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Gender-sensitive concepts and methods should be used in data collection in all statistical fields. In order to provide reliable comparisons between women and men, gender statistics need to correctly measure women’s and men’s participation in and contribution to society (Hedman, Perucci and Sundstrom, 1996). Conventional concepts and methods used in data collection are often inadequate to reflect the realities of women and men.
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Introduces requirement for water prices to reflect costs. Requires riparian states to co-operate in the management of transboundary river basins.______________________ Sets criteria to assess groundwater chemical status and to identify pollution trends. Commission comprised of: (a) Conference of Heads of State and Government (b) Council of Ministers, (c) Technical Advisory Committee, (d) Sectoral Advisory Committees, (e) Secretariat. Establishes the Indus Basin Development Fund Establishes supplemental contributions to the Fund. International Water Law Project (http://intemationalwaterlaw.org/documentsL Lake Chad Basic Commission Perspectives (www.oieau.fr/ciedd/contributions/atriob/contribution/cblt.htm~): Mekong River Commission (www.mrcmekong.org~): Nile Basin Initiative (www.nilebasin.org/newsite): Organization for the Development of Senegal River (www.omvs.org/fr/omvs/Dresentation.php): Office International De L’eau (www.oieau.fr/spip.php7articlel 181): Institute For Water And Watersheds -Oregon State University (www.transboundarvwaters.orst.edu/database/interfreshtreatdata.html): International Joint Commission Canada-US (www.iic.org/en/background/iic cmi nature.htm) and Pakistan.
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In urban areas near international borders, the implementation of smart trade initiatives can help to improve cross-border transportation and trade (Box 2.8). Co-ordination is needed across different levels of government to develop spatial and strategic planning that will foster synergies and avoid duplication and conflict in planning within and between cities and regions. Among OECD member countries, spatial planning considerations are increasingly important, while in some countries, such as Denmark, Finland and Norway, spatial planning takes into account land use and other related matters (OECD, 2011).
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The main data source in this chapter is the 2008 NIDS data. Applicants had to prove that they had made efforts to apply for private maintenance from the other parent but been unsuccessful in doing so. There were several conditions attached to receipt of the grant, including ensuring that school-age children were in school. There were limitations not only on nonparents’ receipt of the grant, but also on eligibility in respect of children bom outside of marriage. As a result of significant differences in both rules and how the rules were applied, very few African children and their caregivers received the grant. In December of 1995, the democratically elected government of South Africa established the Lund Committee in order to evaluate the existing system of state support and to explore new alternative policy options targeting children and families.
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In northern Israel, however, intensity of pesticide use (0.07 tonnes/km2) is more in line with the OECD average. In 2007-08, one or more pesticides were detected at around 35% of the Water Authority’s monitoring sites in coastal aquifers, although none had pesticide concentrations exceeding Israeli drinking water standards. There is some evidence that pesticide use has begun to decline in response to wider adoption of Integrated Pest Management (IPM)22 and the need to meet the pesticide residue standards of the European Union, a key export market for Israel’s horticultural products.
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To date, development plans for these two sectors are undertaken separately. There is also a lack of incentives for regional engagement of higher education and for collaboration among institutions and limited pathways for students through the education system. There is a need for stronger credit recognition schemes, course and programme articulation agreements, clear and enforceable policies related to credit transfer and increased support for joint and collaborative programmes. Increase regional dimension in student experience through problem-based learning, internships, etc.
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We adopt this as the degree of implementation, which we will require other countries to achieve by 2030 (although the base to which the percentage is applied varies depending on assumptions, see below). Thetype of geological formations used forstorage is also usually found where oil and gas are found, so availability of storage is not likely to be a significant limitation. The economic incentive to implement CCS is the major obstacle, but we assume that all governments of Annex I countries ofthe UNFCCC, will have the financial and organizational muscle to implement the incentives needed (see section 3.1.7).
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Falls are a major problem for the elderly, both on pavements and in public transport vehicles, however data is seriously lacking. Initiatives such as Silver Zones, where the presence of older pedestrians is also indicated by road signs, can increase the safety of areas frequently visited by vulnerable road users. A major study was conducted by Liisa Hakamies-Blomqvist in Finland and Sweden (Hakamies-Blomqvist et al.,
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Variation between Australian local areas was evident across all interventions and conditions. There was also wide variation compared with other countries. For example, hospital non-surgical admission rates were twice as high in Australia, at about 12 000 per 100 000 population aged over 15 years, than in Spain, Portugal and Canada, where they stood at below 6 000.
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Abstract The present article describes the arbitral proceedings in the investment dispute between Italy and Cuba, with special regard for the Final Award rendered in 2008. The arbitration has raised a number of interesting issues in the application of customary international law, including the admissibility of claims in diplomatic protection in investment disputes under a BIT, the application of the rule on the exhaustion of local remedies, the attribution of acts of State-owned enterprises to the State and the use of general international law as a means to interpret treaty provisions defining the scope of the BIT. Some of these aspects have proved particularly controversial, as shown by the thorough dissenting opinion attached by arbitrator Tanzi, and they are critically analysed. The arbitration confirms the profound interdependence of bilateral treaties and customary international law in international investment arbitration.
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Integrating promising NUS in farming systems can reduce the build-up of pests and diseases when they are grown in rotation with the main crops. Depending on their characteristics, NUS can also increase soil fertility, prevent soil erosion, reduce evaporation and suppress weed growth. They can be more resistant to biotic stresses and provide dependable harvests under unfavourable climatic conditions or depleted soils. For instance, DeFries etal. (
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However, boys were more likely to report being involved in team sports (Gariepy et al., Figure 4.2 permits comparisons of Maori and non-Maori against the international averages on these dimensions, and also indicates where statistically significant differences are found between Maori and non-Maori young people. On the more positive side, both Maori and non-Maori students have greater motivation to achieve than OECD 15-year-olds as a whole. So while the Maori students have lower motivation to achieve than New Zealand students as a whole, they have somewhat greater motivation than their peers in other countries.
