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Structure—A keel tube runs the length of the boat and two skeg tubes serve as shock absorbers.
Size—Outside, the boat measures about 6 feet by 15 feet. Inside, it measures about 3 by 10 feet.
Weight—The boat weighs 265 pounds, including the deck.
Maximum Payload—The boat can carry a maximum of 2,710 pounds.
Motors—The standard motor is a 40-HP short-shaft outboard motor. Adding a kit to stiffen the
transom allows the use of either two 35-HP motors or one 55-HP motor.
CREW RESPONSIBILITIES
5-4. The crew includes a coxswain, assistant coxswain, timekeeper, two observers (for security), and a
navigator. To ensure mission success, each Soldier must track the team's location during movement. The
team is positioned as shown in Figure 5-1.
Figure 5-1. Rubber boat.
Coxswain—The coxswain controls the boat and the actions of the crew. He supervises the
loading, lashing, and distribution of equipment. He maintains the heading and speed of the boat
and gives all commands.
Assistant Coxswain—The assistant coxswain helps the coxswain navigate and control personnel,
and, when needed, assumes the duties of the coxswain. He also stows and uses the bowline, and
he provides rear security for the crew. |
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Timekeeper—The timekeeper keeps time during dead reckoning and aids in navigation. He
provides flank security during movement.
Navigator—The navigator tracks the team's movement on the chart and reads the GPS as needed.
He notifies the coxswain of any changes in heading, and he provides flank security during
movement.
Observer—The observer(s) notifies the coxswain of any obstacles and provides frontal security
during movement.
PREPARATION OF PERSONNEL AND EQUIPMENT
5-5. Each person dons a work vest, a life preserver, or both. He dons any additional equipment, such as
LCE, over his vest. He slings his rifle over his life preserver, where it is readily available. Securely lashing
radios, ammunition, and other bulk equipment to the boat prevents loss in case the boat capsizes. To lash
equipment to the boat—
• Secure a 5-foot section of 1-inch tubular nylon across the boat at the rear set of "D" rings.
• Securely knot a 12-foot section of 1-inch tubular nylon to the front "D" ring. Place a loop about
two feet from the other end of the rope. Using a slip knot, tie off this section to the
5-foot section.
• Attach a snaplink to the top of each rucksack frame and secure the rucksack to the
equipment line.
• Place the coxswain's rucksack at the rear of the boat. Route the snaplink through the loop at the
rear of the equipment line. If the boat capsizes, the coxswain can release the knot, allowing the
rucksacks to float free of the boat while he tries to right it.
LAUNCHING OF BOAT
5-6. When timing the launch, the coxswain observes surf conditions and considers wave intervals.
When team members are about thigh deep in the water, the coxswain orders them to board by pairs. As
soon as they board, they grab a paddle and help keep the boat perpendicular to the waves as the coxswain
starts the motor. After the motor is running, the coxswain orders the rest of the team into the boat. To help
avoid capsizing, the boat is kept perpendicular to the waves.
BEACHING OF BOAT
5-7. The coxswain observes the surf to see when to enter. To avoid capsizing, he has the team shift
their weight to the rear of the boat before the boat enters the surf.
5-8. As the boat enters the surf zone, all team members work to keep the boat perpendicular to the
waves. The coxswain observes the surf and commands the team to vary speed as needed and to avoid
plunging into breakers. He periodically looks seaward to observe the waves.
5-9. When the boat reaches shallow water, the coxswain orders the team out of the boat in pairs, for
example (short count), "Ones, out; twos, out" (Figure 5-2). On disembarking, each pair immediately grabs
the boat handles and pulls the boat to the beach.
5-10. The coxswain directs the team to empty the water from the boat and carry it to higher ground. He
has two team members provide security.
5-11. Once the team reaches an area suitable for caching the boat, they conceal it in a surface or
subsurface cache, or, if required, they submerge the equipment. |
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Figure 5-2. Short count, long count.
OFFSHORE NAVIGATION
5-12. Inserting a team from a larger vessel to their small boat might require offshore navigation. To
move a long distance in a small boat, the team must be highly skilled in navigating by nautical charts, tides,
currents (piloting), and dead reckoning. They must be able to compute for a compensated launch point,
using offset navigation to take into account tides and current. Before launching, the team should conduct
timed runs at full, half, and a quarter throttle. This helps them determine the speed of the boat at each
setting, which is a critical part of navigation. To determine the speed (distance/time = speed), they divide
the distance by the time, or the team uses a nautical slide rule. The types of navigation follow:
Piloting uses visible references from land or sea, the depth of the water, and other published
information. It resembles land navigation by terrain association.
Dead reckoning is the predicted advancement of a vessel's position from a known point
(debarking point) to calculate the vessel's approximate position at any time. It uses distance,
speed, and time. It does not factor in water currents.
Celestial navigating uses the positions of the sun, moon, other planets, and stars relative to that of
Earth. Because it requires a stable platform (for the sextant) and reference publications,
celestial navigation is impractical for use on smaller vessels.
Electronic-radio navigating uses radio waves and satellite-based positioning systems such as
GPS or Long-Range Navigation—Revision C (LORAN-C).
Note: Express distance in nautical miles. |
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MAINTENANCE
5-13. The team must wash the boat with fresh water after using it in salty or muddy water.
• Remove all sand and debris.
• Carefully clean between the bottom and the skeg tube.
• Stand the boat upright on its cones against a wall, or suspend it. Using a high-pressure hose,
rinse the entire boat. Allow several hours for it to dry.
• Wipe any remaining sand off the boat with a dry rag.
• After the boat dries, check and clean all metallic parts.
• Spray the valves with silicone to prevent freezing.
STORAGE
5-14. Store the boat in a dry, cool place out of direct sunlight. Avoid storing it near furnaces, steam
pipes, boilers, oil or oil-contaminated areas, grease, solvents, or sharp or pointed objects. If possible, store
it on a rack. Excessive handling, such as rolling and unrolling, will shorten the life of the boat. When
storing it in a carrying bag, be sure to roll the boat from bow to stern.
SCOUT SWIMMERS
5-15. The term "scout swimmers" refers to a pair of surface swimmers assigned a reconnaissance or
security mission in advance of the boat or other swimmers. Scout swimmers secure the beach-landing site
and reconnoiter it to ensure that it can accommodate the entire team. They must also reconnoiter a suitable
assembly area, cache sites, and a position from which to signal the remainder of the team into the beach-
landing site. The team must maintain strict noise and light discipline throughout the operation.
EQUIPMENT
5-16. Normally, scout swimmers launch from a small boat outside the surf zone. Their equipment
includes a life vest, swim fins, dive tool, MK 13 day or night flare, and coral shoes or booties.
Life Vest
5-17. Each scout swimmer wears his life vest under all equipment except his wet suit. It has no quick
release, because he must wear it throughout his mission.
Serviceability
• Check the oral inflation tube.
• Inflate the vest and check it for leaks.
• Check the CO2 inflation mechanism.
Preventive Maintenance
• Wash in fresh water after use.
• Clean and lubricate the CO2 mechanism.
• Replace the C02 cartridge if used.
• Partially inflate the vest.
• Store vest in a cool, dry area.
Swim Fins
5-18. These help propel the swimmer. |
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Serviceability
5-19. Check fins for proper fit and broken straps. Check for any rips or tears.
Preventive Maintenance
5-20. Wash the fins with fresh water after each use. Store in a cool dry place.
Dive Tool
5-21. Swimmers keep this tool or knife with them at all times in case they become entangled while
swimming.
Serviceability
• Check for rust or corrosion.
• Sharp edges.
• Cracked or broken blade.
Preventive Maintenance
• Wash with fresh water.
• Sharpen.
• Lubricate.
• Store dive tool out of the sheath to dry.
MK13 Day or Night Flare
5-22. This is an emergency signal device.
Serviceability
• Use flare only if seals are intact.
• Check pull-ring lanyard.
Preventive Maintenance
• Wash in fresh water.
• Store according to standing operating procedures.
Coral Shoes or Booties
5-23. The swimmer wears these under his fins. They protect his feet from coral, rocks, or other
sharp-edged or poisonous underwater objects.
Serviceability
• Check for rips or holes.
• Check for proper fit.
• Check to ensure the zippers work.
Preventive Maintenance
• Wash in fresh water.
• Dry away from direct sunlight. |
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LAUNCH POINT
5-24. Scout swimmers normally move from the debarkation to launch points in inflatable boats with
motors. The scout swimmers enter the water at the launch point. The launch point should be at least 400
meters off the beach, out of the range of small arms.
RECONNAISSANCE
5-25. Once the team reaches the launch point, the team leader sends out a scout swim team to
reconnoiter the beach-landing site. Before leaving the main body, the swimmers receive last-minute
instructions or adjustments to the original plan. The scout swimmers' may either leave their rucksacks with
the main body or take them along. The swimmers use a dive compass, or they guide on prominent terrain
features or lights on the beach. To allow all-round observation, they swim facing each other, which lets
each swimmer observe the area behind the other one.
APPROACH
5-26. As the scout swimmers reach the surf zone, or when they get close to the beach-landing site, they
start using the breaststroke to observe the beach. They approach with stealth and caution, keeping a low
profile. One of them looks to the rear periodically so he can warn of large waves, which could injure or
separate them from their equipment and each other. When they reach shallow water and determine that the
situation is safe, they remove their fins.
1. If they can see the wood line easily from the waterline, one scout swimmer remains in the
water just inside the waterline and covers the other Soldier’s movement across the beach.
Once the first scout moves to the edge of the wood line, he covers his partner's movement to
the same position.
2. If the topography prohibits easy observation of the wood line from the waterline, the
swimmers move by successive bounds.
3. Once both scouts move inland, they use a modified box pattern to reconnoiter and secure the
beach. They choose a suitable assembly and cache site that provides the entire team cover and
concealment.
4. One scout positions himself at the edge of the wood line. He provides security for the
remainder of the team and guides them to the assembly area. The other scout positions
himself where he can signal the main body. When he makes visual contact, with the
remainder of the team, he moves to the waterline.
5. When the remainder of the team reaches the beach-landing site, the scout at the waterline
directs them to the other scout, who guides them to the assembly area. After the last team
member passes him, the scout at the waterline disguises any tracks left in the sand and rejoins
the team.
6. If possible, the team locates the cache site away from the assembly area. If the enemy
discovers and follows the tracks or trails from the beach to the assembly area, they could
easily determine the number of personnel involved in the operation by counting swim gear.
HELOCASTING OPERATIONS
5-27. Helocasting can be an effective means of inserting and extracting LRS teams and equipment. The
speed, range, and lift capability of rotary-wing aircraft make them excellent waterborne delivery and
recovery vehicles. Helocast preparation considerations include--
1. When planning for the number of personnel for each type of aircraft, the leader uses the
standard planning figures for loading troops. He can adjust these figures based on aircraft
configuration, type of equipment, and casting or recovery procedures. He coordinates these
items in advance with the aircrew. |
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2. Rehearsals include all jumpers, the crew, the accompanying equipment, and support
personnel. During live-casting rehearsals, the leader emphasizes the commands, positions,
and timing of body exit and water entry.
3. All equipment attaches to the jumper with l/4-inch, 80-pound test, cotton webbing. In or on
this webbing, he normally carries a mask, fins, web belt with knife, flare(s), and life vest.
4. When using rubber boats, the team must—
a. Tie down and secure all equipment inside the boat.
b. Secure the motor in the floor of the boat and pad it with honeycomb cardboard (for
UH-60).
c. Securely attach and isolate fuel cans.
d. Secure paddles under the gunwales, out of the way of the rest of the gear.
e. Secure the rucksacks as tightly as possible to the deck of the boat.
f. Waterproof all equipment in the boat in case of submersion.
g. Regardless of the type of aircraft used, tie down or secure all equipment. Tape or pad all
sharp edges or items.
h. If using side doors for casting (UH-60 or UH-1H), secure the doors in the open position,
and tape all edges.
i. With a CH-46 or CH-47, ensure the ramp is secured in the open or casting position (10
degrees below horizontal).
j. To use a wire ladder for recovery, secure it beforehand using a wire "donut" secured to the
floor of the aircraft. Use 5/8-inch wire and secure the wire to at least five points
using snaplinks.
k. Ensure all personnel (cast master, pilots, and safety boats) use the same frequency.
l. Ensure the casting area is clear of all surface and subsurface obstacles.
5-28. When helocasting from a ramp, such as a CH-47, the cast master gives the commands
GET READY, STAND UP, CHECK EQUIPMENT, SOUND OFF WITH EQUIPMENT CHECK, and
GO. When using UH-60 or UH-lH, he omits STAND UP:
1. The cast master ensures jumpers leave their seat belts on until they hear the command
GET READY.
2. If using a rubber boat, the team moves it to the end of the ramp. Just before the command
GO, they push out until the boat is about halfway past the edge of the ramp. On hearing the
command GO, they push the boat off the ramp.
3. The cast master ensures that when the pilot drops personnel, he flies within 10 feet of the
surface of the water at 10 knots or slower.
4. When casting from the ramp, jumpers assume a normal prepare-to-land attitude.
5. When casting from a side door, jumpers cast from a seated door position. On the cast master's
command, jumpers push off and face the direction of flight, assuring a normal prepare-to-
land attitude.
6. The cast master throws bundles or rucksacks before the jumper exits on the command GO.
7. Upon entering the water, the jumper signals "Okay" to the cast master and safety boat.
8. When using a single rotor aircraft for recovery operations, the cast master lowers a wire
ladder to the swimmers, who line up at 50-meter intervals in the recovery area. |
3-55.93 | 135 | Insertion and Extraction Methods
9. As the aircraft flies over, each swimmer hooks the lowest rung on the ladder with his leading
arm and climbs to a designated height, where he hooks up (with snaplink and rope seat) to
the ladder.
10. All CH-46 or CH-47 aircraft land in the water. If using a rubber boat with a motor, the team
drives the boat up to the ramp. When the rubber boat is not using a motor, the cast master
uses the aircraft's winch to lower a rope with a 10-pound-padded weight attached to it. He
lowers the rope behind the boat and drags the rope over it. The swimmers secure the rope,
and the winch pulls the boat in.
11. When swimmers are in the water without a boat, they either go up a ladder or, if the aircraft is
on the water, they swim up to the ramp.
12. For SPIES recovery, swimmers put on their harnesses before the helicopter arrives. The
helicopter hovers over the group of swimmers as they attach their harnesses to the "D" ring.
5-29. Due to the hazards involved, the leader emphasizes safety in all aspects of planning and executing
helicopter casting and recovery operations:
• Immediately before a helocast and recovery operation, the leader—
— Physically reconnoiters the casting area.
— Verifies water depth and the absence of obstacles and debris.
• He ensures that the water is at least 15 feet deep.
• He ensures motorized safety boats are in the water with motors.
• He establishes radio voice communications between the safety boats and the drop aircraft.
• He ensures the cast master has voice communications with the pilot.
• He ensures one dive supervisor and two divers, with complete scuba gear, are in a safety boat.
• He ensures that a qualified medic/dive medical technician is in one of the safety boats.
• He ensures drop altitude stays within 10 feet of the surface of the water.
• He ensures drop speed remains at or slower than 10 knots indicated airspeed.
• If an injury occurs, the leader ceases until he determines the cause and extent of the injury.
Section II. HELICOPTER OPERATIONS
Helicopters provide a variety of methods for inserting and extracting teams. (FM 3-05.210, TC 21-24 and
USASOC Reg 350-6 provide more information.) This section only covers the operational requirements and
procedures for SPIES, FRIES, Army aviation, air assault, pick-up and landing zones, and the UH-60 loading
sequence. Training requirements are covered in FM 3-05.210 and USASOC Reg 350-6.
SPECIAL PATROL INSERTION/EXTRACTION SYSTEM
5-30. The SPIES should be used only when the team needs immediate extraction or cannot move to a
clear (open) position suitable for helicopter landing. The SPIES works best for extracting LRS teams over
short distances. Teams are almost never inserted by SPIES because doing so would expose them to
observation and fire throughout the insertion. Before a SPIES operation, the leader thoroughly briefs
participants. Before inserting, the team receives extensive training in SPIES operations. Personnel
supporting the SPIES operation receive a complete preoperational briefing. This is most crucial when the
operation involves assets other than the extraction helicopter such as gunships, aerial observers, or artillery. |
3-55.93 | 136 | Chapter 5
FAMILIARIZATION
5-31. When time and situation permit, personnel unfamiliar with SPIES should watch or help with the
rigging of the helicopter. Initial training with SPIES is without combat equipment. This builds confidence
in the equipment and procedures, and it aids in more comprehensive training of new SPIES masters.
SAFETY
5-32. This safety briefing should cover at a minimum--
• Area hazards.
• General Aircraft safety.
• SPIES equipment and its characteristics.
• Preoperational inspection of equipment.
• Proper donning of the harness.
• Method of insertion and extraction.
• Hand-and-arm signals and emergency signals.
• Medical coverage.
• Communications requirements.
• Operational requirements for limited visibility.
COMMUNICATIONS
5-33. Helicopter noise necessitates radio communications be the primary means of communications
between the Soldiers on the ground and the helicopter. Light and arm-and-hand signals are the alternate
means of communication. The SPIES master uses the inter-cockpit communication system on the
helicopter. Soldiers practice the appropriate arm-and-hand and light signals in case radio communications
fail.
5-34. Radio operators should use headsets and voice suppressors (if available) rather than handsets. This
frees the ground RTO's hands so that, when the helicopter hovers, he can hook up faster and more safely.
EXTRACTION
5-35. After the extracting team is located on the ground, the SPIES master helps direct the helicopter the
proper distance above the team. On order of the pilot, the SPIES master drops the rope.
1. The team leader positions himself to move and approach the rope as the SPIES master drops
it. Once the rope is clear of any obstacles, the team leader directs the team to move to their
assigned positions along the hookup points.
2. Each member attaches the primary (harness) snaplink to the "D" ring on his side of the line.
Using the safety line and snaplink, he hooks into the alternate or secondary hookup point on
the opposite side of the rope. He faces forward along the line so that, when the aircraft
ascends, he is looking in the direction of travel. He holds up the SPIES rope and routes it over
the shoulder closest to the rope. With the other hand, he gives a thumbs-up signal to the team
leader and SPIES master signaling he is ready to go.
3. After all team members signal they are ready, the team leader physically inspects (if time and
situation permit) each team members hook up. The team leader then hooks himself on to the
lowest point with the RTO. He then gives the thumbs-up signal to the SPIES master. He
continues this thumbs-up signal, which at night is an arranged light signal, until the helicopter
reaches a safe altitude (about 3 meters above the tallest obstacle at the extraction site). |
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4. During extraction, the team RTO maintains communications with the extraction helicopter.
Because he is near the bottom of the rope with the team leader, he can assist in giving verbal
confirmation of all light and arm-and-hand signals, and relay information between the team
leader, the SPIES master and the aircraft crew.
CAUTION
Not all chemical lights are visible at night using image intensifying night
vision devises. Coordination with the pilots during the air mission brief
to finalize the types and colors of chemical lights to use is required.
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
5-36. During the flight, from the time the team extracts until they safely detach from the SPIES rope,
each team member watches for any problems that might arise from above or below. The Soldier above
checks the Soldier below. At the first sign of danger, or if an emergency occurs, the team leader or a team
member places his free hand on the top of his head. When the SPIES master sees this, he instructs the pilot
to make an emergency landing in the nearest and safest area.
DISMOUNTING PROCEDURES
5-37. When the extraction helicopter has reached a tactically safe dismount area, the pilot transitions to
a hover and then begins a vertical descent. The SPIES master continuously provides information to the
pilot on the distance from the ground to the lower end of the SPIES rope. As team members reach the
ground, they immediately move away from the aircraft. For a UH-60, the team walks to a 90-degree angle
to the front of the aircraft. For a UH-1, the team walks to the direction of the front of the aircraft. In both
cases, the pilot or the crew can see the team is out from under the aircraft. The team ensures the SPIES
rope does not interfere with the aircraft and that the aircraft does not land on the rope. All team members
rapidly unhook themselves and their teammates who need assistance. Once unhooked, they move away
from the area and set up security, or help clear the rope if the helicopter is going to land.
OPERATIONAL TRAINING
5-38. In preparing for an operation, if the leader thinks the situation, mission, or terrain indicates the
need for a SPIES extraction, then he should include a SPIES harness in each Soldier's equipment list. If the
mission or insertion precludes team members from wearing the harnesses, they should carry them inside
their packs. As soon as they request helicopter extraction, they can retrieve and don their harnesses.
1. The extraction helicopter(s) proceeds to the area and the pilot establishes radio or visual
contact with the team. The backup helicopter, equipped with the SPIES, remains aloft and
away from the area, maintaining visual contact with the LZ and monitoring radio
communications.
2. The SPIES master deploys the rope, and then notifies the pilot the rope is out. The pilot
normally cannot see the team nor determine the most suitable position for the aircraft. The
SPIES master gives the pilot vertical and lateral corrections until the aircraft reaches the
desired position. He commands, LEFT, RIGHT, FORWARD, or REAR, along with the
estimated distance. For example, LEFT, 10 FEET. The SPIES master counts down as the
pilot responds, for example, "Ten, nine, eight, seven, six, hover. Hold, ropes out." The SPIES
master informs the pilot of any unexpected drift that could pull the team into an obstruction.
The crew chief maintains his attention to the safety of the aircraft and watches for any
possible interference with the tail rotor.
3. To avoid losing weapons during a SPIES extraction, team members sling them over their
shoulders and attach them to their bodies with safety lines. They secure other weapons and
equipment against the wind as well. After observing this, the team leader gives them the
thumbs-up signal. |
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4. During the extraction, the team RTO maintains communications with the extraction
helicopter. He verbally confirms the thumbs-up signal and relays any other relevant
information during the flight. He should position himself near or at the bottom hookup point.
This ensures he can give accurate information about the extraction, the clearing of obstacles,
and the descent.
5. The extraction aircraft must lift off vertically until the SPIES rope clears all obstacles. If
needed, team members can fire their individual weapons from the hip with their barrels
directed downward at a 45-degree angle and outward from the team.
6. Once the aircraft clears any vertical obstacles, the RTO, who is the lowest Soldier on the
SPIES rope, signals the pilot all team members have cleared the obstacle. This is especially
important during limited visibility. Even if the pilot uses night vision goggles, his depth
perception is poor when looking 120 feet below the aircraft.
7. On descent, both the RTO and the SPIES master inform the pilot of his altitude, drift, and
forward speed. They also tell him whether their ropes are oscillating enough to potentially
injure team members on impact. The RTO counts down in 10-foot increments ("Fifty, forty,
thirty, twenty, ten, nine, eight…one; one man down, two…") until the whole team is down.
During limited visibility, the SPIES master might not be able to see this.
8. Once the team is on the ground, the SPIES master monitors drift. Sudden lateral shifts can
drag team members before they can disconnect from their ropes.
WATER-EXTRACTION PROCEDURE
5-39. The SPIES also works well for extracting LRS teams from the water. Three inflatable life vests or
other flotation devices are attached to the SPIES; one to each end of the attachment points, and one to the
middle of the attachment point area, just above the middle two sets of "D" rings. Each team member wears
a SPIES harness under his life vest. In amphibious operations, he may also wear swim fins, mask, and
snorkel. This simplifies hookup to the SPIES rope in the chop and spray caused by the helicopter.
1. After the pilot stabilizes the aircraft above the team members, he gives the order and the
SPIES master drops the SPIES rope (with flotation attached).
