural change (UNCTAD, 2006: chap.
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However, at the system level, across all OECD countries and all countries and economies that participated in PISA 2012 there is no clear pattern between a system's overall mathematics performance and whether students in that system spend more time in regular mathematics classes or not (Table IV.1.2).17 Since learning outcomes are the product of both the quantity and the quality of instruction time, this suggests that cross-system differences in the quality of instruction time blur the relationship between the quantity of instruction time and student performance.
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In Ireland for instance, all residents are covered but entitlements to services and levels of cost sharing vary across population categories. Each resident belongs to one of two categories, depending on income level. People in Category 1 (or Medical Card Holders) are entitled to a full range of services without charge, for example general practitioner services, prescribed medicines, in-patient and ambulatory hospital care, dental and ophthalmic services, while people in Category 2 have a “limited eligibility” and must co-pay for many health services. In Italy and Spain, regions and Autonomous Communities have some latitude to adjust benefits covered or co-payments at the margins. In the United Kingdom, co-payments vary across the constituent countries: there are no co-payments on prescription drugs in Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland, while there are in England. In other countries, entitlement to health coverage is contributory, coverage is linked to the payment of social contributions or health insurance premiums.
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Government has the authority to operate lottery schemes. Since the operation of the lottery system is controlled by the government, there are issues with public trust. The people may speculate that the lottery is rigged. This issue becomes critical with an online lottery system since the unprotected data can be easy manipulated. If all combinations which have been sold are known before the drawing, the government may draw winning numbers which pay the least. Moreover, winning tickets may be added after the drawing. As a result, corruption may be inevitable. The government should operate lottery schemes with integrity which include transparency and accountability.
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Another example is Italy, which set up a National Strategic Framework (NSF) within which the Ministry for the Environment, Land and Sea collaborates with regions to set targets for the quality of integrated water services. In Mexico, CONAGUA and other federal institutions are a strong support for the Desarrollos Urbanos Integrales Sustentables (DUIS), whose goal is the building of cities with basic services that do not damage the environment and quality of life. There are also inter-institutional agreements between governmental actors involved in infrastructure management.
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For example, apart from dealing with implementation of Industry 4.0, developing countries must prepare to face the consequences of its implementation in advanced economies. Some of these consequences relate to reversed flows of foreign direct investment (FDI) and already widening technology gaps. While the ramifications for developing countries and economies in transition could turn out to be dire, economic history tells us that economies have remarkable adaptive abilities to deal with broader technological evolution and the mechanization of production. As such, the arrival of Industry 4.0 also brings opportunities for development, for example in terms of achieving the objectives set forth in the recently adopted SDGs.
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The search for cutbacks in public spending will become urgent when demand for welfare services is rising as the baby-boomers start to retire and medical innovations push up health-care costs. By 2050, one in three people across the OECD countries will be on a pension. Frugal innovation is about redesigning products and involves rethinking entire production processes and business models. Companies reduce costs so they can reach more customers and accept thin profit margins to gain volume.
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Abstract What might happen if a third-party entity had the power to implement fiscal reforms and/or punish sovereign debt defaulters? In contrast to recent history, extreme sanctions such as gunboat diplomacy and “fiscal house arrest” were used to punish debt defaulters during the period 1870–1913. We find that, after a “supersanction” was imposed, a country improved its fiscal discipline. As a result, ex ante default probabilities on new issues fell dramatically and the country spent no additional time in default. Our results suggest some type of external fiscal or monetary control may be effective in imposing discipline on serial debt defaulters.
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Is there a clear legal definition of water entitlements? Are appropriate abstraction charges in place for all users that reflect the impact of the abstraction on resource availability for other users and the environment? Are obligations related to return flow's and discharges properly specified and enforced?
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Regular reporting of adverse events was institutionalised in 2010, and a Safe Surgery checklist was introduced in the same year. The programme, run by the Ministry of Health and applying to CCSS as well as private facilities, focuses on accrediting health care providers. Accreditation is at a basic level, however, and essentially comprises verification that the facility complies with minimum requirements around staffing levels, equipment and documentation. More ambitious quality monitoring and improvement programmes have been abandoned.
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The structure of the scenario trees has three stages. The first one covers the first three forecasting hours and describes deterministically the cost optimal system operation. In the second stage of the scenario tree, which also covers three hours, five scenarios covering a forecasting horizon of four to six hours ahead are taken into consideration.