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Given the importance of water as an essential resource as well as a potential threat, climate change impacts on freshwater will affect not only water and flood management per se, but also a number of key policy domains (e.g. energy, agriculture, infrastructure, biodiversity, and health). Despite the ever-expanding scientific basis, reliable information about the nature, magnitude and timing of impacts at the scale needed for practical, site-specific adaptation is generally lacking. Adaptation decisions need to accommodate significant uncertainty.
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The Private Finance batches follow the ‘‘Design, Build, Finance and Operate” deliveiy model with an operational period that generally lasts 25 years. The criteria should explicitly avoid introducing preferences resulting from accounting rules for financing assets off-budget or off-balance-sheet. Currently, in Chile, decisions regarding whether to propose the concessions model for a particular infrastructure service are taken by the same unit that is responsible for the delivering the project, the CCOP. The decision to proceed with a concession, PPP or a traditional procurement process should, ideally, be taken by a body that is independent from the delivery units.
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Indeed, the World Economic Forum recently argued that some more advanced developing countries could leapfrog into Industry 4.0, and that its impact could be far-reaching for possibly attaining - within a generation - inclusive and sustainable industrial development. Once again, this clearly underscores the role of international organizations, including UNIDO. To address these challenges, UNIDO is closely partnering with other development organizations, including many of the lOs represented in this report. Partnerships are a fruitful way forward to make the best and most productive use of ICTs for ISID, and to ensure that everyone benefits equally from the opportunities brought about by ever-sophisticated advances in ICTs and their application in modern manufacturing.
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Judicial decisions focusing on equal educational opportunity involve significant issues of educational governance and often involve explicit questions about the extent to which authority to make educational decisions should be centralized or decentralized across various institutions and entities. This review aims at clarifying scholars’ understanding of court-driven reform of educational governance to leverage equal educational opportunities across the major fields of school desegregation, school finance reform, and school choice. Issues of centralization and decentralization have particularly emerged in courts’ approaches to these fields with respect to both the judicial process and the substance of the policies themselves. An examination of these issues reveals a movement toward the decentralization of authority away from the courts that, at times, has reflected a growing judicial awareness of the courts’ strengths and weaknesses. Based on this examination, a more effective role for the courts in reform...
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This is particularly true of PWPs, where, too often, programmes provide only short-term, periodic employment of a month or so. Programmes that demonstrate the most substantial effects on food security are those that run for decades, not years or months. Social protection programmes can certainly contribute to shock response, but they can only buffer households against emerging shocks if they are already in place. Too often, agencies deal with this complexity by incorporating too many objectives into a single programme, rather than working in a co-ordinated and cross-sectoral way.
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The implication is that the aspiration of VET students to enter tertiary education is quite consistent with the experience of OECD countries. It also implies in Egypt as elsewhere that vocational programmes need to prepare students not only for direct labour market entry, but also for a range of further educational and training programmes including tertiary education. This implies sufficient emphasis on core literacy and numeracy skills to underpin further learning.
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In 2017, Loon’s balloons helped deliver basic connectivity to thousands of inhabitants in Peru affected by flooding and 200 000 people in Puerto Rico following the hurricane Maria. The private sector is also increasingly partnering with development providers to improve the use of technological solutions in development co-operation. For example, in September 2018, the Famine Action Mechanism (FAM) was launched as a coalition between the World Bank, the UN, International Committee of the Red Cross, Microsoft, Google and Amazon. The aim of the FAM is to use new technologies and predictable analytics, e.g. Al and machine learning, to improve early warning system to be able to identify areas where there are increasing risks of famines.
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Quebec and Prince Edward Island managed the introduction of full-day kindergarten with a comprehensive transition plan that refocused childcare operators to provide services for younger aged children. For instance, as the federal increased payment under the NCB supplement, the provinces and territories agreed to ‘reinvest’ the amount saved in other programs and services for low-income families with children, such as early learning and child care services, supplementary health care, income-tested child benefits and earnings supplements. As a consequence, the Early Childhood Development Initiative (ECDI) adopted in 2000 and was accompanied with CAD 500 million annually for programs to promote infant and maternal health, improve parenting and community supports and strengthen early learning and child care.
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Against this background, the provision of equal opportunities in a legalistic sense may not be sufficient to achieve gender equality as women’s access is limited de facto. One example is the option for parents to work part-time until the child’s 7th birthday. While this option addresses both fathers and mothers, it is mostly taken up by women (Chapter 1). For instance, while reduced working time may be individually preferable, myopic behaviour may not fully internalise long-term effects on pension entitlements and risk of old-age poverty.
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More specifically, additions to 2011 OECD Guidelines: • Human rights, due diligence on human rights and supply chains • Increased role in influencing suppliers • Stakeholder consultation • Greater emphasis of disclosure on all “material” issues • Shift in terminology in employment and industrial relations to be consistent with ILO MNE declaration • Instruction that enterprises should not only seek to improve, but also take due account of their social and economic effects on developing countries. • Ample reference is made to relevant United Nations/OECD conventions and agreements, however no direct reference is made to instruments such as: ISO 26000, Global Compact, GRI. An amendment was made in 2004 adding a tenth principle for anti-corruption.
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This paper focuses on a concept, direct effect, which has been at the heart of Marc Maresceau's own intellectual journey, the subject of his own PhD, later turned into a marvellous monograph which continues to repay close study. It explores, prospectively, what the status of the Convention in EU law could, and should be, once the EU has become a Contracting Party. The paper does so, at one level, on the basis of the existing principles regarding the effects which international agreements have in the EU legal order. It analyses the scope of the ECJ's jurisdiction to interpret and apply the Convention, once it is concluded. The paper examines the potential legal effect of the Convention in EU law. It analyzes the following question: what will be the effect of judgments of the ECtHR in the EU legal order? Keywords: ECtHR, EU legal order, European Convention on human rights, Marc Maresceau
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A number of the review countries are also currently reporting to the OECD Fisheries Support Estimate database (e.g. Australia, Chinese Taipei, Colombia, France and Indonesia), enabling the tracking of government support to this sector over time. Marine spatial plans, which aim to take a systematic and comprehensive approach across sectors in the oceans space, are also beginning to proliferate and have been implemented in Australia, China, Colombia and Mexico, are under development in South Africa, and are being discussed in Brazil, Chile, Madagascar, Thailand and Viet Nam. Many developing countries, such as Madagascar and Ethiopia, have identified the availability of external funding as an important factor in successful implementation of their NBSAPs.