2. When the team members finish hooking up to the SPIES rope, the team leader signals the
SPIES master to start liftoff.
3. The aircraft must lift off vertically until all team members and the bottom end of the rope
clear the water. During initial liftoff, the aircraft may drag team members through the water.
They must be ready to roll onto their backs until the aircraft lifts them clear of the water.
4. The aircraft should fly at the same speed and altitude as it would over land. Dismounting
procedures also remain the same, except for shipboard landings: on a ship, all team members
take their orders from the personnel in charge of the deck.
PERSONNEL DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
5-40. SPIES training and operations require the designation of key personnel to perform assigned tasks.
The positions are unit commander, SPIES master, ground safety officer (GSO) or NCO, air mission
commander, and pilot in command.
QUALIFICATIONS OF SPIES MASTER
5-41. Selection of personnel for qualification as SPIES master should be based on the individual's
demonstrated leadership capabilities, maturity, and knowledge of SPIES operations. Individuals selected
must participate in at least three SPIES operations (observe twice and execute SPIES master duties once
under the supervision by a qualified SPIES master). For example, the SPIES master candidate configures
the hookups in the helicopter, helps prepare for an operation, and conducts a successful operation under the
supervision of a qualified SPIES master. He must be able to give an effective pilot's brief, use the aircraft |
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communication equipment, and understand aviation terminology. Additional qualifications
requirements include--
• Holds the rank of sergeant or above (may be waived).
• Completed initial SPIES training.
• Knows all aspects of a SPIES operation.
• Has received instructions on and demonstrated proficiency in:
— Rigging of the helicopter.
— Inspection and preparation of SPIES.
— Donning of the SPIES harness.
— Coordination responsibilities.
— Soldier or aircrew briefings.
— Organization of the personnel to be extracted.
— Instruction to pilots in maintaining the aircraft position over the target.
— Throwing and retrieving SPIES.
— Hand-and-arm signals.
— Emergency procedures.
GENERAL DUTIES OF THE SPIES MASTER
5-42. The SPIES master is responsible for the safe conduct of the SPIES operation. Preflight, he—
Equipment
5-43. Inventories and inspects all SPIES equipment.
Briefs
5-44. Briefs pilots and others concerned about the details of the operation, concentrating on extraction
and dismounting procedures.
Inter-Cockpit Communications System Helmet
5-45. Ensures that he has an inter-cockpit communications helmet and a gunner's belt or, lacking a belt,
a sling rope instead. He connects, then checks the operation of the inter-cockpit communication system. On
all SPIES operations, he, the crew chiefs, and the pilots must establish interagency communications using
this system.
Rope
5-46. Attaches the SPIES rope to the helicopter as previously described.
Loose Items
5-47. Checks for loose items that could fall on a team member during flight.
Axe
5-48. Ensures that the axe is available, sharp, and securely stored so that it presents no danger to the
Soldiers on the SPIES rope. He also ensures that he has an alternate means of cutting the rope in case of
emergency. |
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DUTIES OF THE SPIES MASTER DURING EXTRACTION
5-49. On arrival at the team's estimated position, the SPIES master helps the pilot determine the exact
locations of the team members, and—
1. As the aircraft approaches the team's location, he helps the pilot (using the clock system)
position the aircraft directly above the team.
2. He requests permission from the pilot to drop the SPIES rope when the aircraft is hovering
above the team.
3. He drops the rope, taking care to avoid striking team members on the ground.
4. He notifies the pilot when the rope is down, and reports any altitude corrections necessary to
ensure that the team members can reach all of the SPIES attachment points.
5. He watches for the team leader to give the thumbs-up signal.
6. When he sees it, he tells the pilot that the team is ready for extraction, and he requests a
vertical liftoff.
7. He advises the pilot of the team's approximate position, the locations of any potential
obstacles, and the avoidance of horizontal movement.
8. If a team member becomes entangled with an obstacle during the extraction, he notifies the
pilot to stop the vertical lift immediately. If the situation is critical, he prepares to cut the
SPIES rope (the anchor point or cargo straps) after team members are secured to the obstacle
or on the ground.
9. When he is sure the team has cleared all obstructions, he advises the pilot. The pilot flies to a
safe altitude (about 350 feet above ground level for training purposes, or, in combat, however
high the situation dictates), or transitions to forward flight.
10. At frequent intervals during the flight, he advises the pilot on the safety status of all team
members. He constantly watches the team and checks the security of the SPIES attachments.
DUTIES OF THE SPIES MASTER DURING DISMOUNTING
5-50. On arrival at the dismount area, the SPIES master tells the pilot the approximate height of the
lower roper from the ground and—
1. Once the pilot starts the vertical descent, the SPIES master continually informs the pilot of the
approximate distance between the lowest roper and the ground.
2. He informs the pilot of any horizontal drift or oscillation in the rope, and of any obstructions.
3. He tells the pilot when the rope is about 25 feet above the ground and again when it is 10 feet
above the ground.
4. He ensures that the rate of descent is slow enough to enable the team members to land safely.
5. He reports initial touchdown of the lowest roper, when the last team member lands safely, and
when all team members are disconnected.
6. On order of the pilot, he either retrieves or disconnects and drops the SPIES rope. With the
UH-60/1H helicopter, he can only retrieve the rope if he has previously attached a recovery
rope (a 12-foot sling rope or two 6-foot sling ropes joined together) about 5 or 6 feet below
the cargo hook or cargo strap hookup point. The recovery rope must be attached using a
self-tightening knot such as the Prussik knot. The standing end of the sling rope may be
fastened to the deck tie-down or to a snaplink. Although the line should be kept out of the
way, it must be long enough to control any oscillation in the SPIES during flight. |
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INSPECTION
5-51. A certified SPIES master or rigger inspects SPIES at a minimum every 6 months or whenever the
serviceability of the equipment is in doubt. Out-dated, spliced, abraded, or cut ropes are removed from
service. The SPIES master or rigger inspects the ropes as follows:
1. Inspects harness and suspension sling webbing for signs of contamination from oil, grease,
acid, rust, cuts, twists, fading, excessive wear, or fusing (indicated by unusual hardening or
softening of webbing fibers), fraying, burns, abrasions, and loose or broken stitching (in
excess of three stitches). The inspector removes damaged harnesses or suspension slings and
returns damaged equipment to supply for appropriate disposition. In some cases, riggers may
be able to repair deficiencies.
2. Inspects all hardware for signs of corrosion, pitting, ease of operation, security of attachment,
bends, dents, nicks, burrs, and sharp edges. Replacing any hardware (except the chest strap
adapter) that requires unstitching the webbing, makes the harness unserviceable.
3. Replaces the "V" ring by cutting the strap above the stitching. A qualified rigger can fold and
stitch a new end section for leg straps. If straps are damaged, the harness or suspension sling
is unserviceable and must be returned to supply for appropriate disposition.
4. Ensures rope is free of splices.
5. Inspects the surface of the rope for splices, cuts, excessive abrasions, and snags. Cuts are
considered excessive when four or more strands in any 5-inch length are cut. The two-to-one
braided rope has 12 pair (24 strands) around the circumference. Abrasion is extensive when
torn yarns are equivalent to that of four strands of any 5-inch length. A rope that has been
subjected to heavy loads might display glazed areas where it has rubbed against hard
surfaces. Painted or fused fibers can both produce a glazed appearance. A rope can also get
fuzzy on the surface from long use. The effect on the strength of the rope by glazing or
surface fuzz is negligible.
6. Inspects the rope for signs of contamination by acid, alkaline compounds, salt water, fire
extinguishing solutions, and petroleum-based solvents. Although ropes gradually and
uniformly change color with use, this does not decrease its strength. However, exposure to
strong chemicals, usually indicated by spotty discoloration on the rope, can affect the strength
of the rope.
7. Ensures the eye loop at the attachment point is not broken, frayed, or loose.
SERVICE LIFE
5-52. The SPIES master and riggers check ropes, harnesses, and suspension slings for expiration of
service life or total life. Expiration of service is 7 years from the date the manufacturer's package is opened,
and total life is 15 years from the date of manufacture.
REPAIR AND CLEANING OF ROPE
5-53. To repair the rope, the SPIES master must--
Note: You must repair loose or broken stitching.
1. Wash contaminated ropes with a mild detergent (such as liquid dish soap) and cold water,
followed by a rinse in clean, fresh water. Dry the rope at room temperature (not to exceed
140 degrees Fahrenheit).
2. Remove stubborn oil, grease, hydraulic fluid, and other petroleum stains with the cleaning
agent xylene (Grade A or B, TT-X 916). Use the cleaning agent as directed. |
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WARNING
AVOID TRYING TO REPAIR NONREPAIRABLE DAMAGE, TO
INCLUDE ACID CONTAMINATION, CUTS, OR FRAYS ON
HARNESS OR SLING WEBBING.
STORAGE
5-54. The SPIES master stows the SPIES as follows:
1. Protect nylon materials from direct sunlight as much as possible to avoid ultraviolet
deterioration.
2. Stow the SPIES rope in an aviator's kit bag for protection when not in use.
3. Use bins or similar facilities to store SPIES equipment. Use shelves that are at least 4 inches
from the walls and 12 inches from the floor. Ensure that storage areas are well ventilated and
free of oil, acid, cleaning compounds, and other contaminants. Avoid stowing equipment
above or near hot water pipes or other heat sources.
RIGGING OF A UH-1H AND UH-60
5-55. To rig the UH-lH or UH-60 helicopter (with cargo hook) for a SPIES Operation, use the following
equipment:
• One SPIES rope with deployment bag.
• Two 11-foot or 9-foot, three- or four-loop, Type 26 cargo slings.
• Two Type IV connector links.
• Nine locking snaplinks.
• One 12-foot sling rope.
• One roll of heavy-duty ("100 mile-an-hour") tape.
• One block of wood measuring 4 by 4 by 18 inches.
• One fire ax (for use during emergency cutaway procedures).
Note: For UH-1H or UH-60 helicopters without cargo hooks, use the same equipment plus
two additional 9-foot or 11-foot, three- or four-loops, Type 26 cargo slings, two additional
Type IV connector links, and a total of 16 locking snaplinks.
5-56. The primary attachment point for the SPIES rope is the cargo hook. At the end of the SPIES rope,
the polyurethane-encapsulated eye is attached to the cargo hook. The two 9- or 11-foot-long, cargo
suspension slings joined together by a Type IV link to form one continuous sling. The team stretches out
this sling on the helicopter deck. They take one end under the helicopter and through the eye of the SPIES
rope, and they connect it on the other end of the sling using a Type IV link assembly. The straps are taped
with 100-mph tape at 12-inch intervals (Figure 5-3). On the UH-1H only, the sling is passed between the
helicopter skids and the fuselage. For both models, they can use locally procured padding to protect the
sling from damage around the edge of the cargo hatch. |
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Figure 5-3. SPIES rope rigging on UH-60
5-57. Once the team secures the SPIES rope and cargo straps, they secure the straps running across the
deck of the helicopter. To do this takes eight snaplinks. The team spaces the snaplinks evenly across the
deck, alternating from one side of the strap to the other, and from top and bottom. The first snaplink goes
from the rear of the strap around the bottom two straps, and the next snaplink goes from the front of the
cargo strap around the top two sections of the strap. This continues until the team establishes at least four
points (Figure 5-4).
Figure 5-4. Rigging of snap links.
5-58. The 4-inch by 4-inch block of wood is taped down along the right edge of the doorway so the
cargo strap crosses the block perpendicularly at the middle. The wood block serves as a chopping block
pad in case of an emergency cutaway (Figure 5-5). |
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Figure 5-5. Rigging of wood block.
5-59. Once the cargo strap and wood block are secured, the excess cargo strap is gathered on the
opposite side of the wood block and taped to the floor of the aircraft (Figure 5-6).
Figure 5-6. Excess cargo straps secured.
5-60. The sling rope is then tied to the SPIES rope by a Prusik knot about 2 to 3 feet below the cargo
hook (Figure 5-7). A bowline knot with a half hitch is then tied to the running end and the ninth snap link
is inserted and connected to a cargo ring in the middle of the aircraft floor. This line serves as a recovery
line for the rope so that the aircrew can retrieve the rope into the aircraft. The recovery rope should be long
enough so the weight on the SPIES rope is hanging from the cargo hook and not the recovery rope. |
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Figure 5-7. Recovery line with Prusik knot.
5-61. If the SPIES rope is not to be used immediately, it is neatly coiled and placed on the opposite side
of the aircraft from the wood block. This ensures it will not become tangled or interfere with normal
aircraft operations.
5-62. If the helicopter has no cargo hook, or if the hook is not working properly, the team can still use
the SPIES by doubling up on the cargo slings and Type IV links. This places two cargo straps side by side,
for a total of four slings and four Type IV links.
5-63. The team must use caution when using the UH-lH, because different configurations of the
helicopter may make rigging difficult. Some of them have steps, which get in the way during both
installation and operation. Others have rocket pods or mounted machine guns. The team might have to
hook up two different UH-1s in two different ways.
RIGGING OF A CH-46 OR CH-47
5-64. The CH-46 and CH-47 require—
• One SPIES rope with deployment bag.
• Two 9-foot or two 11-foot, three- or four-loop slings.
• Four Type IV connectors.
• Eight oval snap links.
• Heavy-duty tape (100-mph tape).
• A 12-foot length of tubular nylon or one 12-foot sling rope.
5-65. As they do with the UH models, the team attaches the SPIES rope using the slings and snaplinks
(Figure 5-8). They pass the slings through the eye of the rope and attach it to the outboard cargo tie-down
rings on the aircraft floor. They use two tie-down rings for each sling. They can use locally procured
padding around the edge of the cargo hatch to protect the slings from damage.
5-66. The team arranges the cargo straps to form two U-shapes. They place one strap forward of the
cargo hole in the center of the aircraft floor, and the other one aft, toward the rear of the helicopter.
However, varying positions of the tie-down rings could require them to adapt their rigging techniques
accordingly. Once they finish the rigging, the cargo straps should hold the SPIES rope comfortably |
3-55.93 | 146 | Chapter 5
centered and slightly below the cargo hatch. Attaching snaplinks close to all four tie-down points serves as
a backup in case of a faulty tie-down ring, and reduces the amount of movement in the cargo suspension
straps. The team should use eight snaplinks, two at each point, with swing gates reversed, for added
security.
Figure 5-8. SPIES rigging procedures for CH-46 or CH-47.
FAST-ROPE INSERTION/EXTRACTION SYSTEM
5-67. The FRIES, also know as "fast rope," is a polyester rope, consisting of three olive drab 1 3/4-inch
strands, and comes in 20-, 40-, 60-, 90-, and 120-foot lengths. The top of the main rope has an 8-inch eye
spliced in, which allows the team to attach the rope to specially equipped helicopters. Before conducting a
fast-rope operation, the team must thoroughly inspect the rope. The following paragraphs cover the
requirements and procedures for FRIES operations; however, FM 3-05.210 and USASOC Reg 350-6 cover
training requirements.
INSPECTION
5-68. The team lays out the rope so they can inspect the full length for fraying and the eyelet on the end
for excessive wear. Snags from normal use will not significantly weaken the rope. A rope with several
strands frayed in one particular spot or any single strand cut halfway through cannot be used. If the fast
rope gets wet, team members "S"-fold it or hang it in a dry, warm area out of direct sunlight. It must dry
thoroughly before the next use. If the team uses the fast rope in salt water or it becomes imbedded with dirt
or mud, the rope must be washed in fresh water within 72 hours and then dried as described above. Inspect
the rope for contamination by acid, alkaline compounds, salt water, fire extinguishing solutions, or
petroleum-based solvents. Although ropes gradually change color uniformly with use, this does not
necessarily indicate a decrease in strength, unless the change is due to contact with strong chemicals.
Chemicals usually cause spotting, not uniform discoloration. A DA Form 5752-R (Rope Log (Usage and
History)) for each rope must be maintained. See TM 10-1670-262-12&P for detailed maintenance and
inspection information on FRIES equipment. The aviation unit is responsible for installing, removing,
storing, and maintaining the FRIES mounting bars. |
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RIGGING OF THE UH-60
5-69. The aviation unit is responsible for rigging the aircraft (Figure 5-9 and Figure 5-10). The FRIES
master and selected personnel may rig or assist in the rigging under the supervision of the aircrew.
Personnel—
• Ensure the aviation unit has removed the center row, which has nine seats.
• Ensure the aviation unit has provided in-flight floor restraints for fast-rope personnel. These
restraints can include seat belts, sling ropes, or CGU straps.
• Remove both of the storage pins, and allow the bars to rotate down.
• Extend the fast-rope bars out to their desired length, fully extended for insertions, and insert the
storage pin in the correct hole.
• Inspect the bar for cracks and for security of nuts and bolts.
• Rig the fast rope to the fast-rope attachment point, as follows:
— Remove safety pin from the fast-rope release system and apply upward pressure to cabin
wall-mounted release handle, releasing the gate.
— Insert woven loop the fast rope into the attachment point.
— Insert the gate through the woven loop of the fast rope and into the receptacle.
— Apply a downward pressure to cabin wall-mounted release handle while pushing the gate
out until the gate is fully seated in the receptacle (locking position).
— Back-coil the fast rope and secure it to the cabin floor; or, insert the fast-rope retention strap
through the coil, and suspend the fast rope from the ceiling of the fuel tank. Finally, use the
safety pin to secure the quick-release mechanism (Figure 5-10).
Figure 5-9. Fast-rope rigging procedures for UH-60. |
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Figure 5-10. UH-60 rigged for fast roping
OTHER AIRCRAFT
5-70. The CH-47, CH-46, RH-53, and HH-53 aircraft use the same type of fast-rope bar, only double,
for use with the ramps (Figure 5-11).
Figure 5-11. Fast-rope rigging procedures for other aircraft.
SAFETY
5-71. All personnel involved in FRIES operations are responsible for identifying hazardous situations
and preventing injuries of personnel. Anyone who observes an unsafe condition or act is authorized to halt
the operation and inform the FRIES master or the pilot in command. See USSOCOM Reg 350-6 for the
most current safety requirements. |
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Emergencies after Roping Starts
5-72. In case of an emergency, personnel follow emergency procedures:
Unsafe Drift or Premature Liftoff
• FRIES master, assistant FRIES masters, safety, or roper stops the stick.
• Ropers stop descent and lock in.
• FRIES master or crewman informs the pilot in command and guides him in, moving the aircraft
back on target.
• Unit continues operations.
Rope Hung or Snagged
• Safety ensures ropers are off the rope and clear.
• Aircraft descends or lands, as needed.
• Ground personnel free the rope.
• Unit resumes the operation.
Premature or Unintentional Deployment of the Fast Rope
• Notifies the pilot in command.
• Follows the aircrew's instructions.
Lost Communications
5-73. During all training and operations, the pilot in command or the crewmembers and the FRIES
master must use the intercom. If the intercom fails, they use hand-and-arm signals until they can clear the
rope and restore the intercom:
Stop Stick--A clenched fist touching the chest.
Ropes--Open palm toward the door in a horizontal motion.
Aircraft Movement--An open palm moving and facing in the direction required.
Stop Aircraft Movement--A clenched fist.
DANGER
HOLD ONTO THE SAFETY LINE DURING THE CRITICAL TIME
BETWEEN THE ONE-MINUTE WARNING AND BEFORE "ROPERS
AWAY." WHEN THE DOORS ARE OPEN, ANY SUDDEN
AIRCRAFT MOVEMENT COULD THROW YOU OUT OF THE
AIRCRAFT.
DUTIES OF FAST-ROPE MASTER
• Brief members of his team and aircrew.
• Inspect team members to ensure that their equipment is configured correctly. For example,
ensure that each member has his work gloves and has tied down all equipment on his person.
• Backbrief, and then inspect aircraft rigging.
• Install the FRIES rope in the aircraft and conduct safety checks. |
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• Relay 10-minute, 6-minute, and l-minute warnings to team members. Use time warnings as a
tool to help synchronize aircrew and ropers' actions. Modify time warnings according to user
needs, but always issue 1-minute warning.
• Break chemical lights, if required, at the 6-minute warning. During night operations, mark the
rope with six chemical lights:
— Two at the mount.
— Two at the end.
— Two 15 feet from the end.
Note: Not all chemical lights are visible at night, even through image-intensifying night
vision devices. The FRIES master must coordinate with the pilots during the air mission brief
to finalize the types and colors of chemical lights to use.
• Ensure the rope is properly configured for deployment (back-coiled to prevent tangles).
• Ensure the team members are in order of exit no later than the 1-minute warning.
• Confirm target on final approach.
• Deploy the rope and ensures it reaches the ground.
• During night operations, wear NVG, see and verify that you see two horizontal chemical lights.
• Deploy personnel, advising the pilots by announcing--
— "Rope out" when deploying the rope over the target.
— "Ropers away" when the first roper exits on the fast rope.
— "Rope clear" to inform the pilots the aircraft is clear for flight.
— "Hold" to inform the pilots to hold the aircraft position.
— "Move, [left, right, forward, or back]" as needed.
• Account for personnel and signals aircrew.
INDIVIDUAL ROPER
• Understand all aspects of the insertion and emergency procedures.
• Configure his individual equipment correctly to prevent snagging and injuries.
• At the command STAND BY (given at 1-minute warning), check self one last time and prepare
to exit the position.
• At the command GO, maintain an orderly formation and exit rapidly.
• Grasp the rope firmly before exiting--never jump for the rope.
• On exit, rotate your body 90 to 180 degrees to ensure your equipment clears the aircraft.
• Exit at 1-second intervals. Begin to slow descent about halfway down to avoid landing on the
other ropers.
• Descend the rope, controlling your speed.
• Brake two-thirds of the way down to avoid landing on ropers that preceded you.
• Prepare to land just before reaching the ground by spreading your legs about shoulder-width
apart, and with your knees slightly bent.
• At landing, quickly move clear of the rope to avoid colliding with descending ropers. |
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ARMY AVIATION AND AIR ASSAULT
5-74. Army aviation can increase LRSU mobility as well as flexibility. Once inserted behind enemy
lines, LRS teams gather combat intelligence that can lead to rapid and decisive action by friendly forces. A
successful air assault derives from carefully analyzing the factors of METT-TC and from detailed and
precise reverse planning. The latter actually consists of five basic plans, all of which leaders develop for
each air assault. To make the best use of available time, R&S squadron insertion and extraction section in
coordination with the LRSC headquarters normally coordinate and develop these plans. If time is limited,
planners can compress the steps of planning, or they can conduct them concurrently. They can also
supplement detailed, written plans and orders with SOPs. Normally, a battalion is the lowest level that
plans, coordinates, and controls air assault operations. Even when companies and lower conduct
operations, most planning occurs at battalion or higher.
GROUND TACTICAL PLAN
5-75. The commander's ground tactical plan forms the foundation of a successful air assault operation.
All other plans must support it. It specifies actions in the objective area to accomplish the mission, and it
also addresses subsequent operations.
LANDING PLAN
5-76. The landing plan supports the ground tactical plan. The landing plan sequences elements into the
AO. It ensures units arrive at the designated locations on time and are prepared to execute the ground
tactical plan.
AIR MOVEMENT PLAN
5-77. The air movement plan is based on the ground tactical and landing plans. It schedules the
movement of Soldiers, equipment, and supplies from PZs to LZs by air.
