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Which was the major battle of the Franco-Prissian war?	Franco-Prussian War Battles \| List of Battles in the Franco-Prussian War (28 Items) List Of Franco-Prussian War Battles 4.9k views 33 items tags f t p @ List of every major Franco-Prussian War battle, including photos, images, or maps of the most famous Franco-Prussian War battles when available. While it is not a comprehensive list of all skirmishes, conflicts, or battles that took place in the Franco-Prussian War, we have tried to include as many military events and actions as possible. All the battles on this Franco-Prussian War list are currently listed alphabetically, but if you want to find a specific battle you can search for it by using the "search". Information about these Franco-Prussian War battles are included below as well, such as their specific locations and who was involved in the fight. The list you're viewing is made up of battles like Battle of Sedan and Battle of Wörth. List Photo: Freebase /Public domain Z G Options B Comments & Embed 1 Locations: Canton of Beaune-la-Rolande, France Part of: Franco-Prussian War Part of: Siege of Paris, Franco-Prussian War Combatants: France, French Third Republic, German Empire, Germany	Sedan
Which musical features the song 'Let the sun shine in'?	Profile of the Franco-Prussian War Profile of the Franco-Prussian War The Franco-Prussian War may have been short lived but was influential in history. Learn more about events leading to and the legacy of the Franco-Prussian War in this About.com video. Show transcript Hide transcript Transcript: Profile of the Franco-Prussian War Hi I’m Jade, and today, with About.com, we are going to discuss the Franco-Prussian War. From July 19, 1870 to May 10, 1871, France and the Kingdom of Prussia, which was aided by the North German Confederation and the South German States, fought a war that led to the establishment of the German Empire. Though fought under the guise of disputes regarding the potential crowning of Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern to the Spanish Throne, the war is generally attributed to the political ambition of Otto Van Bismarck. Events Leading to the Franco-Prussian War Tensions between France and Germany had been high since Germany’s loss during the Napoleonic Wars. Seeing a chance to capitalized on this long-standing grudge to bring about the unification of Germany, Otto Van Bismarck backed the crowning of Leopold in Spain, in opposition to France, and published an edited conversation between King Wilhelm of Prussia and the French Ambassador to Prussia which appeared insulting to each country. Napoleon III, Emperor of France, declared war on Prussia. As Bismarck had hoped, the French aggression brought the German states together alongside the Prussian army. Results of the Franco-Prussian War The war was short, with a clear Prussian-German victory. Though the fighting lasted for months, Napoleon III and his army were captured following their surrender at the Battle of Sedan on September 2, 1870. Hearing of his capture, the French overthrew the Second French Empire and instated the Third French Republic. There were negotiations to end the war, but they failed because France saw Bismarck’s terms as too severe; this lead to further fighting and the fall of Paris on January 20, 1871. France unsuccessfully attempted to unify armies through the country and ultimately signed the Treaty of Frankfurt on May 10, 1871; agreeing to give the German Empire Alsace-Lorraine and to pay a war indemnity of five billion francs. The most notable outcome of the war occurred prior to its end. On January 18, 1871, the outstanding southern German states unified with the Northern German Confederation creating the German Empire, led by the King of Prussia. With this, Germany became the largest power in Europe. Thanks for watching. For more information, please see About.com. About videos are made available on an "as is" basis, subject to the Terms of Use .	i don't know
In which city is La scala opera house?	La Scala \| opera house, Milan, Italy \| Britannica.com opera house, Milan, Italy Alternative Title: Teatro alla Scala Related Topics La Scala, in full Teatro alla Scala (Italian: “Theatre at the Stairway”), theatre in Milan , one of the principal opera houses of the world and the leading Italian house. Teatro alla Scala (La Scala). Mark Henley—Impact Photos/Heritage-Images Built in 1776–78 by the Empress Maria Theresa of Austria (whose country then ruled Milan), it replaced an earlier theatre that had burned. In 1872 it became the property of the city of Milan. The house was closed during World War I . In 1920 the conductor Arturo Toscanini led a council that raised money to reopen it, organizing it as an autonomous corporation. Bombed during World War II , the theatre reopened in 1946, partly through funds raised by benefit concerts given by Toscanini. In late 2001 La Scala closed for extensive renovations. Mario Botta served as the architect of the project, estimated to have cost some $67 million, and the theatre reopened in December 2004 with a performance of Antonio Salieri’s Europa riconosciuta, which had been performed at La Scala’s opening on August 3, 1778. La Scala’s repertory is more varied than that of the other four or five leading opera houses. It tends to include a large number of unfamiliar works balanced by a limited number of popular favourites. Conductors are given control of casting and rehearsals. The composer Giuseppe Verdi was closely associated with the house during the 19th century. Toscanini’s tenure as artistic director marked one of the finest periods in the theatre’s existence. Associated with the theatre are a ballet company, a ballet school, and a singing school. The expenses of La Scala are met by a combination of ticket sales, a municipal tax, and an Italian governmental subsidy. Learn More in these related articles:	MILAN
How many gills are there in half a gallon?	La Scala Opera House History, Facts & Location - View Larger Map Visiting Italy, especially Milan, a must see is the La Scala Opera House. When you reserve tickets for the evening, do come in your best formal wear. A lot of visitors would prefer to visit different places in Italy wearing just their jeans and shirt and their sturdy boots. Well, make this an exception since there is a given protocol in Milan as to what clothes to wear at the opera house. The La Scala Opera House has been in operation since 1778. December is quite important and memorable for the people here since that is the feast day of their saint thus marking the start of the season for plays and ballets. Everything must end at the strike of twelve, so women can feel like Cinderella as they leave the magnificently built La Scala Opera House. Opera may not be everyone’s liking, but for you to be able to witness and experience how the evening shows were intricately put together for the delight of the audience, now that will remain in your heart. It also is a good place to get your photo taken since La Scala Opera House is so famous around the world. You may even record some parts of the play especially when you are seated in the boxes where wealthy people choose to stay. You call these boxes the palchi. Generations ago, if you do not belong to the upper crust of society who could afford to watch at the palchi, you are going to sit at loggione. One response to “La Scala Opera House” I have this on my list of must visit places before I die. I mean how can you love opera and not see a performance at La Scala!! Leave a Reply	i don't know
Who, along with Leslie Bricusse, wrote the lyrics for the James Bond film song Goldfinger?	Goldfinger - Shirley Bassey \| Song Info \| AllMusic Shirley Bassey google+ Song Review by William Ruhlmann In 1962, Monty Norman wrote the instrumental title music for Dr. No, the first James Bond film, even though the score was written by John Barry. In 1963, noted musical theater composer Lionel Bart (Oliver!) wrote a title song for the second Bond film, From Russia With Love; Matt Monro, who sang the song on the soundtrack, took it into the U.K. Top 20, while the Village Stompers had a U.S. chart entry. By the time of the third Bond film, 1964's Goldfinger, Barry had enough clout to claim composing credits on the title song, while the lyrics were written by the hot musical theater team of Leslie Bricusse and Anthony Newley (Stop the World -- I Want to Get Off, The Roar of the Greasepaint -- The Smell of the Crowd). Like the Bond films, it was a melodramatic and subtly comic work, full of portentous orchestral effects and threatening lyrics about the evil genius of the title. Barry was a student of the Henry Mancini school of jazzy suspense film composing, to which he added his own orchestral flair. Shirley Bassey sang the song in a pull-out-the-stops manner under the opening credits, and the film, which opened just before Christmas, was a critical and commercial success. The soundtrack album topped the charts, and United Artists Records released both Bassey's vocal version and Barry's instrumental version of the title song as singles from it. The Bassey recording reached the Top Ten, while the Barry track, competing with two other instrumental recordings by Billy Strange and Jack LaForge, like them became a minor chart entry. "Goldfinger" established a pattern for the title songs of James Bond movies that would provide other memorable tunes, but it remains the best-known song associated with one of the films. It has been recorded in its instrumental form dozens of times, though few singers have attempted to compete with Bassey's bravura vocal performance. Appears On	Anthony Newley
Which Bavarian town stages a wagner festival every July and August?	6 James Bond Movies' Theme Songs Better Than Sam Smith's "Writing's on the Wall" for 'Spectre' : Exclusives : Music Times 6 James Bond Movies' Theme Songs Better Than Sam Smith's "Writing's on the Wall" for 'Spectre' by Jon Niles Oct 8, 2015 10:22 AM EDT Share on Facebook Share on Twitter Singer Sam Smith performs onstage at the 2015 iHeartRadio Music Festival at MGM Grand Garden Arena on September 18, 2015 in Las Vegas, Nevada. (Photo : Christopher Polk/Getty Images for iHeartMedia) Sam Smith's new hit single, " Writing's on the Wall " is tearing up the international music charts ever since its premiere a few weeks ago, marking another milestone for James Bond theme songs in a long history of addicting opening numbers for the spy movies - but how does Smith's theme live up to the other 23 songs from the franchise? Considering the fact that he allegedly wrote the song in 20 minutes doesn't really help his case, but just comparing his theme for Spectre to its Academy Award-winning predecessor, "Skyfall" by Adele, is placing it with amazing company. Let's take a look at the six 007 themes that are clearly better than the Grammy winner's 2015 song. You can check out more buzzing news coverage from Music Times right here ! We're taking a look at some of the best theme songs from the 24 James Bond films because, honestly, "Writing's on the Wall" had a lot to live up to, and fell short in many ways. Yes, it reached the number one spot on UK charts, which is impressive for any Bond theme, but overall we're disappointed. Sorry, Sam. Advertisement MorphSuits , a leading costume company in the United Kingdom, created an impressive infographic for a new blog post listing the top ten 007 theme songs. While we agree with most of the songs on this list, we have our own list to share with you today. Check out six theme songs (in no particular order) from the film franchise that make Sam Smith's Spectre song seem like a flash in the pan! "Skyfall" performed by Adele for the 2012 film Skyfall. (Composed by Adele and Paul Epworth) The world fell in love with this soulful singer thanks to her tremendous voice and emotional pop numbers, so it was only fitting that she take on the theme to the Sam Mendes-directed 007 thriller. While Skyfall brought the Daniel Craig-led rebooted franchise back into the right direction of plot and feel, Adele's song reminded us that these songs could stand as the most important element of these films. She won an Oscar for this song, too! "You Know My Name" performed by Chris Cornell for the 2006 film Casino Royale. (Composed by Cornell and David Arnold) Casino Royale was the beginning of Daniel Craig's stint as the world's most popular secret agent and this song introduced us to the new take on Bond films. The powerful voice of the Soundgarden frontman created an element of anticipation coming straight out of one of the coolest opening chase scenes in the movies' history, showing us that we had an explosive ride ahead of us. "Goldfinger" performed by Shirley Bassey for the 1965 film Goldfinger (Composed by John Barry, Leslie Bricusse, and Anthony Newley) When many people think of James Bond, they think of Sean Connery in Goldfinger. Therefore, this theme song gets stuck in your head pretty much straight away. Admit it; Bassey's voice is repeating the film's title right now in your head, right? Arguably Connery's best performance as the iconic spy, this theme song is probably the most important song of the franchise! "Live and Let Die" performed by Paul McCartney and Wings for the 1973 film Live and Let Die. (Composed by Paul and Linda McCartney) This was definitely the first time a theme song trumped the film for which it was composed. The former Beatle embraced souring orchestral work with complicated tempo changes that pretty much embodied the experience of Roger Moore's career as Bond. Sorry, Roger. "The World is Not Enough" performed by Garbage for the 1999 film The World is Not Enough. (Composed by David Arnold & Don Black) We're not sure why this song didn't make the inforgraphic linked above, but boy was that an oversight. Pierce Brosnan's James Bond experienced some bizarre adventures, but this film brought us back to the franchise's heydays both with plot, characters and, of course, a great theme from one of the quintessential '90s bands, Garbage. Frontwoman Shirley Manson was born to sing this song and revamp the 007 series' music. Plus, this song dropped at the height of music videos, making for an incredible visual stimulant! "Nobody Does It Better" performed by Carly Simon for the 1977 film The Spy Who Loved Me. (Composed by Carole Bayer Sager and Marvin Hamlisch) There's no denying how perfect this song is. Simon's sexy, heart wrenching vocals perfectly capture the viewpoint of the femme fatale "Bond Girls" from every film in the franchise. This is a song that makes me feel so bad for the deaf.	i don't know
King Stephen (1135-54) was the only king of which royal house?	BBC - History - King Stephen z Stephen © Stephen usurped the English throne from Matilda in 1135, but failed to consolidate his power during the ensuing civil strife. Stephen was born in around 1097 in Blois, France, the son of the Count of Blois and Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror. He was sent to England to be raised at the court of his uncle, Henry I. Although Stephen and other nobles pledged to support Henry's daughter, Matilda, as Henry's successor there was widespread unhappiness at the thought of a woman ruler. Consequently, after Henry I died in December 1135, the leading lords and bishops welcomed Stephen as the new king. He was not a natural leader, rapidly making concessions that exposed his weakness. He appointed large numbers of new earls, an expensive act that brought little reward and alienated his nobles with his desperate measures to build support and with the lawlessness of his Flemish mercenaries. In 1138, Matilda's half brother, Robert, Earl of Gloucester, took up arms on her behalf. Early victories for Stephen faded when he lost the support of the church. Seizing her opportunity, Matilda invaded England in September 1139. With foolish chivalry, Stephen had Matilda escorted to Bristol, whereupon she proceeded to take control of western England. Early in 1141, Matilda's supporters captured Stephen in a battle at Lincoln. In November, he was exchanged for Gloucester, who had been captured by forces loyal to the king. Over time, Stephen gained the upper hand and in 1148 Matilda left England. But Stephen had only nominal control over most of the kingdom and was unable to enforce the law or mediate between warring nobles. He hoped only to secure the succession for his son, Eustace. Matilda's son Henry invaded England in 1153 to claim his royal inheritance. When Eustace died in August, under the Treaty of Wallingford, Stephen agreed that Henry should be his successor. When Stephen died in October 1154, Henry ascended the throne as Henry II.	Blois
First used in America, what name is given to a pub or restaurant that combines seafood and meat, such as steak and scampi?	1000+ images about the Normans, Stephen I & Matilda 1135-1154 on Pinterest \| Civil wars, England and King Pinterest • The world’s catalog of ideas the Normans, Stephen I & Matilda 1135-1154 16 Pins221 Followers Stephen (c. 1092/6 – 25 October 1154), often referred to as Stephen of Blois (Old French: Étienne de Blois), was a grandson of William the Conqueror. He was King of England from 1135 to his death, and also the Count of Boulogne in right of his wife. Stephen's reign was marked by the Anarchy, a civil war with his cousin and rival, the Empress Matilda. He was succeeded by Matilda's son, Henry II, the first of the Plantagenet kings.	i don't know
The garden plant syringa is commonly known as what?	Potted Syringa, Lilac Plants for Sale Bloomerang Dark Purple Syringa Plant Price $17.65 Our 'Bloomerang® Dark Purple' Syringa plant is another reblooming lilac plant, new for 2013. Larger than other varieties, even other Bloomerang cultivars, this Proven Winners® selection will wow you with fuller, rounder inflorescences (flower spikes), blooming on spring green foliage in early spring, and then again in mid to late summer and on into fall and the first good frost. Super fragrant and dark, purply-pink, you’ll want to have your vases handy to bring this aromatic color inside! Each 4-inch pot contains one Bloomerang Dark Purple Syringa plant. Bloomerang Purple Syringa Plant Price $17.65 The 'Bloomerang® Purple' Syringa Plant will soon become a customer favorite as it blooms in the spring, rests through the hottest part of the summer, and then blooms again as summer turns to fall and continues blooming until the first frost. This low maintenance Proven Winners® selection boasts of deeply lavender blossoms on true green foliage on a compact, mounded plant. Plant as an accent, as a flowering hedge or in a container. The fragrance will wow your senses, outdoors or in. Each 4-inch pot contains one Bloomerang Purple Syringa plant. Declaration Syringa Plant Price $12.20 The 'Declaration' Syringa Plant is a variety propagated by the U.S. National Arboretum. It has hefty, impressive flower clusters of a singularly unique shade of deep reddish-purple. Blooming 7 to 10 days earlier than common lilacs, this cultivar will grace you with that signature scent, both indoors as a cut flower and outdoors au natural, that much earlier in the spring. Each 4-inch pot contains one Declaration Syringa plant. Scent and Sensibility Syringa Plant Price $17.65 Our 'Scent and Sensibility™' Syringa plant is a Proven Winners® ColorChoice® Flowering Shrub selection. Sometimes called Lilac Bloomerang reblooming, this lilac will rebloom, though not quite as strongly as the Bloomerang® line. A compact bush, this pink-flowering shrub only grows to about 3 feet tall and 1 to 5 feet wide, making it a versatile landscape feature. And the fragrance? Mmmmm! Lilacs in the spring. Keep your vases handy! Each 4-inch pot contains one Scent and Sensibility Syringe plant.	Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals
Name the only bachelor President of the U.S.A.	Plants of History Plants for Tomorrow » Arnold Arboretum Arnold Arboretum > Plants > Plant & Garden Highlights > Lilacs > Plants of History Plants for Tomorrow Plants of History Plants for Tomorrow Lilacs at the Arnold Arboretum Plants of History—Plants for Tomorrow When you plant a lilac in your garden you are choosing a shrub that is part of this country’s history. In 1767, for example, Thomas Jefferson recorded his method of planting lilacs in his garden book, and on March 3, 1785, George Washington noted that he had transplanted existing lilacs in his garden. The oldest living lilacs in North America may be those at the Governor Wentworth estate in Portsmouth, N.H., believed to have been planted around 1750. Although lilacs are part of New England’s heritage, they, like most of our citizens, are not native here. Of the 20-plus species of lilacs, two derive from Europe and the others are from Asia. The common lilac (Syringa vulgaris) originated in eastern Europe. This species and hybrids of it were so frequently grown and selected by French nurserymen that France became synonymous with fine lilacs; we know them today as “French hybrids.” The term now commonly includes lilacs of that type even though they may not have been bred in France. Most lilac species hail from Asia, including two of the most popular choices for the contemporary landscape, Syringa patula ‘Miss Kim’ and S. meyeri ‘Palibin.’ The compact, later flowering ‘Miss Kim’ is noted for its intense fragrance; the neat growth habit of ‘Palibin’ fits well in the modern garden. Known as plants for colder climates, lilacs need a period of cold-initiated dormancy to trigger flowering. Lilacs have drawn the attention of Russian, American, and Canadian hybridizers, who are now introducing new selections for our gardens. The Arnold Arboretum’s collection of lilacs is one of the oldest and largest in North America, but lilacs on our grounds predate the 1872 founding of the institution. Benjamin Bussey probably planted lilac hedgerows soon after he acquired the land in 1806. We have taken cuttings of the remnants of his lilacs, and have recreated the hedgerows on the east side of what is now called Bussey Hill. Our Lilac Sunday festival, celebrated the second Sunday in May, has become a tradition of its own. Attendance on any given Lilac Sunday is difficult to estimate, but one noteworthy peak occurred in 1941, when 43,000 people are said to have visited. Adapted from a brochure prepared by John H. Alexander III and Nan Blake Sinton, “Lilacs and the Arnold Arboretum,” 1990.	i don't know
"Who siad ""I never forget a face, but in your case I'll make an exception""?"	I Never Forget a Face, But I’ll Make an Exception in Your Case \| Quote Investigator I Never Forget a Face, But I’ll Make an Exception in Your Case Groucho Marx? Alan Gale? Anonymous? Dear Quote Investigator: When I am at a party I sometimes have trouble recalling the name of a person I have met before. But my recalcitrant memory has no difficulty remembering the line credited to Groucho Marx: I never forget a face, but in your case I’d be glad to make an exception. When I performed a search I found some other versions: I never forget a face, but I’ll make an exception in your case. I never forget a face—but I’m willing to make an exception in your case. Is this a genuine Groucho joke or is it just a quip with a fake nose and glasses? Quote Investigator: The earliest evidence known to QI all points to Groucho Marx as creator of this jape. The February 13, 1937 issue of “The Literary Digest” published a piece about psychology and memory. Conventional advice givers have emphasized the desirability of memorization, but this article accentuated the practice of forgetting. The author mentioned the now classic joke credited to Groucho: 1 It’s the art of forgetting; and all it amounts to, really, is the reverse English of memory. In fact, some psychologists find it as important as the art of memory. Groucho Marx facetiously shows how effective it can be in his gag: “I never forget a face — but I’m going to make an exception in your case!” A few days later, a columnist named E. V. Durling in the Washington Post presented the same joke with a variant wording and an ascription to Groucho. This citation was listed in the key reference “The Yale Book of Quotations”: 2 3 Groucho Marx. My nomination for Public Wisecracker No. 1. When and where was it Groucho said to somebody. “I never forget a face—but I’m going to make an exception in your case.” Here are additional selected citations in chronological order. The May 1941 issue of the mass-circulation Reader’s Digest printed a more elaborate version of the joke supplied by a contributing writer named Hugh Pentecost. The context was specified and two lines of dialog were given: 4 A celebrity hound approached Groucho Marx at a party. “You remember me, Mr. Marx. We met at the Glynthwaites’ some months ago.” “I never forget a face,” Groucho replied, “but I’ll make an exception in your case.” In 1941 and 1942 the Reader’s Digest version of the anecdote was disseminated further in the “Thesaurus of Anecdotes” edited by Edmund Fuller 5 and in newspapers such as the Lime Springs Herald of Iowa. 6 In 1944 the quotation collector Bennett Cerf reminisced in the pages of “The Saturday Review” about past shows by the Marx Brothers: 7 The funniest lines usually fell to Groucho. He revived on the radio the other night his “I never forget a face—but I’m willing to make an exception in your case.” In 1946 the comedian Joey Adams published “From Gags to Riches” which included a version of the quip that remarkably was credited to someone who was not Groucho: 8 Alan Gale lets them have it with, “I never forget a face, but in your case I’ll make an exception.” In 1949 Life magazine described remarks made by Groucho during his popular radio show “You Bet Your Life”. These lines were clearly reprised from his collection of past zingers: 9 The insults are direct and paralyzing. To a tongue-tied contestant he muttered, “Either this man is dead or my watch has stopped.” To another he said thoughtfully, “I never forget a face, but in your case I am going to make an exception.” In conclusion, QI believes that Groucho Marx coined this joke and popularized it. He received the earliest set of attributions and there was no strong rival. He also seems to have used the quip on multiple occasions. There was no fixed phrasing for the quotation, but the core joke was invariant. Notes: 1937 February 13, The Literary Digest, Psychology: Art of Forgetting: Magic Formula, Page 29, Funk & Wagnalls Company, New York. (Unz) ↩ 1937 February 16, Los Angeles Times, On the Side with E. V. Durling, Page A1, Los Angeles, (ProQuest) ↩ 2006, The Yale Book of Quotations by Fred R. Shapiro, Section Julius Henry ‘Groucho’ Marx, Quote Page 498, Yale University Press, New Haven. (Verified on paper) ↩ 1941 May, Reader’s Digest, Volume 38, Party Chatter, Quote Page 66, Column 2, The Reader’s Digest Association. (Verified on paper) ↩ 1942, Thesaurus of Anecdotes, Edited by Edmund Fuller, Section: Rudeness, Quote Page 90, Crown Publishers, New York. (Verified on paper) ↩ 1941 April 24, Lime Springs Herald, Under the Co-Co by M.N.X., Quote Page 1, Column 5, Lime Springs, Iowa. (GenealogyBank) ↩ 1944 April 1, The Saturday Review, Trade Winds by Bennett Cerf, Start Page 18, Quote Page 18, Saturday Review Associates, Inc., New York. (Unz) ↩ 1946, From Gags to Riches by Joey Adams, Quote Page 111, Frederick Fell Inc., New York. (Verified on paper) ↩ 1949 Nov 21, Life, Groucho’s Garland of Gags, Quote Page 139, Time Inc., New York. (Google Books full view) ↩	Groucho Marx
Against which background is Dickens' novel 'A tale of two cities' based?	I never forget a face, but in your case I'll be glad to make an exception. - Groucho Marx - BrainyQuote I never forget a face, but in your case I'll be glad to make an exception. Find on Amazon: Groucho Marx Cite this Page: Citation	i don't know
What is the meaning of the Latin phrase 'Modus Vivendi'?	Modus vivendi - definition of modus vivendi by The Free Dictionary Modus vivendi - definition of modus vivendi by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/modus+vivendi Related to modus vivendi: modus operandi modus vi·ven·di 1. A manner of living; a way of life. 2. A temporary agreement between contending parties pending a final settlement. [New Latin modus vīvendī : Latin modus, mode, Latin vīvendī, genitive sing. gerund of vīvere, to live.] modus vivendi n, pl modi vivendi (ˈməʊdiː vɪˈvɛndiː; ˈməʊdaɪ vɪˈvɛndaɪ) a working arrangement between conflicting interests; practical compromise [C19: from Latin: way of living] mo•dus vi•ven•di (ˈmoʊ dəs vɪˈvɛn di, -daɪ n., ) pl. mo•di vivendi (ˈmoʊ di, -daɪ) 1. manner of living; way of life; lifestyle. 2. a temporary arrangement between persons or parties pending a settlement of matters in debate. [1875–80 < Latin] modus vivendi A Latin phrase meaning method of living, used to mean a compromise that allows two conflicting people or attitudes to exist in relative harmony. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend:	Lifestyle (sociology)
In which of the rooms of Buckingham Palace are investitures held?	Modus vivendi \| Define Modus vivendi at Dictionary.com modus vivendi [moh-duh s vi-ven-dee, -dahy] /ˈmoʊ dəs vɪˈvɛn di, -daɪ/ Spell [moh-dee vi-ven-dee, moh-dahy vi-ven-dahy] /ˈmoʊ di vɪˈvɛn di, ˈmoʊ daɪ vɪˈvɛn daɪ/ (Show IPA) 1. manner of living; way of life; lifestyle. 2. a temporary arrangement between persons or parties pending a settlement of matters in debate. Origin of modus vivendi 1875-80; < Latin modus vivendī mode of living Dictionary.com Unabridged Examples from the Web for modus vivendi Expand Endymion Benjamin Disraeli There was a dispute of kindness, and in the end a modus vivendi of gratitude was arrived at. British Dictionary definitions for modus vivendi Expand noun (pl) modi vivendi (ˈməʊdiː vɪˈvɛndiː; ˈməʊdaɪ vɪˈvɛndaɪ) 1. a working arrangement between conflicting interests; practical compromise Word Origin C19: from Latin: way of living Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 Word Origin and History for modus vivendi Expand n. 1879, Latin, literally "way of living or getting along" (see modus ). Modus vivendi is any temporary compromise that enables parties to carry on pending settlement of a dispute that would otherwise paralyse their activities. [Fowler] Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper	i don't know
Where in the human body is the cochlea?	How does the ear's Golden Ratio feature help hearing? How does the ear's Golden Ratio feature help hearing? MP3 Related Works “It is He Who has created hearing, sight and hearts for you. What little thanks you show! (Surah Al-Muminun, 78) How does the golden ratio in the structure of the ear enable perfect hearing? How can we determine the source of the sound in any case? What is the role of the organ called cochlea in the process of hearing? While doing research or presenting work; artists, scientists and designers base the ratios of their work on the golden ratio in the human body. When Leonardo Da Vinci and Corbusier were creating their designs, they used the model of the golden ratio that is represented in the human body. Experts studying the structure of the human body from various scientific fields, have found answers to the significant questions mentioned above regarding the structure of the ear. Recent biological studies have shown that the golden ratio in the human body is not present in physical appearance alone. It has been revealed that the golden ratio is necessary in order to enable the human brain, neural system, sense organs, lung system and DNA to function properly. The ear is one of the primary organs to exhibit the harmonious efficacy of the golden ratio, in the case in hearing. One of the first places where this relation is clearly seen is how our ear functions in the process of hearing. However, before moving on to the geometric order in the ear, and in order to see the relation between the golden ratio and hearing, it is important to remember how the hearing process works. The Perfect Harmony Required in the Hearing System In Order To Enable Hearing There are two significant points that need attention with regards to the hearing system inside our ears – which is the subject of our article. In order to have the hearing process to take place, it is very important that sound waves in the air are “collected” and then these sound waves have to be transferred to the brain after being converted to neural stimulus. Therefore, the harmony between the earlap collecting the sound waves in the air and the “cochlea” transferring the vibrations received by the internal ear to the brain has a very significant role in hearing. The most important fact is that research on the system of hearing has shown that both the earlap and the “cochlea” are structures shaped in accordance with the golden ratio. How Does the Earlap Collect the Sound Waves In the Air? The border of the adventitia around the earlap, namely “cochlea”, has an incurved shape, which is in fact an equiangular spiral curve made of Fibonacci sequence and as we all know, this particular shape of the ear is exactly the same in all human beings. So what then is the relation of this geometric order to the function of “collecting” sound waves in the ear? The equiangular spiral curve of the earlap functions to collect the sound waves due to the fact that the ear is created in the most perfect geometric order. In order to understand the perfect structure here, it would be enough to look at an example like changing the shape of the ear adventitia. For instance, if we bend our ears forward with our hands, the loudness would be increased despite that the frequency would be the same. And when we bend our ears backward with our hands, it becomes difficult for us to hear as loudness decreases. Although there is no change in the sound frequency we receive, our hearing increases or decreases as a result of a distortion in the equiangular spiral shape of the earlap. Since there is a direct relation between our hearing capacity and the shape of our ear, it can be said that there is also a direct relation between the spiral curve that shapes the earlap geometrically in accordance with the Fibonacci sequence and the balance for hearing. What is happening at the Time of Hearing? Hearing starts first when the sound waves in the air are collected by the earlap. These sound vibrations impinge on the eardrum, and the eardrum vibrates the auditory ossicles in the middle ear and thus sound vibrations are transferred into a mechanic vibration. These mechanic vibrations vibrate the plasma in the structure existing in the middle ear, namely “cochlea”. Consequently, this plasma transforms the vibrations into neural stimulus and brain decodes this stimulus as sound. The Role of “Cochlea” In the Miracle of Hearing The other organ that has a significant role in hearing is the “cochlea”. There is a very complex hearing mechanism inside the cochlea. This bony organ that is responsible for transforming sound vibrations into neural stimulus, has very special channels full of plasma and has a constant angled spiral with 73 degrees 43 minute angle. The source of this unique anatomic shape, such as the cochlea, is the golden ratio. There is a relation between the spiral shape of the cochlea and its function. The golden ratio always forms a balance between “function” and the “anatomic shape.” that the fact that the golden ratio is always presentin similar harmonic systems elsewheretells us that it is a miraculous sequence created by Our Lord. It has been announced in the Holy Quran; “… (such is) the artistry of Allah, Who disposes of all things in perfect order…) (Surah An-Naml, 88) How Are We Capable of Determining the Source of the Sound? This question has been answered by the scientific studies in the late 20th century. In 1967, D. W. Batteau showed us that the earlap has a function in determining the source of sound. This role has been explained in the following way: “The ear, with its antenna like receiver systems on the earlap, determines the direction of the sound that it receives and sends it to the eardrum through the external ear.” (Batteau DW 1967 The role of the pinna in human localization. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1967 Aug 15;168 (11):158-80) “There have been researches confirming this thesis upon people who have a congenital distortion in their ears or who have a malformation later on. And it has been ascertained that these people experienced problems in determining the source of sound.” (Snow, Jr. James B, “The eEar” In Ballenger JJ, Snow JB Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, 15 th edition, syf 879 Williams Wilkins Press 1996)	in ear
"Which ""Games"" were first held in Buenos Aires in 1951 and then every four years?"	How does the ear's Golden Ratio feature help hearing? How does the ear's Golden Ratio feature help hearing? MP3 Related Works “It is He Who has created hearing, sight and hearts for you. What little thanks you show! (Surah Al-Muminun, 78) How does the golden ratio in the structure of the ear enable perfect hearing? How can we determine the source of the sound in any case? What is the role of the organ called cochlea in the process of hearing? While doing research or presenting work; artists, scientists and designers base the ratios of their work on the golden ratio in the human body. When Leonardo Da Vinci and Corbusier were creating their designs, they used the model of the golden ratio that is represented in the human body. Experts studying the structure of the human body from various scientific fields, have found answers to the significant questions mentioned above regarding the structure of the ear. Recent biological studies have shown that the golden ratio in the human body is not present in physical appearance alone. It has been revealed that the golden ratio is necessary in order to enable the human brain, neural system, sense organs, lung system and DNA to function properly. The ear is one of the primary organs to exhibit the harmonious efficacy of the golden ratio, in the case in hearing. One of the first places where this relation is clearly seen is how our ear functions in the process of hearing. However, before moving on to the geometric order in the ear, and in order to see the relation between the golden ratio and hearing, it is important to remember how the hearing process works. The Perfect Harmony Required in the Hearing System In Order To Enable Hearing There are two significant points that need attention with regards to the hearing system inside our ears – which is the subject of our article. In order to have the hearing process to take place, it is very important that sound waves in the air are “collected” and then these sound waves have to be transferred to the brain after being converted to neural stimulus. Therefore, the harmony between the earlap collecting the sound waves in the air and the “cochlea” transferring the vibrations received by the internal ear to the brain has a very significant role in hearing. The most important fact is that research on the system of hearing has shown that both the earlap and the “cochlea” are structures shaped in accordance with the golden ratio. How Does the Earlap Collect the Sound Waves In the Air? The border of the adventitia around the earlap, namely “cochlea”, has an incurved shape, which is in fact an equiangular spiral curve made of Fibonacci sequence and as we all know, this particular shape of the ear is exactly the same in all human beings. So what then is the relation of this geometric order to the function of “collecting” sound waves in the ear? The equiangular spiral curve of the earlap functions to collect the sound waves due to the fact that the ear is created in the most perfect geometric order. In order to understand the perfect structure here, it would be enough to look at an example like changing the shape of the ear adventitia. For instance, if we bend our ears forward with our hands, the loudness would be increased despite that the frequency would be the same. And when we bend our ears backward with our hands, it becomes difficult for us to hear as loudness decreases. Although there is no change in the sound frequency we receive, our hearing increases or decreases as a result of a distortion in the equiangular spiral shape of the earlap. Since there is a direct relation between our hearing capacity and the shape of our ear, it can be said that there is also a direct relation between the spiral curve that shapes the earlap geometrically in accordance with the Fibonacci sequence and the balance for hearing. What is happening at the Time of Hearing? Hearing starts first when the sound waves in the air are collected by the earlap. These sound vibrations impinge on the eardrum, and the eardrum vibrates the auditory ossicles in the middle ear and thus sound vibrations are transferred into a mechanic vibration. These mechanic vibrations vibrate the plasma in the structure existing in the middle ear, namely “cochlea”. Consequently, this plasma transforms the vibrations into neural stimulus and brain decodes this stimulus as sound. The Role of “Cochlea” In the Miracle of Hearing The other organ that has a significant role in hearing is the “cochlea”. There is a very complex hearing mechanism inside the cochlea. This bony organ that is responsible for transforming sound vibrations into neural stimulus, has very special channels full of plasma and has a constant angled spiral with 73 degrees 43 minute angle. The source of this unique anatomic shape, such as the cochlea, is the golden ratio. There is a relation between the spiral shape of the cochlea and its function. The golden ratio always forms a balance between “function” and the “anatomic shape.” that the fact that the golden ratio is always presentin similar harmonic systems elsewheretells us that it is a miraculous sequence created by Our Lord. It has been announced in the Holy Quran; “… (such is) the artistry of Allah, Who disposes of all things in perfect order…) (Surah An-Naml, 88) How Are We Capable of Determining the Source of the Sound? This question has been answered by the scientific studies in the late 20th century. In 1967, D. W. Batteau showed us that the earlap has a function in determining the source of sound. This role has been explained in the following way: “The ear, with its antenna like receiver systems on the earlap, determines the direction of the sound that it receives and sends it to the eardrum through the external ear.” (Batteau DW 1967 The role of the pinna in human localization. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1967 Aug 15;168 (11):158-80) “There have been researches confirming this thesis upon people who have a congenital distortion in their ears or who have a malformation later on. And it has been ascertained that these people experienced problems in determining the source of sound.” (Snow, Jr. James B, “The eEar” In Ballenger JJ, Snow JB Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, 15 th edition, syf 879 Williams Wilkins Press 1996)	i don't know
Who is the only U.S. President to have been divorced?	How Many Presidents Have Been Divorced? How Many Presidents Have Been Divorced? By Stuart Fox \| June 18, 2010 02:52pm ET MORE Despite many public and presumably even more numerous private instances of infidelity, presidential marriages have remained remarkably stable throughout history. America has only had one divorcee president, but two widower presidents moved on to second wives while in office. And one president never got married at all. Ronald Reagan was the only president who ever divorced his wife. But he left that first marriage so early in life, and moved on to such a stable and functional second marriage, that the voters didn't care, said Michael Nelson, a professor of political science at Rhodes College and coauthor of The American Presidency: Origins and Development, 17762007 (CQ Press, 2007). Some presidents, like Franklin Roosevelt, faced the possibility of divorce after their wife discovered an affair , but kept the marriage together for the sake of their political career, Nelson said. A president, or someone who wants to be president, has every reason to do whatever it takes to keep his wife from divorcing him, Nelson told Life's Little Mysteries. The political price of divorce, where he was the guilty party, even today, would be significant. The Clintons displayed the political power of avoiding divorce, Nelson said. Had Hillary Clinton not stood by her husband after the public learned of his affair with Monica Lewinsky, President Clinton would have likely faced removal from office or forced resignation, Nelson said. However, that does not mean that every president has remained in the same marriage throughout their lives. John Tyler and Woodrow Wilson both lost their wives during their presidency, and remarried during their term , Nelson said. Only one president, James Buchanan, remained a bachelor for his entire life, Nelson said. But he had a good reason for not marrying. James Buchanan was unmarried at the time he was in office, and is widely thought of to have been what we would today call gay, Nelson said.	Ronald Reagan
What name is given to a number system with base sixteen?	US Presidents: Lists and Records US Presidents: Lists and Records The presidents of the United States are so much fun. Understanding them helps us understand American history. We have compiled a series of lists about the presidents, and will be adding more as we think of new categories. Contents: Presidents born before the USA became a country: George Washington Presidents born in the Carolinas Andrew Jackson (historians are not sure whether he was born in North or South Carolina) James Polk (North Carolina) Presidents born in New Hampshire Franklin Pierce Presidents born in New Jersey Grover Cleveland Presidents born in New York Martin Van Buren Presidents belonging to Disciples of Christ James Garfield Rutherford Hayes (also attended Episcopal and Methodist services) Grover Cleveland Presidents who served in wars George Washington - Commander in Chief of Continental Army during the American Revolution. James Monroe - served in American Revolution Andrew Jackson - American Revolution, War of 1812, First Seminole War William Henry Harrison - Indian wars in the NW territory, War of 1812 John Tyler - War of 1812 Zachary Taylor - War of 1812, Black Hawk, Second Seminole, and Mexican wars Franklin Pierce - Mexican War James Buchanan - War of 1812 Abraham Lincoln - Black Hawk War Andrew Johnson - Civil War Ulysses Grant - Mexican War, Civil War Rutherford Hayes - Civil War Presidents who were in the military but who saw no action James Madison Ronald Reagan - kept out of combat due to bad eyesight George W. Bush Presidents with no military experience John Adams George Washington: war with Native Americans in Ohio Thomas Jefferson: Tripolitan War, 1800-1805, against the Barbary pirates James Madison - War of 1812, 1812-1814, against the British James Monroe - First Seminole War, 1817-1818 Andrew Jackson - Black Hawk War, 1832 Martin Van Buren - Aroostook War, 1839; Second Seminole War - ended 1842 William Henry Harrison - Second Seminole War - ended 1842 John Tyler - Second Seminole War - ended 1842 James Polk - Mexican War James Buchanan - beginning of the Civil War Abraham Lincoln - Civil War, 1861-1865 William McKinley - Spanish-American War, 1898; Boxer Rebellion, 1899-1900 Woodrow Wilson - WWI, 1914-1918 Warren Harding - formally concluded WWI Franklin Roosevelt - WWII, 1941-1945 Harry Truman - conclusion of WWII, Korean War - 1950-1953 Dwight Eisenhower - conclusion of Korean War John Kennedy - Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1961; beginning of Vietnam War Lyndon Johnson - Vietnam War, Dominican Republic, 1965 Richard Nixon - Vietnam War Ronald Reagan - Grenada Invasion, 1983 George Bush - Invasion of Panama, 1989-1990; Persian Gulf War, 1990-1991 George W. Bush - War against the Taliban, Iraq, 2001 to present. Presidents who did not preside over war during their terms John Adams Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt Collector of the Port of New York Chester Arthur Congressman, U.S. House of Representatives James Madison - Virginia William Henry Harrison - Northwest Territory, Ohio John Tyler - Virginia Martin Van Buren - New York William Henry Harrison - Indiana Territory John Tyler - Virginia Grover Cleveland - Buffalo, New York Calvin Coolidge - Northampton, Massachusetts Member of House of Burgesses George Washington Martin Van Buren - New York William Henry Harrison - Ohio Martin Van Buren - New York William Henry Harrison - Ohio Vice President (See Electoral Lists , below) Electoral Lists Presidents who had been vice presidents John Adams, under George Washington Thomas Jefferson, under John Adams Martin Van Buren, under Andrew Jackson John Tyler, under William Henry Harrison Millard Fillmore, under Zachary Taylor Andrew Johnson, under Abraham Lincoln Chester Arthur, under James Garfield Theodore Roosevelt, under William McKinley Calvin Coolidge, under Warren Harding Harry Truman, under Franklin Roosevelt Lyndon Johnson, under John Kennedy Richard Nixon, under Dwight Eisenhower Gerald Ford, under Richard Nixon George Bush, under Ronald Reagan Vice-presidents who were later elected president, without having served out the remainder of a predecessor's term John Adams Find more information about Vice-Presidents below. Presidents who never ran for president John Tyler Presidents who were never elected president or vice president Gerald Ford Presidents who ran for president, but were never elected Gerald Ford Elected presidents whose parties did not nominate them for a second term Franklin Pierce Vice presidents who became president through death or resignation of their president John Tyler - death of William Henry Harrison Millard Fillmore - death of Zachary Taylor Andrew Johnson - assassination of Abraham Lincoln Chester Arthur - assassination of James Garfield Theodore Roosevelt - assassination of William McKinley Calvin Coolidge - death of Warren Harding Harry Truman - death of Franklin Roosevelt Lyndon Johnson - assassination of John Kennedy Gerald Ford - resignation of Richard Nixon Find more information about Vice-Presidents below. Presidents who lost the popular vote but won the electoral college vote Rutherford Hayes - Samuel Tilden won the popular vote, and probably the electoral college vote, but the results were fixed to give Hayes the majority. Benjamin Harrison - incumbent president Grover Cleveland won the popular vote George W. Bush - Al Gore won the popular vote. The electoral college vote was thrown into doubt by peculiarities in Florida's election, and the election was decided by the Supreme Court when they stopped the recount. Presidents who won neither the popular vote nor the electoral college vote, but still ended up as president John Quincy Adams - Andrew Jackson had more votes in both categories. Presidents who were chosen by the House of Representatives because no one had a majority Thomas Jefferson (1st term) Thomas Jefferson - defeated John Adams in 1800. Andrew Jackson - defeated John Quincy Adams in 1828, William Henry Harrison - defeated Martin Van Buren in 1840. Benjamin Harrison - defeated Grover Cleveland in 1888. Grover Cleveland - defeated Benjamin Harrison in 1892. Woodrow Wilson - defeated Howard Taft in 1912. Franklin Roosevelt - defeated Herbert Hoover in 1932. Jimmy Carter - defeated Gerald Ford in 1976. Ronald Reagan - defeated Jimmy Carter in 1980. Bill Clinton - defeated George Bush in 1992. Presidents elected to two terms George Washington: 1789, 1792 Presidents elected to one term John Adams: 1796 Presidents elected to four terms Franklin Roosevelt: 1932, 1936, 1940, 1944 Presidents elected (or selected) on their first run for office (does not include primary bids) George Washington: 1789 Presidents elected on their second run for office (does not include primary bids) Thomas Jefferson: defeated in 1796 by John Adams Andrew Jackson: John Quincy Adams was selected over Jackson in 1824. William Henry Harrison: defeated in 1836 by Martin van Buren. Richard Nixon: defeated in 1960 by John F. Kennedy. Presidents who defeated each other John Quincy Adams: was selected over Andrew Jackson in 1824. Andrew Jackson: defeated John Quincy Adams in 1828. Martin Van Buren: defeated William Henry Harrison in 1836. William Henry Harrison: defeated Martin van Buren in 1840. Benjamin Harrison: defeated Grover Cleveland in 1888. Grover Cleveland: defeated Benjamin Harrison in 1892. Presidents who served non-consecutive terms Grover Cleveland Presidents who received 100% of the electoral college votes George Washington Ex-Presidents who tried unsuccessfully to regain the presidency Martin Van Buren was defeated in the primary in 1844 by James Polk. Millard Fillmore was defeated in 1856 by James Buchanan. Ulysses Grant was defeated in 1880 in the primary by James Garfield. Theodore Roosevelt was defeated in 1912 by Woodrow Wilson. Presidential deaths and misfortunes Presidents killed by the incompetence of their doctors George Washington - bled to death by his doctors as treatment for "inflammatory quinsy" James Garfield - whose doctors contaminated his bullet wound so that he died of infection. Assassinated presidents Abraham Lincoln - assassinated by John Wilkes Booth James Garfield - assassinated by Charles J. Guiteau William McKinley - assassinated by Leon F. Czolgosz John Kennedy - assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald Presidents who suffered attempted assassinations Andrew Jackson - would-be assassin: Richard Lawrence (both derringers misfired) Harry Truman - Oscar Collazo and Griselio Torresola attempted to storm Blair House, residence of Truman Gerald Ford - would be assassins: Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme and Sara Jane Moore, in two separate incidences Ronald Reagan - shot and wounded by John W. Hinkley, Jr Presidents who died in office of natural causes William Henry Harrison - died of "bilious pleurisy" Zachary Taylor - died of cholera morbus Warren Harding - died of pneumonia or stroke Franklin Roosevelt - died of cerebral hemorrhage Impeached presidents Presidents related to earlier presidents James Madison: half first cousin twice removed of George Washington John Quincy Adams: son of John Adams Zachary Taylor: second cousin of James Madison Grover Cleveland: sixth cousin once removed of Ulysses Grant Benjamin Harrison: grandson of William Henry Harrison Theodore Roosevelt: third cousin twice removed of Martin Van Buren Franklin Roosevelt: fourth cousin once removed of Ulysses Grant, fourth cousin three times removed of Zachary Taylor, fifth cousin of Theodore Roosevelt Harry Truman: great-great-great nephew of John Tyler Richard Nixon: seventh cousin twice removed of William Taft, eighth cousin once removed of Herbert Hoover George Bush: fifth cousin four times removed of Franklin Pierce, seventh cousin three times removed of Theodore Roosevelt, seventh cousin four times removed of Abraham Lincoln, eleventh cousin once removed of Gerald Ford George W. Bush: son of George Bush African-American Presidents Note: Several presidents were allegedly of mixed European and African ancestry, which by U.S. reckoning would designate them as African-American. See The Five Negro Presidents by J.A. Rogers and Six Black Presidents: Black Blood, White Masks by Auset Bakhufu. Thomas Jefferson Presidents who married while president James Tyler Presidents who had children out of wedlock Thomas Jefferson Democratic (or earlier, Democratic-Republican) presidents Thomas Jefferson Presidents belonging to no party John Quincy Adams Presidents who changed party affiliation after their presidency Millard Fillmore (Whig) became a candidate for the American or Know-Nothing Party. Theodore Roosevelt (Republican) founded the Progressive or Bull Moose Party. Vice-Presidents Presidents whose VP belonged to a different party John Adams (Federalist): Democratic Republican Thomas Jefferson was his VP. Abraham Lincoln (Republican): Democrat Andrew Johnson served as his second VP. Presidents at least temporarily without vice-presidents John Tyler - He had been William Henry Harrison's VP, and the position was not filled when Tyler assumed the presidency. Millard Fillmore - He had been Zachary Taylor's VP, and the position was not filled when Fillmore assumed the presidency. Franklin Pierce - William Rufus DeVane King was elected VP, but died before assuming office, and was not replaced. Andrew Johnson - He had been Abraham Lincoln's VP, and the position was not filled when Johnson assumed the presidency. Ulysses Grant - His second-term VP, Henry Wilson, died in office and was not replaced, leaving Grant without a VP for more than a year. Chester Arthur - He had been James Garfield's VP, and the position was not filled when Arthur assumed the presidency. Grover Cleveland - His first-term VP, Thomas Hendricks, was not replaced after dying nine months into his term. William McKinkey - His first VP, Garret Hobart, died in office in 1899, and was not replaced until March 1900 by Theodore Roosevelt. William Taft - His VP, James Sherman, died shortly before the end of Taft's term and was not replaced. Calvin Coolidge - He had been Warren Harding's VP, and the position was not filled until Coolidge was elected for his own term in 1924. Harry Truman - He had been Franklin Roosevelt's last VP, and the position was not filled until Truman was elected for his own term in 1948. Lyndon Johnson - He had been John Kennedy's VP, and the position was not filled until Johnson was elected for his own term in 1964. Presidents defeated for reelection by their own vice-president John Adams was defeated by his VP, Thomas Jefferson. Vice-Presidents who tried for, but never achieved, the presidency George Clinton - Thomas Jefferson's VP, failed to defeat James Madison in the primary. Richard Johnson - Martin Van Buren's VP, failed to defeat James Polk in the primary. John Breckenridge - James Buchanan's VP, ran as a National Democrat and failed to defeat Abraham Lincoln . Henry Wallace - Franklin Roosevelt's VP, ran as a Progressive and failed to defeat Harry Truman. Hubert Humphrey - Lyndon Johnson's VP, failed to defeat Richard Nixon. Walter Mondale - Jimmy Carter's VP, failed to defeat Ronald Reagan. Al Gore - Bill Clinton's VP, lost the presidency to George W. Bush. Vice-Presidents who later joined the Confederacy John Breckenridge - James Buchanan's VP. Vice-Presidents who changed party affiliation after their terms as VP John Calhoun - Andrew Jackson's VP, was a Democrat and became a Whig. John Breckenridge - James Buchanan's VP, was a Democrat and became a National Democrat. Henry Wallace - Franklin Roosevelt's VP, was a Democrat and became a Progessive. Vice-Presidents who resigned as VP John Calhoun - Andrew Jackson's VP, resigned in 1832 to accept election to the Senate. Spiro Agnew - Richard Nixon's VP, resigned in 1973 to avoid criminal prosecution. Miscellaneous Presidential Lists Presidents who killed people outside of war (or who were accused thereof) George Washington - accused of murdering a French ambassador during peacetime. Andrew Jackson - killed a man in a duel Presidents who had extramarital affairs Thomas Jefferson	i don't know
The Prairie Dog is a member of which family of rodents?	prairie dog \| rodent \| Britannica.com Prairie dog marmot Prairie dog (genus Cynomys), any of five species of burrowing, colony-forming squirrels that inhabit plains, high plateaus, and montane valleys in North America . Their short, coarse fur is grizzled yellowish buff to reddish or rich cinnamon. Prairie dogs have a short tail, small rounded ears, and short legs with long, strong claws. These rodents weigh up to 1.7 kg (3.7 pounds), with a body 28–33 cm (11–13 inches) long. The slightly flattened tail is 3–12 cm (1–5 inches) long, and, depending on the species, its tip is black, white, or fringed with white around a gray centre. Black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus). Leonard Lee Rue III Prairie dogs excavate elaborate burrow systems with many entrances marked by low or volcano-shaped mounds. The common black-tailed (C. ludovicianus) and Mexican (C. mexicanus) species live in large, dense colonies that early explorers described as “towns.” Colonies are divided by topographic and vegetational features into semidiscrete wards formed from smaller extended family groups, or coteries. Colonies usually cover about 100 hectares (247 acres), but the largest ever recorded was a black-tailed prairie dog colony in Texas that formerly stretched across 65,000 square km (25,000 square miles) and contained an estimated 400 million individuals. Black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus). Gary Vestal—Stone/Getty Images Colonies of black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) are easily spotted by the large … Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. During the day, foraging above ground is the principal activity. Succulent parts of herbs and grasses, leaves, and new shrub growth are eaten in the spring, and seeds are the primary component of the summer diet, with stems and roots being the mainstay in fall and early winter. The black-tailed and Mexican prairie dogs do not hibernate and are periodically active during winter; they do not store food in their burrows. During winter when food is scarce, black-tails remain in their burrows for long periods without food or water, using physiological adaptations to control their metabolism. The other three species become torpid in October or November and emerge in March or April. Late winter or early spring is the breeding season for all species, and after about a month’s gestation, females drop a litter of up to 10 young. Communication takes the form of alarm calls (repetitious barks and chuckles), threats (snarls, growls, and tooth chatters), and distress calls (screaming); individuals enhance group cohesion by greeting one another upon contact, using vocalizations that are specific to each species. Similar Topics suslik Natural predators of prairie dogs include badgers, wolves, coyotes, bobcats, black-footed ferrets, golden eagles, and large hawks. Once abundant, prairie dog populations have been drastically reduced in range and number by poisoning programs of ranchers who have considered them as pests and by conversion of habitat to cropland. The black-tailed prairie dog (C. ludovicianus) is the most widespread, living throughout the Great Plains from Canada to northern Mexico; Gunnison’s prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni) occurs where Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico , and Utah meet; the white-tailed prairie dog (C. leucurus) is found from eastern Wyoming through intermontane Rocky Mountain valleys to the eastern margin of the Great Basin ; the Utah prairie dog (C. parvidens) is restricted to the southern part of that state; and the Mexican prairie dog (C. mexicanus) occurs in northern Mexico . Black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus). Breck P. Kent The genus Cynomys belongs to the squirrel family (Sciuridae) of rodents (order Rodentia) and is most closely related to North American and Eurasian ground squirrels (genus Spermophilus). Fossils document their evolutionary history in western North America since the late Pliocene Epoch (3.6 to 2.6 million years ago).	SQuirreL SQL Client
Name the town in South Central France which has made hard-paste porcelain since 1771.	Prairie Dogs \| Science \| Video \| PBS LearningMedia Background Essay Don't be fooled. The unassuming prairie dog, with its panicked warning call and inclination to dive underground at the slightest hint of danger, is no pushover. Consider the facts: the prairie dog has been beleaguered, pushed out, or pursued for more than a century by ranchers and housing developers; its numbers have dropped by 98 percent in little more than a century; and it has been subjected to one of the most thorough habitat destruction movements in history, resulting in the loss of a great many plant and animal species. Yet the prairie dog continues to burrow, breed, and make its living in small pockets of the North American Great Plains. Now, as biologists recognize the prairie dog's importance to the native prairie ecosystem, some protections have been put in place to challenge their continued extermination. The prairie dog's decline has been largely a result of European settlers' widespread push of progress across the Great Plains. The burrowing rodents, members of the squirrel family, simply stood in the way of a booming agricultural industry and the cities and towns that accompanied it. In 1900, an estimated five billion prairie dogs occupied colonies on the surface of and beneath the grasslands of North America. A century later, only isolated pockets remain, yet they continue to be shot and poisoned, particularly by ranchers who are certain that prairie dogs compete with cattle for food and that their burrows pose a risk to the legs of livestock. Regardless of the justification for prairie dog extermination, we now know that the rodents provide benefits critical to the health of the prairie ecosystem. First, an active prairie dog colony provides an abundant and stable food source for predators such as coyotes, foxes, hawks, eagles, ferrets, and badgers. While these animals prey heavily on prairie dogs, they also help to control populations of other rodents, such as mice and rats. In addition, prairie dogs create burrows that protect a wide variety of creatures, including burrowing owls, snakes, salamanders, ferrets, badgers, and many types of insects. The burrows also help to aerate the prairie soil and distribute nutrients, making the ecosystem more productive. Biologists estimate that a single healthy prairie dog colony may benefit as many as 170 different vertebrate species. Prairie dog colonies are clearly a vital part of their native ecosystem—a fact that should be weighed carefully against any desire to exterminate this important species. Describe the habitat of prairie dogs. How does this habitat provide food, water, oxygen, and protection? How do prairie dogs impact the land where they live? What types of organisms depend on prairie dogs? What are some important features of a prairie dog hole system? Imagine you are a farmer in an area inhabited by prairie dogs. Describe the relationship between prairie dogs and farmers. What do you think your attitude towards prairie dogs might be?	i don't know
How many inches are there in a Hand, the unit used to measure the height of a horse?	Measure Horse Height Note: Links with green underlines are shopping links and will open in a new window How To Measure Horse Height It's easy to measure you horse's height accurately. To determine how tall a horse is measure the horse, in inches, from the ground in a straight line up to the highest point of the withers. This is illustrated in the photo below by the yellow line. Above: The height of a horse is properly measured, in inches, from the ground to the highest point of the withers. For the most accurate measurement the horse should be on firm, level ground with its front feet even, or close to even. Calculating The Results After you have measured your horse you will need to convert the results from inches to "hands." Horse height is correctly referred to by a unit of measurement known as a "hand." One hand is equal to four inches. The gray mare in the photo above is 58 inches from the ground to the top of her withers. When 58 is divided by 4, you have 14.5. The 14 is the number of hands, and the .5 means another half of a hand, or another 2 inches. This means she is 14 and one-half hands tall. Correctly Writing And Speaking The Results The correct way of writing "14 and one-half hands" is to write "14.2". It is not correct to write it as "14.5". When correctly written, the number before the period is the number of hands, and the number after the period is the remaining number of inches. The number after the period should NOT stand for a fraction. Horseman usually say a measurement like this one out loud as "fourteen two" or "fourteen and a half." A Few Examples Below are a few examples of how to correctly write down a horse's height. Remember, the number in front of the period is for hands and the number after the period is the remaining inches. 15 - This is a correct way of writing that a horse is 15 hands tall 15.0 - Another correct way of writing that a horse is 15 hands tall 15.1 - This is the correct way of writing that a horse is 15 hands, 1 inch tall 15.2 - This is the correct way of writing that a horse is 15 hands, 2 inches tall 15.3 - This is the correct way of writing that a horse is 15 hands, 3 inches tall 15.4 - Wrong! This means that a horse is 15 hands, 4 inches tall. Since a hand is equal to four inches, this horse is actually 16 hands tall. 15.5 - Wrong again! Some people incorrectly use the number after the period to stand for fractions of a hand, but it should stand for inches. So, some people write "15.5" to mean 15 and a half hands, but this should correctly be written as "15.2". If you like, you can add "hh" to a measurement, as in "15.1hh". The "hh" stands for "hands high." Horse Measuring Devices There are measuring devices on the market for horses that have hand and inches measurements marked on them. Some devices are rigid poles with short cross bars toward the top that can be raised or lowered to rest on a horse's withers. These are very handy and give accurate measurements easily. Another common device is a horse height/weight tape , which is a special tape measure with hands and inches marked on it. These are inexpensive and are accurate if the person doing the measuring makes sure to run the tape straight up and down, and to read the measurement at a level angle. Where Did "Hands" Come From? As stated above, a horse's height is measured in hands. The origin of measuring a horse this way is very old, but easy to understand. In days long ago people did not have the common measuring devices (like tape measures, etc.) that we do today. To measure a horse, they used what was handy (no pun intended): Their hands. At various times in history and in different locales a "hand" was defined as the with of a person's hand using the fingers only, the width of a person's hand using the fingers and the thumb, the height of a clenched fist, and possibly others. Somewhere along the way, the measuring unit of a hand was standardized to mean four inches. Though the origins are ancient, a hand is still the unit of measurement for horses that modern horse owners use today.	Four (New Zealand)