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Using discarded hard drives, discs, circuit boards and other components, sculptors are able to create works of art, some of which are quite expensive.51 Below is 'Jack', an art piece by Brenda Guyton that was on sale for USD99552. Creative forms of utilization of the e-waste would help to raise awareness while creating employment at the same time.53 An e-waste treatment facility established by Hewlett Packard in Cape Town, South Africa processed approximately 60 tons of electronic equipment, generated about USD14,000, and employed 19 people in 2008 54 . Workers refurbished and resold some products and dismantled others to sell the raw materials to businesses that recycle metals and plastics.
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This waste will be stored is surface-type storages (one per reactor), enclosed in single-use containers with capacity of 1.5 m of radioactive waste. Capacities of storages were estimated to 4,900 m3 for very low and low activity waste, 600 m3 for medium activity waste and 60 m3 for high activity waste. Design work for this site should be completed by 2026 and the start of operation is planned for 2028. A fund for financing NPP decommissioning is also to be established.
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The ministiy does not provide university hospitals with additional support to reflect dieir publicly oriented research or the higher average case complexity of patients they see. As a result university hospitals are facing challenges in retaining highly skilled staff, who are being offered considerably higher salaries in the private sector. Even those university hospitals with considerable financial capacity (such as Hacettepe) face a 60% regulatory barrier on payments from their revolving firnds to doctors salaries.
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Water supply and sanitation in the five other LGUs of the metropolitan areas is either undertaken by LGUs or by private suppliers. The existence of water districts originated in the Provincial Water Utilities Act of 1973, which created the Local Water Utilities Association (LWUA) - Water District concept, encouraging LGUs to transfer their water supply systems to water districts, on a similar model as MCWD (ADB, 2013a). The data presented below will often reflect the fragmentation of water suppliers and the lack of harmonised and available information across all areas of Metro Cebu (see section 4 for a discussion on data in the w'ater sector).
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More recent estimates indicate that employment in private environment-related businesses had already reached 1.4 million in 2006, compared to about 76 500 employed in the public environmental administration (MOE, 2009). Initiatives such as the “Eco-Town Programme” to improve resource and waste management have positively contributed to local development and employment, supporting industrial restructuring in favour of environment-related sectors. In 2008, the government launched similar initiatives - the “Eco-Model City Projects” and the “Biomass Towns” - to stimulate a local development based on climate-related activities and biomass energy (OECD, 2010a).
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This indicator is not without its limitations, since income may not be sufficient to guarantee autonomy. It is hard to carry out an analysis from a gender perspective using traditional measures of poverty because these are based on household per capita income. Using this indicator means assuming that the distribution of income within households is egalitarian, which masks the lack of autonomy experienced by women who do not perform remunerated activities because they are devoted to domestic work and care of others (mainly children, and dependent family members).
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The DoE has assessed that the INEP will have created an estimated 6 000 jobs in financial year 2008/09 (compared to 3 100 jobs created in 2001/02) (Department of Energy, 2009i). The cumulated number of jobs that have been created so far by the electrification programme has reached 32 995 (Department of Energy, 2009j). By declaring that all citizens have an equal right to basic services such as clean water, electricity, access to schools and clinics, the challenge there becomes an issue of delivery, not just allocation of funds.
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Differences are lowest in the public sector, and the rural employment programme provides equal pay for both genders. The differences in wages can partly reflect overall education levels and the types of sectors where women work (World Bank, 2012) but discrimination by gender is also likely to contribute. The legal framework for equal pay is not always enforced (Equal Remuneration Act of 1976), partly reflecting the large share of the informal sector (about 95% of employment). Unpaid family workers do not report wages therefore they are not included.
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Thailand (AUD 278 million), New Zealand (AUD 192 million), China (AUD 155 million) and Vietnam (AUD 154 million) continued to dominate as the major source of edible fisheries products imported into Australia, accounting for around 66% of total edible imports. In 2005 the Food Safety Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) Board approved the Final Assessment Report for the Primary Production and Processing Standard for Seafood which contains a scientific evaluation of risk within the seafood industiy and management options to minimise this risk. In 2005 Standard 4.2.1 - Primary Production and Processing Standard for Seafood became part of the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code. Seafood businesses are now required to comply with this standard.
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To receive payments under these programs producers must comply with applicable conservation requirements, which also apply to producers participating in conservation and crop insurance programmes. The marketing assistance loan programme continues unchanged, except that the loan rate for upland cotton, unlike the fixed rates set for other commodities, will be based on a moving average within a fixed range, with a maximum rate no higher than the rate set under previous legislation. The sugar price support programme also continues unchanged. Under the DPDP, the US Department of Agriculture will purchase dairy products for distribution to low-income Americans when milk margins fall below legislated triggers.