LOADING PLAN
5-78. The loading plan is based on the air movement plan. It ensures that Soldiers, equipment, and
supplies are loaded on the correct aircraft. Planning aircraft loads helps ensure unit integrity. Cross-loading
may be necessary to ensure survivability of C2 assets and the mix of weapons arriving at the LZ ready to
fight. The detachment or team leader should ensure the aircraft is loaded so that dismounting Soldiers can
react promptly and contribute to mission accomplishment.
STAGING PLAN
5-79. The staging plan is based on the loading plan. It prescribes when and in what order ground units
(Soldiers, equipment, and supplies) will move to the PZ (order of movement).
PICKUP AND LANDING ZONES
5-80. Pickup and landing zone size requirements depend on the type and number of helicopters and the
minimum acceptable distances between aircraft. Small unit leaders should be skilled in selecting and
marking of PZs and LZs.
MARKING TECHNIQUES
5-81. During the day, a ground guide marks the PZ or LZ for the lead aircraft by holding his individual
weapon over his head, by displaying a folded VS-17 panel chest-high, or by other identifiable means. At
night, an inverted "Y" marks the landing point of the lead aircraft. Chemical light sticks or beanbag lights
help maintain light discipline (Figure 5-12). Each additional aircraft that lands in the same PZ or LZ
requires an additional light. For an observation, utility, or attack aircraft, the exact landing point is marked
with a single light. For cargo aircraft (CH-47, CH-53, CH-54), each additional landing point is marked
with two lights. The two lights are placed 10 meters apart and aligned in the aircraft's direction of flight. |
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Figure 5-12. Marking procedures for landing and pickup zones.
CAUTION
Not all chemical lights are visible at night, even through
image-intensifying night vision devices. The FRIES master must
coordinate with the pilots during the air mission brief to finalize the
types and colors of chemical lights to use.
LANDING POINT
5-82. Each aircraft requires a circular landing point separate from those designated for other aircraft,
and free of obstacles. Table 5-1 shows the minimum recommended landing point diameters (in meters).
Table 5-1. Minimum recommended landing point diameters.
Minimum
Landing
Aircraft Diameter
Observation helicopters 25 meters
UH-1, AH-1 35 meters
UH-60, AH-64 50 meters
Cargo helicopters 80 meters
SURFACE CONDITIONS
5-83. The surface of the PZ or LZ should allow clear visibility of the touchdown point. It should be free
of landing hazards such as blowing sand, dust, or snow. It should contain no obstacles that could damage
landing aircraft such as trees, stumps, or large rocks. The surface must be firm enough to support the
traffic. It should have adequate drainage to allow rainfall to run off. Unacceptable levels of CBRN
contamination can preclude the use of an area. If part of an area falls short for any reason, that part is not
used.
GROUND SLOPE
5-84. Generally, if the ground slopes 0 to 6 percent, then the pilot should land upslope. If the ground
slopes 7 to 15 percent, then he should land side slope. Over 15 percent, he should not touch down at all,
but he may, if conditions allow, hover to drop off or pick up personnel or equipment. |
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Obstacles
5-85. For planning purposes, use an obstacle clearance ratio of 10 to 1 on the approach and departure
ends of the PZ and LZ. That is, a helicopter approaching or departing directly above a 10-foot tall tree
needs 100 feet of horizontal clearance. Mark obstacles within the PZ and LZ only if the enemy cannot see
the markings. At night, mark them with red lights, but turn them on only when the PZ or LZ is in use. In
the daytime, use red panels instead of lights.
Approach and Departure
5-86. Analyze the terrain surrounding a possible PZ or LZ for air traffic patterns. In a tactical situation,
avoid repeatedly approaching the PZ or LZ over the same ground. Choose approaches that are free of
obstacles. Pilots should land into the wind, but away from the sun. Ideally, they approach and depart along
the axis of the LZ, over the lowest obstacle, and into the wind.
Load Size
5-87. When a helicopter is loaded to near maximum lift capacity, it needs more distance to lift off and
land. It cannot ascend or descend vertically. The nearer the load to maximum, the larger the PZ and LZ
must be to accommodate a flight.
Operations
5-88. Before the aircraft arrives, the PZ control party secures the PZ. Both the PZ control party and the
Soldiers and equipment are positioned in the LRS team PZ or ORP. When occupying the team PZ or ORP,
the team leader should (Figure 5-13) —
• Maintain all-round security of the PZ or ORP.
• Maintain communications (ground-to-air).
• Brief the marking team for the exact aircraft landing point, and check their equipment.
• Establish priority of loading for each Soldier.
• If time permits a detailed plan, use a coordination checklist. |
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Figure 5-13. Example coordination checklist. |
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Figure 5-13. Example coordination checklist (continued). |
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LANDING ZONE OPERATIONS
5-89. The following priority of action applies when landing on an LZ:
1. The LRS team leader gets the landing direction from the pilot, and then alerts all team
members before landing. This helps orient them to the LZ, particularly at night.
2. When the aircraft lands, personnel immediately unbuckle their seat belts and exit the aircraft
with all equipment.
3. As soon as the crew chief or pilot directs them, the LRS team unloads the aircraft.
4. The team moves 15 to 20 meters away from the side of the aircraft and assumes the prone
position facing away from the aircraft, weapons at the ready position, until the aircraft departs
the LZ.
5. The team moves to a predetermined location using techniques that fit the terrain. Once the
team reaches the concealed assembly point, the team leader quickly counts personnel and
equipment, and then proceeds.
6. The team moves quickly to an assembly area out of sight and hearing of the LZ. They remain
only long enough to adjust their senses to the surrounding environment and to verify the
location of the LZ.
7. If planed and coordinated during the air mission brief, the insertion aircraft may be loitering
nearby in case the team is compromised and needs hasty extraction. This is critical if the team
is engaged by enemy forces on the LZ.
8. If the team makes contact on or near the LZ, they immediately execute the appropriate
battle drill.
9. The LRS team leader calls for CAS, CCA or fire support, if available.
10. Once the team disengages from the enemy force, the team leader moves the unit to a covered
and concealed position, accounts for personnel and equipment, and decides whether to
continue with the mission.
11. If the team leader decides to call for emergency extraction.
a. The team leader gives a direction and distance to the emergency extraction site from the
insertion site.
b. As the aircraft approaches, the team leader initiates a directional signal using, for example,
pen gun flares, or a strobe light with a directional funnel attached.
c. This ground-to-air signal lets the pilot determine a clock direction and distance from the
aircraft to the team's location. The pilot identifies the signal initiated by the team.
d. After confirming the signal, the pilot forms his approach, assisted by the team leader.
OBSTACLES
5-90. These include any obstructions, such as trees, stumps, or rocks that could interfere with aircraft
operation on the ground. During daylight, the aircrew is responsible for avoiding obstacles on the PZ or
LZ. For night and limited visibility operations, all obstacles are marked with red lights. The following
criteria are used to mark obstacles:
1. Mark the near and far sides of the obstacle on the aircraft approach route.
2. If the obstacle is on the aircraft departure route, mark the near side of the obstacle.
3. If the obstacle protrudes into the PZ or LZ, but is outside of the flight route of the aircraft,
mark the near side of the obstacle.
4. Mark large obstacles located on the approach route by circling the obstacle with red lights. |
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5. (Signalman) use arm-and-hand signals to guide aircraft in for landing. Stand to the right front
of the aircraft, where the pilot can see him best. At night, use lighted batons or flashlights in
each hand. When using flashlights, avoid blinding the pilot. Keep the batons and flashlights
lit at all times when signaling. The speed of the arm movement indicates the desired speed of
aircraft compliance with the signal.
UH-60 LOADING SEQUENCE
5-91. To maintain communications with the pilot, the team leader--
1. Uses the aircraft troop commander's handset or requests a separate headset. Initiates
movement once the aircraft has landed.
2. When the far- and near-side teams move to the aircraft, in file, leads the near-side group
(Figure 5-14).
3. Ensures that all personnel wear and carry rucksacks on the aircraft.
4. Notifies the crew chief when all team members board and prepare for liftoff.
5. Ensures that all personnel buckle up as soon as they reach their assigned seats.
Figure 5-14. UH-60 loading sequence.
Section III. VEHICLE OPERATIONS
The LRS team can move by vehicle from the planning area to a point of departure in a secure area.
Traditionally the team normally dismounts at the FLOT, makes final preparations, and conducts a forward
passage of lines. LRS teams now have the capability to conduct mounted operations providing relatively rapid
and secure operational assets within the AO. A LRS team no longer need rely on outside support in order to
insert, extract, infiltrate, and exfiltrate in the AO. |
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MOBILITY PLATFORMS
5-92. LRSU use a variety of vehicles to support themselves when conducting operations. The use of
all-terrain vehicles (ATV), variations of the HMMWV, and nonstandard tactical vehicles (NSTVs) allow
the commander to rapidly employ teams with reduced resupply requirements while conducting operations.
5-93. The ATV’s primary mission is short-range mounted reconnaissance. The ATV provides the
capability to conduct surveillance and reconnaissance missions over a 48-hour or 250-mile range (carrying
extra fuel) without resupply in austere environments over difficult terrain.
5-94. The different variations of the HMMWV such as the army standard M1025A2 or the M1114 are
good platforms to conduct long-range R&S in a desert environment.
5-95. NSTV come in a variety of configurations such as four-door pickup trucks and sport utility
vehicles. The NSTV are also used to conduct R&S missions, but allow the LRS teams flexibility when
operating in areas that limit the use of standard military vehicles.
PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
5-96. Planning and preparation for a mounted mission starts long before the LRS team is alerted.
Preparations include training and rehearsals such as mounted battle drills, laager/hide sites and vehicle
maintenance. The distance from the FOB to the operational area, or even the staging (launch) site may
require additional transportation. Various infiltration combinations of aircraft, rail line, or surface ships
may be required to get the mounted team positioned to insert into an operational area. These infiltration
combinations may also be used to increase the operational range of the mounted team by decreasing the
required distance for overland insertion. When an operation requires either aircraft and surface ships or
other combinations, a rendezvous must take place to transfer the team. The method selected should be one
that will land or position the element with the least chance of detection as close as possible to its AO and as
simply and rapidly as possible. Factors to consider include—
• Security.
• Size of the element.
• Operational requirements relating to the overt or covert nature of the mission.
• Capabilities of personnel and equipment loads.
• Availability of transport and delivery capabilities.
• Weather, terrain, hydrographic, and astronomical data, and conditions in the delivery area.
• Enemy and friendly situation in the delivery area and AO.
• The team may be delivered into the staging area, delivery area or the AO via—
— Surface ships.
— Amphibious landing craft.
— Fixed- or rotary-wing aircraft.
— Rail lines.
— Line haul transport.
—Any combination of the above.
PRE-MISSION CONSIDERATIONS
5-97. Elements should consider the following factors when planning for a successful infiltration. |
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Mission
5-98. The mission determines what and how much ammunition and supplies are necessary, including
special equipment.
Enemy and Friendly Situation
5-99. Order of battle (OB) affects the routes, communications procedures and capabilities, external
exfiltration capabilities, and sources of resupply.
Troops Available and Training Level of Unit Personnel
5-100. LRS teams are proficient in air infiltration and dismounted operations. However, mounted
operations require additional training such as cross-country and night driving with and without night vision
aids and vehicle maintenance, recovery operations, and use and care of mounted weapon systems.
Terrain and Weather
5-101. Terrain and weather affect route planning, personal equipment, and special equipment needs.
Light conditions determine the time available for movement.
Time and Distance
5-102. These factors primarily affect the amount of required fuel for the vehicles and subsistence for
team members, since distance and duration are similar.
Civilian Populace
5-103. Mission planning must consider the local civilians in the AO and what to do in case of mission
compromise.
Equipment and Supplies
5-104. The pre-mission considerations help determine the teams' logistical needs. The team must plan for
the minimum levels of all needed supplies. Mission essential equipment and supplies take priority in the
allocation of space. During planning, the team may find that pre-positioned equipment is available in the
AO. This equipment can range from fuel and water to a complete HMMWV with weapons,
communications equipment, and repair parts. The availability of pre-positioned supplies greatly reduces the
number of vehicles and amount of equipment the unit must deploy with, and reduces the deployment
timeline. Additionally, when planning for deployment, the unit must allocate time to inspect and prepare
the equipment when it arrives in country.
Collective and Individual Training
5-105. LRS teams are capable of operating in all types of terrain and using various insertion and
extraction techniques. However, all teams require training to become and stay proficient.
Collective Training
5-106. Training required for the mounted LRS teams include cross-country and night driving (with and
without night vision aids), vehicle navigation, vehicle infiltration, garage site, MSS and hide site
establishment, vehicle maintenance, recovery operations, mounted battle drills, and dismounted crew battle
drills. Priority for team collective training for the vehicles must always include maintenance.
Individual Training
5-107. The following paragraphs address suggested individual training team members:
Team Leader and Assistant Team Leader--Mounted mission planning, detachment mounted
training concepts, mounted employment, battle drills, load planning and vehicle maintenance
management. The assistant team leader should also be hazardous material certified.
Senior Scout Observer--Mounted mission planning, mounted employment, battle drills, vehicle
maintenance, load planning and hazardous material certified. |
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Radiotelephone Operator (RTO)--Mounted employment, battle drills, electrical wiring techniques,
and vehicle maintenance.
Assistant Radiotelephone Operator (ARTO)--Mounted employment, battle drills, electrical wiring
techniques, and vehicle maintenance.
Scout Observer--Mounted employment, battle drills, and vehicle maintenance.
Cross-Training
5-108. LRS team members require thorough cross-training. Each vehicle crew must be able to operate
independently for extended periods of time.
Vehicle Preparation
5-109. LRS personnel prepare as necessary for airland, paradrop, waterborne, and overland insertions.
They plan for and spend sufficient time preparing their vehicles for the assigned mission, from infiltration
to exfiltration. They must be prepared to conduct all maintenance and repair operations in the field.
5-110. Team members cross load each vehicle so that if required it can act independently during the
mission. Total weight of the vehicle, cargo and personnel is a prime consideration during operations. An
overloaded vehicle handles poorly, consumes fuel at a higher rate, and will experience more maintenance
problems. Items having the greatest effect on weight are fuel, water (50 pounds per 5 gallon container),
ammunition by type (including shipping containers), and personal equipment.
Equipment and Personnel Preparation
5-111. An important aspect to pre-mission preparation is vehicle maintenance and keeping all equipment
in a ready status. Members must inspect and exercise their vehicles even while in garrison. The assistant
team leader is responsible for status of the team’s vehicle. Preventive maintenance checks and service are
normally conducted, at a minimum, weekly while in garrison. This includes road testing the team's
vehicles. This test should include on- and off-road operation in all gears. Check for wheel alignment and
listen for any unusual noises.
5-112. Keep the basic equipment common to each mission on the vehicle at all times (Figure 5-15). This
equipment includes tools; petroleum, oils, and lubricants (POL); spare parts; recovery items; tire repair
kits; and other miscellaneous items. This method will not only save loading time and storage space, it
reduces the chance that these items will be forgotten. Prepare each vehicle using a unit standardized vehicle
load plan. This list is compiled from unit SOPs, experience, and mission requirements. The unit vehicle
load plan standardizes the location of equipment common to all in each vehicle. This ensures that anyone
assigned to the unit can go to any vehicle and locate or pack team equipment. Control and assist the
preparations after alert using pre-mission checklists.
5-113. Leaders conduct inspections to ensure the vehicles are loaded properly. Upon receipt of a notice to
deploy, inspect the unit's vehicles as soon as possible to ensure mechanical reliability. Conduct this
inspection at least 30 days before vehicle shipment (or as early as possible) to allow motor pool personnel
time to correct deficiencies. Motor pool personnel normally help inexperienced team personnel perform
this inspection. It is key that the team personnel be present at the vehicle maintenance inspection.
Test-drive each vehicle to ensure mechanical reliability. Make sure the inspection takes the vehicle up to
operating temperatures. Check climbing ability, winch operation with load, transmission and transfer case
performance through all gears on challenging terrain, engine performance, and wheel alignment. Also,
listen for any unusual noises or rattles. After the inspection and test, rate each vehicle by performance. The
stronger vehicles should perform the more challenging aspects of the mission. Avoid overloading or
hauling trailers with the weaker vehicles.
5-114. The next inspection should take place 3 to 5 days before load out or during planning. Inspect the
items normally kept on the vehicle and all mission-related equipment for accountability and serviceability.
The last inspection should be the normal final inspection or spot check done during the last few hours
before the infiltration or shipment of the equipment. |
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5-115. Plan for sufficient fuel supplies. Fuel trucks, fuel points or resupply may not be available in the
mission area. Frequently, it is difficult or impossible to get any kind of resupply. For a HMMWV, a good
figure is 9 miles per gallon (mpg) for initial estimation of fuel requirements. Plan for and take adequate
water. Minimum water planning figures are 4 to 6 quarts per man per day for mounted operations in a
desert environment. Take additional water for dismounted missions within the mounted role. Omit the
water carried on individual load-bearing equipment (LBE) for this requirement. Team members use a
vehicle water bottle for the crew. They never use the water supplies on their LBE unless separated from the
vehicles during dismounted operations or when placed in a survival or evasion situation. As a rule,
consume water from the vehicle’s stores first before using personal stores.
Figure 5-15. Example vehicle load configuration.
5-116. Plan for and take adequate food supplies. Remember that food consumption in hot, dry climates is
generally less than in other climates. Individuals should pack most of their food items in a food bag (ditty
bag) instead of their rucksack to limit the extent of unpacking their rucksack when getting meals. A ditty
bag ensures they will have a minimal kit of food, survival and evasion items on hand. Construct the ditty
bag from a durable bag large enough to hold three days of food, minimal sleeping gear, personal evasion
and survival gear, first aid kit, and personal toilet articles. Pack at least three meals in the rucksack, so
individual team members will have a food supply if required to abandon the vehicle rapidly. If several
cases of food are packed on the vehicle, the crew must only open one at the time. This aids in estimating
how long the food will last, and prevents the constant shuffling of equipment. Place ammunition where it
can be accessed quickly. Secure large ammunition cans or containers to prevent injury in accidents due to
shifting loads. Construct and position a vehicle destruction kit for quick accessibility. Each member should
have three basic loads of small arms ammunition: one on the LBE (primary), one in rucksack (secondary), |
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and one in an ammunition can positioned in the vehicle (contingency). The ammunition can in the vehicle
should contain all contingency ammunition for the crew. Position basic signaling ammunitions near the
navigator’s position. These would include colored smoke and colored star clusters to aid in identification.
5-117. Plan for maintenance and repair contingencies based on the mission, the terrain and weather in the
AO, mission duration, and maintenance experience. A detachment normally carries one general mechanic’s
toolbox, with metric supplement. In addition, each vehicle carries its own operator vehicle maintenance set
and a small supply of motor oil, transmission fluid, and brake fluid for basic maintenance needs.
5-118. For long duration missions, a trailer towed by a second and third vehicle can carry additional
maintenance supplies. Each vehicle should also carry one complete replacement set of fluids, including
motor oil, transmission fluid, brake fluid, and antifreeze. Each vehicle should also carry basic spare parts
such as fan belts, upper and lower radiator hoses, and main fuel tank drain plugs. Construct a battle-
damage repair kit with such items as a tire plug kit, automotive liquid metal, assorted hose clamps, and
radiator repair kit (FM 4-30.31).
5-119. On long-duration missions requiring trailer usage, construct an additional spare parts box to carry
such items as starter, alternator, half shafts, glow plugs, and battery. The team will normally carry enough
POL and replacement parts to repair any maintenance problem in the field within their capability. Once
everything is packed and ready for deployment, strap down and secure all equipment and supplies. All
equipment must be tied down securely for cross-country driving.
Operational Employment
5-120. The success of the mission and survival of the LRS team lies in its ability to infiltrate, move,
conduct operations, and exfiltrate--all without being detected. In mounted operations, survival depends on
moving mostly during times of limited visibility and using proper camouflage techniques at all other times.
Infiltration and Exfiltration
5-121. The threat to each method of infiltration and exfiltration is different. The following paragraphs
illustrate typical threats to a mounted team when infiltrating by air or by ground.
Air infiltration and Exfiltration
5-122. Mounted LRS teams infiltrating and exfiltrating by air must avoid an extensive and integrated
enemy air defense system. Such a system provides complete coverage at all altitudes with a high
redundancy of coverage in heavily defended areas. Soviet doctrine, currently used by many nations, has
tried to improve low-altitude detection.
Ground Infiltration and Exfiltration
5-123. Mounted LRS teams infiltrating and exfiltrating by land must avoid security forces. These forces
employ sensors, minefields, barriers, patrols, checkpoints, and other populace control measures to detect
clandestine movement across closed borders. Once the mounted team crosses the border, it still faces rear
area security threats.
Planning Considerations
5-124. The following paragraphs address the planning considerations for air and ground infiltration:
Air Infiltration
5-125. The mounted LRS team can use several platforms to infiltrate its mission area. |
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C-17A
5-126. The C-17A Globemaster III can be used as an infiltration platform. Planning
considerations include—
• Travel time to operational area is greatly reduced.
• Team can carry a mounted weapons system.
• Vehicle is mission-ready, except weapons system is unloaded.
• Aircraft can carry an entire team with trailers loaded and prepared for movement.
• Team can carry spare parts and additional mission equipment such as trailers and pallets.
• Runway must be C-17A-capable, with a packed dirt runway at least 916 meters long.
C-130/MC-130
5-127. The C-130 Hercules aircraft has a great deal of advantages as an infiltration platform. Important
planning considerations include—
• The team can fit two vehicles per aircraft.
• Weapons systems can be mounted.
• Vehicle is mission-ready, except weapons system is unloaded.
• Everyone can ride on the aircraft.
• On the C-130, vehicle fuel tanks must be half-empty (without waiver).
• On the MC-130, vehicles allowed on board with a full tank, with prior coordination.
• These aircraft require a C-130-capable dirt strip (916 meters).
CH-47 Helicopter, Internal Load
5-128. The basic HMMWV will fit inside a CH-47 helicopter with two inches of clearance around the
vehicle (Figure 5-16). This clearance makes for a very tight fit and must be carefully rehearsed with the
aircrew. Planning considerations include—
• Crew must rig the vehicle.
• No objects may extend from the top or sides of the vehicle.
• The weapon system is stored.
• The team cannot use trailers.
• Available rehearsal time with driver and aircrew.
• A requirement for flat LZ or PZ. Any surface undulation will cause the internal frame of the
CH-47 to bend. This bend will lock the GMV in the helicopter or prevent it from being loaded
or unloaded. |
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Figure 5-16. Procedures for loading HMMWV into CH-47 for infiltration.
MH-47 Helicopter, Sling Load
5-129. Using procedures developed with 5th SFG(A) and 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment,
the MH-47 can land, hook up the vehicle, and load the vehicle crew on the same aircraft. The procedures
for working with an MH-47 are different from conventional sling load operations and require coordination
and rehearsals. Planning considerations include the following:
• Need for additional sling sets.
• Rigging the vehicle.
• Rehearsal with aircrew.
Ground infiltration
5-130. The HMMWV leaves a unique vehicle signature, and its tracks are difficult to conceal. Take
extreme care during route selection.
Range
5-131. Mission planning range for a mounted LRS team with a full combat load is 10 days or 1,000 miles
without resupply. A combat loaded HMMWV can expect to carry at least six additional 5-gallon fuel cans
and six 5-gallon water cans on the back of the vehicle. This planning range can be extended to 10+ days or
1,000+ miles if using trailers to carry more supplies (fuel, food, and water), or if using an advanced
operational base or caches for en route resupply.