In which English county is Barnstaple?	How to Measure the Height of Horses: 4 Steps (with Pictures) How to Measure the Height of Horses Community Q&A Egyptians created forms of measurement thousands of years ago. One of the measurements still widely used today is the hand. Each hand represents four inches and is the primary way to measure the height of a horse. By taking a linear measurement and converting the numbers to hands, the height of a horse can be determined. Steps 1 Purchase a horse measuring stick marked with hand measures. If a horse measuring stick is not available, a standard measuring tape is acceptable. Horse measuring sticks can be found at equestrian supply stores (tack shops), farm supply stores and from various online retailers. 2 Make sure the horse is standing on firm level ground with its front feet as even as possible. 3 Place the horse measuring stick or measuring tape at the base of one of the horse's front feet and pull the measuring device up to the withers. The withers is located at the top of the shoulders between the neck and back and is considered the highest point on a horse. The highest point of a horse is actually the top of its head, (also known as the poll), but since a horse moves its head up and down frequently, it is difficult to record this measurement accurately. Stretch the measuring device to the highest point of the withers. More precisely, extend the measuring device up to the spiny ridge between the horse's shoulder blades. 4 Record the measurement. If the horse measuring stick is being used, then the measurement can be recorded in hands immediately. If a measuring tape is being used, conversion of the measurement from inches to hands is required. One hand equals 4 inches (10.2 cm), so divide the measurement by 4. For example, if the horse measures 71 inches (180.3 cm), divide 71 by 4 inches. The result is 17 hands with 3 inches (7.6 cm) left over. The final height would be recorded as 17.75 hands. Community Q&A Can I increase the height of my horse? wikiHow Contributor Not really, though you can make sure to feed your horse the proper feed and nutrients when the horse is young, to prevent the horse from having stunted growth. When you're using a measuring stick, do you take the measurement from the top side or the bottom side of the reading bar? wikiHow Contributor Unanswered Questions Do you use the flat bottom of cross bar on stick or the curved top with level? If this question (or a similar one) is answered twice in this section, please click here to let us know. Video Tips The hand is the most common form of horse measurement in the United States, Canada, and England. However, throughout other locations around the world, the metric system is used to record the horse's height. When a horse measures one half hands, indicate the measurement with .2 and not with .5. A horse measuring stick is the easiest way to measure a horse quickly and accurately. A horse measuring under 14.3 hands high is, by definition, a pony, regardless of breed. The height of an average horse is roughly 16 hands.	i don't know
From what would you fear if you suffered from Gymnophobia?	Do You Suffer From Gymnophobia? Do You Suffer From Gymnophobia? Gymnophobia the fear of seeing naked or seeing others naked. Enter your name and email address below to instantly receive your first Phobia Secrets Revealed lesson in about 5 minutes. Your Name: Your Email: Note: I greatly respect your privacy and will never sell or share your email address with anyone. You may unsubscribe anytime. But even if you are affected by this phobia, not necessarily you will refuse to be seen naked by everyone and anyone. It is an uncomfortable fear that pushes the person into feelings of profound embarrassment and mental harassment. Gymnophobia From A Comprehensive Perspective At first instance, Gymnophobia may seem a very irrational fear, but those suffering from the phobia can explain that it rises from a feeling of physical inadequacy. The fear also stem from a certain incident where the victim was disclosed in front of the others that must have sparked a feeling of awkwardness in the mind. This leaves a persistent mark of stress and anxiety, which burgeon into phobia in the later stage. So, if you are suffering from this type of phobia, then it is best advised to seek help immediately to expel the gripping fear from the mind. However, some cases are exceptional where such fear arrives only in dreams. But dreams take a toll on the real lives, with its growing intensity. If you are gymnophobics, then it may so happen that you may fear a situation where you are amidst a public crowd, when you suddenly realize that that you are completely naked. It is not unnatural that you may be intensely anxious of sexuality and be reluctant to get into intimate situation with any one. Gymnophobics are sensitive about circumstances where they fear about negligible things like taking a shower in the bathroom or changing clothes in front of people. You will possibly live in a morbid fear throughout your life, unless you have the will power to overcome it. Reasons Giving Rise To Gymnophobia This type of phobia is basically caused by the unconscious mind as the protective mechanism. The present situation is always linked to some past event at some point in your life when you must have confronted an event linking to emotional trauma and nudity. Remember that, the original catalyst is a real-life scare and the fear haunts the rest of life. Some kind of movies and TV programs may also trigger this kind of situation. But at the end of it all, the phobia does not erupt abruptly but with reasons from the past. The Symptoms The symptoms include rapid breath, shortness of breath, nausea, sweating, feelings of dread and irregular heart beat. But different people feel the fear in their own way and this depends upon their past stories and happenings. How To Cure Gymnophobia NLP is a sure fire treatment for gymnophobia. NLP refers to finding a link to your mental codes. Over years, NLP has been tried on many patients and it has proved to be very effective. What is best about NLP is that, it uses the power of imagination to reprogram your fear reaction to bring a perpetual solution to your problem. Secluded from talk-therapy, medication and cognitive behavior therapy, NLP is successful in eliminating negative thoughts and ideas from the mind. My established Phobia Release Program teaches these well-established self help NLP techniques that are proven and effective in treating gymnophobia. Tired of Tiptoeing Around Your Fears? Cure Your Phobia In Just 10 Minutes A Day, Guaranteed! Whatever your phobia, regardless of how long you have suffered from it, despite the dreadful life limitations you have endured because of your fear, your phobia can be cured.	Nudity
Which six letter word links the nickname of a now obsolete British coin and the surname of a tennis player who lost to Bjorn Borg in a men’s singles final at Wimbledon ?	Phobia List - List of Phobias List of Phobias Skip The Comments and Give Me The List! A Note About This Phobia List This list of phobias is included primarily for entertainment purposes (have fun reading the comments!). From a peak performance perspective, finding another label to put on yourself is not usually helpful. However, it can provide you with a sense of comfort in knowing that you aren't alone. This list of phobias is not intended to be a complete reference. If you have any suggestions for additions, corrections, or changes of the content, please click the "Customer Service" link to contact me. Phobia Categories Medically, phobias are classified as an anxiety disorder. Phobias are generally divided into five types: Phobias of animals (snakes, spiders, dogs) Phobias of the natural environment (thunder, lightening, water) Phobias of blood / injection / injury ( seeing blood, getting a shot, going to the dentist, or having a medical procedure) Phobias that are situational (high places, driving, flying) Other phobias are phobias that don't fit into any of the other four categories (fears of swallowing, blushing, or vomiting). Phobia Etymology The word "phobia" comes from the Greek "phobos" which means fear. The prefix of the word for each of the phobias should, technically, also have a Greek origin. However, many names of phobias use a root from classic Latin and sometimes other languages. "Etymology" is the Greek word for "I know more words than you do." History of This Phobia List I started building a list of phobias when I was in the 7th grade back in 1982. My Reading teacher, Mr. Salinas, gave us a list of 25 phobias as part of a vocabulary-building exercise, and that sparked my interest in words and word roots. After I started helping people eliminate fears and phobias in 1995, it became a practical need for me to be familiar with various names of phobias that people would ask me about. The list started building from there. What Makes This Phobia List Different? Anyone can make up a phobia list by taking the Greek or Latin root and adding "phobia" to the end. You can search for "phobia list" and find a number of websites that have a phobia list with varying degrees of completeness and usefullness. This site different in several ways: 1) A distinction is made between the phobias typically recognized by the medical profession and those phobias which are not. The phobias bolded and listed in this color font are the phobias typically recognized by the medical profession. 2) Since I enjoy playing with words, I've (playfully) added a number of phobias to this list, or in my comments about other phobias. Yes, I made them up. Just so you'll know, these phobias are listed in this font. 3) Finally, and perhaps most importantly, this website also offers a solution for those visitors who may be suffering from a phobia. Phobia List Phobia List "A" Phobias Ablutophobia: fear of washing or bathing. Not to be confused with Blutophobia (fear of Bluto), which is what Popeye's girlfriend Olive Oil had a case of. Acarophobia: fear of itching or of the insects that cause itching. Acerophobia: fear of experiencing a sour taste. Achluophobia: fear of the dark. Don't confuse this one with Achoophobia, which is the fear of sneezing. Acousticophobia: fear of noise or sounds, sometimes one's own voice. It's not unusual for people to disike the sound of their own voice when listening to a recording of it, however, that's not a phobia or fear, just a basic insecurity. From the Greek "akoustikos" which means "pertaining to hearing.". Acrophobia: fear of acrobats. Just kidding. Really, it's the fear of heights. People who suffer from acrophobia may feel like they are being pulled toward the edge of a high place. This one is on the Phobia List of Top 10 most popular phobias. Acrophobia comes from the Greek word "acron," meaning height. Aeroacrophobia: fear of open high places. If you've got this phobia, you definitely won't take a holiday visiting Masada. Aeronausiphobia: fear of vomiting after experiencing airsickness. Aerophobia: fear of flying. This one is on the Phobia List of Top 10 most popular phobias. Did you notice the serious decline in air travel after the events of 9/11? Aerophobia also means an irrational fear of fresh air or drafts of air. Aerophobia comes from the Greek "aero," which means air or gas. Also referred to as aviatophobia or aviophobia. Sometimes aerophobia is also referred to as being the fear of swallowing air, or airborne substances. Agliophobia: fear of pain. Agoraphobia: fear of public places, open areas, or fear of crowds. Also the fear of leaving or travelling too far from a safe place, This one is on the Phobia List of Top 10 most popular phobias. People with agoraphobia feel anxious if they even think about being trapped in a situation where it might be difficult to leave. People with agoraphobia usually avoid the situations which trigger anxiety or panic. Agoraphobia is highly variable in severity. People with mild agoraphobia often live normal lives by avoiding anxiety-provoking situations. But, in the most severe cases, the victims may be incapacitated and never leave their house. If I work in person with someone who has agoraphobia I always make sure they are highly motivated to overcome the fear. . . I don't make housecalls! (That is a joke. . . ) Agoraphobia comes from the Greek "agora," meaning marketplace. Agraphobia: fear of sexual abuse. Also known as Contreltophobia Agrizoophobia: fear of wild animals. Agyrophobia: fear of crossing streets, highways and other thoroughfares; or fear of streets themselves. Agyrophobia comes from the Greek "gyrus" meaning turning or whirling. Aibohphobia: A joke term for the fear of palindromes (you can figure it out!). Aichmophobia: fear of needles or pointed objects. From the Greek word "aichme," which means point. This fear can be life threatening if it prevents the sufferer from seeking needed medical attention. Ailurophobia: fear of cats. People with ailurophobia may fear being scratched or bitten by a cat or they may fear cats altogether, sometimes as a result of being exposed to too much Halloween folklore or general superstition. From the Greek "ailouros," meaning cat. Alternate spellings: "Aelurophobia," "elurophobia." "Galeophobia" is an alternate name for fear of cats. Albuminurophobia: fear of kidney disease. Albumin is a water soluable protein that can occur in various tissues and fluids. Its presence in urine is often symptomatic of kidney disease. From the Latus albus, which means " white." Alektorophobia: fear of chickens. On the other hand, many chickens are afflicted with ColonolSandersphobia. Algophobia: fear of pain. Free advice: don't work with any therapist who wants to use exposure therapy for this one. Alogophobia comes from the Greek word "algos," meaning pain. I found one website where they had mislabeld algophobia as being the fear of garlic (really!). Maybe they have a lot of vampires as clients? The modern Greek word for garlic (according to a wikipedia article) is "skordo" so I think fear of garlic would actually be "skordophobia". I'm not sure how they got that mixed up. At any rate they mentioned that working one-on-one with their trained staff, the treatment should take no more than 10 hours and cost was listed as "$1,497 USD (and up)." Alliumphobia: fear of garlic. In vampires this phobia is second only to crucifixaphobia (and in at least one parallel universe BuffyPhobia). Actually there is a real term for the fear of crucifixes: staurophobia. "Allium" is the Latin word for garlic. However, being pure to form, I believe the Greek root "skordo" (garlic) would be more appropriate. Allodoxaphobia: fear of opinions. This is common in extreme fundamentalist groups where free-thinking can be dangerous to their rigid belief-structure. Altophobia: fear of singers who have a vocal range somewhere between a tenor and a mezzo-soprano. Just kidding! It's really the fear of heights, which is more commonly referred to as acrophobia (see above). Amathophobia: fear of dust. From the Greek "amathos," meaning sand. Mario Buatta, a well-known interior designer said "Dust is a protective coating for fine furniture." Amaxophobia: fear of riding in a car. Ambulophobia: fear of walking. If you have this phobia and amaxophobia, you're pretty much not going anywhere. Amnesiphobia: fear of amnesia. If you actually come down with amnesia, the bright side is that at least chances are good you'll forget that you have this phobia! Amychophobia: fear of scratches or being scratched. Anablephobia: fear of looking up. Anatidaephobia : (joke phobia) the fear that somewhere, somehow, a duck is watching you. This one originates from a "Far Side" cartoon by Gary Larson. See Luposlipaphobia for another one. Ancraophobia: fear of wind. Androphobia: fear of men. "Androphobia" is derived from the Greek "andros" (man). Androidophobia: fear of androids or robots. Anemophobia: fear of air drafts or wind. Anemophobia: fear of wind. Klaoanemophobia is the fear of breaking wind (which quite a number of people have in social settings). Anestesiaphobia: fear of loss of sensation, or fear of being under anestesia, usually during surgery. From the Greek root "anaisthesia" which means insensibility. Anginophobia: fear of angina, choking or narrowness. Anglophobia: fear of England, or of the English culture. There are several rare sub-categories of this phobia, including Beatlephobia, MontyPtyhonophobia, and GodSaveTheQueenophobia. Angrophobia: fear of becoming angry. Bruce Banner had a major case of this ("Don't make me angry - you won't like me when I'm angry.") For those of you who don't remember (or don't know), Bruce Banner is the fictional comic book character who was exposed to gamma radiation which resulted in his transforming into the "Hulk" when he was angry or under stress. Ankylophobia: fear of joint immobility. Anthophobia: fear of flowers, or parts of flowers. Dating someone with anthophobia can save you a lot of money around Valentine's day, birthdays, and other holidays. "Anthophobia" is derived from the Greek word "anthos" which means flower. Anthropophobia: fear of people or society. Antlophobia: fear of floods. After all of the coverage of the Tsunami and Hurricane Katrina in 2005, I would not be surprised if a lot of people developed this phobia. Anuptaphobia: fear of not getting married, or of staying single. From the Latin "nuptialis" which means wedding. Apeirophobia: fear of infinity. Aphenphosmphobia: fear of being touched. Apiphobia: fear of bees. The word "apiphobia" comes from "api-" from the Greek "apis" meaning bee. Apiphobia is also called melissophobia, since "melissa" is another Greek word for bee. Apotemnophobia: fear of persons with amputations. Aquaphobia: fear of water. People with aquaphobia experience anxiety when in or near oceans, rivers, lakes, creeks or even a bathtub or shower. Boating and swimming are no fun. Forget scuba diving altogether. A rare sub-form known as aquamanophobia is the fear of the DC Comics superhero Aquaman. The word is from the Latin "aqua," which means water. Arachibutyrophobia: fear of peanut butter sticking to the roof of the mouth. This one was on my list of phobias that my 7th grade Reading techer gave me! Arachnophobia: fear of spiders. Arachnophobia is ranked number one on the Phobia List of Top 10 most popular phobias. One medical site suggested that arachnophobia is really "fear of the unknown, since most spiders are harmless." Remember that phobias are, by definition, an irrational fear. We may use logic to justify or validate the fear, but the all the logic in the world will not abate the emotional response. "Arachnophobia" is derived from the Greek "arachne" meaning spider. Arithmophobia: fear of numbers. Mine started with long division in the 5th grade! Arrhenophobia: fear of men. Arsonphobia: fear of fire. Ashenophobia: fear of fainting or weakness. Astraphobia: fear of thunderstorms. Interestingly, people with this phobia seem to take great delight in watching the weather channel, or local News stations give constant and sensational coverage of storms. If you feed the fear, it grows bigger! "Astraphobia" is derived from the Greek "aster" meaning star . Related term: Brontophobia, which is the fear of thunder. Astrophobia: fear of stars and celestial space. Asymmetriphobia: fear of asymmetrical things. Pablo Picasso definitely did not have this phobia! Ataxiophobia: fear of ataxia (muscular incoordination) Ataxophobia: fear of disorder or untidiness. Don't confuse this one with Taxophobia, which is the fear of taxes. InternalRevenueServiceaphobia? IRSaphobia? Atelophobia: fear of imperfection. Atephobia: fear of ruin or ruins. Athazagoraphobia: fear of being forgotten or ignored or forgetting. Atomosophobia: fear of atomic explosions. Atychiphobia: fear of failure. "B" Phobias Bacillophobia: fear of bacteria. See below. Bacteriaphobia: fear of germs. Sufferers from bacteriaphobia experience undue anxiety even though they realize that most germs do not cause diseases. Some people with this phobia may also have Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) and to avoid germs, they may repeat cleaning rituals, such as washing their hands or face, avoid touching other people or themselves, or even various objects. "Bacteriaphobia" is derived from the Greek "bacterion" meaning staff. The Greek word for "staff" was chosen because some bacteria are rod-shaped, like a staff. Alternate spelling: Bacteriophobia. Alternate name: Bacillophobia. Bacteriophobia: fear of bacteria. Ballistophobia: fear of missiles or bullets. Bolshephobia: fear of Bolsheviks. Basophobia: fear of walking or falling. Also listed as Basiphobia. Bathmophobia: fear of stairs or steep slopes. Bathophobia: fear of depths. The feared object may be a long, dark hallway, a well or a deep pool or lake. "Bathophobia" is derived from the Greek "bathos" meaning depth. Batophobia: fear of heights or being close to high buildings. Batrachophobia: fear of amphibians, such as frogs, newts, salamanders, etc. Belonephobia: fear of pins and needles. (Aichmophobia) Bibliophobia: fear of books. Bogyphobia: fear of bogeys or the bogeyman. Botanophobia: fear of plants. Bromidrosiphobia or Bromidrophobia: fear of body smells. Brontophobia: fear of thunder. "Brontophobia" is derived from the Greek "bronte" which means thunder. This one is on the Phobia List of Top 10 most popular phobias. A related term: Astraphobia, fear of thunderstorms. Bufonophobia: fear of toads. Cainophobia or Cainotophobia: fear of newness, novelty. Caligynephobia: fear of beautiful women. Carcinophobia: fear of cancer. Carcinophobia is on the Phobia List of Top 10 most popular phobias. People with this phobia worry that they may develop cancer or obsess over anything that happens with their body, believing that it may be a sign of cancer. From the Greek "karkinos" which means cancer. Cardiophobia: fear of the heart. Carnophobia: fear of meat. Catagelophobia: fear of being ridiculed. Catapedaphobia: fear of jumping from high and low places. Cathisophobia: fear of sitting. Cenophobia: fear of new things or ideas. This phobia is also listed as Centophobia. Ceraunophobia or Keraunophobia: fear of thunder and lightning.(Astraphobia, Astrapophobia) Chaetophobia: fear of hair. Cheimaphobia or Cheimatophobia: fear of cold.(Frigophobia, Psychophobia) Chemophobia: fear of chemicals or working with chemicals. Cherophobia: fear of gaiety. Chiraptophobia: fear of being touched. Chirophobia: fear of hands. Cholerophobia: fear of anger or the fear of cholera. Chorophobia: fear of dancing. Chrematophobia: fear of money. Sufferers worry that they might mismanage money or that money might really be "the root of all evil." Actually, that's quite a common misunderstanding. The actual quote says the "love of money is the root of all evil." From the Greek "chrimata" which means money. A related term is chromatophobia, which may be related to he Greek word "chroma" (color) because of the brilliant colors of ancient coins--for example, gold, silver, bronze and copper. Chromophobia or Chromatophobia: fear of colors. Chronophobia: fear of time. Chronomentrophobia: fear of clocks. Cibophobia: fear of food.(Sitophobia, Sitiophobia) Claustrophobia: fear of closed spaces, of being closed in or being shut in, as in elevators, tunnels, or any other confined space. Even sitting in one of the middle seats in a theatre may cause anxiety. This one is on the Phobia List of Top 10 most popular phobias. The word "claustrophobia" is derrived from the Latin "claudere," which means to shut. Cleithrophobia or Cleisiophobia: fear of being locked in an enclosed place. Cleptophobia: fear of stealing. Climacophobia: fear of stairs, climbing, or of falling downstairs. Clinophobia: fear of going to bed. Sufferers worry about having nightmares or wetting the bed, and often remain awake and develop insomnia. Insomnia then can become a real threat to their well-being. "Clinophobia" is derived from the Greek "klinein" which means to bend, slope or incline, such as while sleeping. Clithrophobia or Cleithrophobia: fear of being enclosed. Cnidophobia: fear of stings. Cometophobia: fear of comets. Coimetrophobia: fear of cemeteries. Coitophobia: fear of sexual intercourse. Among the symptoms of coitophobia are failure to achieve an erection (erectile dysfunction) and failure to achieve orgasm (anorgasmy). "Coitophobia" is derived from the Latin "coitus," which means "to come together." Contreltophobia: fear of sexual abuse. Coprastasophobia: fear of constipation. Coprophobia: fear of feces. Sufferers go out of their way to avoid coming into contact with feces or sometimes even seeing feces. "Coprophobia" is derived from the Greek "kopros," meaning dung. Alternate names: Koprophobia, scatophobia. Coulrophobia: fear of clowns. Counterphobia: Other sites define this as being "The preference by a phobic for fearful situations." In my opinion this is not an accurate description. "Counter" is derrived from the Middle English "countren," from Anglo-French "cuntre," which means against, , and ultimately from the Latin "contra," which means or opposite. So this phobia should be defined as the fear of opposites. Someone who likes fearful situations would be better described as a phobophile. Cremnophobia: fear of precipices. Cryophobia: fear of cold, including cold weather and cold objects. "Cryophobia" is derived from the Greek "kryos," which means cold or frigid. A related term is Thermophobia, fear of heat. Cryptophobia: fear of things that are hidden. You definitely won't find people with this phobia watching "Tales of the Crypt" or writing in code. "Secret Agent" would not be a good job choice. Crystallophobia: fear of crystals or glass. Cyberphobia: fear of computers or working on a computer. Cyclophobia: fear of bicycles. Cymophobia or Kymophobia: fear of waves or wave like motions. Cynophobia: fear of dogs. To avoid dogs sufferers may barricade yards or refuse to travel except in an enclosed vehicle. "Cynophobia" is derived from the Greek "kyon" which means dog. Cypridophobia: fear of prostitutes or venereal disease. Also listed as Cypriphobia, Cyprianophobia, Cyprinophobia. Decidophobia: fear of making decisions. Defecaloesiophobia: fear of painful bowels movements. Deipnophobia: fear of dining or dinner conversations. Dementophobia: fear of insanity. Demonophobia: fear of evil supernatural beings in persons who believe such beings exist and roam freely to cause harm. Sufferers become anxious when discussing demons, when venturing alone into woods or a dark house, or when watching films about demonic possession or exorcism. "Demonophobia" is derived from the Greek "daimon," meaning deity or evil spirit. Demophobia: fear of crowds. The greek word "demo" means "people. This phobia is more commonly called Agoraphobia. Dendrophobia: fear of trees. Dentophobia: fear of dentists. Don't confuse this with the neoautodentaphobia which is the fear of getting a dent in your new car. This phobia can be serious because sufferers will often avoid needed medical treatment. Derrived from the Latin word "denti" which means tooth. Dermatophobia: fear of skin lesions. Dermatosiophobia or Dermatophobia or Dermatopathophobia: fear of skin disease. Dextrophobia: fear of objects at the right side of the body. Diabetophobia: fear of diabetes. Diarrheaphobia: fear of getting diarrhea, usually accompanied with the fear of not being able to get to a bathroom in time, and of making a mess. This one falls under the category of a social phobia. From the Greek word "diarrein," which means "to flow through." Didaskaleinophobia: fear of going to school. Dikephobia: fear of justice. Dinophobia: fear of dizziness or whirlpools. Diplophobia: fear of double vision. Dipsophobia: fear of drinking alcohol. Sufferers of dipsophobia experience undue anxiety about addiction to alcohol and the effect this addiction can have on their body. "Dipsophobia" is derived from the Greek "dipsa," meaning thirst. Dishabiliophobia: fear of undressing in front of someone. Dogmaphobia: fear of beliefs or opinions. Don't confuse this one with fear of dogs which is Cynophobia. Domatophobia: fear of houses or being in a house.(Eicophobia, Oikophobia) Doraphobia: fear of fur. Sufferers of this fear avoid fur-bearing animals such as dogs, cats, foxes, beavers and rabbits because fur is repulsive to them. This fear is not always unfounded, for many furry animals can be carriers of rabies. The word "doraphobia" is from the Greek root "dora," meaning hide or skin. Doxophobia: fear of expressing opinions or of receiving praise. Dromophobia: fear of crossing streets. Dutchphobia: fear of the Dutch. Dysmorphophobia: Excessive dislike of a part of ones body. Also known as "bigorexia" when characterized by a person's obsession with an imagined defect in physical appearance. The word "Dysmorphophobia" is from the Greek "dys" plus "morphe," meaning "form." Dystychiphobia: fear of accidents. Ecophobia: fear of home. Eicophobia: fear of home surroundings. Also on some lists as domatophobia and oikophobia. Eisoptrophobia: fear of mirrors, or of seeing oneself in a mirror. Because this fear often is grounded in superstitions, sufferers may worry that breaking a mirror will bring bad luck or that looking into a mirror will put them in contact with a supernatural world inside the glass. "Eisoptrophobia" comes from the Greek "eis," which means into, and "optikos," which means vision, image, or sight. Electrophobia: fear of electricity. Eleutherophobia: fear of freedom. Elurophobia: fear of cats. Also on soe lists as ailurophobia. Emetophobia: fear of vomiting. Sufferers are especially worried about vomiting in public and embarrassing themselves. Consequently, they often avoid office meetings, banquets, dances and other social gatherings. The anxiety produced by this phobia can cause a nervous stomach and nausea. This one is on the Phobia List of Top 10 most popular phobias. "Emetophobia" is derived from the Greek word "emetos" which means vomiting. Enetophobia: fear of pins. Enochlophobia: fear of crowds. Enosiophobia: fear of having committed an unpardonable sin or of criticism. Also listed as Enissophobia. Entomophobia: fear of insects. To avoid insects, sufferers may frequently clean rooms and carpets, sweep hallways, spray insect-killer or seal off doors and windows. Entophobia (insect phobia) includes acarophobia (mites: scabies) and arachnophobia (fear of spiders). "Entomophobia" is derived from the Greek "entomos" which means insect. Eosophobia: fear of dawn or daylight. Ephebiphobia: fear of teenagers. Epistaxiophobia: fear of nosebleeds. Epistemophobia: fear of knowledge. Equinophobia: fear of horses. Sufferers of equinophobia experience undue anxiety even when a horse is known to be gentle and well trained. They usually avoid horses entirely rather than risk being kicked, bitten or thrown. They may also fear other hoofed animals such as ponies, donkeys and mules. "Equinophobia" is derived from the Latin "equus" which means horse. An alternate name for equinophobia is "hippophobia," derived from the Greek "hippos," which means horse. Eremophobia: fear of being oneself or of lonliness. Ergalilektriphobia: fear of power tools or using power tools. From the Greek roots "ergaleio," meaning instrument or tool, and "ilektrismos," which means electricity. A related fear is ErgalilektriTimAllenaPhobia which is the fear of watching Tim Allen use power tools. My appreciation to Robert, the Cub Master in Michigan, without whose inquiry this word would not have been invented. Good luck with the Pinewood Derby! Ergasiophobia: a surgeon's fear of operating. If you need an operation, make sure your surgeon does not have this phobia! Ergophobia: fear of work. This fear may actually be a combination of fears, such fear of failing at assigned tasks, fear of speaking before groups at work, or fear of socializing with co-workers. "Ergophobia" is derived from the Greek "ergon" which means work. Erotophobia: fear of sexual love or sexual questions. Erythrophobia: fear of blushing. Anxiety results from worry about being the focus of attention and the subject of embarrassment. Attempts to suppress blushing often have the opposite effect. Sufferers of erythrophobia tend to avoid social gatherings and workplace projects that require them to interact with, or speak before, groups of co-workers. "Erythrophobia" also can refer to fear of the color red because of what it may symbolize, such as blood. "Erythrophobia" is derived from the Greek "erythros" which means red. This one also shows up on some lists as Ereuthrophobia. Euphobia: fear of hearing good news. Eurotophobia: fear of female genitalia. Phobia List "G" Phobias Galeophobia: fear of sharks. People with this phobia can experience intense anxiety if they are on a boat, visiting an aquarium, on a beach, or watching any of the "Jaws" movies. My guess is that the original 1975 movie "Jaws" created a lot of galeophobs and actually caused a decline in the SCUBA diving industry. More recently, the 2004 movie "Open Water" may have also contributed. "Galeophobia" is derived from the Greek words "galeos" meaning a "shark with markings that look like those found on a weasel." I could be mistaken (I'm not an expert on sharks or weasels) but I think I've seen more sharks with markings that do not resemble a weasel. If this wasn't actually in a medical dictionary, I would have thought it came from a Mony Python skit. Gatophobia: fear of cats. Gallophobia: fear France or of French culture. Gallogarconophobia is the fear of French waiters. See also Francophobia. Gametophobia: fear of being married. People who suffer from this phobia may fear the difficulties of living with another person or the responsibility of having a family or raising children. They may also worry about being inadequate as a sexual partner. "Gamete" is derived from the Greek word "gamete" meaning wife and "gamein" which means to marry. Geliophobia: fear of laughter. Geniophobia: fear of chins. Genophobia: fear of sex. If your parents had this fear, chances are good that you won't (There's an existential cunundrum in there somewhere.) Genuphobia: fear of knees. Gephyrophobia: fear of crossing bridges. Their fear can be a combination of claustrophobia (fear of close spaces) and acrophobia (the fear of heights). Phobic drivers may worry so much about being in an accident or losing control of their vehicles that they avoid driving or actually create the very accident they are trying to avoid. High bridges over waterways and gorges can be especially intimidating. Very long or narrow bridges can also be particularly problematic. When I was seven years old we drove to Disney World in Florida. Although I did not have a phobia of bridges, I do remember feeling a sense of anxiety while travelling on the bridges that seemed to go for miles over the Everglades. Fear of bridges is a relatively common phobia. "Gephyrophobia" comes from the Greek words "gephyra" which means bridge. Also listed as Gephysrophobia. Germanophobia: fear of Germany or German culture. Gerascophobia: fear of growing old. People with this fear experience anxiety about aging even though they may be in good health. They may worry about the loss of their looks, losing independence, inactivity after retirement, impaired mobility, the onset of disease, confinement in a nursing home, or hair starting to grow out of weird places on your body. "Gerascophobia" is derived from the Greek word "geras" which means old age. Gerontophobia: fear of old people or of growing old. Geumaphobia: fear of taste. Also listed as Geumophobia. Glossophobia: fear of speaking in public or of trying to speak. Could also be the fear of language. The Greek word for language is "glossa." Gnosiophobia: fear of knowledge. Graphophobia: fear of writing or handwriting. Gymnophobia: fear of nudity. People with this pobia worry about seeing others naked or being seen naked. This is common in middle or high schoolers taking their first gym class. Their fear may stem from anxiety about sexuality in general, from a fear that their bodies are physically inferior, or from a fear that their nakedness leaves their bodies exposed and unprotected. "Gymnophobia" is derived from the Greek "gymnos" which means naked. Gynephobia: fear of women. "Gynephobia" is derived from the Greek "gyne" which means woman. Hagiophobia: fear of saints or holy things. Hamartophobia: fear of sinning. Haphephobia: fear of being touched. Also listed as Haptephobia. Harpaxophobia: fear of being robbed. Hedonophobia: fear of pleasure. People with this phobia feel guilty about experiencing pleasure even though there maybe nothing inherently "wrong" with the pleasurable activity. Their guilt usually arises from the fact that they are participating a pleasurable activity while others around them or in the world at large are experiencing nothing but illness, grief, economic hardship and other painful problems. Their guilt may also arise from the belief that life is best lived ascetically. "Hedonophobia" is derived from the Greek "hedone" which means pleasure or delight. Heliophobia: fear of the sun. Hellenologophobia: fear of Greek terms or complex scientific terminology. Helminthphobia: fear of being infested with parasitic worms called helminths. People with helminthphobia worry about trichinosis and other helminth diseases even though proper sanitation and hygeine is practiced. "Helminthphobia" is derived from the Greek "helmins" which means worm. Hematophobia: fear of blood. People with this very common phobia dread the sight of their own blood, or blood of another person or animal. Sometimes printed or filmed images of blood or even thoughts of blood can cause panic. Blood may remind them of their own vulnerability to injury and of the eventuality of death. "Hematophobia" is derived from the Greek "haima" which means blood. Alternate name for hematophobia: hemophobia. Heresyphobia: fear of challenges to official doctrine or of radical deviation. Also known as hereiophobia. Herpetophobia: fear of reptiles or creepy, crawly things. Heterophobia: fear of the opposite sex. Also referred to as sexophobia. Hierophobia: fear of priests or sacred things. Hippophobia: fear of horses. See "equinophobia." Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia: fear of long words. There is some debate as to whether this is purely a "joke" phobia or not. Some argue that all of the greek roots are correct. The punchline is that, of course, it is such a long word. Hobophobia: fear of bums or beggars. Hodophobia: fear of road travel. Hormephobia: fear of shock. Homophobia: fear of sameness, monotony or of homosexuality or of becoming homosexual. Hoplophobia: fear of firearms. Hydrargyophobia: fear of mercurial medicines. Hydrophobia: 1. fear of water, to drink or to swim in. 2. A term once commonly used for rabies because in the later stages of that disease, the animal (or person) has difficulty swallowing and so fears a drink of water. From the Greek "hydro" which means water. Hydrophobophobia: fear of rabies. Hyelophobia: fear of glass. Also known as hyalophobia. Hygrophobia: fear of liquids, dampness, or moisture. Hylephobia: fear of materialism or the fear of epilepsy. Hylophobia: fear of forests. Hypengyophobia: fear of responsibility. Also known as hypegiaphobia. By the way, if those phobias are not spelled correctly. . . it's not my fault! Hypnophobia: fear of sleep or of being hypnotized. Hypsiphobia: fear of heights. Acrophobia is the more common word for this phobia. Iatrophobia: fear of going to the doctor or of doctors. Ichthyophobia: fear of fish. Ideophobia: fear of ideas. Don't confuse this with Idiophobia which is the fear of idiots. Illyngophobia: fear of vertigo or feeling dizzy when looking down. Iophobia: fear of poison. Could also be the fear of Jupiter's first moon (Io). Insectophobia : fear of insects. Isolophobia: fear of solitude, or of being alone. Not to be confused with HanSolophobia which is the fear of the fictional Star Wars protagonist by the same name. Isopterophobia: fear of termites or insects that eat wood. Ithyphallophobia: fear of seeing, thinking about or having an erect penis. Phobia List "K" Phobias Kainolophobia: fear of anything new, or of novelty. Kainophobia is another term used for this fear. Kakorrhaphiophobia: fear of failure or defeat. Katagelophobia: fear of ridicule. Kathisophobia: fear of sitting down. Kenophobia: fear of voids or empty spaces. Keraunophobia: fear of thunder and lightning. Also referred to as astraphobia, astrapophobia, and Ceraunophobia. Kinetophobia: fear of movement or motion. Also referred to as kinesophobia. Kleptophobia: fear of stealing. Kolpophobia: fear of genitals, particularly female. Kopophobia: fear of fatigue. Koniophobia: fear of dust. Also known as amathophobia. Kosmikophobia: fear of cosmic phenomenon. Kymophobia: fear of waves. I think it should be the fear of women named "Kim" who spell their name with a "y" instead of an "i." Also known as cymophobia. Kynophobia: fear of rabies. Kyphophobia: fear of stooping. Lachanophobia: fear of vegetables. Laliophobia: fear of speaking. Also called lalophobia. Leitourgophobia: fear of public servants. "In a mature society, 'civil servant' is semantically equal to 'civil master.' " - Robert A. Heinlein. Leprophobia: fear of leprosy. Known also as lepraphobia. Leukophobia: fear of the color white. Levophobia: fear of things to the left side of the body. Ligyrophobia: fear of loud noises. Lilapsophobia: fear of tornadoes and hurricanes. Limnophobia: fear of lakes. Linonophobia: fear of string. Liticaphobia: fear of lawsuits. Lockiophobia: fear of childbirth. Not to be confused with Lokiphobia which is the fear of mischievous god from Norse mythology. Logizomechanophobia: fear of computers. Logophobia: fear of words. I believe this could also be the fear of the symbol or trademark used by a company to identify itself. The Greek word "logos" means word. Luiphobia: fear of syphillis. Some people have loopphobia which is a fear of rollercoasters that have a path of motion that is circular or curved over on itself. Luposlipaphobia: (another joke phobia designed for a chuckle) The fear of being pursued by timber wolves around a kitchen table while wearing socks on a newly-waxed floor. This one is based on a "Far Side" cartoon by Gary Larson. See Anatidaephobia for another one. Lutraphobia: fear of otters. Lygophobia: fear of darkness. Lyssophobia: fear of rabies or of becoming mad. Medomalacuphobia: fear of losing an erection. Medorthophobia: fear of an erect penis. Megalophobia: fear of large things. Melissophobia: fear of bees. See "apiphobia." Don't confuse this one with Melissaphobia which is the fear of girls named Melissa. Melanophobia: fear of the color black. Don't confuse this one with melonphobia which is the fear of fruit having a hard rind and juicy flesh. Melophobia: fear or hatred of music.This one is often easily mistaken with mellowphobia which is the fear of being chilled out. Meningitophobia: fear of brain disease. Menophobia: fear of menstruation. Merinthophobia: fear of being bound or tied up. Metallophobia: fear of metal. The ore or the music? Metathesiophobia: fear of changes. Metrophobia: fear or hatred of poetry. Microbiophobia: fear of microbes. Also known as bacillophobia. Microphobia: fear of small things. Misophobia: fear of being contaminated with dirt or germs. Also called mysophobia. Mnemophobia: fear of memories. Molysmophobia: fear of dirt or contamination. Also called molysomophobia. Monophobia: fear of solitude or being alone. Monopathophobia: fear of definite disease. Motorphobia: fear of automobiles. Mottephobia: fear of moths. It seems like the word originated form the Middle English word "mothe" but is probably akin the the German word "motte" which means moth. A related term is "Lepidophobia" which is the fear of butterflies. Musophobia: fear of mice. Referred to also as muriphobia. Keeping with the tradition of using Greek roots, I suggest: zegeriaphobia (from the Greek "zegeriai," which means mouse). Mycophobia: fear or aversion to mushrooms. Mycrophobia: fear of small things. Myctophobia: fear of darkness. Mythophobia: fear of myths or stories or false statements. Myxophobia: fear of slime. Also called blennophobia. Phobia List "N" Phobias Nebulaphobia: fear of fog. This would be more accurate if it was the fear of "dust in interstellar space". Of course, when Latin was invented they didn't know much about interstellar space, so the word was borrowed from the Latin nebulae which means mist or cloud. Since the Greek word for cloud is nephele, or nephos (see nephophobia below), they had to come up with another root to use for the fear of fog. And, according to Websters, the Old High German word "nebul" does mean "fog." Necrophobia: fear of death or dead things. Nelophobia: fear of glass. You might also watch out for girls named "Nell." Just in case. Neoautodentaphobia: fear of getting a dent in your new car. Neopharmaphobia: fear of new drugs. Neophobia: fear of anything new, of innovation, new situations, places, or things. "Neophobia" comes from the Greek "neos" meaning new. Nephophobia: fear of clouds. Noctiphobia: fear of the night. Nomatophobia: fear of names. Nosophobia: fear of becoming ill. Also called nosemaphobia. Nostophobia: fear of returning home. Dorothy from the Wizard of Oz had Nostophilia. Novercaphobia: fear of your step-mother. Nucleomituphobia: fear of nuclear weapons. Nudophobia: fear of nudity. Showering with your clothes on takes a lot longer. Numerophobia: fear of numbers. In school it's called "Math Anxiety." Nyctophobia: fear of the dark. Very common in younger children. From the Greek "nyx" meaning night. Another term for fear of the dark is scotophobia. Obesophobia: fear of gaining weight. Also referred to as pocrescophobia. Ochlophobia: fear of crowds or mobs. Ochophobia: fear of vehicles. And, if you speak Spanish, it's also the fear of the number Eight. Octophobia : fear of the figure 8. Jules Verne's tale "20,000 Leagues Under The Sea" created Octopusophobia in some people. Odontophobia: fear of teeth or dental surgery. Odynophobia: fear of pain. Also called algophobia and odynephobia. Oenophobia: fear of wines. Oikophobia: fear of home surroundings, house. Also referred to as domatophobia and eicophobia) Olfactophobia: fear of smells. Ombrophobia: fear of rain or of being rained on. Don't mix this up with Hombrephobia, which if you speak Spanish, is the fear of man. Ommetaphobia: fear of eyes. Alternative word: ommatophobia. Oneirophobia: fear of dreams. Oneirogmophobia: fear of wet dreams. Onomatophobia: fear of hearing a certain word or of names. From the Greek word meaning "name-making." Onomatopoeiabphobia: fear of words that imitates the sound it represents Ophidiophobia: fear of snakes. Sometimes called "snakephobia," but this is not really proper form. Ophthalmophobia: fear of being stared at. Opiophobia: fear medical doctors experience of prescribing needed pain medications for patients. Optophobia: fear of opening one's eyes. I believe a lot of people are inflicted with this, figuratively speaking. Ornithophobia: fear of birds. People with ornithophobia experience anxiety about encountering or being attacked by birds. "Ornithophobia" is derived from the Greek word "ornithos" which means bird. I wonder how many people were just fine until they saw the Alfred Hitchcock's movie "The Birds?" Orthophobia: fear of property. Osmophobia: fear of smells or odors. Also referred to as Osphresiophobia. Ostraconophobia: fear of shellfish. Ouranophobia: fear of heaven. Also spelled Uranophobia. Peccatophobia: fear of sinning or imaginary crimes. Pediculophobia: fear of lice. Pediophobia: fear of dolls. Pedophobia: fear of babies and children. "Pedophobia" comes from the Greek word "pais" which means child. Peladophobia: fear of bald people. Pellagrophobia: fear of pellagra. Pellegra is a disease caused deficiency in vitamins (niacin) and lack of protein. Peniaphobia: fear of poverty. Pentheraphobia: fear of mother-in-law. Also called novercaphobia. Phagophobia: fear of swallowing or of eating or of being eaten. Phalacrophobia: fear of becoming bald. Phallophobia: fear of a penis, especially when erect. Pharmacophobia: fear of taking medicine. Phasmophobia: fear of ghosts. Phengophobia: fear of daylight or sunshine. Philemaphobia: fear of kissing. Also called philematophobia. Philophobia: fear of falling in love or being in love. Philosophobia: fear of philosophy. Phobophobia: fear of phobias. Photoaugliaphobia: fear of glaring lights. Phonophobia: fear of sound. From the Greek word "phone" which means voice, or sound. Many children have an apparant fear of loud sounds. Usually it is more of a sensitivity than a fear, but the symptoms can be similar. Some lists also suggest that it is the fear of voices (your own or other's); and fear of telephones. I think there should be a word for fear of telephone bills! Photophobia: fear of light. This is not a very common phobia. However, the medical community does use the word to refer to an abnormal sensitivity to or intolerance of light, which can be very painful. This is not really a phobia, so, in my opinion, use of this word for light sensitivity is somewhat of a misnomer. The Greek word "phot" which means light. Phronemophobia: fear of thinking. Phthiriophobia: fear of lice. Also called pediculophobia. Phthisiophobia: fear of tuberculosis. Pluviophobia: fear of rain or of being rained on. Pneumatiphobia: fear of spirits. Pnigophobia: fear of choking of being smothered. Also spelled "pnigerophobia." Pocrescophobia: fear of gaining weight. Also referred to as obesophobia. Pogonophobia: fear of beards. Poliosophobia: fear of contracting poliomyelitis (commonly called Polio). MarcoPolophboia is the fear of the children's game played in a swimming pool (or of the Venetian explorer). Politicophobia: fear or abnormal dislike of politicians. I'm not sure is "abnormal" dislike of politicians is abnormal! Polyphobia: fear of many things. Poinephobia: fear of punishment. Ponophobia: fear of overworking or of pain. Porphyrophobia: fear of the color purple. Potamophobia: fear of rivers or running water. Potophobia: fear of alcohol. Sarmassophobia: fear of love play. Also known as malaxophobia. Satanophobia: fear of Satan. Scatophobia: fear of fecal matter. Scelerophibia: fear of bad men, burglars. Sciaphobia: fear of shadows. Also spelled "Sciophobia." Scoleciphobia: fear of worms. Scopophobia: fear of being seen or stared at. Also spelled "scoptophobia." Scotomaphobia: fear of blindness in visual field. Scotophobia: fear of darkness. Also referred to as achluophobia. Scriptophobia: fear of writing in public. Selachophobia: fear of sharks. Selaphobia: fear of light flashes. Selenophobia: fear of the moon. Seplophobia: fear of decaying matter. Sesquipedalophobia: fear of long words. Sexophobia: fear of the opposite sex. Also called heterophobia. Siderodromophobia: fear of trains, railroads or train travel. Siderophobia: fear of stars. Sinistrophobia: fear of things to the left or left-handed. Not to be confused with Sinatraphobia which is the fear Frank Sinatra or his music. Sinophobia: fear of Chinese, Chinese culture. Sitophobia: fear of food or eating. This is one of the few phobias that can be life-threatening if not treated. Also called cibophobia, or sitiophobia. Snakephobia: fear of snakes. Also called (more properly) phidiophobia. Soceraphobia: fear of parents-in-law. Social Phobia: fear of being evaluated negatively in social situations. Sociophobia: fear of embarrassment in social situations; can have debilitating effects on personal and professional relationships. This one is on the Phobia List of Top 10 most popular phobias. Symptoms of social phobia include blushing, sweating, trembling, rapid heartbeat, muscle tension, nausea or other stomach discomfort, lightheadedness, and other symptoms of anxiety. People with this disorder tend to lead difficult and diminished lives. The emotional toll is great. Many people with social phobia have trouble reaching their educational and professional goals or even maintaining employment. In extreme cases, a person may begin to avoid all social situations and become housebound. "Sociophobia" is derived from the Latin "socius" which means companion. Somniphobia: fear of sleep. Soteriophobia : fear of dependence on others. Spacephobia: fear of outer space. Spectrophobia: fear of ghosts. People with this phobia may fear going into woods, empty houses or dark places and may react with alarm at strange or unexplained noises. Forget watching "Poltergeist" or other movies in that genre. "Spectrophobia" is derived from the Latin "spectrum" which means appearance or apparition. Spermatophobia: fear of germs. Also spelled "spermophobia." Spheksophobia: fear of wasps. Stasibasiphobia: fear of standing or walking. Also spelled "stasiphobia" and referred to as ambulophobia. Staurophobia: fear of crosses or the crucifix. Stenophobia: fear of narrow things or places. Stygiophobia: fear of hell. Also spelled stigiophobia. Suicidaphobia: the fear of intentionally killing oneself. Suriphobia: fear of mice. "T" Phobias Tachophobia: fear of speed. Taijin Kyofusho: a phobia which occurs most typically in Japan, is the fear of offending others by oneï¿½s inappropriate social behavior or appearance. Someone who sufferes from this phobia is afraid that his social behavior or an imaginary physical defect might offend or embarrass other people. This is an interesting contrast to social phobia in western cultures where the afflicted person is worried embarassment for himself, not about others. An article on Wikipedia subdivided this one into 4 categories: "Sekimen-kyofu, the phobia of blushing, "Shubo-kyofu," the phobia of a deformed body, similar to Body dysmorphic disorder, "Jikoshisen-kyofu," the phobia of eye-to-eye contact, and "Jikoshu-kyofu," the phobia of having foul body odor. Taijin Kyofusho literally means the disorder (sho) of fear (kyofu) of interpersonal relations (taijin). Teniophobia: fear of tapeworms. Also spelled "taeniophobia." Taphephobia: fear of being buried alive. "Taphephobia" comes from the Greek "taphos" meaning grave. Tapinophobia: fear of being contagious. Taurophobia: fear of bulls. Teleophobia: fear of definite plans or fear of religious ceremonies. Telephonophobia: fear of telephones. Teratophobia: fear of bearing a malformed child. "Teratophobia" comes from the Greek word "teras" meaning monster Testophobia: fear of taking tests. Tetanophobia: fear of lockjaw, tetanus. Teutophobia: fear of Germans or German things. Textophobia: fear of certain fabrics. Thaasophobia: fear of sitting. Thalassophobia: fear of the sea. Thanatophobia: fear of death or dying. This one is on the Phobia List of Top 10 most popular phobias. The critically acclaimed HBO Series "Six Feet Under" addressed this subject matter. From the Greek word "Thanatos" meaning death. Also commonly referred to as Necrophobia. Theatrophobia: fear of theatres. Theologicophobia: fear of theology. Theophobia: fear of gods or religion. Thermophobia: fear of heat, including hot weather and hot objects. To avoid heat, people with this phobia may live in a cold climate, wear light clothing, stay inside on warm days, and avoid hot water and hot foods. You will not find these people living in Texas! "Thermophobia" is derived from the Greek word "therme" which means heat. The opposite of thermophobia is cryophobia, fear of the cold. Tocophobia: fear of childbirth. "Tocophobia" comes from the Greek word "tocos" which means childbirth. Tomophobia: fear of surgical operations. Tonitrophobia: fear of thunder. Topophobia: fear of certain places or situations, such as stage fright. Toxiphobia: fear of poison or of being accidently poisoned. Alternate terms: toxophobia and toxicophobia Traumatophobia: fear of injury. Trichinophobia: fear of trichinosis (a parasitic disease caused by eating raw or undercooked pork). Trichophobia: fear of hair. Also called trichopathophobia, chaetophobia, and hypertrichophobia. Triskaidekaphobia: fear of the number 13. Written reference to this fear dates to the late 1800s. The term triskaidekaphobia appeared in the early 1900s. "Treiskaideka" comes from the Greek word for thirteen. Also known as paraskevidekatriaphobia. Although the purpose of this website is to deal with phobias and not superstitions, there is a long history of bad vibes around the number 13, going back to the Vikings and ancient Egyptians. Tropophobia: fear of moving or making changes. From the Greek "trop," which means turn. Trypanophobia: fear of injections. This is another phobia which could result in disease or even death if it prevents the person from seeking needed medical attention. From the Greek " trypa" which means hole. Tuberculophobia: fear of coming down with the disease tuberculosis or of those who have the disease already. From the Latin "tubercle," which means "lump." Tyrannophobia: fear of tyrants. From the Greek word "tyrannos," which means tyrant. Phobia List "V" Phobias Vaccinophobia: fear of vaccines or of vaccination. Have you read the ingredients in vaccines, or how many of them are made? It would be off-topic to go into details about that here, but that would do it for me! Venereophobia: fear of catching a venereal disease. From the Latin word "venereus" which means sexual desire. Venustraphobia: fear of beautiful women. Verbophobia: fear of words. This one uses the Latin root "verbum" which means "word." Also spelled "verbaphobia." Staying with the pure Greek form, the more appropriate word for fear of words is "logophobia" (it's on the list, above.) Verminophobia: fear of worms, or the fear of being infected by worms. This one uses the Latin root "vermis," which means worm. Most phobia lists incorrectly define this one as the fear of germs. The dictionaries that I found listed the Greek word for germ as being "mikrobio," or "sperma." Vespertiliophobia: fear of bats. Vestiphobia: fear of clothing - either your own or of other people's. I wonder if this fear has inspired some people to become nudists... Vitricophobia: fear of one's stepfather. Did you ever notice that in fairy tales it's always the stepmother who is wicked, evil, or up to no good? Have you ever seen a fairytale where it's the stepfather? What's up with that? Virginitiphobia: fear of virgins. Virgivitiphobia: fear of being raped. Vokephobia: fear of returning home. This could stem from having an abusive home situation, or due to living in houses (like the infamous one in Amityville) that may be haunted by evil spirits or poltergeists which do not take a liking to having living beings there. This is quite the opposite problem that severe agoraphobics have, which is the fear of leaving home. Phobia List "X" Phobias Xanthophobia: fear of the color yellow or the word yellow. The urbandictionary (dot com) also has this entry for Xanthophobia: fear of the fantasy series known as Xanth, by Piers Anthony, or the sci-fi/fantasy genre as a whole. "I've never met anyone with such a bad case of xanthophobia. She never even saw "Lord of The Rings." Xeniaphobia: a fear of foreign doctors, usually having to do with strong foreign accents making it difficult to understand their English. Also, if travelling in a foreign country, the fear that doctors may have inadequate medical skills. Xenodochiophobia: fear of foreign hotels that could include the fear that there won't be soap, the kind of toilet paper that you like, clean towels, or good maid service. Xenoglossophobia: fear of foreign languages. Xenonosocomiophobia: fear of foreigners who are pick-pockets. Xenophobia: fear of strangers or foreigners. This word is also commonly used to describe a hatred of foreigners and of strange or foreign things. Derrived from the Greek word "xenos" which means stranger. Xerophobia: fear of dryness or of dry places, such as deserts, where a lack of water might cause a slow, painful death. The Greek word for dry is"xeros." Xeroxophobia: fear of using anything made by Xerox, or fear of office equipment in general. Xylophobia: fear of wooden objects (like xylophones). Also used to describe the fear of forests. From the Greek "xylo," or "xyla," which means wood. Xyrophobia: fear of razors. The modern Greek word for razor is "xyrafi." Phobia List "Z" Phobias Zelophobia: fear of jealousy. The Greek dictionary I found said that the modern Greek word for "jealosy" is " ziliaris." So this one might be more correctly spelled "ziliphobia." The online Latin Dictionary at the University of Notre Dame listed "zelotypus" as being the Latin word for jealous, while another English to Latin dictionary I found listed (what looks to me more like a Latin word) "invideo," meaning to envy, or be jealous of. This is also very close to the word "zeal" which, according to Webster's is from the Greek word "zelos" which means enthusiasm. Zemmiphobia: fear of the great mole rat. Someone, somewhere, is having a good, private chuckle over this one. This is one of those phobias that everybody includes on their Phobia List because everyone else has it, and there is certainly a shortage of phobias starting with the letter "z," so why not? In researching this one I found out some interesting things about rats, but the only Greek roots for rat that I could find were, well. ... all in Greek, but none of them appeared to start with the letter "z." The Greek root for mouse is "zegeriai," so that could give us a new name for the mouse phobia - zegeriaphobia (the existing ones being "Musophobia" and "Suriphobia." After striking out on the linguistic resources, I decided to turn to the field of science. The Latin genus for rat is "rattus" of which there are 56 different species. As far a mole rats go I found the plain "Mole Rat" (Bathyergus, Cryptomys, Heliophobius (African Mole Rat), Tachyoryctes), the "Naked Mole Rat" (Heterocephalus glaber), the "Blind Mole Rat" (with 2 genera and 8 species), the "African Silvery Mole Rat (heliophobius argenteocinereus), and the "Cape Mole Rat" (Georychus). I also found "Mole crickets," "Mole shrews," "Water moles," and even a "duck mole." But nowhere did I find anything about the "Great mole rat." If anyone has any clues about this one, please let me know. Zeusophobia: fear of God or gods. Here's another one that someone made up, but did not put too much thought into it. Zeus is a very specific figure in Greek mythology. So this phobia should really be the fear of Zeus. In Greek, there are other roots which refer to god or gods more generally: ktistes (founder, i.e. God - as author of all things) and theos (a deity, especially with the supreme Divinity). Theophobia is already on most lists as the fear of god or religions, but in my opinion there's a big difference between god and religion. So I recommend ktistesophobia as the fear of God. Zoophobia: fear of animals, in general, or sometimes used to refer to fear of a specific animal if there is not a specific phobia word for that particular fear. "Zoo" is from the Greek word meaning "living being."	i don't know
Who was President Of The USA at the time of the Wall Street Crash ?	BBC - GCSE Bitesize: Wall Street Crash Next In 1928 the new Republican president Herbert Hoover confidently stated, 'We in America today are nearer to the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of any land.' Within a year, all the confidence had ended and America was plunged into the Depression. Wall Street Crash When the Wall Street stock market crashed in October 1929, the world economy was plunged into the Great Depression. By the winter of 1932, America was in the depths of the greatest economic depression [Economic depression: The slowing of economic activity, which usually results in high unemployment, a sharp drop in prices and a fall in production. ] in its history. The number of unemployed people reached upwards of 13 million. Many people lived in primitive conditions close to famine. One New York family moved into a cave in Central Park. In St Louis, more than 1,000 people lived in shacks made from scrap metal and boxes. There were many similar Hoovervilles all over America. Between 1 and 2 million people travelled the country desperately looking for work. Signs saying 'No Men Wanted' were displayed all over the country. Many children were deserted and left homeless during the Depression By the time of the election in November 1932, Hoover's popularity had reached rock bottom. It was not even safe for him to go onto the streets to campaign. After his heavy defeat, Hoover told his friends, "we are at the end of our string... there is nothing more we can do" . The American economy did not fully recover until the USA entered the Second World War in December 1941. Page:	Herbert Hoover
"Which famous novel, published in 1719 does the title character describe his home as ""The Island Of Despair"" ?"	How the 1929 Wall Street Crash unfolded \| Business \| The Guardian How the 1929 Wall Street Crash unfolded Friday 3 October 2008 19.01 EDT First published on Friday 3 October 2008 19.01 EDT Close How it began The bull market on Wall Street began in 1923 and led to an unprecedented period of share trading. However, by 1929 there were signs of instability. On September 3 the Dow Jones Industrial Average reached its peak, closing at 381.7. On September 5 the economist Roger Babson gave a speech saying 'Sooner or later, a crash is coming, and it may be terrific'. He had predicted a crash for years but this time the market fell. 'Black Tuesday': 24.10.29 The bubble finally burst on October 24 1929. A then record of 13m shares were traded and newspapers reported losses as high as $5bn. Bankers poured money into the market and President Herbert Hoover reassured Americans that business was sound. 'Black Monday': 28.10.29 On October 28, European newspapers were reporting that some brokers believed the worst was over. But when the American markets opened, they went into freefall, and the contagion spread around the world. 'Black Monday' saw huge falls in the US stock market. 'Black Tuesday': 29.10.29 'Black Tuesday' continued the losses as investors tried to sell all their stocks at once. The market recorded $14bn in paper losses. The volume was so great that tickers could not keep up. By the end of the day the market was down more than 12%, another large drop. Millions of people lost their savings. Battle to save the market America's financial elite tried to rescue the market - members of the Rockefeller family and William C Durant of General Motors bought large quantities of stocks to demonstrate their confidence in the market but the move could not stem the tide. The market hit new lows in November, but it was not until July 1932 that it reached the lowest point of the Great Depression, down 89% from its peak. The consequences The crash led to higher trade tariffs as governments tried to shore up their economies, and higher interest rates in the US after a worldwide run on US gold deposits. In American unemployment went from 1.5 million in 1929 to 12.8 million - or 24.75% of the workforce - by 1933, a pattern replicated around the world. It took 23 years for the US market to recover.	i don't know
Specifically, where on the human body is the Axilla ?	Axillary Lymph Nodes Anatomy, Diagram & Function \| Body Maps Your message has been sent. OK We're sorry, an error occurred. We are unable to collect your feedback at this time. However, your feedback is important to us. Please try again later. Close Axillary lymph node group The body has about 20 to 40 bean-shaped axillary lymph nodes located in the underarm area. These lymph nodes are responsible for draining lymph – a clear or white fluid made up of white blood cells – from the breasts and surrounding areas, including the neck, the upper arms, and the underarm area. They are about 1cm in size and are arranged into five groups: subscapular axillary (posterior), apical (medial or subclavicular), pectoral axillary (anterior), brachial (lateral), and central lymph nodes. The subscapular axillary lymph nodes are located on the lower part of the armpit’s posterior (rear) wall. The apical and pectoral nodes are located respectively on the upper and lower parts of the pectoralis minor, a thin, flat muscle of the chest. The brachial nodes are located relative to the axillary vein's medial (near the middle) and posterior portions. The central axillary lymph nodes are located inside the adipose tissue near the armpit’s base. Breast cancer initially develops as a lump in the breast, but often spreads to the axillary lymph nodes, which allows it to access the lymphatic system and travel to other areas of the body. During surgical procedures to remove breast cancer, including lumpectomies and partial, modified radical, radical, or total mastectomies, surgeons often remove some of the axillary lymph nodes to determine whether the breast cancer has spread, and also to determine cancer staging.	Axilla