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Abstract This paper first reviews and critiques the dominant realist and constructivist accounts of ASEAN, which have enjoyed much prominence in The Pacific Review since the journal's founding in 1988. ASEAN behaviour and outcomes cannot be fitted into neat theoretical categories that emphasize either material or ideational variables in explanation. Instead, ASEAN displays complexities in behaviour that are the product of the contingent interaction between the material (power, territory, wealth) and the ideational (norms, ideas, identity) as member states actively seek to manage domestic order as well as regional order within and beyond ASEAN. In all of this, state interests and identities remain paramount, which means that the long-standing ASEAN norms of sovereignty/non-interference remain central to regional governance. Under these conditions, and despite the Charter's newly articulated political norms of democratization, human rights, and the rule of law, the prospects seem doubtful for building a peo...
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This paper has two key purposes. The first is to bring competition and power/politics directly into analyses of economic development in East Asia. In other words, the intention of this paper is to establish competition — defined as a historically constituted force — as integral part of the market process, the dynamics of which must be thoroughly analyzed and appreciated in order to adequately explain capitalist development in East Asia or anywhere else. My second, closely connected, purpose is to show just how and why a specific pattern of competition emerged and became embedded in South Korea's political economy. Briefly put, I contend that South Korea's rapid economic growth after the coup in 1961 was based — not on the establishment of a strong, developmental state per se — but on the emergence of an intense, but highly exclusionary form of competition, which I dub competition in closure.
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The success of GBV integrated service provision depends on co-ordinated programming that engages the different sectors across multiple levels with institutional buy-in of key stakeholders. Collaboration between the various service providers (medical, legal, police) is essential and services that are adequately resourced and located under one roof can be more readily accessed, leading to increased report and service demand as more people are able to benefit. The last decade has been the most progressive in terms of introducing new laws aimed at preventing VAWG.
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Hong Kong’s status as a Special Administrative Region of China has engendered considerable interest in its political development. Outside observers and Hong Kong people alike generally consider that greater democratization will mean greater autonomy and less democracy will mean more control by Beijing. This observation is founded on an appreciation of the fundamental role democratization plays in constitutionalism. Understanding the Hong Kong political reform debate is therefore important to understanding the emerging status of both Hong Kong and China. The Sino-British Joint Declaration and the Hong Kong Basic Law appear to require liberal human rights protection, the rule of law, and democratic rule in Hong Kong.1 This chapter considers the politics of constitutional interpretation in Hong Kong and its relationship to developing democracy and sustaining Hong Kong’s highly regarded rule of law.
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Inter-group inequalities produce strong grievances which may be used to mobilise people politically, especially when a socioeconomically deprived group is also without political power (Stewart, 2009). The 2011 World Development Report on conflict, security and violence looks at strategies governments may undertake to bring vulnerable and marginalised groups back into the fold and build and transform peaceful institutions (World Bank, 2011, Stewart, 2010). In this way, it is possible to address intergroup inequalities before they lead to conflict.
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A trial court in West Virginia submitted a certified question to that state's Supreme Court, asking whether the "wrongful conduct rule" is applicable in West Virginia. Under the wrongful conduct rule, a plaintiff may not recover damages from a defendant for injuries resulting from the plaintiff's own unlawful conduct or immoral act. At least 13 states have adopted the wrongful conduct rule. In fact, the West Virginia legislature adopted a statutory version of the wrongful conduct rule that became effective in May 2015, but that statue cannot be applied retroactively to the cases at hand. The trial court's certified question was whether, as a matter of common law, the wrongful conduct rule should be applied in West Virginia court cases that were filed before the statute became effective.
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They also make it clear that disadvantaged schools need more support so they can start regarding ethnic differences as a resource for learning, rather than an obstacle to learning (OECD, 2015b). Identifying the relationship between pre-primary education and later performance in school is challenging, because attendance at pre-school is often correlated with socio-economic advantage. When disadvantaged children enter pre-school, they already lag behind advantaged children because they are likely to have had fewer play opportunities at home to explore patterns, shapes and spatial relations, compare magnitudes, and count objects.
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One shortcoming is that they do not incorporate a land use component and so provide no information on the interaction of transport and land use. These indicators can potentially include the individual and temporal component by measuring access at a particular time for a particular social group. Additionally, infrastructure-based indicators tend to disregard the equity and distributional and justice effects of accessibility and thus are less suitable for social evaluations in the form of equity-based analysis.