Rigging of Vehicle
5-132. A common mistake is to take everything when using a vehicle. Take care to properly load and
configure the vehicles for a long distance movement.
Trailer(s)
5-133. These can be taken for use en route or cached. |
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Fundamentals of Movement
5-134. When planning and conducting movement, consider the below listed fundamentals of movement
to reduce the chance of enemy observation and contact.
Cover and Concealment
5-135. Use terrain features and vegetation that offer protection from enemy observation. When using
cover and concealment to its full advantage, personnel will usually need to compromise between security
and speed of movement.
Skylining
5-136. Avoid skylining. Select routes that avoid high ground that may silhouette the vehicles.
Chokepoints
5-137. Avoid chokepoints. Chokepoints or areas where the terrain naturally channels routes are often
sites for ambushes or areas that the enemy may have under observation. If a chokepoint proves impossible
to avoid, then reconnoiter it thoroughly before moving through it.
Populated Areas
5-138. Avoid known or suspected populated areas. For example, in desert environments, this means all
water holes, because the populace--and the enemy--know all the water holes. A mounted LRS team cannot
move covertly if people know they are in the area.
Movement Discipline
5-139. Practice movement discipline. Movement discipline means adhering to your light, noise, litter, and
interval rules. It also means keeping your speed slow enough so that you do not leave a large dust signature
(usually 10 to 12 miles per hour [mph] on most surfaces at night, slower during the day).
Security
5-140. Maintain 360-degree security at all times to avoid being surprised. The team leader or the unit
SOP assigns a sector of fire and observation to each vehicle during movement and at halts.
Routes and Contingencies
5-141. Make sure all team members know the route and contingency plans.
Methods of Travel
5-142. There are two methods of travel in the operational area. Either on existing tracks, trails, or roads,
or traveling cross-country. Each has advantages and disadvantages:
Tracks, Trails, or Roads
Advantages include speed of movement, hard-packed trails that do not easily yield readable
prints and signs of passage, quietness of movement, less stress on vehicles and tires, and
sometimes easier navigation.
Disadvantages are a greater chance of being seen or compromised, natural lanes of observation
and fire for the enemy, and more probable mechanical or manual ambushes. The HMMWV
leaves a distinctive tire trail unlike any other truck.
Cross-Country
Advantages to traveling cross-country include less chance of enemy observation or contact,
usually more cover and concealment, and less chance of an ambush.
Disadvantages are slower rates of movement, more noticeable vehicle tracks and signs of
passage, greater tire failure and vehicle stress, and more difficult navigation. The team must
rehearse cross-country movement in terrain as close as possible to that of the target area
before deployment. |
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MOVEMENT TECHNIQUES AND MOVEMENT FORMATIONS
5-143. Movement techniques combined with movement formations allow units to conduct tactical
movement in any METT-TC situation. These combinations can be used when all elements are mounted, or
when there is a combination of mounted and dismounted forces, regardless of what type of vehicle is used.
Movement Techniques
5-144. The three standard movement techniques are traveling, traveling overwatch, and bounding
overwatch. Different movement techniques are used based on the likelihood of enemy contact.
Traveling--The traveling movement technique is used when enemy contact is not expected or
likely.
Traveling Overwatch--The traveling overwatch movement technique is used when enemy contact
is possible.
Bounding Overwatch--The bounding overwatch movement technique is used when enemy
contact is likely or expected.
Formations
5-145. The mounted LRS team can employ a number of different movement formations depending on the
number of vehicles and the situation.
Column and Staggered Column--Use this formation when speed is essential as it moves on a
designated route. The column offers good protection to the flacks, but little to the front and
rear. The lead vehicle or section normally controls column movement by following the planned
route and speed. The staggered column is used in open terrain. Use the visibility rule for
interval.
Illumination conditions, terrain and vegetation, and night vision equipment affect this rule. The
driver keeps the vehicle to his front in sight.
Line Formation--Use this formation is best used when maximum reconnaissance forward is
needed.
Wedge and VEE Formations--Use these formations when immediate mutual support and depth is
desired. In the wedge formation, the vehicle(s) in the middle of the formation are forward. In
the VEE formation, the vehicle(s) on the flanks are forward. These formations can also be used
with extremely wide intervals, determined by visibility, to conduct reconnaissance operations
(Figure 5-17).
Diamond Formation--Use this formation when crossing extremely large open areas. Each section
forms a side of the box when moving forward. Visibility determines the interval between
vehicles in each section. The interval between sections should not be greater than 900 to 1,000
meters. This formation is hard to control; therefore, the sections plan for and designate rally
points before they separate. |
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Figure 5-17. HMMWVs in wedge formation.
Actions at Halts
5-146. Any time the team conducts a planned halt (short or long), it will also conduct a coordinated
shutdown of all vehicles. The team leader initiates the shutdown using hand and arm signals. He exits his
vehicle and stands where everyone can see him. He waves his arm in a circle over his head, and then drops
it toward the ground. This signals all vehicles to shut down their engines at the same time. When the halt is
over, he uses the same procedure to signal all drivers to start their engines at the same time. If neither the
leader nor the assistant leader can visually signal all of the vehicles at the same time, then either may use
the radio to indicate engine shutdown or engine on. Although radio use should be avoided to lessen the
team’s radio signature, it can be conducted safely if done properly. Once the vehicles have been shut down,
and before any other functions take place, the team conducts a security listening halt. The commander sets
the duration for halts during planning or in team SOPs. Short-duration halts are used to communicate with
higher headquarters, make necessary repairs, or establish a satellite position fix on a GPS receiver. For
halts of less than 15 minutes, the team remains in formation. Personnel man all vehicle weapons and
establish 360-degree security. For halts of more than 15 minutes, the team tries to move off its direction of
travel and reform. During the halt, the team performs necessary tasks. Each Soldier receives a briefing on
the present location. An updated contingency plan is issued if needed.
Coil
5-147. Use this formation when moving in a column formation or along a road or trail. The team moves
into a partial perimeter along the route of march. Members of each vehicle observe their assigned section
of the perimeter. The terrain determines vehicle interval, but it is seldom less than 50 meters. |
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Laager Sites
5-148. A laager site is a secure vehicle encampment. Mounted teams should use this site to maintain
vehicles, rest crews, plan missions, and hide during daylight.
Types
5-149. The two types of laager sites are short duration (occupied for only one period of daylight) or long
duration (occupied for longer than one period of daylight). During route planning, select tentative primary
and alternate laager sites on the primary and alternate routes. The team should arrive in the general area of
the laager sites about two hours before begin morning nautical twilight (BMNT). This allows time for a
proper reconnaissance and emplacement and camouflage of the vehicles before first light. Upon reaching a
tentative laager site, or before first light, the ATV element or a dismounted element can reconnoiter it.
Once the site is selected, the assistant team leader enters the site on foot and directs incoming vehicles into
position. As each vehicle moves into position, its members receive their areas of responsibility. After the
team is in place, it conducts a listening period to determine if there is any activity in the area.
Tasks
5-150. After the listening period, tasks (in order of priority) are—
• Security.
• Launch a dismounted patrol to erase signs of vehicles into the laager site out to a predetermined
distance set by unit SOP.
• Camouflage one vehicle, or one vehicle per section, at a time. The others provide security.
• Confirm sectors of fire and prepare range cards.
• Emplace early warning devices or claymores.
• Establish observation posts (OPs) or listening posts (LPs), if necessary.
• Establish field telephone communications to each vehicle.
• Reduce security, refuel, perform maintenance, and attend to personal hygiene.
Description
5-151. The laager site need not resemble a circle. The terrain and vegetation play a role in locating each
vehicle. All vehicles may be placed in the perimeter if necessary. When conducting detachment operations,
the detachment sergeant’s vehicle (number 2), is normally located in the center of the laager site. This
formation resembles a triangle and allows a greater arc of fire if attacked. When selecting and preparing a
LRS team’s laager site, the priority is concealment, remaining undetected, and if compromised, breaking
contact rapidly (Figure 5-18).
Occupation
5-152. The LRS team may have to occupy the laager site for more than one period of daylight. Such an
occupation is most common when it needs to wait for more advantageous weather or light conditions
before moving, has deployed a dismounted element on a mission and must remain in the area, or is in a
situation where repairs to equipment must be made before resuming the mission. When occupied for more
than one period of daylight, additional tasks include—
• Enhancing early warning measures.
• Improving continuously defensive positions (to include defensive minefields as necessary).
• Conducting reconnaissance and establishing surveillance of the area.
• Upon vacating the laager site, the team sterilizes the site as much as possible to deny the enemy
intelligence on its operations.
• Continuing to enhance concealment of the site, even if doing so reduces its potential
evacuation routes. |
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Figure 5-18. Single camouflaged HMMWV.
Camouflage
5-153. Mounted LRS teams operating behind enemy lines need to stay undetected to complete the
mission. In an unsupported role in a desert environment, a key to remaining undetected is to use proper
camouflage measures. The team’s ability to hide in the desert is limited only by the imagination and
resourcefulness of its members (Figure 5-19).
Figure 5-19. Multiple camouflaged HMMWVs. |
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Camouflage Theory
5-154. The biggest threat to the team is detection. Detection can be by—
Direct Observation--Where the observer sees the subject with his eyes, either aided or unaided.
Indirect Observation--Where the observer sees an image of the subject and not the subject itself.
Indirect observation uses photography, radar, infrared, thermal imaging, and televideo.
Factors of Recognition
5-155. Regardless of the method of observation, certain factors help the eye and brain identify an object.
The six factors of recognition are—
Position—This factor relates to the position of the object in relation to its surroundings. In
addition, position is space relative to one object and another.
Shape—Experience teaches people to associate an object with its shape or outline. At a distance,
the outline of objects can be recognized long before the details of its makeup can be
determined. Trucks, guns, tanks, and other common military items all have distinctive outlines
that help to identify them.
Shadow—Shadow may be even more revealing than the object itself. This fact is true when
viewed from the air. Sometimes it may be more important to break up or disrupt the shadow
than the object itself.
Texture—Texture refers to the ability of an object to reflect, absorb, and diffuse light. It may be
defined as the relative smoothness or roughness of a surface. A rough surface reflects little light
and will usually appear dark to the eye or in a photo. A smooth surface such as an airstrip,
although it might be painted the same color as its surroundings, would show up as a lighter tone
on a photo. One of the most revealing breaches of camouflage discipline is shine. Shine attracts
attention by reflecting light such as sunlight or moonlight.
Contrast—Color is an aid to an observer when there is a contrast between the object and its
background. The greater the contrast in color, the more visible the object is. Usually darker
shades of a given color will be less likely to attract an observer’s attention than the lighter
shades.
Movement—The last factor of recognition is movement. Although this factor seldom reveals the
identity of an object, it is the most important one of revealing location. Movement is detected
easily and usually through the observer’s peripheral vision.
Concealment of Objects
5-156. Hiding is the concealment of an object by some form of physical screen.
Hiding—Using thick vegetation or terrain features that screen vehicles from ground observation.
In some cases, the screen itself can be invisible to detection and, at times, it is the overt screen
that protects the activity or equipment from observation.
Blending—Arranging or applying camouflage materials on, over, or around an object so that it
appears to be part of the background. Blending distinctly man-made objects into a natural
terrain pattern is necessary to maintain a normal and natural appearance.
Disguising—Simulating an object or activity so that it looks like something else. Clever disguises
will mislead the enemy as to identity, strength, and intention.
Camouflage in the Desert
5-157. Camouflage challenges encountered in the desert require special attention to overcome. The lack
of natural overhead cover, the increased range of vision, and the bright tones of terrain all require emphasis
on sitting, dispersion, and camouflage discipline to achieve concealment. Cast shadows are notably
conspicuous. Deserts generally have large areas of sand, little tall vegetation, brilliant sunlight, and
extreme temperatures. Rocky areas, steep wadis, and washes characterize desert environments. The density |
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of vegetation coverage is often as high as 80 percent. Most of the vegetation is low, averaging about 30
inches high in flat areas, while in the wadis and at higher elevations, it can average close to 10 feet. When
viewed from the air, the desert floor appears spotted or pockmarked in many areas. Vegetation commonly
found in the desert includes colors ranging from pale yellow to dark gray and dark brown. Although green
and brown are the principal colors of most desert vegetation, it is important to study the target area
vegetation and terrain to formulate a proper vehicle camouflage plan. No one camouflage system or pattern
will work for every desert or even different parts of the same desert. Only with detailed planning can a
mounted detachment plan for and prepare the materials necessary to properly conceal their vehicles.
Further Camouflage Considerations
5-158. In preparing for desert operations, position selection, reflection reduction, and concealment are
conditions the team must consider--
Position Selection
5-159. Site or position selection is of critical importance in any environment but particularly so in the
desert. Site positions that fit into the existing ground pattern with minimum alteration to the terrain are
ideal. The sites selected should suppress ground observation. Some areas such as valley floors might have
sparse vegetation, but adjacent wadis could offer thicker vegetation with opportunities for defilade and
enhanced potential for concealment from aerial threats. Day laagers should not be areas that would be
obvious to enemy patrols. The team leader usually positions the vehicles to provide 360-degree security
and good concealment, and to allow rapid egress from the position.
Reflection Reduction
5-160. Reducing surfaces that reflect light is a measure that starts in garrison before deployment. It
involves removing mirrors and covering headlights and taillights. The windshield can be left on so that it
provides protection from blowing sand, dust, and rocks thrown up by the vehicle in front. The other option
is to remove the glass and have team members use eye protection. The windshield frame should not be
removed because it provides rollover protection. Team members cover all reflective surfaces with a
close-weaved, non-see-through cloth such as canvas or target cloth. They leave a sight portal open for
driving. If cloth or other material is unavailable, they mix water and dirt to get mud, and apply it to the
reflective surfaces.
Concealment
5-161. Usually the best way to conceal vehicles is with nets. Ideally, use the Lightweight Camouflage
Screening System (LWCSS) in the desert. These nets provide concealment from visual, near infrared,
radar, and target-acquisition devices. This net is not intended as a complete camouflage system as it
depends on imitation of the ground surface, both in color and texture, to be effective. In some deserts, the
woodland pattern would blend in better. Alternatives to using the LWCSS are--
• Use open-weaved cloth with color patches to match the terrain in the operational area.
This type of net might be the best choice in an area consisting mostly of sand dunes.
• Garnish a large fishing net with burlap to suit the color of the operational area.
• Add vegetation to this net to enhance concealment.
5-162. In open areas, drape the net over the vehicle and slope the sides gradually to the ground. Break up
the outline of the vehicle by placing props or poles underneath, and then intertwine vegetation into the net.
Eliminate shadows caused by the vehicle or net. In broken country, use the drape to tie the net to some
irregularity in the terrain such as next to a mesquite or brush mound. Break up the outline and eliminate
shadows. After placing the net, cut and place brush into the net to add realism, texture, and similarity to the
terrain and to help break up the outline. |
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Maintenance and Recovery
5-163. Preventive maintenance is critical to being able to execute mounted operations. Long supply lines
and minimum stocks on hand will increase the time needed to get vital replacement items and repair parts.
Proper maintenance must be performed on equipment throughout the whole spectrum of service, that is,
before, during, and after operations.
Organization
5-164. R&S squadron units conduct operator level maintenance as with any other unit. Organization level
maintenance is provided by the BSC. The R&S squadron receives organizational support from a
maintenance team provided by the BSC. The LRSC also receives support from this BSC maintenance team.
As a result, it is highly unlikely a LRS team conducting a mounted mission will be accompanied by a
mechanic from the BSC. Therefore, the mounted LRS team should prepare itself to handle all operator and
unit maintenance during a mission. In addition, some depot-level knowledge may be necessary. Team
members regularly attend maintenance courses for the mobility platforms the unit uses.
Preventive Maintenance Checks and Services
5-165. The vehicles assigned to a mounted LRS team must be properly maintained and serviced. Its
members must perform routine PMCS on their vehicles before, during, and after all operations. The
vehicles also require regular operation. The team must perform post-operations maintenance procedures
immediately after the conclusion of each mission.
Desert Environmental Effects
5-166. Several factors affect mounted operations in a desert environment:
Rough Terrain
5-167. Severe terrain consisting of rough, uneven ground, steep mountains, and loose sand and rocks will
cause vibrations and result in the loosening of nuts, bolts, fuel, and hydraulic lines. It could also disrupt
electrical components. Rough terrain can severely affect tires, wheels, transmissions, and suspension
systems. Therefore, frequent inspections are necessary to ensure vehicles function properly and to prevent
long downtime due to repairs.
Sand and Dust
5-168. The abrasive effects of sand and dust adversely affect equipment. Any moving part faces the
probability of being damaged or impaired by sand or dust. Brakes, recoil systems, bearings, hydraulics, and
relays are all susceptible to incapacitation by sand or dust. Also, sand and dust mixed with lubricants turns
into an abrasive paste that can easily wear and score moving parts. Cover equipment when not in use.
Frequent preventive maintenance will help to alleviate these problems to a manageable degree.
Heat and Low Humidity
5-169. Surface temperatures can reach 140 degrees and reflect heat under and into vehicles. Surface
temperatures heat parts and accessories making them untouchable without protection. Such intense heat
coupled with low humidity can overheat the vehicles and batteries, and can degrade the seals and tires.
Frequent inspections, protection with covers, and regular maintenance can aid in reducing the effects of
these environmental factors.
Vegetation
5-170. In some deserts, thorny and spiny plants pose a serious problem for tires, and can puncture
radiator hoses. Use of proper individual driving techniques is the first preventive measure for stopping
flats.
Section IV. OTHER OPERATIONS
The team can also be inserted by other means such as by Airborne operations, stay-behind operations, and
foot operations. |
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AIRBORNE OPERATIONS
5-171. Air insertion is the fastest way to infiltrate. LRS teams and equipment may insert by parachute, by
static line, or by free-fall techniques.
PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
5-172. Units must plan—
• To coordinate for the suppression of enemy air defenses along the infiltration corridor.
• To determine whether enemy air defense artillery lies within artillery or naval gunfire range.
• To coordinate with the transporting unit.
• To consider and prepare for in-flight emergencies.
• To use an adverse weather aerial-delivery system during limited visibility or adverse weather.
• To dispose of parachutes, once assembled.
• Lost or dead Soldier.
LANDING PLAN
5-173. Leaders plan the operation using reverse planning. The ground tactical plan drives the other plans.
The landing plan includes—
• Place of delivery.
• Time of delivery.
• Assembly area.
• Method of delivery (type of parachutes).
• Sequence of delivery. Team may be transported on an aircraft with personnel dropping on a
different DZ.
• Load in order of the sequence of drops.
• Door bundles.
AIR MOVEMENT PLAN
5-174. The air movement plan includes the manifest, load plan, flight routes, in-flight checkpoints, flight
times, load time, station time, takeoff time, and time on target.
MARSHALING PLAN
5-175. The jumpmaster gives his briefings. The team conducts sustained Airborne training. Leaders plan
all joint tactical operations and support. The LRS team, equipment, and supplies are moved to departure
airfield. Leader must know the answers to the following questions:
• Aircraft location.
• Transportation to the airfield.
• Linkup point for transportation.
• No later than team arrival time at a specified location.
STAY-BEHIND OPERATIONS
5-176. The stay-behind team lets the enemy bypass so they can perform a specific mission behind
enemy lines. |
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PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
5-177. When friendly forces expect an enemy offensive and friendly defensive operations, or when
friendly forces are conducting limited offensive or reconnaissance operations, a stay-behind operation
might offer the best way for a LRS team to infiltrate. In both cases, the forward friendly unit escorts the
LRS team to the AO and provides security during site preparation.
SITE PREPARATION
5-178. Because the enemy is expected to overrun and occupy the LRS team's AO, they must prepare a
good subsurface site. The team can stock enough supplies to operate for an extended period in a subsurface
hide site. Engineer support is highly desirable in the construction of such a site (Appendix J).
FOOT MOVEMENT OPERATIONS
5-179. When traveling on foot, the LRS team departs as usual from a secure area. The team can move on
foot alone, or can combine foot and vehicle movement. They normally move during limited visibility. They
always depart from a secure area. To prevent enemy detection, they travel over rugged terrain normally not
occupied by enemy forces.
PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
5-180. Route planning requires extensive intelligence on enemy unit locations. The team needs fire
support during movement.
INTELLIGENCE
5-181. Ground surveillance radar (GSR) can help them avoid enemy units, and radar-detection systems
alert them when the enemy uses it. Tactical communication-intercept systems can warn them of actual
enemy along the infiltration route.
SUPPLIES
5-182. The team can only carry enough supplies to move short distances for short periods of time,
normally not more than a few days. Because the team's supplies may be depleted once they arrive at the
AO, the parent unit must place a priority on resupply. |
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Communications
This chapter discusses the networks (Section I), operations (Section II), radios,
computers and base radio station (Section III), reports (Section V), electronic warfare
(Section VI), antennas (Section VII) and operational environments (Section VIII),
LRSU use to send and receive near real-time information. It also discusses
communications in electronic warfare (Section IV) and unusual environments
(Section VII).
Section I. NETWORKS
The LRSC must use several communications networks simultaneously. For example, the COB communicates
internally, to the AOB, to higher, and to deployed teams. The AOB maintains nets to the deployed teams and
the COB, and must be ready to communicate with the R&S squadron S-2, BFSB S-2, G-2, or J-2, if needed.
The LRSC maintains an internal communications net with deployed teams. The deployed team must maintain a
net to higher echelons and a team internal net.
ARCHITECTURE AND FREQUENCY MANAGEMENT
6-1. The LRSU have sophisticated and powerful communications equipment. They must also have
access to multiple frequencies in multiple spectrums. Both are needed for the LRSU to send and receive
near-real time information over many types of digital and analog systems.
ARCHITECTURE MANAGEMENT
6-2. The LRSU will need frequencies in the HF, VHF and UHF spectrums. Current communications
systems operate in all three spectrums. The LRSU need multiple high frequencies for HF radio systems
ever-changing optimum frequency of transmission (FOT) as well as multiple channel assignments for
automatic link-establishment (ALE) radios.
FREQUENCY MANAGEMENT
6-3. Such complex communications require extensive frequency management. The BFSB S-6 is
responsible for requesting frequencies with the JTF, corps or division G-6 to ensure that the unit is
allocated a sufficient amount and type of frequencies to accomplish the mission The R&S squadron S-6
and the LRSC signal platoon leader submit all frequency requests thru the BFSB S-6.
OPERATIONS BASES
6-4. Three primary networks and two backup networks are normally established for communications
between operating bases:
PRIMARY
6-5. This includes--
• Internal wire net with tactical switching system (landline telephone).
• Tactical local area networks (LAN) for communication by computer or voice over internet
protocol (VoIP) phones.
• Combat net radios (single channel ground and Airborne radio system (SINCGARS)) and
AN/PRC-148. |
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BACKUP
6-6. This includes--
• HF radio.
• UHF tactical satellite radios.
• Secure cellular/satellite phones.
TEAMS
6-7. For internal communications, the LRS teams use secure LOS combat net radio systems. Secure,
handheld, lightweight radios like the multipurpose and multiband inter/intra team radio (MBITR)
incorporate frequency hopping (FH) and embedded communications security (COMSEC) that are
compatible with the SINCGARS. These radios also allow communications with other Army and joint
elements, including aircraft, and thus are ideally suited to LRS operations.