Which famous heavenly body shares it’s name with the second Astronomer Royal who held the position from 1720 to 1742 ?	Duke Anatomy - Lab 10: Shoulder, Axilla, & Arm Remove the skin of the upper limb down to the elbow. Note the major cutaneous veins imbedded in the superficial fascia. Locate the cephalic vein running between the pectoralis major and deltoid muscles. On the medial arm, find the basilic vein. Look in the cubital fossa for the median cubital vein. Trace its connections with the cephalic and basilic veins. Atlas Images: Clean the superficial fascia away and attempt to trace the boundaries between the depressor and elevator musculature. Note how tough the deep fascia is here, and how it passes between major muscle groups to attach to the limb bones forming the intermuscular septa. 3. LATISSIMUS GROUP Follow the latissimus dorsi from its broad origin on the back to its narrow tendon of insertion on the floor of the intertubercular groove of the humerus (deep to the pectoralis major). You will find the tendon of teres major crossing latissimus dorsi and inserting on the medial lip of the intertubercular groove of the humerus. Locate the subscapularis muscle originating from the ventral surface of the scapula. Follow it to its insertion on the lesser tubercle of the humerus proximal to latissimus dorsi and teres major. Atlas Images: FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY: You will also be able to examine the triceps brachii running from the humerus and scapula to the olecranon process of the dorsal elbow. An important opening called the quadrangular space is formed by the inferior margin of the teres minor, the shaft of the humerus, the superior margin of teres major and the lateral margin of the long head of the triceps. The axillary nerve and posterior humeral circumflex artery pass through this space. Just below the quadrangular space sits the triangular interval formed by the inferior margin of the teres major, the humerus, and the long head of triceps. The radial nerve and deep brachial artery pass through this interval. Nerves and vessels can be injured in these spaces. 4. DELTOID GROUP FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY: The motor nerve for the deltoid group is the axillary nerve; one of the two terminal branches of the posterior cord of the brachial plexus. Place your thumb on your clavicle, wrapping the palm of your hand around the ball of your shoulder, and put your fingers on the spine of your scapula -- you have delineated the origins of the deltoid muscle. Carefully transect the deltoid along its origins on the cadaver so that you can trace the axillary nerve. Underneath the deltoid muscle, note the bursa that lubricates the motion of the deltoid over the humerus and supraspinatus muscle. Follow the axillary nerve around the back of the neck of the humerus as it passes through the quadrangular space. Locate the teres minor muscle stretching from the scapula to the greater tubercle of the humerus. Like the deltoid, the teres minor is innervated by the axillary nerve. Find the posterior humeral circumflex artery accompanying the axillary nerve. It is the major artery to the deltoid. Try to find its anastomosis with the anterior humeral circumflex artery. Both anterior and posterior humeral circumflex arteries are branches of the axillary artery. Atlas Images: FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY: The deltoid is the most powerful abductor of the humerus. It works against a great mechanical disadvantage; you might compare it to attempting to move a door by pulling on a doorknob affixed near the hinges. Its power is augmented by its multipennate structure, which permits the maximum number of fibers to pull on a given insertion. 5. ROTATOR CUFF FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY: Three short muscles - supraspinatus, infraspinatus and teres minor - originate from the dorsal surface of the scapula and run laterally to insert on the greater tubercle of the humerus. Teres minor is a member of the deltoid group, and receives its innervation via the axillary nerve. Supraspinatus and infraspinatus are innervated by the suprascapular nerve. The fourth rotator cuff muscle, subscapularis, runs from the ventral surface of the scapula to the lesser tubercle of the humerus. Subscapularis is innervated by the upper and lower subscapular nerves. These four muscles form a muscular cuff around the head of the humerus. They act to rotate the humerus in various directions, stabilize the joint and prevent dislocation of the shoulder joint under tension. You have already examined subscapularis and teres minor. When you reflected the deltoid, you exposed the insertions of supraspinatus, infraspinatus and teres minor, on the posterior surface of the greater tuberosity. Underneath the deltoid, locate the most inferior insertion of muscle onto the posterior aspect of greater tubercle of the humerus, which belongs to teres minor. The next one up is infraspinatus, and the most superior is supraspinatus. Trace supraspinatus from its insertion, then under the coracoacromial arch , and back to its origin in the supraspinatus fossa of the scapula. Verify that it is directly in contact with the loose fibrous capsule of the joint, and partly fuses with it. Atlas Images: FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY: While the deltoid is a very powerful abductor of the humerus, the supraspinatus is needed to overcome the initial mechanical disadvantage that the deltoid suffers at the beginning of this motion. Follow infraspinatus back to its origin on the scapula. It adjoins teres minor, which it assists in rotating the humerus laterally Two parallel vessels, the transverse cervical and suprascapular arteries, supply the dorsal aspect of the scapula. Locate the origins of the suprascapular and transverse cervical arteries from the subclavian artery. Follow them as they run back over the shoulder. Find the branches of the transverse cervical artery to the rhomboids and levator scapulae muscles. Trace the suprascapular artery to the supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles. The transverse cervical, suprascapular, and subscapular arteries anastomose freely around the scapula. This chain of anastomoses can supply blood to the limb if the axillary artery is occluded distal to their origins. Atlas Images: 6. THE AXILLA FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY: The fascia in the armpit, or axilla, is thick and extensive, and contains several important groups of lymph nodes clustered around the deep and superficial veins. Vessels and nerves of the forelimb pierce the cervical body wall layers as they cross the first rib, and draw out a fascial prolongation known as the axillary sheath. The lateral thoracic branch of the axillary artery runs down the rib cage near the origins of these lateral cutaneous nerves; its branches help to supply the breast. Clear away the superficial fascia, superficial veins and lymph nodes, and cutaneous nerves, exposing the axillary sheath. Open the sheath and identify the axillary artery and vein. Sever the axillay vein below the subclavius; reflect it together with its branches, and discard it. Atlas Images: FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY: Once the subclavian artery passes the first rib, it is renamed the axillary artery. The axillary artery gives rise to the following branches: superior thoracic, thoracoacromial, lateral thoracic, anterior and posterior humeral circumflex, and subscapular. 7. AXILLARY ARTERY Trace the muscular branches of the subscapular artery into the three muscles of the latissimus group. Note its circumflex scapular branch which hooks around the lower edge of the scapula to help supply the dorsal surface of the shoulder blade. Note that the subclavian, axillary, and brachial artieries are all names for the same continuous structure. Observe the lateral margin of the first rib, and the inferior border of the teres major. These structures demarcate the intermediate axillary from the subclavian and brachial arteries. Locate other branches of the axillary artery, including the thoracoacromial, lateral thoracic, and anterior and posterior humeral circumflex. 8. FLEXORS OF THE ARM FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY: Anatomically the word “arm” is restricted to the upper limb between the shoulder and elbow. There are only four muscles in the arm: one in the extensor compartment, the triceps brachii, and three in the flexor compartment, the biceps brachii, coracobrachialis, and brachialis. Separate the three flexors, biceps brachii, coracobrachialis, and brachialis and compare their origins. Expose the tendon of the long head of the biceps in the intertubercular groove, noting its synovial sheath. The origin itself from the supraglenoid tubercle will be seen when the shoulder joint is dissected. The insertions of both biceps brachii and brachialis cannot be seen until some dissection has been done in the forearm. Atlas Images: Locate the musculocutaneous nerve where it originates from the brachial plexus and follow it distally into the coracobrachialis muscle. Pull up the biceps muscle to reveal some of the muscular branches of the musculocutaneous nerve. If possible, locate its emerging cutaneous portion (the lateral cutaneous nerve of the forearm) above the elbow on the lateral surface of the arm. Atlas Images: FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY: The musculocutaneous nerve innervates biceps brachii, coracobrachialis, and brachialis and ends in a cutaneous nerve - hence its name. Follow the brachial artery into the flexor compartment of the arm. Locate the profunda brachii and collateral branches of this artery. NOTE - Sometimes the brachial artery divides into radial and ulnar arteries within the flexor compartment of the arm. More commonly, this division occurs in the forearm. FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY: The profunda brachii artery passes back to supply the posterior (extensor) compartment of the arm and joins the radial nerve to run along the spiral groove of the humerus. The profunda brachii artery ends in a couple of radial collateral arteries. 9. EXTENSOR OF THE ARM The extensor compartment of the arm contains only one major muscle, triceps brachii, along with a small slip of the triceps muscle called anconeus. Do not worry about anconeus in your dissection. The RADIAL nerve provides the innervation to ALL the muscles in this compartment. Turn the cadaver face down. Identify the three origins of triceps brachii. Note that the radial and axillary nerves enter the extensor compartment around opposite edges of teres major. Trace the radial nerve (motor to triceps and all the distal extensors in the forelimb) and profunda brachii artery along the spiral groove between lateral and medial heads of triceps. Transect and reflect the lateral head as you follow the underlying structures. Atlas Images: CLINICAL NOTES 1. Venipuncture The superficial veins of the arm are large and prominent thus they are commonly used to draw blood or inject a solution. The median cubital vein in the cubital fossa is the most commonly used. Due to the close positions of the brachial artery and medial nerve care most be taken when accessing this vein. 2. Axillary nerve injuries Due to the proximity of the axillary nerve to the surgical neck and head of the humerus it can be damaged in both fractures of the surgical neck and inferior dislocations of the glenohumeral joint. Injury to the axillary nerve impairs the deltoid and teres minor muscles and sensory innervation to the upper lateral portion of the arm. To test deltoid function the arm is abducted against resistance starting from a position of ~ 15 degrees of abduction.	i don't know
Which small island, situated in the middle of the South Atlantic was named after the day it was discovered in 1503 by Portuguese navigator Afonso De Albuquerque ?	Ascension Island - 必应 Ascension Island Welcome. Welcome to the website of Ascension Island Government. Explore our site to discover the beauty and diversity of our island. For those living here, you can ... www.ascension-island.gov.ac Ascension Island South Atlantic Ocean. Ascension Island is part of a British Overseas Territory together with St Helena and Tristan da Cunha under the sovereignty of ... www.ascension-island.gov.ac/the-island Ascension Island, Aleksei Vysheslavtsev, page 47 (1862).jpg 449 KB Ascension Island, Image of the Day DVIDS848702.jpg 2.18 MB Ascension WV Banner.jpg 1.35 MB ... commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ascension_Island?... Ascension Island Tourism: TripAdvisor has 98 reviews of Ascension Island Hotels, Attractions, and Restaurants making it your best Ascension Island resource. https://www.tripadvisor.com/Tourism-g662056-Ascension_Island... Visiting the Island. Ascension Island welcomes the opportunity to share some of the sights of our beautiful and unique island with visitors. www.ascension-island.gov.ac/visiting-the-island Ascension Island is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, just south of the equator, 700 miles northwest of Saint Helena, the United Kingdom territory by which it is ... wikitravel.org/en/Ascension	Ascension
Which famous film actor, singer, music composer and author provided the voice of Shere Khan the tiger in the 1967 Disney animated film The Jungle Book ?	The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency conventional long form: Republic of Albania conventional short form: Albania local long form: Republika e Shqiperise local short form: Shqiperia former: People's Socialist Republic of Albania etymology: the English-language country name seems to be derived from the ancient Illyrian tribe of the Albani; the native name "Shqiperia" is popularly interpreted to mean "Land of the eagles" conventional long form: People's Democratic Republic of Algeria conventional short form: Algeria local long form: Al Jumhuriyah al Jaza'iriyah ad Dimuqratiyah ash Sha'biyah local short form: Al Jaza'ir etymology: the country name derives from the capital city of Algiers conventional long form: Territory of American Samoa conventional short form: American Samoa abbreviation: AS etymology: the name Samoa is composed of two parts, "sa" meaning "sacred" and "moa" meaning "center," so the name can mean Holy Center; alternatively, it can mean "place of the sacred moa bird" of Polynesian mythology conventional long form: Principality of Andorra conventional short form: Andorra local long form: Principat d'Andorra local short form: Andorra etymology: the origin of the country's name is obscure; since the area served as part of the Spanish March (defensive buffer zone) against the invading Moors in the 8th century, the name may derive from the Arabic "ad-darra" meaning "the forest" conventional long form: Republic of Angola conventional short form: Angola local long form: Republica de Angola local short form: Angola former: People's Republic of Angola etymology: name derived by the Portuguese from the title "ngola" held by kings of the Ndongo (Ndongo was a kingdom in what is now northern Angola) conventional long form: none conventional short form: Anguilla etymology: the name Anguilla means "eel" in various Romance languages (Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, French) and likely derives from the island's lengthy shape conventional long form: none conventional short form: Antarctica etymology: name derived from two Greek words meaning "opposite to the Arctic" or "opposite to the north" conventional long form: none conventional short form: Antigua and Barbuda etymology: "antiguo" is Spanish for "ancient" or "old"; the island was discovered by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1493 and, according to tradition, named by him after the church of Santa Maria la Antigua (Old Saint Mary's) in Seville; "barbuda" is Spanish for "bearded" and the adjective may refer to the alleged beards of the indigenous people or to the island's bearded-fig trees Arctic Ocean etymology: the name Arctic comes from the Greek word "arktikos" meaning "near the bear" or "northern," and that word derives from "arktos," meaning "bear"; the name refers either to the constellation Ursa Major, the "Great Bear," which is prominent in the northern celestial sphere, or to the constellation Ursa Minor, the "Little Bear," which contains Polaris, the North (Pole) Star conventional long form: Argentine Republic conventional short form: Argentina local long form: Republica Argentina local short form: Argentina etymology: originally the area was referred to as Tierra Argentina, i.e., "Land beside the Silvery River" or "silvery land," which referred to the massive estuary in the east of the country, the Rio de la Plata (River of Silver); over time the name shortened to simply Argentina or "silvery" conventional long form: Republic of Armenia conventional short form: Armenia local long form: Hayastani Hanrapetut'yun local short form: Hayastan former: Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, Armenian Republic etymology: the etymology of the country's name remains obscure; according to tradition, the country is named after Hayk, the legendary patriarch of the Armenians and the great-great-grandson of Noah; Hayk's descendant, Aram, purportedly is the source of the name Armenia conventional long form: none conventional short form: Aruba etymology: the origin of the island's name is unclear; according to tradition, the name comes from the Spanish phrase "oro huba" (there was gold), but in fact no gold was ever found on the island; another possibility is the native word "oruba," which means "well situated" conventional long form: Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands conventional short form: Ashmore and Cartier Islands etymology: named after British Captain Samuel ASHMORE, who first sighted his namesake island in 1811, and after the ship Cartier, from which the second island was discovered in 1800 conventional long form: Commonwealth of Australia conventional short form: Australia abbreviation: AS etymology: the name Australia derives from the Latin "australis" meaning "southern"; the Australian landmass was long referred to as "Terra Australis" or the Southern Land conventional long form: Republic of Austria conventional short form: Austria local long form: Republik Oesterreich local short form: Oesterreich etymology: the name Oesterreich means "eastern realm" or "eastern march" and dates to the 10th century; the designation refers to the fact that Austria was the easternmost extension of Bavaria, and in fact of all the Germans; the word Austria is a Latinization of the German name conventional long form: Republic of Azerbaijan conventional short form: Azerbaijan local long form: Azarbaycan Respublikasi local short form: Azarbaycan former: Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic etymology: the name translates as "Land of fire" and refers to naturally occurring surface fires on ancient oil pools or from natural gas discharges conventional long form: Commonwealth of The Bahamas conventional short form: The Bahamas etymology: name derives from the Spanish "baha mar," meaning "shallow sea," which describes the shallow waters of the Bahama Banks conventional long form: Kingdom of Bahrain conventional short form: Bahrain local long form: Mamlakat al Bahrayn local short form: Al Bahrayn former: Dilmun, State of Bahrain etymology: the name means "the two seas" in Arabic and refers to the water bodies surrounding the archipelago conventional long form: People's Republic of Bangladesh conventional short form: Bangladesh local long form: Gana Prajatantri Bangladesh local short form: Bangladesh former: East Bengal, East Pakistan etymology: the name - a compound of the Bengali words "Bangla" (Bengal) and "desh" (country) - means "Country of Bengal" conventional long form: none conventional short form: Barbados etymology: the name derives from the Portuguese "as barbadas," which means "the bearded ones" and can refer either to the long, hanging roots of the island's bearded-fig trees or to the alleged beards of the native Carib inhabitants conventional long form: Republic of Belarus conventional short form: Belarus local long form: Respublika Byelarus'/Respublika Belarus' local short form: Byelarus'/Belarus' former: Belorussian (Byelorussian) Soviet Socialist Republic etymology: the name is a compound of the Belarusian words "bel" (white) and "Rus" (the Old East Slavic ethnic designation) to form the meaning White Rusian or White Ruthenian conventional long form: Kingdom of Belgium conventional short form: Belgium local long form: Royaume de Belgique (French)/Koninkrijk Belgie (Dutch)/Koenigreich Belgien (German) local short form: Belgique/Belgie/Belgien etymology: the name derives from the Belgae, an ancient Celtic tribal confederation that inhabited an area between the English Channel and the west bank of the Rhine in the first centuries B.C. conventional short form: Bermuda former: Somers Islands etymology: the islands making up Bermuda are named after Juan de BERMUDEZ, an early 16th century Spanish sea captain and the first European explorer of the archipelago conventional long form: Kingdom of Bhutan conventional short form: Bhutan local long form: Druk Gyalkhap local short form: Druk Yul etymology: named after the Bhotia, the ethnic Tibetans who migrated from Tibet to Bhutan; Bod is the Tibetan name for their land; the Bhutanese name "Druk Yul" means "Land of the Thunder Dragon" conventional long form: Plurinational State of Bolivia conventional short form: Bolivia local long form: Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia local short form: Bolivia etymology: the country is named after Simon BOLIVAR, a 19th-century leader in the South American wars for independence conventional short form: British Virgin Islands abbreviation: BVI etymology: the myriad islets, cays, and rocks surrounding the major islands reminded explorer Christopher COLUMBUS in 1493 of Saint Ursula and her 11,000 virgin followers (Santa Ursula y las Once Mil Virgenes), which over time shortened to the Virgins (las Virgenes) conventional long form: Brunei Darussalam conventional short form: Brunei local long form: Negara Brunei Darussalam local short form: Brunei etymology: derivation of the name is unclear; according to legend, MUHAMMAD SHAH, who would become the first sultan of Brunei, upon discovering what would become Brunei exclaimed "Baru nah," which roughly translates as "there" or "that's it" conventional long form: Republic of Bulgaria conventional short form: Bulgaria local long form: Republika Bulgaria local short form: Bulgaria etymology: named after the Bulgar tribes who settled the lower Balkan region in the 7th century A.D. conventional short form: Burkina Faso local long form: none local short form: Burkina Faso former: Upper Volta, Republic of Upper Volta etymology: name translates as "Land of the honest (incorruptible) men" conventional long form: Union of Burma conventional short form: Burma local long form: Pyidaungzu Thammada Myanma Naingngandaw (translated as the Republic of the Union of Myanmar) local short form: Myanma Naingngandaw former: Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma, Union of Myanmar note: since 1989 the military authorities in Burma and the current parliamentary government have promoted the name Myanmar as a conventional name for their state; the US Government has not adopted the name etymology: both "Burma" and "Myanmar" derive from the name of the majority Burmese Bamar ethnic group conventional long form: Republic of Burundi conventional short form: Burundi local long form: Republique du Burundi/Republika y'u Burundi local short form: Burundi conventional long form: Republic of Cabo Verde conventional short form: Cabo Verde local long form: Republica de Cabo Verde local short form: Cabo Verde etymology: the name derives from Cap-Vert (Green Cape) on the Senegalese coast, the westernmost point of Africa and the nearest mainland to the islands conventional long form: Kingdom of Cambodia conventional short form: Cambodia local long form: Preahreacheanachakr Kampuchea (phonetic transliteration) local short form: Kampuchea Kampuchea former: Khmer Republic, Democratic Kampuchea, People's Republic of Kampuchea, State of Cambodia etymology: the English name Cambodia is an anglicization of the French Cambodge, which is the French transliteration of the native name Kampuchea conventional long form: Republic of Cameroon conventional short form: Cameroon local long form: Republique du Cameroun/Republic of Cameroon local short form: Cameroun/Cameroon former: French Cameroon, British Cameroon, Federal Republic of Cameroon, United Republic of Cameroon etymology: in the 15th century, Portuguese explorers named the area near the mouth of the Wouri River the Rio dos Camaroes (River of Prawns) after the abundant shrimp in the water; over time the designation became Cameroon in English; this is the only instance where a country is named afer a crustacean conventional long form: none conventional short form: Canada conventional long form: none conventional short form: Cayman Islands etymology: the islands' name comes from the native Carib word "caiman," describing the marine crocodiles living there conventional long form: Central African Republic conventional short form: none local long form: Republique Centrafricaine local short form: none former: Ubangi-Shari, Central African Empire abbreviation: CAR etymology: self-descriptive name specifying the country's location on the continent; "Africa" is derived from the Roman designation of the area corresponding to present-day Tunisia "Africa terra," which meant "Land of the Afri" (the tribe resident in that area), but which eventually came to mean the entire continent conventional long form: Republic of Chad conventional short form: Chad local long form: Republique du Tchad/Jumhuriyat Tshad local short form: Tchad/Tshad etymology: named for Lake Chad, which lies along the country's western border; the word "tsade" means "large body of water" or "lake" in several local native languages conventional long form: Republic of Chile conventional short form: Chile local long form: Republica de Chile local short form: Chile etymology: derivation of the name is unclear, but it may come from the Mapuche word "chilli" meaning "limit of the earth" or from the Quechua "chiri" meaning "cold" conventional long form: People's Republic of China conventional short form: China local long form: Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo local short form: Zhongguo abbreviation: PRC etymology: English name derives from the Qin (Chin) rulers of the 3rd century B.C., who comprised the first imperial dynasty of ancient China; the Chinese name Zhongguo translates as "Central Nation" conventional long form: Territory of Christmas Island conventional short form: Christmas Island etymology: named by English Captain William MYNORS for the day of its discovery, Christmas Day (25 December 1643) conventional short form: Clipperton Island local long form: none local short form: Ile Clipperton former: sometimes referred to as Ile de la Passion or Atoll Clipperton etymology: named after an 18th-century English pirate who supposedly used the island as a base conventional long form: Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands conventional short form: Cocos (Keeling) Islands etymology: the name refers to the abundant coconut trees on the islands and to English Captain William KEELING, the first European to sight the islands in 1609 conventional long form: Republic of Colombia conventional short form: Colombia local long form: Republica de Colombia local short form: Colombia conventional long form: Union of the Comoros conventional short form: Comoros local long form: Udzima wa Komori (Comorian); Union des Comores (French); Jumhuriyat al Qamar al Muttahidah (Arabic) local short form: Komori (Comorian); Comores (French); Juzur al Qamar (Arabic) etymology: name derives from the Arabic designation "Juzur al Qamar" meaning "Islands of the Moon" conventional long form: Democratic Republic of the Congo conventional short form: DRC local long form: Republique Democratique du Congo local short form: RDC former: Congo Free State, Belgian Congo, Congo/Leopoldville, Congo/Kinshasa, Zaire abbreviation: DRC etymology: named for the Congo River, most of which lies within the DRC; the river name derives from Kongo, a Bantu kingdom that occupied its mouth at the time of Portuguese discovery in the late 15th century and whose name stems from its people the Bakongo, meaning "hunters" conventional long form: Republic of the Congo conventional short form: Congo (Brazzaville) local long form: Republique du Congo local short form: Congo former: French Congo, Middle Congo, People's Republic of the Congo, Congo/Brazzaville etymology: named for the Congo River, which makes up much of the country's eastern border; the river name derives from Kongo, a Bantu kingdom that occupied its mouth at the time of Portuguese discovery in the late 15th century and whose name stems from its people the Bakongo, meaning "hunters" conventional long form: none conventional short form: Cook Islands etymology: named after Captain James COOK, the British explorer who visited the islands in 1773 and 1777 conventional long form: Coral Sea Islands Territory conventional short form: Coral Sea Islands etymology: self-descriptive name to reflect the islands' position in the Coral Sea off the northeastern coast of Australia conventional long form: Republic of Costa Rica conventional short form: Costa Rica local long form: Republica de Costa Rica local short form: Costa Rica etymology: the name means "rich coast" in Spanish and was first applied in the early colonial period of the 16th century conventional long form: Republic of Cote d'Ivoire conventional short form: Cote d'Ivoire local long form: Republique de Cote d'Ivoire local short form: Cote d'Ivoire note: pronounced coat-div-whar former: Ivory Coast etymology: name reflects the intense ivory trade that took place in the region from the 15th to 17th centuries conventional long form: Republic of Croatia conventional short form: Croatia local long form: Republika Hrvatska local short form: Hrvatska former: People's Republic of Croatia, Socialist Republic of Croatia etymology: name derives from the Croats, a Slavic tribe who migrated to the Balkans in the 7th century A.D. conventional long form: Republic of Cuba conventional short form: Cuba local long form: Republica de Cuba local short form: Cuba Dutch long form: Land Curacao Dutch short form: Curacao Papiamentu long form: Pais Korsou Papiamentu short form: Korsou former: Netherlands Antilles; Curacao and Dependencies etymology: the most plausible name derivation is that the island was designated Isla de la Curacion (Spanish meaning "Island of the Cure" or "Island of Healing") or Ilha da Curacao (Portuguese meaning the same) to reflect the locale's function as a recovery stop for sick crewmen conventional long form: Republic of Cyprus conventional short form: Cyprus local long form: Kypriaki Dimokratia/Kibris Cumhuriyeti local short form: Kypros/Kibris note: the Turkish Cypriot community, which administers the northern part of the island, refers to itself as the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" or "TRNC" ("Kuzey Kibris Turk Cumhuriyeti" or "KKTC") etymology: the derivation of the name "Cyprus" is unknown, but the extensive mining of copper metal on the island in antiquity gave rise to the Latin word "cuprum" for copper conventional long form: Czech Republic conventional short form: Czechia local long form: Ceska republika local short form: Cesko etymology: name derives from the Czechs, a West Slavic tribe who rose to prominence in the late 9th century A.D. conventional long form: Kingdom of Denmark conventional short form: Denmark local long form: Kongeriget Danmark local short form: Danmark etymology: the name derives from the words "Dane(s)" and "mark"; the latter referring to a march (borderland) or forest conventional long form: Republic of Djibouti conventional short form: Djibouti local long form: Republique de Djibouti/Jumhuriyat Jibuti local short form: Djibouti/Jibuti former: French Territory of the Afars and Issas, French Somaliland etymology: the country name derives from the capital city of Djibouti conventional long form: Commonwealth of Dominica conventional short form: Dominica etymology: the island was named by explorer Christopher COLUMBUS for the day of the week on which he spotted it, Sunday ("Domingo" in Latin), 3 November 1493 conventional long form: Dominican Republic conventional short form: The Dominican local long form: Republica Dominicana local short form: La Dominicana etymology: the country name derives from the capital city of Santo Domingo (Saint Dominic) conventional long form: Republic of Ecuador conventional short form: Ecuador local long form: Republica del Ecuador local short form: Ecuador conventional long form: Arab Republic of Egypt conventional short form: Egypt local long form: Jumhuriyat Misr al-Arabiyah local short form: Misr former: United Arab Republic (with Syria) etymology: the English name "Egypt" derives from the ancient Greek name for the country "Aigyptos"; the Arabic name "Misr" can be traced to the ancient Akkadian "misru" meaning border or frontier conventional long form: Republic of El Salvador conventional short form: El Salvador local long form: Republica de El Salvador local short form: El Salvador etymology: name is an abbreviation of the original Spanish conquistador designation for the area "Provincia de Nuestro Senor Jesus Cristo, el Salvador del Mundo" (Province of Our Lord Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the World), which became simply "El Salvador" (The Savior) conventional long form: Republic of Equatorial Guinea conventional short form: Equatorial Guinea local long form: Republica de Guinea Ecuatorial/Republique de Guinee Equatoriale local short form: Guinea Ecuatorial/Guinee Equatoriale former: Spanish Guinea etymology: the country is named for the Guinea region of West Africa that lies along the Gulf of Guinea and stretches north to the Sahel; the "equatorial" refers to the fact that the country lies just north of the Equator conventional long form: State of Eritrea conventional short form: Eritrea local long form: Hagere Ertra local short form: Ertra former: Eritrea Autonomous Region in Ethiopia etymology: the country name derives from the ancient Greek appellation "Erythra Thalassa" meaning Red Sea, which is the major water body bordering the country conventional long form: Republic of Estonia conventional short form: Estonia local long form: Eesti Vabariik local short form: Eesti former: Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic etymology: the country name may be derived from the Aesti, an ancient people who lived along the eastern Baltic Sea in the first centuries A.D. conventional long form: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia conventional short form: Ethiopia local long form: Ityop'iya Federalawi Demokrasiyawi Ripeblik local short form: Ityop'iya former: Abyssinia, Italian East Africa abbreviation: FDRE etymology: the country name derives from the Greek word "Aethiopia," which in classical times referred to lands south of Egypt in the Upper Nile region conventional long form: none conventional short form: Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) etymology: the archipelago takes its name from the Falkland Sound, the strait separating the two main islands; the channel itself was named after the Viscount of Falkland who sponsored an expedition to the islands in 1690; the Spanish name for the archipelago derives from the French "Iles Malouines," the name applied to the islands by French explorer Louis-Antoine de BOUGAINVILLE in 1764 conventional long form: Republic of Fiji conventional short form: Fiji local long form: Republic of Fiji/Matanitu ko Viti local short form: Fiji/Viti etymology: the Fijians called their home Viti, but the neighboring Tongans called it Fisi, and in the Anglicized spelling of the Tongan pronunciation - promulgated by explorer Captain James COOK - the designation became Fiji conventional long form: Republic of Finland conventional short form: Finland local long form: Suomen tasavalta/Republiken Finland local short form: Suomi/Finland etymology: name may derive from the ancient Fenni peoples who are first described as living in northeastern Europe in the first centuries A.D. conventional long form: French Republic conventional short form: France local long form: Republique francaise local short form: France etymology: name derives from the Latin "Francia" meaning "Land of the Franks"; the Franks were a group of Germanic tribes located along the middle and lower Rhine River in the 3rd century A.D. who merged with Gallic-Roman populations in succeeding centuries and to whom they passed on their name conventional long form: Overseas Lands of French Polynesia conventional short form: French Polynesia local long form: Pays d'outre-mer de la Polynesie Francaise local short form: Polynesie Francaise former: French Colony of Oceania etymology: the term "Polynesia" is an 18th-century construct composed of two Greek words, "poly" (many) and "nesoi" (islands), and refers to the more than 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean conventional long form: Territory of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands conventional short form: French Southern and Antarctic Lands local long form: Territoire des Terres Australes et Antarctiques Francaises local short form: Terres Australes et Antarctiques Francaises abbreviation: TAAF local short form: Sak'art'velo former: Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic etymology: the Western name may derive from the Persian designation "gurgan" meaning "Land of the wolves"; the native name "Sak'art'velo" means "Land of the Kartvelians" and refers to the core central Georgian region of Kartli conventional long form: Federal Republic of Germany conventional short form: Germany local long form: Bundesrepublik Deutschland local short form: Deutschland former: German Empire, German Republic, German Reich etymology: the Gauls (Celts) of Western Europe may have referred to the newly arriving Germanic tribes who settled in neighboring areas east of the Rhine during the first centuries B.C. as "Germani," a term the Romans adopted as "Germania"; the native designation "Deutsch" comes from the Old High German "diutisc" meaning "of the people" conventional long form: Republic of Ghana conventional short form: Ghana former: Gold Coast etymology: named for the medieval West African kingdom of the same name, but whose location was actually further north than the modern country conventional long form: none conventional short form: Gibraltar etymology: from the Spanish derivation of the Arabic "Jabal Tariq," which means "Mountain of Tariq" and which refers to the Rock of Gibraltar conventional long form: Hellenic Republic conventional short form: Greece local long form: Elliniki Dimokratia local short form: Ellas or Ellada former: Hellenic State, Kingdom of Greece etymology: the English name derives from the Roman (Latin) designation "Graecia," meaning "Land of the Greeks"; the Greeks call their country "Hellas" or "Ellada" conventional long form: Bailiwick of Guernsey conventional short form: Guernsey etymology: the name is of Old Norse origin, but the meaning of the root "Guern(s)" is uncertain; the "-ey" ending means "island" `conventional long form: Republic of Guinea-Bissau conventional short form: Guinea-Bissau local long form: Republica da Guine-Bissau local short form: Guine-Bissau former: Portuguese Guinea note: the country is named after the Guinea region of West Africa that lies along the Gulf of Guinea and stretches north to the Sahel; "Bissau" distinguishes the country from neighboring Guinea conventional long form: Republic of Guinea conventional short form: Guinea local long form: Republique de Guinee local short form: Guinee former: French Guinea note: the country is named after the Guinea region of West Africa that lies along the Gulf of Guinea and stretches north to the Sahel conventional long form: Cooperative Republic of Guyana conventional short form: Guyana former: British Guiana etymology: the name is derived from Guiana, the original name for the region that included British Guiana, Dutch Guiana, and French Guiana; ultimately the word is derived from an indigenous Amerindian language and means "land of many waters" (referring to the area's multitude of rivers and streams) conventional long form: Republic of Haiti conventional short form: Haiti local long form: Republique d'Haiti/Repiblik d Ayiti local short form: Haiti/Ayiti etymology: the native Taino name means "land of high mountains" and was originally applied to the entire island of Hispaniola conventional long form: Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands conventional short form: Heard Island and McDonald Islands abbreviation: HIMI etymology: named after American Captain John HEARD, who sighted the island on 25 November 1853, and American Captain William McDONALD, who discovered the islands on 4 January 1854 conventional long form: The Holy See (Vatican City State) conventional short form: Holy See (Vatican City) local long form: La Santa Sede (Stato della Citta del Vaticano) local short form: Santa Sede (Citta del Vaticano) etymology: "holy" comes from the Greek word "hera" meaning "sacred"; "see" comes from the Latin word "sedes" meaning "seat," and refers to the episcopal chair; the term "Vatican" derives from the hill Mons Vaticanus on which the Vatican is located and which comes from the Latin "vaticinari" (to prophecy), referring to the fortune tellers and soothsayers who frequented the area in Roman times conventional long form: Republic of Honduras conventional short form: Honduras local long form: Republica de Honduras local short form: Honduras etymology: the name means "depths" in Spanish and refers to the deep anchorage in the northern Bay of Trujillo conventional long form: Hong Kong Special Administrative Region conventional short form: Hong Kong local long form: Heung Kong Takpit Hangching Ku (Eitel/Dyer-Ball); Xianggang Tebie Xingzhengqu (Hanyu Pinyin) local short form: Heung Kong (Eitel/Dyer-Ball); Xianggang (Hanyu Pinyin) abbreviation: HK local long form: none local short form: Magyarorszag etymology: the Byzantine Greeks refered to the tribes that arrived on the steppes of Eastern Europe in the 9th century as the "Oungroi," a name that was later Latinized to "Ungri" and which became "Hungari"; the name originally meant an "[alliance of] ten tribes"; the Hungarian name "Magyarorszag" means "Land of the Magyars"; the term may derive from the most prominent of the Hungarian tribes, the Megyer conventional long form: Republic of Iceland conventional short form: Iceland local long form: Lydveldid Island local short form: Island etymology: Floki VILGERDARSON, an early explorer of the island (9th century), applied the name "land of ice" after spotting a fjord full of drift ice to the north and spending a bitter winter on the island; he eventually settled on the island, however, after he saw how it greened up in the summer and that it was in fact habitable conventional long form: Republic of India conventional short form: India local long form: Republic of India/Bharatiya Ganarajya local short form: India/Bharat etymology: the English name derives from the Indus River; the Indian name "Bharat" may derive from the "Bharatas" tribe mentioned in the Vedas of the second millennium B.C.; the name is also associated with Emperor Bharata, the legendary conqueror of all of India conventional long form: State of Israel conventional short form: Israel local long form: Medinat Yisra'el local short form: Yisra'el etymology: named after the ancient Kingdom of Israel; according to Biblical tradition, the Jewish patriarch Jacob received the name "Israel" ("He who struggles with God") after he wrestled an entire night with an angel of the Lord; Jacob's 12 sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel, who formed the Kingdom of Israel conventional long form: Italian Republic conventional short form: Italy local long form: Repubblica Italiana local short form: Italia former: Kingdom of Italy etymology: derivation is unclear, but the Latin "Italia" may come from the Oscan "Viteliu" meaning "[land] of young cattle" (the bull was a symbol of southern Italic tribes) conventional long form: none conventional short form: Jamaica etymology: from the native Taino word "haymaca" meaning "land of wood and water" or possibly "land of springs" conventional long form: none conventional short form: Jan Mayen etymology: named after Dutch Captain Jan Jacobszoon MAY, one of the first explorers to reach the island in 1614 local long form: Nihon-koku/Nippon-koku local short form: Nihon/Nippon etymology: the English word for Japan comes via the Chinese name for the country "Cipangu"; both Nihon and Nippon mean "where the sun originates" and are frequently translated as "Land of the rising sun" conventional long form: none conventional short form: Jarvis Island etymology: named after three brothers JARVIS, the owners of the British ship from which the island was discovered in 1821 conventional long form: Bailiwick of Jersey conventional short form: Jersey etymology: the name is of Old Norse origin, but the meaning of the root "Jer(s)" is uncertain; the "-ey" ending means "island" conventional long form: none conventional short form: Johnston Atoll etymology: although first encountered in 1796, the islands were named after Captain Charles JOHNSTON who sighted them in 1807 conventional long form: Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan conventional short form: Jordan local long form: Al Mamlakah al Urduniyah al Hashimiyah local short form: Al Urdun former: Transjordan conventional long form: Republic of Kazakhstan conventional short form: Kazakhstan local long form: Qazaqstan Respublikasy local short form: Qazaqstan former: Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic etymology: the name "Kazakh" derives from the Turkic word "kaz" meaning "to wander," recalling the Kazakh's nomadic lifestyle; the Persian suffix "-stan" means "place of" or "country," so the word Kazakhstan literally means "Land of the wanderers" conventional long form: Republic of Kenya conventional short form: Kenya local long form: Republic of Kenya/Jamhuri ya Kenya local short form: Kenya former: British East Africa etymolgy: named for Mount Kenya; the meaning of the name is unclear but may derive from the Kikuyu, Embu, and Kamba words "kirinyaga," "kirenyaa," and "kiinyaa" - all of which mean "God's resting place" conventional long form: none conventional short form: Kingman Reef etymology: although discovered in 1798, the reef is named after Captain W. E. KINGMAN who described it in 1853 conventional long form: Republic of Kiribati conventional short form: Kiribati local long form: Republic of Kiribati local short form: Kiribati note: pronounced keer-ree-bahss former: Gilbert Islands etymology: the name is the local pronounciation of "Gilberts," the former designation of the islands; originally named after explorer Thomas GILBERT, who mapped many of the islands in 1788 conventional long form: Democratic People's Republic of Korea conventional short form: North Korea local long form: Choson-minjujuui-inmin-konghwaguk local short form: Choson abbreviation: DPRK etymology: derived from the Chinese name for Goryeo, which was the Korean dynasty that united the peninsula in the 10th century A.D.; the North Korean name "Choson" means "[land of the] morning calm" conventional long form: Republic of Korea conventional short form: South Korea local long form: Taehan-min'guk local short form: Han'guk abbreviation: ROK etymology: derived from the Chinese name for Goryeo, which was the Korean dynasty that united the peninsula in the 10th century A.D.; the South Korean name "Han'guk" means "land of the Han," where "han" may have its origins in the native root for "great [leader]" (similar to the title "khan") conventional long form: Republic of Kosovo conventional short form: Kosovo local long form: Republika e Kosoves (Republika Kosovo) local short form: Kosova (Kosovo) etymology: name derives from the Serbian "kos" meaning "blackbird," an ellipsis (linguistic omission) for "kosove polje" or "field of the blackbirds" conventional long form: State of Kuwait conventional short form: Kuwait local long form: Dawlat al Kuwayt local short form: Al Kuwayt etymology: the name derives from the capital city, which is from Arabic "al-Kuwayt" a diminutive of "kut" meaning "fortress encircled by water" conventional long form: Kyrgyz Republic conventional short form: Kyrgyzstan local long form: Kyrgyz Respublikasy local short form: Kyrgyzstan former: Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic etymology: a combination of the Turkic words "kyrg" (forty) and "-yz" (tribes) with the Persian suffix "-stan" (country) creating the meaning "Land of the forty tribes"; the name refers to the forty clans united by the legendary Kyrgyz hero, MANAS conventional long form: Lao People's Democratic Republic conventional short form: Laos local long form: Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao local short form: Mueang Lao (unofficial) etymology: name means "Land of the Lao [people]" conventional long form: Republic of Latvia conventional short form: Latvia local long form: Latvijas Republika local short form: Latvija former: Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic etymology: the name "Latvia" originates from the ancient Latgalians, one of four eastern Baltic tribes that formed the ethnic core of the Latvian people (ca. 8th-12th centuries A.D.) conventional long form: Lebanese Republic conventional short form: Lebanon local long form: Al Jumhuriyah al Lubnaniyah local short form: Lubnan local long form: none local short form: Libiya note: name derives from the Libu, an ancient Libyan tribe first mentioned in texts from the 13th century B.C. conventional long form: Principality of Liechtenstein conventional short form: Liechtenstein local long form: Fuerstentum Liechtenstein local short form: Liechtenstein etymology: named after the Liechtenstein dynasty that purchased and united the counties of Schellenburg and Vaduz and that were allowed by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1719 to rename the new property after their family; the name in German means "light (bright) stone" conventional long form: Republic of Lithuania conventional short form: Lithuania local long form: Lietuvos Respublika local short form: Lietuva former: Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic etymology: meaning of the name "Lietuva" remains unclear; it may derive from the Lietava, a stream in east central Lithuania conventional long form: Grand Duchy of Luxembourg conventional short form: Luxembourg local long form: Grand Duchee de Luxembourg local short form: Luxembourg etymology: from the Celtic "lucilem" (little) and the German "burg" (castle or fortress) to produce the meaning of the "little castle" conventional long form: Macau Special Administrative Region conventional short form: Macau official long form: Aomen Tebie Xingzhengqu (Chinese); Regiao Administrativa Especial de Macau (Portuguese) official short form: Aomen (Chinese); Macau (Portuguese) etymology: name is thought to derive from the A-Ma Temple - built in 1488 and dedicated to Mazu, the goddess of seafarers and fishermen - which is referred to locally as "Maa Gok" and which in Portuguese became "Macau"; the Chinese name Aomen means "inlet gates" conventional long form: Republic of Macedonia conventional short form: Macedonia local long form: Republika Makedonija local short form: Makedonija note: the provisional designation used by the UN, EU, and NATO is the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" (FYROM) former: People's Republic of Macedonia, Socialist Republic of Macedonia etymology: the country name derives from the ancient kingdom of Macedon (7th to 2nd centuries B.C.) conventional long form: Republic of Madagascar conventional short form: Madagascar local long form: Republique de Madagascar/Repoblikan'i Madagasikara local short form: Madagascar/Madagasikara former: Malagasy Republic note: the name "Madageiscar" was first used by the 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco POLO, as a corrupted transliteration of Mogadishu, the Somali port with which POLO confused the island conventional long form: Republic of Malawi conventional short form: Malawi local long form: Dziko la Malawi local short form: Malawi former: British Central African Protectorate, Nyasaland Protectorate, Nyasaland etymology: named for the East African Maravi kingdom of the 16th century; the word "maravi" means "fire flames" conventional long form: Republic of Maldives conventional short form: Maldives local long form: Dhivehi Raajjeyge Jumhooriyyaa local short form: Dhivehi Raajje etymology: archipelago apparently named after the main island (and capital) of Male; the word "Maldives" means "the islands (dives) of Male"; alternatively, the name may derive from the Sanskrit word "maladvipa" meaning "garland of islands"; Dhivehi Raajje in Maldivian means "Kingdom of the Dhivehi people" conventional long form: Republic of Mali conventional short form: Mali local long form: Republique de Mali local short form: Mali former: French Sudan and Sudanese Republic note: name derives from the West African Mali Empire of the 13th to 16th centuries A.D. conventional long form: Republic of Malta conventional short form: Malta local long form: Repubblika ta' Malta local short form: Malta etymology: the ancient Greeks called the island "Melite" meaning "honey-sweet" from the Greek word "meli" meaning "honey" and referring to the island's honey production conventional long form: Republic of the Marshall Islands conventional short form: Marshall Islands local long form: Republic of the Marshall Islands local short form: Marshall Islands abbreviation: RMI former: Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Marshall Islands District etymology: named after British Captain John MARSHALL, who charted many of the islands in 1788 conventional long form: Islamic Republic of Mauritania conventional short form: Mauritania local long form: Al Jumhuriyah al Islamiyah al Muritaniyah local short form: Muritaniyah etymology: named for the ancient Kingdom of Mauretania (3rd century B.C. to 1st century A.D.), which existed further north in present-day Morocco; the name derives from the Mauri (Moors), the Berber-speaking peoples of northwest Africa conventional long form: Republic of Mauritius conventional short form: Mauritius local long form: Republic of Mauritius local short form: Mauritius conventional long form: United Mexican States conventional short form: Mexico local long form: Estados Unidos Mexicanos local short form: Mexico etymology: named after the Mexica, the largest and most powerful branch of the Aztecs; the meaning of the name is uncertain conventional long form: Federated States of Micronesia conventional short form: none local long form: Federated States of Micronesia local short form: none former: Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Ponape, Truk, and Yap Districts abbreviation: FSM etymology: the term "Micronesia" is a 19th-century construct of two Greek words, "micro" (small) and "nesoi" (islands), and refers to thousands of small islands in the western Pacific Ocean conventional long form: none conventional short form: Midway Islands etymology: originally named the Middlebrook Islands after the US captain who discovered them in 1859; the name became Midway later in the 19th century and reflects the islands' position in the North Pacific Ocean roughly equidistant between North America and Asia conventional long form: Republic of Moldova conventional short form: Moldova local long form: Republica Moldova local short form: Moldova former: Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic, Moldovan Soviet Socialist Republic etymology: named for the Moldova River in neighboring eastern Romania conventional long form: Principality of Monaco conventional short form: Monaco local long form: Principaute de Monaco local short form: Monaco etymology: founded as a Greek colony in the 6th century B.C., the name derives from two Greek words "monos" (single, alone) and "oikos" (house) to convey the sense of a people "living apart" or in a "single habitation" local short form: Crna Gora former: People's Republic of Montenegro, Socialist Republic of Montenegro, Republic of Montenegro etymology: the country's name locally as well as in most Western European languages means "black mountain" and refers to the dark coniferous forests on Mount Lovcen and the surrounding area conventional long form: none conventional short form: Montserrat etymology: island named by explorer Christopher COLUMBUS in 1493 after the Benedictine abbey Santa Maria de Montserrat, near Barcelona, Spain conventional long form: Kingdom of Morocco conventional short form: Morocco local long form: Al Mamlakah al Maghribiyah local short form: Al Maghrib note: the English name "Morocco" derives from, respectively, the Spanish and Portuguese names "Marruecos" and "Marrocos," which stem from "Marrakesh" the Latin name for the former capital of ancient Morocco; the Arabic name "Al Maghrib" translates as "The West" conventional long form: Republic of Mozambique conventional short form: Mozambique local long form: Republica de Mocambique local short form: Mocambique former: Portuguese East Africa etymology: named for the offshore island of Mozambique; the island was apparently named after Mussa al-BIK, an influential Arab slave trader who set himself up as sultan on the island in the 15th century conventional long form: Republic of Namibia conventional short form: Namibia local long form: Republic of Namibia local short form: Namibia former: German South-West Africa (Deutsch Suedwest Afrika), South-West Africa etymology: named for the coastal Namib Desert; the name "namib" means "vast place" in the Nama/Damara language conventional long form: Republic of Nauru conventional short form: Nauru local long form: Republic of Nauru local short form: Nauru former: Pleasant Island etymology: the island name may derive from the Nauruan word "anaoero" meaning "I go to the beach" conventional long form: none conventional short form: Navassa Island etymology: the flat island was named "Navaza" by some of Christopher COLUMBUS' sailers in 1504; the name derives from the Spanish term "nava" meaning "flat land, plain, or field" conventional long form: Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal conventional short form: Nepal local long form: Sanghiya Loktantrik Ganatantra Nepal local short form: Nepal etymology: the Newar people of the Kathmandu Valley and surrounding areas apparently gave their name to the country; the terms "Nepal," "Newar," "Nepar," and "Newal" are phonetically different forms of the same word conventional long form: Kingdom of the Netherlands conventional short form: Netherlands local long form: Koninkrijk der Nederlanden local short form: Nederland etymology: the country name literally means "the lowlands" and refers to the geographic features of the land being both flat and down river from higher areas (i.e., at the estuaries of the Scheldt, Meuse, and Rhine Rivers; only about half of the Netherlands is more than 1 meter above sea level) conventional long form: Territory of New Caledonia and Dependencies conventional short form: New Caledonia local long form: Territoire des Nouvelle-Caledonie et Dependances local short form: Nouvelle-Caledonie etymology: British explorer Captain James COOK discovered and named New Caledonia in 1774; he used the appellation because the northeast of the island reminded him of Scotland (Caledonia is the Latin designation for Scotland) conventional short form: New Zealand abbreviation: NZ etymology: Dutch explorer Abel TASMAN was the first European to reach New Zealand in 1642; he named it Staten Landt, but Dutch cartographers renamed it Nova Zeelandia in 1645 after the Dutch province of Zeeland; British explorer Captain James COOK subsequently anglicized the name to New Zealand when he mapped the islands in 1769 conventional long form: Republic of Nicaragua conventional short form: Nicaragua local long form: Republica de Nicaragua local short form: Nicaragua etymology: Nicarao was the name of the largest indigenous settlement at the time of Spanish arrival; conquistador Gil GONZALEZ Davila, who explored the area (1622-23), combined the name of the community with the Spanish word "agua" (water), referring to the two large lakes in the west of the country (Lake Managua and Lake Nicaragua) conventional long form: Federal Republic of Nigeria conventional short form: Nigeria etymology: named for the Niger River that flows through the west of the country to the Atlantic Ocean; from a native term "Ni Gir" meaning "River Gir" conventional long form: Republic of Niger conventional short form: Niger local long form: Republique du Niger local short form: Niger etymology: named for the Niger River that passes through the southwest of the country; from a native term "Ni Gir" meaning "River Gir" note: pronunciation falls between nyu-way and new-way, but not like new-wee former: Savage Island etymology: the origin of the name is obscure; in Niuean, the word supposedly translates as "behold the coconut" conventional long form: Territory of Norfolk Island conventional short form: Norfolk Island etymology: named by British explorer Captain James COOK after Mary HOWARD, Duchess of Norfolk, in 1774 conventional long form: Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands conventional short form: Northern Mariana Islands abbreviation: CNMI former: Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Mariana Islands District etymology: formally claimed and named by Spain in 1667 in honor of the Spanish Queen, MARIANA of Austria conventional long form: Kingdom of Norway conventional short form: Norway local long form: Kongeriket Norge local short form: Norge etymology: derives from the Old Norse words "nordr" and "vegr" meaning "northern way" and refers to the long coastline of western Norway conventional long form: Sultanate of Oman conventional short form: Oman local long form: Saltanat Uman local short form: Uman former: Sultanate of Muscat and Oman etymology: the origin of the name is uncertain, but it apparently dates back at least 2,000 years since an "Omana" is mentioned by Pliny the Elder (1st century A.D.) and an "Omanon" by Ptolemy (2nd century A.D.) conventional long form: Islamic Republic of Pakistan conventional short form: Pakistan local long form: Jamhuryat Islami Pakistan local short form: Pakistan former: West Pakistan etymology: the word "pak" means "pure" in Persian or Pashto, while the Persian suffix "-stan" means "place of" or "country," so the word Pakistan literally means "Land of the pure" conventional long form: Republic of Palau conventional short form: Palau local long form: Beluu er a Belau local short form: Belau former: Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Palau District etymology: from the Palauan name for the islands, Belau, which likely derives from the Palauan word "beluu" meaning "village" conventional short form: Palmyra Atoll etymology: named for the USS Palmyra, which was shipwrecked on the reef in 1802 conventional long form: Republic of Panama conventional short form: Panama local long form: Republica de Panama local short form: Panama etymology: according to tradition, the name derives from a former indigenous fishing village and its nearby beach that were called "Panama" meaning "an abundance of fish" conventional long form: Independent State of Papua New Guinea conventional short form: Papua New Guinea local short form: Papuaniugini former: Territory of Papua and New Guinea abbreviation: PNG etymology: the word "papua" derives from the Malay "papuah" describing the frizzy hair of the Melanesians; Spanish explorer Ynigo ORTIZ de RETEZ applied the term "Nueva Guinea" to the island of New Guinea in 1545 after noting the resemblance of the locals to the peoples of the Guinea coast of Africa conventional long form: none conventional short form: Paracel Islands etymology: Portuguese navigators began to refer to the "Ilhas do Pracel" in the 16th century as a designation of low lying islets, sandbanks, and reefs scattered over a wide area; over time the name changed to "parcel" and then "paracel" conventional long form: Republic of Paraguay conventional short form: Paraguay local long form: Republica del Paraguay local short form: Paraguay etymology: the precise meaning of the name Paraguay is unclear, but it seems to derive from the river of the same name; one explanation has the name meaning "water of the Payagua" (an indigenous tribe that lived along the river) conventional long form: Republic of Peru conventional short form: Peru local long form: Republica del Peru local short form: Peru etymology: exact meaning is obscure, but the name may derive from a native word "biru" meaning "river" conventional long form: Republic of the Philippines conventional short form: Philippines local long form: Republika ng Pilipinas local short form: Pilipinas etymology: named in honor of King Phillip II of Spain by Spanish explorer Ruy LOPEZ de VILLALOBOS, who visited some of the islands in 1543 conventional long form: Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie, and Oeno Islands conventional short form: Pitcairn Islands etymology: named after Midshipman Robert PITCAIRN who first sighted the island in 1767 conventional long form: Republic of Poland conventional short form: Poland local long form: Rzeczpospolita Polska local short form: Polska etymology: name derives from the Polanians, a west Slavic tribe that united several surrounding Slavic groups (9th-10th centuries A.D.) and who passed on their name to the country; the name of the tribe likely comes from the Slavic "pole" (field or plain), indicating the flat nature of their country conventional long form: Portuguese Republic conventional short form: Portugal local long form: Republica Portuguesa local short form: Portugal etymology: name derives from the Roman designation "Portus Cale" meaning "Port of Cale"; Cale was an ancient Celtic town and port in present-day northern Portugal conventional long form: Commonwealth of Puerto Rico conventional short form: Puerto Rico etymology: Christopher COLUMBUS named the island San Juan Bautista (Saint John the Baptist) and the capital city and main port Cuidad de Puerto Rico (Rich Port City); over time, however, the names were shortened and transposed and the island came to be called Puerto Rico and its capital San Juan conventional long form: State of Qatar conventional short form: Qatar local long form: Dawlat Qatar local short form: Qatar note: closest approximation of the native pronunciation is gattar or cottar etymology: the origin of the name is uncertain, but it dates back at least 2,000 years since a term "Catharrei" was used to describe the inhabitants of the peninsula by Pliny the Elder (1st century A.D.), and a "Catara" peninsula is depicted on a map by Ptolemy (2nd century A.D.) local long form: none local short form: Romania etymology: the name derives from the Latin "Romanus" meaning "citizen of Rome" and was used to stress the common ancient heritage of Romania's three main regions - Moldavia, Transylvania, and Wallachia - during their gradual unification between the mid-19th century and early 20th century conventional long form: Russian Federation conventional short form: Russia local long form: Rossiyskaya Federatsiya local short form: Rossiya former: Russian Empire, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic etymology: Russian lands were generally referred to as Muscovy until PETER I officially declared the Russian Empire in 1721; the new name sought to invoke the patrimony of the medieval eastern European Rus state centered on Kyiv in present-day Ukraine; the Rus were a Varangian (eastern Viking) elite that imposed their rule and eventually their name on their Slavic subjects conventional long form: Republic of Rwanda conventional short form: Rwanda local long form: Republika y'u Rwanda local short form: Rwanda former: Ruanda, German East Africa etymology: the name translates as "domain" in the native Kinyarwanda language conventional long form: Overseas Collectivity of Saint Barthelemy conventional short form: Saint Barthelemy local long form: Collectivite d'outre mer de Saint-Barthelemy local short form: Saint-Barthelemy abbreviation: Saint-Barth (French); St. Barts or St. Barths (English) etymology: explorer Christopher COLUMBUS named the island in honor of his brother Bartolomeo's namesake saint in 1493 conventional long form: Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha conventional short form: none etymology: Saint Helena was discovered in 1502 by Galician navigator Joao da NOVA, sailing in the service of the Kingdom of Portugal, who named it "Santa Helena"; Ascension was named in 1503 by Portuguese navigator Afonso de ALBUQUERQUE who sighted the island on the Feast Day of the Ascension; Tristan da Cunha was discovered in 1506 by Portuguese explorer Tristao da CUNHA who christened the main island after himself (the name was subsequently anglicized) conventional long