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Abstract In the spirit of the 25th anniversary edition of The Leadership Quarterly , as the world's premier outlet for leadership research, we have reviewed qualitative and historiometric research across those 25 years. Qualitative research is a complex and cluttered area of scholarship. This is not because there is an inherent confusion about it. Rather, it is because ‘qualitative’ research is a cover-all term for a wide range of research strategies, paradigms, parent disciplines, sources of data, and methods of analysis for them. More so than in previous journal review articles, we explored variation in qualitative analysis as well as variety in qualitative data. In terms of methodologies, our efforts concentrated on case study, content analysis, grounded theory and historiometrics. We also examined trends toward post-positivism, post-modernity and liquid modernity, and their resultant benefits for researching leadership. Future directions for leadership research are posited.
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Lisbon’s integrated economic strategy (2011) promotes Lisbon as one of Europe’s most competitive, innovative and creative cities, aiming to create new and alternative forms of employment for all its residents in response to the economic challenges. Type I cities (ageing cities with slow population growth) need to consider how to increase the employment of young and older people to boost economic growth and increase local revenues. Type II cities (young cities, ageing rapidly) have to weigh carefully the benefits of increasing the employment of older people without sacrificing job opportunities for young people.
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Following a second reform in 2007, firms with 50 or more workers now have to hand over the severance contributions to the government, which subsequently makes severance payments to the worker. Accordingly, they encourage employers to invest in their workers' training, which increases their productivity and employability. Other positive effects of more permanent labour relations include greater trust, cooperation and loyalty between the two parties, in addition to stimulating team spirit, which could generate higher productivity and facilitate the introduction of new technologies.
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Ghana's Supreme Court recently held that the regulator of the legal profession violated the country's constitution when it imposed extralegal admission requirements on LLB degree holders seeking entry to the School of Law. Nevertheless, the court relied on the prospective overruling doctrine to issue consequential orders that allowed the regulator to persist with its unconstitutional actions and left the constitutionally-injured students without a remedy. Judges employ the prospective overruling doctrine when they invalidate prior statutes or precedents while simultaneously limiting the effect of the new rule to future cases. Here, however, the court did not invalidate a statute or a precedent, mooting the issue of the temporal effect of a new rule. Rather, the court found that the regulator's actions had violated the constitution and it misapplied the prospective overruling doctrine to validate the violation. Consequently, the court's consequential orders undermined its declarations of unconstitutionality, rendering the latter inconsequential.
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The index presents a rich data set to identify and analyse global innovation trends. Other countries and areas in the region that ranked highly in the index in 2015 were Hong Kong, China (eleventh), the Republic of Korea (fourteenth), New Zealand (fifteenth), Australia (seventeenth), and Japan (nineteenth). At the other end of the scale, countries in the region that ranked poorly among the 141 countries analysed were Myanmar (138th), Nepal (135th) and Pakistan (131st).
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In effect, the minimum age of marriage is 21 years. Furthermore, any person who plays a role in early or forced marriage of a minor is liable to a term of imprisonment of six months, according to Article 195 of the Organic Law instituting the Penal Code. The 1988 Civil Code contains provisions related to marriage. Where the challenge is based on the fact that either or both spouses were not of age at the time of the marriage, such a challenge can be brought by the spouses, by any interested party, or by the Ministere Public.
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It should be noted that growth of TFP has been stronger in agriculture than in the economy as a whole over the last two decades. For example, in 2001-09 agricultural TFP growth was 3.7% per year compared with 2.1% for the whole economy (Fuglie, 2012 and OECD, 2010a). Since 2005, the value of agro-food exports has been consistently more than twice the value of agro-food imports and its share in total exports increased from 11% in 2000 to 21% in 2010. Palm oil and natural rubber alone accounted for 60% of total agro-food exports in 2008-10. Asian countries are the main export destinations.
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When disease becomes a threat to security, the balance between the need to fight the disease and obligation to protect the rights of individuals often changes. The COVID-19 crisis shows that the need for surveillance poses challenges to the right of privacy. We focus on the European Union (EU), which has a strong data protection regime yet requires its member states to exchange personal data gathered through contact tracing. While public authorities may limit the right to privacy in case of public health threats, the EU provides little guidance when such limitations are proportionate. To define standards, we analyze existing EU case law regarding national security measures. We conclude that on the proportionality of contact tracing in the EU it is difficult to reconcile public health measures and individual rights, but guidance can be taken from understandings of proportionality in the context of security, particularly in the current COVID-19 emergency.
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Among the population of 15 and older the average number of years of schooling is 10.2 for Arabs and 13 for Jews. Nearly half of Jews have 13 or more years of schooling compared with fifth of Arabs. Dropout rates for Arab students in 9th and 11th grade were 8.1% in the mid-2000s compared with 3.9% for Jews (OECD, 2010).