Section II. RADIOS, COMPUTERS, AND THE BASE RADIO STATION
R&S units that see everything and cannot report what they see are a wasted resource. The ability to
communicate is the lifeblood of LRSU, and radios are the heart that make this possible. LRSU must be experts
in the use of multiple radios systems and in the three primary military radio frequency spectrums: high
frequency (HF), very high frequency (VHF), and ultra high frequency (UHF). LRS Soldiers must be highly
proficient in programming, troubleshooting, and maintaining many types of radios.
ELEMENTS OF SUCCESS
6-8. Successful communications depend on—
• The type of emission.
• The amount of transmitter power output.
• The characteristics of the transmitter antenna.
• The amount of propagation path loss.
• The characteristics of the receiving antenna.
• The amount of noise received.
• The relative sensitivity and selectivity of the receiver.
• An approved list of usable frequencies within a selected frequency range.
HF, VHF, AND UHF RADIOS
6-9. These three radio wave spectrums combine to provide the primary and alternate means for LRSU
to effectively communicate on the battlefield.
HF RADIOS
6-10. High frequency radios are harder to maintain than the commonly used LOS radios. However, they
provide an unbeatable combination of reliability, economy, transportability, and versatility. Under ideal
conditions, a HF radio using only 20 watts of transmitter power can successfully communicate over
thousands of miles. Knowledgeable operators, backed by well-designed antennas and by propagation
predictions from a propagation-engineering service, are key to successful HF radio system performance.
Modern HF radios, such as the AN/PRC-138 and AN/PRC-150, incorporate the technologies of ALE, link
quality analysis (LQA), embedded COMSEC, and digital modems are ideal for LRSU operations. These
radios simplify HF communications and increase reliability and interoperability (Table 6-1). |
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VHF RADIOS
6-11. These are generally simple to use and provide reliable and clear, short-range tactical
communications. The SINCGARS series of radios provide tactical units excellent communications that is
easy to secure from enemy eavesdropping.
Table 6-1. Radios that work with AN/PRC-150 in various security modes.
KY-57
HF VHF PT CT External LOS NLOS
AN/PRC-148 MBITR X X X X
AN/PRC-152 X X X X
AN/PRC-119 X X X X
SINCGARS
AN/PRC-117A/D/F X X X X
AN/PRC-113 X X X X X X
AN/PRC-138 X X X X
AN/PRC-112A/C X X X
MX-300B6/B12 X X X X
TR720A/B/C X X X
Saber 5/G6 X X X X
PSC-5C/D X X X X X
LST-5C X X X X
UHF RADIOS
6-12. These provide reliable tactical (LOS), operational, and strategic communications. However, due to
the high demand and to potential interoperability problems with other units, it is not always practical for
LRSU to use this spectrum.
PRIMARY, ALTERNATE, AND CONTINGENCY RADIOS
6-13. The COB and AOB maintain long-range communications with employed teams using HF and
UHF TACSAT radios. For single-channel HF radio systems, each team should have a separate frequency.
However, due to ever-changing ionosphere conditions and competition for frequencies, two teams might
have to share a single frequency. If so, the COB should set up primary, alternate, and guard frequencies;
use the primary and alternate frequencies for scheduled communications traffic; and use the guard
frequency only for priority traffic--
• To report ISR tasks.
• To request extraction and fire support.
• To request medical evacuation.
6-14. The LRSC communications platoon leader must carefully design HF networks that use ALE. To
ensure network reliability, he must analyze in detail the number of deployed teams, the availability of
frequencies, the distances between stations, and the configurations of radio sets. Since ALE and
3G-capable radios automatically choose the best frequency for a particular radio path, he should program
separate day and night channel groups to speed link establishment. |
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FUNDAMENTALS
6-15. The team RTO transmits important information over the HF radio system. He continually adjusts
it to keep up with changing conditions and missions. Successful HF communications depends on his
knowledge; the type of emission (voice or data); the transmitter power output; selection of the best possible
antenna and antenna site; proper antenna construction; propagated frequencies; terrain and weather; and
atmospheric conditions. The variable over which he has the most control is antennas. To help eliminate
skip zones, the RTO can achieve the NVIS effect with any HF-friendly antenna. This lets him establish
communications with the COB or AOB. Extensive training of team members on HF radio systems and
antenna construction is essential to mission success (TC 9-64, FM 6-02.74).
BEYOND-LINE-OF-SIGHT EQUIPMENT
6-16. In addition to communicating with many other types of digital and analog equipment, the LRSU
also requires equipment that can communicate beyond line of sight (BLOS). Tactical VHF radios like the
SINCGARS, are LOS only. The LRSU must be experts in the use of HF and TACSAT systems. Only HF
allows long-range communications without the use of terrestrial or satellite relays. The LRSU can send
either secure voice or data over HF.
SPECIALIZED RADIO MODEM
6-17. The ALE controller (modem) automatically controls a HF receiver and transmitter. This allows
the radio to establish the best possible link with one or more HF radio stations. Each ALE controller
(radiotelephone) can be embedded (internal) or external to modern HF radio equipment. It works on the
principles of LQA and--
• Has in memory a predetermined set of frequencies, each properly propagated for conditions.
• Continuously scans its memory channels, typically about two channels per second.
• Has call signs programmed in, including own (SELF) and network's.
-- Network (NET) call signs.
-- Group (GROUP) call signs.
-- Individual (IND) call signs.
• Transmits LQA, each of which sounds the programmed frequencies to find the one with the
best link quality factors on a regular or automated schedule or when initiated by the operator.
• In a listening mode, logs each station's call sign and ranks the station's associated frequencies
and channels based on the quality of the link.
• When someone at the station wants to place a call, tries to link to the outstation using the data
collected during ALE and sounding activities. In the absence of this data, seeks the station and
tries to link a logical circuit between two users on a network with all channels working. When
the receiving station hears its address, the ALE controllers stop scanning channels and remain
at that frequency. Each station notifies users that it has found the other station and is checking
to confirm communications compatibility. This is called a "handshake." Once the handshake is
complete, each station notifies its users that it is ready for traffic. Figure 6-1 shows
communications between two stations during the "handshake" and LQA. |
3-55.93 | 179 | Communications
Figure 6-1. Automatic link sequence.
• At the end of a link session, the ALE controllers send the link command TERMINATION, and
returns to scanning mode to await further traffic. Built-in safeguards ensure that ALE
controllers return to scanning mode if contact is lost.
AN/PRC-150(C) ADVANCED HF OR VHF TACTICAL RADIO SYSTEM
6-18. The AN/PRC-150(C) is a HF transceiver that covers the frequency range from 1.6 to 60 MHz in
SSB and FM modes. Embedded COMSEC allows secure communications between ground and aircraft as
well as with the Army’s SINCGARS radios. The AN/PRC-150(C) also has an internal, high-speed,
Military Standard 188-110B serial-tone modem, which sends and receives data at speeds up to 9,600 BPS;
an embedded military standard 188-141A; ALE; digital voice 600 (DV 600); and frequency hopping
(electronic protection). The AN/PRC-150(C) belongs to a family of interoperable software-designed
radios. This family also includes the AN/PRC-117F(C), which is the manpack test platform for Step 2B of
the Joint Tactical Radio System program. The AN/PRC-150(C) gives units BLOS communications without
the need to rely on satellites from a crowded battlefield. The systems' manpack and vehicular
configurations ensure reliable communications and allow rapid transmission of data and imagery. The
AN/PRC-150 replaces the AN/PRC-138.
AN/PRC-148
6-19. The MBITR AN/PRC-148 is a lightweight, durable, compact radio. Its secure multiband voice
and data communications are ideally suited for use by LRS teams. It interoperates with a wide variety of
existing military and civilian systems, while providing the LRS team leader internal C2. The MBITR's
built-in emergency beacon and a GPS interface with PLGR can serve as an emergency radio during escape
and evasion (E&E) operations. It transmits in the 30- to 512- MHz frequency range and allows
communications in the following bands:
• VHF FM and AM.
• UHF AM (air to ground).
• UHF FM (LOS).
AN/PRC-152
6-20. The AN/PRC-152 is a multiband, lightweight, handheld radio. An optional, built-in GPS receiver
allows time tracking and position reporting. Embedded COMSEC supports Vinson, advanced narrowband
digital voice terminal (ANDVT), AES, Fascinator, and KG-84. The AN/PRC-152 operates between
30 and 512 MHz, and is compatible with many military and civilian radio systems. VHF/UHF line of sight
supports AM and FM modulation as well as high-performance waveform and TACSAT communications. |
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AN/PRC-117F
6-21. The AN/PRC-117F is a multiband, multimission, 30 to 512 MHz radio. All -117Fs (manpack,
vehicular, marine, and base station) have COMSEC, UHF TACSAT, ECCM, and DAMA capabilities. The
AN/PRC-117F works with many communications systems, including SINCGARS, AN/PRC-148,
AN/PRC-112, AN/PSC-5, and most civilian handheld radios. Like the AN/PRC-150, the AN/PRC-117F
interfaces with many data devices, to include ruggedized laptop computers. Although the AN/PRC-117F is
microprocessor-based, it is controlled by software rather than hardware. It can retransmit voice or data
across traditional frequency bands and waveforms with two antenna ports and data rates up to 64 Kbps.
AN/PSC-5C/D
6-22. The AN/PSC-5 is a multiband, multimission communications terminal. It provides excellent
interoperability with military, marine, and civilian radio systems. It operates in the VHF and UHF
frequency spectrum (30 to 512 MHz), and supports line of sight (LOS), TACSAT (5K, 25K and DAMA),
SINCGARS and Havequick I and II. It has an embedded COMSEC engine, which allows the sending of
secure voice and data. It can achieve data rates of 76.8 Kbps.
INTEROPERABILITY
6-23. Table 6-2 shows the interoperability capabilities and characteristics of the radios commonly used
by LRSU.
Table 6-2. Radio interoperability capabilities and characteristics.
Max Power Data
Radio Freq Range Output Controller TACSAT Vehicle Kit
AN/PRC-150 1.6-60 MHz 20 Watts Yes N/A AN/VRC-104
AN/PRC-148 30-512 MHz 5 Watts N/A 5K AN/VRC-111
AN/PRC-152 30-512 MHz 5 Watts Yes 5K, 25K AN/VRC-110
AN/PSC-117F 30-512 MHz 20 Watts Yes 5K, 25K, DAMA AN/VRC-103
AN/PSC-5C/D 30-512 MHz 20 Watts Yes 5K, 25K, DAMA Multiple kits
available
AN/PRC-119F 30-88 MHz 4 Watts N/A N/A VRC-89/90/91/92
RETRANSMISSION
6-24. Retransmission can greatly extend the range of a radio LOS network. Traditionally, SINCGARS
retransmission networks are used with two different frequencies or net IDs, called F1 to F2 retransmission.
This requires planning and establishment of triggers where radios will have to switch frequencies based on
their location on the battlefield. With the ASIP radio, users can use same net retransmission using the same
frequency or net ID. This is called F1 to F1 retransmission. Most current radios support retransmission
operations with the use of a retransmission cable. If the range between two networks it too great for ground
wave radios, two LOS networks can be connected using TACSAT radios. Both the AN/PSC-5 (all models)
and the AN/PRC-117F will connect two LOS (VHF/UHF) networks by way of satellite communications.
VIDEO TRANSMISSION
6-25. Each deployed LRS team uses a lightweight video-reconnaissance system to send and receive
real-time images.
RUGGEDIZED COTS LAPTOP
6-26. The LRS teams use this ruggedized, standard laptop to send and receive text messages and images
over the radio. A serial port or external data controller card connects the laptop by cable to the data port of |
3-55.93 | 181 | Communications
the radio. A data controller card is needed to send data via radio waves. The card manages the data
reducing errors and transmission times. Some radios use "tactical chat" or wireless messaging-terminal
software as the Graphic User Interface for sending and receiving data. Radios without an internal data
controller card require an external card. Either an inline cable controller or Personal Computer Memory
Card International Association (PCMCIA) card will work with the laptop as long as it supports the cards
interface. In the field, special charging kits allows a team to operate and charge a laptop with a BA-5590 or
BB-390 / BB-2590 battery.
COMMUNICATIONS BASE RADIO STATION PLATFORM
6-27. Each LRSC is authorized eight BRS platforms. The BRS is a multifunctional communications
platform currently in development. In addition to HF communications, each BRS provides;
• TACSAT communications with the AN/VRC-103(V1 or V2).
• VHF communications via AN/VRC-92, AN/VRC-110, or AN/VRC-111.
• Network capability with interface to existing secure and nonsecure networks.
• Modular and reconfigurable to meet changing mission requirements.
• Dismountable and can be stored or transported in transit cases.
Section III. OPERATIONS
BRS comprise the most critical part of the LRSU communications network. It is the primary link between the
commander and his deployed teams. Each BRS monitors all deployed team frequencies and channels.
TACTICAL EMPLOYMENT
6-28. All LRSU BRS are based on the Army's Transformation High-Frequency Radio System (THFRS).
This system is in turn based on the AN/PRC-150(C) manpack radio (Figure 6-2). The THFRS can be
configured in the same basic manner as the older AN/TSC-128 in an S-250 communications shelter. The
THFRS works with various power amplifiers, couplers, antennas, software, and ancillaries to build various
vehicular and BRS configurations.
Figure 6-2. AN/PRC-150(C) in vehicular AN/VRC-104 (V)3 configuration. |
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COMPANY OPERATIONS BASE
6-29. When space allows, the BRS should be physically located with or in close proximity to the COB
TOC. This allows a direct link between the operations cell and the BRS operators. If circumstances
prohibit this employment, the BRS is linked to the TOC by VHF, UHF TACSAT, tactical LAN, or field
wire. A new BRS configuration is in development.
ALTERNATE OPERATIONS BASE
6-30. This base relays communications between the LRS teams and the COB BRS. It links to the COB
through joint or Army tactical switching systems.
• The COB and AOB use HF and UHF TACSAT radios as secondary means of communication.
• Message traffic between the two stations should travel by the fastest, most secure means
available.
• Due to variables such as terrain and interference, the AOB can sometimes receive messages the
COB cannot.
• The AOB BRS is normally positioned farther from the deployed teams than the COB BRS and
can operate mounted or dismounted. It is prepared to assume the mission if the COB, if the
COB displaces or is destroyed.
• The communications platoon leader recommends to the LRSC commander the approximate
distance and location of the AOB based on, among other factors--
-- Probability of communications with the deployed teams and the COB BRS.
-- Available local support or unit capability to support.
HF OR UHF TACSAT RADIO
6-31. These are the surveillance team’s primary means of communication with the BRS. Data-burst
equipment and compression software shorten transmission times. Encryption prevents the enemy from
deciphering radio transmissions. Lightweight digital photo or video systems allow transmission of near
real-time imagery.
• The team leader selects a communication site using METT-TC. The site should allow antenna
construction and terrain masking.
• Teams transmit and receive routine messages during scheduled communication windows. For
messages requiring transmission outside the schedule, the team first establishes a link with the
COB or AOB in ALE mode or with the guard frequency, if in single sideband (SSB mode), and
then transmits the message.
• Internal team communications is via secure VHF radios and visual signals. Leaders ensure
everyone takes the proper OPSEC and COMSEC precautions.
SITE SELECTION
6-32. The reliability of radio communications depends largely on proper radio site selection. The
communications platoon leader and the BRS team leader must ensure that both primary and alternate sites
satisfy technical, tactical, security, and other performance criteria.
ALL OPERATIONS BASES
6-33. The site needs good cover and concealment, and a location free of interference (man-made or
natural). Moving the site may be necessary if interference becomes a problem. Common sources of
interference include; high-tension power lines, over population of antennas, electronic countermeasures,
thick vegetation and terrain. |
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COMPANY OPERATIONS BASE
6-34. The COB is the primary link between the deployed teams and BFSB S-2 fusion element. COB
BRS is normally located well within the security umbrella of the BFSB. It should be close enough to the
BFSB and R&S squadron S-2 sections to permit a land wire network for reporting purposes.
ALTERNATE OPERATIONS BASE
6-35. The AOB may collocate if communications are established and maintained between the deployed
teams and the COB. For increased survivability and redundancy, the AOB may be located elsewhere in the
AO. If communication cannot be established or maintained between the teams and the COB, the AOB is
moved in order to establish communication with the deployed teams and the COB. When the AOB is used
as the primary reporting link, it must maintain a constant communication path with the COB, while the
COB generally moves with the BFSB or R&S squadron.
TACTICAL SATELLITE
6-36. UHF TACSAT radio is a reliable communications system with unlimited range. It comes in both
manpack and vehicle configurations. The best systems for LRS missions are multiband, multimission,
multisystem-compatible UHF TACSAT systems with--
• Embedded demand-assigned, multiple access (DAMA) capabilities.
• Satellite communications modems.
• Diverse communications and transmission security capabilities.
6-37. Understandably, satellite channels and UHF TACSAT systems are in high demand and are also in
short supply. Because the priority for UHF TACSAT channels goes to division HQ and above, joint and
special operations units, LRSUs usually must share satellite channels. For this reason, the HF radio remains
the primary means of communication. When LRSU do get satellite access, they must carefully manage it
for airtime and message precedence.
Section IV. REPORTS
Teams communicate with the BRS at specified times or per-designated communications windows, with each
team having a separate window. The number of scheduled times used by the LRSU depends on METT-TC.
Scheduling windows too often places a team at risk, while scheduling windows too seldom can reduce the
relevance of time-sensitive intelligence.
MESSAGES AND REPORT FORMATS
6-38. To accomplish their mission, LRS teams must send timely and accurate messages, properly
formatted, to the COB, AOB or MSS BRS. Each team does this during assigned "windows," based on
METT-TC. Using too frequent windows raises susceptibility to enemy interception and direction-finding
capabilities; however, using too few windows reduces the relevance--and usefulness--of time-sensitive
intelligence. For the purpose of this manual, a message refers to the information sent from one station to
another. Most messages follow a report format.
MESSAGES
6-39. Each BRS logs in detail all messages it sends and receives. The unit SOP specifies how done. The
BRS team chief in the COB ensures that all messages for committed teams originate with the operations
section and that they are properly formatted.
Interoperability
6-40. Report formats provided below are based on the standardized formats in FM 6-99.2. LRSC should
base unit SOPs on these report formats in order to gain rapid interoperability between LRSU. |
3-55.93 | 184 | Chapter 6
Incoming Messages from Team
6-41. When the BRS receives a message from a team, it is logged and forwarded to the operations
section for decryption. Intelligence reports are generally sent directly to the BRS located at the COB, then
to the BFSB S-2 fusion element and the R&S squadron S-2 after being logged and examined by the LRSC
TOC. The LRSC TOC neither delays nor changes any intelligence report. Sometimes, the AOB BRS
receives a message that the COB BRS does not receive. When this happens, the AOB logs the message and
sends it, exactly as received, by the fastest, most secure means to the COB (Figure 6-3).
Outgoing Messages to Team
6-42. The LRSC operations section formats and encrypts any message going out to a team. The BRS
then transmits it during that team's next scheduled communication time after the BRS team chief ensures
the message is properly formatted.
Figure 6-3. Communications data wire diagram.
Code Words or Letters
6-43. Code words or letters are used by transmitting stations to send vital information quickly, and in a
secure manner. These letters and code words are given to the team during mission planning. They keep
transmissions short. They inform the receiving station of the situation on the ground without long
descriptions. Code words are also used to send vital information in a secure manner. Without knowledge of
the meaning of the code words/ code letters, the meaning of message will not be known to any intercepting
station or person. |
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Duress Codeword
6-44. A duress code is a simple word placed in a message to indicate the sending station is not under
duress (Table 6-3). A duress code requires planning and rehearsal to ensure an appropriate response. This
code is normally changed after each mission to avoid compromise.
• Only the team, the COB, the AOB and--if used, the MSS--know the duress code.
• The sending station inserts the code into a precise location in the message so the receiving
station will know they did so deliberately, not under coercion. Each team and BRS has a
different duress code.
Situation Normal
• Sender includes duress code in the correct location.
• Recipient responds to content of message.
Situation Compromised
• Sender omits the duress code.
• Recipients ignore content of message and responds to the emergency by initiating compromise
procedures.
Table 6-3. Procedure for use of duress codes.
Situation Sender Recipient
Normal Include duress code Respond to content
Compromised Omit duress code Initiate compromise procedures
REPORT FORMAT
6-45. Information is placed into a report format (Figure 6-4) to aid encryption, decryption and
information recognition. Using a report format makes even partially received messages useful, because the
information is more recognizable. The message is divided into three parts.
Figure 6-4. Report format. |
3-55.93 | 186 | Chapter 6
Header Information
6-46. Messages are numbered in sequence of transmission, the first number being the team number. If
messages include pictures, they are named using the message number along with an alphabetical
designation to match the picture with the corresponding message, for example, 101A, 101B (Figure 6-5).
Address--10 DE 11
10= Receiving address
DE= this is
11= Sending address
Message #--MSG 101
Type of report BORIS This indicates the type of report that follows.
Duress codeword SOUPY This is a 5 letter codeword used to inform the
receiving station that the sending station is not in
duress or being forced to send the message.
Figure 6-5. Example message header.
Message Body
6-47. The message body varies depending on the report format. Recipients must be able to recognize,
understand, and react quickly to the information contained in the message. This means the unit SOP must
provide for short, standard message language. This serves three purposes: observer guidance, speed and
communications security. The format gives the observer a tool to report specific information. Knowing the
format speeds the writing and reading of the message. Keeping messages short decreases transmission time
and helps avoid enemy radio direction finding (RDF) units.
Footer Information
6-48. Particular information goes into a report footer:
End of message EOM This tells the receiving station that the message is
complete.
Acknowledgement ACK This requests that the receiving station acknowledge
Requested receiving the message.
Signature CMP Initials of the RTO responsible for transmitting the
message.
REPORT FORMAT TYPES
6-49. LRSU use five basic report formats (Table 6-4): |
3-55.93 | 187 | Communications
Table 6-4. Report formats.
Proword Actual Report Title Purpose
Angus Initial Entry Report To alert the BRS and operations of the status of
the insertion, the team's initial situation, and
possible deviations from infiltration plan.
Boris Intelligence Report To report PIR/intelligence requirements/SIR and
intelligence tasks when observed.
Cyril Situation Report To report the team's situation (excludes
PIR/intelligence requirements/SIR and intelligence
tasks).
Under Cache Report To report an emplaced cache.
Crack Battle Damage To report battle damage on a specified target.
Assessment Report
Angus (Initial Entry) Report
6-50. The RTO normally sends the Angus (Initial Entry) Report as soon after the insertion as the tactical
situation allows. This is usually completed within four hours of insertion. If the Angus is not transmitted
within this window the LRSC operations section may assume the mission is compromised and initiate
emergency procedures. This message alerts the operations section of the status of the insertion, the team's
initial situation, and possible deviations from the infiltration plan due to previously unknown conditions on
the ground. Table 6-5 shows the typical format of an Angus report and the message information
contained in it.
Table 6-5. Typical format for an Angus (Initial Entry) Report.
Line
No. Content Example
1 DTG 152307NOV06
2 Team status Green
(use code words)
3 Current location (6-digit grid with grid zone GL098569
identifier)
4 Possible deviations from briefed plan (inform Due to restrictive terrain, the team will
higher of pending changes to team plan) deviate more to the North on primary
infiltration route
5 Remarks None
Boris (Intelligence) Report
6-51. The RTO normally sends the Boris (Intelligence) Report to the BRS as soon as the LRS team has
PIR to report. Other ISR tasks are normally sent during prescribed communications windows. Table 6-6
shows the typical format for a Boris report and the message information contained in it. |
3-55.93 | 188 | Chapter 6
Table 6-6. Typical format for a Boris (Intelligence) Report.