form: Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis conventional short form: Saint Kitts and Nevis former: Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis etymology: Saint Kitts was, and still is, referred to as Saint Christopher and this name was well established by the 17th century (although who first applied the name is unclear); in the 17th century a common nickname for Christopher was Kit or Kitt, so the island began to be referred to as "Saint Kitt's Island" or just "Saint Kitts"; Nevis is derived from the original Spanish name "Nuestra Senora de las Nieves" (Our Lady of the Snows) and refers to the white halo of clouds that generally wreathes Nevis Peak conventional long form: none conventional short form: Saint Lucia etymology: named after Saint LUCY of Syracuse by French sailors who were shipwrecked on the island on 13 December 1502, the saint's feast day conventional long form: Overseas Collectivity of Saint Martin conventional short form: Saint Martin local long form: Collectivite d'outre mer de Saint-Martin local short form: Saint-Martin etymology: explorer Christopher COLUMBUS named the island after Saint MARTIN of Tours because the 11 November 1493 day of discovery was the saint's feast day conventional long form: Territorial Collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon conventional short form: Saint Pierre and Miquelon local long form: Departement de Saint-Pierre et Miquelon local short form: Saint-Pierre et Miquelon etymology: Saint-Pierre is named after Saint PETER, the patron saint of fishermen; Miquelon may be a corruption of the Basque name Mikelon conventional long form: none conventional short form: Saint Vincent and the Grenadines etymology: Saint Vincent was named by explorer Christopher COLUMBUS after Saint VINCENT of Saragossa because the 22 January 1498 day of discovery was the saint's feast day conventional long form: Independent State of Samoa conventional short form: Samoa local long form: Malo Sa'oloto Tuto'atasi o Samoa local short form: Samoa former: Western Samoa note: the name "Samoa" is composed of two parts, "sa" meaning sacred and "moa" meaning center, so the name can mean Holy Center; alternatively, it can mean "place of the sacred moa bird" of Polynesian mythology conventional long form: Republic of San Marino conventional short form: San Marino local long form: Repubblica di San Marino local short form: San Marino etymology: named after Saint MARINUS, the traditional founder of the country conventional long form: Democratic Republic of Sao Tome and Principe conventional short form: Sao Tome and Principe local long form: Republica Democratica de Sao Tome e Principe local short form: Sao Tome e Principe etymology: Sao Tome was named after Saint THOMAS the Apostle by the Portuguese who discovered the island on 21 December 1470 (or 1471), the saint's feast day; Principe is a shortening of the original Portuguese name of "Ilha do Principe" (Isle of the Prince) referring to the Prince of Portugal to whom duties on the island's sugar crop were paid conventional long form: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia conventional short form: Saudi Arabia local long form: Al Mamlakah al Arabiyah as Suudiyah local short form: Al Arabiyah as Suudiyah etymology: named after the ruling dynasty of the country, the House of Saud; the name "Arabia" can be traced back many centuries B.C., the ancient Egyptians referred to the region as "Ar Rabi" conventional long form: Republic of Senegal conventional short form: Senegal local long form: Republique du Senegal local short form: Senegal former: Senegambia (along with The Gambia), Mali Federation etymology: named for the Senegal River that forms the northern border of the country; many theories exist for the origin of the river name; perhaps the most widely cited derives the name from "Azenegue," the Portuguese appellation for the Berber Zenaga people who lived north of the river conventional long form: Republic of Serbia conventional short form: Serbia local long form: Republika Srbija local short form: Srbija former: People's Republic of Serbia, Socialist Republic of Serbia etymology: the origin of the name in uncertain, but seems to be related to the name of the West Slavic Sorbs who reside in the Lusatian region in present-day eastern Germany; by tradition, the Serbs migrated from that region to the Balkans in about the 6th century A.D. conventional long form: Republic of Seychelles conventional short form: Seychelles local long form: Republic of Seychelles local short form: Seychelles etymology: named by French Captain Corneille Nicholas MORPHEY after Jean Moreau de SECHELLES, the finance minister of France, in 1756 conventional long form: Republic of Sierra Leone conventional short form: Sierra Leone local long form: Republic of Sierra Leone local short form: Sierra Leone etymology: the Portuguese explorer Pedro de SINTRA named the country "Serra Leoa" (Lion Mountains) for the impressive mountains he saw while sailing the West African coast in 1462 conventional long form: Republic of Singapore conventional short form: Singapore local long form: Republic of Singapore local short form: Singapore etymology: name derives from the Sanskrit words "singa" (lion) and "pura" (city) to describe the city-state's leonine symbol Dutch long form: Land Sint Maarten Dutch short form: Sint Maarten English long form: Country of Sint Maarten English short form: Sint Maarten former: Netherlands Antilles; Curacao and Dependencies etymology: explorer Christopher COLUMBUS named the island after Saint MARTIN of Tours because the 11 November 1493 day of discovery was the saint's feast day conventional long form: Slovak Republic conventional short form: Slovakia local long form: Slovenska republika local short form: Slovensko etymology: related to the Slavic autonym (self-designation) "Slovenin," a derivation from "slovo" (word), denoting "people who speak (the same language)" (i.e., people who understand each other) conventional long form: Republic of Slovenia conventional short form: Slovenia local long form: Republika Slovenija local short form: Slovenija former: People's Republic of Slovenia, Socialist Republic of Slovenia etymology: related to the Slavic autonym (self-designation) "Slovenin," a derivation from "slovo" (word), denoting "people who speak (the same language)" (i.e., people who understand each other) conventional short form: Solomon Islands local long form: none local short form: Solomon Islands former: British Solomon Islands etymology: Spanish explorer Alvaro de MENDANA named the isles in 1568 after the wealthy biblical King SOLOMON in the mistaken belief that the islands contained great riches conventional long form: Federal Republic of Somalia conventional short form: Somalia local long form: Jamhuuriyadda Federaalkaa Soomaaliya local short form: Soomaaliya former: Somali Republic, Somali Democratic Republic etymology: "Land of the Somali" (ethnic group) conventional long form: Republic of South Africa conventional short form: South Africa former: Union of South Africa abbreviation: RSA etymology: self-descriptive name from the country's location on the continent; "Africa" is derived from the Roman designation of the area corresponding to present-day Tunisia "Africa terra," which meant "Land of the Afri" (the tribe resident in that area), but which eventually came to mean the entire continent Southern Ocean etymology: the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) included the ocean and its definition as the waters south of 60 degrees south in its year 2000 revision, but this has not formally been adopted; the 2000 IHO definition, however, was circulated in a draft edition in 2002 and has acquired de facto usage by many nations and organizations, including the CIA conventional long form: South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands conventional short form: South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands abbreviation: SGSSI etymology: South Georgia was named "the Isle of Georgia" in 1775 by Captain James COOK in honor of British King GEORGE III; the explorer also discovered the Sandwich Islands Group that year, which he named "Sandwich Land" after John MONTAGU, the Earl of Sandwich and First Lord of the Admiralty; the word "South" was later added to distinguish these islands from the other Sandwich Islands, now known as the Hawaiian Islands conventional long form: Republic of South Sudan conventional short form: South Sudan etymology: self-descriptive name from the country's former position within Sudan prior to independence; the name "Sudan" derives from the Arabic "bilad-as-sudan" meaning "Land of the black [peoples]" conventional long form: Kingdom of Spain conventional short form: Spain local long form: Reino de Espana local short form: Espana etymology: derivation of the name "Espana" is uncertain, but may come from the Phoenician term "span," related to the word "spy," meaning "to forge metals," so, "i-spn-ya" would mean "place where metals are forged"; the ancient Phoenicians long exploited the Iberian Peninsula for its mineral wealth conventional long form: none conventional short form: Spratly Islands etymology: named after a British whaling captain Richard SPRATLY, who sighted Spratly Island in 1843; the name of the island eventually passed to the entire archipelago conventional long form: Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka conventional short form: Sri Lanka local long form: Shri Lanka Prajatantrika Samajavadi Janarajaya/Ilankai Jananayaka Choshalichak Kutiyarachu local short form: Shri Lanka/Ilankai former: Serendib, Ceylon conventional long form: Republic of Suriname conventional short form: Suriname local long form: Republiek Suriname local short form: Suriname former: Netherlands Guiana, Dutch Guiana etymology: name may derive from the indigenous "Surinen" people who inhabited the area at the time of European contact conventional long form: none conventional short form: Svalbard (sometimes referred to as Spitsbergen, the largest island in the archipelago) etymology: 12th century Norse accounts speak of the discovery of a "Svalbard" - literally "cold shores" - but they may have referred to Jan Mayen island or eastern Greenland; the archipelago was traditionally known as Spitsbergen, but Norway renamed it Svalbard in the 1920s when it assumed sovereignty of the islands conventional long form: Kingdom of Swaziland conventional short form: Swaziland local long form: Umbuso weSwatini local short form: eSwatini etymology: "Land of the Swazi" people; the name "Swazi" derives from 19th century King MSWATI II, under whose rule Swazi territory was expanded and unified conventional long form: Kingdom of Sweden conventional short form: Sweden local long form: Konungariket Sverige local short form: Sverige etymology: name ultimately derives from the North Germanic Svear tribe, which inhabited central Sweden and is first mentioned in the first centuries A.D. conventional long form: Swiss Confederation conventional short form: Switzerland local long form: Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft (German); Confederation Suisse (French); Confederazione Svizzera (Italian); Confederaziun Svizra (Romansh) local short form: Schweiz (German); Suisse (French); Svizzera (Italian); Svizra (Romansh) etymology: name derives from the canton of Schwyz, one of the founding cantons of the Old Swiss Confederacy that formed in the 14th century conventional long form: Syrian Arab Republic conventional short form: Syria local long form: Al Jumhuriyah al Arabiyah as Suriyah local short form: Suriyah former: United Arab Republic (with Egypt) etymology: name ultimately derived from the ancient Assyrians who dominated northern Mesopotamia, but whose reach also extended westward to the Levant; over time, the name came to be associated more with the western area local short form: Taiwan former: Formosa etymology: "Tayowan" was the name of the coastal sandbank where the Dutch erected their colonial headquarters on the island in the 17th century; the former name "Formosa" means "beautiful" in Portuguese conventional long form: Republic of Tajikistan conventional short form: Tajikistan local long form: Jumhurii Tojikiston local short form: Tojikiston former: Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic etymology: the Persian suffix "-stan" means "place of" or "country," so the word Tajikistan literally means "Land of the Tajik [people]" conventional long form: United Republic of Tanzania conventional short form: Tanzania local long form: Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania local short form: Tanzania former: United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar note: the country's name is a combination of the first letters of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, the two states that merged to form Tanzania in 1964 conventional long form: Kingdom of Thailand conventional short form: Thailand local long form: Ratcha Anachak Thai local short form: Prathet Thai former: Siam etymology: "Land of the Tai [People]"; the meaning of "tai" is uncertain, but may originally have meant "human beings" or "people" conventional long form: Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste conventional short form: Timor-Leste local long form: Republika Demokratika Timor Lorosa'e [Tetum]; Republica Democratica de Timor-Leste [Portuguese] local short form: Timor Lorosa'e [Tetum]; Timor-Leste [Portuguese] former: East Timor, Portuguese Timor etymology: "timor" derives from the Indonesian and Malay word "timur" meaning "east"; "leste" is the Portuguese word for "east", so "Timor-Leste" literally means "Eastern-East"; the local [Tetum] name "Timor Lorosa'e" translates as "East Rising Sun" conventional long form: Togolese Republic conventional short form: Togo local long form: Republique Togolaise local short form: none former: French Togoland etymology: derived from the Ewe words "to" (water) and "go" (shore) to give the sense of "by the water"; originally, this designation applied to the town of Togo (now Togoville) on the northern shore of Lake Togo, but the name was eventually extended to the entire nation conventional long form: Kingdom of Tonga conventional short form: Tonga local long form: Pule'anga Tonga local short form: Tonga former: Friendly Islands etymology: "tonga" means "south" in the Tongan language and refers to the country's geographic position in relation to central Polynesia conventional long form: Republic of Trinidad and Tobago conventional short form: Trinidad and Tobago etymology: explorer Christopher COLUMBUS named the larger island "La Isla de la Trinidad" (The Island of the Trinity) on 31 July 1498 on his third voyage; the tobacco grown and smoked by the natives of the smaller island or its elongated cigar shape may account for the "tobago" name, which is spelled "tobaco" in Spanish conventional long form: Republic of Tunisia conventional short form: Tunisia local long form: Al Jumhuriyah at Tunisiyah local short form: Tunis local short form: Ukrayina former: Ukrainian National Republic, Ukrainian State, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic etymology: name derives from the Old East Slavic word "ukraina" meaning "borderland or march (militarized border region)" and began to be used extensively in the 19th century; originally Ukrainians referred to themselves as Rusyny (Rusyns, Ruthenians, or Ruthenes), an endonym derived from the medieval Rus state (Kyivan Rus) conventional long form: United Arab Emirates conventional short form: none local long form: Al Imarat al Arabiyah al Muttahidah local short form: none former: Trucial Oman, Trucial States abbreviation: UAE etymology: self-descriptive country name; the name "Arabia" can be traced back many centuries B.C., the ancient Egyptians referred to the region as "Ar Rabi"; "emirates" derives from "amir" the Arabic word for "commander," "lord," or "prince" conventional long form: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland; note - the island of Great Britain includes England, Scotland, and Wales conventional short form: United Kingdom abbreviation: UK etymology: self-descriptive country name; the designation "Great Britain," in the sense of "Larger Britain," dates back to medieval times and was used to distinguish the island from "Little Britain," or Brittany in modern France; the name Ireland derives from the Gaelic "Eriu," the matron goddess of Ireland (goddess of the land) conventional long form: none conventional short form: Baker Island; Howland Island; Jarvis Island; Johnston Atoll; Kingman Reef; Midway Islands; Palmyra Atoll etymology: self-descriptive name specifying the territories' affiliation and location conventional long form: United States of America conventional short form: United States abbreviation: US or USA etymology: the name America is derived from that of Amerigo VESPUCCI (1454-1512), Italian explorer, navigator, and cartographer conventional long form: Oriental Republic of Uruguay conventional short form: Uruguay local long form: Republica Oriental del Uruguay local short form: Uruguay former: Banda Oriental, Cisplatine Province etymology: the Guarani Indians named the Uruguay River, which makes up the western border of the country and whose name later came to be applied to the entire country conventional long form: Republic of Uzbekistan conventional short form: Uzbekistan local long form: O'zbekiston Respublikasi local short form: O'zbekiston former: Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic etymology: a combination of the Turkic words "uz" (self) and "bek" (master) with the Persian suffix "-stan" (country) to give the meaning "Land of the free" conventional long form: Republic of Vanuatu conventional short form: Vanuatu local long form: Ripablik blong Vanuatu local short form: Vanuatu former: New Hebrides etymology: derived from the words "vanua" (home or land) and "tu" (stand) that occur in several of the Austonesian languages spoken on the islands and which provide the meaning of "independence" or the sense of "our land" conventional long form: Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela conventional short form: Venezuela local long form: Republica Bolivariana de Venezuela local short form: Venezuela etymology: native stilt-houses built on Lake Maracaibo reminded early explorers Alonso de OJEDA and Amerigo VESPUCCI in 1499 of buildings in Venice and so they named the region "Venezuola," which in Italian means "Little Venice" conventional long form: Socialist Republic of Vietnam conventional short form: Vietnam local long form: Cong Hoa Xa Hoi Chu Nghia Viet Nam local short form: Viet Nam abbreviation: SRV etymology: "Viet nam" translates as "Viet south" where "Viet" is an ethnic self identification dating to a second century B.C. kingdom and "nam" refers to its location in relation to other Viet kingdoms conventional long form: United States Virgin Islands conventional short form: Virgin Islands former: Danish West Indies abbreviation: USVI note: the myriad islets, cays, and rocks surrounding the major islands reminded Christopher COLUMBUS in 1493 of Saint Ursula and her 11,000 virgin followers (Santa Ursula y las Once Mil Virgenes), which over time shortened to the Virgins (las Virgenes) conventional long form: none conventional short form: Wake Island etymology: although first discovered by British Captain William WAKE in 1792, the island is named after British Captain Samuel WAKE who rediscovered the island in 1796 conventional long form: Territory of the Wallis and Futuna Islands conventional short form: Wallis and Futuna local long form: Territoire des Iles Wallis et Futuna local short form: Wallis et Futuna etymology: Wallis Island is named after British Captain Samuel WALLIS who discovered it in 1767; Futuna is derived from the native word "futu," which is the name of the fish-poison tree found on the island conventional long form: none conventional short form: West Bank etymology: name refers to the location of the region - occupied and administered by Jordan after 1948 - that fell on the far side (west bank) of the Jordan River in relation to Jordan proper; the designation was retained following the 1967 Six-Day War and the subsequent changes in government conventional short form: Western Sahara former: Rio de Oro, Saguia el Hamra, Spanish Sahara etymology: self-descriptive name specifying the territory's location on the African continent's vast desert conventional long form: Republic of Yemen conventional short form: Yemen local long form: Al Jumhuriyah al Yamaniyah local short form: Al Yaman former: Yemen Arab Republic [Yemen (Sanaa) or North Yemen] and People's Democratic Republic of Yemen [Yemen (Aden) or South Yemen] etymology: name derivation remains unclear but may come from the Arab term "yumn" (happiness) and be related to the region's classical name "Arabia Felix" (Fertile or Happy Arabia); the Romans referred to the rest of the peninsula as "Arabia Deserta" (Deserted Arabia) conventional long form: Republic of Zambia conventional short form: Zambia former: Northern Rhodesia etymology: name derived from the Zambezi River, which flows through the western part of the country and forms its southern border with neighboring Zimbabwe conventional long form: Republic of Zimbabwe conventional short form: Zimbabwe former: Southern Rhodesia, Rhodesia etymology: takes its name from the Kingdom of Zimbabwe (13th-15th century) and its capital of Great Zimbabwe, the largest stone structure in pre-colonial southern Africa	i don't know
Which North American State has the nickname The Peach State ?	American State Nicknames Every US state has a nickname (or two, or more), but not all American states have official nicknames. By "official" I mean a nickname that has been formally adopted as a "state symbol" by the state's legislature, rather than one that is just in common use. However, a number of states have officially added a nickname to their licence plates (either as an option, or as an obligation under the legislation) even though the nickname is not recognised separately as a "state symbol". The table shows all those that I've been able to research. I haven't included slogans or state mottos (which sometimes get mixed up with nicknames), and it's important to note that some nicknames were never widely adopted, having sometimes only appeared in one or two places. I have used numerous reference sources for this research, although I don't include them individually here as this page is already rather long. Apart from various Almanacs, directories, dictionaries and official Web sites, my main reference source has been H.L. Mencken's The American Language. Not surprisingly there are often conflicts between sources when it comes to details, and I've tried to express this in the text. Where possible I've tried to specifically identify whether a state has a nickname which is officially recognised as such by the state's legislature. When I've been able to do so, the details appear alongside the state's name (with the date it was adopted). No nickname alongside the state's name, means that so far I've been unable to find any formal confirmation either way. Alabama (no official nickname) Alabama has a central position within the cotton-growing area east of the Mississippi, which has led it to be known as the Cotton State (1844) or the Cotton Plantation State. However, this term was also applied to all the states of the area as a group. There were also many variations quoted, such as Cottondom (first seen in 1856), Cotton Belt (1871), Cotton Country (1871), and even Cottonia (1862). The first Alabamians were sometimes known as "lizards", which gave the state its earlier nickname of Lizard State back in 1845. In more recent times the state has been known as the Yellowhammer State, from Civil War days, and many people believe that it derives from the species of woodpecker - in reality, it arose from the yellow colour of the home-dyed uniforms that the Alabama troops wore during the Civil War. Occasionally, Alabama also gets the Camelia State. While there is no official nickname for the state, The Heart of Dixie is the most commonly used. It was introduced by the state's Chamber of Commerce in the 1940s for publicity purposes, and in 1951 was approved by the legislature for inclusion on licence plates, although the first of these did not appear until four years later. Alaska (no official nickname) Alaska has no official nickname although, when it joined the union in 1959 a number of suggestions were made. The 49th State is the most obvious, and Great Land was also suggested. It was also suggested that it be known as the Sourdough State, as well as the North Star State (this name also being claimed by Minnesota). It was even at one time referred to as Up Over (in comic opposition to New Zealand and Australia, which are "Down Under"). Various facetious nicknames were also applied, including Seward's Ice Box and Seward's Folly, after William Henry Seward who bought Alaska from the Russians in 1867. However, Alaska is more commonly (but unofficially) known as The Last Frontier, or The Land of the Midnight Sun. Alaska licence plates display North to the Future Arizona When Arizona was admitted to the union in 1912, it quickly gained the nickname The Baby State, which it held on to until 1959 when Alaska was admitted. However, it was also sometimes known as The Valentine State, based on the fact that it was admitted on Valentine's Day. It's not surprising that the success of copper mining the state means that it is occasionally known as the Copper State. Its connection with American Indians gave Arizona the name Apache State, with other nicknames such as Aztec State, Sand Hill State, Sunset State and Grand Canyon State being used at one time or another, with the last of these appearing on licence plates.. Arkansas (The Natural State - 1995) The earliest known nickname for Arkansas seems to be Bear State, recorded first in 1858, and this is a nickname to which several states have laid claim. It was also sometimes known as The Bowie State and The Toothpick State (both alluding to the Bowie knife, the favourite weapon of the area, and which was sometimes called "a toothpick knife"), and the Hot-water State (because of the number of hot springs in the area). However, the first official nickname for Arkansas came in 1923 when the legislature designated the state as The Wonder State. In more modern times, Arkansas has had the unofficial nickname of The Razorback State, but was more officialy known as The Land of Opportunity for many years. Arkansas licence plates display another nickname (The Natural State) which became the state's most recent official nickname in 1995. California (The Golden State - 1968) California was first known simply as The Gold State, because of the Gold Rush of 1848. It was also sometimes known as El Dorado and, because of its wine connections, The Grape State. The "Gold" was changed to "Golden" by 1867, and since then the state has been known as The Golden State, which became the state's official nickname in 1968 (appearing also on licence plates). California's state flower is the Golden Poppy, which has led some to assume that it is from this which the state gets its nickname whereas in reality it is much more likely that the state flower was chosen because of the "golden" reference. Colorado Admitted to the union 100 years from the founding of the Union, Colorado quickly became known as The Centennial State. At about the same time, and because of the abundant silver mines, it also laid claim to The Silver State, but which Nevada disputed its right to as early as 1871. The minerals of the state also led to, according to some unconfirmed reports, The Lead State. It also tried for Switzerland of America, but four other states (Maine, New Jersey, New Hampshire and West Virginia) disputed this one. It then tried for Treasure State, but Montana wanted that. Its high elevation has led to the state occasionally being known as the Mile-high State (although that's an epithet now reserved for Denver, the "Mile High City") and the Highest State, its great beauty produced Colorful Colorado, and the many roaming bison herds led to The Buffalo Plains State. In practice, Colorado remains The Centennial State, but it is The Mountain State which appears on licence plates. Connecticut (The Constitution State - 1959) First known as Land of Wooden Nutmegs (after a scam commonly perpetrated there of selling useless nutmegs made of wood), the state quickly became known as The Wooden Nutmeg State, and then just The Nutmeg State. Connecticut has had its fair share of other nicknames. The fact that the first formal constitution written on American soil, back in Hartford, 1639, gave it The Constitution State, a nickname that was made the state's official nickname in 1959, and which appears on licence plates. It was also given the Provisions State and The Blue Law State, from some of its "Blue Laws" in colonial times. In 1843, the only nickname recorded for the state was The Freestone State, and it has also been known as The Land of Steady Habits. Delaware (The First State - 23 May 2002) Nobody quite knows where the modern-day Delaware's Blue Hen State comes from. It was first recorded in the early 1800s, and may be an allusion to a "blue hen chicken", a term meaning a "quick-tempered and fiery person", possibly deriving from the fact that Delaware soldiers took "Blue Hen Cocks" with them as entertainment in the form of cock fights. In the 16th cenury, the Spanish introduced peaches into the state, and a hundred years later the state was almost overrun with them, leading to the nickname The Peach State (which in turn led the state to adopt the Peach Blossom as the state flower in 1895). It also once had the nickname New Sweden, after the name of the original Swedish settlement of "Nye Sverige", founded in 1638. And its small size gave it the nickname of Uncle Sam's Pocket Handkerchief, or more recently, Small Wonder. The state also had two other common nicknames - The Diamond State (because of its small size) and the semi-official name (as it appears on licence plates), The First State (being the first to be admitted to the Union in 1787). In 2002, the state formally adopted The First State as its official nickname after a group of elementary school children approached the majority leader of the House and asked for help in getting the unofficial nickname made official. District of Columbia Not really a state as such, DC has no official nickname - but is frequently called The Nation's Capital (which appears on its licence plates) and America's First City Florida (The Sunshine State - 1970) At one time, back in the 1860s, Florida was known as The Peninsula State, for obvious reasons. Later in the 19th century, it also became known as The Everglades State. Florida is a large producer of oranges which led the state to be known as The Orange State (and in one reference, The Citrus State),the meaning of the state's name ("flowery") led to The Flower State and its location on the east of the Gulf of Mexico led to The Gulf State. For many years, Florida appears as The Sunshine State on its licence plates, but this name was only given official status in 1970 when it was officially adopted by the legislature. The nickname is also unofficially claimed by New Mexico and (until 1980) South Dakota. Georgia (No Official Nickname) In 1843, Georgia was listed as The Pine State, but thirty years later some were calling it The Cracker State. A "cracker" in this context was slang for a low Southern white man, coined in the mid-18th century (although other sources suggest that it may relate to the many teamsters in the state, and be an allusion to the cracking of their whips). Whatever the origin, many Georgians hated the nickname. Georgia has also been known as The Buzzard State (from laws Georgia introduced to protect buzzards), from the peanut came The Goober State, and from its leadership, Yankee-land of the South. The nicknames for Georgia these days are The Empire State of the South (originally used in the mid 19th century, but since then has been hotly disputed by Taxes), and the name that appears on licence plates, The Peach State (the peach being the official state fruit since 1995). However, Georgia's legislature has not designated an official nickname for the state. Hawaii (The Aloha State - 1959) Many of Hawaii's supporters call it Paradise of the Pacific, or Crossroads of the Pacific (although this is mostly associated with the city of Honolulu), and others call it the Pineapple State . But since 1959 a Polynesian greeting has given the state's official nickname (which also appears on licence plates), The Aloha State. Idaho The name of the state is often (but incorrectly) supposed to be Indian for "gem of the mountains". This has led the state to be nicknamed Gem of the Mountains, or most succinctly in more recent times, The Gem State. But Idaho's famous potatoes aren't ignored, and Land of the Famous Potato and Spud State are sometimes seen, with Famous Potatoes appearing on the licence plates. Illinois The sucker fish once gave Illinois the nickname, The Sucker State (and also, incidentally, gave us the slang word "sucker", for someone who is easy prey). The state has actually had numerous nicknames over the years - Garden of the West, The Garden State and The Corn State being just three of them. Lincoln began his political career in Illinois, and in 1955 its slogan became Land of Lincoln (which now appears on its licence plates). However, these days it is often known as The Prairie State, a name which it has had since at least as early as 1842, before which it was a term applied to all the plain states. Indiana (no official nickname) Indiana is one of the few states that has had only one nickname - The Hoosier State - a name it has had since the 1830s. At one time, a "hoosier" was any rough person in the Wild West, but it eventually came to be applied contemptuously (like "Yankee") to anyone from Indiana. Nobody quite knows where "Hoosier" comes from, but it seems to have first appeared in 1826. Indiana licence plates display the motto, The Hospitality State Iowa Nobody is quite sure where the name "Hawkeye" came from, but it is possibly from Fennimore Cooper's "The Last of the Mohicans" - alternatively, it may have been coined as a tribute to the Indian leader, Chief Black Hawk. It seems to have applied to Iowans from around 1840, and The Hawkeye State is first recorded around 1859. A more popular and recent (but also only semi-official) nickname is the Corn State, which has appeared on the state licence plates. Kansas (The Sunflower State) Kansas has probably had more nicknames in its history than any other state. Around the time of the Civil War, it was known as The Battleground of Freedom, but later was known as The Garden of the West, or just The Garden State. However, these last two nicknames were disputed by other states and never really caught on. Another pre-Civil War nickname, based on the old "squatter laws", was The Squatter State. In 1890 it was The Grasshopper State, and other natural calamities gave The Cyclone State and The Dust Bowl State. It has also been called The Salt of the Earth. The Jayhawker State is a name derived from the slang name for a Kansan from around 1875 (although it was used in a wider sense as a fighting abolitionist before then), and still occasionally used, but shortened to Jayhawk State. Kansas itself officially favoured the more demure Sunflower State, which is the official nickname (and the sunflower is the state flower), with The Wheat State appearing on its licence plates. Kentucky (The Bluegrass State) The "Blue Grass" region of the US once extended from Pennsylvania in the east to Ohio in the west, and down into Tennessee in the south. Although the grass is green, the bluish buds produced in the spring give the grass a distinctly blue colour. Kentucky itself was the Bluegrass State from the time of the Civil War, and remains so (the name appears on the state licence plates). One suggestion for the origin of the name "Kentucky" is that it means "dark and bloody ground", and this led to the state (actually its a commonwealth) being known as Dark and Bloody Ground. This refers to battles between tribes of Indians, and not to any conflict with the white man, despite the fact that references as early as 1839 were saying that it was an allusion to battles between Indians and the first white settlers, and brought to the language by Daniel Boone. Over the years, Kentucky has been known as the Hemp State, the Rock-Ribbed State and the Tobacco State. Louisiana Louisiana has been the Pelican State since around 1859 (the Pelican is also the official state bird), and has had few nicknames since then. In 1872, it was listed as being the Creole State, but the misunderstandings of northerners, who thought it suggested African blood rather than the correct meaning of "caucasian", led to its demise. Occasionally, Louisiana gets called the Sugar State. The influence of the great river has led some to call it Child of the Mississippi, and the state's many waterways have also results in the Bayou State (which is the name on the state's licence plates). Maine Maine has a pine tree on its seal, and has been known as the Pine Tree Statesince the middle of the 19th century, possibly aroun the 1850s. It derives from the white pine, the official state tree. But it was also recorded as the Lumber State in 1843. The state motto is Dirigo, meaning "I direct", and this has led some to call it the Old Dirigo State. Licence plates in Maine declare the state to be Vacationland, and it has also been known as the Border State. Maryland Maryland is another state that has had numerous nicknames since colonial times. Old Line State (from the Maryland Line in the old Colonial army, which some say was bestowed on the state by George Washington) and Terrapin State (representative of the decline in standing of the state), are probably the oldest, but in 1923 the editor of the Baltimore Sun used the name Maryland Free State in an ironic editorial when the state was denounced as a traitor to the union for not introducing legislation to enforce prohibition. In fact the editorial was never published, but he went on to use the term in other articles and this soon spread amongst other newspapers in the state, often being shortened to the Free State. Maryland has also been known as the Monumental State (a name which had appeared by 1843, and which derives from Baltimore's nickname of "Monumental City"), the Oyster State (from the Chesapeake oyster, once considered a great pride for the state) and also the Chesapeake State (by which name it is known on its licence plates). Massachusetts Massachusetts is a commonwealth, and is usually known as the Bay State, a nickname that goes right back to its early settlers in 1789, with Old Bay State appearing some 50 years later. Both allude to the colony of Massachusetts Bay, founded in 1628. The earlier Plymouth settlement gave Massachusetts Old Colony, a name which first appeared around 1798, and those first colonists also led to the state sometimes being known as the Pilgrim State and the Puritan State. There are reports of it also being called the Baked Bean State, an allusion to the fact that the puritans would serve baked beans on Sundays. But Massachusetts licence plates declare The Spirit of America or The Codfish State Michigan Michigan has been known as the Wolverine State from at least 1846, when it first appeared in the "Knickerbocker Magazine", although "Wolverine" for an inhabitant of Michigan goes back at least 10 years earlier. Nobody is quite sure exactly why this name should have been applied, as there is no evidence that wolverines actually existed in the state. It is likely that the name was given to Michiginians because of their vicious and gluttonous actions, either by the Ohians during the Toledo War (over a disputed strip of land around Toledo) or by the Indians who saw how aggressively the land was being taken. Michigan is also known as the Lake State, or the Great Lakes State (which appeared on the state licence plates) for its proximity to Lake Michigan, but this name conflicts with the "Lake States", given to the states which border the Great Lakes. To avoid this conflict, some have turned it into the Lady of the Lake and the more remote Water Wonderland. Detroit's heavy car manufacturing industry has also led some to refer to the Auto State. Minnesota The official nickname of Minnesota is the North Star State, and the state seal has the motto L'Etoile du Nord on it. It is also commonly known as the Gopher State, a nickname which dates back to around 1880 and is based on the fact that the American football team of the Minnesota State University were known as "The Golden Gophers" (a variety of squirrel) - but Arkansas also laid claim to the name 35 years earlier. Energetic supporters of the state have variously given it names like Bread and Butter State or Bread Basket of the Nation, Cream Pitcher of the Nation, and the Wheat State, all based on the state's production of wheat and dairy produce, and Playground of the Nation. The numerous lakes in the state have also led it to be known occasionally as the Land of 10,000 Lakes (in fact, Minnesota has more like 12,000 lakes) - Minnesota licence plates have 10,000 Lakes on them. Mississippi In 1872, Mississippi was known as the Mudcat State, after a large catfish that lived in the river mud (a similar allusion may also have given it the less common nickname the Mud-Waddler State) . Bayou State dates from around 1867, and Eagle State is possibly a shortening of Border-Eagle State, which first appeared around 1846, and both may be from the eagle that appears on the state's seal. The state is also sometimes known as the Groundhog State or the Hospitality State (which appears on the licence plates) . However, the abundance of the magnolia, and its adoption as the official state flower and tree, has led to the modern nickname of the Magnolia State. Missouri Missouri has been known as the Iron Mountain State, Bullion State (from around 1848, and possibly an allusion to the nickname of Missouri senator Benton, who was known as "Old Bullion"), the Lead State, the Ozark State, the Puke State (possibly a corruption of "Pike", as there is a Pike County in Missouri, and another just across the river in Illinois), the Cave State, and the Pennsylvania of the West. The modern nickname of the Show Me State (which also appears on licence plates) was given national popularity at the end of the 19th century from a phrase included in a speech by a Missouri congressman, William Vandiver, although it had existed before then. Montana In its early days, Montana was the Bonanza State (around 1893, and from the rich mineral deposits) and the Stub-Toe State (from 1890, and an allusion to its steep mountain slopes). But the rich gold and silver deposits have led it now to be known as the Treasure State, although the wide open spaces have also produced Big Sky Country (which is what appears on the state's licence plates) Nebraska (The Cornhusker State - 1945) In 1922, Nebraska was sometimes known as the Antelope State, and the Black Water State. But the legislatures has already passed an act in 1895 which declared the state as the Tree Planters State, and its licence plates showed the Beef State. The dark colour of its rivers resulted in some calling it the Black Water State in around 1916. Others have called it the Bugeating State, after a nickname of "Bug-eaters" given to Nebraskans, a derogatory term based on the poverty-stricken appearance of the state. In 1945, the original nickname (which also appears on licence plates) was replaced by the Cornhusker State, where "Cornhusker" was originally applied to the University of Nebraska's athletic and football teams. Nevada Having been admitted to the Union during the Civil War, Nevada adopted the Battle-Born State as its nickname, and this is still used today, having been officially adopted as the staet slogan in 1937. Facetious nicknames, like Divorce State have appeared (in this case, due to the rise of Reno and Las Vegas), but the state was more seriously known as Silverland (traced back to 1863, from the wealth of silver deposits). This eventually became the Silver State (a nickname challenged by Colorado, but which is what appears on the state's licence plates today), and also led to the Mining State. However, the Sagebrush State (challenged by Wyoming) is more common (the sagebrush being the state's official flower), occasionally shortened to Sage State New Hampshire Back in 1830, New Hampshire was known as the Granite State, and this nickname has prevailed to the present day (there was once a huge industry based on the quarrying of granite). On the way, various other nicknames have appeared, such as White Mountain State, Switzerland of America (both because of the abundance of white-topped mountains) and the Mother of Rivers (because of the many rivers which start in the white mountains). New Hampshire licence plates declare the state motto, Live Free or Die! New Jersey (no official nickname) In the 1880s, New York suffered plagues of insects which originated in the marshes of New Jersey, which led the state to be known as the Mosquito State. The clam fisheries on the coast led some to call it the Clam State, and others called it Switzerland of America (one of five states to be so-called). The famous "Camden and Aboy Railroad" led to the state sometimes being known as the Camden and Aboy State, and the blue uniforms of the Civil war gave it the Jersey Blue State. But these days New Jersey is simply known as the Garden State, a name coined by Abraham Browning in a speech at the Centennial Exhibition in 1876, and which has, despite the objection and veto of the governor, appeared officially on state licence plates since about 1954. New Mexico New Mexico has been known as the Sunshine State, a name recorded from around 1926, as well as the Cactus State, and the Spanish State. Enthusiastic supporters have variously regaled New Mexico with Land of Cactus, Land of the Delight Makers, Land of Opportunity, Land of Heart's Desires and Land of Enchantment, but it is the last of these which has stuck and which appears on licence plates. New York The state motto is "Excelsior", and some have called New York the Excelsior State. The trousers worn by the early Dutch settlers resulted in the Knickerbocker State It has also sometimes been known as the Gateway to the West. But, when George Washington referred to New York state as "the seat of Empire" in 1784, he set the seed for the state's long-term nickname which appeared in around 1820 - the Empire State. It is this which appears on state licence plates. North Carolina Once commonly known as the Old North State, because of its position and history, North Carolina has some beautiful mountain country which led it to also be known as the Land of the Sky. But the modern day nickname of the Tarheel State goes back to the mid 19th century. North Carolinians were known as "tarboilers" as early as 1845, also as "Tar Heels". Why they were so called is not really known - one suggestion is that a brigade of North Carolinians failed to hold a position during the war in 1869, and Mississippians blamed the fact that they had failed to tar their heels that morning. By 1844, the state was being called the Tar and Turpentine State, and by 1859 just Turpentine State. The Wright Brothers launched their first flight in North Carolina, and this has led to First In Flight, a nickname or motto which now appears on car licence plates, along with First in Freedom North Dakota A local ground squirrel, the flickertail, gave North Dakota its Flickertail State nickname (an attempt to make this the official nickname in 1953 was defeated), and the Indian tribes its Sioux State and Land of the Dakota .Its importance led it to be sometimes known as Great Central State. But the International Peace Gardens (crossing the northern border of the state into Manitoba) have given the state its modern nickname (and car licence plate slogan) of the Peace Garden State (it's worth noting that some references incorrectly give "Peach Garden State", which is a transcription error that seems to have propagated through many works!) - it first appeared on licence plates in 1956, and in 1957 the legislature formally required it to appear on licence plates.North Dakota was also known as the Roughrider State (an allusion to the "Rough Rider" cavalry that Theodore Roosevelt is supposed to have led) and this name was used in the 1960s and 1970s as part of a tourist campaign, but attempts in 1971 and 1973 to have this replace "Peace Garden State" on licence plates failed. Ohio During the very early part of the 19th century, Ohio was sometimes known as the Yankee State since many settlers had come from New England, but that's a nickname that was given up a long time ago. Some of the state's proponents claimed Mother of Presidents, (sometimes Mother of Modern Presidents) having been where more than half a dozen presidents had started their lives (it's a name that Virginia once used). But the state tree, a variety of horse chestnut, gives the state its current nickname of the Buckeye State - although its adoption owes a lot to William Henry Harrison who, during the 1840 presidential adopted a log cabin made of buckeye timber as his emblem, and many of his supporters would carry buckeye canes. Ohio licence plates declare The Heart of it All Oklahoma Even before the land was thrown open to white settlement, many early settlers snuck across the border and made claims there. When the first official settlers were allowed across, they found these "sooners" already in possession of the land that they were hoping to take. This led to the state being called the Sooner State. Those who had waited patiently for the canon's "boom", a signal that they could cross into Oklahoma, resulted in the much rarer nickname Boomer State, or Boomer's Paradise. According to some Oklahoma licence plates, Oklahoma is OK! Oregon Through the years, Oregon has various been called the Sunshine State (yes, another one!), Webfoot State (derived from the nickname given to residents, because of the high level of rainfall) and Hard-case State (named after the evil characters who flocked to the state in its early days, and from their austere descendants). But Oregon's state animal is the beaver (since 1969), and it is a widely recognised symbol for the state - which has led the State University athletic team to be known as "the Beavers", and state to being called the Beaver State. Oregon licence plates call the state Pacific Wonderland Pennsylvania One of the oldest state nicknames (and that which appeasr on its licence plates) is the Keystone State, probably applied to Pennsylvania from the late 18th century (although the first official citation is from 1802, when at a rally Pennsylvania was toasted as "the keystone in the union"). The industry of Pennsylvania once gave it the nicknames of the Coal State and Steel State, but these have long drifted into oblivion. Philadelphia is known as "The Quaker City", a name which was sometimes been transferred to Pennsylvania itself as the Quaker State. Rhode Island (no official nickname) The smallest state (but the one with the longest full name of "Rhode Island and Providence Plantations") is often just called Little Rhody, dating back perhaps as early as 1851 (and more recently, the Smallest State). In 1847, it was being referred to as the Plantation State (a reference to the state's full name). Because of its position, its other common nickname (mainly for the benefit of tourists) is the Ocean State, and this is what appears on its licence plates. South Carolina The palmetto palm (a variety of fan palm) has been associated with South Carolina since colonial days, and the first appearance of Palmetto State (the nickname used in modern times) appears to have been around 1843. But numerous other nicknames have emerged over the years - Rice State, the Swamp State, the Iodine State (used to promote iodine-rich produce) and the Sand-lapper State. It is also sometimes known as the Keystone of the South Atlantic, and the Seaboard State. State licence plates use the first words of the song - Nothing Could be Finer South Dakota (The Mount Rushmore State - 1980) When Dakota split into two parts, South Dakota became variously known as the Blizzard State, the Artesian State (for the many artesian wells in the state), and the Land of Plenty. It was also known as the Sunshine State a name, which unlike the other three, was retained and which was depicted on the state flag until 1980. In that year, South Dakota deferred to Florida's claim on the nickname and relaunched the state officially as the Mount Rushmore State, which appears in words on the state flag. The other common nickname is The Coyote State, which comes from the prairie wolf, named by the Nahuatl Indians as the "coyotl", from which we get "Coyote" (and which is also a nickname for the residents of the state). Licence plates declare Great Faces, Great Places. Tennessee Tennessee is known officially (by some accounts) and on its licence plates as the Volunteer State, a name which goes back (depending on which reference you use) either to 1812, when the volunteer soldiers showed particular courage in the Battle of New Orleans, or to 1847 when the Governor called for three regiments to serve in the Mexican War, and 30,000 men volunteered. The state was also known as the Lion's Den, back in 1843, possibly because border ruffians were then known as "lions of the West". Tennessee is named after the Indian name for the state, which means "The River with the Big Bend", and which led to The Big Bend State, and the diet of fatback pig and cornmeal (both abundant produce in the state) gave it the Hog and Hominy State (it is also sometimes known as the Hog State, and the Hominy State). Tennessee remembers the fact that it was the home of three US Presidents, in the nickname Mother of Southwestern Statesmen. The tan colour of Tennessee soldiers' uniforms in the War Between the States gave them the nickname of "butternuts" (after the squash), and the state is sometimes known as the Butternut State as a result. Texas (no official nickname) Probably no state has a more well-known nickname than Texas - the Lone Star State (which is how it is described on its licence plates). It represents the symbol on the 1836 Texas Republic flag (itself based on history going back to the "Long Expedition" in 1819), and on the state flag and seal of today. Despite its prominence, the nickname is purely traditional and has not been enshrined in legislation. Many attempts have been made to apply other nicknames to the state, with various levels of success. Its huge cattle "industry" led it to be known as the Beef State for a while, and its size gave it the Jumbo State. In 1961, the New Yorker called it the Super-American State, and others have tried for the Banner State, and the Blizzard State. Utah The first settlers in Utah were the members of the Church of Latter Day Saints, also called the Mormons. Their hard work and great influence in the state has given Utah most of its various nicknames. Its common, and long-standing, nickname, the is Mormon State, of which there are a couple of variations - such as Land of the Mormons and Land of the Saints. The Mormons named the state "Deseret" when they arrived, and so Utah was also sometimes known as the Deseret State. "Deseret", from the Book of Mormon, is actually a honeybee, and the early Mormon settlers were described as having carried with them "swarms of bees". This is what gave the state its symbol (officially adopted in 1959) of a conical beehive with a swarm of bees around it (on the state flag), and the nickname of the Beehive State. The only "non-Mormon" nickname is the Salt Lake State, but even this is closely linked with the Mormons, who first settled in what is now known as Salt Lake City, next to the great Salt Lake. Vermont I can find no reference to any other nickname for Vermont other than the Green Mountain State (which, not surprisingly, is also on the licence plates). This name comes from "Green Mountain Boy", a name for an inhabitant going back to 1772, in turn named after the militia of the previous year which was organised to protect the state against the New Yorkers (and, of course, derives from the state's name itself, coined in 1761 by Rev Dr Peters, who named the mountains "Verd Mont", meaning "green mountain", which itself probably came from the "Green Mountains" which were named by Samuel de Champlain in 1647). Virginia Virginia has the oldest citation for any state nickname. Old Dominion has its first recorded sighting in 1778, but this derives from Ancient Dominion, the nickname for the state from the end of the 17th century. It is also known as the Mother of States, being the first state to be colonised (a name not attributed to Virginia until 1855, whereas Connecticut had been given the name in 1838), and Mother of Presidents, because Virginia supplied seven of the first twelve of the US Presidents. Some also developed this last name into Mother of Statesmen. The early British loyalists who settled in the states were Cavaliers, and this gave the state another nickname, the Cavalier State. Virginia's licence plates are a little less ambitious, and simply declare Visit Virginia! Washington The many conifer forests of Washington state produced the nickname the Evergreen State, coined by Seattle Realtor and historian, C.T. Conver. Although numerous references say that the nickname was officially adopted by the legislature in 1893, the Washington legislature's own Web site says that it "has never been officially adopted by law". It is also known as the Green Tree State, which appears on its licence plates. Before that, the Chinook Indians lent their name to the Chinook State, a nickname which has been traced back to 1890. West Virginia West Virginia is one of the states which attempted to lay claim to the Switzerland of America, but is more usually known (including on licence plates) as the Mountain State. The shape of the state also gave West Virginia The Panhandle State. Wisconsin Wisconsin inhabitants are "badgers", and Wisconsin is the Badger State. The name appears to have arisen from the early lead miners who worked at the Illinois Galena lead mines in the 1830s. These mines are close to where Illinois, Iowa and Wisconsin meet, and were also responsible for giving the "Sucker" and "Puke" nicknames to those from Illinois and Iowa. However, "badger" arose not from the burrowing in the lead mines, but because those from Wisconsin did not live in houses, but in caves in the hillside that looked like badger burrows. They earned the nickname at the mines, and took it back on their return to Wisconsin. Interestingly, Wisconsin adopted the badger as the official state animal in 1957. But Wisconsin is predominantly a dairy state, producing 40% of the country's cheese, and 20% of its butter - not surprisingly, then, the state is sometimes nicknamed the Dairy State, America's Dairyland (which is how it appears on licence plates) or even the Cheese State. Wyoming The first grant of suffrage in the US was made in Wyoming in 1869, leading to the state being called the Suffrage State or the current Equality State. But the state's symbol is a cowboy on a bucking bronco, leading to some calling it the Cowboy State. Wyoming's licence plates declare, Like No Place on Earth.	Georgia
What is the first Christian name of ex British Prime Minister Gordon Brown ?	All About Georgia Georgia, Georgia, the whole day through Just an old sweet song keeps Georgia on my mind. Georgia, Georgia, a song of you Comes as sweet and clear as moonlight through the pines. Georgia State Song Georgia was the last of the 13 colonies to be founded and the first Southern state to ratify the Constitution. In 1851, Stephen Foster wrote, "Old Folks at Home," a song that made Georgia's Suwannee River famous. Joel Harris, an American author and journalist, first had his "Uncle Remus" stories published in Georgia, his home state. The state was a Confederate state during the Civil War and General Sherman destroyed much of Atlanta by setting it on fire. Women have made great strides in Georgia during the 20th Century. Juliette Low started the Girl Scouts in Georgia in 1912. Georgia voters sent the first female United States Senator to Washington, D.C., in 1922. In the movie, "Gone With the Wind," Scarlett O'Hara fell in love with Rhett Butler in Georgia. Georgia was named after King George II, an English King who granted the state its original charter. The "Peach State" and the "Goober State" are two of Georgia's best-known nicknames. The "Buzzard State" is another nickname because an early state law protected buzzards. The abbreviation for Georgia is GA. Georgia, the largest state in land area east of the Mississippi River, is a South Atlantic state bordered by Florida to the south, the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina to the east, North Carolina and Tennessee to the north, and Alabama to the west. The state has a varied landscape. There are mountains and ridges along its northern border and flat coastal plains in the south. The climate is generally mild and sunny. In the past, cotton was Georgia's most important source of income. However, Georgia has been called the "Empire State of the South" because of its size and impressive economic growth since that time. Today, the state's leading source of income is from service industries, like wholesale and retail trade. It is one of the chief manufacturing states of the South; production of textiles is its leading manufacturing activity. Georgia's chief crops are corn, tobacco, pecans, peaches, and peanuts. In fact, the state leads the nation in the production of peanuts, which many Southerners call "goobers." Former President Jimmy Carter, who was born in the state, is probably Georgia's most famous peanut farmer. Georgia is one of the country's chief producers of forest products because pine and hardwood forests cover much of the state. Georgia is also rich in marble. Marble from the state was used to build the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., and the capitols of many states. Atlanta, Georgia's capital and largest city, is the major financial and railroad center of the Southeast. One downtown area of the city is known as the "Wall Street of the South." Atlanta also holds the Martin Luther King, Jr National Historic Site. Visitors can see the famous words, "Free at last, free at last, thank God Almighty, I'm free at last," engraved on his tombstone. Columbus, Macon, and Savannah are three other important cities in Georgia.	i don't know
Moses, Muriel, Mollie, Benjamin, Mr Whymper, Squealer and Minimus are all characters that appear in which famous novel of 1945 ?	SparkNotes: Animal Farm: Character List Character List Plot Overview Analysis of Major Characters Napoleon - The pig who emerges as the leader of Animal Farm after the Rebellion. Based on Joseph Stalin, Napoleon uses military force (his nine loyal attack dogs) to intimidate the other animals and consolidate his power. In his supreme craftiness, Napoleon proves more treacherous than his counterpart, Snowball. Read an in-depth analysis of Napoleon. Snowball - The pig who challenges Napoleon for control of Animal Farm after the Rebellion. Based on Leon Trotsky, Snowball is intelligent, passionate, eloquent, and less subtle and devious than his counterpart, Napoleon. Snowball seems to win the loyalty of the other animals and cement his power. Read an in-depth analysis of Snowball. Boxer - The cart-horse whose incredible strength, dedication, and loyalty play a key role in the early prosperity of Animal Farm and the later completion of the windmill. Quick to help but rather slow-witted, Boxer shows much devotion to Animal Farm’s ideals but little ability to think about them independently. He naïvely trusts the pigs to make all his decisions for him. His two mottoes are “I will work harder” and “Napoleon is always right.” Read an in-depth analysis of Boxer. Squealer - The pig who spreads Napoleon’s propaganda among the other animals. Squealer justifies the pigs’ monopolization of resources and spreads false statistics pointing to the farm’s success. Orwell uses Squealer to explore the ways in which those in power often use rhetoric and language to twist the truth and gain and maintain social and political control. Read an in-depth analysis of Squealer. Old Major - The prize-winning boar whose vision of a socialist utopia serves as the inspiration for the Rebellion. Three days after describing the vision and teaching the animals the song “Beasts of England,” Major dies, leaving Snowball and Napoleon to struggle for control of his legacy. Orwell based Major on both the German political economist Karl Marx and the Russian revolutionary leader Vladimir Ilych Lenin. Read an in-depth analysis of Old Major. Clover - A good-hearted female cart-horse and Boxer’s close friend. Clover often suspects the pigs of violating one or another of the Seven Commandments, but she repeatedly blames herself for misremembering the commandments. Moses - The tame raven who spreads stories of Sugarcandy Mountain, the paradise to which animals supposedly go when they die. Moses plays only a small role in Animal Farm, but Orwell uses him to explore how communism exploits religion as something with which to pacify the oppressed. Mollie - The vain, flighty mare who pulls Mr. Jones’s carriage. Mollie craves the attention of human beings and loves being groomed and pampered. She has a difficult time with her new life on Animal Farm, as she misses wearing ribbons in her mane and eating sugar cubes. She represents the petit bourgeoisie that fled from Russia a few years after the Russian Revolution. Benjamin - The long-lived donkey who refuses to feel inspired by the Rebellion. Benjamin firmly believes that life will remain unpleasant no matter who is in charge. Of all of the animals on the farm, he alone comprehends the changes that take place, but he seems either unwilling or unable to oppose the pigs. Muriel - The white goat who reads the Seven Commandments to Clover whenever Clover suspects the pigs of violating their prohibitions. Mr. Jones - The often drunk farmer who runs the Manor Farm before the animals stage their Rebellion and establish Animal Farm. Mr. Jones is an unkind master who indulges himself while his animals lack food; he thus represents Tsar Nicholas II, whom the Russian Revolution ousted. Mr. Frederick - The tough, shrewd operator of Pinchfield, a neighboring farm. Based on Adolf Hitler, the ruler of Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, Mr. Frederick proves an untrustworthy neighbor. Mr. Pilkington - The easygoing gentleman farmer who runs Foxwood, a neighboring farm. Mr. Frederick’s bitter enemy, Mr. Pilkington represents the capitalist governments of England and the United States. Mr. Whymper - The human solicitor whom Napoleon hires to represent Animal Farm in human society. Mr. Whymper’s entry into the Animal Farm community initiates contact between Animal Farm and human society, alarming the common animals. Jessie and Bluebell - Two dogs, each of whom gives birth early in the novel. Napoleon takes the puppies in order to “educate” them. Minimus - The poet pig who writes verse about Napoleon and pens the banal patriotic song “Animal Farm, Animal Farm” to replace the earlier idealistic hymn “Beasts of England,” which Old Major passes on to the others.	Animal Farm
Having a radius of 586 kilometres, what is the name of the largest satellite of the dwarf planet Pluto ?	Animal Farm Study Guide \| Napoleon A Brief Summary of thePlot Just before he dies, OldMajor, a respected pig onManor Farm stirs theanimals up with hisrevolutionary ideas of rebellion against thetyrant Man.Before long, theineffective farmer, Mr. Jones, is over thrown and expelled from the farm. The animals adoptthe name Animal Farm. The animals draw up a set of principles which will guide their new lives:the Seven Commandments.Before long, the pigs emerge as leaders and start to assume minorprivileges over the other animals. The two leading pigs, Snowball andNapoleon, quarrel and Napoleon eventually drives his rival off the farmby force.Despite hardships, the farm makes progress, and the animals embarkon the construction of a windmill which will supposedly ease their lives.Unfortunately, the windmill is destroyed and the animals must startagain. Boxer, the cart-horse, is a tower of strength.Napoleon assumes more and more power, and governs by fear andterror. Opponents are killed. The pigs now enjoy a luxurious style of life, far removed from the hardships of the other animals.Napoleon is cheated by Frederick, a neighbouring farmer, over the saleof some timber. Frederick attacks and destroys the windmill a secondtime. The over-worked Boxer falls ill and is treacherously shipped off to theknacker's by Napoleon. 2 Over the years, the pigs continue to benefit at the expense of the otheranimals. The Commandments are changed, corrupted and perverted.At the end of the novel,Napoleon and his henchpigs,are discovered drinking andplaying cards with Pilkingtonand other men. Napoleon eventoasts the farm by its old name'Manor Farm'. The bewildered animals whowitness this scene throughthe farmhouse windows arefinally unable to tell thedifference between the pigs and the humans who had previously ruledover them and exploited them.Absolute power has corrupted the pigs - absolutely. The Plot of	i don't know