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No conveyance facilities are involved in the Feather River service area and no pumping is required. Hence, the contracting districts in that area are charged only for capital repayment and operations, maintenance, and rehabilitation. Substantial conveyance and pumping are required in delivering water to coastal and southern portions of the state. Irrigators would also be required to pay the operation, maintenance, and capital replacement costs of their local water agencies.
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Smartphones and tablets are displacing basic mobile phones and traditional PCs for many users, making connectivity both more mobile and more capable, in a process that will be strengthened by the spread of LTE networks. Social media services, in their infancy at the time of WSIS, have become crucial drivers of demand for connectivity. Others, particularly those concerned with gender, cybersecurity and environmental impacts, require new data sets, which are currently in the process of development.
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Already, Latvia does have some mechanisms in place that prioritise services for those with the greatest need, for example children and pregnant women (Mitenbergs et al., Nevertheless, the fact that the quotas for services are exhausted by the end of the year may suggest that quota levels are insufficient, and that investment is needed to raise the threshold. Carefully assessing the relationship between demand, waiting lists, and the rate at which quotas of services are consumed is a first step.
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The institutions administering the expenditure programmes should also have sufficient capacity to manage them - including the capacity to bear the financial risks some forms of support can involve (e.g. loans and loan guarantees). Neither debt nor, contingent and implicit liabilities (e.g. loan guarantees) should be incurred without explicit and prior approval from fiscal authorities. For example, subsidies to water-efficient irrigation equipment can increase the irrigated area, leading inter alia to increased water shortage and pollution problems.
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The emphasis in these reports is mainly on identifying the relevant ecosystem services in Nordic freshwater and marine waters. These reports may act as "check lists" to see which ecosystem services and benefits may be affected by socio-economic activity and should be taken into account in decision-making. This report further gives an overview of the importance of ecosystem services from these coastal ecosystems, see table 4.
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The impact of corporate governance on banking firms has been widely documented in the literature. Noticeably absent is an extensive examination of the impact of country governance on the efficiency of banking firms. This limitation is surprising, given the fact that the banking sector remains the most important channel for savings and allocations of credit in the economy. By using data on 454 Islamic and conventional banks from 19 countries offering Islamic banking and finance products and services, this chapter attempts to fill this demanding gap. We find that voice and accountability positively influence the efficiency of both Islamic and conventional banks. On the other hand, we observe the negative impact of political stability, absence of violence and control of corruption. The findings indicate that government effectiveness, regulatory quality and rule of law negatively influence the efficiency of conventional banks, but not so in the case of Islamic banks.
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Among other things, these technologies can serve to increase access to employment, improve educational processes, expand the scope of health services, increase the efficiency and effectiveness of State provision, provide the voiceless with greater options for the exercise of citizenship and improve human security in socially disadvantaged environments. Brazil <2008 and 2013). Chile (2009 and 2013).
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Nonetheless, heavy traffic is the major cause of repeated exceedances of standards for NOx and tropospheric ozone in the capital city of Luxembourg (Chapter 2). Around 3.5% of the national population under 15 years lives in proximity to a major road, the highest proportion (together with Belgium) in the EU15. These children are at high risk from air pollution, noise and traffic accidents (Dalbokova et al.,
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Petroleum accounts for 100 per cent of Tuvalu’s energy supply (Figure 9.1) and 10 per cent of GDP (SPC 2016). Petroleum replaced biomass as its major energy source in the 1990s. Fuel is imported into Tuvalu via Fiji by Pacific Energy, which owns all storage and distribution facilities. This fuel is mainly used for electricity generation (41%) and transport (40%) (Figure 9.3).
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About 22% of rivers in the South (8% in the North) are classified as poor or bad quality (Figure 4.3). Groundwater quality shows significant regional differences. For example, in the regions/provinces of Trento, Bolzano, Liguria, Lazio and Marche, between 75% and 93% are classes 1 to 3, in Abruzzo and Umbria, 43% and 32% respectively are class 4 (poor).
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Human rights NGOs were the vanguard of the struggle for democratisation in Nigeria, but they had to forge alliances with labour unions and other groups to galvanise this process effectively. This paper explores the alliances between labour unions and NGOs in the struggle against military dictatorship in Nigeria to analyse how horizontal relationships have fared in exchanges within civil society. It argues that the exigencies of sustained political struggle throw up conflicts over issues of participation, accountability, and egalitarianism that in turn promote social capital within civil society by mitigating hierarchically structured and asymmetrical patterns of exchange among its members.
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These findings, paired with the scale and relative cost-effectiveness of CTs, suggest that they have the potential to decrease IPV at the margin across large populations of vulnerable groups. Transfers appear to reduce physical and/or sexual IPV more consistently than emotional abuse or controlling behaviours. This finding is an apparent contradiction since several of the pathways focus on emotional states which would suggest impacts on emotional and psychological IPV before trickling down to physical and sexual IPV.
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Finally, price support is found to have an extremely poor transfer efficiency - that is a relatively small proportion of the price increase it generates is actually captured by farmers. Instead, it goes to input suppliers, is captured by processors and distributors or ends up capitalised in land values, benefitting land owners who are often not themselves farmers. A major aspect of any commodity price spike is a fast and sudden erosion of confidence in the workings of the market, both national and international, with the result that unco-ordinated operations, by private and public agents alike, for individual protection leaves all worse off.