Line Content Example
No.
1 DTG 131844SEP05
2 DTG of observed 131506SEP05
activity
3 Location of West side of hill GL96578354
observed activity
4 Observed activity Preparing radio to transmit and receive
Manning reinforced fighting/defensive position
5 Description of 4 pax in military uniform outside reinforced fighting position.
personnel,
vehicles, The pax are called A, B, C, and D. Three of them, A, B, and C, are wearing PCs.
weapons, and Pax D is wearing a boonie hat. Pax A is manning a radio that is carried inside a
equipment rucksack and placed on top of the fighting position. (The radio has a long,
whip-type antenna.) Pax B (fair skinned) is talking on the radio. Pax A and Pax B
are both standing on the West side of the position. Pax C is standing on the
North side of the position. Pax D is on the North side of the position, but is
walking toward the East. Pax C and Pax D are carrying unidentifiable assault
rifles. Pax D is wearing load-carrying equipment.
The fighting position is a poured concrete structure, built into a berm, whose
[wooden?] roof has with a small overhang. About 3 feet of the structure is visible
aboveground. The structure is about 7 feet long (North to South). In the middle of
the East and West walls are viewports. A triple-strand concertina wire obstacle
runs North to South about 5 meters to the East of the fighting position. Triple
strand wire is set up on the West side of an 8-foot tall chain link fence, which
also runs North to South. V-shaped barbed wire runs along the top of the fence.
6 Team Believe A and B have weapons, though not observed. Pax B seems to be the
assessment leader of the group, because he is talking on the radio. The enemy seems to be
preparing to man the fighting position for an unknown period of time. The enemy
also appears to be in a nonaggressive posture, because their weapons are
slung. Assume additional ammunition and possibly explosives are cached in the
position. The layout of the obstacles and the location of the position suggest the
position is used for observation and early warning.
Cyril (Situation) Report
6-52. The RTO must send the Cyril (Situation) Report during, and only during, scheduled
communication windows. The Cyril reports the team’s situation, status (medical, team equipment, food,
water, batteries), past, current, and planned activity. Table 6-7 shows the typical format and content of a
Cyril report. The team must send a Cyril report during every communications window. |
3-55.93 | 189 | Communications
Table 6-7. Typical format for a Cyril (Situation) Report.
Line No. Content Example
1 DTG 131844SEP05
2 Current location (8-digit JL14593487
grid with identifier)
3 Medical status of team Green
(code words)
4 Status of team Green
equipment
5 Status of food, water, 3xMREs, 4xQts water, 14x 5590s, and 3xAAs
and batteries (food and
water per person)
6 Team activity since last Pulled surveillance on objective.
communications window Moved survey site due to poor visibility on objective.
7 Team activity until next Broke down equipment and prepared for exfiltration
communications window
8 Team leader remarks Weather deteriorated, dropping distance of standoff
and visibility of objective
Under (Cache) Report
6-53. The LRS team RTO or the COB normally sends the Under (Cache) Report to report caches of
personnel records, intelligence documents, personnel burials, and so on. After the team infiltrates, the
LRSC operations section reports caches such as ammunition, demolitions, barter items, weapons, food, and
water. Table 6-8 shows the typical format of an Under Report and the message information contained in it.
Table 6-8. Typical format for an Under (Cache) Report.
Line No. Content Example
1 DTG (date-time group) 131844SEP05
2 Type of cache (surface, Subsurface
subsurface, or
submerged)
3 Contents 7xMREs 1,000 rds 5.56
4 Location (10-digit grid FT 7404620956
with identifier)
5 Initial and Final IRP: Intersection at 34590216 (300m E)
Reference points FRP: Stream intersection at 34650236 (20 m N)
(IRP and FRP)
6 Depth 3 feet
7 Additional information Cache is buried at the base of 50-foot oak tree that has scratch
marks at knee level on the West-facing side
Crack (Battle Damage Assessment) Report
6-54. The Crack (Battle Damage Assessment) Report is used to provide a timely and accurate estimate
of damage resulting from the application of military force, either lethal or nonlethal, against a
predetermined objective. Table 6-9 shows an example for a Crack report and the message information
contained in it. |
3-55.93 | 190 | Chapter 6
Table 6-9. Typical format for a Crack (Battle Damage Assessment) Report.
Line No. Content Example
1 DTG 131256NOV05
2 Location of target (8-digit grid with identifier) JL14593487
3 Type of target such as vehicle, building, or bridge T-72 Tank
4 Description of target Vehicle
destruction is
Physical Damage Assessment--How much physical damage was inflicted
catastrophic.
by military force (munitions blast, fragmentation, or fire) on a particular
Vehicle is
target? This assessment is based on observed or interpreted damage.
inoperable.
Functional Damage Assessment--To what degree were the attack
objectives achieved against a particular target? This assessment is
based on the degree to which the application of military force degraded
or destroyed the functional or operational ability of the targeted facility or
objective to perform its intended mission.
5 BDA analysis The level of confidence in the accuracy of the assessment, Confirmed.
and whether the reattack is necessary. No reattack
necessary.
Confirmed
Data that has been confirmed visually or otherwise assured through
IMINT, weapon system (aircraft cockpit) video, SIGINT, MASINT, or
HUMINT (signal, measurement and signals, or human intelligence).
• 95 percent confidence that assessment is accurate.
• Data requires no additional intelligence.
Probable
• At least 50 percent confidence.
• Data sources are reliable; data requires little additional intelligence.
Possible
• At most 50 percent confidence.
• Data requires considerable additional intelligence.
COMMUNICATIONS SECURITY
6-55. This function is management intensive for LRSU operations. The LRSC commander ensures the
unit’s COMSEC custodian keeps enough of the necessary materials on hand, both for training and
contingency missions. Possible COMSEC considerations for LRSU operations include--
• JTF, corps or division nets.
• BFSB and R&S squadron nets.
• Internal company and team nets.
• Digital secure voice terminal key for MSE network.
• JTF, corps, division or BFSB UHF TACSAT keys.
Section V. ELECTRONIC WARFARE
Electronic warfare (EW) is any military action involving the use of electromagnetic and directed energy to
control the electromagnetic spectrum or to attack the enemy (FM 1-02). There are three major subdivisions
within electronic warfare: electronic attack, electronic warfare support, and electronic protection. |
3-55.93 | 191 | Communications
ELECTRONIC ATTACK
6-56. That division of EW involving the use of the electromagnetic energy, directed energy, or
antiradiation weapons to attack personnel, facilities, or equipment with the intent of degrading,
neutralizing, or destroying enemy combat capability and is considered a form of fires (FM 1-02).
ELECTRONIC WARFARE SUPPORT
6-57. That division of EW involving actions tasked by, or under the direct control of, an operational
commander to search for, intercept, identify, locate or localize sources of intentional or unintentional
radiated electromagnetic energy for the purpose of immediate threat recognition, targeting, planning and
conduct of future operations (FM 1-02).
ELECTRONIC PROTECTION
6-58. That division of EW involving passive and active means taken to protect personnel, facilities, and
equipment from any effects of friendly or enemy employment of EW that degrade, neutralize or destroy
friendly combat capability (FM 1-02). LRSU are primarily concerned with electronic protection.
METHODS
6-59. These refer to anything a LRSU does to prevent or reduce the effectiveness of enemy EW and
enhance electronic protection.
Security Tasks
6-60. Emission security includes--
• Using brevity lists.
• Masking antenna locations.
• Using directional antennas.
• Using the lowest possible output power.
6-61. Transmission security includes--
• Using voice communication only when essential.
• Developing and using brevity lists.
• Minimizing transmission time.
• Planning messages.
• Encrypting messages.
6-62. Cryptograph security includes--
• Exclusive use of authorized codes and key lists only. Only National Security Agency (NSA)-
approved codes are authorized for encoding and decoding US Army message traffic. The same
is true of mechanical cryptograph systems.
• Physical security of all cryptograph and equipment. This includes a comprehensive and
workable plan for the destruction of material and equipment. It also includes the SOPs that
identify to all team members where material and equipment are kept by the RTO. Table 6-10
shows the priority for destroying material and equipment. |
3-55.93 | 192 | Chapter 6
Table 6-10. Priority for destruction of communications devices.
1. All superseded cryptographic keys.
2. All current cryptographic keys.
3. Zero all keyed devices.
4. All future cryptographic keys.
5. All cryptographic devices.
6. Radios.
7. Brevity list.
8. Communications log.
Data-Burst Devices
6-63. To further reduce the chance that the enemy will use radio direction finding (RDF) equipment
against them, the BRS and teams use data-burst devices. They can use the nonsecure OA-8990/P digital
message device group, KL-43F, or portable computer. These devices shorten transmission times--they do
not prevent the enemy from intercepting the radio traffic.
PROCEDURES
6-64. These procedures apply to interference, jamming, and deception. When someone at the BRS or on
the team hears interference and suspects jamming, he should--
• Remain calm and continue to operate as if nothing unusual is happening.
• Prevent the enemy from knowing whether his jamming is successful or detected.
• Switch to a higher power on the radio.
• Reorient the antenna to the receiving station.
• Report the jamming using the meaconing, intrusion, jamming, and interference (MIJI) report
format in the signal operating instructions supplemental instructions (Table 6-11). Send the
report over a network free of jamming and interference to ensure that it reaches the intended
recipient.
• Until communications can be established and maintain over the desired frequency, use an
alternate one.
Table 6-11. Contents of a MIJI report.
Item Contents
1 Type of report
2 Type of incident
3 Type of equipment affected
4 Frequency affected
5 Affected station call sign
6 Affected station coordinates |
3-55.93 | 193 | Communications
Section VI. ANTENNAS
This section discusses several concepts to help communications personnel select the best antenna.
WAVELENGTH AND FREQUENCY
6-65. A wavelength is the distance that an electromagnetic wave travels to complete one cycle at a
particular frequency (Figure 6-6). In radio communication, the length of an antenna relates directly to the
frequency's wavelength. This relationship is important to know when building antennae for a specific
frequency or frequency range.
Figure 6-6. Measurement of a wavelength.
RESONANCE
6-66. Antennas are classified as either resonant or nonresonant, depending on their design. Both are
commonly used on tactical circuits. However, if you can get a clear signal with a resonant antenna, that
should be your first antenna choice rather than a nonresonant or standing-wave-ratio antenna.
RESONANT ANTENNAS
6-67. A resonant antenna matches the wavelength of one particular frequency.
• Advantage is efficiency; most radio signals sent to a resonant antenna radiate successfully.
• Disadvantage is lack of flexibility; a separate antenna must be built for each frequency used.
NONRESONANT ANTENNAS
6-68. These antennas match a range of frequencies.
• Advantage: This kind of antenna works with more than one frequency.
• Disadvantage: A nonresonant antenna, as the name implies, reduces resonance, which weakens
the signal. The more frequencies the antenna resonates, the lower the resonance quality, which
in turn reduces the efficiency of the signal.
STANDING WAVE RATIO
6-69. Signal energy resonates, or causes energy waves in a certain pattern on an antenna. These waves
are measured and compared to the standard wave to determine if an antenna resonates at a particular
frequency. Although a 1-to-1 ratio to a standing wave (standing wave ratio) is ideal, 1.1-to-1 ration is about
the best ratio obtainable. When building wire antennas, the operator should adjust the length of the antenna
until he obtains the lowest possible standing wave ratio. A 3-to-1 standing wave ratio is acceptable. Check
the operator’s manual for the particular radio in use to determine the maximum standing wave ratio that the
radio can tolerate. Some radios automatically lower the power output of the transmitter if the standing
wave ratio is too high. |
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POLARIZATION
6-70. Polarization is the relationship of radio energy radiated by an antenna to the earth. The most
common polarizations are horizontal (parallel to the earth’s surface) and vertical (perpendicular to the
earth’s surface). Others, such as circular and elliptical, also exist. A vertical antenna normally radiates a
vertically polarized signal, and vice versa.
GROUND WAVES
6-71. For best communication with HF ground waves, both the sending and receiving antennas should
have the same polarization. Vertical polarization works best for HF ground-wave propagation.
SKY WAVES
6-72. For HF sky-wave propagation, the sending and receiving antennas need not have the same
polarization, because the ionosphere will bend the waves, thus randomly changing their polarization
anyway. However, horizontal polarization works best for HF sky-wave propagation.
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
6-73. HF communications can be established using either ground- or sky-wave propagation. With
low-powered, man-pack radios, ground-wave communication can be established out to about 30 km,
depending on conditions. High-powered, vehicle-mounted equipment allows communication out to about
100 km. Sky-wave communications range from several to thousands of kilometers.
GROUND-WAVE PROPAGATION
6-74. Ground-wave propagation means sending a radio signal along or near the surface of the earth. The
ground-wave signal has three parts: the direct, reflected, and surface waves (Figure 6-7).
Surface Wave
6-75. The surface wave travels, as the name implies, along the surface of the earth. It is the usual means
of ground-wave communication. The surface wave depends on the type of surface that lies between the two
antennas. With a good conducting surface, such as seawater, long ground-wave distances are possible.
Poor surfaces, such as sand or frozen ground, shorten the distance the surface wave can travel. Heavy
vegetation or mountainous terrain can do the same.
Direct Wave
6-76. The direct wave travels from one antenna to the other in what is called the line-of-sight mode.
Maximum line-of-sight distance depends on the height of the antenna above ground. The higher the
antenna, the longer the LOS. Because radio signals travel in the air, any obstruction between the antennas,
such as a mountain, can block or reduce the signal. For an antenna 10 feet above the ground, the maximum
LOS is 8 km (5 miles). |
3-55.93 | 195 | Communications
Figure 6-7. Components of ground wave.
Reflected Wave
6-77. This is a wave that bounces off the earth on its way to the receiving antenna.
Space Wave
6-78. This wave is the combination of a reflected wave and a direct wave.
SKY-WAVE PROPAGATION
6-79. HF signals travel much farther by sky-wave propagation than by ground-wave propagation.
Sky-wave propagation is the bending (refraction) of the radio signal by a region of the atmosphere called
the ionosphere.
6-80. The ionosphere is an electrically charged (ionized) region of the atmosphere that extends from an
altitude of about 60 to 1,000 km (37 to 620 miles) above the earth’s surface. Energy from the sun ionizes
the atmosphere in this altitudinal range, and the electrical charge there refracts (bends) some radio signal
that enters it, sending the signal back to the earth.
6-81. The area that affects HF communications the most lies between the altitudes of 48 km (29.6 miles,
which lies below or inside the ionosphere) to 500 km (310 miles). This 440 km (273 mile) area is divided
into four incremental altitudinal ranges: D, E, F1, and F2 (Table 6-12 and Figure 6-8).
Table 6-12. High frequency ranges in ionosphere.
D -- 48 to 88 km (30 to 55 miles) NOTE:
E -- 88 to 136 km (55 to 85 miles) F1 and F2 combine into F at night:
F1 -- 136 to 248 km (88 to 155 miles)
↔
F -- 136 to 400 km (88 to 250 miles)
F2 -- 248 to 400 km (155 to 250 miles) |
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Figure 6-8. Structure of ionosphere.
6-82. The majority of HF sky-wave communications depend on the F1 and F2 regions. The F2 region is
used the most for long-range daytime communications.
6-83. The E region is the next lower region. It is present 24 hours a day, although at night it is much
weaker. The E region is the first region with enough charge to bend radio signals. At times, parts of the
E-region become highly charged. This can either help or block HF communications. These highly charged
areas are called "sporadic E." They occur most often during the summer.
6-84. The D-region is closest to earth and only exists during the day. It cannot bend a radio signal back
to earth, but it does play an important role in HF communication. The D-region absorbs energy from the
radio signal passing through it, thereby reducing the strength of the signal.
6-85. The bending of the radio signal by the ionosphere depends on the frequency of the radio signal,
the degree of ionization in the ionosphere, and the angle at which the radio signal strikes the ionosphere. At
a vertical (straight up) angle, the highest frequency bent back to earth is called the critical frequency. Each
region of the ionosphere (E, F1, and F2) has a separate critical frequency. For a vertical angle, signals
above the highest critical frequency pass through all ionospheric regions and into outer space. Frequencies
below the critical frequency of a region are bent back to the earth by that region; however, if the frequency
is too low, the signal is absorbed by the D region. To have HF sky-wave communication, a radio signal
must be a high enough frequency to pass through the D region, but not so high a frequency that it passes |
3-55.93 | 197 | Communications
through the refracting region. Thus, radio operators must have current propagation charts from which to
choose the most effective frequency during a given time period. To achieve an NVIS effect, the radio
operator subtracts 20 percent from frequencies propagated on commercial computer propagation programs.
6-86. The angle at which a radio signal strikes the ionosphere plays an important part in sky-wave
communication. As previously stated, any frequency above the critical frequency passes through the
refracting region. If the radio signal having a frequency above the critical frequency is sent at an angle, the
signal is bent back to earth instead of passing through the region. This can be compared to skipping stones
across a pond. If a stone is thrown straight down at the water, it penetrates the surface. If a stone is thrown
at an angle to the pond, the stone skips across the pond. For every circuit, there is an optimum angle above
the horizon called the takeoff angle. This angle produces the strongest signal at the receiving station. This
optimum takeoff angle is used to select the antenna for a specific circuit. By placing a dipole antenna
between one-eighth and one-quarter wavelength above ground level, the radio operator achieves an NVIS
effect, and he reduces or eliminates any skip zone (Figure 6-9).
Figure 6-9. HF skip zone and distance.
6-87. Depending on the frequency, antenna, and other factors, an area may exist between the longest
ground-wave range and the shortest sky-wave range where no signal exists. This is called the skip zone and
no communication is possible. The NVIS effect can eliminate this problem.
6-88. Multiple frequencies are usually needed to maintain sky-wave communication. As a minimum,
two frequencies, one for day and one for night are normally required.
CLASSIFICATION
6-89. Antennas are classified by the directions in which they can radiate energy. The three
classifications include omnidirectional antennas (all directions), bidirectional antennas (two directions), or
directional (one direction). A directional antenna is the best choice--if it works--because its signal is the
most difficult for the enemy to locate.
DIRECTIONAL
6-90. This antenna's single lobe of energy sends a unidirectional signal (Figure 6-10). The width of the
signal ranges from a narrow pencil beam to a 60-degree arc, depending on the type of directional
antenna chosen. |
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Figure 6-10. Unidirectional antenna pattern.
Application
6-91. Directional antennas are used on long-range, point-to-point circuits that need concentrated radio
energy to ensure a reliable signal.
Orientation
6-92. A directional antenna concentrates most of its energy in one direction, so it requires careful
orientation.
Detection
6-93. The enemy has a hard time determining the origin of directional antennas, which minimizes
interference.
Adaptation of Bidirectional Antennas for Directional Use
6-94. Adding a terminating resistor to absorb the energy of the second lobe allows directional use of a
bidirectional (long-wire or sloping "V") antenna. The terminating resistor must match the antenna. That is,
it must be able to absorb one-half of the power output of the connected transmitter and provide 400 to
600 ohms of resistance.
BIDIRECTIONAL
6-95. A bidirectional antenna (Figure 6-11) has two opposite lobes of radio energy, with an area of null
energy (no energy) between them. The lobes produce two strong signals in opposite directions, and weaker
ones in all other directions. |
3-55.93 | 199 | Communications
Figure 6-11. Bidirectional antenna pattern.
Application
6-96. Bidirectional antennas are usually used on point-to-point circuits and in situations where the
antenna null can be positioned to reduce or block signals that could interfere with reception.
Orientation
6-97. To work properly (radiate in the desired directions), a bidirectional antenna must be oriented to
the ground wave, and this is difficult to do. Lowering the antenna to create a near-vertical-incidence
skywave (NVIS) effect makes this more difficult, because it increases the radiation pattern. A bidirectional
antenna is best used near other antennas, which should be placed in its null to reduce interference and
interaction between the antennas.
Examples
6-98. The bidirectional antennas most commonly used in tactical situations are the sloping-"V,"
random-length wire, and half-wave dipole.
OMNI-DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA
6-99. An omnidirectional antenna (Figure 6-12) radiates and receives energy equally well in all compass
directions. It is used when it is necessary to communicate in separate directions at once. However, it is also
more susceptible to interference from all directions. The most common omnidirectional antenna is the
whip. Some others are the quarter-wave vertical (RC-292 and OE-254) and the crossed dipole
(AS-2259) antennas. |
3-55.93 | 200 | Chapter 6
Figure 6-12. Omni-directional antenna pattern.
CONSTRUCTION AND SELECTION
6-100. Antenna construction is limited only by the imagination. There are many types and configurations.
However, the operator must be careful not to construct an antenna that has a high standing wave ratio,
which could damage radio equipment. He should use standing wave ratio meters when testing or using
unfamiliar antennas. In selecting an antenna for an HF circuit, the operator must know the type of
propagation.
GROUND-WAVE PROPAGATION
6-101. Ground-wave propagation requires low takeoff angles and vertically polarized antennas. The whip
antenna provides good omnidirectional ground-wave radiation. If a directional antenna is needed, the
operator selects one with a good low-angle vertical radiation.
SKY-WAVE PROPAGATION
6-102. Sky-wave propagation complicates antenna selection. After first finding the distance between
radio stations, the radio operator can determine the required takeoff angle. The takeoff angle-to-distance
tables give approximate takeoff angles for day and night sky-wave propagation. If the circuit distance is
966 kilometers (600 miles) during the day, the required takeoff angle is about 25 degrees. At night, it is 40
degrees. Therefore, the operator selects an antenna that has high gain from 25 to 40 degrees. He omits this
step if the propagation predictions give the takeoff angles. For NVIS-constructed antennas and short-range
HF communications, he subtracts 20 percent from these predictions and uses a planning range of 0 to
300 miles.
COVERAGE
6-103. The radio operator determines what type of coverage to use. If the radio circuit consists of mobile
(vehicular) stations or of many stations at different directions from the transmitter, an omnidirectional
antenna is required. If the circuit is point to point, he can use a directional or bidirectional antenna.
Normally, the receiving station locations dictate this choice.
CONSTRUCTION
6-104. Before he can select an antenna, the operator must examine the materials available to build one.
He needs two supports to build a horizontal dipole, and a third support in the middle for frequencies of 5
mega hertz (MHz) or less. If he has nothing he can use for a support, he cannot build a dipole antenna. |
3-55.93 | 201 | Communications
SITE
6-105. Another consideration is the site itself. The tactical situation usually determines the antenna
positions. The ideal area is clear and flat with no trees, buildings, fences, power lines, or mountains.
Unfortunately, the tactical communicator seldom finds such a perfect site, so he just tries to find one as flat
and clear as possible. He will often have to settle for less ideal sites, and these sites usually interfere with
the patterns and functioning of the antennas.
COMMON TYPES OF ANTENNAS
6-106. Common antenna types include the half-wave dipole, inverted "V," long wire, and the
sloping "V."
HALF-WAVE DIPOLE
6-107. The half-wave dipole antenna is a balanced resonant antenna (Figure 6-13). It produces its
maximum gain in a narrow range between 2 percent above and 2 percent below the design frequency.
Since frequency assignments are normally several megahertz apart, the operator must build a separate
dipole for each assigned frequency.
Figure 6-13. Half-wave dipole antenna.
Length of Dipole
6-108. The operator calculates the length of a half-wave dipole using the formula
length = 468/frequency, as shown in Figure 6-14.