Which island, situated in the Canadian territory of Nanavut was discovered by Europeans in 1576 and is named after an English navigator who died in 1622 ?	Macclesfield Pub Quiz League: November 2015 Macclesfield Pub Quiz League Set by The Park Tavern and the Brewers Q1 Great Britain is to appear in the Tennis Davis Cup final in which Belgian city? Ghent Q2 Once storms Abigail, Barney, Clodagh, Desmond and Eva have passed the UK, which will be next? Frank The current Ebola outbreak started in which African country? Guinea (Dec 2013) Where would you find Connexus and Versatile? On TV program The Apprentice (Teams names in the current TV series) Q5 Which actor has appeared as James Bond in exactly 2 official Bond films? Timothy Dalton (The Living Daylights, License to kill) Q6 According to Collins English Dictionary what has been chosen as the word of the year 2015? Binge-watch Q7 What is the tag line of the upcoming Star Wars film episode 7 of the series? The Force Awakens Who replaced Nick Hewer in the TV program The Apprentice? Claude Littner Q9 Which RAF base was in the news in October, owing to the arrival of ~140 migrants by boat? RAF Akrotiri (Cyprus) Q10 There is one remaining hovercraft service operating in the UK, from which city does it operate? Portsmouth (Southsea -> Ryde on the Isle of Wight) Q11 Baroness Dido Harding of Winscombe has been in the news recently, as the CEO of which company? Talk Talk Q12 Which British airline is celebrating its 20th Anniversary, flying its inaugural flight on November 10th 1995? EasyJet The Schengen Treaty takes its name from a village in which country? Luxembourg MP can stand for two things on an ordnance survey Map, name either? Mile Post or Mooring Post Q15 On a marine map what does HWM stand for? High Water Mark Which country is to host the next Winter Olympics in 2018? South Korea Who did Seb Coe succeed as head of the IAAF? Lamine Diack What is the third largest object in the solar system? Saturn (Sun, Jupiter, Saturn) Which man made object is furthest from Earth? Voyager 1 (allow Voyager) Q20 For his part in which 1953 film did Frank Sinatra receive a Best Supporting Actor Oscar? From Here to Eternity Which current world leader is sometimes known as Bibi? Benjamin Netanyahu Q22 Who has been recently sworn in as Canada's 23rd Prime Minister after winning a surprise majority? Justin Trudeau What is the longest motorway in the UK? M6 What is the longest A road in the UK? A1 Who is the shadow chancellor? John McDonnell Which building was built in 1093 to house the shrine of St Cuthbert? Durham Cathedral In which building would you find the famous Cosmati Pavement? Westminster Cathedral Who hosts 'Modern Life is Goodish'? Dave Gorman Frankie Fredericks represented which African country in athletics? Namibia Who hosts 'As yet untitled'? Alan Davies Who will be the new host of QI succeeding Stephen Fry? Sandi Toksvig What is the word used to describe an animal/plant that is both male and female? Hermaphrodite With which artistic medium would you associate Ansel Adams? Photography Which city is normally accepted as being the ancient capital of Wessex? Winchester Which group recorded the track 'Unfinished Symphony'? Massive Attack Which school featured in UK TV's 'Please Sir'? Fenn Street Q37 80s band Heaven 17 got their name from a well-known novel originally published in 1962. Name it? A Clockwork Orange - (by Anthony Burgess) Q38 Steely Dan got their name from which notorious novel originally published in 1959? The Naked Lunch (by William Burroughs) Q39 Wladimir Klitschko is a champion boxer from which country? Ukraine The 'Rockhampton Rocket' was a nickname given to which famous sportsman? Rod Laver Which British astronaut is going to the international space station in December? Tim Peake How many cantons make up Switzerland? 26 (accept 25 to 27) Q43 Which city was the imperial capital of Japan before Tokyo? Kyoto Saloth Sar born 19 May 1925 is better known by what name? Pol Pot What was discovered in 1799 by Pierre-François Bouchard a Napoleonic soldier? The Rosetta Stone 'I told you I was ill' are the words carved into whose gravestone? Spike Milligan Q47 What did Newcastle chemist William Owen invent in 1927 for those who were sick with common illnesses? Lucozade Who is missing from the following list: Harry, Zayn, Niall, Liam? Louis (the original members of One Direction) Q49 Who is missing from the following list: Robbie, Gary, Jason, Mark? Howard (the original members of Take That) Q50 What would be the star sign of someone born today? Sagittarius What is the star sign of someone born on Christmas Day? Capricorn Which Oscar-winning film composer died in June this year at the age of 61? James Horner Which fictional hero did Baroness Orczy create? The Scarlet Pimpernel What is the largest natural lake in England by surface area? Windermere What is the largest reservoir in England by surface area? Rutland Water In which city were the 2010 Commonwealth Games held? Delhi Who presents the Radio 4 programme “Feedback”? Roger Bolton Who presents the Radio 4 programme “Last Word”? Matthew Bannister As at 10/11/15, who is the Secretary of State for Defence? Michael Fallon As at 10/11/15, who is the Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice? Michael Gove In children's television and film, what species of animal are Theodore Alvin & Simon? CHIPMUNK Q62 In which country was Marxist revolutionary and major figure of the Cuban Revolution, Che Guevarra born? ARGENTINA Q63 There are only 2 Boeing VC-25's currently in existence, by what call sign are they commonly known? AIR FORCE ONE Q64 Scuderia Toro Rosso is one of two Formula One racing teams owned by which Austrian beverage company? RED BULL (the other being "Red Bull Racing") Q65 Something that is malleiform is shaped like which tool? HAMMER Who provides the narration of Blur's 1994 hit "Parklife"? PHIL DANIELS Q67 "Something Wicked this way comes" and "The Illustrated Man" are books by which science fiction writer? RAY BRADBURY Aloo is a South Asian term for which vegetable? POTATO LCY refers to which British international airport? LONDON CITY AIRPORT Q70 Which Queen hit ends with a rendition of "I Do Like To Be Beside The Seaside"? SEVEN SEAS OF RHYE Which is the smallest of the US states? RHODE ISLAND CH is the abbreviation of which country? SWITZERLAND (Latin - "Confoederatio Helvetica", meaning "Swiss Confederation") Q73 At what temperature in degrees centigrade does ethanol boil? 78.36 degrees (leeway 75-80) Q74 What was the name of Harry Enfield's character in the first series of the BBC comedy series Men Behaving Badly? DERMOT (Povey) What is the official language of Sierra Leone? ENGLISH Porcini is a variety of what? MUSHROOM Q77 When we look for him in this country, his name is Wally. By what name is he known in the USA? WALDO Which actor who appeared in 83 Westerns, was also known as "The Duke"? JOHN WAYNE Eboracum was a Roman fort and city which ultimately evolved into which present-day British city? YORK In Star Trek, what colour was Spock's blood? GREEN A light year is a measure of what? DISTANCE Q82 Which Hollywood "Walk-Of-Famer" released a cover of the Drifters hit "Under The Boardwalk" in 1987, reaching no.2 in the UK Top 40 charts? BRUCE WILLIS A 54 imperial gallon container In brewing is known as a what? HOGSHEAD Galvanise was a 2005 track by which Manchester band? THE CHEMICAL BROTHERS Q85 The "Triple Crown of Motorsport" is an unofficial motorsport achievement, often regarded as winning three of the most prestigious motor races in the world in one's career. The Le Mans 24 Hours and the Formula 1 Monaco Grand Prix are 2, what is the 3rd? THE INDIANAPOLIS 500 What is the highest British civilian award for bravery? THE GEORGE CROSS Which historic building in the UK is known as 'The Palace of the Peak'? CHATSWORTH HOUSE Who was Mayor of New York at the time of the 9/11 terrorist attacks? RUDY GIULIANI In which sport would you compete for The Bledsoe Cup? RUGBY UNION (played for between Australia and New Zealand) Q90 In which decade of the 20th century was The Empire State Building completed? The 1930s (1931 TO BE EXACT) Q91 In fashion, a skirt that flares wider at the bottom than the top is commonly known as what? A-LINE Q92 In which group of islands would you islands called St Marys, St Agnes and St Martins? THE SCILLY ISLANDS Which 1980s American sitcom followed the lives of Rose, Dorothy, Blanche and Sophia? THE GOLDEN GIRLS Who created medieval sleuth Brother Cadfael? ELLIS PETERS (accept EDITH PARGETER) Q95 After which South American feature was one of the Wombles of Wimbledon named? Orinocco Q96 If you serve on a jury, how soon is it before you can legally be called upon to do so again? TWO YEARS What was the title of Charles Dickens last completed novel? OUR MUTUAL FRIEND In which modern country would you find the Nazca Lines? PERU Which American city launched the "Grunge" music movement? SEATTLE Jessica Lang and Fay Wray both starred against which movie monster? KING KONG Hattie Jaques played which comedian's sister in a long running BBC comedy series? ERIC SYKES Q102 Which businessman planned to merge Oxford Utd and Reading into one Football Club in the mid 1980s? ROBERT MAXWELL In which English county would you find the area of South Holland? LINCOLNSHIRE Who is the match day shirt sponsor for Manchester United? Chevrolet In which film was PC George Dixon killed, before being resurrected for TV? THE BLUE LAMP Who was the first woman in space? VALENTINA TERESHKOVA Who is the main character of Homer's The Odyssey? ODYSSEUS Which protein is found in human hair and rhinoceros horn? KERATIN What colour is the wheel at the centre of the Indian flag? BLUE What is the name of the dance that appears in The Rocky Horror Show? THE TIME WARP Which British sprinter won the 100m final in the 1980 Moscow Olympics? ALAN WELLS On which farm did Worzel Gummidge live? Scatterbrook The game of Nine Men Morris is mentioned in which Shakespeare play? A MIDSUMMER NIGHTS DREAM Which radio presenter was known as Bunty Bagshaw? Sarah Kennedy In which year did Jade Ewan represent the UK in the Eurovision Song Contest? 2009 What is the Japanese word for comics and print cartons? MANGA What name did the Post Office briefly adopt in 2001? CONSIGNIA In the 1950 film Harvey, starring James Stewart, who or what was Harvey? A RABBIT What is the name of the actress who plays Dr Who's current assistant? Jenna Coleman In which US state would you find Dodge City? Kansas Tiebreakers Q: According to the UK Heinz website, on average how many baked beans do you get in a standard 415g tin of Heinz Baked beans? A: 465 Q: In Kilometres, what is the average distance from earth to the moon, according to the Universe Today website? A: 384,403 km Which film features the detective Eddie Valiant? Who Framed Roger Rabbit Who is the shadow Secretary of State for International Development? Dianne Abbott In which city were the 2002 Commonwealth Games held? Manchester Which monarch founded Trinity College, Cambridge? Henry VIII In cookery what is the US term for icing? FROSTING Which Rogers and Hammerstein musical was originally called 'Away We Go'? OKLAHOMA What is the name of the village/town in Dorset created by Prince Charles? POUNDBURY Which member of Robin Hood's band of merry men was the son of a miller? MUCH What was the minimum age for joining the Home Guard in the UK during WWII? 17 Which Australian bird is also known as the Laughing Jackass? KOOKABURRA posted by Nick at 10:18 AM 5 Comments Wednesday, November 18, 2015 Set by the Harrington B ROUNDS: Sport Geography - on your jollies History 1. What substance are plant cell walls made from? A: CELLULOSE 2. In physics, what is defined as the rate of change of velocity measured in metres per second squared? A: ACCELERATION 3. In chemistry, what is the process called where a solid changes into a gas without going to the liquid state? A: SUBLIMATION 4. How many bones are there in the human face? A: 14 (accept 13 to 15) 5. What is the iron-containing protein that gives blood its colour? A: HAEMOGLOBIN 6. What is the device used for detecting radiation, that was named after its inventor in 1928? A: GEIGER COUNTER 7. The world's largest nocturnal primate, the Aye Aye, is a native of which country? A: MADAGASCAR 8. What was first used by scientist Alec Jeffreys of the University of Leicester to help local police solve a murder inquiry in 1986? A: DNA FINGERPRINTING (or any answer with DNA) SUPPLEMENTARIES S1. Tetra Ethyl Lead is the compound in leaded petrol used to stop juddering of the engine. What is this juddering known as? A: KNOCKING or ENGINE KNOCK S2. Blood pressure is measured by two readings. The higher one is when the heart is pumping out the maximum amount of blood into the blood vessels, known as the Systolic. The lower reading is when the heart's at rest and is known as what? A: DIASTOLIC Round 2-Sport 1. Lewis Hamilton recently became the second Briton to win three world drivers' championships alongside Jackie Stewart. Name any of the other drivers to have won only three titles. A: JACK BRABHAM, NIKI LAUDA, AYRTON SENNA, NELSON PIQUET 2. Name any of the six American football teams that played in the recent NFL International Series games at Wembley Stadium. A: JACKSONVILLE JAGUARS, BUFFALO BILLS, MIAMI DOLPHINS, NEW YORK JETS, KANSAS CITY CHIEFS, DETROIT LIONS (accept either city or team name) 3. Which team claimed third place in the recent Rugby World Cup? A: SOUTH AFRICA 4. In Rugby League, who won October's 2015 Grand Final to complete a historic treble? A: LEEDS RHINOS 5. Which county cricket side won the 2015 Nat West T20 Blast Trophy in August, after being runners up last year? A: LANCASHIRE 6. Which team will Britain's leading tennis players face in this month's DavisCup Final? A: BELGIUM 7. In October, which golf course was named as host for the 2019 Open Championship, returning there after 68 years? A: ROYAL PORTRUSH (Northern Ireland) 8. Which Olympic cycling champion has recently been pursuing a career as an amateur jockey? A: VICTORIA PENDLETON 51. Which former Olympic skeleton champion can now be seen presenting Channel 5's Gadget Show? A: AMY WILLIAMS 52. Who was sacked as Aston Villa manager in October after just 23 Premier League games? A: TIM SHERWOOD Round 3 - Geography: on your jollies... 1. La Gomera, El Hierro and La Raima are less well-known islands in which popular group? A: THE CANARY ISLANDS 2. Mexican holiday favourite Cancun lies on the North East coast of which large peninsula? A: YUCATAN 3. Which holiday island's capital is served by Jose Marti airport? A: CUBA 4. Small Portugese island Porto Santo neighbours which popular holiday destination? A: MADEIRA 5. If you landed at an airport in the Parish of St Peter and were taken to your hotel in St Brelades Bay, where would you be? A: JERSEY (Channel Islands) 6. Which holiday destination is at Marne-la-Vallee in France? A: DISNEYLAND PARIS 7. Which of the Spanish 'Costas' borders France? A: COSTA BRAVA 8. Male is the capital city of which Indian Ocean group? A: THE MALDIVES 51. Port Louis is the capital of which Indian Ocean island? A: MAURITIUS 52. Majorca, Menorca and Ibiza are three of the Balearic Islands. Name the fourth. A: FORMENTERA Round 4 - History 1. To which English king did the burghers of Calais surrender the keys of their town in 1347? A: EDWARD III 2. Which Scottish king was killed in 1513 at the Battle of Flodden Field? A: JAMES IV 3. Who founded the modern republic of Turkey? A: KEMAL ATATURK 4. Which civilisation developed approximately 4500 years ago on the island of Crete? A: MINOAN 5. From what did Prince Albert die in 1861? A: TYPHOID FEVER 6. Who was the mother of King James I of England? A: MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS 7. Who met with King Francis I of France on 'the Field of the Cloth of Gold'? A: HENRY VIII (1520) 8. In what year was Julius Caesar assassinated? A: 44 BC (accept 42 to 46 BC) SUPPLEMENTARIES S1. Where did William Wallace defeat the English in 1297? A: STIRLING S2. King Duncan I was the first to rule the whole of Scotland. By whom was he murdered in 1040? A: MACBETH Round 5 - Money, money, money 1. Who was Governor of the Bank of England before Mark Carney? A: SIR MERVYN KING 2. In financial circles, which well-respected investor is known as The Sage of Omaha'? A: WARREN BUFFETT 3. Who was Prime Minister when Britain changed to decimal currency? A: TED HEATH (1971) 4. Which mega US bank collapsed at the height of the financial crisis in 2008? A: LEHMAN BROS 5. Tony Hayward lost his job as Chief Executive of which company as a result of an explosion in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010? A: BP 6. Sir Martin Sorrell, known for his excessive rewards, is the head of WPP, the world's largest business in its field. What sort of business is it? A: ADVERTISING AGENCY 7. Sir Winston Churchill will appear on the next version of which bank note? A: £5 8. Following sex scandals, who was replaced as head of the International Monetary Fund by Christine Lagarde? A: DOMINIC STRAUSS-KAHN 51. Which author will appear on the next version of the £10 note? A: JANE AUSTEN 52. Which company bought Northern Rock pic in 2011/12? A: VIRGIN MONEY (accept Virgin) Round 6 - Arts & Entertainment 1. Who plays the lead role in Danny Boyle's film 'Steve Jobs', about the Apple founder? A: MICHAEL FASSBENDER 2. Name the 51-year old Italian actress who became the oldest 'Bond girl' by appearing in Spectre. A: MONICA BELLUCCI 3. Who resurrected his radio career earlier this year by presenting the breakfast show on Radio X? A: CHRIS MOYLES 4. Which Radio 3 presenter is currently appearing on Strictly Come Dancing? A: KATIE DERHAM 5. Adele's third album, released on November 20th, is called what? A: 25 6. '85% Proof topped the charts back in May this year - whose comeback album was it? A: WILL YOUNG 7. Who wrote the current best-selling book entitled 'When You Dead, You Dead'? A: GUY MARTIN (Motorcycle Champion & TV presenter) 8. Whose recent autobiography is called 'Over the Top and Back'? A: TOM JONES SUPPLEMENTARIES 51. The final novel of which author, who died in March this year, was published in August? A: SIR TERRY PRATCHETT (the novel is The Shepherd's Crown') 52. Which news presenter was honoured with a BAFTA Fellowship in May of this year? A: JON SNOW Round 7 - A little local knowledge 1. Which local brewery produces the Tilting Ale' exclusively for Virgin Trains? A. RED WILLOW 2. In the same vein, which local brewery produces Lord Lucan ale? A. WINCLE BEER COMPANY (accept Wincle) 3. In which year was The King's School founded? A. 1502 (accept 1498 to 1506) 4. Which is the only church in Macclesfield with a spire? A. ST. PAUL'S (Brook Street) 5. Who is the current Chairman of Macclesfield Town FC? A. MARK BLOWER 6. White Nancy, in Kerridge, was originally built to commemorate which battle? A. WATERLOO 7. The Talbot pub, now-demolished, stood on a road junction in Macclesfield. Name either of the roads. A. OXFORD ROAD and CHESTER ROAD 8. Which pub once stood on the junction of Star Lane and London Road? A. THE STAR INN SUPPLEMENTARY 51. The ruins of Erwood Hall, once a stately home, can be found in which local valley, popular with walkers? A. GOYT 52. According to the club badge, in which year was Macclesfield Town FC first established? A. 1874 (accept 1870 to 1878) Round 8 - What's in a Name? 1. How is singer/songwriter Damon Gough, whose debut album was called The Hour of Bewilderbeast, better known? A: BADLY DRAWN BOY 2. What is singer Adele's surname? A: ADKINS 3. What was the first name of classical composer Saint-Saens? A: CAMILLE 4. In which year did Marathon chocolate bars change their name to Snickers? A: 1991 (accept 1989 to 1993) 5. What's the surname of singer Madonna? A: CICCONE 6. Which music star, who had hits with The Lazy Song and Uptown Funk, was born Peter Gene Hernandez? A: BRUNO MARS 7. In 2016 Royal Bank of Scotland branches will change their name to what? A: WILLIAMS & GLYN 8. What was the first name of French artist Manet? A: EDOUARD 51. What's the first name of fictional detective Campion, created by Margery Allingham? A: ALBERT 52. Which global music superstar was born Shawn Carter? A: JAY Z 1 Name a year in the life of Sir Walter Scott 1771-1832 2 In 1958, of which city did Nikita Kruschchev say: 'When I want to make the West scream, that's where I squeeze"? Berlin 3 Which WW1 poet wrote these lines: "Red lips are not so red/as the stained stones kissed by the English dead"? Wilfred Owen 4 In the UK, a barrel of beer contains how many imperial gallons? 36 5 Which 70's and 80's pop star has the real name of Stuart Goddard? Adam Ant 6 Which TV programme (apart from the News) has been broadcast daily since July 29th 1949? 7 Which President of France officially opened the Channel Tunnel with the Queen? 8 In which city are the world headquarters of Coca Cola? Atlanta USA 9 Who sings the theme song from the new Bond film Spectre? Sam Smith 10 Who is the lead female presenter on the North West regional BBC magazine programme each weekday evening? 11 Which piece of music advertised "Hamlet" cigars? Air on a G string 12 On which island is the Guantanamo Bay detention camp? Cuba 13 Give any year in which the daily newspaper called Today was published in the UK 1986 to 1995 14 Who in 1847 composed the Waltz in D flat major, also called the "Minute Waltz?" Chopin 15 From which language does the word "minaret" come from? Arabic 16 England beat only two teams at the 2015 Rugby World Cup. Name either country. 17 Which revolutionary movement was started in California in 1966 by Bobby Seale and Huey Newton? 18 Which Yorkist King of England's personal emblem was a white boar? Richard III 19 The river Ganges enters the sea in which inlet of the Indian Ocean? Bay of Bengal 20 From which common English tree are cricket stumps traditionally made? Ash 21 From what musical does the song "Oh what a beautiful Morning" come? Oklahoma 22 Which fictional character was nick-named "the Fat Owl of the Remove"? Billy Bunter 23 Which chemical element has the number 27 of the periodic table and the symbol Co? 24 The Battle of Balaclava was a Russian defeat by British and French forces in which war? 25 How was the 11th century Spanish military leader Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar better known as? 26 Which African capital lies at the confluence of the Blue and White Nile? Khartoum 27 Which future Prime Minister played cricket for Oxford University, MCC and Middlesex during the 1920s? 28 Who won an Oscar for playing an Irish cop in the "Untouchables"? Sean Connery 29 What is another name for the scaly anteater? Pangolin 30 How was the Birmingham Royal Ballet Co previously known? Sadlers Wells 31 Who painted "The Girl with the Pearl Earring"? Johannes Vermeer 32 Which island is separated from the mainland by the Straits of Magellan? Tierra del Fuego 33 Baton Rouge is the capital of which US state? Louisiana 34 Who did Neville Chamberlain succeed as Prime Minister? Stanley Baldwin 35 It Happened one Night (1934) was the first film to win Oscars for actor, actress, director and film. Name either the actor or actress who won an award Clark Gable or Claudette Colbert 36 Firenze is the Italian name for which city? Florence 37 Which plant was called after the Greek goddess of the rainbow? Iris 38 What is the British Isles largest lake (by area)? Lough Neagh (in Northern Ireland) 39 In WW2, what was Operation Dynamo? Evacuation of the BEF from Dunkirk 40 What do Thistle, Brent & Ninian have in common? They are North Sea oilfields (accept oilfields) 41 Jean-Claude Killy was one of France's greatest sportsmen. At which sport did he excel? 42 Currer Bell was the original pen name of which English author/ Charlotte Bronte (both names needed) 43 Which journalist and broadcaster was born Janet Vera Ardern and has a regular weekly column in the Independent on Saturday? Janet Street-Porter 44 Which 1982 film by Ridley Scott (based on the book by Philip k. Dick) was a box office failure but acquired cult status later? Blade Runner 45 Who composed the music for the ballet Swan Lake? Tchaikovsky 46 Which football team did Louis van Gaal manage immediately before Manchester United? 47 Colour TV came to the UK in which year. Some leeway is given 1968-allow 1966 to 1970 48 Who created Charlie and the Chocolate Factory? Roald Dahl 49 Which mountain has the highest railway station in Europe? Jungfrau 50 The main General Post Office in Macclesfield town centre was moved earlier this year to where? WH Smiths on Mill Street (accept either or both) 51 To which famous event in the life of Jesus Christ does the Bible begin: "Seeing the crowd, Jesus walked up the hill". The Sermon on the Mount 52 The city of Lichfield lies in which county? Staffordshire 53 The Famous Five series of children's books were written by whom? Enid Blyton 54 Who is the longest serving female character in a British soap? Emily Bishop (from Coronation Street since 1961) 55 The Mexico City Red Devils play which sport? Baseball 56 Name either of the two geological periods which came before or after the Jurassic period? 57 The mandible forms which part of the human body? Jawbone 58 Give a year in the life of John Wesley the founder of Methodism with his brother Charles 59 Who is the Conservative candidate to replace Boris Johnson as Mayor of London next year? 60 Calabrese, purple and sprouting are types of what? Broccoli 61 Tashkent is the capital of which country? Uzbekistan 62 Who wrote the novels on which the Poldark TV series is based? Winston Graham 63 Massimo Cellino is the owner of which football club having sacked six coaches/managers and been suspended twice by the football league in his eighteen month reign? 64 Which, in terms of area is the largest of Britain's National Parks? The Cairngorms 65 On 13 January 2012, which cruise ship hit the rocks and sank off the west coast of Italy? 66 To which flower family does garlic belong? Lily 67 Who wrote The Monkees hit 'I'm a Believer'? Neil Diamond 68 In which Cumbrian town is there a famous pencil museum? Keswick 69 The phrase 'let him have it' was crucial to the conviction and subsequent execution of who in 1953? Derek Bentley 70 Which element in the periodic table was given its name meaning water creator by Antoine Lavoisier in 1783? 71 Which actress played Cilia Black in a 2014 TV biopic of her life? Sheridan Smith 72 In which country was fashion designer Yves St. Laurent born in 1936? Algeria 73 The name of which common household object derives from the Latin word 'to admire' or 'to wonder at'? A mirror 74 Which actress was born Camille Javal in 1934? Brigitte Bardot 75 What is the second highest mountain in Africa after Mount Kilimanjaro? Mount Kenya 76 Who is the Shadow Foreign Secretary as at end of October? Hilary Benn 77 What hormone is produced in the 'Islets of Langerhans' in the pancreas? Insulin 78 The main characters of which opera are Rodolfo and Mimi? La Boheme 79 Which opera features The Humming Chorus? Madam Butterfly 80 In Greek legend Pygmalion was the King of which island? Cyprus 81 In which country is the city of Split? Croatia 82 Which U.S. State is named after the Spanish for 'coloured red'? Colorado 83 Which World War II song is particularly associated with Lala Anderson? Lily Marlene 84 In which country will the next Rugby World Cup be held in 2019? Japan 85 By which name are the fruit of the Blackthorne commonly known? Sloes 86 Which food company sold their product from tricycles and by the 1930's had 8,500 of them each bearing the slogan 'stop me and buy one'? Walls Ice Cream (accept Walls) 87 In his recent book The Road to Little Dribbling' which travel writer wrote 'Eastleigh near Southampton appears to have been bombed heavily during the second world war, though perhaps not quite heavily enough? Bill Bryson 88 The opening lines of which hit song are: 'Well you can tell by the way I use my walk I'm a woman's man, no time to talk'? Stayin' Alive (The Bee Gees) 89 The town of Salem, scene of the infamous Witch Trials is in which U.S. State? Massachusetts 90 What was the real name of the Artful Dodger in Oliver Twist? Jack Dawkins 91 Three countries have land borders with Cambodia: Laos and Thailand are two of them, name the third. Vietnam 92 What is the title of the poem by Robert Browning that begins 'Oh to be in England now that Aprils there'? Home Thoughts from Abroad 93 Coombe Hill in Buckinghamshire is the highest point of which range of hills? The Chilterns 94 How old was David Cameron when he became Leader of the Conservative Party? 39 (accept one year leeway) 95 How many acres are in a square mile? 640 96 Who is the Business Secretary (as at end October 2015) in current Cabinet of the Government? 1 Which Italian goalkeeper became the oldest person to win the World Cup when his team triumphed in 1982? Dino Zoff 2 Which local councillor who represents Sutton on the Borough Council is the current Mayor of Cheshire East Council? Hilda Gaddum 3 Who was Emperor of Japan in WWII? Hirohito 4 What is the largest country by area in Africa? Algeria 5 The next two Winter Olympic Games will be held in Asia, that in 2018 in South Korea. In which Asian city will the 2022 games be held? Beijing 6 Which organisation was set up by Agnes Baden Powell? Girl Guides posted by Nick at 12:56 PM 5 Comments Wednesday, November 11, 2015 10th November Home to the Robin Hood and vetted by the Church House and Park Timers SPECIALIST ROUNDS 2. A Life On The Ocean Waves 3. Science ARTS & ENTERTAINMENT Q1 One half of a double act: who married his manager Ali Astall in the Summer of 2015 – (full name required) ? A Declan Donnelly Q2 In popular music which duo have the surnames Peacock and Hodges? A Chas and Dave Q3 How is the painting ‘Arrangement In Grey And Black No.1’ better-known? A Whistler’s Mother Q4 What is the title of Ellie Goulding’s 2015 British number one hit single that featured on the soundtrack of the film ‘Fifty Shades Of Grey’? A Love Me Like You Do Q5 At 12 years and 178 days who is the longest serving presenter of the children’s television programme ‘Blue Peter’? A John Noakes Q6 Which Gilbert & Sullivan opera has the alternative title The Prince And The Peri? A Iolanthe Q7 Which Gilbert & Sullivan opera has the alternative title The Town Of Titipu? A The Mikado Q8 Whose immortalised painting of Guernica depicted the German bombing of the town in 1937? A Pablo Picasso S 1 Which Austrian composer’s works are given K numbers according to the 19th century Kochel catalogue? A Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart S2 Who played the part of Bernard Woolley in the TV series Yes Minister and the part of policeman Oscar Blaketon in the series Heartbeat? A Derek Fowlds A LIFE ON THE OCEAN WAVES – a round about ships. Q1. In Robert Louis Stevenson’s Treasure Island, what is the name of the ship that carries people to and from the island? A The Hispaniola Q2 All operated by Royal Caribbean International, the names of each of the world’s 4 largest cruise liners contain which 3 words? A Of The Seas (also accept Of The Sea) – namely: Allure, Oasis, Quantum & Anthem Of The Seas. Q3 In May-June 1819 which American hybrid steam-sailing ship became the first steam powered vessel to cross the Atlantic though steam power was only used for a fraction of the journey? A SS Savannah Q4 In works by John Ryan, who was the captain of the Black Pig? A Horatio Pugwash Q5 Which port was the intended final destination of the Titanic on its maiden voyage in 1912? A New York Q6 Which ship spilt a huge oil load in Prince William Sound, Alaska in 1989? A Exxon Valdez Q7 Which ship, with an animal name, was the scene of discussions between Harold Wilson and Ian Smith of Rhodesia in 1966? A HMS Tiger Q8 The site of the surrender of the Japanese at the end of World War Two, which battleship, named after a US state, is now a museum in Pearl Harbour? A USS Missouri S1 In what decade did the submarine Nautilus become the first to sail under the North Pole? A 1950s (1958) S2 What was the name of the Ship that transported the Pilgrims from Plymouth, England, to Plymouth Colony, Massachusetts in 1620? A Mayflower SCIENCE Q1 In July 2015 in his one-seater Cri Cri aircraft Frenchman Hugues Duval became the first person to fly across the Channel using what means of propulsion? A Electricity – Solar Power (Accept either) Q2 What is measured by a sphygmomanometer? A Blood pressure Q3 His name now being synonymous with raincoats, which Scottish chemist invented waterproof fabrics? A Charles Mackintosh Q4 Which kitchen appliance was invented by Nobel Prize winning Swedish physicist Gustaf Dalén in 1922? A Aga Q5 What colour are crystals of copper sulphate? A Blue Q6 Bronze is an alloy of copper and, most commonly, which other metal? A Tin Q7 Characterized by two pairs of continuously growing incisors 40% of all mammal species belong to which order of animals? A Rodents – Rodentia Q8 Which is the hottest planet in our Solar System? A Venus S1 In astronomy, The North Celestial Pole is currently located in which constellation? Ursa Minor A (1 deg. from Polaris) S2 What is the name of the new particle discovered by scientists at the Large Hadron Collider in July 2015? A Pentaquark Q1 Aged 64 who is the oldest person to accede to the British throne? A William IV – if Prince Charles accedes to the throne, he will take the record. Q2 Henry VIII was outlived by two of the women who married him; Catherine Parr was one, who was the other? A Anne of Cleves Q3 Born in Staffordshire, Reginald Pole became, in 1556, the last Roman Catholic to hold which position in England? A Archbishop of Canterbury Q4 The Battle of Inkerman took place during which war? A Crimean War Q5 In 1874 the Remington No1 went on sale becoming the world’s first commercially successful what? A Typewriter Q6 In 1890 Auburn Prison, New York became the first institution to use what form of capital punishment when William Kemmler was executed? A Electric Chair Q7 Taking its name from the then US Secretary of State what was the name of the economic recovery programme put in place to assist post World War II rebuilding in Europe? A Marshall Plan Q8 Following the Watergate scandal, which US president pardoned Richard Nixon for any crimes he committed while in office? A Gerald Ford S1 Which mark was originally conceived in 1903 as a symbol to identify products manufactured to meet British standards and was first used on tram rails? A Kite mark S2 Now the site of an immigration museum, which island was home to the USA’s busiest immigrant inspection station from 1892 to 1954? A Ellis Island (In Upper New York Bay) 2015 Q1 Eleven year old Megan Evans of Cheshire described which event of 2015 thus: ‘It’s a bit like the Jeremy Kyle Show. They’re all arguing on TV and showing themselves up’? A General Election TV debate Q2 On the same day in July 2015 the Hon. Laura Fellowes, Adam Middleton, Thomas van Straubenzee, James Meade and Sophie Carter all performed what function? A God parents at Christening of Princess Charlotte Q3 England finished third beating Germany in the play-off in the 2015 FIFA Women’s World Cup. Which team beat Japan in the final? A United States of America Q4 A man much in the news in 2015; what is Sepp Blatter’s real first name? A Joseph Q5 Who played drums with ‘The Who’ on their 2014-15 tour ‘The Who Hits 50’ and also for their 2015 appearance at Glastonbury? A Zak Starkey Q6 Originating in Scandinavia in 2009 which music streaming service was bought by Jay Z, Calvin Harris, Chris Martin and other artists in April 2015? A Tidal Q7 On being given a modernist portrait of herself on a pony during a 2015 visit abroad who allegedly said, ‘That’s a funny colour for a horse’? A Queen Elizabeth II Q8 Which country competed in the 2015 Eurovision Song Contest in honour of the competition’s 60th edition? A Australia S1 In 2015 who replaced Nick Clegg as leader of the Liberal Democrats? A Tim Farron S2 Driven by Nick Tandy, Earl Bamber and Nico Hulkenberg which make of car won the 2015 Le Mans 24 Hour Race? A Porsche GEOGRAPHY Q1 Which island group in the Indian Ocean, a popular tourist destination, has the city of Victoria as its capital? A Seychelles Q2 Which Irish city lies furthest south? A Cork Q3 Which Canadian territory has the city of Yellowknife as its capital? A Northwest Territories Q4 Which Canadian territory has the city of Whitehorse as its capital? A The Yukon Q5 Which Austronesian language has about 57 million speakers in the Philippines? A Tagalog Q6 What is the 2nd most-spoken Semitic language in the world, after Arabic? A Amharic (NOT Aramaic) Q7 Which southern English coastal town is home to the Royal National Lifeboat Institution? A Poole Q8 Which southern English city has districts called Shirley, Bassett Green, Northam and Thornhill? A Southampton S1 Which island, situated in the Canadian territory of Nunavut, was discovered by Europeans in 1576 and is named after an English navigator who died in 1622? A Baffin Island S2 Which Australian attraction is also known as Uluru? A Ayers Rock All the answers contain words used for letters in the phonetic alphabet The full answer is required, not just the word. Q1 What are the Academy Awards more commonly called? A The Oscars Q2 In what month of the year is St Andrew’s Day? A November (30th) Q3 Who is the controversial founder of “Sports Direct” and Chairman of Newcastle United? A Mike Ashley Q4 Charles Stuart, instigator of the 1745 Jacobite Uprising, is often referred to by what name? A Bonnie Prince Charlie Q5 Usually called butter beans in the UK, what are they more commonly called in the USA? A Lima Beans Q6 Which betting company’s series of TV adverts features the founder being hounded by a strange character called Maurice? A BetVictor (the founder was Victor Chandler but that is not the name of the company now) Q7 What were discovered by Wilhelm Rontgen in 1895? A X-rays Q8 Which country is the most-populous democracy in the world? A India S1 In which 1964 film did Michael Caine play the character Lieutenant Gonville Bromhead? A Zulu S2 What sort of residence has been mentioned in the titles of hits by Chris Issak, The Eagles and Elvis Presley? A Hotel SPORT Q1 Eddie Merckx is arguably Belgium’s most famous sportsman. In which sport did he achieve fame? A Cycling Q2 England captain Charlotte Edwards has lifted the team to success in which sport? A Cricket Q3 In Alex Ferguson’s list of the 4 players that he had managed at Manchester United, that he considered ”world class”, who was the only Englishman? A Paul Scholes Q4 Similarly, in Alex Ferguson’s list of the 4 players that he had managed at Manchester United, that he considered “world class”, which one made the most appearances for the club? A Ryan Giggs Q5 What is a solid black flag used for in Formula One? A To summon a driver to the pits Q6 What instruction does a solid yellow flag give to drivers in Formula One? A Slow down – due to hazard on the track Q7 Bill Hoskyns was the first Briton to compete at 6 Olympic Games, 1956 to 1976 inclusive. What was his sport? A Fencing Q8 Mark Foster never won an Olympic medal in his career, yet he carried the British flag at the 2008 opening ceremony. What was his sport? A Swimming S1 Which county won the Cricket County Championship for 7 years in succession from 1952 to 1958? A Surrey S2 Which Welsh golfer won the 1957 award for BBC Sports Personality Of The Year? A Dai Rees 1. Who was stabbed to death in 44 B.C. by Cassius, Brutus and others? JULIUS CAESAR 2. As you would find redcoats at Butlins, what colour jackets would you expect to find at Pontins? BLUE 3. What did Ian Cumming and Tamal Ray most-famously fail to do in October 2015? WIN THE GREAT BRITISH BAKE-OFF (They were losing finalists) 4. In which British city was the BBC TV gangland drama Peaky Blinders set? BIRMINGHAM 5. U.S. Presidential inaugurations take place in which month? JANUARY 6. Liverpudlian Craig Phillips became the first winner of what in 2000? BIG BROTHER 7. Which jazz and blues singer, critic and writer (1926-2007) frequently performed with John Chilton’s Feetwarmers and the Digby Fairweather band? GEORGE MELLY 8. In Holst’s orchestral suite ‘The Planets’ which planet is ‘The bringer of peace’? VENUS 9. Which car company has a rhino image on the back of its 4x4’s? SUZUKI 10. Graz is the second most-populous city in which European country? AUSTRIA 11. What is the only capital city of a European Union country that begins and ends with the same consonant? WARSAW 12. What is the name given to an adult male goose? GANDER 13. Which city, one of the 10 most-populous in the United States, lies at the northern end of the celebrated Route 66? CHICAGO 14. The largest cities (by population) of the US states of Oregon & Maine both have the same name as a Dorset town. What name is that? PORTLAND 15. What word links a former capital of Jamaica and a 1918 epidemic that killed an estimated 4% of the world’s population? SPANISH (Spanish Town and Spanish flu) 16. There are 4 passport offices in England – Liverpool and London are two. Name one of the others. DURHAM or PETERBOROUGH 17. Which measurement, mentioned in the Bible, was calculated as the typical distance from the tip of a man’s finger to his elbow? CUBIT 18. Complete this title of a 1982 best-selling book billed as a “guidebook to all that is truly masculine” – Real Men Don’t Eat……….what? QUICHE 19. What colour are the seats in the House Of Lords? RED 20. Prince George of Cambridge lies at what number in line of succession to the throne? THIRD 21. What is the family name of Michael, John and Wendy in the Peter Pan works by JM Barrie? DARLING 22. Of which WM Thackeray novel is Becky Sharp one of the principal characters? VANITY FAIR 23. Little-endians and big-endians are terms to describe the storage of bytes in a computer memory. In which work of 1726 did the terms first appear? GULLIVER’S TRAVELS (they were 2 groups of people arguing over where an egg should be opened) 24. The Torah is a set of instructions to which religion? JUDAISM 25. What was the name of the pub that featured in the Channel 4 TV series Shameless? THE JOCKEY 26. The food critic and former model Sophie Dahl is married to which musician? JAMIE CULLUM 27. Which British entertainer married Canadian jazz pianist and vocalist Diana Krall in 2003? ELVIS COSTELLO 28. What was the name of the political party founded in 1994 by James Goldsmith? REFERENDUM PARTY 29. What appropriate name is given to the cloud that often covers the mountain that overlooks Cape Town, South Africa? TABLE CLOTH (over Table Mountain) 30. In what country is Chernobyl, the site of a nuclear power station fire in 1985? UKRAINE 31. In the second series of which TV sitcom was baby Neil born to Nessa and Smithy in 2008? GAVIN & STACEY 32. “Let you fingers do the walking” was a slogan used in advertising what? BT’s YELLOW PAGES 33. Who was the UK prime minister at the time of the Apollo 11 moon landings? HAROLD WILSON 34. Who had the distinction of more appearances in “Carry On…..” films than anyone else? KENNETH WILLIAMS 35. Harland David Sanders is best known for founding which chain? KENTUCKY FRIED CHICKEN 36. “Nothing over sixpence” was the boast of which store that opened its first branch in Britain in 1909? WOOLWORTHS 37. In “The Wizard of Oz”, which character wanted a heart? THE TIN MAN 38. In the 1967 film the Jungle Book, which character sang “The Bare Necessities” with Mowgli? BALOO 39. By area, what is the smallest of the states of Australia? TASMANIA 40. Which team won the Scottish FA Cup for the first time in 2015? INVERNESS Caledonian Thistle 41. Aljaz Bedene became the number 2 ranked British tennis player in March this year when he switched allegiance from which country? SLOVENIA 42. Kirsch is a colourless fruit brandy made using which fruit? CHERRY 43. Christmas Island, with a population of 2,000, lies in the Indian Ocean and is a territory of which country? AUSTRALIA 44. In which county is the M20 motorway? KENT 45. In which county is Dungeness, with its 2 lighthouses and two nuclear power stations? KENT 46. What was the first Asian city to host the summer Olympics? TOKYO (1964) 47. In the game of scrabble what is the value of the letter J? 8 48. On the cover of the Beatles album ‘Abbey Road’ which member of the band leads the band crossing the road? JOHN LENNON 49. Which Beatle had a Top 10 solo hit in 1973 with ‘Give me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)’? GEORGE HARRISON 50. Who was the first female tennis player to win all 4 grand slam titles and an Olympic gold medal in the same year? STEFFI GRAF 51. Which town is home to Wallace & Gromit? WIGAN 52. How many Apollo missions landed men on the moon? 6 (numbers 11 to 17 minus 13) 53. What important food fish has types called Albacore, Yellowfin and Bluefin? TUNA 54. The company Wolverine World Wide manufacture boots with the name of which company, the world’s leading manufacturer of mining and construction equipment? CATERPILLAR 55. Complete this quote by Enoch Powell – “All political lives, unless they are cut off in midstream at a happy juncture, end in…………what?.” FAILURE 56. By what nickname was Manfred Freiherr Von Richthofen best know? THE RED BARON 57. Nick Nack was the diminutive sidekick of which triple-nippled Bond villain? FRANCISCO SCARAMANGA (in ‘THE MAN WITH THE GOLDEN GUN’) 58. Originally using the tagline “For men who should know better” which ‘lads’ mag’ launched in 1994 and ceased publication in March 2015? LOADED 59. In 1946, the Forint replaced the Pengo as the currency of which country? HUNGARY 60. Which disease was once known as ‘The White Death’? TUBERCULOSIS 61. Sussex pond pudding contains a whole fruit, which? LEMON 62. Who is the actress widow of the late John Thaw? SHEILA HANCOCK 63. A smolt is a term for the young of what? SALMON 64. Footballer Wayne Bridge and rugby union player Ben Foden married Frankie and Una from which girl group? SATURDAYS 65. Which grand slam tennis tournament is played on red clay courts? FRENCH OPEN 66. Which British amateur detective, created by Francis Durbridge, was the subject of a radio series that was introduced by the music “Coronation Scot”? PAUL TEMPLE 67. Which character, first appearing in 1958, is the most famous creation of Michael Bond? PADDINGTON BEAR 68. Which organisation produces the Watchtower magazine? JEHOVAH’S WITNESSES 69. Which Roman road linked Lincoln to Exeter via Bath, Leicester and Newark-on-Trent? FOSSE WAY 70. Based on a true story, which 2014 film depicts a group of gay and lesbian activists who raised money to help support the families affected by the miners’ strike in 1984? PRIDE 71. Which company supplies tyres to the F1 championships? PIRELLI 72. How many squares are there on a scrabble board? 225 73. In which city would you find the Uffizi Art Gallery? FLORENCE 74. What connects Ryan, Labbett, Wallace, Hegarty and Sinha? THE CHASE TV PROGRAMME – They are the surnames of the Chasers. 75. Which musician was known as ‘The King of Swing’? BENNY GOODMAN 76. Which politician had the nickname ‘The Chingford Skinhead’? NORMAN TEBBITT 77. Montego Bay is the second largest city in which country? JAMAICA 78. As 0044 is the international dialling code for the UK, for which country is 007 the code? RUSSIA 79. What is the unit of currency in Turkey? LIRA 80. England cricketer Ben Stokes was controversially given out at Lords in September 2015 under which law? OBSTRUCTING THE FIELD 81. In which resort did Banksy open his Dismaland exhibition in August 2015? WESTON-SUPER-MARE 82. The singer, songwriter and actress Robyn Fenty uses her middle name as her stage name. What is it? RIHANNA 83. Dave ‘Devilfish’ Ulliott died in April 2015. In which field was he famous? POKER 84. What was the stage name of the performer who was born Helen Porter Mitchell in 1861 in Australia? NELLIE MELBA 85. What was the first English football league club that Bill Shankly managed? CARLISLE UNITED 86. The most southerly tip of mainland Australia is Wilson’s Promontory - in which state? VICTORIA 87. In which month of the year were the Titanic and Hillsborough disasters? APRIL 88. Which chemical element has the symbol K? POTASSIUM 89. Give one of the 2 forenames of the singer Morrissey? STEPHEN OR PATRICK 90. David Cameron’s wife Samantha had which British city as her maiden surname? SHEFFIELD 91. What was the minimum age for voters in the 2014 Scottish Referendum? 16 92. What is the minimum permissible age required, in the UK, to open an account on Facebook or Instagram? 13 93. Neil the sloth is a character in TV adverts for which company? SOFAWORKS 94. Whose birth is the first recorded in the Bible? CAIN 95. In the New Testament of the Bible, which book follows the 4 Gospels? ACTS 96. The first question asked by Magnus Magnusson on Mastermind, in 1972, was virtually the same as the last question asked by him on his regular TV series in 1997. What was the subject of the question, also the basis of a question in tonight’s quiz? PICASSO’s painting of GUERNICA Supplementaries S1. Of which African country is Juba the capital? SOUTH SUDAN S2. Which celebrity chef is the founder of the restaurant 15? JAMIE OLIVER S3. Which forename is common to TV detectives Bergerac, Taggart and Rockford? JIM S4. ‘Canard’ is the French word for which creature? DUCK S5. What name is given to a gathering of a group of witches? COVEN S6. El Alamein, the scene of a World War II battle, is a town in which country? EGYPT 1/ For which ballet company were Picasso and Matisse among the scene designers? Ans. Les Ballets Russes (based in Paris from 1909-29) 2/ Who wrote the Savoy Operas? Ans. Gilbert and Sullivan. 3/ Which author is associated with “Carrie” and “Christine”? Ans. Stephen King 4/ In which stage musical did Rose Hemingway play Sophie, the child of three possible fathers? Ans. Mamma Mia! 5/ Who, in fiction, lived close by the Gitche Gumee River? Ans. Hiawatha 6/ Which leading English romantic poet was drowned in Italy at the age of 29 in 1822? Ans. Percy Bysshe Shelley. 7/ Which Nobel Prize winner wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls? Ans. Earnest Hemmingway. 8/ What was taken in the 1974 and 2009 films The Taking of Pelham 123? Ans. A underground/subway train. Sup1/ George Orwell’s Animal Farm was written as a satire about which political system? Ans. Communism Sup2/ Who sang the famous theme song “Rawhide”? Ans. Frankie Laine. 1/ If you said you came from Suomi, what nationality would you be. Ans. Finnish. 2/ The Rock of Gibraltar and the Jebel Musa are together known as what Ans. The pillars of Hercules. 3/ Near which city is RAF Northolt? Ans. London (in South Ruislip) 4/ Which island in the South Atlantic was named after the Portuguese admiral who discovered it in 1506? Ans. Tristan da Cunha 5/ Known as the Rio Grande river in the USA, what is it called in Mexico? Ans. Rio Bravo 6/ How many emirates make up the United Arab Emirates? Ans. 7. 7/ What is the name of the dam on the Zambia - Zimbabwe border? Ans. Kariba. 8/ In which country is Aconcagua the highest mountain in South America? Ans. Argentina Sup1/ In which Irish county will you find the Blarney Stone? Ans. County Cork. Sup2/ Which South American country has a name which means "Land of Silver"? Ans. Argentina SCIENCE 1/ What substance has been used in the production of both Ming vases and “dirty” nuclear bombs? Ans. Cobalt 2/ What is the name given to the substance that covers a deer’s antler when it is growing Ans. Velvet 3/ What is the medical term for the condition that produces bad breath? Ans. Halitosis. 4/ What type of star is the sun’s nearest stellar neighbour, Proxima Centauri? Ans. A red dwarf. 5/ How many stars are there in Orion’s belt? Ans. 3. 6/ How is the chaparral cock, a ground cuckoo native of Mexico, better known? Ans. Roadrunner. 7/ Who discovered the law that the volume of a given mass of gas at a constant temperature is inversely proportional to its pressure? Ans. Boyle. 8/ What facet of human anatomy did William Harvey discover? Ans. Blood circulation. Sup1/ What would you find in an Arboretum? Ans. Trees Sup2/ An orchidectomy is the surgical removal of what? Ans. The Testicles. SPORT 1/ In drag racing what is the name given to the series of lamps which flash a countdown sequence to the start? Ans. The Christmas Tree. 2/ Who in 1960, became the first boxer in history to regain the world heavyweight title? Ans. Floyd Patterson (He beat Ingemar Johansson.) 3/ Which biennial sporting event was postponed for a year in 2001 following the September 11th terrorist attack on New York? Ans/ The Ryder Cup 4/ Who was the first American to win the Tour de France (in 1986)? Ans. Greg Lemond. 5/ At which football ground did 56 people die in 1985 when fire engulfed the main stand? Ans. Bradford City/Valley Parade (accept either). 6/ How was John Sholto Douglas (1844-1900) better known? Ans. The Marquis of Queensbury. 7/ Which Surrey and England cricketer died in a car crash in 2002? Ans. Ben Hollioake. 8/ In rugby, which country will the British and Irish Lions tour in 2017? Ans. New Zealand. Sup1/ What sport would you be watching at Flinders Park? Ans/ Tennis. (in Melbourne Aus.) Sup2/ Due to superstition, what didn't Bjorn Borg do at Wimbledon? Ans. Shave HISTORY 1/ “It was the most desperate battle I was ever in. I never took so much trouble about any battle, and never was as near being beat”. Which 19th century battle was the writer describing in a letter to his brother? Ans. Waterloo (as described by Wellington). 2/ Who was the King of England when the Royal Society was formed? Ans. Charles II 3/ Give a year in the life of Edmund Gibbon who wrote the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Ans. 1737 – 1794 4/ During which war was the naval battle of Chesapeake Bay fought? Ans. The American War of Independence 5/ In which century was Hadrian’s Wall built? Ans. 2nd century (c. 120 – 128) 6/ Some say there are 4 copies, others 17 – what? Ans. Magna Carta 7/ In which cathedral was Richard III’s body re-interred? Ans. Leicester 8/ The capture of what is now known as Pegasus Bridge was one of the opening operations of which battle? Ans. The Battle of Normandy (accept D Day). Sup1/ Historical novelist, Hilary Mantel, wrote a book called “Wolf Hall”, recently serialised on the BBC. During whose reign do events take place? Ans. Henry VIII Sup2/ Which modern-day politician wrote a book in 2014 called “The Churchill Factor (How One Man Made History)-------Ans.Boris Johnson “Help Is Only 150 Million Miles Away” GREAT MOVIE TAGLINES Name the film title from the tagline… 1/ One dream. Four Jamaicans. Twenty below zero. Ans. Cool Runnings 2/ For Harry and Lloyd EVERYDAY is a no-brainer . Ans. Dumb and Dumber 3/ A lot can happen in the middle of nowhere. Ans. Fargo 4/ Vietnam can kill me, but it can’t make me care. Ans. Full Metal Jacket 5/ An adventure 65 million years in the making. Ans. Jurassic Park 6/ Protecting the Earth from the scum of the Universe. Ans. Men in Black 7/ The classic story about a boy and his mother. Ans. Psycho 8/ They’re young; they’re in love and they kill people. Ans. Bonnie and Clyde Supp1/ This is Benjamin. He’s a little worried about his future. Ans. The Graduate Supp2/ Fear can hold you prisoner. Hope can set you free. Ans. The Shawshank Redemption Supp3/ A romantic comedy with Zombies. Ans. Shaun of the Dead. Name that Person! With the aid of the following lyrics name the man/woman in each song 1/ (Male) Well I grew up quick and I grew up mean. Ans. A boy named Sue 2/ (Female) The morning sun when it's on your face really shows your age. Ans. Maggie May 3/ (Female) You don't have to wear that dress tonight. Ans. Roxanne. 4/ (Male) Screwed up eyes and screwed down hairdo like some cat from Japan. Ans. Ziggy Stardust 5/ (Female) You fill up my senses like a night in the forest. Ans. Annie’s Song 6/ (Female) I played the janitor you played the monitor. Ans. Carrie Anne 7/ (Male) Was he in trouble, half a ton of rubble landed on the top of his dome. Ans Right said Fred 8/ (Female) She invented medicinal compound. Ans Lily the pink Sup1/ (Female) She waits at the window wearing the face that she keeps in a jar by the door. Ans. Eleanor Rigby Sup2/ (Female) You got me rocking and a rolling, rocking and a reeling. Ans. Barbara Ann In this round all the one word answers have ‘A’ as the alternate letter. 1/ Which country has more coastline than any other? Ans. Canada 2/ Covering an area of over two million square miles, which geographical area takes its name from the Arabic for ‘desert’? Ans. Sahara 3/ Which company is the world’s largest manufacturer of musical instruments? Ans. Yamaha 4/ ‘Shy Boy’, ‘Cruel Summer’ and ‘Love in the First Degree’ are titles of 1980’s UK top 10 singles for which group? Ans. Bananarama 5/ Which word is derived from the Sanskrit for ‘great king’ or ‘high king’? Ans. Maharaja (accept Rajah) 6/ Found growing in areas from Florida to South America, which tropical tree produces a fruit resembling a melon, with orange coloured flesh and numerous blackish seeds in its central cavity? Ans. Papaya 7/ Born in 1982, by what name is the footballer Ricardo Izecson dos Santos Leite better known? Ans. Kaka 8/ What is the current name of the capital city founded in 1515 by the Spanish soldier and administrator, Diego Velasquez? Ans. Havana Supp1/ In Greek cuisine which popular starter dish comprises a pink pâté made mainly from cod roe? Ans. Taramasalata Supp2/ In which stadium did a record 199,854 spectators attend the 1950 football World Cup? Ans. Maracana – in Rio de Janeiro THE WHARFIES 1. In terms of numbers of men fighting what was the largest battle fought in England? (Battle of Towton 1461) 2. What is the name of the walk, which goes from Milngavie on the outskirts of Glasgow to Fort William? (West Highland Way) 3. What is the name of the walk, which goes from Fort William to Inverness? (Great Glen Way) 4. In Rising Damp what was the name of Rigsby’s cat? (Vienna) 5. Why has Pauline Cafferkey been in the news in October 2015? (Nurse being treated for Ebola) 6. In which organ are the islets of Langerhans? (The Pancreas) 7. What is the largest moon in the solar system? (Ganymede, which orbits Jupiter) 8. The Vulcan bomber was recently retired. Which firm originally built it? (Avro) 9. Bob Dylan’s Like a Rolling Stone originally appeared on which album? (Highway 61 Revisited) 10. During the 1968 Mexico Olympics gold medallist Tommy Smith famously carried out the Black Power salute. Can you name either of the other two athletes who were on the rostrum with him? (John Carlos or Peter Norman) 11. Who is the shadow Foreign Secretary? (Hilary Benn) 12. Where in the human body would you find the scaphoid bone? (the wrist) 13. Who said, “I don’t see why we need to stand by and watch a country go communist due to the irresponsibility of its own people.” (Henry Kissinger (referring to covert operations in Chile during the 1970’s.) 14. Complete the sequence: - Henry I, Stephen, Henry II, Richard I, John… (Henry III) 15. In cooking what is “En Papillote”. Cooked in a bag (It is a method of cooking in which the food is put into a folded pouch or parcel and then baked. The parcel is typically made from folded parchment paper, but other material, such as a paper bag or aluminium foil, may be used) 16. The dodo is the national bird of which country ? Mauritius 17. After the age of 70, you have to renew your driving licence every how many years? THREE 18. Which children’s cartoon series featured characters called Lion-O, Cheetara, Panthro and Tygra? THUNDERCATS 19. Who said, “I want to live forever, or die trying”? GROUCHO MARX 20. In which TV series did the Muppets first appear? SESAME STREET 21. In the children’s series Rainbow, what kind of animal was George? HIPPO 22. A pandemonium is the collective noun for which order of birds? PARROTS 23. Marlon James has just won which prestigious prize? Booker prize for fiction – (Brief History of 7 killings, set around the shooting of Bob Marley) 24. Which current TV drama features Piper Chapman playing the character Taylor Schilling? Orange is the New Black 25. 'Music Complete' is the latest album by which veteran band from the north west? (New Order) 26. Who is the new Political Editor of ITV News? (Robert Peston) 27. Which opera by Donizetti opened the first Buxton Festival in 1979, featured at the Buxton Festival this year, and is based on a novel by Sir Walter Scott? (Lucia di Lammermoor) 28. Who wrote the novel “Birdsong”? (SEBASTIAN) FAULKS 29. Which film ends with the line, “I do wish we could chat longer, but I’m having an old friend for dinner”? THE SILENCE OF THE LAMBS 30. Which film ends with the line, “Oh, no. It wasn’t the airplanes. It was Beauty killed the Beast.”? KING KONG 31. In the TV series “Red Dwarf”, what was the name of the onboard computer? HOLLY 32. In the human body, what are erythrocytes? RED BLOOD CELLS 33. Which fictional character favoured the Oxford Bar in Edinburgh? (INSPECTOR) REBUS 34. The Bull is the village pub in an everyday tale of country folk. In which village is The Bull? AMBRIDGE 35. Patrick Starfish is the best friend of which cartoon character? SPONGEBOB SQUAREPANTS 36. Which area of mathematics is concerned with relationships between lengths and angles of triangles? TRIGONOMETRY 37. Which area of mathematics is the study of the collection, analysis and interpretation of data? STATISTICS 38. What links Mike Teevee, Augustus Gloop, Veruca Salt, Violet Beauregarde and Charlie Bucket? ALL WON TICKETS TO VISIT WILLY WONKA’S CHOCOLATE FACTORY 39. What is the surname of the brothers who have won Olympic, World and Commomwealth competitions in triathlon? (ALASTAIR + JONNY) BROWNLEE 40. What are the names of the brothers who produced and directed “Raising Arizona” and “Burn After Reading”? (JOEL + ETHAN) COEN 41. To the nearest millimetre, how many millimetres are in one (1) inch? 25 (25.4 to be more exact). Accept 25 or 26. 42. In Greek mythology, who was the giant with 100 eyes? Argus. 43. Gazpacho is a Spanish soup made with tomatoes and which other main ingredient ?Peppers (capsicums) 44. On TV, which actress plays Vera in the series of that name ? ( Brenda Blethyn ) 45. Which football league team plays its home games at the ABAX stadium on London Road? (Peterborough) 46. Which country produces Tokaj (pronounced To-kay) wine? (Hungary) 47. Which best selling author died aged 77 in September this year? (Jackie Collins) 48. Country singer Lyn Anderson died in 2015, but what was her only UK number 1 hit? (I never promised you a)Rose Garden 49. Mendoza is a wine area in which country ? Argentina 50. The Napa Valley is a wine area in which of the United states? California 51. Which current "Strictly Come Dancing" contestant also hosts a television quiz show ? Jeremy Vine 52. Which "Archers" character recently departed following a flood ? Frieda Fry. 53. Pink Lady and Jazz are varieties of which fruit ? Apple 54. Louis Armstrong was known for playing which instrument ? Trumpet 55. The cut of beef known as clod comes from which part of the animal? Shoulder or neck 56. What is the currency of Serbia ? Dinar 57. The "Dark Peak" part of the Peak District is so called from the preponderance of what rock ? Millstone Grit 58. Who wrote ‘God Bless America’? Irving Berlin 59. The British Library has a Reference Division in Euston Road, London. The Lending Division is located away from London in which county? West Yorkshire(allow Yorkshire – It’s in Boston Spa, near Wetherby) 60. What is the County Town (i.e. Admin HQ) of Buckinghamshire? Aylesbury 61. This Spanish city was the capital of the old kingdom of Castile. It is also where El Cid is buried. What is the city called? Burgos 62. What was the name of the explorer regarded as the first European to reach the Cape of Good Hope and establish a route around Africa? Bartholomew Diaz 63. The Earth’s atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen. What is the name of the next most prevalent ELEMENT? Argon 64. What is the name of the largest lake in Australia? (It frequently runs dry and becomes a salt marsh). Lake Eyre 65. Which singer sang ‘I Heard it Through the Grapevine’ and was killed by his father? Marvin Gaye 66. The US rank of general is equivalent to what British army rank? Field Marshal 67. William Gladstone is, of course, a rather distinguished British politician. In which city was he born? Liverpool 68. In what sport do teams compete for the Stanley Cup? Ice hockey 69. If liquids cannot be mixed, they are said to be immiscible (pronounce im-miss-ible). Spell IMMISCIBLE 70. Dublin is in Dublin County of Ireland. Which Province is it in? Leinster 71. The Minoan civilisation existed on which island? Crete 72. If Geordies are from Newcastle and Scousers are from Liverpool, which British town or city do Smoggies come from ? ( Middlesbrough ) 73. In his obituary, published in The Independent in August 2012, which TV commentator was said to have died aged " treble 16, double 12 “ ? ( Sid Waddell ) 74. Which Manchester Labour MP became Father of the House(longest serving member) after the 2015 General Election? (Sir Gerald Kaufman) 75. Who won this year's Great British Bake Off? (Nadiya Hussain) 76. In which city was Ed Balls’ constituency between 2005 and 2015? Leeds (Morley and Outwood) 77. Which TV personality is the voice of Dangermouse in the new series of the programme ? ( Alexander Armstrong ) 78. In “ The Wizard of Oz “, what was Dorothy’s surname ? ( Gale ) 79. Which town was the birthplace of Muhammed Ali? (Louisville, Kentucky) 80. Which actress replaced Amanda Redman in the TV series “ New Tricks “ ( Tamsin Outhwaite ) 81. Why was Mhairi (pronounced Vari) Black in the news in the first half of 2015? Youngest MP (for 200 years) 82. In Arthurian legend, what was found by Sir Galahad, Sir Bors and Sir Perceval ? (Holy Grail ) 83. Who composed the classical piece, A Liverpool Oratorio, which was premiered in 1991 ? ( Paul McCartney ) 84. In The Planets Suite by Gustav Holst, which planet is “ The bringer of old age “? (Saturn ) 85. Similarly, in the Planets Suite, which planet is described as being “ The Mystic “ ? (Neptune ) 86. The composers Delius, Holst and Elgar all died in the same year. Which year ? ( 1934 – accept 1932 to 1936 ) 87. Which outer London constituency did Vince Cable represent between 1997 and 2015? (Twickenham) 88. In which city is the constituency that prides itself on returning the first MP, and has done so at the last two general elections? Sunderland (Bridget Phillipson, Labour MP for Houghton and Sunderland South) 89. Who is leader of the SNP at Westminster? (Angus Robertson MP) 90. What middle name was shared by John Lennon and Denis Healey? (Winston) 91. In which phenomenally successful American drama series is the main character called Walter White? Breaking Bad 92. Which novel by Harper Lee, published this year, is a sequel to “ To Kill a Mockingbird “ ? ( Go Set a Watchman ) 93. The Paramatta river flows through which Australian city ? ( Sydney ) 94. In which film did Elvis Presley make his screen debut ? ( Love Me Tender ) 95. Who was the only member of the cast of the TV show “ Dads Army “ to actually be a member of the Home Guard during WW2 ? ( John Laurie – who played Private Frazer ) 96. Who made headlines in early October by knocking over 10 years old Toki Sekiguchi ? ( Boris Johnson – during an impromptu rugby game ) Supplementaries 1. The British Women’s Institute is celebrating its centenary this year. In which town was the first British W.I. group established ? ( Llanfairpwilgwyngyll……..gogogoch ie. Llanfair P.G. – accept anything that sounds close ! ) 2.What was the name of the former motor racing track found near Weybridge in Surrey? Brooklands 3. A female US novelist, the daughter of missionaries to China, wrote novels about Chinese life. In 1938, she won the Nobel Prize for Literature. What was her name? Pearl S Buck 4. Potato and what other vegetable are the main ingredients of Vichysoisse soup? Leek 5. The peacock is the national bird of which country ? India. 6. The University of California has several campuses. In which town is its HQ? Berkeley	Baffin Island