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Equally important, internationally comparable indicators are needed to track the growth and impact of these emerging ICT trends. In addition to people, organizations and information resources, it will connect objects equipped with digital information sensing, processing, and communication capabilities. This ubiquitous infrastructure will generate abundant data that can be used to achieve efficiency gains in the production and distribution of goods and services, and improve human life in innovative ways.
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If we close the gaps, we fulfil a moral obligation to uphold human rights, and we will all reap the benefits of a more equal world. It will be more just, stable, prosperous and sustainable—one that we will want to leave to future generations. Among these are measures to realize reproductive rights and gender equality, with a particular and urgent emphasis on reaching people ranked among the poorest 40 per cent—the furthest behind. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development offers a foundation to guide progress, as do other core international commitments, such as the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development, which guides the work of UNFPA.
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Additional measures like the decile ratio (share of the 90th percentile/share of the 10th percentile) and the coefficient of variation are also popular ways of measuring dispersion in the distribution. Analysing the entire distribution has a number of advantages and allows the analyst to identify whether changes in inequality are due to changes in the welfare of individuals at the top or the bottom of the income distribution. Additionally, looking at the entire distribution makes it easier to relate growth, inequality and poverty to each other.
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Coordination with the 290 municipalities responsible for elderly care and social services is also organised differently across the country, with varying results. Denmark and Norway have embarked on substantial reforms to target intrinsically similar problems. In Sweden, earlier and recent public investigations suggest that regions should keep broadly similar functions and responsibilities as is, but organised in a smaller number of administrations with larger geographical responsibility. More radical reforms, such as changing responsibilities for care to other administrative levels in order to integrate municipal primary care seivices with GP services or nationalise specialist services, which has been done in neighbouring countries, have not been subject to the same scrutiny, although for a few diagnoses selected hospitals serve the entire country.
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The assumed parameters do not aim to provide accurate or realistic projections, especially in the United States Southwest, but they are meant to implement water supply constraint shocks that could affect irrigated agriculture in the three regions. In other words, the scenarios provide a means to gauge the resistance of the irrigation sector to water stress (providing a “water stress test” like the other scenarios). This translates into simulating the gradual transition to a maximum of 46%, 40% and 33%, basin efficiency by 2050 in the Southwest United States, Northeast China and Northw est India, respectively. The shocks are intended to provide a pessimistic illustration of the possible impacts of agriculture water risks in the three regions, rather than an accurate projection of observed trends.
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It is essential for determining the need for extending, adjusting or ceasing a policy. Effective policy monitoring and evaluation requires well thought out indicators. Monitoring and evaluating should not just be thought of as an after-thought, it is a critical step in the policy cycle that allows for learning and improvement. Guidance is provided, to assist in developing a set of well thought out indicators, for monitoring and evaluating SCP policy. Policymakers need to make sure that SCP policy interventions are well targeted and yield the desired outcomes. Monitoring and evaluation provides this important information.
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The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21) also adopted the Paris Agreement, through which United Nations Member States committed to limiting global warming, which implies a critical role for national governments in climate-change adaptation and mitigation in urban settlements, which are most responsible for and most vulnerable to climate change. Lastly, in October 2016, the Third United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat III) adopted the New Urban Agenda (NUA), advocating for proactive policies to leverage the dynamics of urbanisation as instruments of sustainable development. Well-designed national policy frameworks can help countries and cities achieve economic growth, environmental sustainability and social inclusion.
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In this essay, Kate Cairns considers the implications of assessing garden pedagogies, arguing that a rhetoric of effects assumes an essentialist conception of the child-as-educational-output and bolsters a neoliberal vision of social change rooted in personal transformation. Drawing from ethnographic research with youth gardens in Toronto, Ontario, and Camden, New Jersey, she highlights contextualized experiences of learning and labor that exceed the boundaries of an effects framework. Cairns argues that garden pedagogies must be understood in relation to specific dynamics of racial, economic, and ecological injustice. The essay closes with reflections on how feminist theories of social reproduction might reimagine pedagogies of the garden in a way that attends to young people's participation in life's work.
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Extending the works of scholars who have elucidated writing as the quintessential site for social transformation, the aim of this paper is to locate the myriad possibilities of actualizing Donna Haraway’s concept of cyborg writing. I contend that cyborg writing functions as a discursive mechanism by which to disrupt positivist ideals of Cartesian duality, objectivity, and rationality. These ideals inform the very alchemy of masculine privilege that emerge from having a society that is structured along androcentric values. Situating the scholarship of Joanna Brewis, I illuminate how cyborg writing can be effectively pursued in the field of organization studies. I conclude with a discussion of the implications of cyborg writing, and with the identification of a couple of trajectories that scholars can pursue in future studies that endeavor to actualize the feminist project of gender egalitarianism.
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Each bulb, it was revealed, contained an average 4 mg of the poisonous substance — compared to 500 mg in a traditional thermometer — threatening health and environment when cracked open. To date, the government has assessed — but not implemented — options to safely collect and dispose of spent CFLs. So YES dimmed its efforts down to its final flicker in early 2011.
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One positive consequence is that these fish provide a food source for birds on those lakes where there was no fish before. A number of wetlands will be given the status of protected areas on both sides of Armenian-Georgian border. In Armenia, the Programme component “Establishment of Protected Areas in the Armenian Javakheti Region” is aimed at establishing a National Park and integrating it into the local context, as well as promoting related transboundary cooperation.
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This article provides comprehensive insights into the study of the Ghana legal system as an academic discipline in the law faculties in Ghana. It urges the view that the study of the Ghana legal system, as an academic discipline, should be transsystemic. Transsystemic pedagogy consists in the introduction of ideas, structures and principles which may be drawn from different legal traditions such as civil law, common law, religion-based law, African law and socialist law traditions to influence the study of law. Transsystemia involves teaching law ‘across,’ ‘through,’ and ‘beyond’ disciplinary fixations associated with a particular legal system. It is a mode of scholarship that defies biased allegiance to one legal tradition in order to foster cross-cultural dialogue among legal traditions. It involves a study of law that re-directs focus from one concerned with ‘pure’ legal system to a discourse that is grounded on multiple legal traditions.