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In some situations the regulator can ask to suspend manoeuvring, for example if the physic-chemical characteristics of the core indicate a leak of a fuel element or another malfunction. Load following operation is implicitly permitted by the licenses, and has been practised since many years, in fact from the beginning of operation. License conditions describe the permitted rates of power change, the maximum frequency of power variation and further operational details. Requirements due to “conditions of safe operation’’ give additional constraints on load following operation, i.e. conditions arising from measures on fatigue safety.
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sdg7
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For example, as highlighted in Chapter 2, the gender pay gap often increases once education is accounted for. Context specific factors - not only women and men's varying levels of education, but also related to types of employment, hours worked, and institutional and policy environments - can also make cross-country comparisons of the unadjusted pay gap difficult. Household surveys usually include questions for women about decision-making at the household level, which provide valuable insights into women's voice and agency in their daily lives. Women's political participation, however, is currently measured using the percentage of women in national parliaments, which does not reveal anything about the impact of women's representation on policy or about women's decision-making in other spaces, including in local governments or civil society organizations.
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sdg5
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Criminal laws and other legal restrictions dis-empower women, who may be deterred from taking steps to protect their health, in order to avoid liability and out of fear of stigmatization. By restricting access to sexual and reproductive health-care goods,services and information these laws can also have a discriminatory effect, in that they disproportionately affect those in need of such resources, namely women. As a result, women and girls are punished both when they abide by these laws, and are thus subjected to poor physical and mental health outcomes, and when they do not, and thus face incarceration’ (ibid.,
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sdg5
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This result should be interpreted with care. Mexico’s relatively low gender pay gap also likely reflects selection effects around the relatively small share of women whose expected payoff incentivises participation in the labour market. A recent decomposition of the gender wage gap in Mexico attributes about half of the gap to differences in women’s and men’s endowments (including human capital) and employee characteristics, the other half remains unexplained (De la Cruz Toledo, 2016).
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sdg5
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On the other hand, rural development measures are focused much more (to the extent of 70%) on modernising farms and maintaining agricultural activity than on protecting the environment (Table 2.6). The premium for maintaining the countryside and landscapes is intended above all to prevent the conversion of permanent prairies and pastures into cultivated lands, and hence to preserve farming activity (with additional compensatory payments for agriculturally less favoured areas). It involves little in the way of ecological targets or measures for achieving them.
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sdg6
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However, much research is needed to better understand the driving forces, motivations and success conditions or performance of migrant women entrepreneurs. Sometimes ethnic characteristics are prominent in their behaviour, at other times gender-related characteristics determine their attitudes. Here, the critical question is: Does this dual effect bring about double barriers or more opportunities?
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sdg5
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For those who are better off, low levels of maternity pay force women who can afford childcare back to work quickly after childbirth and, as women now take shorter periods of time off to have children, they find that they have improved their position in the labour market. While governments are keen to support childcare, particularly for the least well-off, there is a trade-off between using state funds to improve the quality of care and improving the affordability of care for all. While the former has been shown to improve social mobility, subsidising care is an important anti-poverty tool because it boosts women’s employment.
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sdg1
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Consideration of the tariff equilibrium fund should help address cost-recovery problems, e.g. with regard to higher service costs in areas with low population density. Any action in this field cannot be separated from the development and application of efficient territorial planning instruments, so as to prevent current expansion of residential and industrial areas in a scattered and disorderly way that would make water and wastewater infrastructure planning difficult and costly. Preliminary goals were established, together with timetables for their achievement and implementation mechanisms.
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sdg6
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The 20-20-20 targets oblige the countries of the European Union to reduce by 2020 their carbon emissions by 20% from 1990 levels, to increase their share of renewables in energy to 20% and to increase their energy efficiency by 20% also from 1990 levels. Yet, one needs to be careful not to privilege this dimension to the exclusion of all others. A cautionary example is provided by the otherwise interesting and well-informed presentation by Professor John Gittus, Lloyd’s of London, with the title Keep the Lights Burning. Insisting heavily on future turmoil in the Middle East and future interruptions of Russian gas, he raises the spectre of a return to “three-day week” in absence of drastic action and predicts a blackout in the United Kingdom by 2025 with a 75% loss of electrical power lasting more than one day with “2 to 5% probability” (Gittus, 2004, p. 7).
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sdg7
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Despite lower borrowing costs, subdued private investment conditions have kept overall investment stagnant at about 15% of GDP for the whole year. Meanwhile, the trade deficit widened in 2015 as exports declined, mainly due to lower cotton prices. Nonetheless, favourable workers’ remittances helped narrow the current account deficit, and foreign exchange reserve rose to an all-time high of $20.8 billion at end-2015. Downside risk includes slower growth of workers' remittances as economies in the Middle East, the major destination of Pakistani migrant workers, continue to face lower oil revenue and subdued economic activity.