Which North American State has the nickname The Badger State ?	Macclesfield Pub Quiz League: 10th November Home to the Robin Hood 10th November Home to the Robin Hood and vetted by the Church House and Park Timers SPECIALIST ROUNDS 2. A Life On The Ocean Waves 3. Science ARTS & ENTERTAINMENT Q1 One half of a double act: who married his manager Ali Astall in the Summer of 2015 – (full name required) ? A Declan Donnelly Q2 In popular music which duo have the surnames Peacock and Hodges? A Chas and Dave Q3 How is the painting ‘Arrangement In Grey And Black No.1’ better-known? A Whistler’s Mother Q4 What is the title of Ellie Goulding’s 2015 British number one hit single that featured on the soundtrack of the film ‘Fifty Shades Of Grey’? A Love Me Like You Do Q5 At 12 years and 178 days who is the longest serving presenter of the children’s television programme ‘Blue Peter’? A John Noakes Q6 Which Gilbert & Sullivan opera has the alternative title The Prince And The Peri? A Iolanthe Q7 Which Gilbert & Sullivan opera has the alternative title The Town Of Titipu? A The Mikado Q8 Whose immortalised painting of Guernica depicted the German bombing of the town in 1937? A Pablo Picasso S 1 Which Austrian composer’s works are given K numbers according to the 19th century Kochel catalogue? A Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart S2 Who played the part of Bernard Woolley in the TV series Yes Minister and the part of policeman Oscar Blaketon in the series Heartbeat? A Derek Fowlds A LIFE ON THE OCEAN WAVES – a round about ships. Q1. In Robert Louis Stevenson’s Treasure Island, what is the name of the ship that carries people to and from the island? A The Hispaniola Q2 All operated by Royal Caribbean International, the names of each of the world’s 4 largest cruise liners contain which 3 words? A Of The Seas (also accept Of The Sea) – namely: Allure, Oasis, Quantum & Anthem Of The Seas. Q3 In May-June 1819 which American hybrid steam-sailing ship became the first steam powered vessel to cross the Atlantic though steam power was only used for a fraction of the journey? A SS Savannah Q4 In works by John Ryan, who was the captain of the Black Pig? A Horatio Pugwash Q5 Which port was the intended final destination of the Titanic on its maiden voyage in 1912? A New York Q6 Which ship spilt a huge oil load in Prince William Sound, Alaska in 1989? A Exxon Valdez Q7 Which ship, with an animal name, was the scene of discussions between Harold Wilson and Ian Smith of Rhodesia in 1966? A HMS Tiger Q8 The site of the surrender of the Japanese at the end of World War Two, which battleship, named after a US state, is now a museum in Pearl Harbour? A USS Missouri S1 In what decade did the submarine Nautilus become the first to sail under the North Pole? A 1950s (1958) S2 What was the name of the Ship that transported the Pilgrims from Plymouth, England, to Plymouth Colony, Massachusetts in 1620? A Mayflower SCIENCE Q1 In July 2015 in his one-seater Cri Cri aircraft Frenchman Hugues Duval became the first person to fly across the Channel using what means of propulsion? A Electricity – Solar Power (Accept either) Q2 What is measured by a sphygmomanometer? A Blood pressure Q3 His name now being synonymous with raincoats, which Scottish chemist invented waterproof fabrics? A Charles Mackintosh Q4 Which kitchen appliance was invented by Nobel Prize winning Swedish physicist Gustaf Dalén in 1922? A Aga Q5 What colour are crystals of copper sulphate? A Blue Q6 Bronze is an alloy of copper and, most commonly, which other metal? A Tin Q7 Characterized by two pairs of continuously growing incisors 40% of all mammal species belong to which order of animals? A Rodents – Rodentia Q8 Which is the hottest planet in our Solar System? A Venus S1 In astronomy, The North Celestial Pole is currently located in which constellation? Ursa Minor A (1 deg. from Polaris) S2 What is the name of the new particle discovered by scientists at the Large Hadron Collider in July 2015? A Pentaquark Q1 Aged 64 who is the oldest person to accede to the British throne? A William IV – if Prince Charles accedes to the throne, he will take the record. Q2 Henry VIII was outlived by two of the women who married him; Catherine Parr was one, who was the other? A Anne of Cleves Q3 Born in Staffordshire, Reginald Pole became, in 1556, the last Roman Catholic to hold which position in England? A Archbishop of Canterbury Q4 The Battle of Inkerman took place during which war? A Crimean War Q5 In 1874 the Remington No1 went on sale becoming the world’s first commercially successful what? A Typewriter Q6 In 1890 Auburn Prison, New York became the first institution to use what form of capital punishment when William Kemmler was executed? A Electric Chair Q7 Taking its name from the then US Secretary of State what was the name of the economic recovery programme put in place to assist post World War II rebuilding in Europe? A Marshall Plan Q8 Following the Watergate scandal, which US president pardoned Richard Nixon for any crimes he committed while in office? A Gerald Ford S1 Which mark was originally conceived in 1903 as a symbol to identify products manufactured to meet British standards and was first used on tram rails? A Kite mark S2 Now the site of an immigration museum, which island was home to the USA’s busiest immigrant inspection station from 1892 to 1954? A Ellis Island (In Upper New York Bay) 2015 Q1 Eleven year old Megan Evans of Cheshire described which event of 2015 thus: ‘It’s a bit like the Jeremy Kyle Show. They’re all arguing on TV and showing themselves up’? A General Election TV debate Q2 On the same day in July 2015 the Hon. Laura Fellowes, Adam Middleton, Thomas van Straubenzee, James Meade and Sophie Carter all performed what function? A God parents at Christening of Princess Charlotte Q3 England finished third beating Germany in the play-off in the 2015 FIFA Women’s World Cup. Which team beat Japan in the final? A United States of America Q4 A man much in the news in 2015; what is Sepp Blatter’s real first name? A Joseph Q5 Who played drums with ‘The Who’ on their 2014-15 tour ‘The Who Hits 50’ and also for their 2015 appearance at Glastonbury? A Zak Starkey Q6 Originating in Scandinavia in 2009 which music streaming service was bought by Jay Z, Calvin Harris, Chris Martin and other artists in April 2015? A Tidal Q7 On being given a modernist portrait of herself on a pony during a 2015 visit abroad who allegedly said, ‘That’s a funny colour for a horse’? A Queen Elizabeth II Q8 Which country competed in the 2015 Eurovision Song Contest in honour of the competition’s 60th edition? A Australia S1 In 2015 who replaced Nick Clegg as leader of the Liberal Democrats? A Tim Farron S2 Driven by Nick Tandy, Earl Bamber and Nico Hulkenberg which make of car won the 2015 Le Mans 24 Hour Race? A Porsche GEOGRAPHY Q1 Which island group in the Indian Ocean, a popular tourist destination, has the city of Victoria as its capital? A Seychelles Q2 Which Irish city lies furthest south? A Cork Q3 Which Canadian territory has the city of Yellowknife as its capital? A Northwest Territories Q4 Which Canadian territory has the city of Whitehorse as its capital? A The Yukon Q5 Which Austronesian language has about 57 million speakers in the Philippines? A Tagalog Q6 What is the 2nd most-spoken Semitic language in the world, after Arabic? A Amharic (NOT Aramaic) Q7 Which southern English coastal town is home to the Royal National Lifeboat Institution? A Poole Q8 Which southern English city has districts called Shirley, Bassett Green, Northam and Thornhill? A Southampton S1 Which island, situated in the Canadian territory of Nunavut, was discovered by Europeans in 1576 and is named after an English navigator who died in 1622? A Baffin Island S2 Which Australian attraction is also known as Uluru? A Ayers Rock All the answers contain words used for letters in the phonetic alphabet The full answer is required, not just the word. Q1 What are the Academy Awards more commonly called? A The Oscars Q2 In what month of the year is St Andrew’s Day? A November (30th) Q3 Who is the controversial founder of “Sports Direct” and Chairman of Newcastle United? A Mike Ashley Q4 Charles Stuart, instigator of the 1745 Jacobite Uprising, is often referred to by what name? A Bonnie Prince Charlie Q5 Usually called butter beans in the UK, what are they more commonly called in the USA? A Lima Beans Q6 Which betting company’s series of TV adverts features the founder being hounded by a strange character called Maurice? A BetVictor (the founder was Victor Chandler but that is not the name of the company now) Q7 What were discovered by Wilhelm Rontgen in 1895? A X-rays Q8 Which country is the most-populous democracy in the world? A India S1 In which 1964 film did Michael Caine play the character Lieutenant Gonville Bromhead? A Zulu S2 What sort of residence has been mentioned in the titles of hits by Chris Issak, The Eagles and Elvis Presley? A Hotel SPORT Q1 Eddie Merckx is arguably Belgium’s most famous sportsman. In which sport did he achieve fame? A Cycling Q2 England captain Charlotte Edwards has lifted the team to success in which sport? A Cricket Q3 In Alex Ferguson’s list of the 4 players that he had managed at Manchester United, that he considered ”world class”, who was the only Englishman? A Paul Scholes Q4 Similarly, in Alex Ferguson’s list of the 4 players that he had managed at Manchester United, that he considered “world class”, which one made the most appearances for the club? A Ryan Giggs Q5 What is a solid black flag used for in Formula One? A To summon a driver to the pits Q6 What instruction does a solid yellow flag give to drivers in Formula One? A Slow down – due to hazard on the track Q7 Bill Hoskyns was the first Briton to compete at 6 Olympic Games, 1956 to 1976 inclusive. What was his sport? A Fencing Q8 Mark Foster never won an Olympic medal in his career, yet he carried the British flag at the 2008 opening ceremony. What was his sport? A Swimming S1 Which county won the Cricket County Championship for 7 years in succession from 1952 to 1958? A Surrey S2 Which Welsh golfer won the 1957 award for BBC Sports Personality Of The Year? A Dai Rees 1. Who was stabbed to death in 44 B.C. by Cassius, Brutus and others? JULIUS CAESAR 2. As you would find redcoats at Butlins, what colour jackets would you expect to find at Pontins? BLUE 3. What did Ian Cumming and Tamal Ray most-famously fail to do in October 2015? WIN THE GREAT BRITISH BAKE-OFF (They were losing finalists) 4. In which British city was the BBC TV gangland drama Peaky Blinders set? BIRMINGHAM 5. U.S. Presidential inaugurations take place in which month? JANUARY 6. Liverpudlian Craig Phillips became the first winner of what in 2000? BIG BROTHER 7. Which jazz and blues singer, critic and writer (1926-2007) frequently performed with John Chilton’s Feetwarmers and the Digby Fairweather band? GEORGE MELLY 8. In Holst’s orchestral suite ‘The Planets’ which planet is ‘The bringer of peace’? VENUS 9. Which car company has a rhino image on the back of its 4x4’s? SUZUKI 10. Graz is the second most-populous city in which European country? AUSTRIA 11. What is the only capital city of a European Union country that begins and ends with the same consonant? WARSAW 12. What is the name given to an adult male goose? GANDER 13. Which city, one of the 10 most-populous in the United States, lies at the northern end of the celebrated Route 66? CHICAGO 14. The largest cities (by population) of the US states of Oregon & Maine both have the same name as a Dorset town. What name is that? PORTLAND 15. What word links a former capital of Jamaica and a 1918 epidemic that killed an estimated 4% of the world’s population? SPANISH (Spanish Town and Spanish flu) 16. There are 4 passport offices in England – Liverpool and London are two. Name one of the others. DURHAM or PETERBOROUGH 17. Which measurement, mentioned in the Bible, was calculated as the typical distance from the tip of a man’s finger to his elbow? CUBIT 18. Complete this title of a 1982 best-selling book billed as a “guidebook to all that is truly masculine” – Real Men Don’t Eat……….what? QUICHE 19. What colour are the seats in the House Of Lords? RED 20. Prince George of Cambridge lies at what number in line of succession to the throne? THIRD 21. What is the family name of Michael, John and Wendy in the Peter Pan works by JM Barrie? DARLING 22. Of which WM Thackeray novel is Becky Sharp one of the principal characters? VANITY FAIR 23. Little-endians and big-endians are terms to describe the storage of bytes in a computer memory. In which work of 1726 did the terms first appear? GULLIVER’S TRAVELS (they were 2 groups of people arguing over where an egg should be opened) 24. The Torah is a set of instructions to which religion? JUDAISM 25. What was the name of the pub that featured in the Channel 4 TV series Shameless? THE JOCKEY 26. The food critic and former model Sophie Dahl is married to which musician? JAMIE CULLUM 27. Which British entertainer married Canadian jazz pianist and vocalist Diana Krall in 2003? ELVIS COSTELLO 28. What was the name of the political party founded in 1994 by James Goldsmith? REFERENDUM PARTY 29. What appropriate name is given to the cloud that often covers the mountain that overlooks Cape Town, South Africa? TABLE CLOTH (over Table Mountain) 30. In what country is Chernobyl, the site of a nuclear power station fire in 1985? UKRAINE 31. In the second series of which TV sitcom was baby Neil born to Nessa and Smithy in 2008? GAVIN & STACEY 32. “Let you fingers do the walking” was a slogan used in advertising what? BT’s YELLOW PAGES 33. Who was the UK prime minister at the time of the Apollo 11 moon landings? HAROLD WILSON 34. Who had the distinction of more appearances in “Carry On…..” films than anyone else? KENNETH WILLIAMS 35. Harland David Sanders is best known for founding which chain? KENTUCKY FRIED CHICKEN 36. “Nothing over sixpence” was the boast of which store that opened its first branch in Britain in 1909? WOOLWORTHS 37. In “The Wizard of Oz”, which character wanted a heart? THE TIN MAN 38. In the 1967 film the Jungle Book, which character sang “The Bare Necessities” with Mowgli? BALOO 39. By area, what is the smallest of the states of Australia? TASMANIA 40. Which team won the Scottish FA Cup for the first time in 2015? INVERNESS Caledonian Thistle 41. Aljaz Bedene became the number 2 ranked British tennis player in March this year when he switched allegiance from which country? SLOVENIA 42. Kirsch is a colourless fruit brandy made using which fruit? CHERRY 43. Christmas Island, with a population of 2,000, lies in the Indian Ocean and is a territory of which country? AUSTRALIA 44. In which county is the M20 motorway? KENT 45. In which county is Dungeness, with its 2 lighthouses and two nuclear power stations? KENT 46. What was the first Asian city to host the summer Olympics? TOKYO (1964) 47. In the game of scrabble what is the value of the letter J? 8 48. On the cover of the Beatles album ‘Abbey Road’ which member of the band leads the band crossing the road? JOHN LENNON 49. Which Beatle had a Top 10 solo hit in 1973 with ‘Give me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)’? GEORGE HARRISON 50. Who was the first female tennis player to win all 4 grand slam titles and an Olympic gold medal in the same year? STEFFI GRAF 51. Which town is home to Wallace & Gromit? WIGAN 52. How many Apollo missions landed men on the moon? 6 (numbers 11 to 17 minus 13) 53. What important food fish has types called Albacore, Yellowfin and Bluefin? TUNA 54. The company Wolverine World Wide manufacture boots with the name of which company, the world’s leading manufacturer of mining and construction equipment? CATERPILLAR 55. Complete this quote by Enoch Powell – “All political lives, unless they are cut off in midstream at a happy juncture, end in…………what?.” FAILURE 56. By what nickname was Manfred Freiherr Von Richthofen best know? THE RED BARON 57. Nick Nack was the diminutive sidekick of which triple-nippled Bond villain? FRANCISCO SCARAMANGA (in ‘THE MAN WITH THE GOLDEN GUN’) 58. Originally using the tagline “For men who should know better” which ‘lads’ mag’ launched in 1994 and ceased publication in March 2015? LOADED 59. In 1946, the Forint replaced the Pengo as the currency of which country? HUNGARY 60. Which disease was once known as ‘The White Death’? TUBERCULOSIS 61. Sussex pond pudding contains a whole fruit, which? LEMON 62. Who is the actress widow of the late John Thaw? SHEILA HANCOCK 63. A smolt is a term for the young of what? SALMON 64. Footballer Wayne Bridge and rugby union player Ben Foden married Frankie and Una from which girl group? SATURDAYS 65. Which grand slam tennis tournament is played on red clay courts? FRENCH OPEN 66. Which British amateur detective, created by Francis Durbridge, was the subject of a radio series that was introduced by the music “Coronation Scot”? PAUL TEMPLE 67. Which character, first appearing in 1958, is the most famous creation of Michael Bond? PADDINGTON BEAR 68. Which organisation produces the Watchtower magazine? JEHOVAH’S WITNESSES 69. Which Roman road linked Lincoln to Exeter via Bath, Leicester and Newark-on-Trent? FOSSE WAY 70. Based on a true story, which 2014 film depicts a group of gay and lesbian activists who raised money to help support the families affected by the miners’ strike in 1984? PRIDE 71. Which company supplies tyres to the F1 championships? PIRELLI 72. How many squares are there on a scrabble board? 225 73. In which city would you find the Uffizi Art Gallery? FLORENCE 74. What connects Ryan, Labbett, Wallace, Hegarty and Sinha? THE CHASE TV PROGRAMME – They are the surnames of the Chasers. 75. Which musician was known as ‘The King of Swing’? BENNY GOODMAN 76. Which politician had the nickname ‘The Chingford Skinhead’? NORMAN TEBBITT 77. Montego Bay is the second largest city in which country? JAMAICA 78. As 0044 is the international dialling code for the UK, for which country is 007 the code? RUSSIA 79. What is the unit of currency in Turkey? LIRA 80. England cricketer Ben Stokes was controversially given out at Lords in September 2015 under which law? OBSTRUCTING THE FIELD 81. In which resort did Banksy open his Dismaland exhibition in August 2015? WESTON-SUPER-MARE 82. The singer, songwriter and actress Robyn Fenty uses her middle name as her stage name. What is it? RIHANNA 83. Dave ‘Devilfish’ Ulliott died in April 2015. In which field was he famous? POKER 84. What was the stage name of the performer who was born Helen Porter Mitchell in 1861 in Australia? NELLIE MELBA 85. What was the first English football league club that Bill Shankly managed? CARLISLE UNITED 86. The most southerly tip of mainland Australia is Wilson’s Promontory - in which state? VICTORIA 87. In which month of the year were the Titanic and Hillsborough disasters? APRIL 88. Which chemical element has the symbol K? POTASSIUM 89. Give one of the 2 forenames of the singer Morrissey? STEPHEN OR PATRICK 90. David Cameron’s wife Samantha had which British city as her maiden surname? SHEFFIELD 91. What was the minimum age for voters in the 2014 Scottish Referendum? 16 92. What is the minimum permissible age required, in the UK, to open an account on Facebook or Instagram? 13 93. Neil the sloth is a character in TV adverts for which company? SOFAWORKS 94. Whose birth is the first recorded in the Bible? CAIN 95. In the New Testament of the Bible, which book follows the 4 Gospels? ACTS 96. The first question asked by Magnus Magnusson on Mastermind, in 1972, was virtually the same as the last question asked by him on his regular TV series in 1997. What was the subject of the question, also the basis of a question in tonight’s quiz? PICASSO’s painting of GUERNICA Supplementaries S1. Of which African country is Juba the capital? SOUTH SUDAN S2. Which celebrity chef is the founder of the restaurant 15? JAMIE OLIVER S3. Which forename is common to TV detectives Bergerac, Taggart and Rockford? JIM S4. ‘Canard’ is the French word for which creature? DUCK S5. What name is given to a gathering of a group of witches? COVEN S6. El Alamein, the scene of a World War II battle, is a town in which country? EGYPT	i don't know
Which astronaut, part of the Apollo 12 mission on November 19th 1969 became the 4th person to walk on the moon after Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin and Pete Conrad ?	What Happened in 1969 inc. Pop Culture, Prices Significant Events, Key Technology and Inventions How Much things cost in 1969 Yearly Inflation Rate USA 5.46 % Yearly Inflation Rate UK 5.6% Year End Close Dow Jones Industrial Average 800 Average Cost of new house $15,550.00 Average Income per year $8,550.00 Average Monthly Rent $135.00 Average Cost New Car $3,270.00 Toyota Corona $1,950.00 Gas per Gallon 35 cents Alarm Clock from Westclox $9.98 Below are some Prices for UK guides in Pounds Sterling Average House Price 4,640 Gallon of Petrol 6 shillings 2 pence or 31 new pence 1969 1969 On July 20th one of mans crowning achievements occurred when American Astronaut Neil Armstrong became the first human to set foot on the Moon and uttered the immortal words "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." . The opposition to the war continued to increase with more and more attending anti war demonstrations and demanding that the US withdrew from Vietnam. The music came from groups including the Doors, Led Zeppelin, Janis Joplin and the Beatles and the most famous music festival of modern times "WOODSTOCK" took place on a New York Farm on August 17th with more than 400,000 avid music fans attending to see the Who, Jimi Hendrix, Crosby Stills Nash and Young and others perform live. fashions reflected the anti war sentiment with military jackets adorned with peace signs, and other trends including long unkempt wild hair and headbands showed the feelings of anti establishment felt by the youth. Moon Landing The first man is landed on the moon on the Apollo 11 mission by the United States and Neil Armstrong and Edwin 'Buzz' Aldrin became the first humans to set foot on the Moon. and the famous words "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." will become part of our history More Information and Timeline For The First Man On The Moon 1. 1961 May 25th President Kennedy asks Congress for $531 million to put a man on the moon before the end of the decade 2. 1963 June 16th Russians put the first woman in space on the Vostok 6 3. 1965 March 18th First space walk by the Russian cosmonaut Alexey Leonov from the Voskhod 2 4. 1966 March 16th first docking of two spacecraft Gemini 8 Commanded by Neil Armstrong docks with unmanned Agena Target Vehicle 5. 1968 December 24th Apollo 8, was the first human space flight to leave Earth orbit and enter a different orbit around the moon. 6. 1969 July 16th Apollo 11 Launched from the Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39 in Merritt Island, Florida carrying Neil A. Armstrong ( Commander ) Michael Collins ( Command Module Pilot ) and Edwin "Buzz" E. Aldrin, Jr. ( Lunar Module Pilot ) 7. July 19th Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enter lunar orbit. 8. July 20th Lunar module (LM) Eagle ( Neil A. Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" E. Aldrin, Jr. ) separated from the command module Columbia ( Michael Collins ) . 9. July 20th Lunar module (LM) Eagle lands on the moons surface in the Sea of Tranquillity 10. july 21st Neil Armstrong stepped off Eagle's footpad and uttered his famous line "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind " Edwin 'Buzz' Aldrin joined him, describing the view as "Magnificent desolation." 11. July 21st Lunar module (LM) Eagle leaves the moons surface to rendezvous with Columbia 12. July 24th The command module Columbia carrying the 3 astronauts splashed down in the Pacific Ocean Estimates put the number who watched or listened to the Moon landing between 1/2 and 1 billion people around the world ( From Webmaster I consider myself privileged to have watched and listened to Neil A. Armstrong's famous words "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind " ) . For Information for the Space Race 1961 , The second manned moon mission, Apollo 12, successfully launches and lands on the moon. More Information and Timeline for Apollo 12 Apollo 12, the second manned moon mission, launched on November 14th of 1969 carrying astronauts Charles Conrad Jr., Alan Bean, and Richard Gordon Jr. The mission successfully landed on the Moon on November 19th about 950 miles away from where the Apollo 11 mission had landed. The mission's objectives included seismic experiments, examining the Surveyor III spacecraft, studying possible future landing sites, and human ability to work on the moon, among many other things. The crew tried to broadcast parts the mission but the television camera was damaged by sun exposure soon after landing. The crew left on November 20th and got to Earth on November 24th, after having spent about 31 hours on the surface of the moon. Significant Live Music Events in 1969 Woodstock attracts more than 350,000 rock-n-roll fans, Atlanta International Pop Festival on 4th July attracts 100,000 fans, Isle of Wight Festival attracted an audience of approximately 150,000 More Information and Timeline For Significant Music Events in 1969 1. January 30th The Beatles, with Billy Preston, gave their final live performance on the roof of the Apple building in London, England, the live performance was an impromptu event that ran for 42 minutes featuring Get Back, I Want You (She's So Heavy), Don't Let Me Down, I've Got A Feeling, One After 909, Danny Boy, Dig A Pony, God Save The Queen and A Pretty Girl Is Like A Melody later featured as the climax of their Let It Be film 2. March 25th to March 31st Following The Marriage of John Lennon and Yoko Ono on March 20th in Gibralta they hold a week-long Bed-In for Peace at the Amsterdam Hilton Hotel inviting the world's press into their hotel room every day between 9 a.m. and 9 p.m 3. July 4th Atlanta International Pop Festival attracted an audience of approximately 100,000 to watch 16 performers including Janis Joplin, Johnny Rivers, Blood, Sweat & Tears, Canned Heat, Joe Cocker, Creedence Clearwater Revival, Sweetwater and Led Zeppelin 4. August 15th to 18th The Woodstock Festival attracted an audience of approximately 500,000 to watch 35 performers including Ravi Shankar, Joan Baez, Santana, Grateful Dead, Creedence Clearwater Revival, Janis Joplin with The Kozmic Blues Band, Sly & the Family Stone, The Who, Jefferson Airplane, Joe Cocker, The Band, Blood, Sweat & Tears, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young and Jimi Hendrix at White Lake, New York, U.S.A. 5. August 30th and 31st Isle of Wight Festival attracted an audience of approximately 150,000 to watch 26 performers including Bob Dylan, The Who, Blonde On Blonde, Joe Cocker, The Moody Blues and Free at Wootton, Isle Of Wight, England 6. September 13th Toronto Rock and Roll Revival attracted an audience of approximately 20,000 to watch 20 performers including Chicago, Alice Cooper, Chuck Berry, Jerry Lee Lewis, Gene Vincent, Little Richard, Doug Kershaw and The Doors, Screaming Lord Sutch and John Lennon, Yoko Ono and The Plastic Ono Band at at Varsity Stadium, of the University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada 7. December 6th Altamont Speedway Free Festival attracted an audience of approximately 300,000 to watch 10 performers including The Rolling Stones, Santana, Jefferson Airplane, The Flying Burrito Brothers, and Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young at Altamont Speedway, California, U.S.A. The concert is best known for having been marred by considerable violence caused by alcahol and drugs including by the Hells Angels motorcycle club who were used for security round the stage. 1969 provided so many significant live music events that I thought they should be included in a Music Timeline for the year, I hope you enjoyed taking the trip in time and memories that the timeline provides United Kingdom -- Beatles "Abbey Road" The Beatles record Abbey Road, their final album together. More Information and Timeline for The Beatles Abbey Road The Beatles release Abbey Road on September 26th. Abbey Road was not the group's final album to be released to the public but it was their final album to be recorded together. The classic album's cover art featured the iconic photograph of John Lennon, Ringo Starr, Paul McCartney, and George Harrison walking across a zebra crossing near the entrance to the famous Abbey Road recording studio. This rock album featured such popular songs as "Here Comes the Sun," "Come Together," "Something," and "Oh! Darling." The full track listing includes: Come Together, Something, Maxwell's Silver Hammer, Oh! Darling, Octopus's Garden, I Want You, Here Comes the Sun, Because, You Never Give Me Your Money, Sun King, Mean Mr. Mustard, Polythene Pam, She Came In Through The Bathroom Window, Golden Slumbers, Carry That Weight, The End, Her Majesty It also topped the charts around the world once released, staying in the UK and US charts for over 80 weeks. While there were initially mixed reviews about the album, many fans believe it to be the best the band had ever produced and it remains one of the top selling Beatles albums of all time. The first communications are sent through the ARPANET on October 29th, 1969. More Information and Timeline for the ARPANET 1. ARPA (Advance Research Projects Agency) was created in 1958 2. In 1966 the creation of the ARPA computer network, or ARPANET, began. 3. The first point of the ARPANET was installed at a computer in UCLA in September of 1969 4. In October, the second point was installed at a computer in the Stanford Research Institute. 5. The first communication between the two is sent and received across the new network on October 29th, 1969. 6. After that, it is installed at several other universities across the United States. 7. ARPANET, the predecessor to the Internet, was not demonstrated to the public until 1972 8. By 1989 the ARPANET had become somewhat obsolete and was shut down. Project ( Blue Book ) The U.S. Air Force closed its Project ( Blue Book ) concluding there was no evidence of UFO's. More Information and Timeline for Project Blue Book. Project Blue Book, the United States Air Force's investigation into unidentified flying objects (UFOs), officially comes to an end on December 17, 1969. The investigations began in 1952 when government officials started to collect information related to UFO sightings. Between 1952 and 1969, there were over 12,000 reports compiled by officials and of those reports all but 701 cases were identified as either an atmospheric, astronomical, or man-made event. The project concluded that UFOs did not threaten national security and did not present evidence of extraterrestrial life or technology and the US government decided that it would be far to costly to continue to investigate UFO sightings. Police forces in the United States crack down on student protests Popular Culture 1969 A free concert organized by the Rolling Stones is held at Altamont Speedway in Livermore, Calif with problems caused by the use of Hells Angels as Bouncers resulting in a number of deaths The Groundbreaking TV programme Monty Python's Flying Circus is shown for the first time and the catch phrase "And now for something completely different," becomes their trade mark Sesame Street known for its Muppet characters, makes it's debut on PBS Bell Bottom Jeans and tie-dye shirts become part of the teenage fashion scene. The John Lennon Album "Two Virgins" featuring John Lennon and Yoko Ono in the nude are confiscated at Newark Airport The Beatles' last public performance, on the roof of Apple Records. The Beatles release their album Abbey Road. bringing the 1960's to an end Sesame Street debuts on Public Television Brian Jones Former Rolling Stones Guitarist drowns after drinking and drugs binge. Popular Films First Concorde test flight is conducted In France First transplant of human eye Seiko sells the first Quartz Watch The Harrier Jump Jet enters service with the RAF The Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) is founded The first automatic teller machine ATM or Cash Machine is installed in the United States Creation of ARPANET, the predecessor of the Internet The Boeing 747 jumbo jet makes its debut. It carried 191 people, most of them reporters and photographers, from Seattle to New York City. UNIX is developed by a group of AT&T employees at Bell Labs The Pontiac Firebird Trans Am the epitome of the American muscle car is introduced. The Microprocessor ( a miniature set of integrated circuits ) is invented opening the way for the computer revolution that followed Inventions Invented by Inventors and Country ( or attributed to First Use ) Internet USA US military Manned Moon Landing USA Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin walk on Moon CCDs USA Charge Coupled Device - to capture image Cash Dispenser Turkey by Luther Simjian Battery Powered Smoke Detector USA Australia -- Prime Minister -- John Gorton -- Brazil -- President -- Costa e Silva -- Till 31 August Brazil -- President -- Military Joint Tri -- From 31 August Brazil -- President -- Military Joint Tri -- Till 30 October Brazil -- President -- Emilio Medici -- From 30 October Canada -- Prime Minister -- Pierre Trudeau -- China -- Chairman of the People's Republic of China -- Song Qingling -- France -- President -- Charles de Gaulle -- Till 28 April France -- President -- Georges Pompidou -- From 20 June Germany -- Chancellor -- Kurt Georg Kiesinger -- Till 21 October Germany -- Chancellor -- Willy Brandt -- From 21 October India -- Prime Minister -- Indira Gandhi -- Italy -- Prime Minister -- Mariano Rumor -- Japan -- Prime Minister -- Eisaku Sato -- Mexico -- President -- Gustavo Diaz Ordaz -- Russia / Soviet Union -- First Secretary of the CPSU -- Leonid Brezhnev -- South Africa -- Prime Minister -- Balthazar Johannes Vorster -- United States -- President -- Lyndon B. Johnson -- Till January 20, United States -- President -- Richard Nixon -- From January 20, United Kingdom -- Prime Minister -- Harold Wilson --	Alan Bean
Which astronaut, part of the Apollo 17 mission on December 11th 1972 became the last of two men to walk on the moon along with fellow astronaut Harrison Schmitt ?	The Apollo Missions: Part One (Apollo 1 to Apollo 10) - Bob the Alien's Tour of the Solar System The Apollo Missions Part Two - Apollo 11 to Apollo 17 It was the summer of 1969 and American scientists were ready to send the first man to the Moon. This was a goal set only seven years earlier by President John F. Kennedy in 1962. Kennedy was assassinated the year after announcing his decision, but his plan still went ahead and between 1962 and 1969, NASA carried out several test missions to prepare themselves for the eventual Moon landing. Despite a disastrous start to the Apollo program when a fire broke out in the Apollo 1 Command Module during a pre-launch test killing all three astronauts, the program continued with four unmanned missions (Apollo 4, 5, 6 and 7) and three manned missions (Apollo 8, 9 and 10). Apollo 10 was the final "dress rehearsal", doing everything apart from the Moon landing itself. This honour would go to the crew of Apollo 11, to be launched in July 1969. The Eagle has Landed - Apollo 11 Apollo 11 was launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 16th July 1969 using a Saturn V rocket. Inside the Command Module of the spacecraft were three astronauts: Neil Armstrong, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin and Michael Collins.ï¿½Apollo 11 took three days to reach the Moon. Once in Lunar Orbit, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin left the Command Module (known as Columbia) and entered the Lunar Module (known as Eagle). Michael Collins remained in the Command Module in orbit around the Moon.ï¿½About six hours after entering the Lunar Module, it was separated from the Command Module and began its descent to the surface of the Moon. Neil Armstrong took up manual control of the Lunar Module after noticing that the site that the Lunar Module's onboard computer was taking them too was too rocky. Despite communication problems, computer overloads and rapidly decreasing fuel, Neil Armstrong successfully landed on the Moon's surface with 30 seconds of fuel remaining, announcing that "the Eagle has landed." At 2.56am UTC on 21st July 1969 (10.56pm EDT on 20th July 1969), six and a half hours after landing, Neil Armstrong climbed down the ladder attached to the Lunar Module and took the first footsteps on the Moon, saying the famous words, "This is one small step for (a) man, one giant leap for mankind." The event was captured by a television camera which was attached to the side of the Lunar Module. Neil Armstrong released the camera and activated it while climbing down the ladder to the surface of the Moon. The black and white images from the surface of the Moon were immediately beamed back to Earth and over 600 million people watched as Armstrong took his first steps on the Moon. Neil Armstrong was shortly joined on the Moon by Buzz Aldrin. During their time on the Moon, the two astronauts collected samples of soil and rocks, planted an American flag, set up scientific experiments, took a phone call from US President Richard Nixon and took lots of pictures. Walking on the Moon wasn't as difficult as some imagined, although the thin powdery soil meant that it could be slippery. After two and a half hours on the Moon, Armstrong and Aldrin returned to the Lunar Module. They left their life support backpacks, lunar overshoes, a camera and some other objects on the surface of the Moon to lighten the weight of the Lunar Module for its ascent back to the Command Module. After resting for seven hours, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were instructed to leave the Moon. The force of the lift-off blast is thought to have blown over the American flag left on the Moon (in later missions, the US flag was planted 100 feet away from the Lunar Module to prevent it from happening again). Also left on the Moon was the Lunar Module's landing platform, with a plaque attached to it displaying two images of Earth, signatures of the Apollo 11 astronauts and Richard Nixon (his signature, not Richard Nixon himself!), and an inscription saying, "Here Men From The Planet Earth First Set Foot Upon the Moon, July 1969 A.D. We Came in Peace For All Mankind." The Lunar Module redocked with the Command Module and Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin rejoined Michael Collins to tell him all about their day out on the Moon! The Lunar Module, Eagle, was jettisoned shortly afterwards and entered Lunar orbit. It is believed that is has since dropped out of this orbit and now lies somewhere on the surface of the Moon. The Command Module continued with its journey back to take the three astronauts back home and splashed down on Earth on 24th July 1969 at 4.51pm UTC (12.51pm EDT). They were recovered shortly afterwards, completing what is often seen as the most successful and trouble-free space mission to date. Back to the Moon - Apollo 12 So, after the success of Apollo 11, what next? Yep, go back to the Moon! Apollo 12 launched from the Kennedy Space Center less than four months after Apollo 11 on 14th November 1969. Pete Conrad, Richard Gordon and Alan Bean were the astronauts on board. The mission came close to being aborted shortly after launching after the Saturn V rocket was struck by lightening. This caused the possibility of inaccurate information about the spacecraft being transmitted to ground control. This problem was soon solved after Alan Bean recalled a training exercise where the same situation was simulated a year earlier and got everything back to how they should be. The journey to the Moon ran smoothly and on 19th November, while in lunar orbit, the Lunar Module (Intrepid) undocked from the Command Module (Yankee Clipper). Pete Conrad and Alan Bean were the two astronauts in the Lunar Module while Richard Gordon remained in the Command Module. The landing was controlled mostly by computer, and the Lunar Module landed just about exactly where planned. Two years earlier, the probe Surveyor 3 had landed on the Moon, and NASA wanted Apollo 12 to be a mission testing precision targeting, deciding to attempt to land it in the same landing site as Surveyor 3. Apollo 12 landed only 200 metres away from Surveyor 3, meaning the astronauts were able to visit the probe and took pieces of it back to Earth for analysis. Television transmission of the mission ended shortly after landing after Alan Bean accidentally pointed the colour camera directly at the Sun which stopped it from working! Bean and Conrad spent just under eight hours on the Moon, making two moonwalks of almost four hours each. They left the Moon, again leaving scientific equipment, a flag, the landing platform and a plaque and returned to the Command Module. Splashdown on Earth occurred at 8.58pm UTC (3.58pm EST) on 24th November 1969. Surveyor 3 with the Apollo 12 Lunar Module in the background A Successful Failure - Apollo 13 By the end of the decade, America had achieved its goal of landing a man on the Moon and returning him home safely, and did it again just to prove that the first landing was no fluke. As they went into the 1970s, NASA planned further missions to the Moon. To some, the Apollo program was already becoming almost routine and many thought it was a waste of resources. A lot of people saw the main aim of Apollo as being to beat the Russians to the Moon. Now this had been achieved, there seemed little point in going back there. Apollo 13 was planned to be the third Moon landing, but interest in the mission was so low that a television broadcast made from the Command Module while on its way to the Moon failed to get shown by any of the American television networks. Jim Lovell, John Swigert and Fred Haise were the astronauts on board Apollo 13, the ill-fated craft that launched from Kennedy Space Center on 11th April 1970. Shortly after launch, one of the engines shut down early, but mission control gave the go-ahead for the mission to continue using the four remaining engines. Two days later, at just under 200,000 miles away from Earth, one of the two oxygen tanks contained in the Service Module exploded. This occurred after a routine instruction from Mission Control was given to stir the oxygen in the tanks.ï¿½The explosion blew off one side of the Service Module and left the craft with a limited supply of power and oxygen. The crew would have enough power in the Command Module for re-entry but not enough to complete the objective to land on the Moon or even to support them for much longer while in space. The aim now was to get the astronauts back to Earth as soon as possible. To save power while in space, the Command Module was powered down and the astronauts used the Lunar Module as a "lifeboat". They were unable to turn the craft around so had to use the gravity of the Moon to slingshot themselves back to Earth . This procedure is known as a free return trajectory and would involve going around the far side of the Moon. This idea worked, and on their way back, the astronauts performed a course correction to allow them to return to Earth at the correct angle. Another problem was the depleting supply of breathable air. The Lunar Module was only designed to support two astronauts for two days seeing as it would usually only be used for the descent to the Moon and back to the Command Module. Instead, there were three astronauts in it, and they needed enough air to survive for four days. As the astronauts breathed in the oxygen, they breathed out poisonous carbon dioxide. Too much carbon dioxide would cause the astronauts to suffocate. Canisters containing the chemicals needed to absorb the carbon dioxide and turn it into oxygen were getting empty. There were spare ones in the Command Module, but these weren't designed to fit in the Lunar Module's receptacle. An adapter had to be built using equipment on board the spacecraft to get the Command Module air canisters to fit in the Lunar Module. This idea worked and the astronauts were able to survive on the air in the Lunar Module. There were other difficulties including extreme cold and the fact that, because the Command Module had been without power for days, condensation had built up and it was possible that the water in the condensation would cause an electronic failure when it was powered back up. Fortunately, the Command Module powered up correctly, and after jettisoning the Lunar Module and the Service Module, the three astronauts now in the Command Module were able to return to Earth , splashing down successfully on 17th April 1970. Apollo 13 didn't achieve its aim to land on the Moon, but is sometimes seen as a more technological achievement than any of the other missions - a "successful failure" - requiring ingenuity and knowledge of the capabilities and limitations of the spacecraft to save the lives of the crew onboard. The three astronauts onboard never flew in space again. Photograph of the Apollo 13 Service Model after separating from the Command Module showing the damage caused by the explosion. Playing golf and driving on the Moon - Apollo 14, 15 and 16 Apollo 13's failure meant that no other lunar mission took place in 1970. Apollo 14 was launched on 31st January 1971 containing Alan Shepard, Stuart Roosa and Edgar Mitchell (pictured left from bottom to top). Despite problems involving the Lunar Module (Antares) not docking easily with the Command Module (Kitty Hawk) on the way to the Moon, the Lunar Module almost automatically aborting the landing while descending to the Moon, and then the Lunar Module not locking onto a landing site on the Moon, Apollo 14 successfully landed and Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell became the fifth and sixth people to walk on the Moon. Shepard smuggled a golf club and two golf balls into the space craft and became the first person to play golf on the Moon! The balls actually travelled about 180 to 365 metres (between 200 and 400 yards). The first colour television broadcast from the Moon also took place during Apollo 14. After spending a total of 9 hours and 22 minutes walking on the Moon (split over two moonwalks), the Lunar Module again returned to the Command Module and the crew splashed down on Earth on 9th February 1971. Apollo 15 was launched on 27th July 1971. The astronauts were David Scott, Alfred Worden and James Irwin. Because of budget cuts, the objectives for Apollo 15 were plans for a later cancelled Apollo mission (Apollo 18) and the original plans for Apollo 15 were scrapped. This meant that the new Apollo 15 flight would be a more science-based mission than the previous Moon landings with more time spent doing things on the Moon. The Lunar Module remained on the Moon for almost three days with astronauts conducting geological experiments for over 18 hours of activity outside the Lunar Module. David Scott and James Irwin were the two astronauts to walk on the Moon, but they were accompanied by the Lunar Rover, a vehicle which allowed them to drive on the Moon and travel greater distances away from their Lunar Module base. After completing their experiments, the astronauts returned to the Command Module and travelled back to Earth , splashing down on 7th August 1971. Apollo 16, crewed by John W. Young, Thomas K Mattingly and Charles Duke Jr, launched on 16th April 1972. Mattingly was previously due to fly on Apollo 13, but was dropped two days before launch after being exposed to measles. The mission was similar to Apollo 15 in that it would be a science-based mission spread over three days on the Moon. Young and Duke were the astronauts who walked on the Moon, again accompanied by a Lunar Rover (pictured right). During the Apollo 16 mission, the Lunar Rover achieved the highest speeds for a wheeled vehicle on the Moon, getting up to a maximum speed of 11 miles an hour, a record still held to this day (then again, with only one mission after Apollo 16, there hasn't been much chance to break it!). After over 20 hours of activity on the Moon outside the Lunar Module, Young and Duke returned to the Command Module, and splashed down on Earth onï¿½27th April. The final trip to the Moon - Apollo 17 Apollo 17 was the final mission to the Moon. Eugene Cernan, Ron Evans and Harrison "Jack" Schmitt were the astronauts on board. The spacecraft was launched on the morning of 7th December 1972 (just after midnight in Florida), making it the first and only night launch of the Apollo program. Schmitt was the only qualified scientist to land on the Moon. In previous missions, although geological experiments had been carried out, they had been done by astronauts, usually from an Air Force or Navy background, whose expertise was in flying and landing spacecraft rather than examining rocks. Schmitt was accompanied by Cernan on the Moon, and together they set the record for the most time spent on the surface of the Moon (they were on the Moon, out of the Lunar Module, for just over 22 hours). Although NASA had originally made plans for Apollo missions up to Apollo 20, the Apollo 18, 19 and 20 missions were cancelled two years earlier. Therefore, knowing that Apollo 17 would be the final mission to the Moon for some years, the plaque left on the Moon read, "Here Man completed his first explorations of the moon. December 1972 AD. May the spirit of peace in which we came be reflected in the lives of all mankind." Eugene Cernan was the last Man to stand on the surface of the Moon and said the following words before re-entering the Lunar Module (Challenger) to return to the Command Module (America): "As I take man's last step from the surface, back home for some time to come — but we believe not too long into the future — I'd like to just [say] what I believe history will record — that America's challenge of today has forged man's destiny of tomorrow. And, as we leave the Moon at Taurus-Littrow, we leave as we came and, God willing, as we shall return, with peace and hope for all mankind. Godspeed the crew of Apollo 17." Photograph of Eugene Cernan during Apollo 17, the last man to stand on the Moon The Apollo program was an extremely successful series of missions, accomplishing President Kennedy's goal of getting a Man to the Moon and back before the end of the decade. Some may have seen the original reason for going to the Moon as being more for political gain than scientific, and after the first two Moon landings, there was a decline in interest in future missions. A belief held by many was that going to the Moon was a waste of money and resources, better spent on issues on Earth . And so, when Apollo 17 left the surface of the Moon, it ended man's exploration of Earth's nearest neighbour. Even to this day, nobody since Eugene Cernan has walked on the surface of the Moon. However, plans are now finally being made to return to the Moon by the end of the next decade, with NASA hoping to set up a permanent base there by the year 2020. With the next big step for mankind being to walk on Mars , it is important that we reacquaint ourselves with the Moon first. Apollo was a huge milestone in manned space exploration - but it was just the beginning! Mission CM Pilot: Stuart Roosa LM Pilot: Charles Duke Jr Last manned mission to the Moon, longest length of time spent on the Moon. Landed in Taurus-Littrow on 11th December 1972. 19th December 1971, 19:24:59 The names in italics above are the astronauts that walked on the Moon. *The exception to this is Apollo 13 as the moon landing had to be aborted due to an onboard explosion. In this case, the names in orange are the astronauts that would have walked on the Moon had the mission been successful. Click here for a map of the Moon and the landing sites of all missions to the Moon .	i don't know
Which London theatre has the same name as a silvery, white metal with the atomic number 46 ?	Types of Metal Types of Metal Aluminium Aluminium is a widely used light weight metal. Raw aluminium is not very strong and it is therefore often alloyed with silicon. Normally about 1% silicon is used, but for casting alloys the silicon content can be up to 12%. Raw aluminium has poor corrosive resistance, but thanks to a protective self generating oxide layer, the material can be used in corrosive environments. The quality of the oxide layer can be controled through an anodizing process, and in this way achieve decorative effects and improve corrosion protection. Foamed Aluminium Very light aluminium structures can be formed using foamed aluminium. By mixing the aluminium with titanium hydride before casting, hydrogen gas foams the aluminium. The surface is porous, but can be covered with an extra layer of solid aluminium. Unlike honeycombe aluminium structures, the material can be used within the same temperature range as solid aluminium, i.e. also at higher temperatures. Bismuth Bismuth is a chemical element that has the symbol Bi and atomic number 83. This heavy, brittle, white crystalline trivalent poor metal has a pink tinge and chemically resembles arsenic and antimony. Of all the metals, it is the most naturally dia-magnetic, only mercury has a lower thermal conductivity. Bismuth compounds are used in cosmetics and in medical procedures. As the toxicity of lead has become more apparent in recent years, alloy uses for bismuth metal as a replacement for lead have become an increasing part of bismuth's commercial importance. Brass Brass is a yellow alloy used in musical instruments, rifle cartridges and cutlery (under silver plating).Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Brass with a lower zinc content (30%) has an excellent formability and is often referred to as cartridge brass. Higher zinc contents gives good casting and machining properties. Bronze Bronze is a reddish alloy used in church bells, casted sculptures, canons and in bearings. It has a reasonable hardness, good weather resistance and is easy to cast. The major alloying element in bronze is always copper. Normally the other major alloying element is tin but it can also be other metals like nickel. Cadmium Cadmium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Cd and atomic number 48. A relatively rare, soft, bluish-white, transition metal, cadmium is known to cause cancer and occurs with zinc ores. Cadmium is used largely in batteries and pigments, e.g.,in plastic products. Chromium Chromium is used in chromium plating for decoration and corrosion as well as wear protection. It is also used as an alloying element in stainless steel. The most common form of chromium is very hard and brittle up to 700 C, and only over this temperature becomes ductile. Pure chromium is ductile, but is only produced in laboratory scale. Chromium is resistant to corrosion and oxidation up to 1100 C, due to an resistant film that develops on the surface of the metal. These properties are transferred to alloys which contains chromium in sufficient amounts. Cobalt is a hard, lustrous, silver-grey metal, a chemical element with symbol Co. It is found in various ores, and is used in the preparation of magnetic, wear-resistant, and high-strength alloys. Its compounds are used in the production of inks, paints, and varnishes. Copper A red, moderately expensive and fairly soft material. Excelent electric conductivity and therefore used in electric wires. Easy to shape and used for water pipes, roof plates and in older cooking equipment.Copper is the dominant alloying element in brass (together with zinc) and bronze (normally together with tin). Gold Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from the Latin aurum) and atomic number 79. It is a highly sought-after precious metal which, for many centuries, has been used as money, a store of value and in jewellery. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, underground "veins" and in alluvial deposits. It is one of the coinage metals. Gold is dense, soft, shiny and the most malleable and ductile of the known metals. Pure gold has an attractive bright yellow color. Gold forms the basis for a monetary standard used by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Bank for International Settlements (BIS). The ISO currency code of gold bullion is XAU. Modern industrial uses include dentistry and electronics, where gold has traditionally found use because of its good resistance to oxidative corrosion. Chemically, gold is a trivalent and univalent transition metal. Gold does not react with most chemicals, but is attacked by chlorine, fluorine, aqua regia and cyanide. Gold dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys, but does not react with it. Gold is insoluble in nitric acid, which will dissolve silver and base metals, and this is the basis of the gold refining technique known as "inquartation and parting". Nitric acid has long been used to confirm the presence of gold in items, and this is the origin of the colloquial term "acid test," referring to a gold standard test for genuine value. Cast Iron Cast iron refers to a family of ferrous alloys composed of iron, carbon (2-4.5 %), and silicon (up to about 3.5 %). There are different common types of cast iron. Gray cast iron is negligible ductile, brittle, and dampens vibrations. In gray cast iron the carbon has the form of graphite flakes.White cast iron is hard, wear resistant, and brittle. Here the carbon is bound in small very hard ceramic particles called cementite. Ductile iron is ductile and shock resistant and is made by a heat treatment of gray cast iron where the graphite flakes change shape into small spheres. Malleable iron is strong, ductile and shock resistant. Lead A heavy and soft metal. Used in ship keels and fishing nets sinkers to give weight.Also used to insulate against radioactivity.Earlier used around roof windows, since its softness makes it easy to shape it around the roof tiles. Previously also widely used for shot in shotguns. Now abandoned due to the poisonous effect from lead.. Magnesium Magnesium is a very light weight metal, increasingly substituting aluminium in order to save weight. It is a reactive metal, e.g., can burn, but with proper surface treatment it is used in products like car wheels and power saws. Mercury Mercury also called quicksilver, is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Hg (Latinized Greek: hydrargyrum, meaning watery or liquid silver) and atomic number 80. A heavy, silvery transition metal, mercury is one of five elements that are liquid at or near room temperature and pressure. The others are the metals caesium, francium, and gallium, and the non-metal bromine. Mercury is used in thermometers, barometers and other scientific apparatus, though concerns about the element's toxicity have led to mercury thermometers being largely phased out in clinical environments in favour of alcohol-filled, digital, or thermistor-based instruments. It remains in use in a number of other ways in scientific and scientific research applications, and in dental amalgam. Mercury is mostly obtained by reduction from the mineral cinnabar. Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world and it is harmless in an insoluble form, such as mercuric sulfide, but it is poisonous in soluble forms such as mercuric chloride or methylmercury. Molybdenum Molybdenum is a chemical element with the symbol Mo and atomic number 42. It has the sixth highest melting point of any element, and for this reason it is often used in high-strength steel alloys. Molybdenum is found in trace amounts in plants and animals, although excess molybdenum can be toxic in some animals. Molybdenum was discovered in 1778 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele and first isolated in 1781 by Peter Jacob Hjelm. Molybdenum is a transition metal with an electronegativity of 1.8 on the Pauling scale and an atomic mass of 95.9 g/mole.It does not react with oxygen or water at room temperature. At elevated temperatures, molybdenum trioxide is formed in the reaction 2Mo + 3O2 ? 2MoO3. In its pure metal form, molybdenum is silvery white and very hard, though it is somewhat more ductile than tungsten. It has a melting point of 2623°C, and only tantalum, osmium, rhenium and tungsten have higher melting points.Molybdenum burns only at temperatures above 600°C.It also has the lowest heating expansion of any commercially used metal. Molybdenum has a value of approximately $65,000 per tonne as of 4 May 2007. It maintained a price at or near $10,000 per tonne from 1997 through 2002, and reached a high of $103,000 per tonne in June 2005. Nickel Nickel is a silver-white metal. The picture illustrates the colour difference between a chromium-plated tube and a nickel-plated runner. Nickel coating can be applied to many other materials achiving decoration and improved corrosion and wear resistance. Nickel alloys have high strength and corrosion resistance at elevated temperatures. Alloying elements in nickel are chromium, cobalt and molybdenum. Nickel is a major alloying element that imparts strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance. It is used extensively in stainless steels and nickel-base alloys (superalloys), used for high temperature applications (e.g. engine components, rockets). Platinum Platinum is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the atomic symbol Pt and an atomic number of 78. A heavy, malleable, ductile, precious, grey-white transition metal, platinum is resistant to corrosion and occurs in some nickel and copper ores along with some native deposits. Platinum is used in jewellery, laboratory equipment, electrical contacts, dentistry, and automobile emissions control devices. Platinum bullion has the ISO currency code of XPT. Palladium Palladium is a chemical element with symbol Pd and atomic number 46. It is a rare silver white transition metal of the platinum group, resembling platinum chemically. It was discovered in platinum ores in 1803, and named after the asteroid Pallas by William Hyde Wollaston. Palladium is usually found as a free metal, alloyed with others in the platinum group. It is commercially extracted from copper-nickel ores. Palladium has a great affinity for hydrogen, being able to absorb 900 times its own volume of the gas. Palladium metal and its complexes are often used in catalysis such as in catalytic converters on cars, palladium on carbon used in organic chemistry, and other coupling reactions. As a precious metal, it is sometimes used in jewellery, and has the ISO currency code of XPD. Palladium as an investment has attracted recent investment interests. In early 2007, several ETFs backed by physical palladium were launched, including London ETF Security and ZKB Palladium ETF. Silver Silver is a chemical element with the symbol Ag (Latin: argentum) and atomic number 47. A soft white lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical and thermal conductivity for a metal. It occurs as a free metal (native silver) as well as various minerals such as argentite and chlorargyrite. Most silver is produced as a by-product of copper, gold, lead, and zinc mining. Silver has been known since antiquity. It has long been valued as a precious metal and used in currency, ornaments and jewellery, as well as utensils (hence the term silverware). Silver bullion has the ISO currency code of XAG. Today, it is also used in photographic film, electrical contacts, and mirrors. Elemental silver is also used to catalyze chemical reactions.Silver has certain antimicrobial activity. In the past, dilute solutions of silver nitrate were used as disinfectants, though this has been supplanted by other treatments. Steel Steel is an alloy of iron and maximum 2.1% carbon. The strength increases with the contents of carbon. Low-carbon steel (less than 0.3 % carbon) is generally used for common industrial products such as nuts, sheets and tubes.Medium carbon steel (0.3 to 0.6 % carbon) is stronger than low carbon steel and used for automotive and machinery applications.High carbon steel (more than 0.6 % carbon), is strong, hard, and wear resistant and is used for cutting tools, springs and cutlery. High Tensile Steel High tensile steel may have ten times the tensile strength of wood, and more than twice that of mild steel, but it would be a mistake to overestimate the importance of this single quantity, as Fuller seems to do (see Steel). The toughness of metals is generally reduced by the process of increasing their tensile strengths, but the failure of a structure may be due largely to the stiffness, rather than the strength of the materials used. The larger the structure of buildings and ships, and so on, the lower the acceptable stress, for safety reasons. It follows that high strength metals are more safely used in small structures. This should perhaps be borne in mind when contemplating megastructures. Stainless Steel Stainless steel is very corrosion resistant, strong, and ductile. Stainless steel contains a minimum of 11 % chromium (wt.), as well as nickel and other alloying elements.In presence of oxygen (air) a thin, hard adherent film of chromium oxide develops on the surface. The film protects the metal from corrosion (passivation). The film builds up again if the surface is scratched. With increased carbon content, the strength of stainless steel increases and corrosion resistance is reduced. Tantalum Tantalum (formerly tantalium) is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ta and atomic number 73. A rare, hard, blue-gray, lustrous, transition metal, tantalum is highly corrosion-resistant and occurs naturally in the mineral tantalite. Tellurium Tellurium is a chemical element that has the symbol Te and atomic number 52. A brittle silver-white metalloid which looks like tin, tellurium is chemically related to selenium and sulfur. Tellurium is primarily used in alloys and as a semiconductor. Tin Used as coating in foot tins and casseroles. Bronze is an alloy made from copper and tin.Earlier used for household plates, mugs and canclestics, mainly due to the low melting point and following castability.Pure tin is unstable below room temperature were it disintegrates into white powder (called tin pest). Therefore normally alloyed with small amounts of bismut, antimon and lead. Titanium Pure titanium has excellent corrosion resistance and a high strength-to-weight ratio at both room and elevated temperatures.This makes titanium attractive for applications including aircraft, jet-engines, racing cars, as well as chemical and marine components.Properties like workability, strength and hardenability, can be improved by adding alloying elements. The most common are aluminium, vanadium, molybdenum and manganese. Tungsten Tungsten has the highest melting point of any metal (3410 C), and thus it is characterised by high strength at elevated temperatures. Disadvantages are high density, brittleness and poor resistance to oxidation.Tungsten and its alloys are used for applications involving temperatures above 1650 C (e.g. nozzle throat lines in missiles, hottest parts of jet and rocket engines). The filament wire in incandescent bulbs is made of pure tungsten by powder technology. Zinc An inexpensive and weather proof material. Used for roofs on houses and roof gutters. Earlier used for kitchen zincs, but now replaced by stainless steel that is stronger, harder and more corrosion resistant.Often used as protective coating on steel (galvanized) to improve corrosion resistance. Due to the low melting point and good castability it is often used in products with low strength requirements, like beer openers and door handles.Zinc and copper are the 2 major alloying elements in brass.	The Palladium
"Which chemical element, a strong, light metal with the atomic number 22 takes it’s name from the Greek for ""First Sons On Earth"" ?"	Palladium \| Define Palladium at Dictionary.com palladium [puh-ley-dee-uh m] /pəˈleɪ di əm/ Spell noun, Chemistry. 1. a rare metallic element of the platinum group, silver-white, ductile and malleable, harder and fusing more readily than platinum: used chiefly as a catalyst and in dental and other alloys. Symbol: Pd; atomic weight: 106.4; atomic number: 46; specific gravity: 12 at 20°C. Origin of palladium special use of Palladium ; named (1803) after the asteroid Pallas , then newly discovered; see -ium Palladium [puh-ley-dee-uh m] /pəˈleɪ di əm/ Spell [puh-ley-dee-uh] /pəˈleɪ di ə/ (Show IPA) 1. Also, Palladion [puh-ley-dee-on] /pəˈleɪ diˌɒn/ (Show IPA). a statue of Athena, especially one on the citadel of Troy on which the safety of the city was supposed to depend. 2. (usually lowercase) anything believed to provide protection or safety; safeguard. Origin Expand < Latin Palladium < Greek Palládion, noun use of neuter of Palládios of Pallas, equivalent to Pallad- (stem of Pallás) Pallas + -ios adj. suffix Dictionary.com Unabridged Examples from the Web for palladium Expand Contemporary Examples Kurt and Courtney met the second time in May 1991 during an L7 concert at the palladium in Los Angeles. Under Csars' Shadow Henry Francis Colby It denies the writ of Habeas Corpus, ever known as the palladium of the citizen. British Dictionary definitions for palladium Expand noun 1. a ductile malleable silvery-white element of the platinum metal group occurring principally in nickel-bearing ores: used as a hydrogenation catalyst and, alloyed with gold, in jewellery. Symbol: Pd; atomic no: 46; atomic wt: 106.42; valency: 2, 3, or 4; relative density: 1202; melting pt: 1555°C; boiling pt: 2964°C Word Origin C19: named after the asteroid Pallas, at the time (1803) a recent discovery palladium2 something believed to ensure protection; safeguard Word Origin a statue of Pallas Athena, esp the one upon which the safety of Troy depended Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 Word Origin and History for palladium Expand n. "safeguard," c.1600, originally (late 14c.) "sacred image of Pallas Athene," from Latin palladium, from Greek Palladion, noun use of neuter of Palladios "of Pallas." It stood in the citadel of Troy and the safety of the city was believed to depend on it. metallic element, coined 1803 by discoverer William Hyde Wollaston (1766-1828), from Pallas, name of an asteroid discovered the previous year (by German astronomer Olbers) and named for the goddess (see Pallas ). Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper	i don't know