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In the case of JICA's Financing Scheme for Energy Savings Projects in India, for example, a loan to the Small Industries and Development Bank of India (SIDBI) supports micro, small and mediumsized enterprises’ (MSMEs) investments in environmental improvements and energy efficiency. One example is the Swedish Leadership for Sustainable Development platform, through which Sida, the Swedish development co-operation agency, facilitates a network of 26 Swedish companies that meet regularly in Sweden to discuss opportunities to promote 'global leadership’ in addressing sustainability issues. The focus of private sector approaches has been, unsurprisingly, mostly in upper middle income countries and in sectors where there is a clear business case and potential for returns, i.e. renewable energy and to a smaller extent energy efficiency. The analysis of climate related development finance in 2013 in this paper shows that the majority of development co-operation support went to projects in middle income countries and was deployed toward climate change mitigation (around 80%), supporting activities in the energy sector such as the development of renewable energy projects.
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This chapter discusses the thought and works of Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832). Since the late 1960s Bentham scholarship has been driven by the appearance of volumes in the new authoritative edition of The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham, prepared by the Bentham Project under the supervision of University College London’s Bentham Committee. The thirty-third volume in the edition, entitled Preparatory Principles, was published in December 2016. Bentham was the pre-eminent representative of the Enlightenment. He was the founder of the doctrine of classical utilitarianism, which remains one of the main strands in liberal moral philosophy, he set the parameters for the modern discipline of jurisprudence by distinguishing law as it is from law as it ought to be, his commentary on the French Declaration of Rights of 1789 constitutes a devastating attack on the philosophy of natural rights, and hence on that of human rights.
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Nearly all OECD countries that use capitation adjust for risk factors (including age, gender and health status) to ensure that the health care needs of specific groups (such as the elderly) are properly addressed. Capitation is usually combined with fee-for-service, to encourage particular activities. Costa Rica starts from a good base here, since it already has a blended payment system in primary care, and a rich understanding of local health and social care contexts through the family record held within EDUS. Ideally, payments to clinicians should reflect value, as far as possible.
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Drawing on the sub-set of AfT data within the CRS, the OECD data show that - for all donors and for all developing countries - flows classified under TRA (the final and barely visible column on the right) are negligible compared with the other three categories, particularly those destined for ‘building productive capacity’ or ‘economic infrastructure’. As shown in Table 13.1, the negligible share of measured TRA in relation to total AfT flows is present across all major country classifications, irrespective of the year chosen in the CRS database. For 2009, TRA flows do not equal more than 0.38 per cent of the value of total AfT flows when countries are disaggregated by geographic area, income group or status as an SVE.
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Indeed, eight countries showed sharper declines in the inequality indices in the second subperiod than in the first. Of these, the Plurinational State of Bolivia and Uruguay had the most significant reductions, of around 4% per year in the case of the Gini coefficient. This group also included Brazil, Ecuador and Mexico, which along with the Bolivarian Republic ofVenezuela saw a slight increase in their inequality coefficients in 2012 (see annex table I-A3).
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Todas estas circunstancias comprometen su derecho a recibir una pension en los sistemas de pensiones que vinculan las prestaciones con el trabajo remunerado, las contribuciones y los ingresos. En el presente informe se examinan los desafiosy las restricciones a los que se enfrentan los sistemas de pensiones para alcanzar la equidad de genero y las alternativas de politicas que ayudarian a superar estos retos. La proteccion economica de la mujer en las etapas avanzadas de la vida depende actualmente de diversos factores interrelacionados, como las normas del sistema de pensiones, las condi-ciones del mercado laboral y los acuerdos familiares del pasado y el presente, entre otros.
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On average across the countries for which data are available, 5.5% of workers earned at or below the minimum wage in 2010, the latest year for which comparable data are available. At 14.2%, Latvia’s share was more than twice as high, and also higher than in any other of the European countries shown in Figure 3.8. As a result, changes in minimum-wage provisions can be expected to have a strong impact on the labour market.
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Because of them, communities that have done a good job are also penalised," bemoans Lok Bahadur Kunwar, secretary of the Fagarkhola CFUG in Chaubas. In spite of this lack of evidence, towards the end of 2010, the MoFSC proposed a bill of amendments lo the 1993 Forest Act, to recover some of the authority it had vested in communities. It required that communities ‘share’ the responsibility of implementing their operational plans with forest officials and split all external sales of forest products with the government. Many groups, including ForestAction and FECOFUN, lobbied against these changes, but with the dissolution of Nepal’s parliament in 2012, the bill was put on hold. The price of timber in that period spiked from NPR 1200 to 5000 per cubic feet, noted ForestAction’s Khatri. “ People with a conservative mindset like Deepak Bohara will say that they have done a lot for conservation — but this is an illusion.”
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As people without public health care coverage have to finance their health care services through private insurance or out-of-pocket payments they are especially sensitive to a drop in personal income. This is especially true for low income people who may forego or postpone health care services because too expensive. Devaux and de Looper (2012), comparing equity of access to health care services in 19 OECD countries, find that in countries with higher public expenditure the frequency of doctor visits are more equally distributed among people of different incomes. Also, Devaux and de Looper (2012) show that inequality in specialist (dental) visit is increasing in the share of out-pocket payment as percentage of total expenditure on specialist (dental) care.
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The new teacher standards (see Recommendation 3.1.1) should guide the revision of the definitivat exam to ensure that it assesses the competencies teachers need in the classroom. Romania might also consider adding more practice-oriented, open-ended questions to the exam so that it is a better measure of teachers’ competencies. In the future, Romania could reduce the weight of the exam in favour of a more authentic measure of teacher competencies, such as a performance-based inspection of new' teachers in the classroom.
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The impact of environmental risk factors on infant and early childhood health, nutritional status and mortality in West Africa. The impact of socio-economic inequalities on early childhood survival: Results from the Demographic and Health Surveys. How well do health programmes reach the poor? Social inequality in infant mortality: What explains variation across low and middle income countries? Social Science and Medicine, vol.