Height of Dipole
6-109. The operator normally keeps the height of a dipole between one-fourth and one-half wavelength
above ground level for long-range sky wave. For NVIS of 0 to 300 miles, and for inverted and sloping "V"
antennas, the operator raises the antenna between one-eighth and one-fourth wavelengths above
ground level. |
3-55.93 | 202 | Chapter 6
Length (in meters) = (150.00 x 0.95) = 142.50 Frequency in MHz
Length (in feet) = (492.00 x 0.95) = 468.00 Frequency in MHz
For harmonic operation, calculate the length of a long-wire antenna
(one wavelength or longer) as follows:
Length (in meters) = (150.00 x (N--0.05)) / Frequency in MHz
Length (in feet) = (492.00 x (N--0.05)) / Frequency in MHz
Where N = the number of half-wave lengths in the total length of the antenna.
For example, if the number of half-wavelengths is 3 and the frequency in MHz is 7, then--
If length (in meters) = (150.00 x (N--0.05)) / Frequency in MHz
Then (150.00 x (3--0.05)) / 7
(150.00 x (2.95)) / 7
(442.50 / 7)
so length in meters = 63.20
Figure 6-14. Formula for calculating length of half-wave dipole antenna applied to example.
INVERTED "V"
6-110. The inverted "V" or "drooping dipole" antenna (Figure 6-15) is similar to a dipole antenna, except
that it only requires one center support. Like a dipole, it is used for a specific frequency, and it has a
bandwidth of plus or minus 2 percent of design frequency. Because of the inclined sides, the inverted "V"
antenna produces a combination of horizontal and vertical radiation; vertical off the ends and horizontal
broadside to the antenna. All the construction factors for a dipole also apply to the inverted "V." Although
the inverted "V" has less gain than a dipole, the fact that it only requires one support makes it the preferred
antenna in some tactical situations.
Figure 6-15. Inverted "V" antenna. |
3-55.93 | 203 | Communications
LONG-WIRE ANTENNA
6-111. A long-wire antenna is one that is at least as long as one wavelength (Figure 6-16). However, it
should be longer to achieve good gain and directional characteristics. Constructing long-wire antennas is
simple, but using the correct dimensions and making the correct adjustments are both critical to its success.
Figure 6-16. Long-wire antenna.
Direction
6-112. A long-wire antenna is made directional by placing a terminating resistor at the distant station end
of the antenna. The terminating resistor should be a 600-ohm, noninductive resistor that can absorb at least
one-half of the transmitter power. Terminating resistors are part of some radio sets, but can be made locally
using a 100-watt, 106-ohm resistor (NSN 5905-00-764-5573).
Construction
6-113. Building a long-wire antenna only requires wire, support poles, insulators, and a terminating
resistor (if directionality is desired). The only other requirement is that the operator string the antenna in as
straight a line as the situation permits. Because the antenna is less than 20 feet tall, it requires no tall
support structures.
SLOPING WIRE
6-114. If an HF circuit is only a single point-to-point ground link or a short skywave link, and if all other
stations are oriented in the same direction, then the team can use a sloping wire antenna (Figure 6-17). The
radiating wire is normally one quarter of the wavelength. (Antenna length is measured from the radio
equipment.) The far end of the antenna should be connected to a rope whose other end is tied to a
nonconductive weight such as a stone or brick. The weighted end is then thrown over a tree so that the
antenna forms a 30- to 45-degree angle to the ground. Angles greater than 45 degrees are used for ground
waves, and less than 30 degrees for sky waves. The angle formed by the wire should point in the direction
opposite that of the intended receiver. |
3-55.93 | 204 | Chapter 6
Figure 6-17. Sloping wire antenna.
TERMINATED SLOPING "V"
6-115. The sloping "V" antenna is a short- to long-range sky-wave antenna that the radio operator can
build in the field (Figure 6-18). Gain and directivity depend on leg length. For reasonable performance, the
antenna should be at least one-half wavelength long. To make the antenna directional, the operator puts
terminating resistors on each leg on the open part of the "V." The terminating resistors should be 300 ohms
and be capable of absorbing one-half of the transmitter’s power output. These terminating resistors are
either procured or locally made. Using the terminating resistors, the operator aims the antenna so that the
line cutting the "V" in half points at the distant station.
Figure 6-18. Terminated sloping "V" antenna. |
3-55.93 | 205 | Communications
FIELD-EXPEDIENT ANTENNAS
6-116. Operators must know the importance of field-expedient antennas. The operator will have to
construct field-expedient antennas if conventional ones are damaged or missing parts.
REPAIR OF DAMAGED ANTENNA
6-117. A broken whip antenna can be temporarily repaired (Figure 6-19)--
• If the whip is broken in two sections, the operator can join the sections. First, he removes the
paint and cleans the sections where they join. This ensures a good electrical connection. Then,
he places the sections together and secures them using bare wire or tape.
• If the whip is badly damaged, the radio operator can use field wire (WD1/TT) of the same
length as the original antenna. The radio operator removes the insulation from the lower end of
the field wire antenna, twists the conductors together, sticks them into the antenna base
connector, and secures the conductors with a wooden block. He supports the antenna wire with
a tree or a pole.
Figure 6-19. Repair procedure, whip antenna.
INSULATORS
6-118. The radio operator can make these from items that are readily available (Figure 6-20). He should
choose materials that do not absorb water, as those that do, such as rope or cloth, will lose their insulating
characteristics and become conductors themselves should they get wet. |
3-55.93 | 206 | Chapter 6
Figure 6-20. Expedient insulators.
SUPPORTS
6-119. Many expedient antennas require support. The most common support is a strong tree that can
survive heavy windstorms. However, even the largest tree sways enough in the wind to break a wire
antenna. The operator attaches a spring or piece of old inner tube to one end of the antenna to keep it taut
while preventing it from breaking or stretching as the tree sways. If a small pulley is available, he attaches
that to the tree. He attaches one end of a rope to the end of the antenna, passes the rope through the pulley
on the tree, then attaches a heavy weight to the free end of rope. This lets the tree sway without straining
the antenna.
TERMINATING RESISTORS
6-120. Resistors for low-power (man-pack) HF radios are readily available from commercial radio supply
stores. However, carbon resistors that can dissipate more than 5 watts are hard to find.
6-121. As a field-expedient technique, the radio operator can connect the low-power (5-watt) resistors in
parallel to enable a terminator to handle greater power. For example, eight 5-watt, 4,000-ohm resistors
connected in parallel become a 500-ohm, 40-watt terminator. Unfortunately, this is still too small to work
with a high-power, HF terminator. A terminator for a 1,000-watt transmitter requires 100 5-watt resistors.
However, a series of 100-watt, 106-ohm resistors (NSN 5905-00-764-5573) may be mounted on a single
insulating board to serve as a terminator for a high-powered transmitter.
FIELD-EXPEDIENT WIRE
6-122. If regular antenna wire is unavailable, the radio operator can use field telephone wire (WD1/TT)
to build antennas. Field wire consists of two insulated wires, and each of those has four copper and three
steel strands.
• When making electrical connections with field wire, the operator uses the copper strands. To
identify them he removes about 1 inch of insulation from one end of the insulated wire. He
holds it where the insulation ends and bends the strands to the side. When he releases the
pressure, the steel strands snap back to their original positions, but the copper strands remain
bent. He can then wrap these copper strands around the steel strands for a good electrical
connection. |
3-55.93 | 207 | Communications
• If field wire is used as the radiating element of an antenna, the two insulated wires in the
twisted pair must be connected together at the ends so that electrically the two wires act as one.
-- First, the radio operator tightly twists together all six steel strands from the two wires (for
strength).
-- Second, he twists the eight copper strands together (to connect them electrically).
-- Third, he twists the copper strands around the steel strands.
• When using them as a feed line for a dipole antenna, the radio operator connects each of the
two insulated wires of the twisted pair to a separate leg of the dipole. At the radio, he connects
one wire (any wire) to the center connector of the radio antenna terminal and the second wire to
a screw on the antenna case.
• In an emergency, any wire of sufficient length can be used for an antenna, for example, barbed
wire, electrical wire, fence wire, or metal-cored clothesline. Communication has even been
successful using metal house gutters and metal bed springs. A radio operator’s mission is
incomplete until he establishes communication.
GROUND
6-123. All radio equipment should be grounded to prevent shock and damage to equipment during
electrical storms. This protects the operator and his equipment. Also, some antennas must have a
radio-frequency ground before they will function. Most radio sets come with a ground rod that should
provide enough ground if used properly in good soil. The radio operator checks to ensure that the ground
rod is neither oily nor corroded. He drives the rod into the ground so that the top of the rod is below
surface. To ensure a good electrical connection, he makes sure that the top of the ground rod and the end of
the ground strap are both clean and bright. Then, he uses a clamp or a nut and bolt to make a good
mechanical and electrical connection at the ground rod.
Alternative Materials
6-124. If he has no ground rod, he can use water pipes, concrete reinforcing rods, metal fence posts
(protective paint coating removed), or any length of metal. If a water system has metal pipes, he can make
a good ground by clamping the ground strap to a water pipe. He can also use underground pipes, tanks, and
metal building foundations.
WARNING
Never ground on any piping or underground tanks that contain
flammable materials such as natural gas or gasoline.
Soil Additives
6-125. The operator can improve the conductivity of dry soil by adding water and chemicals such as table
or Epsom salt to it (Epsom salt is less corrosive than table salt). First, the radio operator digs a hole around
the ground rod. Then, he mixes and pours into it one pound of the chemical and one gallon of water. He
should periodically add water to keep the ground damp. He can use urine in place of water, if needed.
Multiple Ground Rods
6-126. Using multiple ground rods can also improve the electrical ground. If he has enough ground rods,
the operator can build a “star ground.” He drives a single rod into the center of a circle that measures about
20 feet in diameter. Then, he drives additional ground rods around the outside of the circle. He connects
the ground strap from the radio to the center rod, which he in turn connects to the rods along the outside of
the circle. Finally, he connects the rods around the circle. |
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HIGH FREQUENCY, DIRECTIONAL, FIELD-EXPEDIENT
ANTENNAS
6-127. The long-wire (Figure 6-21) and vertical half-rhombic (Figure 6-22) are two field-expedient,
directional antennas. These antennas consist of a single wire, preferably two or more wavelengths long,
supported on poles at a height of 3 to 7 meters (10 to 20 feet) above the ground. The antennas will,
however, operate satisfactorily at less than 1 meter (about 3 feet) aboveground. The far end of the wire
connects to ground through a noninductive resistor of 500 to 600 ohms. The resistor should have a rating
of at least one-half the wattage output of the transmitter. This ensures that the output power of the
transmitter does not burn out the resistor. A reasonably good ground, such as a number of ground rods or a
counterpoise, should be used at each end of the antenna. The radiation pattern is directional. The antennas
are used primarily to transmit or receive HF signals. The "V" antenna is another field-expedient, directional
antenna (Figure 6-23). It consists of two wires forming a "V" with the open area of the "V" pointing toward
the desired direction of transmission or reception. To make construction easier, the legs may slope
downward from the apex of the "V." This is called a sloping "V" antenna (Figure 6-24). The angle between
the legs varies with the length of the legs in order to achieve maximum performance. To make the antenna
radiate in only one direction, add noninductive terminating resistors from the end of each leg (not at the
apex) to ground. The resistors should be approximately 500 ohms and have a power rating at least one-half
that of the output power of the transmitter being used. Without the resistors, the antenna radiates
bidirectionally, both front and back. The antenna must be fed by a balanced transmission line.
Figure 6-21. High frequency antenna, long-wire type.
Figure 6-22. High frequency antenna, half-rhombic type. |
3-55.93 | 209 | Communications
Figure 6-23. High frequency antenna, "V" type.
Figure 6-24. Sloping antenna, "V" type.
ANTENNA, AN/GRA-50
6-128. The AN/GRA-50 antenna is a component of the AN/PRC-104, AN/GRC-213, and AN/GRC-193
and can be used with modern radio systems. It is a half-wave, dipole-type antenna. This means that it can
be used for long- (2,500 miles) or short-range, near-vertical-incidence, sky wave (0 to 300 miles)
messages. (See TM 11-5820-467-15 for more detail.)
ANTENNA, AS-2259/GR
6-129. The AS-2259/GR antenna has two inverted "V" dipoles positioned at right angles. It uses a
foam-electric center pole as its coaxial. It is used for short-range (NVIS, from 0 to 300 mile) messages.
(See TM 11-5985-379-14&P for more detail.) |
3-55.93 | 210 | Chapter 6
Section VII. UNUSUAL ENVIRONMENTS
Climatic variations such as temperature, electricity, humidity, and wind require variations in the ways radios
and antennas are set up, used, and maintained.
DESERT OPERATIONS
6-130. The factors that most affect radios and antennas in the desert are poor electrical grounding,
temperature and humidity extremes, and wind-blown contaminants.
ELECTRICITY
6-131. For the best operation in the desert, locate radio antennas on the highest terrain available. Poor
electrical grounding in the desert reduces the ranges of whip antennas by one-fifth to one-third. For this
reason, complete antenna systems such as horizontal dipoles and vertical antennas with adequate
counterpoises are generally more effective.
STATIC ELECTRICITY
6-132. Static electricity is caused by many factors present in the desert, including wind-blown dust
particles. Also, dry air increases static discharges between charged particles. When operating in fixed
positions, ground communications equipment properly to prevent such discharges. Tape all sharp edges
and tips of antennas to reduce wind-caused static discharges and the accompanying noise. Since
static-caused noise diminishes at higher frequencies, use the highest frequencies authorized for use.
HEAT
6-133. Radio sets can overheat and fail, so turn them on only when necessary. Keep air vents and filters
clean to prevent overheating. High temperature conditions will degrade radio wave propagation. A station
that can be reached at night may not be reachable during the day.
MOISTURE
6-134. In deserts with high humidity, condensation occurs wherever a surface is cooler than the air. To
keep contacts dry, tape electrical plugs, jacks, and connectors. To prevent arcing, make sure these are dry
before connecting.
DUST AND DIRT
6-135. Wind-blown particles (dust, dirt, sand, and grit) damages everything it contacts. They cause the
most damage to items with moving or electrical parts, or with vents, grids, or grilles. Because radios with
servomechanisms are particularly vulnerable, extra cleaning and precautions are required. For example, use
dustproof covers to protect communications equipment such as HF amplifiers. Regularly check items such
as receiver-transmitter units that have ventilating ports or channels. Keep these openings clear of dust so
the equipment remains within operating temperatures. Keep an extra supply of dry batteries on hand,
because heat drains batteries at a higher rate and produces a higher failure rate. Protect electrical wire
insulation with tape while it is still intact. Use an old toothbrush or other brush to clean electrical contacts
and plugs before connecting, then seal the connection with tape. Conduct preventive maintenance checks
often. Check parts that require lubrication often. Dust and dirt can collect in lubricants and damage
moving parts.
JUNGLE OPERATIONS
6-136. Communications in jungle areas must also be carefully planned. Thick jungle growth vertically
polarizes RF energy, which reduces transmission ranges. Heat and humidity increase maintenance
problems. Siting is the most important consideration in the jungle, followed closely by maintenance. |
3-55.93 | 211 | Communications
ANTENNA SITE
6-137. Complete antenna systems, such as ground planes and dipoles, work better than fractional,
wave-length, whip antennas. To further improve communications--
• Locate antennas in clearings. Place them on the edge farthest from the distant station, and as
high as possible.
• Keep all cables and connectors--antenna, power, and telephone--off the ground to reduce
damage from moisture, fungus, and insects.
• If possible, clear vegetation from antenna sites. Foliage touching an antenna will ground its
signal.
• If vegetation cannot be removed, especially dense or wet vegetation, always
horizontally polarize the antennas.
HUMIDITY
6-138. The high humidity of jungle environments condenses moisture on equipment. This encourages
rust and fungus, complicating maintenance. Operators and maintenance personnel should check their TMs
for special requirements but mainly they must--
• Keep the equipment as dry as possible and in lighted areas to retard fungus growth.
• Keep air vents clear to help keep equipment cool and dry.
• Keep connectors, cables, and bare metal parts as free of fungus as possible. After repairs or
damage, paint all surfaces of equipment with moisture-fungus-proofing paint.
FIELD-EXPEDIENTS
6-139. LRSU can greatly improve their ability to communicate in the jungle by using expedient antennas.
Moving units are generally restricted to using the short and long antennas that come with the radios.
However, when not moving, field-expedient antennas increase range and improve reception.
COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS
6-140. In very cold weather, ionospheric storms and night lights, such as the Aurora Borealis, can
degrade sky-wave propagation and disable radio communications. Static can block frequencies for
extended periods; changes in the density and height of the ionosphere can fade a signal for weeks. When
these disturbances occur is difficult to predict. However, when they do, radio operators must be ready to
use alternate frequencies, or other means of communication. Put radios in vehicles, if possible. This
simplifies transport and provides shelter for radio operators. It also helps alleviate grounding and antenna
installation problems caused by the cold: permafrost and deep snow limit grounding. Frozen ground
conducts electricity too poorly to propagate ground waves well. To improve ground wave transmission,
install a counterpoise far enough aboveground to prevent the snow from covering it. When installing
antennas--
• Handle the mast sections and the antenna cables carefully; they become brittle at very low
temperatures.
• Run antenna cables overhead to avoid damage from heavy snow and frost. Use nylon rope for
guy wires rather than cotton or hemp. Nylon absorbs less moisture, so it is less likely to freeze
and break.
• Use extra guy wires, supports, and anchors to help antennas withstand heavy ice and wind
loading. |
3-55.93 | 212 | Chapter 6
• Allow radios to warm up for several minutes before use. Since extreme cold lowers the voltage
output of a dry battery, try warming the battery before operating the radio set. This minimizes
frequency drift. Flakes or pellets of highly electrically charged snow have been reported in
northern regions. When these particles strike the antenna, the resulting electrical discharge
causes a high-pitched static roar that can blanket all frequencies. To prevent this, cover all
antenna elements with polystyrene tape and shellac.
6-141. Protect radios from blowing snow. Snow can freeze to dials and knobs and blow into the wiring,
causing shorts and grounds. Handle cords and cables carefully because they lose their flexibility in extreme
cold. Properly winterize all radio equipment and power units. Check the appropriate technical manuals
(TM) for winterization procedures.
Power Units
6-142. As temperature decrease, operating and maintaining generators becomes increasingly difficult.
Protect them from weather as much as possible.
Batteries
6-143. The effect of cold weather on wet and dry cell batteries depends on the type and kind of battery,
the load on the battery, the use of the battery, and the degree of exposure to cold temperatures.
Shock Damage
6-144. In extreme cold, most synthetic shock mounts get brittle and fail to cushion the equipment. The
jolting of a vehicle during movement can damage radios. Check the shock mounts often, and change them
when needed.
Microphones
6-145. Moisture from a Soldiers breath can freeze on the perforated cover plate on the microphone. Use
standard microphone covers to prevent this. If no standard covers are available, improvise one from rubber
or cellophane membranes or from rayon or nylon cloth.
Breathing and Sweating
6-146. A radio generates heat when it is operated. When it is turned off, the air inside cools and
contracts, drawing cold air in. This "breathing" can bring still-hot parts into contact with subzero air. This
can cool the glass, plastic, and ceramic parts too quickly, and cause them to break. If the cold equipment is
brought suddenly into contact with warm air, moisture will condense on its parts. This is called sweating.
Before cold equipment is brought into a heated area, wrap it in a blanket or parka to ensure that it will
warm gradually to reduce sweating. Thoroughly dry all equipment before taking it back out into the cold.
Otherwise, moisture caused by sweating will freeze equipment.
MOUNTAIN OPERATIONS
6-147. Operation in mountainous areas presents many of the same problems as operation in northern or
cold weather areas. It also makes selecting transmission sites a critical task. Terrain restrictions often make
relay stations necessary for good communications. Terrain obstacles often make line-of-sight transmission
necessary. Also, the dirt in mountainous areas seldom conducts electricity well. Use a complete antenna
system such as a dipole or ground-plane antenna with a counterpoise. Maintenance requirements in
mountainous areas resemble those in northern or cold weather areas. Tricky mountain climates require
flexible maintenance planning. |
3-55.93 | 213 | Communications
URBAN OPERATIONS
6-148. Communications in urbanized terrain pose special problems. Some problems are similar to those
encountered in mountainous areas. Obstacles can block transmission paths. Pavement surfaces conduct
electricity poorly. Commercial power lines cause electrical interfere. VHF radios are generally less
effective in urban terrain. Due to their power output and operating frequencies, VHF radios require a LOS
between antennas. Urban areas sometimes prohibit the establishment of a street-level LOS. HF radios
require and rely on LOS less than VHF radios, because they use lower operating frequencies and transmit
at higher powers. The antenna should be hidden or blended into its surroundings to prevent discovery.
Antennas can be concealed by blending them with existing structures such as: water towers, existing
civilian antennas, or steeples. In urban areas, the LRSU should--
• Park radio-equipped vehicles inside buildings for cover and concealment and then remote the
antennas outside the buildings.
• Dismount radio equipment and install it inside buildings, ideally, in basements.
• Conceal generators against buildings or under sheds; this also decreases noise. Provide
adequate ventilation to prevent heat buildup. |
3-55.93 | 215 | Chapter 7
Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
The IPB process applies to all types of operations, from stability operations to war. It
helps leaders reduce uncertainty. IPB is conducted as part of the MDMP. The MDMP
is generally used at battalion or squadron level and above--units with staffs. LRSUs
do not have staffs and as a result use TLP to plan operations. However, because
LRSUs make extensive use of IPB products, it is imperative LRSU Soldiers have an
in-depth understanding of the continuous IPB process. FM 2-01.3 defines IPB as,
“The staff planning activity undertaken by the entire staff to define and understand
the operational environment and the advantages and disadvantages presented to
friendly and threat forces.” IPB has four steps, which this chapter will treat as
sections:
• Define the Operational Environment (Section I).
• Describe Environmental Effects on Operations (Section II).
• Evaluate the Threat (Section III).
• Determine Threat Courses of Action (Section IV).
SECTION I. DEFINE THE OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENT
This first of the four steps in the IPB process identifies for further analysis specific features of the environment
or activities within it and the physical space where they exist that may influence available COAs or the
commander’s decision. To conduct this step, the staff performs five substeps:
• Identify significant characteristics of the environment.
• Identify the limits of the command's AO.
• Establish limits of the area of influence and the area of interest (AOI).
• Evaluate existing databases and identify intelligence gaps.
• Initiate collection of information required to complete IPB.
IDENTIFY SIGNIFICANT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
ENVIRONMENT
7-1. The Army uses METT-TC as the framework for analysis in IPB. Much of the information on
environmental characteristics can be obtained from existing databases. The BFSB S-2 GI&S section and
USAF combat weather team contribute much of the commander's and staff's information and analysis.
TERRAIN
7-2. In this first substep of defining the operational environment, commanders and staffs use OAKOC
to develop the military aspects of terrain. These are examples of terrain characteristics:
• Hydrological data.
• Elevation data.
• Soil composition.
• Vegetation. |
3-55.93 | 216 | Chapter 7
CLIMATE AND WEATHER
7-3. Climate and weather can significantly impact military operations. Climate is the prevailing
pattern of temperature, wind velocity, and precipitation in a specific area measured over a period of years.
Weather describes the conditions at a specific place and time, and is only somewhat predictable. The
following are military aspects of weather:
• Visibility.
• Wind.