23 out of the first 24 highest peaks in England lie in the Lake District with Scafell Pike being the highest. Which is the peak that does not lie in the Lake District, it is the 11th highest in England at 893 metres in height and is situated in the North Pennines ?	The Aphrodite’s Spa Hotel, Luxury Boutique Hotel, Windermere Hotel The Windermere Boutique Hotel, Luxury Hot Tub Suites, Windermere Hotel Christmas Traditions throughout the World! With the Christmas countdown well and truly underway, many of our thoughts in the UK will be turning to mince pies, Christmas carols, roast turkey and Brussel sprouts. Every country celebrates the festive season differently and some of the most unusual traditions worldwide include: KFC Christmas in Japan If you think sushi may be on the menu in Japan over Christmas, think again. After a cutting-edge marketing campaign which began in Japan in 1974, Kentucky Fried Chicken has been associated with Christmas. The Colonel´s famous chicken is eaten widely throughout Japan over the Christmas period. Over 240,000 barrels of the stuff will be sold during Christmas – almost 10 times its normal monthly sales. The ´Caganer´ in Catalonia, Spain Strange but true, the Catalonian ´Caganer´ is a figure of a Catalan man wearing traditional clothes, squatting with his trousers around his ankles. Dating back to the 18th century, his poo is a sign of good luck as it is said to fertilise the earth and ensure a good harvest for the coming year. Closely associated is the ´Caga Tió´ which is a small log with a smiley face wearing a traditional Catalan hat. Small children ´feed´ the ´Caga Tio´ with nougat and fudge and keep it warm under a blanket so that he will ´poo´ out lots of treats on Christmas Eve. Saint Nicholas and the Devil in Austria A traditional Christmas story is told in Austria every 4 December. Saint Nicholas is said to visit children along with the devil. The two ask the children if they have been good or bad. If the children say they have been bad, the devil tries to strike them with a stick. St. Nicholas sends them running so he can protect them from the devil. On December 6, St. Nicholas´ Day, good children receive fruits, sweets and toys. Midnight mass is held on Christmas Eve and a traditional meal is baked carp. A nativity scene is displayed in most homes. Shoe-tossing in the Czech Republic Single people in the Czech Republic who are looking for a partner stand with their backs to the door on Christmas Day and toss a shoe over their shoulders. If the shoe lands pointing to the door they will get married soon. If not, they will have to wait until next year. Remembrance in Finland Families in Finland enjoy a day of remembrance on Christmas Eve when they visit the graves of their ancestors and light candles. Cemeteries throughout Finland are lit up, presenting a beautiful and emotional scene. Saving the Goat in Sweden In 1966, a 13 metre tall goat was made of straw and erected in Gavle town square. The goat went up in flames at midnight on Christmas Eve. Local carried on building the goat, year after year while vandals continued to burn it down. By 2011 the Gavle goat had been burned down 25 times, including in 2001 when a USA tourist was jailed for the offence. If you are looking for somewhere special in the UK to relax after the festive season, check out our luxurious spa hotel with hot tub suites in Windermere. Nov 27, 2015 Book a New Year Break in the Lake District The Lake District is one of the most popular holiday destinations in the UK, attracting an average of 16 million visitors each year, and New Year is a special time to visit. If you want to get away from it all after a busy festive season, and avoid the summer crowds, book a New Year Break in the Lake District. Whether you want to base yourself in Windermere, Kendal, Appleby or Keswick, you will find plenty of things to see and do in January. Make it a break to remember and book a luxury hotel in the Lake District or a spa hotel in Windermere to welcome the New Year in style. A huge range of accommodation is available in the Lake District, and you can make the most of luxury suites with hot tubs, award winning restaurants and cosy country pubs. The Lake District is also famous for its food, including local lamb, Cumberland sausages and Westmorland rabbit. A wide choice of restaurants and cafés serve everything from local specialities to fine dining. Book a hotel which includes breakfast in the room rate and enjoy traditional, hearty Cumbrian fare. The Lake District offers a wide choice of outdoor activities from fell walking to mountain biking and fell walking. If you want to relax, book a spa hotel in the Lake District or a hotel with hot tub suites. Fresh air, open spaces, tranquillity and sumptuous suites with hot tubs entice visitors to the Lakes in winter. Windermere in particular is a perfect place to wind down and chill out after the Christmas festivities. Remember to pack your walking boots and a warm jacket if you plan to walk the fells or cruise across Windermere. Dramatic scenery and stunning lakes combine with some of the best indoor attractions in England to suit all ages. The local tourist office will be able to give you help and advice about walking routes and attractions, or ask at your hotel reception. Plan ahead by checking out what is open in January and arrange your itinerary so you don´t have to waste time when you arrive. If you want to leave the car at home, check out the Settle to Carlisle Railway which is easy to connect to and passes through much of the Eden Valley. Stop off at towns and villages on the way. The Armitt Museum combines a library and a museum and offers fun, art and entertainment for all ages. The Armitt offers a superb collection of books and manuscripts, drawings and paintings and archaeological objects which relate to a gallery of famous Lake District characters. The whole area is also easily accessed via the M6 and A66 motorways if you plan to drive. If you are planning a romantic break or you want to celebrate a special occasion, there is no better destination in England than the Lake District. Take your time to explore, book a Mountain Goat Tour or book a cruise across Windermere from Bowness Bay. If you are planning to buy a surprise gift for a loved one, why not purchase a spa hotel in Windermere gift voucher for Christmas? Nov 25, 2015 Winter in Windermere Winter is fast approaching in Windermere and this is one of the best times to visit the Lake District if you want an idyllic break in a peaceful location. It may be chilly out on the fells, but we offer a warm welcome, and a choice of fabulous suites with their very own hot tubs, mood lighting, whirlpool baths and much more. The Aphrodite´s Hotel is situated in a tranquil setting just minutes away from the country pubs, restaurants and cafés of Bowness Bay, where visitors can take a trip across Windermere on a Steamer. There is a tourist information centre at Bowness Bay where guests can find out where to go and what to do in the region. If you want to enjoy the countryside, take a hike up Orrest Head at the top of Windermere. The climb is quite steep but it only takes around 20 minutes to reach the top, and the views over the lake are stunning. You can also stop off at different places of interest if you take a boat tour of the lake, and whether you want to hike around the shoreline or enjoy the attractions of Bowness Bay you will be spoilt for choice when it comes to things to see and do. Grasmere, just 8 miles north of Windermere was described by William Wordsworth as: “The loveliest spot that man hath ever found.” Wordsworth fans can take a trip to Dove Cottage, Grasmere, Ambleside, and also tour Rydal Mount and Gardens, where the famous poet spent much of his working life, plus see Hawkshead Grammar School, where he first studied. Founded in 1891, The Wordsworth Trust secured Dove Cottage ´for eternal possessions of all those who loved English poetry, all over the world.’ Situated in one of the most beautiful parts of the Lake District, The Wordsworth Museum tells the fascinating story of one of England´s finest poets, and his love of the Lake District. Rydal Mount nestles between Lake Windermere, the Lake District fells and Rydal Water, and was Wordsworth´s favourite home between 1813 and 1850. Visitors can wander through the house, which is still owned by the descendants of the famous poet. Kendal, which lies 7 miles to the east of Windermere, boasts plenty of great attractions to suit all tastes and budgets, including: Abbot Hall Art Gallery, where visitors can enjoy works of art in this beautiful Georgian villa on the edge of the Lake District. The gallery also offers a range of educational activities, lectures and events, to keep the whole family entertained. Winter is a great time to visit Windermere if you want to escape the summer crowds, and enjoy the very best of the fells, the attractions and the stunning lakeside scenery. Nov 10, 2015 Alfred Wainwright and the Lake District Alfred Wainwright was born in 1907 in Lancashire where he was later educated. The most eventful part of his life began in 1930 when he first toured the Lake District. He completely fell in love with the area and made it a lifelong project to explore the Lakes more intricately. If you are planning to attempt climbing any of the ‘Wainwrights’ why not book a spa hotel in Windermere to make the most of your break in the Lakes? For those who want to experience nature at its best, the Lake District is a stunning part of England. To enjoy the Lakes at their best, why not go fell walking? This brings you close to nature and emerges you in the fauna and flora that is found in the Lake District National Park. You can find many guides that will help you explore the lakes, but the most notable ones were written by Alfred Wainwright. In 1941 Wainwright took the role of the treasurer in Westmorland so that he could be close to the fells. He worked in that position until 1962 when he retired. He started working on his first book that would become the most elaborate guide to the fells in 1952. His books included pictures of the Lake District as well as descriptions of different areas within the park. Alfred Wainwright’s books continue to be read by millions of people. His works are called the pictorial guides to the Lakeland Fells. He originally wrote the guide for himself but after a few people saw it and loved it; he decided to publish it. His friend Henry Marshall, chief librarian at Kendal, was the energy behind this book and he helped Wainwright with the publicity. Alfred Wainwright has written 20 guide books, nine books with illustrations and a host of autobiographies and stories. His most notable story is the fell wanderer which was released in 1966. He is also accredited with creating a map of Westmorland which is still used by walkers and hikers who want to visit the Lake District Park. Following completion of the guides, Wainwright worked on a guidebook about the Pennine Way and then in 1973 devised and wrote about a long distance walk he had created from St Bees to Robin Hood’s Bay, entitled A Coast to Coast Walk. This trail has subsequently become one of the most walked routes in the United Kingdom, if not in the world. Between 1965 and 1990 Wainwright created a further 50 books, either guidebooks or sketchbooks of areas mainly in northern England and Scotland. Alfred Wainwright died in 1991 at Kendal Green Hospital, near his home, but his works continues to inspire and assist other fell walkers to explore the Lake District. The walks he features in his guides have become known as ‘The Wainwrights’. His guides have sold over 2 million copies over the decades. A memorial to Alfred Wainwright can be found in the church at Buttermere and his ashes were scattered above the village of his favourite mountain, Haystacks. Romantic hotels in Windermere include full spa facilities, hot tub suites and stunning locations close to the largest lake in England. Nov 05, 2015 The Top 10 Best Attractions in the Lake District Whether you are looking for family fun, a few days away from the hustle and bustle of the city or a romantic weekend, you will find plenty of places to visit in the Lake District. The Lakes has plenty to offer visitors from different parts of the world. Breathtaking landscapes, picnic sites and other attractions await you in the Lake District. Below are 10 of the best places to visit: Hilltop, Beatrix Potter’s House This is one of the best places to visit while in the Lake District. The 17th century farmhouse in Sawrey was owned by children’s author, Beatrix Potter who wrote most of her books here. The house has been well maintained by the National Trust and still looks the same as when she lived there. Dove Cottage Renowned poet, William Wordsworth used to live in this cottage from 1799 to 1808. It contains manuscripts and original furniture plus well-kept gardens and a museum. You can also visit Wordsworth’s grave nearby in St Oswald’s Church. Relax with tea and refreshments in the adjoining café. Muncaster Castle Muncaster is situated in Ravenglass. It covers an area of about 70 acres of landscaped gardens and is also home to an Owl Centre. Muncaster is allegedly haunted and ghost tours are available to brave souls who dare book a night time visit. A great family attraction during the day. Blackwell, the Arts and Crafts House Blackwell, the arts and crafts house is one of England’s most famous houses. The stunning property contains many pieces of art that span centuries. Visitors can also enjoy the stunning gardens at Blackwell and the breath-taking scenery around Bowness. Brockhole Visitor Centre Brockhole is a perfect place for a family outing as it presents visitors with amazing experiences. Enjoy the gardens, rich with different fauna and flora or you spend your time at the beautifully created sports ground. A great place to bring the kids with plenty of things to see and do. If you are feeling adventurous, Go Ape offers zip lines and tree top walks across the park. Windermere Lake Cruises Take a cruise across Windermere and enjoy the priceless views of the fells, the mountains and the islands. The cruise is very comfortable and quiet. You get time to reflect of different views and relax while sailing across England’s largest lake. The Lakes Aquarium in Bowness is also worth visiting. Romantic hotels in Windermere include hot tub suites, full spa facilities and beautiful location close to the lake. Steam Railway at Ravenglass & Eskadale Go for a train ride and enjoy the beautiful scenery along the way; the Ravenglass to Dalegarth railway stretches about 7 miles and you can enjoy stunning scenery along the way. The Lakes Aquarium The Lakes Aquarium is located at Lake Windermere and includes a re-created journey below Windermere and a Seashore discovery zone. View a wide range of fish and amphibians local to the area and also explore the continents of Asia, Africa and the Tropical Rain Forest. Honister Slate Mine This is England’s last remaining working slate mine where visitors can enjoy a choice of attractions. Get to see how the mine operates and enjoy some great views from the cliff-edge. South Lakes Animal Park Get close up and personal with penguins and giraffes at this wildlife zoo. There are big cats too and a wide array of animals from different parts of the world. If you are looking for a great base for exploring the Lake District, why not book a spa hotel in Windermere. Oct 27, 2015 The Lake District is blessed with a number of amazing lakes that keep millions of visitors flocking back each year. Each of these lakes is different and offers a unique experience to visitors: Bassenthwaite Lying between Cockermouth and Keswick is Bassenthwaite which is considered one of the major lakes in the Lake District. There are very good views over the lake and tourists normally climb to the elevated areas where they can view the stunning surroundings. It also has a bird sanctuary where visitors can view wildlife. Brothers Water Brothers Water Lake lies between Ambleside and Ullswater and is one of the smallest lakes in the Lake District. It is however a fun place to visit for those looking to enjoy the great outdoors in the Lake District. Buttermere Buttermere is a perfect place for a lake side stroll or a picnic. When you want real adventure in the Lake District, you should put this spectacular lake in your travel itinerary. If you are feeling energetic, climb the Honister Pass and enjoy stunning views of the region. Coniston Take a steam gondola around the lake and hear stories about Donald Campbell and how he broke the world speed record on these waters. Campbell sadly lost his life in an attempt to break the record in 1967. Crummock Water Crummock Water is found near Grasmere. Experience breathtaking views. There are steep sided valleys all around this lake which adds to their natural beauty. Enjoy stunning waterfalls. Derwentwater Dubbed the water sport capital of the entire Lake District, Derwentwater offers boat hire, water sports and a lively marina. A great family day out with plenty to see and do for all ages. Windermere Windermere is the largest lake in England. Enjoy a range of outdoor activities for visitors including water sports, boats, museums and family outings. Romantic hotels in Windermere offer hot tub suites, full spa facilities and luxurious bathrooms. Ennerdale Ennerdale is a beautiful lake located on the western side of the Lake District National Park. Enjoy nature walks around the lake and enjoy the breathtaking views. Grasmere Famous poet and author, William Wordsworth’s house, Dove Cottage is located in Grasmere and can still be viewed by the public. Don’t forget to sample the famous Grasmere gingerbread if you visit this picturesque town. Ullswater This is a large lake that is located in the north east side of the Lake District. The lake side offers good nature walks. Enjoy the plants and trees that are found in this part of the park. A notable place to visit is Dalemain, a Georgian home that offers an insight into the history of the Lake District. If you are looking for somewhere special to stay in the Lake District, why not book a spa hotel in Windermere for a romantic weekend. Oct 19, 2015 As the largest National Park in England, the Lake District attracts over 16 million visitors each year. Some of the most interesting facts and figures about this beautiful part of England include: Scafell Pike is the highest mountain in England, at 3,210 feet The longest lake is Windermere, at 10.5 miles, and the deepest, Wastwater at 243 feet In the heavy rains of 2009, Windermere rose by 157cm The only official lake is Bassenthwaite Lake, as all the others are ´meres´ or ´waters.´ The main 14 lakes in the region cover 5,669 hectares in total The Lake District National Park was established in 1951 Nearly 16 million people visited the Lake District in 2010 Seathwaite is the wettest inhabited place in England, with average rainfall of 3,552mm The Lake District has over 6,000 archaeological sites and monuments, dating from prehistory to WW2, 1,740 listed buildings and 21 conservation areas Helvellyn´s Striding Edge, with steep drops on either side of a narrow ridge, has been filmed and photographed countless times for books and TV programmes William Wordsworth is buried in St. Oswald´s Churchyard in Grasmere, along with his wife, Mary and his beloved sister, Dorothy Hardknott is the best preserved Roman fort in the UK. The fort was built 260 metres above sea level, near the Roman road which leads from the coast over the Hardknott and Wrynose passes Famous social reformer and art critic, John Ruskin lived at Brantwood, beside Lake Coniston. Ruskin was one of the region´s most influential residents, and declared that the beauty of the Lake District should be preserved for all to enjoy The first books written by famous children´s author and Lake District resident, Beatrix Potter were rejected by the publishers 20% of all visitors to Hill Top, former home of Beatrix Potter, are from Japan Graphite was first discovered in the hills around Keswick in the 16th Century, and when the pencil was invented it led to the development of a massive industry in the Lake District. Today, the Cumberland Pencil Museum sits on the site of the original factory The Castlerigg Stone Circle is an ancient monument with 38 stones, some of which are 8 feet high. The stones stand in an oval shape, which is approximately 100 feet in diameter, with ten more stones shaped like a rectangle inside. No one knows the real purpose of this fascinating monument Thirlmere´s water is carried by a 96 mile aqueduct, and provides water to nearly 1 million homes in Manchester. Previously there had been two small tarns called Leathes Water and Wythburn Water which were connected by a small stream. An Act of Parliament was passed so the lake could be created. The aqueduct was connected up in 1894 Lake District fields and fells are separated from each other by dry stone walls, and no cement is used in the construction of the walls. It is a skilled job to fix or repair the walls, and the National Trust is determined to stick to the traditional methods of dry stone walling Windermere is a perfect base if you are looking to explore the Lake District. Why not book into a luxury spa hotel in Windermere and enjoy your accommodation as much as your time in the great outdoors? Oct 13, 2015 Lakes and Attractions in Cumbria The Lake District offers visitors a wealth of things to see and do, and some of the most beautiful landscapes in the UK. Whether you want a romantic weekend away to celebrate a special occasion or a midweek break in a spa hotel, you will be well catered for in the Lake District. The top lakes to visit during your stay include: Windermere Windermere is undoubtedly the pearl of the Lake District, and is the longest lake in England at 10.5 miles. You are spoilt for choice with the vast amount of accommodation available in Windermere, and you can choose from spa hotels and romantic hotels in Windermerep> . Windermere is a magnet for tourists and the surrounding area offers visitors a wide range of attractions and great things to do for the family. You can also find the perfect hotels in Windermere for romantic breaks, and late deals. Take a cruise down Windermere, or visit the house of Beatrix Potter. Brockholes Visitor centre is also worth a visit, along with Bowness, Newby Bridge, Scafell, Ambleside, Grasmere and Forest Park. The Blackwell Arts and Crafts Centre is also within easy reach. Visit the Old Man of Windermere at Dow Crag if you enjoy walking and hiking. Bassenthwaite Bassenthwaite is close to Keswick and is home to a fantastic nature reserve, which provides educational tours for all the family. Other attractions in Bassenthwaite include: Trotters World of Animals, the historic house and gardens at Mirehouse, the Whinlatter Forest Park with its adventure playgrounds and forest trails, plus the nearby towns of Keswick and Cockermouth. If you want to explore the great outdoors, take a trip to Skiddaw, which is the main fell in the area, and either enjoy a gentle walk around the area or climb to the top and you can enjoy incredible views of the surrounding countryside. Bassenthwaite is also a popular spot for sailing enthusiasts, and whether you are a beginner or a seasoned professional, you can enjoy the local lakes to the full. Buttermere Often understated, Buttermere is a beautiful lake in the north-west of the Lake District. Now owned by the National Trust, Buttermere is situated among green pastures and hillsides which lead down to the lake, and provide the perfect family day out. With several farms, a church and a youth hostel, Buttermere also provides a wide range of accommodation including romantic hotels and themed hotels nearby. Attractions around Buttemere include walks and hikes around Pillar, High Stile and Red Pike, plus Grasmoor and Honister Slate Mine are close by. Enjoy a tranquil stay at Buttermere and take your time to look around the picturesque villages, fens, lakes and landscapes that make up the Lake District. Coniston Water Coniston Water enjoys a tranquil and peaceful setting, and attracts visitors from all over England. Although the lake was made famous by Donald Campbell after he tried, and failed to break the world speed record in 1967, there is much more to Coniston Water than meets the eye. Nearby Brantwood House is well worth a visit, and several boat trips on the water are available including Coniston Launch and the Steam Yacht Gondola. Take a trip to the Ruskin Museum and the Grizedale Forest Park just to the east of Coniston. Romantic spa hotels in Windermere are popular all year round and offer a wide choice of facilities, including hot tub rooms. Oct 08, 2015 Cheltenham may be famous for the Cheltenham Festival , but if you are planning to book a break in the Cotswolds, you will find plenty of other attractions nearby. Bourton House Garden If you are a lover of the countryside, Bourton House Garden is situated in the picturesque village of Bourton-on-the-Hill. The award-winning garden surrounds a fine 18th century Manor House and features stunning topiary and a vast range of exotic plants. If you plan to spend the day at Bourton House, enjoy home-made cakes and pastries in the Grade 1 listed, 16th century, Tithe Barn. Tewkesbury Heritage Centre Tewkesbury Heritage Centre is situated in a restored 17th century building. Portable guides and interactive games create fun and entertainment for all the family, while detailing the fascinating local history. From Tewkesbury’s earliest settlers to the Civil War and the industrial revolution to today, the heritage centre is perfect for enthusiasts of history and local culture. Hot Air Ballooning in the Cotswolds Hot Air Ballooning in the Cotswolds offers you the chance to get a bird’s eye view of the areas of outstanding natural beauty in Gloucestershire. Drift over the Cotswolds landscapes and enjoy the serenity of your surroundings. Launch sites include Cheltenham, Gloucester and Bourton-on-the-Water. Flights normally take place early morning, just after dawn or early evening. The Play Farm If you are spending time in Cheltenham with the family, the Play Farm is a themed centre for children aged 0-12. Based at the Brewery in Cheltenham, the Play Farm offers a multi-tiered soft play structure in a safe and stimulating environment. Located in relaxing farmyard surroundings, the Farm offers dedicated play zones for babies, toddlers and older kids. Parents can relax in a comfortable environment with access to top quality food and drinks. The Wilson Cheltenham Art Gallery and Museum The Wilson Cheltenham Art Gallery and Museum reopened its doors to the public in 2013 and houses extensive fine art and touring exhibition galleries. Visitors can explore the highlights of the Museum’s collections, including a gallery space for renowned international Arts and Crafts. Tales of local heroes are shown in the Paper Store, including that of Edward Wilson (one of Scott’s main men on his 1912 Antarctica expedition). If you are planning to book a break in Cheltenham or the Cotswolds, choose from a wide range of luxury Cheltenham Festival accommodation rentals close to the town’s main attractions. Oct 08, 2015 Henley-on-Thames may be famous for its annual Royal Regatta, but you will find plenty of other places to visit during your stay. Five of the top things to do in Henley include: Pleasure Boats Relax on one of the pleasure boats which sail up and down the Thames and enjoy a view of Henley from the water. Regular services are operated by Hobbs of Henley , who can even organise special excursions in a wide choice of launches, including an Edwardian-style chauffeured launch, which will transport you back in time. Wind in the Willows Discover Wind in the Willows with Mole, Ratty and Badger in real-life 3D scenes at a special exhibition in the River and Rowing Museum. The classic story of Wind in the Willows was set around Henley’s river banks. The exhibition is a wonderful family attraction and provides fun and entertainment for kids of all ages. Henley Bridge The stunning Henley Bridge has 5 beautiful arches where many Olympic champions have rowed in the Henley Royal Regatta. Sir Steve Redgrave took part in the Regatta for 20 years. When crossing from the centre of town, take your time to sample the food and drink at the Little Angel, one of Henley’s most historic pubs which backs onto the cricket ground. Afternoon Tea Afternoon tea is Henley is a real ‘taste of England’ and the town is home to several speciality tea rooms. Upstairs and Downstairs offers a range of teas, home-made scones with clotted cream and high tea with a range of sandwiches and delicious cakes. Starched table cloths and uniformed waitresses complete take you back in time. Well worth a visit! Midsomer Murders Enjoy a walking tour around Henley’s Midsomer Murders film locations. Two episodes of the top TV series were filmed at the 17th century Argyll pub in the market square. However long you plan to stay in Henley-on-Thames, take your time to enjoy the local attractions, pubs and restaurants in and around the town. Choose from a wide range of luxury Henley Regatta accommodation rentals close to the main attractions and events in Henley-on-Thames. Oct 05, 2015 Whether you are a keen walker or you simply enjoy taking your dog for a walk, the Lake District offers a vast choice of tracks and trails through some of the most stunning countryside in England. Ash Landing and Claife Heights in Windermere For the slightly hardier souls, this 7.5 mile walk begins at the car park at Ash Landing. If you are staying in Windermere you are right in the heart of the lakes and there is plenty of accommodation, attractions and shops nearby. This walk boasts incredible views, which first attracted Victorian tourists to the area. Claife Heights appeared in one of the first guide books about the lakes by Thomas West in 1778. A viewing station gives visitors the opportunity to enjoy the sights through coloured glass. Tom Gill to Tarn Hows at Coniston This 1.6 mile walk starts at Tom Gill Car Park at Glen Mary Bridge and offers one of the most famous views of the Lake District. The path around the fell top tarn has been made accessible for buggies and mobility scooters, attracting walkers of all ages and levels of fitness. Slightly more challenging is the short steep approach to the tarn past Tom Gill Beck. Amazing views on a clear day over the fells. Buttermere to Rannerdale This 3 mile walk passes one of the most photographed sites in the Lake District, the trees known as the Sentinels at the southern end of Buttermere. Enjoy the pebbly beach of Crummock Water and Scale Force, which is the highest falls in the Lake District. There are plenty of easy walks around Buttermere but if you fancy more of a challenge go to Rannerdale Knotts, where the bluebells bloom every Spring. Ambleside to Troutbeck This walk is almost 6 miles long and starts at Market Cross in Ambleside. Keep a look out for the tallest tree in Cumbria en route, at almost 58 metres in height. If you visit between April and June, take a look round Stagshaw Gardens with an incredible display of flora and fauna. Ambleside also offers a wide choice of places to visit, from museums to quirky shops and cafés. Friar´s Crag, Keswick Starting at Lakeside Car Park this three quarter of a mile trek is said to be one of the most beautiful scenes in Europe. Friar´s Crag juts out into Derwentwater towards Derwent Isle. Memorials to John Ruskin and Canon Rawsley can be found near the lakeside, and this is also a great spot for stargazing at night. Corpse Road, Loweswater At just 3.6 miles long, and starting at Maggie´s Bridge Car Park the Corpse Road walk, so called after the road was used to transport the dead from the neighbouring villages to local burial grounds. Despite the name of the Walk, the area around Loweswater offers beautiful countryside, and Holme Force Falls are well worth seeing. Greendale and Middle Fell in the Western Fells This walk is 3.5 miles starting at Greendale, and this part of the Lake District offers beautiful, unspoiled countryside and relatively uncrowded paths. Enjoy the wild beauty of Wasdale and the Roman history of Eskdale. Greendale Tarn is a great place to stop off for a picnic. Whether you are looking for a spa hotel in Windermere , a guest house or a B&B you will find plenty of accommodation options in the Lake District. Sep 28, 2015 Romantic hotels in the Lake District Since famous poet William Wordsworth first waxed lyrical about the Lake District in the early 1800´s the region has become synonymous with romance. The Aphrodite´s Lodge is perfect for couples wanting to spend a romantic weekend in luxurious Windermere surroundings, while enjoying a private suite with personal hot tub, elegant decór, a four poster bed and even mood lighting. Luxury bathrooms are a feature of all the romantic suites at the hotel, which include: the Red Rose Suite, the Orchid Suite, the Love Suite, the Love Haven and the Love Nest. All suites feature large LCD TV´s, king size beds and DVD´s plus whirlpool baths for 2 and a range of romantic facilities to make your stay extra special. If you can drag yourselves out of your honeymoon suite, book a pampering beauty session at our spa and beauty rooms, where you can enjoy a relaxing massage, a seaweed body treatment or even a spray tanning session. Spa facilities are free to all hotel guests although beauty treatments are extra. Special pamper packages can be booked prior to arrival, along with champagne in your room, rose petals on the bed, chocolates and flowers etc., to make your honeymoon stay perfect. Our luxury suites have been specifically designed with romance, comfort and luxury in mind, and whether you want to enjoy the privacy of your own hot tub, watch TV from the whirlpool bath or chill out on a private patio, you can do it all at the Aphrodite´s Lodge. There are so many things to see and do in Windermere all through the year, and nearby Bowness Bay offers some of the best restaurants in the Lakes. If you enjoy a pint of real ale, visit the local country pubs or make the most of the lake with a trip on board a Windermere Steamer. Blessed with incredible scenery and a vast choice of walking routes, Windermere is one of the most beautiful places in the UK to stretch your legs. Levels of difficulty range from easy to difficult, and whether you fancy a gentle stroll around the lake, or a more challenging hill walk, you will find plenty of choice around Windermere. If you are looking for a romantic stay in Windermere for your honeymoon, book into the Aphrodite´s Lodge and enjoy top facilities, including private hot tubs, spa baths for 2 people, steam rooms and power showers. Log fires in winter and private patios in summer will allow you to enjoy the very best of the Lake District from your hotel suite. If you want your honeymoon to be quiet, private and luxurious, there is no better place to spend it than at the Aphrodite´s Lodge Hotel in Bowness-on-Windermere. Whatever the time of year you are planning to get married, we can make your honeymoon extra special. Check out our beautiful new romantic suites at the hotel where you can immerse yourself in the beauty of the Lake District without having to leave your room! Sep 14, 2015 A day out at Holker Hall Home to Lord and Lady Cavendish, Holker Hall is one of the most popular attractions in the Lake District. Situated close to the coastal town of Grange-over-Sands and Morecambe Bay, Holker Hall is surrounded by beautiful countryside, and boasts magnificent gardens. A Norse word, ´Holker´ literally translates as ´a rising in marshy land´, and records show a house stood on the site as far back as the beginning of the 16th Century. The Estate has passed on through inheritance ever since those early days, and the award winning gardens and hall have been attracting visitors from all over the world for many years. Lord and Lady Cavendish both take an active interest in protecting wildlife in the area and in maintaining the surrounding woodlands and parkland. Every generation of owners have left their impression on the hall since the early 16th Century, and the house had to be rebuilt after a fire in 1871, which destroyed the west wing, and wiped out valuable paintings, portraits and books. The house and gardens are open to the public, and several special events are held at the hall throughout the year. The stunning grounds at Holker Hall include sunken gardens, grottos, and an elaborate slate sundial, and a cascade of water tumbles down from a seventeenth century marble Neptune, making this one of the most immaculate gardens in England. Lord George Cavendish planted the late 18th century ´natural´ parkland, and new features, including the arboretum, a conservatory and a large walled kitchen garden were added in the early 19th century. One of the most incredible features of the house is the long gallery, and among the furniture are a stunning black octagonal Derbyshire polished limestone table, a regency and mahogany and satinwood desk and a display table, containing a purse belonging to the 5th Duke of Devonshire´s wife, Georgiana. Holker boasts a courtyard café, which is a great place to stop for refreshments, and two great dining rooms, which can be hired for a special occasion or corporate event. Wherever you decide to stay in the Lake District, Holker Hall will be within easy driving distance, or accessible by public transport. Choose from a vast range of spa hotels in WindermereA, or book in to a guest house, luxury hotel or romantic hotel in the Lake District to make the most of your stay. Sep 07, 2015 Great places to visit in the Lake District The Lake District in Cumbria, attracts over 16 million visitors a year who come to explore its scenic towns and villages. Windermere is a great place to base yourself if you plan to travel around the Lake District, and there are a wide choice of spa hotels in Windermere, lake side boutique hotels and guest houses to suit all tastes and budgets. Windermere is a beautiful location if you are planning a special celebration or a romantic weekend, and many couples choose to book their wedding or honeymoon close to the lake. Windermere Windermere first became known as a ´tourist resort´ when wealthy Victorians began spending weekends and leisure time in the region. They believed that the fresh mountain air was beneficial to their health, and many bought properties in the area – many of which still stand today. Over the years the small town has merged with Bowness-on-Windermere, even though both places have completely separate centres. Visitors can catch a train or bus from Windermere Station to most towns in the surrounding area, and the Lakes line connects with Oxenholme, for interchange with the West Coast Main Line. Brockhole, the Lake District Visitor Centre is situated in Bowness, and offers plenty of attractions for all ages. The town is also home to a great choice of restaurants, country pubs, serving real ales and home-made Cumbrian cuisine. The famous Windermere Steamers at Bowness Bay operate the full length of Windermere. A short walk from Windermere is Orrest Head, with its stunning views over the lake. This was the first summit in Lakeland visited by famous walker and local writer, Alfred Wainwright. Ravenglass Ravenglass is a small hamlet which lies on the estuary of three rivers – the Esk, the Mite and the Irt and is most famous for the Ravenglass and Eskdale Steam Railway. The railway was formerly used to bring iron ore, granite and copper ore from mines near Boot, which is 7 miles away, and is now a major tourist attraction. Hawkshead Still the same tiny village which was so loved by local author and poet, William Wordsworth, Hawkshead has changed little since the late 1800´s. Cars are still banned from the village and visitors have to park on the outskirts. Although tourism is now the main industry in the village – Hawkshead Grammar was where Wordsworth went to school – the traditional inns, tea rooms and gift shops retain their original charm. The Old Grammar School was founded in 1585 by the Archbishop of York, Edwin Sandys, and the ground floor classroom still exhibits the original desks from Wordsworth´s time there – many of which are covered in carvings by the boys. The Beatrix Potter Gallery in Hawkshead is situated in the former office of solicitor, William Heelis who married Potter in 1913, and remains largely unchanged since then. Grasmere Grasmere is one of the most visited villages in the Lake District, thanks mainly to Dove Cottage, the former home of William Wordsworth (1770-1850). The village offers a wide choice of gift shops, restaurants, cafés, tea rooms and pubs, and possibly one of the most famous gingerbread shops in the world, situated at the entrance to St Oswald´s Church. Most of the houses, shops and hostelries date back to the 19th and early 20th century, and the surrounding farms are even older. The village church dates back to the 13th Century. William Wordsworth and his much loved sister Dorothy moved into Dove Cottage in 1799 and left in 1808 for larger premises at Allen Bank. They lived here for two years with fellow poet, Samuel Coleridge, moving to the Old Rectory, then Rydal Mount in 1813. William died in 1850 while out walking, and his simple tombstone can be seen in the churchyard of St Oswald´s Church. A piece of land between the church and the river has also been renovated and turned into a place of peace called the Wordsworth Daffodil Garden, where visitors can purchase a share and have an engraved stone set in the path. If you are looking for somewhere special to stay in the Lake District why not book a spa hotel in Windermere and enjoy pampering beauty treatments and luxury hot tub rooms. Aug 31, 2015 Famous for its lakes, its mountains and its tarns, the Lake District is the most visited National Park in England. Some of the things you probably didn’t know about the Lake District include: The name ´Windermere´ The word " Windermere " is thought to translate as "Vinandr's Lake", from the Old Norse name, Vinandr and Old English mere, meaning lake. It was known as "Winander Mere" or "Winandermere" until at least the nineteenth century. Prisoner of War Camp A prisoner of war camp as sited at Moota near Cockermouth during the Second World War. Around 1,200 Germans were held there and employed on local farms. Torpenhow The three elements of the name ‘ Torpenhow ’ all mean ‘hill' in different languages - Anglo-Saxon (‘tor'), British/Old Welsh (‘pen') and Old Norse (‘how'). Alston Moor Silver from Alston Moor was used to make silver coins at Carlisle's Royal Mint, and Alston Moor lead was used in the roofing of Windsor Castle. The highest town Alston is the highest market town in England at 1,043 ft (318 m). In winter if the snow conditions are good, there are numerous ski runs to try. Cross Fell Cross Fell is the highest point on the Pennine fells at 893 m (2,930 ft). It used to be called Fiend's Fell because evil spirits were believed to inhabit it. St Augustine, an early Christian missionary, is said to have erected a cross on the summit, held mass and banished the howling demons. The summit was thereafter known as Cross Fell. Miltonrigg Woods and York Minster Oak trees from Miltonrigg Woods were used in the rebuilding of York Minster's roof after the 1984 fire. Local Slate for the Queen Slates from Honister grace the roofs of Buckingham Palace, St Paul's Cathedral and the Ritz Hotel in London. Wettest place in England Seathwaite in Borrowdale is officially the wettest inhabited place in England with a mean annual rainfall of over 3 metres (120 inches). The heaviest annual rainfall ever recorded in the UK was at Sprinkling Tarn in 1954 when over 6½ metres of rain fell over the course of the year. Dalston Cocks Dalston’s motto is: ‘Whilst I live, I'll crow', a reference to the sport of cock-fighting which was once popular in the village. A wrought iron sculpture of a black and red cockerel sits atop the lamp base on the village green. Wragmire Oak The Wragmire Oak was the last tree to survive from the Forest of Inglewood and for 600 years marked the boundary between the parishes of High Hesket and St Mary's in Carlisle. After 1000 years the tree finally succumbed to old age and fell on 13 June 1823. Twelve Men Wreay is famous for its ‘parliament' of Twelve Men - a self-electing council responsible for the welfare of the villagers, who still meet once a year. Orienteering The world's first permanent orienteering course was laid out at Whinlatter in 1992. Hawkshead Seed whigs Hawkshead was well known for two baking specialities: Seed Whigs and Hawkshead Cakes. Seed Whigs are oblong-shaped tea cakes flavoured with caraway seeds. Hawkshead Cakes are pastries filled with currants, sugar and butter. The Drunken Duck at Ambleside The Drunken Duck Inn received its name after beer accidentally drained into a ditch that the local ducks frequented. The ducks lapped up the alcohol and passed into a lifeless stupor. The landlady, thinking they were dead, set about plucking them ready for the oven but soon realised what had happened. The ducks were reprieved from being roasted and given knitted jerseys and kilts to wear until their feathers grew back. Aug 24, 2015 Cumbria may be most famous for its stunning countryside, lakes and mountains, but foodies are also in for a treat when they visit England’s most beautiful national park. Typical Cumbrian fare includes delicious meats, cheeses and confectionery, unique to this stunning part of England. Situated in the north-west of the country, Cumbria and in particular the Lake District attract thousands of visitors each year who come to enjoy the magnificent scenery and mountainous lakeside landscapes, plus enjoy some of their favourite Cumbrian food along the way. Cumberland Sausage Nobody knows why Cumberland Sausage is coiled instead of in the traditional links, but it is linked (excuse the pun) to the times when German miners were in Cumbria during the reign of Elizabeth I. The sausages were said to have been created to suit their taste and flavoured with spices imported into Cumberland via the major port of the time at Whitehaven. Damson Gin Anyone who is lucky enough to be in the Lake District in April should visit the nearby Lyth Valley where the white blossom of the damson trees is a stunning sight. Damsons are used in this part of the world to make jams and the famous local speciality, Damson gin. Most pubs sell the gin if you want to try a glass or two. The skins of the damsons are also used to dye textiles. Kendal Mint Cake Thought to have been invented by mistake, Kendal Mint Cake was created by Joseph Wiper who was trying to make a clear mint at the time. He ended up with a cloudy mint with a thicker consistency and the rest, as they say is history. Mint cake is now produced as white or brown bars or chocolate coated and is carried by many walkers who may need an energy boost while walking the local fells. Sir Edmund Hilary and Sirdar Tensing ate the famous Kendal Mint cake on the summit of Everest in 1953. Grasmere Gingerbread Not only is Grasmere famous for William Wordsworth´s former house, Dove Cottage but this quaint village also boasts Sarah Nelson´s Grasmere Gingerbread Shop. The shop was built in 1630 and is tucked away in the corner of the churchyard of St Oswald´s Church. Sarah Kemp was a local girl who was born in Bowness in 1815. During her time in Service, Sarah excelled as a cook. When the local school house closed down in 1850 and the children were sent to a new school, Sarah took over the tenancy of the property and the Sarah Nelson Gingerbread Shop was born. When Sarah died the recipe passed to her great niece, who sold it to Daisy Hotson, who later went into partnership with Jack and Mary Wilson. In 1969 Margaret and Gerald Wilson, Jack's nephew, bought the business. Over the years little has changed in this tiny shop - the school coat pegs are still in place, and so is the cupboard used to house the school slates. Sarah would still feel at home in her kitchen, her curtain rod rests above the churchyard window where William Wordsworth and his family lie buried, as well as the Nelson family. Cumberland Lamb Herdwick Sheep and lambs graze on the natural herbage of the region which gives their meat a distinct flavour. Cumberland tattie pot is a delicious recipe which includes swede and black pudding and layers of potatoes. Pickled red cabbage is often served as a side dish. A traditional sauce served with lamb or ham is Cumberland sauce made from the juices of oranges and lemons, added to redcurrant jelly, mustard, port and ginger. If you are planning to visit the Lake District, why not book a Windermere spa hotel and make the most of your stay. The Lake District is heaven for foodies, and whether you enjoy cakes, pastries, traditional sausages and cheeses or some famous Grasmere Gingerbread, you will be spoilt for choice in the Lakes. Aug 17, 2015 The Lake District is home to some of England’s most famous attractions. Majestic castles, historic houses and fascinating museums provide fun and entertainment for all age groups. Ten of the best Lake District attractions include: 1.Mirehouse Historic House and Gardens Mirehouse is one of the most historic and interesting houses in the Lake District, and it offers plenty of things to see and do for all the family. Child-friendly attractions include a heather maze to get lost in, a poetry walk and plenty of quizzes and entertainment to keep the younger ones happy. If you want some light refreshments, try out the tearoom with its typical Cumbrian specialities. 2.Muncaster Castle Muncaster Castle has been home to the Pennington family for over 800 years, and also boasts some of the most beautiful flower displays in the region. If you enjoy flowers and gardens, or if you want to explore the ´haunted castle´, Muncaster is a must-see attraction. A world owl centre houses 40 species, and there are plenty of attractions for the younger ones. 3. Museum of Lakeland Life and Industry The Museum of Lakeland Life and Industry offers an insight into the early lives of Lake District residents, and shows how the mining industry and tourism affected the lives of the locals throughout the centuries. This museum provides plenty of entertainment for all ages, and if you are interested in the local history and culture of the Lake District, you will love this museum. 4.Ravenglass and Eskdale Railway Steam railway enthusiasts should take a trip to the Ravenglass and Eskdale Railway , and enjoy some of the most stunning scenery in the lakes. The journey will take you on board a Heritage steam train across open countryside to the foot of some of the highest local mountains. 5. RSPB Leighton Moss Nature Reserve The RSPB Leighton Moss Nature Reserve is popular with locals and tourists alike, and you can learn more about local wildlife and bird species from informative staff. Watch the birds from specially-camouflaged hides, and enjoy refreshments at the tea room. A gift shop is also situated within the visitor centre. 6. Silverband Falconry The Silverband Falconry is run by expert falconers, this attraction offers visitors the chance to handle the falcons and wildlife. Handlers explain how the birds eat, live and hunt, and the trip is a must for wildlife enthusiasts. 7. The Lakes Aquarium Explore the Lakes of the world at the award winning Lakes Aquarium at Newby Bridge. Trek through the rain forests of South America and see the diving ducks, seahorses and rays of the Lake District. Enjoy a spectacular interactive adventure with virtual crocodiles, and a charging hippo. Also featuring the world´s first Virtual Dive Bell, this is one of the most popular attractions in the Lake District. 8. The World of Beatrix Potter Famous for housing the Beatrix Potter characters of Jemima Puddleduck, Peter Rabbit and many more, the World of Beatrix Potter is popular with families. Easy to reach by ferry, you can combine a boat trip with a visit to the attraction. 9. Trotters World of Animals Trotters World of Animals is home to over 100 species of animals, Trotters is great for all the family, and small children are well catered for. 10. Trout Fishing at Hawkshead Esthwaite is the largest stocked lake in north-west England, and offers excellent trout fishing at Hawkshead in one of the Lake District´s most scenic spots. Tuition is available, and you can hire rods and equipment from an on-site tackle shop. Whatever you decide to do in the Lake District, you will be spoilt for choice when it comes to museums, adventure playgrounds, cinemas, lake trips, water sports, restaurants, bars and cafés. Excellent transport links make it easy to travel around Windermere, Ambleside, Keswick, Coniston and every other major town in the Lake District with or without a car. Aug 10, 2015 Interesting facts about the Lake District National Park The Lake District National Park is situated in north-west England and is famous for its lakes, mountains and forests which attract visitors from all over the world. Famous former residents of the Lake District were poet William Wordsworth (1770-1850) and children´s author, Beatrix Potter (1866-1943) who were inspired to write many of their poems and stories while living in the region. Wordsworth´s former houses, Dove Cottage at Ambleside and Rydal Mount can still be visited today, as can the former house of Beatrix Potter, Hill Top at Sawrey. Historically shared by the counties of Cumberland, Westmorland and Lancashire, the Lake District now lies within the county of Cumbria. All the land higher than 3,000 feet above sea level lies within the National Park, including Scafell Pike, which is the highest mountain in England at 978 metres. The deepest and longest lakes are also situated in the Lake District – Wastwater and Windermere. The Lake District was designated as a National Park in 1951, and the area covers 885 square miles. Tourism in the Lake District became popular in Victorian times when wealthy visitors would arrive to breathe in the fresh country air, which they felt was beneficial to their health. Many bought houses overlooking Windermere which still stand today. The Kendal and Windermere Railway was the first railway to be built in the Lake District, reaching Kendal in 1846 and Windermere in 1847. The line was then extended to reach Coniston and Penrith, through Keswick and Cockermouth. The line to Lakeside in Windermere was opened in 1869 to cater to a huge influx of visitors. The annual number of visitors to the Lake District is 15.8 million and 23.1 million day visitors. Lake District Weather The weather in the Lake District can change quickly, and visitors should always come prepared if they are planning walks or hikes through the mountains. The weather in Britain mostly comes from the Atlantic and when the clouds hit the Lake District fells they rise. The water vapor then cools within the clouds, condenses and falls as rain or snow. It can still be cool in the summer during the evening, and layers are the best thing to pack, plus a waterproof jacket. For walkers and climbers, the temperatures drop one degree for every 150 metres climbed and it can get very cold on high ridges. Windermere spa hotels Visitors can choose from a vast choice of accommodation in the Lake District including cottages, spa hotels, boutique hotels and guest houses, plus campsites and hostels throughout the region. Windermere is the most popular place to stay in the Lake District, and it boasts a wide range of luxury hotels and quirky cottages for rent. Accommodation to suit all budgets, tastes and requirements is available, and Windermere is particularly popular with couples looking for romantic weekends away or who are looking to plan a wedding or honeymoon. Lake District facts Storr´s Hall was built by John Bolton who dealt exclusively in the slave trade. The slaves were said to have been kept in cellars in Storr´s Hall until buyers could be found for them. Windermere and Bowness were the second part of England to have electric street lighting, which was supplied by a hydro-electric plant at Troutbeck Bridge. The first was Newcastle upon Tyne. In 1895 Windermere was frozen over for 6 weeks, making it possible to walk from one side to the other. The lake also froze over in 1864, 1946 and 1963. Amazingly, the only official lake in the Lake District is Bassenthwaite Lake – all the others are either ´waters´ or ´meres.´ If you are looking for somewhere special to stay in the Lake District, why not book in to a Windermere spa hotel and enjoy being pampered! along the way. Aug 03, 2015 Lake District Information The Lake District National Park , in Cumbria is the largest National Park in England and is a perfect destination for lovers of the countryside. Some of the most popular cities, towns and villages in the Lake District include: Windermere, Ambleside, Keswick, Grasmere and Bowness-on-Windermere. The Lake District comprises 16 lakes and 53 tarns (although Bassenthwaite is the only one officially known as a lake. The others are ´waters´ or ´meres´). All possess their own unique features and enjoy backdrops of stunning mountains, fells and woodland. Windermere is England´s largest lake at over 10.5 miles in length and Wastwater the deepest at 79m. Hills in the Lake District are known as Fells. This is the only true mountain range in England, and although not high by world standards, they offer a huge number of challenging and equally rewarding climbs. The highest peak is Scafell Pike at 978m. A network of paths also offer great recreational walks to suit all levels of fitness. The main attraction for visitors to the Lake District is the stunning scenery. The walks and fells are famously documented by walker and writer, Alfred Wainwright, and also inspired the poet, William Wordsworth (1770-1850), when he lived in the region. How to get to the Lake District Windermere Station is the most conveniently situated station for the Southern Lakes. For the northern lakes, travel to Penrith and catch a bus to Keswick if you intend to travel without the car. By car you can reach the Lake District via the M6 motorway and enter the park via the A590 from Junction 36 for the south lakes or the A66 at Penrith from Junction 40 for the north lakes. The nearest airport to the Lake District is at Blackpool and Glasgow, Leeds/Bradford, Liverpool and Manchester are around a 2 hour drive away. There is a direct rail link from Manchester Airport. Things to do in the Lake District Most visitors spend their time hiking or walking the Fells. There are also a vast range of family attractions to suit all ages. Brockhole, the Lake District Visitor Centre is a good place to start in Bowness-on-Windermere, where a wide range of attractions include ´Go Ape´, a high woodland adventure playground with one of the longest zip wires in the UK. Boat trips can be taken on many of the lakes, including Coniston, Windermere, Ullswater and Derwentwater. The Ullswater Steamer stops at Glenridding, Pooley Bridge and Howtown. The Keswick Launch offers clockwise and anti-clockwise circuits of Derwentwater and Windermere Lake Cruises offers a vast choice of cruises and special events in summer including dinner cruises and guided tour cruises. The Ravenglass and Eskdale Railway is a small, narrow-gauge steam railway which connects the mainline station of Ravenglass on the coast to Boot station in the Eskdale Valley. If rail travel is your ´thing´ check out the tourist steam railway at the foot of Lake Windermere: ´The Lakeside and Haverthwaite Railway.´ Cumbrian Fare in the Lake District If you are looking for some traditional Cumbrian food while visiting the Lakes, sample the delicious local lamb, the curly Cumberland sausage or the locally-caught Borrowdale trout. If you are looking to stay somewhere special in the Lake District, check out the Windermere Spa Hotels , the luxury hotels with hot tubs and the boutique hotels dotted around the countryside. July 27, 2015 Monday: Carlisle, Cockermouth, Barrow-in-Furness, Kirkby Stephen Tuesday: Carlisle, Maryport, Penrith, Settle, Whitehaven Wednesday: Windermere, Ambleside, Brampton, Carlisle, Kendal Thursday: Carlisle, Egremont, Kirkby Lonsdale, Ulverston, Whitehaven Friday: Barrow-in-Furness, Carlisle, Egremont, Maryport Saturday: Alston, Appleby-in-Westmorland, Kendal, Ulverston, Whitehaven, Workington The main shops are situated around Kendal and Windermere in the southern area of the lakes. Kendal is home to a wide choice of factory outlet shops, traditional markets and local handicraft shops. Quiet lanes and squares lead off from the market place and this is where you will find the most interesting shops. Well known for its local food specialities, including Cumberland sausage, gingerbread from Grasmere, Kendal mintcake, Hawkshead relish and sticky toffee pudding from Cartmel, the Lake District is a foodie’s paradise. Markets have always been an integral part of the Lake District, dating back to when the main industry was agriculture. Stall holders would come from miles around to trade their wares or buy essentials. The Appleby Horse Fair is held each year and attracts thousands of Romany Gypsies and Irish Travellers who come to trade their horses. The fair has become an attraction in its own right and will be held from June 2 to June 9, 2016. If you are planning a trip to the Lake District, why not book into a Windermere spa hotel with hot tub rooms and enjoy some of the best accommodation in Cumbria. July 20, 2015 Top ways to explore the Lake District without a car Thanks to some of the best transport links in the north west of England, you can easily explore the Lake District without a car. Take your time and use the bus, boat or train to get around, and you will find yourself within easy reach of all the main Lake District attractions. Top ways to travel in the Lake District include: Ullswater Steamers Once known as the Dark Lake, Ullswater has been a major influence on the work of famous poets, including William Wordsworth, who lived close by. One of the best ways to see Ullswater is by taking advantage of a steamer trip across the lake, which will run alongside Helvellyn, the third largest mountain in England. You can combine a cruise on the lake with a stroll around the shore of Ullswater. Windermere Cruises Windermere cruises operate every day of the year, and embark from Ambleside, Bowness and Lakeside, (except Christmas Day). The trip takes a total of 3 hours, or you can hop on and off on route, at some of the popular local attractions, including the World of Beatrix Potter at Bowness, the Ambleside Museum and other places of interest. Coniston Launch The Coniston Launch is a unique ferry which runs a regular service to seven jetties, allowing passengers to disembark where they choose and catch a later boat back. The solar-electric powered ferries offer an environmentally friendly way of being transported around the lake, and an informative crew will tell you all about the local places of interest. The launch runs throughout the year, with restricted sailings in December and January. Lakeside and Haverthwaite Railway This unique steam railway runs a daily service from Haverthwaite to Lakeside from March to October. Travelling through the Leven Valley, passengers can enjoy the breath-taking scenery of the region, and also enjoy lunch or a snack at the station restaurant. Tours may also include a visit to the engine sheds, the souvenir shop and picnic area, plus visitors can see the steam and diesel train exhibitions. Ravenglass and Eskdale Railway The River Ert is the oldest working 15 inch gauge engine in the world, and travels around 6,000 miles per year. The Ravenglass and Eskdale Railway attracts thousands of visitors every year, and visitors can find cafés and gift shops at each end of the line. If you want to make a day of it, you can hire a bike or enjoy one of the walking trails at the end of your journey. Opening times vary, according to the time of year, but all facilities are open when the trains are running. The Fellsman If you are a fan of steam trains, enjoy a steam-hauled journey over the Settle to Carlisle Railway on board the Fellsman . The train operates between Lancaster, Preston, Bamber Bridge, Blackburn, Clitheroe and Long Preston, and also offering visitors a full day travelling through the Yorkshire Dales, over the Ribblehead Viaduct, this popular train journey can be booked in advance. You will also have time to look around the popular towns of Appleby and Carlisle before your return trip. It is possible to pre-book seating for dinner, and make the most of this famous train ride. South Tynedale Railway Enjoy an incredible journey through some of the most scenic countryside in the region on the South Tynedale Railway. All trains are hauled by preserved stream and diesel engines, and the return journey takes you to Kirkhaugh in 45 minutes. If you want to explore Kirkhaugh, you can look around at your own leisure, and catch a later train back. You will find refreshments and a gift shop at Alston Station. Windermere Buses Buses to and from Windermere run regularly, and this is probably the most economical way of getting around the Lake District. The following services are currently offered, but it is best to check the timetable before you travel: Coniston Rambler 505 Windermere - Ambleside - Hawkshead - Coniston Langdale Rambler 516 Windermere - Ambleside - Dungeon Ghyll Kirkstone Rambler 517 Bowness - Windermere - Glenridding Kentmere Rambler 519 Ambleside - Windermere - Staveley - Kentmere LakesLink 555 Lancaster - Kendal - Windermere - Ambleside - Grasmere - Keswick - Carlisle Open Top Experience 599 Kendal - Windermere - Ambleside - Grasmere 618 Ambleside - Windermere - Ulverston - Barrow X8/X9 Preston - Windermere - Ambleside - Grasmere - Keswick. (summer service only) Whether you want to explore the quieter regions of the Lake District, or enjoy the attractions of Windermere, Bowness, Coniston and Keswick, you can reach most points by bus. This not only offers an economical way of exploring the Lake District, but also allows you sample some of the famous Lake District real ales on route, without having to worry about driving back to your hotel. July 14, 2015 The top 10 places to enjoy a picnic in the Lake District Now that summer is upon us, visitors to the Lake District will be making the most of the warmer weather and the stunning scenery. Why not combine a boat trip with a stroll around some of the most beautiful sites in the Lake District and enjoy a picnic. Ten of the best picnic spots in the Lake District include: 1.Aira Force, Ullswater Aira Force is surrounded by stunning scenery and this is probably the most beautiful waterfall in the Lake District. There are plenty of places around the falls where visitors can enjoy a picnic, and this is a great place to spend a day if you want to walk in the footsteps of William Wordsworth, who wrote the famous poem, ´Daffodils´ after walking along this route. 2.Tarn Hows, near Coniston and Hawkshead Tarn Hows lies between the quaint villages of Coniston and Hawkshead. This beauty spot is surrounded by thick, enchanting woodland and is overlooked by the dramatic Langdale Pikes and the imposing Helvellyn. Famous childrens´ author, Beatrix Potter bought Tarn Hows in 1929, before selling it onto the National Trust. Visit outside the main summer season to enjoy a haven of tranquility and peace. 3.Loughrigg Tarn, north of Windermere Loughrigg Tarn is a natural lake just north of Windermere and just north of the village of Skelwith Bridge at the foot of Loughrigg Fell. Loughrigg Tarn is a fantastic spot for walking and picknicking, and is one of the Lake District’s hidden treasures. It offers tremendous views of miles of rolling fells, across to the rugged beauty of the Langdale Pikes. The calm tarn boasts clear blue water, which during the summer months is adorned with colourful water lilies. 4.Catbells and Ashness Bridge Catbells and Ashness Bridge offer stunning views down to Derwentwater, and Catbells is a popular walk for families. The route is not too difficult and the stunning views from the top make it all worthwhile. Autumn is a great time to visit when the trees surrounding Derwentwater turn to gold. If you are not feeling too energetic, pack your picnic and head up to Ashness Bridge in the car. 5.Gummer´s How, near Windermere If you want to enjoy stunning sun sets over Windermere, there is no better place to visit for a picnic than Gummer´s How. Visit in the day time and you can enjoy stunning views which sweep north across Windermere. Particularly beautiful in autumn when the trees are changing colour, this is a fabulous part of the Lake District to photograph, so don´t forget your camera. 6.Birdoswald Roman Fort Birdoswald is situated towards the western end of Hadrian´s Wall, and is considered to be one of the most picturesque settings along the entire 73 miles of Hadrian´s Wall. The Roman fort stands high above the River Irthing and can be seen from miles around. 7.High Dam Tarn, Finsthwaite High Dam Tarn is a typically stunning Lake District beauty spot. This place was once described by Alfred Wainwright, walker and writer of Lake District guides as ´a much nicer place than the over-populated Tarn Hows´, although both spots are quite beautiful. Views from Finsthwaite are amazing, from Lakeside and Newby Bridge to Gummer´s How and High Dam Tarn. The tarn was once used to turn the water wheels at Stott Park Bobbin Mill. 8.Ruskin´s View, Kirkby Lonsdale This incredible view is arguably one of England´s finest, and this stunning spot, looking over the River Lune was commemorated by William Lakin Turner who painted a picture of the famous view. Another famous local resident, John Ruskin, described this spot as ´one of the loveliest scenes in England.´ 9. Talkin Tarn Country Park near Carlisle Talkin Tarn Country Park is located just a few miles from Carlisle and is made up of 120 acres of parkland and countryside. The Talkin Tarn is at the centre of the park, providing a beautiful walk around the water´s edge. You can also spot red squirrels in the woodlands within the Talkin Tarn Country Park, and this is the perfect place to stop for a picnic. 