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Renewable energy capacity, per source (megawatt) Quantitative indicators 4. Achieving this objective can be a challenge in a region where energy infrastructure -particularly electricity transmission and distribution networks - is sparse (e.g. in rural areas), or degraded due to, among others, underinvestment. Consumers and businesses in the SEE economies sometimes go without electricity due to issues with both quality of supply and affordability.
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To take just one example, ongoing work is focusing on the environmental footprint of global food waste. Early results suggest that the carbon footprint of food produced but not consumed is 3.3 billion tonnes C02 eq/a, representing around 9% of total global GHG emissions.14 Were such emissions generated by a country, that country would be the world’s third-largest GHG emitter, behind only the US and China. Extending that to waste and resource management in a broader sense would significantly increase the potential, to 15 to 20% or perhaps even more, if waste prevention was also included. As shown in Figure 1, most of the sites are in Africa, Asia and Latin America/Caribbean, with two in Europe.
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Participants were concerned about the strong negative impact of seals on fishing and fisheries. Research at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences highlights the different kinds of impacts seals have on fisheries, including damage to harvest and equipment, along with hidden damage through scaring off or removing fish without leaving traces. Impacts at ecosystem level include the impact of seals on fish populations and dispersal of parasites in fish (Lunneryd & Konigson, 2017).
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Source: National Institutional Strategy for Climate Change. Although most of SAIs do not yet have the capacity and expertise to audit climate finance, it is within their mandate to audit public climate finance. In this respect, GIZ is providing support to SAIs in developing countries to strengthen their mandates.
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Even where long-term savings outweigh initial investments, end users may fail to choose energy-efficient options because of financial constraints. Projects and programmes aimed at facilitating financial support therefore play a key role in removing barriers to EE investment, in particular in developing countries.51 Energy savings resulting from EE investment by end users reduce the need for new investment in energy supply capacity. Whereas most supply-side investments would be made by a small group of actors, mainly large energy producers and distributors, the additional investment in end-use sectors will have to be made by a large number of small investors. The IEA therefore emphasizes that shifting investment from the supply side to the end user requires viable financing frameworks (IEA, 2006).
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ABSTRACTPangle and Ahrensdorf's Justice Among Nations: On the Moral Basis of Power and Peace has become one of the classic studies of international political thought. The account Pangle and Ahrensdorf provide of the Socratics resembles in places the concerns of constructivists, even though they never discuss the international relations theory of constructivism. With this in mind, I argue that their account enables one to glimpse what a Socratic teaching of constructivism might look like. What comes to the surface is that Socratic constructivism shares with contemporary constructivism a concern with rhetoric and the role of ideas, norms, and rules in international politics while nonetheless expressing reservations over the goals of general enlightenment and emancipation that some contemporary constructivists espouse. Instead, Socratic constructivism urges the practice of generosity in the realm of politics, whether domestic or international. This emphasis rests on the Socratic understanding of human nature...
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By contrast, in the Philippines and Uganda, children from the wealthiest households and the best-performing regions are close to universal school completion. Therefore, efforts in those countries would best be concentrated on the poorest and most disadvantaged children (see Figure 2.8). The needs of each group, in turn, will have far-reaching implications for how governments frame policies and allocate resources to specific regions, schools and children.
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Interactive educational activities were organized in several Bulgarian schools and kindergartens. The Agency coordinates data supply and data collection activities for the preparation of the GHG inventory. The sectoral experts manage the collection of data, choice of methods, data checking and compilation of estimates that conform to the data quality objectives of the historical time series. The Agency ensures adequate resources for the collection and use of the data.
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Nearly all students continue learning in upper secondary education, beyond compulsory education. All of this is accomplished in a schooling system that provides wide autonomy to school leaders and teachers, and it is achieved on comparatively modest levels of spending. Continuing declines in the size of the school-age population challenge authorities to efficiently manage the nation’s school network. The nation’s capacity to replenish its teaching workforce is hampered by unattractive conditions of employment, an unclear vision of what good teaching practices are, and what sort of training can best promote good teaching.
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The issues of State and diplomatic immunity in cases involving persons employed by foreign States in embassies or consulates or engaged directly by diplomats remain controversial. The focus of this article is on recent developments in European law, in particular under the European Convention on Human Rights, the Brussels I Regulation and the Charter of the European Union, the effect of which has been to enhance the rights of employees of foreign States. Analysis is also made of the United Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and their Property and the current domestic practice of States with the aim of identifying the present international law standard on State immunity and embassy and consular employment. Employees of diplomats, however, remain inadequately protected and this article considers possible strategies for improving their position.
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Nevertheless, the country would greatly benefit from having a more flexible set-up to translate these initiatives in the budget document. In principle, the HIV/AIDS conditional grant, which is based primarily on the disease burden, should help ensure an equitable distribution of government funds. For example, although Mpumalanga province has the second highest HIV prevalence, its provincial government is ranked 7 out of 9 for per capita spending on HIV/AIDS.
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It puts forward a working definition of the ocean economy which encompasses not only the ocean-based industries but also the natural assets and ecosystem services that the ocean provides. Focusing on the ocean industries, the chapter outlines the findings of the OECD Ocean Economy Database and briefly presents the estimates of the current value added and jobs provided by the ocean economy worldwide. Turning its attention to the future, the chapter describes the principal forces driving the ocean economy forward, and estimates value added and employment in the global ocean economy by 2030.
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The most severe problems are in South and South West Asia, where some 21 per cent of the population was undernourished in 2003-2005. Indeed, South Asia alone is home to more than one third of the food insecure people in the world’s developing countries (von Braun 2007). Here, on average, 42 per cent of children are underweight.