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sdg8
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One of the three main focus areas is early warning. For this reason it is important to build multi-hazard systems whose value can be demonstrated more regularly. Early warning systems for geophysical and hydrometeorological hazards, for example, have many components that can be shared - both for technology and human resources (Figure III-4). Integration can not only reduce costs but improve performance. As of 2014, the total annual cost to operate and maintain the IOTWS was approximately $90 million.39 To make the IOTWS more sustainable the members are taking a multi-hazard approach and have recommended that governments enshrine their financial commitment in legal frameworks and long-term policies. A.R. Subbiah, Lolita Bildan and Ramraj Narasimhan, 2008. "
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sdg13
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Overall budgetary transfers in the PSE database (Section 2.4) include, in principle, central budget transfers and funding from external donors (bilateral and from international banks) but does not include local co-financing as there is no data on this. The allocation of DAK funds has not been entirely transparent. The allocation mechanisms set forth in the regulations are not yet well understood by many regional governments (ADB, 2010). Plantation SOEs were originally established in 1958 when the government nationalised the Dutch plantation companies. The current number of 15 is the result of a series of mergers, based on geographical location, undertaken by the government to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the SOEs. Perum is the abbreviation for perusahaan umum, meaning public corporation.
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sdg2
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Proceedings of an OECD Workshop. Effects of productivity shocks and export restrictions on welfare and food supply in Japan”, Food Policy, Vol. The Political Economy of International Trade Law. Essays in Honor of Robert E. Hudec, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Paper prepared for the conference on “Challenges Facing the World Trade System” organized by J. Bhagwati, P. Krishna and A. Panagariya, Columbia University, New York, and Johns Hopkins University (SAIS), 29 September - 2 October, Washington DC.
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sdg2
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These factors include resource-based and geographic conditions, the relative maturity of the sector, capital cost and size of the investment projects, lack of institutional track record and the role of government policies. For example, the countries with the best wind conditions in Europe are France, UK, and Ireland (with Denmark and Germany being the largest wind power producers). Austria, Finland, Sweden, and Italy are among those with good conditions concerning hydro energy generation (Reiche and Bechberger 2004).
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sdg7
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Governments should also take care not to impose burdensome and unnecessary regulation that may actually inhibit investment in broadband, impede competition, and limit the introduction of new networks, services and applications. Many of the successful deployments of new services and applications have been facilitated because they fall outside the regulatory regime or because regulators have opted not to regulate these services. Making the case for broadband and ICTs also involves stimulating demand for ICT services by adopting policies directed at making ICTs affordable for large parts of the population (e.g., low-cost terminals, and reduced taxation of ICT equipment and services) and promoting the creation of relevant and compelling content (e.g., developing digital literacy programs, e-govemment, e-health, and e-learning initiatives).
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sdg9
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Social capital: A shared understanding of (public) interest and the presence of trustworthy relationships among involved actors are important for the co-creation of policies, as they enable stakeholders and policy makers to overcome barriers to collective action. However, participatory governance is predominantly based on an administrative representation model, meaning that there is a central role for the representatives of school boards. Legally, they are one of the components of the quality triangle already mentioned in Chapter 3. In the Decree on Inspection and Support of 1991, the learning plans of education providers are positioned as an important link in the chain from attainment targets to class practice.
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sdg4
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New valuations will be implemented and updated every second year starting in 2020. The new tax system replaces a nominal tax freeze of property taxation with proportional taxation, maintaining a progressive element for the most valuable homes. No changes have been made to mortgage interest rate deductibility. Households with debt-to-income ratios above 400% are required to fix interest rates for at least five years if the loan-to-value ratio is above 60%. Thus, locally there are some concerns whether house prices are increasing faster than warranted by disposable income growth and low interest rates, thereby elevating debt-to-income ratios for new homeowners (Systemic Risk Council, 2017[i6i). This prompted the authorities to tighten financial regulation by reducing access to risky loans for households with high debt relative to income from January 2018 (Table 3).
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sdg8
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Against the backdrop of this conceptual framework and the available data, domains and indicators were consequently selected on the basis of the extent to which they offer a clear and widely accepted normative interpretation, comply with universality and rights principles and allow for cross-country comparisons. Table 2 presents the selected indicators within their domains. It also has to be noted that the indicators included in the multidimensional poverty measure reflect the situation at the time of the survey. The poverty measures employed in this paper constitute poverty headcount rates at domain level (referred to as domain poverty rates), which builds on the poverty headcount rates at the level of individual indicators (indicator poverty rates).