• Precipitation.
• Cloud cover.
• Temperature.
• Humidity.
CIVIL CONSIDERATIONS
7-4. In urban terrain, manmade infrastructure, civilian institutions, attitudes and activities of civilian
leaders, populations, and organizations also affect the environment (Figure 7-1).
Figure 7-1. Classification of urban area by size.
POPULATION
7-5. Most urban environments have a significant population in both number and density. Civilians in
the urban environment may pose significant threats, obstacles, and logistical support problems such as
medical. They can also provide both support and information. Therefore, it is important to gain as much
insight into the population as possible. This should start with the basics of demographic information: ethnic |
3-55.93 | 217 | Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
background, religion, age structure, growth rate, birth and death rates, net migration rates, communicable
disease issues, languages spoken, and literacy rate. Any information on friendly, enemy, or neutral
personnel will aid in planning.
POLITICAL OR SOCIOECONOMIC CONDITIONS
7-6. Knowing the political affiliations of the populace may help the team determine whether they are
likely to be for, against, or neutral towards the U.S.. Clans, tribes, and gangs may not only influence area
politics and economic conditions, they may control them. Cultivation of and traffic in illicit drugs can also
impact the political and economic conditions.
INFRASTRUCTURE
7-7. Infrastructure refers to all basic resources, support systems, communications, and vital industries.
The physical and social attributes of an infrastructure operate interdependently. Understanding the
functions and interrelationships of these components allow an assessment of how disruption or restoration
of the infrastructure affects the population and ultimately the mission.
Physical
7-8. Lines of communication such as roads, rails, trails, and waterways, as well as telecommunications
means, are key aspects of the physical environment to consider.
Social
7-9. The social attributes of infrastructure include such things as the medical system, the commerce
system, and the transportation system. Each of these needs people in order to operate efficiently. For
example, the doctors, nurses and support staff (pharmacists, ambulance drivers, clerks and janitors) interact
with the physical infrastructure. The transportation system allows the people of the medical system to get
to and from work. The commerce system provides the goods to supply the needs of the medical system.
IDENTIFY THE LIMITS OF THE COMMAND'S AREA OF
OPERATIONS
7-10. In this second of five subtasks, the unit commander defines the AO. The AO is one of the most
basic and important control measures. It is where he has the responsibility and authority to conduct
military operations. AOs may be contiguous or non-contiguous. Contiguous means adjacent, touching,
sharing a single boundary. Thus, contiguous AOs share a boundary, and noncontiguous AOs do not.
Higher headquarters controls the unassigned areas between noncontiguous AOs.
ESTABLISH THE LIMITS OF THE AREA OF INFLUENCE AND THE
AREA OF INTEREST
7-11. In this third of five tasks, the commander defines the area of influence and the AOI. The area of
influence is larger than and includes the AO:
AREA OF INFLUENCE
7-12. The area of influence (no acronym) is a geographic area--
• Where the commander can directly influence operations by maneuver or fires support systems
normally under the commander's C2.
• An area that includes terrain inside and outside the AO.
• An area determined by both the G-2/S-2 and the G-3/S-3.
AREA OF INTEREST
7-13. The AOI is the commander's area of concern (interest). It includes the area of influence and
adjacent areas, and it extends into enemy territory to the objectives of current or planned operations. It also
includes areas occupied by enemy forces who could jeopardize the accomplishment of the mission. The |
3-55.93 | 218 | Chapter 7
AOI is established by the commander with input from the G-2/S-2 and G-3/S-3. It is normally larger than
the area of influence, and may therefore require more intelligence assets to monitor. Time is the key
consideration in establishing the limits of the AOI. Time limits consider two primary factors: the mobility
of the threat and the time needed for the friendly unit to accomplish the mission.
EVALUATE EXISTING DATABASES AND IDENTIFY
INTELLIGENCE GAPS
7-14. In this fourth of five subtasks, national, multinational, joint, and higher echelon databases are
examined to determine if the information required already exists and is available. Not all needed
information will be available, which causes gaps in the available information. Identifying the gaps early
allows actions to be initiated to collect the intelligence required to fill them. The commander’s initial
intelligence requirements and intent also allows these gaps to be prioritized. Any gaps not expected to be
filled within the available time must be substituted with reasonable assumptions.
INITIATE COLLECTION OF INFORMATION REQUIRED TO
COMPLETE IPB
7-15. In this last of five subtasks, the G-2/S-2 identifies and prioritizes the gaps in current holdings
(Table 7-1). Based on this analysis, collection activities are initiated or RFIs are submitted to fill
intelligence gaps to the level of detail needed to conduct IPB. IPB products are constantly updated as the
staff receives new information.
Table 7-1. Identification of gaps in existing databases.
Who ? What ? Why or When ?
Leader Evaluates LRS and SOF debrief and To identify and prioritize gaps in current
patrol/surveillance log archives information
Teams Evaluates the MPF To find information gaps
Leader Reviews the MPF To thoroughly identify intelligence or information
gaps
Leader Loses planning time and manpower If he fails to thoroughly research information in
the MPF
Team Formulates requests for RFI and RII After intelligence gaps are identified
7-16. Once the LRSC and LRS team receives their mission, they conduct a similar analysis. The leaders
and team members review and evaluate the MPF, OPORD, annexes, briefings and debriefings to identify
intelligence or information gaps. Once this is complete, they formulate RFIs and requests for intelligence
information (RIIs).
SECTION II. DESCRIBE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON OPERATIONS
At this second step in the IPB process, staffs determine how the environment affects both the friendly and threat
operations and the friendly and threat COAs. Performing this step in a determined and thorough manner may
prevent the unit from being surprised by an unexpected enemy COA.
ANALYZE THE ENVIRONMENT
7-17. An AO evaluation is generally more detailed than an AOI evaluation. For each, the leader
considers the areas that might favor one type of military operation, such as attack or defend, or those
associated with stability operations such as peace enforcement, peacekeeping, and arms control. |
3-55.93 | 219 | Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
ANALYZE TERRAIN
7-18. Terrain analysis is the study and interpretation of natural and manmade features of an area, their
effects on military operations, and the effects of weather and climate on these features. Terrain analysis is a
continuous process. Changes in the operational environment may change the analysis of its effects on the
operation or on threat COA.
7-19. Ideally, analysis of the military aspects of terrain is based on reconnaissance of the AO and AOI.
This starts with a map and imagery reconnaissance. If METT-TC permits, the LRS team can conduct an
aerial or vehicular reconnaissance of the AO and of the objective AO. Automated digital terrain tools can
assist in the analysis of environmental factors and can display data over maps. Multispectral imaging
processors (MSIPs) and other digital tools can also help. The BFSB S-2's GI&S team can provide these
and other tools, as available. Automated tools supplement ground, air, map, or imagery reconnaissance and
products include--
• Cross-country mobility.
• Lines of communication.
• Vegetation types and distributions.
• Surface drainages and configurations.
• Surface materials.
• Subsurface (bedrock) materials.
• Obstacles.
• Infrastructures.
• Flood zones.
• Potential helicopter landing zones.
• Potential amphibious landing zones.
Note: Lines of communication include transportation, communications, and power.
Analyze the Military Aspects of Terrain
7-20. The military aspects of terrain--OAKOC--follow:
Observation and Fields of Fire
7-21. Observation refers to the ability to see the threat, either aided by surveillance devices or unaided.
This includes observation through electronic and optical LOS systems, thermal imaging devices, laser
range finders, jamming devices, radars, and radios as well as observation from overhead platforms.
7-22. A field of fire is an area that a weapon or group of weapons can effectively cover with fire from a
given position. A field of fire is evaluated for threat and friendly indirect- and direct-fire weapons. Even if
a clear opening offers the best observation, it might have poor fields of fire.
7-23. The evaluation of observation and fields of fire allows identification of--
• Potential engagements areas.
• Defensive terrain and specific equipment or equipment positions.
• Areas where friendly forces are most vulnerable to observation and fires.
• Areas of visual dead space.
7-24. Intervisibility and line of sight have a close relationship. Intervisibility is the condition of being
able to see one point from the other. This condition may be altered or interrupted by adverse weather, dusk, |
3-55.93 | 220 | Chapter 7
terrain masking, and smoke. Line of sight is an unobstructed path from a Soldier weapon, weapon sight,
electronic sending and receiving antennas, or reconnaissance equipment from one point to another.
7-25. Observation and field of fire require special consideration in urban environments such as
observation and weapons effects. Urban situations create a lot of dead space. However, high structures
generally offer excellent observation. Line of sight distances may decrease in urban settings.
Avenue of Approach
7-26. This is an air or ground route of an attacking force (friendly or threat) leading to its objective or
key terrain. Avenues of approach normally show the size of unit that can use them.
Key Terrain
7-27. This refers to any place whose seizure, retention, or control affords a marked advantage to either
combatant. In an urban environment, key terrain can include tall structures, choke points, intersections,
bridges, industrial complexes, or other facilities, for example. High ground can serve as key terrain,
because it dominates an area with good observation and fields of fire. In an open or arid environment, a
draw or wadi could serve as key terrain.
7-28. Decisive terrain is key terrain that has an extraordinary impact on the mission. The successful
accomplishment of the mission depends on seizing, retaining, or denying decisive terrain to the threat. Note
that key terrain is not necessarily decisive. The commander designates decisive terrain to show his staff and
subordinate commanders how important that terrain is to his concept of the operation.
7-29. Other services emphasize the importance of the population, and include groups of people such as
ethnic groups, the media, or political parties as terrain, and in some cases key terrain. However, the US
Army does not consider people to be terrain.
Obstacles
7-30. An obstacle is any obstruction designed or employed to disrupt, fix, turn, or block the movement
of a threat, and to impose additional losses in personnel, time, and equipment on the threat. Obstacles can
be natural, manmade, or a combination of both. Some examples are--
• Buildings.
• Mountains.
• Steep slopes.
• Dense forests.
• Rivers.
• Lakes.
• Urban areas.
• Minefields.
• Certain religious and cultural sites.
• Wire obstacles such as concertina wire, barbed wire.
7-31. Obstacles could affect certain types of movement differently. As an example, obstacles such as
rivers, lakes, swamps, densely forested areas, road craters, rubble in streets, or dense populations in urban
areas may have a greater effect on mounted movement than on dismounted movement. Mine fields,
concertina wire, or steep slopes may have a greater effect against dismounted movement. Obstacles that
can affect air mobility include terrain features that are higher than an aircraft’s service ceiling, that restrict
nap-of-the-earth flight, or that force the aircraft to use a particular flight profile. Examples include tall
buildings (skyscrapers), cell phone towers, phone and power lines, rapidly rising terrain features,
mountains, smoke, and other obscurants. High mountains can impact rotary- and fixed-wing aircraft lift
capabilities. |
3-55.93 | 221 | Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
7-32. Leaders combine the several factor overlays into a single product known as the combined obstacle
overlay (COO). They integrate these overlays with the evaluations of various other factors, for example,
into a single product, the modified COO, or MCOO, that shows the effect of the operational environment
on mobility.
7-33. The MCOO provides the basis for identifying air and ground AA and mobility corridors. It
integrates all obstacles to movement including, but not limited to, built-up areas, slopes, soil, vegetation,
and transportation systems (bridge classification, road characteristics) into one overlay. It is important that
the MCOO be tailored to operational METT-TC factors. It is a collaborative effort involving input from the
entire staff. The MCOO shows the terrain according to mobility classification. These classifications are
severely restricted, restricted, and unrestricted.
• Unrestricted--This terrain is free of any restrictions to movement. Examples include gently
sloping terrain with scattered or widely spaced obstacles such as trees or rocks.
• Restricted--This terrain hinders movement to some degree. It is represented as "/////////" on
overlays. Restricted terrain includes "zigzagging" or frequent detours; swamp or rugged terrain
for LRS teams or dismounts; and moderately to densely spaced obstacles for armor or
mechanized forces.
• Severely Restricted--This terrain severely impedes or redirects movement. It is represented as
"XXXXXXXXX" (cross-hatching) on overlays. Examples include minefields; unfordable rivers; and
road, railroad, and stream embankments.
Cover and Concealment
7-34. This aids in identification of defensible terrain, approach routes, assembly areas, or deployment
and dispersal areas. Cover and concealment is evaluated the same as observation and fields of fire. Each
factor is combined onto a single product such as a cross-hatched overlay.
Cover
7-35. This means protection from bullets, fragments of exploding rounds, flame, nuclear effects, and
biological and chemical agents. Cover does not necessarily provide concealment.
Concealment
7-36. This is protection from observation such as that provided by woods, underbrush, snowdrifts, and
tall grass. Concealment considerations for urban operations include using NSTVs or wearing the types of
clothing worn by the populace. Both may offer some concealment and help the LRS teams blend in.
Concealment and cover are not the same thing. Concealment hides, cover protects.
Evaluate the Terrain's Effect on Military Operations
7-37. The BFSB and R&S squadron staffs evaluate how terrain will affect military operations. They
disseminate the results of this analysis in the intelligence annex or estimate. The staff uses any of four basic
techniques to evaluate and graphically show the results of the analysis:
Concentric Ring Technique--This technique establishes concentric rings around US forces that
start from the unit’s base of operation and work out.
Belt Technique--This technique divides the AO in belts (areas) that run the width of the AO. The
shape of the belt is based on METT-TC analysis.
Avenue-In-Depth Technique--This technique focuses on one avenue of approach. It is good for
offensive COAs or for defense when canalized terrain inhibits mutual support.
Box Technique--This technique requires a detailed analysis of a critical area such as an
engagement area, river-crossing site, or LZ. It is most useful when time is short for operations
in noncontiguous AOs. |
3-55.93 | 222 | Chapter 7
WEATHER ANALYSIS
7-38. The BFSB USAF combat weather team and the S-2 section work closely during much of the
analysis process. The weather team analyzes the weather’s direct effects and its effects on terrain and other
aspects of the environment that integrates climate, forecasts, and current weather data with terrain analysis
and with the overall analysis of the environment. The weather team describes in detail how the weather
will affect each equipment system and subsystem.
7-39. Terrain and weather aspects of the environment are inseparable. During terrain analysis, the
analyst determines how the weather will affect terrain. In this substep, the analyst also evaluates how the
weather will directly affect operations.
7-40. The Integrated Meteorological System (IMETS) produces the Integrated Weather Effects
Decision Aid (IWEDA). The IWEDA shows the LRSU how the weather will affect current and planned
operations. IMETS forecasts wind turbulence, surface temperatures, cloud ceilings, humidity, visibility,
and ice.
Military Aspects of Weather
7-41. The military aspects of weather are visibility, wind, precipitation, cloud cover, temperature, and
humidity.
Visibility is the greatest distance from which prominent objects can be seen and identified by the
unaided, normal eye.
Wind of sufficient speed from any direction can blow dust, smoke, sand, or precipitation, reducing
the combat effectiveness of a force.
Precipitation is any moisture that falls from a cloud in frozen or liquid form. Rain, snow, hail,
drizzle, sleet, and freezing rain are examples.
Cloud Cover affects ground operations by limiting illumination. It can also reduce the thermal
signature of targets.
Temperature extremes can reduce effectiveness of troops and equipment.
Humidity is the amount of water vapor suspended in the atmosphere.
Additional Weather Considerations
Thermal Crossover
7-42. Temperature of targets and objects on the ground is important for the use of thermal sights and
forward-looking infrared (FLIR). Thermal crossover, which is an additional weather consideration, is a
natural phenomenon that normally occurs twice daily when temperature conditions reduce thermal contrast
between adjacent objects.
Direct and Indirect Effects
7-43. Weather has both direct and indirect effects on military operations. The following are examples of
direct effects and indirect effects on military operations:
• Temperature inversion can increase the risk of contamination by chemical agents.
• Low visibility, such as that caused by fog, obviously affects the observation capabilities of both
friendly and threat forces.
• Hot, dry weather might force friendly and threat forces to consider water sources key terrain. |
3-55.93 | 223 | Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
Civil Considerations
7-44. An appreciation of civil considerations—the ability to analyze their impact on operations—
enhances several aspects of operations: among them, the selection of objectives; location, movement, and
control of forces; use of weapons; and protection measures. Civil considerations comprise six
characteristics, expressed in the memory aid ASCOPE:
• Areas.
• Structures.
• Capabilities.
• Organizations.
• People.
• Events.
DESCRIBE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
7-45. Combine the evaluations of the effects of terrain, weather, and civil considerations into a product
that best suits the LRS team's needs. Avoid guessing or assuming. Focus on the total environment’s effects
on the COAs available to both the LRS team and threat forces.
7-46. On request from the LRSC, the BFSB S-2 and R&S squadron S-2 will provide all the products
previously described. The LRSC may only need some of these products as is; others they may be able to
use, with some adaptation, in LRS team-planning operations. Training and close coordination between the
LRSC, the BFSB, and the R&S squadron staffs will produce useful products for team planning.
SECTION III. EVALUATE THE THREAT
In step 3, the G-2/S-2 and staff analyze the command’s intelligence holdings, which they identified in step 1, to
determine how the threat normally conducts operations under similar circumstances. Every threat can be
analyzed, understood and, to some extent, predicted. Threat doctrine may be simple or even nonexistent.
However, a threat will usually, at some level of command, act based on some set of ad hoc or established
procedures. This third step in the IPB process begins with analyzing the threat, after which two substeps are
performed: 1) update or create threat models, and 2), identify threat capabilities.
ANALYZE THREAT FACTORS
7-47. When operating against a new or less defined threat, the G-2/S-2 may need to develop or expand
intelligence databases and threat models concurrently. In order to accomplish this, the G-2/S-2 should
conduct threat characteristic order of battle (OB) analysis for each group identified in step 1. To do this, the
staffs analyze--
• Composition.
• Disposition.
• Tactics.
• Training.
• Logistics.
• Operational effectiveness.
• Communications.
• Intelligence.
• Recruitment.
• Support.
• Finance.
• National agencies.
• Law enforcement agencies.
• International organizations and nongovernmental organizations.
• Personality.
• Other threats such as CBRN, diseases, or toxins. |
3-55.93 | 224 | Chapter 7
UPDATE OR CREATE THREAT MODELS
7-48. Creating or updating a threat model lets the analyst piece together information, identify gaps,
predict threat activities or COAs, and plan ISR. There will always be information gaps in the threat model,
so the analyst will always have some uncertainty. Threat models have three parts:
• Convert threat doctrine or patterns of operation to graphics.
• Describe the threat’s tactics and options.
• Identify HVTs and HPTs.
CONVERT THREAT DOCTRINE OR PATTERNS OF OPERATION TO GRAPHICS
7-49. Threat templates graphically portray how the threat might use its capabilities to perform the
functions required to accomplish its objectives. Construct threat templates by analyzing the intelligence
database and by evaluating the threat’s past operations. Determine how the threat normally organizes for
combat, and how he deploys and employs his forces and assets. Look for patterns in how the threats
organize their forces, timing, distances, relative locations, groupings, or use of the terrain and weather.
Threat templates are tailored to the needs of the unit or staff section creating them.
7-50. Threat templates for a LRS team are tailored to the team's mission. If the LRS team is tasked to
locate the threat's regimental or division reconnaissance, the LRSU needs the threat template showing how
the threat reconnaissance units are deployed. In some OEs, threat templating can be more difficult and
unpredictable. The LRS team must consider the enemy situation and mission. Ask this question: “If I had
to accomplish the same mission, and had no terrain constraints, where would I place my assets?” Analyze
patterns and associations, even though these require frequent updates and are somewhat reactive.
DESCRIBE THE THREAT'S TACTICS AND OPTIONS
7-51. The threat model includes a description of the threat’s preferred tactics. A description is still
needed, even if the threat’s preferred tactics are shown in graphic form. The description--
• Lists the threat's available options.
• Is not a "snapshot in time"--should portray actions as events unfold.
• Aids in war-gaming and in developing threat COAs, and situational templates.
• Addresses timelines, phases, WFFs.
7-52. Describe and determine the threat's goal(s). Threat objectives are often, but not always, what the
unit’s mission is trying to prevent. Threat objectives are also often actions taken by the threat to prevent
unit mission accomplishment. Describe them in terms of purpose and endstate.
IDENTIFY HVTS AND HPTS
7-53. An HVT is the asset the threat commander requires for successful completion of a COA. It is
shown and described on the template. Examples include-- |
3-55.93 | 225 | Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
Fires, for example, regimental artillery group (RAG), division artillery group (DAG), IV13, IV14,
SNAR-10, or individual artillery and mortars.
Protection, for example, ZSU-23-4, 2S6, straight flush radar, fan song radar, man-portable air
defense systems, and heavy machine guns.
Command and Control, for example, IV13, IV14, TOCs, and vehicles with multiple antennas.
Intelligence, for example, twin box DF, dog-ear radar, scanners and local populace.
Movement and Maneuver, for example, IMR, MT-55, PMM-2, GSP, MDK-2M, and BTM.
Sustainment, for example, a list of assets key to the threat commander's execution of the primary
mission is recorded. Then, the assets are ranked by their relative worth to the threat's operation.
Throughout the course of an operation, the HVTs will change. The HVTs for the phase of each
operation are recorded and annotated on the threat model. The LRS team should identify HVTs
for their mission with the help of the unit staff.
7-54. An HPT is a target whose loss to the threat commander, will contribute to the success of the
friendly COA. HVTs and HPTs may be one in the same. In some OEs, HPTs might be key personalities.
However, the loss of the enemy key personality might support the friendly COA, but may fail to deter the
enemy from completing the COA.
Link Analysis
7-55. This tool identifies HVTs and HPTs in the OE. It is used to show contacts, associations and
relationships between persons, events activities and organizations in an unconventional setting. Link
analysis tools use link diagrams, association matrixes, relationship matrixes, activities matrixes and
time-event charts. All help in identifying HVTs and HPTs in the OE.
Link Diagram
7-56. This tool seeks to graphically show relationships between people, locations, or other factors
deemed significant in any given situation. It reflects information from both association and activities
matrices, is easy to read and interpret and is generally an effective briefing tool. Link diagrams show
participants in activities, personal and nonpersonal links, internal and external contacts, structures and lines
of C2 (Figure 7-2). |
3-55.93 | 226 | Chapter 7
Figure 7-2. Example link diagram. |
3-55.93 | 227 | Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
Association Matrix
7-57. The association matrix is used to establish the existence of an association between individuals.
Analysts can use association matrices to identify those personalities and associations needing a more
in-depth analysis in order to determine the degree of relationship, contacts, or knowledge between the
individuals. The structure of a threat organization is formed as connections between personalities are made
(Figure 7-3).
Figure 7-3. Example association matrix.
Relationship Matrix
7-58. Relationship matrices are intended to show the nature of relationships between elements of the
AO. The elements can include members from the noncombatant population, the friendly force,
international organizations and adversarial groups. Utility infrastructures, significant buildings, media and
activities might also be included. The nature of the relationship between two or more components includes
measures of contention, collusion or dependency. The purpose of this tool is to demonstrate graphically
how each component of AO interacts with others and whether these interactions promote or degrade the
likelihood of mission success. The relationships represented in the matrix can assist the analysts in
deciphering how best to use the relationship to shape the environment (Figure 7-4). |
3-55.93 | 228 | Chapter 7
Figure 7-4. Example relationship matrix.
Activities Matrix
7-59. Activities matrices help analysts connect individuals (such as those in the association matrices) to
organizations, events, entities, addresses and activities--anything other than people. Information from this
matrix, combined with information from association matrices, can assist analysts in linking personalities as
well (Figure 7-5). |
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