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For example, while the elimination of farm subsidies in New Zealand was accompanied by a lowering of tariffs on farm inputs, the latter proceeded at a slower pace. The resultant short-term hardship for the sector could have been avoided with better co-ordination of the respective reforms (Vitalis, 2006). This can often reflect uncertainty about, or a lack of understanding of, the severity and causes of an environmental problem or the benefits of action (OECD, 2008a). This was the case, for example, with the Water Reform Framework in Australia, where the economic and environmental benefits of the reform were diffuse and poorly understood by the public (OECD, 2009).
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As the coordinating agency, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) contracts local people and pays them for their labor as well as outcomes in terms of the number of nests protected. Starting with four villages in 2002, six years later this project had expanded to 21 villages and protected more than 1,500 nests. The area receives especial attention from bird-watchers but hunting and degrading forests are threats to rare bird species. Under this community-based eco-tourism project, villages sign contracts under which hunting would be banned and land use planning with the NGO and government supported.
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In the rural context, there is a broader range of options and, in order of increasing consumers connected, the following options are available: stand-alone installations, micro-grids and grid extensions. Benefits might, however, trickle down to the general population by making a grid connection possible, leveraging the infrastructure installed for the industrial purposes to enable wider electrification initiatives. It should be noted that electrification is not enough though to increase access to electricity as the connection cost can be a barrier for low-income families.
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Production has been growing steadily over the years, driven by gains in yields. The area harvested actually declined since the early 2000s due to climate shocks (e.g frost and drought) as well as damage caused by pests and diseases. Total coffee production and consumption in Brazil has increased over the last decade by 3.7% and 2.7% respectively.
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The report gives a broad definition of IDRIS, listing requirements for qualification as IDRIS and possible additional features. Different organisational forms exist with or without legal identity, but a key point is that IDRIS should have clear added value. The OECD reports provide relevant information for IDRIS, summarising issues on road mapping and single-sited large international research infrastructures that may also be applicable to IDRIS. Often, only parts of these entities (as opposed to entire entities) collectively constitute the infrastructure. The agreement need not necessarily define a new legal entity, or be legally binding.
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Moreover, a UK survey revealed that 50% of farmers did not recall any guidance on how to comply with the Nitrates Directive (National Audit Office, 2010), although this could be associated with the fact that only 55% of the agricultural land area is designated to comply with the Directive (Chapter 5.1). But there is evidence that farmers are willing to accept further education and advice on nutrient and pesticide management on their farms in the interests of protecting the environment and that overall awareness is increasing and leading to improved management practices to control pollution (European Commission, 2010, Perez, 2010). Building social capital in a water catchment so that that farmers and other stakeholders are better informed of the processes impacting on water quality can be beneficial (Morton and Weng, 2009). The impacts of diffuse source pollution can depend: on the quantities of pollutants released, how easily the pollutants are transported into water systems, and how sensitive the water environment is to pollution (Environment Agency, 2007).
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This might seem contradictory, but it is more likely to reflect a nuanced understanding of the fragmented tourist market visiting Malta (and Gozo), so that it is pragmatic to offer both branded goods and handmade local products to different tourist markets. An attempt was made to produce a local stamp for souvenirs, ‘Made in Seychelles’, but there were problems in implementing this (McEwen and Bennett 2010: 43). State encouragement and some start-up funding from SENPA (Small Enterprise Promotion Agency) are available for local Seychellois wishing to develop handicraft businesses. Other materials are imported, but the proportions are unknown.
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Ecological footprint analysis is not sufficient for determining optimal policy alternatives, however, as it does not account for the net benefits generated as resources are consumed. Water is one of many inputs in those activities. Hence, estimated water footprints are somewhat one-dimensional, as they depict the use of only one resource.
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On the other hand, the study finds little or no effect in terms of employment and income generation. Interestingly, Galasso (2006) also shows that the provision of psycho-social support has increased communities’ awareness of social service provision and has contributed to raising people’s confidence concerning the future. The evaluation analysis by Larranaga et al. (
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Importantly, countries that have had a historically low burden of CVD disease, such as Switzerland and Japan, have still managed to make substantial gains. This suggests not only that other countries can also make further gains, but also raises important questions about why success has varied so much across countries. All countries have been successful in improving life expectancy at birth and at age 65. In percentage terms, life expectancy has improved even more once a person reaches 65 years of age.
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Countiy Group 4: France, Iceland, Norway and Sweden Source: OECD calculations based on European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU SILC) 2012. Country' Group 2: Italy, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Lithuania, Poland and Slovenia. Country Group 3: the Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia and the Slovak Republic.
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Similarly, the Green Climate Fund has developed an initial results management framework (2014). Although these fund level frameworks may not be directly applicable to national approaches to monitor and evaluate adaptation, they can inform partner countries’ domestic frameworks. For example, in Mozambique, the results framework for the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR), under the Climate Investment Funds, has been used as a basis for developing the national monitoring and evaluation framework for adaptation (IIED, 2013b).
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Town living is sometimes fleeting and seasonal. Cyclical migration is developing between the bush and the town, either at the regional level (Faya, Agadez, Kidal, Atar, Ouarzazate, Tamanghasset, Sebha, etc.) The economic diversification of nomadism is therefore ushering in small-scale urban trades, such as retail commerce, animal guarding, and to a lesser degree, tourism" and crafts.
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Our projections predict that trade could grow yearly by 1.8-2 percentage points more until 2030 as a result of the falling trade costs, amounting to a cumulated growth of 31 to 34 percentage points over 15 years. Trade in information technology products has tripled in the past two decades, reaching US$1.6 trillion in 2016. We predict the share of services trade to grow from 21 per cent to 25 per cent by 2030.
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Collective learning grounded in local heritage, scientific information and analysis of different options might, as it has been shown by the example of RCE Tongyong (Box 13:4), be successful. Regional Centres of Expertise on ESD (RCE) Tongyeong, brought together several partners under the “Clean Plate Movement". The Movement begun in schools, universities and later included other organisations outside of the educational sector.