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sdg1
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Formally, such system effects are externalities, whose textbook definition is “an effect that is not accounted for by the one who causes it”. The essence of an externality is the lack of reciprocity between those who are affected by them to those who cause them. Usually markets establish such feedback mechanisms (“I give to you, you pay me, I receive from you, I pay you.’’), In such cases, the price mechanism is incapable of organising the usual reciprocal exchanges between those who create a good or a bad and those who enjoy it or suffer from it. Consequently, negative externalities are over-produced and positive externalities are under-produced. In the case of system effects in the electricity sector, the relative newness of the issue, the lack of firm information and the lack of an appropriate allocation of responsibilities all have contributed to a situation, in which system effects in the electricity sector are part of a general “entropy of costs”, where costs rise and profits fall without reasons that are clearly identifiable.
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sdg7
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It sets out the overall “roadmap” for the three years ahead, with a focus on the school’s key priorities and action plans. It is conceived as a living document that all school staff will use as a reference point in evaluating, developing and improving their work. It is the duty of each school’s Board of Governors to ensure that training and development needs that are identified through PRSD are reflected in the SDP and that corresponding opportunities for professional development are made available to all teaching staff. For example, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Israel, Korea and Poland have established appraisal processes specifically designed to make promotion decisions and Chile, Korea and Mexico have developed explicit reward schemes to compensate high-performing teachers through rewards or one-off salary increases.
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sdg4
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It introduced the Ordinance 22/2008 on energy end-use efficiency and promotion of renewable energy source utilization by the end-consumers based on EU Directive 2006/32/EC on the energy end-use efficiency and energy services, envisaging the establishment of a legal framework for the development and application of the national energy efficiency policy. In its present form the law translates the provisions of the Directive 2009/28/EC into internal legislation. It ensures co-financing of the projects whose direct beneficiaries are the local public administration authorities relating to the following types of investment objectives: rehabilitation and modernization of the district heating systems, thermal rehabilitation of certain public buildings and modernization of interior and exterior public lighting.
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sdg7
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The proportion of women in paid employment outside the agriculture sector has increased from 35 per cent in 1990 to 41 per cent in 2015. Over the period 1991-2015, the proportion of women in vulnerable employment (being a contributing family worker or an own-account worker) as a share of total female employment has declined 13 percentage points, from 59 per cent to 46 per cent. In contrast, vulnerable employment among men has fallen by 9 percentage points, from 53 per cent to 44 per cent.
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sdg5
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However, these results only indicate the existence of some sort of collaboration, not its frequency or intensity. Nevertheless, they are noteworthy because most innovation is incremental and involves small-scale change which would not necessarily require collaboration with universities and government research institutions. There is also considerable diversity, in all countries with available data, large firms report more co-operation with higher education or government institutions than SMEs.
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sdg9
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This report examines the situation in Canada with respect to child poverty, material deprivation affecting families, and the well-being of children and adolescents based on indicators available for comparative analysis. It also reports on policy developments to understand child poverty trends and identify some policy directions that can help reduce child poverty in the future. The report is organised as follows.
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sdg1
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Moreover, a dilemma arises in terms of monetary policy in the face of subdued economic growth, high inflation and the risk of further currency depreciation. Poverty has recently increased in the Russian Federation and could rise further amid a prolonged period of economic downturn. Although infrastructure connectivity has improved in recent years, reforms to create vibrant business support services to complement a high value-added manufacturing sector are needed.
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sdg8
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Tutoring is a rapidly expanding and profitable business with several providers listed on stock exchanges. In 2011, over 71% of families spent money on after-school tutoring, mainly at the primary and secondary levels. With rapidly growing household disposable incomes, as long as tutoring is a prerequisite to academic success, such spending will increase.
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sdg4
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However, some university officials are beginning to think more strategically about regional strengths. There are multiple examples of more strategic consortiums of universities in OECD regions with the goal of creating greater critical mass to compete for national resources and global recognition. Examples include the Georgia Research Alliance in the US, the N8 Research Partnership in the North of England.
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sdg7
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Alternative sources of information report different poverty trends, for instance, the latest Human Development Report for Pakistan reports an increase in poverty during the 1990s, while a report by the Asian Development Bank cites several studies that showed a trend for the 1990s that was the reverse of the one reported by the World Bank (see http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/nationalreports/asiathepacific/pakistan/ and http://www.adb.org/documents/reports/poverty_pak/chapter_2.pdf). Data problems may also be responsible for a reported rise in poverty in Bangladesh, which appears counter-intuitive, given the rise in GDP per capita. While poverty declined in most countries, levels of poverty went up in the Plurinational State of Bolivia, Guyana, Haiti, Panama, Paraguay, Peru and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and in urban areas of Argentina8 (table II.6).