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Experts expect this policy to have a “significant impact on the future promotion of China’s domestic industry’s technology innovation, improving competitiveness and building domestic branding in the long run” (Global Energy Council, undated). This allowed them to get established in the domestic market and gain experience in the production of larger turbines. However, the Chinese manufacturers soon found out that foreign firms were reluctant to license their most recent, state-of-the art technology, instead they preferred to license turbines that were technologically outdated for fear that the transfer of advanced technology would lead to knowledge spillover, thus undermining their competitive advantage (Liu, 2006).
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The Agricultural Market Informabon System (AMIS)2 is an inter-agency platform designed to enhance food market transparency and policy response for food security. By enhancing transparency and policy coordinabon, AMIS helps prevent unexpected price hikes and strengthen global food security. Farmers make up almost 80% of the workforce in Myanmar and Site Pyo helps to improve producbvity and increase earnings, given the country's high smartphone penetrabon rate.
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Abstract The task of studying the impact of social class on physical and mental health involves, among other things, the use of a conceptual toolbox that defines what social class is, establishes how to measure it, and sets criteria that help distinguish it from closely related concepts. One field that has recently witnessed a wealth of theoretical and conceptual research on social class is psychology, but geographers' and sociologists’ attitude of diffidence toward this “positivistic” discipline has prevented them from taking advantage of this body of scholarship. This paper aims to highlight some of the most important developments in the psychological study of social class and social mobility that speak to the long-standing concerns of health geographers and sociologists with how social position, perceptions, social comparisons, and class-based identities impact health and well-being.
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Efforts that align with the OECD Council’s recommendation on Integrated Mental Health, Skills and Work Policy are also evident (see Box 2.1 in Chapter 2). The rights of people aged over 65 are set out in a dedicated law that specifies rights to participate in the economic life of the country, as well as cultural, sport and recreational activities. The Cornejo Nacional de la Persona Adulta Mayor (National Council for Older People, CONAPAM) is a dedicated unit within the Office of the President.
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They note, however, that the impacts may vary considerably depending on the type of aid-for-trade intervention, the income level of the beneficiaries, the sector to which the support is directed and the geographical region of the recipient country. In the case of sectors, for example, Ferro et al. ( Cali and te Velde (2011) examined the impact of aid for trade on trade costs and exports, they found that a USD 1 million increase in aid-for-trade facilitation is associated with a 6% reduction in the cost of packing, loading and shipping to the transit hub. Busse et al (2012), using panel data on 99 developing countries covering the period 2004-09, show that aid for trade is closely associated with lowering trade costs, and therefore may play an important role in helping developing countries benefit from trade.
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This trend can be seen for instance in Australia where the 1991 Fisheries Management Act mandates management effectiveness and cost efficiency as explicit objectives for the Australian Fisheries Management Authority. Both groups value the stock, but the conservationists will place a much lower value on the harvest, if any at all. Boyce (2000) showed that this had implications for their respective acceptance of regulation. In view of the low levels of current stocks and the impact of fisheries on the environment, the effectiveness of conservation groups in terms of political influence and affecting bargaining outcomes is open to debate. The groups are no doubt gaining public support and enjoying some policy gains.
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The public transit system helps the Chicago Tri-State metro-region rank high on attractiveness indexes, but underfunding for maintenance and expansion risks squandering this asset, losing with it the opportunity to fight congestion and greenhouse gas emissions, and provide jobs. Congestion charges and on roadways and value-capture taxes should be considered as part of a comprehensive financing package. Water and waste service delivery is costly and does not sufficiently take into account environmental impacts, which calls for a restructuring of rates to incentivise conservation and recycling. Skill shortages are evident across the regional economy, and particularly in the green sector.
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Available through www.oecd.org/social/ministerial and in the IZA Policy Papers series. Taking Stock of In-work Benefits and Related Measures across the OECD”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. Economic Crisis, Employment and Income Distribution (Research in Labor Economics, Volume 32), Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Unraveling the Unemployment Insurance Lifeline.” New York: National Employment Law Project.
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This section looks at why there are fewer women entrepreneurs than men, the different reasons they have for starting a business, and the different skills they bring to the job. It also looks at the reasons why women-owned businesses have lower profits, and why self-employed women work less, and earn less, than self-employed men. It asks whether women find it harder to finance their business than men and haue less innovative enterprises. Finally, it examines policies that support female entrepreneurs in micro- and small businesses - particularly in developing countries - by encouraging entrepreneurs to exit informality and by addressing their specific needs.
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While all countries in South Asia have ratified the United Nations conventions on the rights of women and of children, they have lacked the level of political will and administrative effort that is needed to implement the provisions. For example, laws to prevent sex-selective abortions and VAW have been in place for several years with varying degrees of success across countries of South Asia. Public pressure and collective action facilitated by an active media can put pressure on the political, administrative and legal systems to act to enforce the law. However, women face discrimination in various forms when they go to seek redress, especially when those institutions such as the police, judiciary, religious and tribal councils are male dominated, reinforcing the underlying power structures in a society.
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However, it is difficult to assess to what extent the knowledge generated from these projects contributes to strengthening the institutional research capacity of developing countries. It is also not possible in DAC statistics to precisely determine the shares of research spending allocated to the in-donor country institutions and the partners’ institutions in developing countries. Therefore, it is not possible to precisely distinguish between ODA funding aimed to strengthen countries’ domestic STI capacity and funding for more specific research activities, which often are conducted in donor countries.
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We propose a dynamic model of precedent in a judicial hierarchy which incorporates a “bottom-up” informational component. When a high court establishes precedents, it has uncertainty regarding how they will play out when applied to future legal disputes. Lower court implementation of these precedents can inform the high court about the contemporary policy implications—i.e., the ideological location—of the precedents. If lower court usage of a precedent is informative, the high court will consider the revealed location of the precedent when contemplating reducing the precedent’s authority and applicability to future cases. Using data on U.S. Supreme Court precedents and U.S. Courts of Appeals citations to these precedents, we estimate a model of the Court’s negative treatment of precedent. We find lower court usage of precedent can provide new, useful information on the policy content of a precedent, helping the Court shape law in a way consistent with its preferences.
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