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sdg1
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We consider the findings of a study of the experiences of Postgraduate Researchers with Disabilities and explore how this relates to academic freedom. Drawing upon the provisions of the Public Sector Equality Duty and Indirect Discrimination within the Equality Act (2010), we note that a range of existing public policy practices, such as the operation of the REF, are likely to be in breach of these obligations. We recommend revisions to existing practice that speak more widely to the general concern of academic freedom, suggesting that a consideration of anti-discrimination law – rather than a purely intellectually focussed agenda – represents a pragmatic means towards shaping the inclusivity of higher education policy going forwards.
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sdg16
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Often computed at national level, road mortality can be misleading when computed at city level, as activity levels in some cities cannot be measured by resident population alone. In urban cores, where many jobs and services are concentrated, the daytime population can be much higher than the resident population. This figure is important to better capture the activity level within an area and was provided by 19 cities. In FUAs, the assumption is that resident and daytime population are not significantly different, since the FUA definition is based on commuter flows.
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sdg11
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On June 11st, the Plenary of Autonomous Parliament approved the Public Transparency Law of Andalusia. Regardless of the undoubted relevance intrinsic that the Law has - for the reasons we will see - its approval also It is remarkable on the political level becasuse it received the support of the three parliamentary groups, which constitutes an unprecedented event in the present legislature. And the truth is that this agreement did not seem foreseeable, since the popular parliamentary group, following the lead of the State Law, defended that the Law does not comply to the regulation of the mandatory supply of information and the right of citizenship to access it, but also extend to "good governance."
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sdg16
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The research addressed the problem of stagnated hate and animosity in conflict by utilizing ICT to influence intergroup intentionality—from enmity and hatred to moderation and reconciliation during conflicts to lead toward social change that would form a path for the reconciliation process. This phenomenology introduced an interdisciplinary methodology that used Internet communication technology applications to engage the disciplines of social psychology, philosophy, politic science, and informatics, as applied in conflict to lead the community for the aspiration to moderation reconciliation and democracy. Having introduced the research project, the figure below serves to build up the theoretical foundations for the research design in researching the phenomenology of ICT in Applied Phronetic Social Science in this communication research (Fig. 2.1).
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sdg16
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Six out of ten people do not have access to safely managed sanitation services, and one out of nine practice open defecation. It is likely that the benefits of improved WASH services for vulnerable groups would change the balance of any cost-benefit analysis that accounts for changes in these groups' self-perceived social status and dignity.
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sdg6
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One way of addressing this issue is to constiuct a composite indicator. This is a task that still lies ahead and requires broad consultation and discussion because, inevitably, opinions on the most salient set of indicators will vary among stakeholders. The OECD stands ready to take this task forward. The Organisation is not only working on defining and producing good indicators as part of its overall green growth work, but the data collected by the Committee for Fisheries can help form the basis of such indicators.
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sdg14
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Both enterprises and governments must strive for closer co-operation and a stronger involvement of firms in the education of young people. Cisco set out to provide Internet-based learning and information technology (IT) skills training in half the world’s 50 least developed countries including 11 West African countries (Benin, Cote d'Ivoire, the Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal and Togo). In 2008, over 9 200 students aged between 25 and 34 were enrolled throughout West Africa (YEN-WA, 2008). A survey of the LDC Initiative conducted in six countries showed that two-thirds of respondents found IT jobs after completing the programme and that 10% started their own businesses.
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sdg8
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This article considers the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights and the former European Commission of Human Rights in respect of human rights complaints, brought under the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), about issues relating to the possession, production or distribution of materials classified as pornographic or obscene. Through a critical examination of ECHR jurisprudence relating to three rights – the right to freedom of expression, the right to respect for private life, and the right to be free from degrading treatment – the article focuses specifically on how the Strasbourg organs have shaped human rights relating to adult pornography in Europe. The article concludes by suggesting ways in which ECHR jurisprudence might be evolved to further enhance human rights protection in the future.
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sdg16
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As in other OECD countries, the principal offices deliver placement and guidance services, handle benefit claims, and refer job-seeking clients to training programmes and job-creation and subsidy schemes. They offer modem self-service facilities, such as touch-screen kiosks to consult vacancies and access to internet and printers. Suitable types of incoming clients can be referred to the special offices which, however, do not provide the full range of services.
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sdg8
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