10.Orrest Head, Windermere Orrest Head is only a 20-30 minute walk from the town of Windermere, and offers stunning views over the lake from the top. This is a great outing for all the family, and there are plenty of places to stop for a picnic on your way up. Wherever you decide to go in the Lake District you will find a host of great places to hike, walk, climb, sail, go horse riding, enjoy a picnic or simply stroll around and enjoy the true beauty of this stunning region. Make the most of your stay and book into a spa hotel or boutique hotel in Windermere, and make this the base for your adventures. July 07, 2015 Honeymoon hotels in Windermere Honeymoon hotels in Windermere offer spa facilities, hot tub suites, mood lighting and luxurious bathrooms. Since famous poet William Wordsworth first waxed lyrical about the Lake District in the early 1800´s Windermere has become synonymous with romance. The Aphrodite´s Lodge is perfect for couples wanting to spend a romantic weekend in stunning Windermere, while enjoying a private suite with personal hot tub, elegant decór, a four poster bed and plenty of romantic extras. Luxury bathrooms are a feature of all the romantic suites at the hotel, which include the Red Rose Suite, the Orchid Suite, the Love Suite and the Love Haven. All suites feature large LCD TV´s, king size beds and DVD´s plus whirlpool baths for 2 and a range of romantic facilities to make your stay extra special. If you can drag yourselves out of your honeymoon suite, book a pampering beauty treatment at our spa and beauty rooms, where you can enjoy a relaxing massage, a seaweed body treatment or even a spray tanning session. Spa facilities are free to all hotel guests although beauty treatments are extra. Special pamper packages can be booked prior to arrival, along with champagne in your room, rose petals on the bed, chocolates and flowers etc., to make your honeymoon stay perfect. The suites have been specifically designed with romance, comfort and luxury in mind, and whether you want to enjoy the privacy of your own hot tub, watch TV from the whirlpool bath or chill out on a private patio, you can do it all at the Aphrodite´s Lodge. There are so many things to see and do in Windermere all through the year, and nearby Bowness Bay offers some of the best restaurants in the Lakes. If you enjoy a pint of real ale, visit the local country pubs or make the most of the lake with a trip on board a Windermere Steamer. Blessed with incredible scenery and a vast choice of walking routes, Windermere is one of the most beautiful places in the UK to stretch your legs. Levels of difficulty range from easy to difficult, and whether you fancy a gentle stroll around the lake, or a more challenging hill walk, you will find plenty of choice around Windermere. If you are looking for a romantic stay in Windermere for your honeymoon, book into the Aphrodite´s Lodge and enjoy top facilities, including private hot tubs, spa baths for 2 people, steam rooms and power showers. Log fires in winter and private patios in summer will allow you to enjoy the very best of the Lake District from your hotel suite. Whatever time of year you are planning to get married, we can make your honeymoon extra special. Check out our beautiful new romantic suites at the hotel where you can immerse yourself in the beauty of the Lake District without having to leave your room! June 29, 2015 The Life and Works of William Wordsworth in the Lake District Born in 1770, William Wordsworth was one of the major English Romantic poets of his time, and he was inspired to write many of his most famous works while living in the Lake District. One of five children, William Wordsworth was born in Cockermouth, Cumbria. His father taught him the poetry of Shakespeare, Milton and Spenser, which gave him an early interest in writing. After the death of his mother in 1778, Wordsworth was sent to Hawkshead Grammar School in Cumbria, while his sister Dorothy (to whom he was close all his life) was sent to Yorkshire to live with relatives. Wordsworth published his first work in 1787 – a sonnet in the European Magazine – and the same year he started attending St John´s College, Cambridge. He received his BA degree in 1791 and returned to Hawkshead for his first two summer holidays. He often spent later holidays on walking tours, visiting famous beauty spots in the Lake District. His 'Daffodils' poem, written in 1804 and beginning “I wandered lonely as a cloud” is the quintessential Lake District poem. Wordsworth moved to Dove Cottage in Grasmere in 1799 and then Rydal Mount in 1813. Both houses are still open to the public and attract visitors from all over the world. Dove Cottage is situated in the heart of the Lake District and is the place where Wordsworth wrote some of his greatest poetry. His sister Dorothy kept her equally famous ´Grasmere Journal´ at Dove cottage, which is still on display in the museum. William found Dove Cottage by accident as he was out walking with his brother John and fellow poet, Samuel Taylor Coleridge. He moved in with his sister, Dorothy just a few weeks later. Such was his love of the Lake District that he described it as: "A sort of national property in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy". William Wordsworth died of pleurisy in April, 1850 at the age of 80 and was buried at St. Oswald´s Church in Grasmere. His widow Mary published his autobiographical ´poem to Coleridge´ as ´The Prelude´ just a few months after his death. Some of Wordsworth’s most famous quotes include: “How does the Meadow flower its bloom unfold? Because the lovely little flower is free down to its root, and in that freedom bold.” “That though the radiance which was once so bright be now forever taken from my sight. Though nothing can bring back the hour of splendour in the grass, glory in the flower. We will grieve not, rather find strength in what remains behind.” “Life is divided into three terms - that which was, which is, and which will be. Let us learn from the past to profit by the present, and from the present, to live better in the future.” “The human mind is capable of excitement without the application of gross and violent stimulants; and he must have a very faint perception of its beauty and dignity who does not know this.” “Nature never did betray the heart that loved her.” If you want to explore the Lake District in the footsteps of William Wordsworth, why not book a break in a Windermere spa hotel . June 22, 2015 Romantic Hotels in Windermere Lake District If you are planning your honeymoon in Windermere, you will be spoilt for choice when it comes to romantic hotels in Windermere and Bowness. Why not choose a luxury boutique hotel with Love Suites with hot tubs, four poster beds, jacuzzi baths for 2, LCD TV´s and luxurious bathrooms and steam rooms? Enjoy some pampering sessions in the spa beauty rooms and luxuriate in your suite with every whim catered for. Honeymoons are a special time for couples, and whether you want to walk along the water´s edge at Windermere, or partake in some more adventurous outdoor activities you will find plenty of things to see and do whatever time of year you visit. If you are staying at a romantic hotel in Windermere, take a trip across the lake on the Windermere Steamers, and visit villages at the other side of the water, or hop on and off where you choose and visit some great attractions along the way including the Lakes Aquarium. Romance and the Lake District go hand in hand, and if you want to explore the region, take a trip on board the Settle to Carlisle Railway which whisks you through the magnificent Yorkshire Dales, over the arches of the Ribblehead Viaduct and through the Blea Moor tunnel and on to Carlisle. The scenery is stunning along the route. Windermere is blessed with some of the finest scenery in Windermere, and if you want to walk in the footsteps of famous former resident, William Wordsworth, explore the quiet trails and routes around the lake. The region is also blessed with some of the best restaurants in England, many of which are Michelin starred. Try the Gilpin Lodge Country House Hotel in Windermere with 4 dining rooms and a choice of beautifully presented classical English dishes. A little further afield but also worth a visit is L´Enclume at Grange-over-sands, Cartmel with modern cuisine and a range of dishes incorporating local cuisine. Holbeck Ghyll at Ambleside offers excellent cuisine and a wide choice of flavours, using fresh seasonal produce. If you are lucky enough to enjoy some warm weather in the Lake District, take a picnic down to the water´s edge and make the most of the stunning scenery. Plenty of farmer´s markets are held regularly in and around Windermere, and you can pick up some delicious local cheeses, patés and pickles to enjoy beside the lake. If you enjoy visiting stately homes, take a trip to Levens Hall which boasts magnificent topiary gardens and dates back to 1694. Said to be the oldest topiary in the world, visitors come to Levens Hall from all over the world to enjoy the hall and the gardens. Well worth a visit. If you are feeling adventurous, and for a real bird´s eye view of the Lake District, book a hot air balloon flight over Windermere which can be booked in advance when the weather is good. The Lake District is famous not only for its stunning scenery and lakes, but also for its many attractions. If you are looking for ideas of things to see and do in the Lakes during your honeymoon, pop into a tourist information centre and pick up some leaflets. June 09, 2015 The Great North Swim, Windermere (12-14 June) Thousands of outdoor swimmers are heading to Windermere to take part in this weekend’s Great North Swim , 2015. One again being staged at Low Wood Bay Resort Hotel and Marina, Windermere, between 12-14 June, the largest outdoor swim in the UK regularly attracts over 10,000 swimmers who take part over 2 mile, one mile and half mile courses. Windermere, which was colder than the English Channel when I took part in 2011, is England´s longest lake at 10.5 miles, and wetsuits are obligatory. Participants can reach the site via Windermere Lake Cruises from Bowness Bay. Due to the crowds, dropping off by car at the site is not allowed. The Great North Swim is the biggest outdoor swim event in the UK, and attracts professional and amateur swimmers. A wave of 300 people set off every 30 minutes, and whether you are planning to crawl your way into the record books or take your time and enjoy the stunning scenery, this is a perfect day out. If you are planning to attend the Great North Swim, make a weekend of it and take your time to explore the land that has inspired world-renowned writers and poets, including Beatrix Potter and William Wordsworth. Windermere is a perfect base for exploring the Lakes, and you can choose a range of luxury spa hotels , boutique hotels and guest houses. The stunning Lake District scenery attracts visitors from all over the world. Scafell Pike is England´s highest mountain, Wastwater is the deepest lake and Hardknott Pass is the steepest road. World class outdoor activities and stunning hotels combine to make this a perfect location for a long weekend. The one mile swim is suitable for swimmers of all abilities. The half mile swim is suitable for under 16s and entrants must be 12 years and above. A two mile swim and a 5K swim are suitable for more experienced open water swimmers who want a more testing challenge. If you plan to spend a long weekend in the Lake District, recommended places to visit include: Blackwell, the Arts and Crafts House is one of the major attractions near Windermere. Visitors can enjoy stunning views over the lake from the gardens, and soak up the peaceful atmosphere in the house itself, which was built between 1898 and 1900, and designed by M H Baillie Scott. Blackwell was originally built as a holiday home for Sir Edward Holt, owner of the Manchester Brewery. Original features ensure Blackwell retains much of its original charm. Several rooms are used as galleries, and the gardens offer a picturesque terrace bordered by flowers where visitors can enjoy a bite to eat and take in the incredible views. Rydal Mount and Gardens , Ambleside. This was Wordsworth´s best loved home for 37 years, and where he wrote some of his most famous poems. This stunning house boasts large, terraced gardens landscaped by the poet, and magnificent views of Lake Windermere and Rydal Water. Brockhole, the Lake District Visitor Centre , offers a vast range of things to see and do for all ages, including beautiful gardens, a Treetop Trek, children´s attractions, water sports, mini golf and various exhibitions. Whether you are visiting Windermere for a day to take part in the Great North Swim or if you plan to stay longer, you will find plenty of things to see and do in the surrounding area. June 08, 2015 Famous for its lakes, landscapes, mountains and coastal towns, the Lake District is one of the most popular destinations in the UK. Some of the most popular Lake District towns and villages by the sea include: Seascale Seascale is the only village on the Cumbrian coast, and was once a Roman settlement. The village was once a favourite seaside resort with Victorian visitors, who believed the fresh sea and mountain air would benefit their health. Since the early days of tourist travel to the Lake District, Seascale was accessible via the Furness West Coast Railway Company. Modern attractions include: golf, bowling, local cricket and a beautiful coastline, offering views over to the Isle of Man. The Water Tower is a listed building which was used before Seascale had a proper water supply to pump water to the Banks, from a large tank on the hill. Visitors with plenty of time on their hands should explore the nearby villages which boast some of the most spectacular landscapes in the Lake District. Muncaster Castle is also worth a visit, with its 77 acres of gardens, world owl centre, maze and playground, and the Millom Folk Museum, which documents the history of Millom and the Seascale Golf Club, with an 18-hole course, practice range and putting greens. This is also a great place to bring the kids, as there are plenty of attractions for all the family. Solway Firth The West coast takes you through many historic towns and villages, and the area is renowned for spectacular sunsets, and peaceful surroundings. Many visitors to the area come to escape the crowds of the busier Lake District resorts, and to enjoy the wildlife, flora and fauna. Situated on the shores of the Solway Firth, facing southern Galloway, Silloth has a backdrop of fells and open countryside, and is known for its mild climate, and the peace and quiet that surrounds it. The Green is a 36-acre grassy area in the middle of town which attracts many visitors. The name of Silloth was derived from Cistercian Monks at Holme Cultram Abbey in Abbeytown, Silloth, and was named after the sea lathes in which grain was once stored. The hamlet was painted by famous landscape artist, Turner, and is also situated on the Cumbria Coastal Way and the Cumbria Cycle Way. Some of the best places to visit in the Solway Firth with the family include: Paramount Amusements, with a soft play area for kids, Solway Firth Discovery Centre, with its family-friendly museum and the Gincase Craft Barn at Silloth, with its farm park and tea rooms. Maryport and Workington Maryport was once known as the most attractive harbour towns in the UK, and the town has many industrial markings from Roman, Georgian and Victorian times. One of the town´s famous residents was Henry Ismay, who founded the White Star Line, builders of the Titanic, and was born in Maryport in 1837. Nowadays, some of the most popular attractions include the Senhouse Museum, which is thought to have been one of the largest Roman forts in the North of England, and also the cliff top Roman fort of Alauna. Both Maryport and Workington were both important industrial towns during the industrial revolution, and were built up on coal, iron and steel mining. Industry in the towns prospered because of their close proximity to Ireland, and major Irish cities, including Dublin, were built off the back of Cumbrian coal. Whitehaven Whitehaven was planned and built by Sir John Lowther, who was inspired by Christoper Wren´s designs for the rebuilding of London after the Great Fire of 1666. Streets were designed in a grid pattern, with St. Nicholas Church sitting in the middle. Owing to the shallow waters of the Solway, which limited the size of ships entering the harbour, prosperity in the town declined. The deeper water ports at Liverpool and Glasgow prospered at Whitehaven´s expense. Popular attractions in Whitehaven include: The Rum Story, which is a family-friendly museum, dedicated to the history of rum-making, The Haig Colliery Mining Museum, the last of Cumbria´s deep coal mines, The Beacon, which documents the history and industry of Whitehaven, and Whitehaven Marine Adventures, which includes a 90-minute boat ride to the nature reserves of St.Bees. June 04, 2015 Romantic Hotels in Windermere If you are looking for a special weekend in the Lakes, or a midweek break away from the hustle and bustle of working life, why not book a romantic hotel in Windermere? Windermere is one of the most picturesque parts of the Lake District, and the lake itself is 10.5 miles long, with plenty of attractions and lots of things to see and do. Attractions in Windermere and Bowness include: adventure parks, the Beatrix Potter Attraction, the Lakes Aquarium, and the ever-popular cruises across Windermere. Walking, hiking and cycling are also popular activities in the lakes, and there is no better place to enjoy the great outdoors and breathe in the fresh mountain air than this part of the Lake District. Famous poet and author William Wordsworth was inspired to write many of his most famous works while living in the Lake District. Romantic hotels in Windermere provide the perfect place to unwind in one of England’s most beautiful settings. Imagine a day out on the fells or exploring Windermere, followed by a cosy night in a hot tub suite with wide screen TV and a sumptuous king size bed … perfect for a special anniversary, a honeymoon or any romantic occasion. If you plan to visit Windermere in the winter months, choose a hotel room with luxury bathroom and mood lighting to create a special atmosphere. Some luxury Lake District hotels offer personal outdoor hot tubs, which are ideal for couples who want to spend some quality time together in a beautiful location close to Windermere. Guests who choose to stay in a hot tub hotel may also be offered massages and holistic therapies in the privacy and comfort of their own rooms. Romantic Windermere hotels are becoming one of the most sought after types of accommodation in the Lakes, as they offer luxury, privacy, hot tubs and jacuzzi baths for two, and many luxurious facilities that you would not find in a standard guest house or B&B in Windermere. If you can drag yourselves out of your suite, enjoy a boat trip across England´s longest lake and enjoy Windermere at its best. You can also buy a full day ticket, which will allow you to get on and off where you please, or combine the trip with a romantic walk along the water´s edge or a picnic overlooking the lake. Private boat hire is also available. Lovers of the great outdoors can enjoy some of the finest landscapes in Britain, when they visit Windermere, and also some great walking and hiking trails. Levels of difficulty and time differ with each walk, and it is up to you whether you spend a day hiking on the fells or an hour enjoying a gentle stroll around the shoreline. There are also some great pubs, bars and restaurants around Windermere serving delicious local Cumbrian fare. Romantic hotels in Windermere are the perfect place to kick back, relax and enjoy luxurious accommodation in a stunning location. May 25, 2015 Windermere & Lake District Wildlife Windermere is a nationally important place for wildlife and is home to some of the rarest aquatic plants, fish and birds to be found in the UK. Wintering birds such as the Golden Eye or Tufted Duck can be found in the region, plus the widest range of large aquatic plants in the National Park. Underwater plants such as Waterwort and White Water Lily can also be found in Windermere. The region is also home to important lakeshore wetlands, where otters and native white-clawed crayfish thrive. Charr fish can also still be found in the lake, which are usually associated with Arctic Waters. Reed beds offer secure resting places for birds and breeding birds in the spring and summer and reed fringes also help break up wave energy from wind and boat wakes, and slow down the erosion of the shoreline. Although grey squirrels are increasing their populations in South Cumbria, and to a lesser extent North Cumbria, there are still large numbers of red squirrels within northern areas of the National Park. When faced with competition from grey squirrels the reds survive best in large blocks of coniferous woodland. They need a consistent and diverse food supply consisting of tree seeds, nuts, berries, cones, buds, shoots, flowers, lichen, fungi and occasionally insects. The autumn and winter seed harvest is important for surviving the winter and for breeding successfully the following year. Squirrels do not hibernate, they need to eat all year round to survive. Between April and August the natural food supplies of a red squirrel are at their lowest, consequently as many as 5 out of 6 young red squirrels may die in their first year. The Lake District Wildlife Park, situated just ten minutes from Keswick is the only wildlife park in north Cumbria. Trotters World of Animals has rebranded to become the Lake District Wildlife Park, representing the transition from its early days as a farm park. Today, emphasis is very much on conservation, education and engaging with visitors – our Keepers are keen to talk and enjoy passing on their knowledge and enthusiasm. Wander around the beautiful 24 acre parkland and see over 100 species. The magical Bird of Prey flying displays have been a regular feature since the park opened. We have gathered an eclectic mix of over 100 animal and reptile species from Anaconda to Zebra. Top places to visit include the South Lakes Safari Zoo, a mile from Dalton-in-Furness. This the Lake District’s only zoological park, which is recognised as one of Europe’s leading conservation zoos. 17 acres are home to the rarest animals on earth, who are participants in co-ordinated breeding programmes to save them from extinction in the wild. Visit the Lakes Aquarium at Newby Bridge, on the southern end of Windermere you can discover in over 30 displays the fascinating and often secret world of wildlife and freshwater creatures dwelling in and alongside the magnificent waters. Eagles, buzzards and owls from this country and abroad. May 18, 2015 The Lake District uncovered The Lake District is one of the most popular regions in England, and Cumbria offers visitors a wealth of beautiful landscapes and things to do and see around the lakes. The Lake District has more variety of scenery than any other area of its size in Britain. It contains 16 major lakes from Windermere, England's largest lake, to Brotherswater set beside the road over Kirkstone Pass. There are also numerous mountain tarns. Towering above these picturesque lakes are some of England's highest mountains, including all of England's three-thousand footers. With the M6 motorway passing close to the eastern side of the Lake District, it has brought a day trip within reach of people from as far afield as the Potteries and the Midlands. Good roads also make the area accessible from Teesside, Tyneside and the West Riding and Lancashire industrial belts. The area caters well for the tourist; there are numerous tourist information offices and mobile information caravans. Fine scenery is set practically beside the road. You can still get the feel of being among the mountains without leaving your car, especially in Great Langdale, Buttermere and Wasdale. Lake District walks The area is the finest in England for the fell walker. There are over 120 mountain tops over 2,000 feet in height. There are many paths and routes on to the tops of the mountains, and all of Lakeland's peaks are accessible without a rope. No one should go on to the tops without the proper equipment. Boots and windproof clothing should always be worn. You should also carry as a bare minimum a map, compass, whistle (and the knowledge of how to use them), waterproof clothing and some emergency rations. It is also advisable to leave details of your route with someone. George Fisher's sports shop in Keswick hires out equipment to walkers who do not possess it. In case of accidents there are a number of very efficient rescue teams which can be contacted through the police. For further details see Mountain Rescue and Cave Rescue by the Mountain Rescue Committee, obtainable from most outdoor shops in the area. Rock Climbing in the Lake District There are rock climbs of every standard in the Lake District. It has been used as a training ground by many Alpine and Himalayan climbers. The principal centres are Great Langdale, Borrowdale, Pillar in Ennerdale and Wasdale. Great Langdale is a good area for the tourist to see climbers in action from the roadside. A pair of binoculars are handy. Water sports in Windermere All water sports are catered for: the principal lakes for power boats and water skiing are Ullswater and Windermere. The best lakes for sailing are Bassenthwaite, Derwentwater, Coniston Water and Ullswater. There are sailing clubs at the northern end of Bassenthwaite and on the Howtown road beside Ullswater. Rowing boats can be hired for fishing or pleasure on Bassenthwaite, Buttermere. Coniston Water, Crummock Water, Derwentwater, Esthwaite Water, Grasmere, Loweswater, Ullswater and Windermere. Large pleasure boats operate regular services on Derwentwater, Ullswater and Windermere. May 11, 2015 Aphrodite’s – the Goddess of Love and Windermere’s top hotel! The Aphrodite’s Hotel was named after the goddess of love in Greek Mythology. Apart from her natural beauty, Aphrodites also had a magical girdle that compelled everyone to desire her. There are two accounts of her birth. According to one, she was the daughter of Zeus and Dione, the mother goddess worshipped at the Oracls of Dodona. However, the other account, which is more prevalent, informs us that she arose from the sea on a giant scallop. Aphrodite then walked to the shore of Cyprus. In a different version of the myth, she was born near the island of Cythera, hence her epithet "Cytherea". Aphrodite was married to Hephaestus; however, she had an affair with her brother Ares, god of war. When Hephaestus found out about the affair, he devised a plan and managed to humiliate his wife and her lover to the other Olympians. Her holy tree was the myrtle, while her holy birds were the dove, the swan, and the sparrow. Aphrodite represented sex, affection, and the attraction that binds people together. The Aphrodite’s Hotel is today one of the most luxurious spa hotels in the Lake District and is situated close to Lake Windermere. With fourteen luxury refurbished suites with hot tubs and full spa facilities in the hotel, the Aphrodite’s enjoys a beautiful, quiet location. Every suite offers fabulous facilities including private hot tubs, mood lighting, whirlpool baths, king sized beds and many extras. Elegant décor and furnishings throughout the hotel make the Aphrodite’s the perfect place for a romantic weekend or a special occasion in England’s most famous national park. Guests can enjoy all the facilities in nearby Bowness Bay, including boat trips, country pubs, gastro pubs, restaurants, shops and cafes. Brockhole, the Lake District Visitor Centre is well worth a visit, as is Blackwell the Arts and Crafts House and the award-winning Lakes Aquarium. Guests who prefer luxury cottage accommodation can book our luxurious and romantic Rose Cottage which is situated just a two minute drive from the hotel. Here they can use the hotel spa facilities and pool if they wish. Newly renovated and beautifully presented, Rose Cottage is completely self-contained and includes a double bedroom with king sized bed, an outdoor hot tub, a luxury bathroom with whirlpool bath for 2 people, an open plan lounge and kitchen and a calming relaxation room with heated spa loungers and a water feature. Whether you prefer luxurious self-catering or five star hotel suites with hot tubs, the Aphrodite’s Lodge offers a range of facilities to suit your requirements. May 04, 2015 Special Occasions in Windermere If you are planning a special occasion in 2015, Windermere in the Lake District is a perfect destination. Whether you are celebrating a special birthday, anniversary or honeymoon or you simply want to ‘get away from it all’ and escape the hustle and bustle of everyday life, Windermere offers a wealth of great things to see and do. Michelin-starred restaurants, stately homes, quirky museums and boat trips across Windermere are just some of the things you can do to celebrate your special day. If you are looking for romantic options, why not enjoy a picnic at the lake side or book into a fine dining restaurant? The Lake District boasts some of the finest restaurants in the UK, and whether you are visiting for a special occasion, a birthday or honeymoon, you can treat yourself to a meal at Gilpin Lodge, Windermere , L´enclume at Cartmel , Sharrow Bay at Ullswater or the Samling at Ambleside. Not only do these restaurants offer superb food, but they are also situated in some of the most scenic parts of the Lake District. Book into a spa hotel with hot tubs in Windermere and make the most of stunning facilities in one of England’s most beautiful locations. Enjoy a pampering session in the spa and relax in your own hot tub. Honeymoons and, more recently, mini-moons are celebrated widely in the Lake District, where the scenery and countryside add to the romantic feel of luxury hotels and spa hotels close to Windermere. If you are a fan of the big screen, take a trip to the Brewery Arts Centre at Kendal, the Royalty Cinema at Bowness, or the unique Zefferelli´s Cinema at Ambleside. If theatre is more your thing, check out the plays and productions at the Old Laundry Theatre in Bowness, the Playhouse at Brampton or the Sands Centre in Carlisle. If you are planning to book into a luxury hotel in Windermere, call ahead and let them know you are celebrating a special occasion. Many Windermere Hotels offer spa pamper packages and treats at extra cost including Love Packages with house champagne, scattered rose petals, a wrapped rose and chocolates. If you are feeling adventurous you could even book a hot air balloon ride over the Lake District to enjoy a bird’s eye view of the stunning Cumbrian countryside. If you prefer to keep your feet firmly on the ground, book a hotel with full spa facilities and private hot tubs in Windermere so if the weather turns ugly you will have plenty to keep you entertained in-house. April 27, 2015 The top 10 eco-friendly things to do in the Lake District If you are planning a trip to the Lake District to ´get away from it all´ and enjoy some quality time with friends or family, we have compiled a list of the top 10 green things to do in the lakes. Ditch the car Leave the car at home, and reduce your carbon footprint. The Lake District enjoys fantastic car-free access with an excellent public transport network. You can also take the train into Penrith, if you are planning a trip to the north lakes, and Windermere is easily reachable from Manchester by train or bus. You can travel around the Lake District by open topped bus or by boat, enjoying the stunning scenery along the way. Visitors can travel into the heart of the south lakes countryside with a boat-bus service which even carries cycles. Pass by Esthwaite Water and travel through the heart of Beatrix Potter country for a stop at Hill Top, Beatrix Potter's famous home. Eat local food Make the most of restaurants and cafés serving authentic Cumbrian cuisine, which not only reduces the carbon footprint, when hoteliers and restaurant owners serve local meats and vegetables, but also supports local suppliers, who rely on the tourist trade to make a living. Visit Low Sizergh Organic Farm at Kendal You can learn all there is to know about the production of organic food in the Lake District at Low Sizergh Organic Farm, which is a member of the Soil Association´s national network of organic farms. Visit the farm shop, the craft exhibition gallery, and sample organic cheeses, eggs and vegetables, plus a tasty range of ice creams made fresh on the farm. Take a walk down the two mile farm trail, where you will see how organic principles are put into practice, plus see the local plant, animal and bird life. Farmers markets With over 100 Lake District markets held each year you can shop for the best local organic meat, fish, vegetables and preserves, plus a wide range of local crafts. Cumbria Farm Days invite visitors onto a working farm to see how to shepherd sheep on the fells, milk cows or even give a sheepdog exhibition, providing a great family day out. Whinlatter Forest Park near Keswick Whinlatter Forest Park , near Keswick is England´s only real mountain forest, which rises nearly 800 metres above sea level. Offering stunning views of the Lake District, this park provides plenty of facilities and amenities to keep all age groups entertained, and is also home to hundreds of red squirrels. From May to September visitors can see the Bassenthwaite Ospreys through live webcam links, or during Osprey walks. Boat trips in the Lake District Enjoy a Windermere Cruise and enjoy a view of local villages and from the water. The Coniston Launch is also a great way to travel, or take a trip on the Steam Yacht Gondola. Enjoy the stunning scenery around Derwentwater by taking a trip on the Keswick Launch and make the most of Ullswater by sailing across the lake on a steamer. You can hop on and off the boats at different locations, and spend some quality time walking along the lake shore, or visiting some of the many Lake District attractions on route. RSPB Leighton Moss Nature Reserve at Silverdale Leighton Moss is one of the most well-known nature reserves in the lakes, and is situated in the Arnside and Silverdale Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Here you can spot many special birds, including marsh harriers and avocets, and a stunning range of wildlife. Natural trails are popular with the kids, and the on-site tearoom serves delicious local cuisine, organic where possible. Profits from the tearoom help fund the wildlife conservation work carried out by the RSPB. Cycling trails in the Lake District Lake District cycling routes will take you along some of the most scenic trails in the UK. Choose from dramatic mountain paths to the more serene tracks around the lakeside, or meander through winding country lanes, stopping off at local cafés and hostelries on route. You can find plenty of places to hire a bike in the Lake District where you can pick up free maps of the area. If you are planning a trip to the Lake District, you can find some of the best environmentally friendly hotels in Bowness and Windermere, and a wealth of green things to do during your stay. Make the most of this beautiful region by walking or cycling in Windermere, Grasmere, Keswick or Coniston and enjoy the natural landscapes and dramatic scenery that makes the Lake District so popular. April 20, 2015 Windermere and Bowness may officially be separate places with quite different personalities but their proximity means visitors to the region can enjoy a wide choice of attractions. Our top 10 attractions in Windermere and Bowness include: A heady view Orrest Head , perched high above Windermere is probably the best viewpoint over the lake. On a clear day you can enjoy 360 degree views of the Langdales and Troutbeck Valley. Orrest Head was Alfred Wainwright’s first climb and the same stunning views remain the same. Relaxing Spa Hotels Stay in a Windermere Spa Hotel where you can be pampered to within an inch of your life. Book a hotel where you can relax and rejuvenate with a range of spa treatments and hot tub suites. Just what you need after a hard day out walking the fells. Eating out After a day out, there’s plenty of places to quench your thirst and satisfy your appetite in both Bowness and Windermere. Whether you want to sample a pint or two of real ale, dig in to some delicious pub grub and Cumbrian specialities such as local lamb, pies and sausages or you want fine dining, you will find it all in Windermere and Bowness. Also plenty of cosy cafes where you can enjoy home-made cakes and pastries. Blackwell, the Arts and Crafts House One of Britain’s finest houses, Blackwell survived from the turn of the last century with almost all of its original furnishings intact. The period rooms are well worth a look and the stunning garden, designed by Thomas Mawson, attracts visitors from all over the world. The Old Laundry Theatre There’s always a lively season of music, theatre, comedy and film at The Old Laundry Theatre . Launched with the support of friend and playwright Alan Ayckbourn. Over the years they have attracted many stars and continue to stage a wide range of clever productions. The World of Beatrix Potter Beatrix Potter once lived and worked in the Lake District and the Beatrix Potter Attraction is testament to her life and work. See her children’s tales come to life in a magical indoor recreation of the Lakeland countryside complete with sights, sounds and smells. You can even meet Peter Rabbit and have tea with him at organised events. Windermere Cruises This popular attraction offers lake cruises from 45 minutes to 3 hours in length depending where you want to go and there is no better way to explore Windermere. Cruises start from Bowness, Ambleside and Lakeside and take you past stunning scenery and beautiful lakeside houses. Afternoon Tea in Windermere Many local cafes offer afternoon tea with freshly cut sandwiches, home-made pastries and a scones with jam and clotted cream. Choose a restaurant or café with views over Windermere. Brockhole, the Lake District Visitor Centre Stop off at Brockhole and you won’t be disappointed. Visitors can take in the scenic views and gardens which stretch down to the shores of the lake, browse round the shop or look around the free exhibitions. There’s a soft play area for the children and a new aerial woodland adventure, Treetop Trek and wildlife experience Predator Park, so plenty for everyone young or old to see and do. Bowness Shopping Bowness offers a vast choice of quirky shops selling hand made goods and local produce which both make great souvenirs. Windermere offers several independent boutiques. Watch out for the local markets where you can bag a bargain! Windermere Market is held every Wednesday! April 13, 2015 ‘Off the Beaten Track’ Lake District With over 16 million visitors per year, the Lake District is Britain’s most popular National Park. If you want to avoid the crowds, visit in spring or autumn and consider the following ‘off the beaten track’ attractions: The Dock Museum, Barrow-in-Furness One thing you can never guarantee in the Lake District is the weather. The Dock Museum in Barrow-in-Furness is a great place to spend a morning or afternoon if the weather takes a turn for the worse. The museum illustrates the interesting history of Barrow and its famous shipbuilding past. Stop off at the café for refreshments, snacks and meals. Rannerdale Bluebells If you are lucky enough to be in the Lakes during April, take a trip to the Rannerdale Knotts where the hillside is blanketed with bluebells. A stunning sight that attracts visitors from far and wide. Morecambe Bay Famous for its cockles, the beautiful Morecambe Bay can be explored during summer with a range of guided walks. Known for its strong tides and quick sand, visitors should never attempt to explore the Bay alone. The walk is just under 10 miles in soft sand so you need to be reasonably fit to attempt it. High Force Waterfall, Glenridding A lovely waterfall just a short distance uphill of Aira Force, High Force comes highly recommended. Less crowded than Aira Force, but well worth a combined visit. Access to walks to Yew Crag for views over Ullswater. Windermere Cloud Inversion If you are visiting Windermere in winter you could be lucky enough to see a cloud inversion. Inversions occur when there is a boundary layer with a normal temperature profile (warm air rising into cooler air). . If you're staying near Windermere then the easiest spot to aim for is Gummer's How - there's a free car park and an easy (20 min) walk up to the summit. Kentmere Reservoir A short drive from Kendal, Kentmere Reservoir is a perfect location if you enjoy walking but want to avoid the steep fells. Enjoy a stroll around Kentmere Village before exploring the reservoir. Stunning views along the way. Colwith Force Just a 30 minute walk from Elterwater, Colwith Force is a waterfall in three parts. The mid-section allows you to get close enough to feel the power of the water. A gentle circular walk which starts and ends in Elterwater is not too taxing. The Kent Estuary The Kentmere Reservoir ends at the Kent Estuary in the northern corner of Morecambe Bay. From the hills above Silverdale you can enjoy breath-taking views. Sunset is spectacular over the estuary with the Lake District in the background. Whatever the weather you will find a vast range of attractions in the Lake District including museums, stately homes, restaurants, country pubs and cafes. For a glimpse of the real ‘Lake District’ visit some of the ‘hidden gems’ which make this part of England so special. April 07, 2015 A travel guide to the Lake District The Lake District National Park is the largest park of its type in the UK and it lies within the county of Cumbria. Covering over 800 square miles and considered to be one of the most scenic regions in England, Windermere and the Lake District are perfect destinations for hiking, walking and outdoor activities. Popular hotels include Windermere spa hotels, guest houses, luxury cottages and B&B’s are: Windermere, beside the largest lake in England at 10.5 miles in length, Ambleside at the top of Windermere, Keswick on the shores of Derwent Water, Grasmere, home to William Wordsworth’s former house, Dove Cottage, Penrith, the northern gateway to the Lakes and Bowness-on-Windermere at the middle of Lake Windermere. Every lake boasts unique features including backdrops of steep mountain ranges and green fells. These include: Bassenthwaite Lake, Buttermere, Coniston Water, Derwent Water, Esthwaite, Ennerdale Water, Crummock Water, Elterwater, Grasmere, Haweswater Reservoir. Loweswater, Rydal Water, Thirlmere (a reservoir that provides water to over 1 million homes in Manchester), Ullswater, Wast Water and Windermere. Interestingly the only one actually named as a lake is ‘Bassenthwaite’ as the others are all ‘waters’ or ‘meres.’ Lake District hills are known as fells and offer a huge number of hill walks and challenging paths and walks. According to the Lake District’s most famous hill walker, Alfred Wainwright, there are 214 fells with many different routes. The highest mountain is Scafell Pike at 3,209 feet. Great Gable and Helvellyn are slightly lower but offer better views. The main attraction for visitors is the Lakes which boast stunning scenery and a wealth of outdoor activities including boating and canoeing. The area was first occupied by the Romans and heavily influenced by the Norse in 900AD. The woods were cleared and charcoal was produced to smelt lead in Glenridding and copper in Borrowdale Valley and Coniston. Herdwick Sheep were introduced to the fells and dry stone walls were built in the 18th century. The first tourism in the Lakes came in the early 19th century when the railway to Windermere was finished. Windermere station is most conveniently located for the Southern Lakes. The train from here travels to Oxenholme station on the main West Coast line. The Leeds-Settle-Carlisle line also links the lakes to Yorkshire. For the northern lakes, it is best to travel to Penrith, from where it is possible to catch a bus to Keswick. If you are planning a trip to Windermere and want to explore the Lakes, the road between Carlisle and Barrow-in-Furness allows access to many of the Cumbrian seaside towns and villages. Mountain Goat are popular tour operators for excursions around the Lake District and offer a range of half day and full day tours. Boat trips can be taken on most lakes, including Windermere, Ullswater, Derwent Water and Coniston. March 23, 2015 Reasons to visit Windermere If you are planning a visit to the Lake District, make sure you enjoy the attractions of Windermere. Known for its natural beauty, its stunning scenery and its incredible lake, Windermere is a king among Lake District destinations. Majestic mountain backdrops and rolling hills provide perfect terrain for walkers, hikers and ramblers who come to enjoy this special part of the Lake District. Whether you want to enjoy the great outdoors, sail across the lake on a Windermere cruise or chill out in your own spa room with hot tub, you will find plenty of things to do. Not only does Windermere offer a wide choice of outdoor activities, but you can also drink your way around the real ale pubs, eat your way around the bistros, gastro bars and cafes and soak away your troubles in a spa hotel. Choose a Windermere hotel with hot tub suites , mood lighting, separate cinema rooms, separate spa rooms and four poster beds – perfect for a romantic weekend or a midweek break. If you are celebrating a special occasion in Windermere, such as a birthday or wedding, you will be spoilt for choice when it comes to luxury accommodation near the lake. The Lakes Aquarium is a popular attraction for all ages. Situated on the southern shore of Windermere, the award-winning Lakes Aquarium is popular with visitors of all ages, and you can enjoy a re-created trip below Windermere, the Seashore Discovery Zone, the Virtual Dive Bell, the Over Lake Tank and much more. Brockhole, the Lake District Visitor Centre , is a great place to visit for all the family. With interactive exhibitions, an adventure playground, a café, shop and information centre, plus direct access to the lake from the gardens, this is a great day out for all the family. It is well worth visiting Brockhole just to enjoy the stunning gardens, and the views down to Windermere. Book yourself onto a Windermere Lakes Cruise from Bowness Bay, which run all year round. You can either cruise directly across the river, or stop off at some of the attractions between Bowness, Ambleside or Lakeside. Enjoy a relaxing sail across Windermere, or buy an all-day ticket which will allow you to hop on and off the boat where you choose. Many trippers take a picnic, and combine a boat trip with a stroll around the shore of England´s biggest lake. Blackwell, the Arts and Crafts House is one of the major attractions near Windermere. Visitors can enjoy stunning views over the lake from the gardens, and soak up the peaceful atmosphere in the house itself, which was built between 1898 and 1900, and designed by M H Baillie Scott. Blackwell was originally built as a holiday home for Sir Edward Holt, owner of the Manchester Brewery. Original features ensure Blackwell retains much of its original charm. Several rooms are used as galleries, and the gardens offer a picturesque terrace bordered by flowers where visitors can enjoy a bite to eat and take in the incredible views. March 16, 2015 A weekend break in the Lake District The Lake District National Park is one of the most beautiful locations in England, and covers 875 square miles of Cumbria. Whether you plan to visit the Lake District to enjoy climbing, trekking, walking or simply relaxing, you will find everything you need within easy reach of England’s biggest lake, Windermere. With 16 lakes and 53 tarns, every stretch of water in the Lake District has its own unique elements. Most of the lakes boast beautiful mountain, fells and hillside backdrops. Waste Water is England’s deepest lake at 79m at its deepest point and Windermere the longest at 10.5 miles. The highest fell is Scafell Pike at 3,209ft. Helvellyn and Great Gable offer fantastic views and are still high in the Lakeland fells. It is easy to see why famous poets, William Wordsworth, Robert Southey and Samuel Taylor Coleridge made their homes here and were inspired by the dramatic scenery to write some of their most renowned works. The Lake District is home to some of the most beautiful spa hotels, and luxury cottage accommodation in Windermere, offering fabulous facilities in England’s most famous national park. Spa hotels in the Lake District provide perfect accommodation if you want a romantic weekend away or to be pampered during your stay. Enjoy a boat trip across Windermere, Ulverston or Coniston to enjoy views from the water. A narrow-gauge steam railway between Ravenglass and Eskdale Stations is also worth a visit. A choice of traditional local pubs serving typical Cumbrian fare and real ales can be found throughout Windermere and Bowness. Try the Cumbrian lamb, the Cumberland sausages or the Grasmere gingerbread for a real treat. Borrowdale trout is a must for fish lovers. Also home to almost 30 traditional breweries, most Cumbria pubs serve traditional real ales, perfect for quenching your thirst after a hard day out walking the fells. With many unique characteristics and hundreds of fantastic attractions for all the family, the Lake District has been popular with tourists since Victorian times, when wealthy city-dwellers bought holiday houses in the area. The tranquil splendour of the lakes and the clear air of the countryside was said to benefit the health of early visitors and the rest, as they say, is history. The diverse landscape of the Lake District offers visitors a range of rugged and wild terrain, mountains and fells, and of course, magnificent lakes. The lonely tarns and dales make the Lake District a walker´s paradise and a perfect destination for a weekend away. March 09, 2015 Ten things you probably didn’t know about Windermere Windermere in England’s scenic Lake District is famous for its stunning countryside, its award-winning attractions and its beautiful lakes. Over 16 million people flock to the Lake District each year to walk, hike, swim and chill out in some of the best spa hotels Windermere . Ten quirky facts you probably didn’t know about Windermere include: In 1895, Windermere was completely frozen for six weeks when locals could walk from one side to the other. Other frozen years were 1864, 1946 and 1963 Orrest Head was the first summit in Windermere to be reached by Alfred Wainwright who said: ‘those few hours at Orrest Head cast a spell that changed my life' The Baddeley Clock on the main road marks the division between Windermere and Bowness. It was built as a memorial to M J B Baddeley (1843-1906) who wrote a series of well-regarded guidebooks The two towns of Windermere and Bowness were the second area in England to have electric street lighting - supplied from a hydro-electric plant at Troutbeck Bridge A curious plaque set into the pavement of Crag Brow reads ‘This footpath is not dedicated to the public', meaning that the public have no right of way over this area but are allowed to do so by permission of the landowner Storrs Hall was built by John Bolton, who was a ship owner and slave trader. It is said that the slaves were kept in the cellars of Storrs Hall until buyers could be found for them Charles Dickens apparently ‘frequented' the New Hall Inn in Bowness-on-Windermere Windermere’s Hole in t'Wall pub got its name thanks to the gap in the brickwork that was knocked through so that the blacksmith next door could be served a beer while at his anvil The name ‘Windermere’ is made up of two words – ‘mere’ which is the old English word for a body of water, and ‘Vinander’ an old Norse name Wray Castle is visible across the lake from Low Wood Bay. The castle was built in 1840 for a retired Liverpool surgeon. A member of his family, Hardwicke Rawnsley, in a bid to protect the countryside from damaging development, went on to conceive the idea of a National Trust Whether you are planning to visit Windermere for a long weekend, a midweek stay or a day trip, you will find plenty of things to see and do. Whatever time of year you visit, a wide choice of award-winning attractions are available. From country houses to adventure playgrounds and romantic spa hotels to Michelin star restaurants, Windermere has something for everyone! March 02, 2015 Avoid the crowds in the Lake District To avoid the crowds in the Lake District, visit during spring or autumn, before or after the long summer school holidays. A haven for walkers, hikers and lovers of the great outdoors, the Lake District offers a wide choice of natural attractions, which are best enjoyed out of the main season. The Lake District is one of the most relaxing places in England and whether you are planning to stroll on the fells, relax at a Windermere spa hotel or embark on a tour of the local stately homes, you will find plenty of places to keep you entertained. Few things are more enjoyable than a long walk on the fells, fuelled by Kendal mint cake, followed by a pint of real ale in a country pub with roaring fire, or a soak in a hot tub suite in one of Windermere’s spa hotels. Dramatic scenery, glistening lakes and award-winning attractions see over 16 million visitors come to the Lake District each year. Stay as much off the beaten track as you can if you want to really explore the hidden gems of the Lakes. Windermere is a great place to lose yourself out of season, and a lakes cruise followed by a walk around the shore come highly recommended. Nearly every valley in the Lake District has a micro-climate, and contrary to rumour, the sun often shines (although it may not be the Mediterranean variety). Late spring and early autumn can be much warmer than legend has it and if you are feeling adventurous, why not enjoy a dip in Windermere? The good thing about the Lake District is that you will always find plenty of things to see and do, whatever the weather throws at you. Head to Abbot Hall art gallery in Kendal. This grand Georgian building houses a very good collection of paintings by George Romney, who was a local, and consistently impressive exhibitions. The Armitt Museum, Ambleside is a unique Library and museum with the emphasis on fun and entertainment. A superb collection of books and manuscripts and objects relating to the Lake District. The Honister Slate Mines are the last working slate mines in the Lake District and a fully guided tour underground is available throughout the day. Also information about the history and features of this spectacular mine. The award-winning Rheged Centre was named after Cumbria´s Celtic Kingdom and its attractions include a cinema screen the size of 6 double decker buses. This excellent venue gets very busy when the weather is poor so get there early if you can. The Puzzling Place was opened in 2001 in Museum Square, Keswick and incorporates a gallery style exhibition which is different to anything experienced in the area before, combining fun, surprise and education. Lots of interactive exhibitions. Whatever time of year you visit the Lake District, you are sure to find a wide choice of things to do. Almost all attractions are open year round so you can enjoy the peace and tranquillity of the Lakes without the crowds! Feb 16, 2015 Romantic things to do in Windermere If you are planning a romantic weekend in Windermere to celebrate a special occasion, you will find plenty of things to see and do near the lake. Romance and the Lake District go hand in hand from the days when poet William Wordsworth lived and worked in the area, residing at Dove Cottage, Grasmere and Rydal Mount, which are still open to the public. Windermere Cruises Windermere cruises run every day of the year, so whenever you decide to visit the lakes, you can still take a trip around this famous lake. The whole trip takes 3 hours, but you can hop on and off the boat wherever you like, and visit local attractions or walk around the shoreline. Parking is available at all the main jetties, and Ambleside and Bowness are good places to start. Check out: Windermere Walks Blessed with some of the finest landscapes in Britain, there is no better place to walk than Windermere. Levels of difficulty and time differ with each walk, and it is up to you whether you spend a day hiking on the fells or an hour enjoying a gentle stroll around the shoreline. There are also some great pubs, bars and restaurants around Windermere, so if you want to make a day of it, pack a picnic or make the most of the pub fare, which usually includes some delicious Cumbrian specialities. Michelin Star Lake District If you want to treat someone special to a delicious meal in the Lake District, why not book a table at one of the Michelin star restaurants in the region. Known for its fabulous restaurants, Lake District restaurants with Michelin Stars include: L´enclume at Cartmel, Sharrow Bay at Ullswater and the Samling at Ambleside, which offer excellent food in stunning locations. Hot Air Balloon Flights What better way to enjoy a view of England´s most scenic region than from a hot air balloon ? Book a champagne trip for you and your loved one, and take a flight over Windermere and the surrounding countryside. Romantic hot air balloon trips are available from most sites around the Lake District, including Windermere. Cinemas and theatres near Windermere Whatever time of the year you visit the Lake District, if you are a film fan, you will be spoilt for choice when it comes to theatres and cinemas. Take a trip to the Brewery Arts Centre, Zefferelli´s Cinema at Ambleside or the Royalty Cinema in Bowness for all the latest blockbusters. Famous local theatres include: The Old Laundry Theatre in Bowness and the Playhouse at Brampton. Gingerbread – a natural aphrodisiac? Just North of Lake Windermere is the beautiful village of Grasmere, home to the infamous Grasmere Gingerbread shop which has been owned and run by the Wilson family for over 60 years. The recipe for the mouth-watering delicacies on sale here is so secret it’s locked away in Ambleside’s National Westminster Bank! Feb 16, 2015 A Honeymoon in Windermere If you are planning a honeymoon in Windermere you can choose from a wide range of spa hotels, boutique hotels and luxury hotels close to the lake. Why not choose a luxury Windermere spa hotel with hot tubs, four poster beds, jacuzzi baths for 2, LCD TV´s and luxurious bathrooms and steam rooms? Enjoy some pampering sessions in the spa beauty rooms and luxuriate in your suite after a long day walking the fells. Honeymoons are a special time for couples, and whether you want to walk along the water´s edge at Windermere, or partake in some more adventurous outdoor activities you will find plenty of things to see and do whatever time of year you visit. Take a trip across the lake by boat, visit villages at the other side of the water, or hop on and off where you choose, visiting some great attractions along the way including the Lakes Aquarium. Romance and the Lake District go hand in hand, and if you want to explore the region, book a seat on board the Settle to Carlisle Railway which whisks you through the magnificent Yorkshire Dales, over the arches of the Ribblehead Viaduct and through the Blea Moor tunnel and on to Carlisle. The scenery is stunning along the route. Windermere is blessed with some of the finest scenery in Windermere, and if you want to walk in the footsteps of famous former resident and poet, William Wordsworth, enjoy the quiet trails and routes around the lake. The region is also blessed with some of the best restaurants in England, many of which are Michelin starred. Try the Gilpin Lodge Country House Hotel in Windermere with 4 dining rooms and a choice of beautifully presented classical English dishes. A little further afield but also worth a visit is L´Enclume at Grange-over-sands, Cartmel with modern cuisine and a range of dishes incorporating local cuisine. Holbeck Ghyll at Ambleside offers excellent cuisine and a wide choice of flavours, using fresh seasonal produce. Farmer´s markets are held regularly in and around Windermere, and you can pick up some delicious local cheeses, patés and pickles. If you enjoy visiting stately homes, take a trip to Levens Hall which boasts magnificent topiary gardens and dates back to 1694. Said to be the oldest topiary in the world, visitors come to Levens Hall from all over the world to enjoy the hall and the gardens. Well worth a visit. If you can drag yourself out of your luxury spa hotel in Windermere, you will find plenty of activities in and around the town, including hiking, cycling, horse riding, museums, stately homes and museums. The Lake District is famous not only for its stunning scenery and lakes, but also for its Feb 09, 2015 Romantic Hotels in Windermere Famous poets, William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, were inspired by the beauty of the Lake District in the early 1800´s, when the first romantic hotels in Windermere opened their doors. Over 16 million tourists now visit the Lake District each year, and a wide choice of spa hotels, guest houses and boutique hotels are now situated close to the shores of England´s biggest lake. Romance and luxury go hand in hand with Windermere, and whether you are planning to book a midweek break or a weekend break in the Lakes, you will be spoilt for choice when it comes to accommodation. Romantic hotels include spas, four poster beds, mood lighting, patios with hammocks and garden furniture, private hot tubs, saunas, steam rooms, whirlpool baths and luxury bathrooms. If you are looking to celebrate a special occasion, such as a birthday, an anniversary, a wedding or honeymoon, choose from a wide range of romantic hotels in Windermere that offer every luxury. There is nothing better than a full day out walking the fells or enjoying a boat trip across Windermere followed by a relaxing soak in your own hot tub or relaxing in a private garden with patio and hammock. Whether you want to enjoy a romantic weekend or a midweek break in Windermere, it can be as action-packed or laid back as you choose. A vast range of attractions in Windermere keep visitors flocking back for more, and state-of-the-art luxurious hotel facilities provide a perfect place to kick back and relax. Windermere is also famous for its wide choice of gourmet restaurants, country pubs, cafés and bars serving locally made dishes and real ales, sometimes brewed on the premises. The Lake District provides plenty of things to see and do for all ages, including museums, stately homes, aquariums, cinemas, outdoor pursuits and award-winning attractions. Windermere is easily accessible from Scotland and from the north and south of England via the M6 motorway. Windermere Train Station is situated at the top end of the town, just over one mile from the lake. If you want to book a quiet hotel close to the lake, check out the spa hotels near Windermere where you will find full spa facilities, including pampering beauty treatments, large hot tub suites, four poster beds, comfortable sofas and large LCD TVs. Special dates in the calendar, including Valentine´s Day in Windermere fill up quickly, and some of the most sought after hotels need to be booked well in advance. Windermere is also a great place to base yourself if you want to explore the Lakes. Towns worthy of a visit in include nearby Grasmere and Dove Cottage, the former house of William Wordsworth, Keswick, Coniston and Ambleside with its chocolate box houses and cobbled streets. Whatever time of year you plan to visit Windermere, you will find plenty of things to see and do. Book well in advance if you are planning to celebrate a special occasion and enjoy the stunning scenery, the luxurious facilities in your hotel and the very warm welcome you are likely to get! Feb 02, 2015	Cross Fell
What is the name of the all female Russian punk band that in 2012 were jailed for two Years for staging an anti Vladimir Putin protest in a Moscow Cathedral ?	Nibiru (etc.) related - Preparedness / Maps / Miscellaneous - Crabtrees Compendium Of Esoterica Crabtrees Compendium Of Esoterica Nibiru (etc.) related - Preparedness / Maps / Miscellaneous The signs and sequence of events leading up the Poleshift See Hypothesised Future Maps Of The World After A Possible Geographic Pole Shift & More Further Below In this video, I present the evidence that suggests there is a Planet X This is not flimsy evidence; This is rock solid, concrete evidence Cogent and coherent facts, presented as a list, with a little explanation and commentary I think this video will blow you away! If you are a non-believer, take off that shirt and put on, 'BELIEVER', because once you have seen this video, you won't ever be the same, again! Before Maps / links / images etc. - some extracts from 4 of my posts on the TPUC forum by esoteric » Sun Aug 28, 2011 7:44 am http://www.tpuc.org/forum/viewtopic.php?f=6&t=16873&start=720 (26)…Regarding the Planet X / Nibiru / Wormwood / Nemesis etc. scenario that has been greatly discussed in the public domain over the last few years, and its supposed connection to the supposed “comet” Elenin……. (See May 8th 2011 http://www.tpuc.org/forum/viewtopic.php ... es#p222965 ) (27)…VIDEO…Breaking News!! Planet X (Tyche) Admitted by Scientists on Feb 14, 2011!! http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/ ... ystem.html (28)…According to various sources (not given here – please do your own research) Planet X (etc.) follows behind “comet” Elenin within a time frame of up to two years – although certain sources indicate that it may announce itself as early as next year – 2012 [see (29) onward], and anywhere between March and December according to the velocity that it will be travelling at – although calculations from sources indicated that it will be at the same distance from Earth on the 16th/17th of October 2012 , exactly 1 year after Elenin becomes closest to Earth in 2011 – this distance being 0.232AU or 34,706,736 kilometres….(It has been stated that it was about 11 times closer to Earth on May 28th 2011 than it was on May 28th 2007 – 4 years earlier, and it has also been stated that the magnetism of Planet X etc. has already tilted Saturn) (29)…Its diameter has been estimated at between 165,431 to 179,028 kilometres and with a mass of around 3 to 4 times that of Jupiter (30)… Planet X (etc.) has been stated to have several orbiting bodies of which are; 7 planets or Moons and innumerable asteroids and/or comets……… “Comet” Elenin is the vanguard of these comets and/or asteroids it has been stated (although some believe Elenin is an intelligently guided “space-craft” or some other similar phenomenon.) (31)…September 27th 2011, it has been stated, is the time when Earth first starts to enter into Planet X, s magnetic field. (32)…It is speculated that this object will repeat Elenin’s alignment with Earth and the Sun of March 11th 2011 one year later – March 11th 2012……It is also speculated that Earth-changing events on or around this date will be many magnitudes greater than that which occurred on March 11th 2011. (33)…August the 3rd 2012 is the date that has been speculated for the object to cross Earth’s orbit. (34)…On the 11th of September 2012 it is speculated that the object reaches perihelion (closest to the Sun) and a “battle” between the electromagnetic fields of these two huge cosmic bodies will ensue. (35)…On September 27th 2012 it is alleged that Planet X come directly between the Sun and Earth, and it has been stated that it will completely eclipse the Sun……It has been stated that the objects north pole will repel Earths north pole, and at the same time its southern counterpart will be attracted…should this scenario actually occur, then it has been speculated that will be tipping abnormally and severely on its axis. (36)…On October 16th 2012 it has been stated that Earth could be turned upside-down (180 degrees) from its natural inclination. (37A)…The infamous date of December 21st 2012, it has been stated, sees Earth approaching an alignment between the Sun and Elenin, and apparently - Planet X also aligning between the Sun and Jupiter (there is also an almost perfect alignment between Saturn, Venus and Mercury on December 21st 2012 http://www.faustweb.net/solaris/ ) – this scenario will continue to around December 28th 2012…….More severe Earth-changes have been speculated by many to occur at this time. (37B)…My own method of predicting geophysical events indicates to me that the time line – December 11th through to December 31st 2012 – (See Part 4) as being a danger period, with possibly the 12th / 13th then the 25th / 26th as showing the greater danger (38)…The 7th of January 2018, it has been suggested, see s Planet X and Elenin on the way out from our solar-system after wreaking havoc over the course of 7 tumultuous years……it is also suggested that the weaker and larger part of the objects magnetic field will continue to affect the solar system for decades after, although not to the same degree as the decades leading up to 2011. My final comments and suggestions ………………………….. (39)…September 2011 through to around 2020 may prove to become the most or one of the most calamitous periods that people of the modern era have ever experienced. (40)…I suggested back in June 2008, then again in December 2010 (and on various other dates in-between), that all manner of Earth-changes would be on-going and with an escalation of severity preceding and following 2012 for several years. (41)…I have shown over the last several years how geophysical, meteorological, biological and psychological conditions and events are all connected to disturbances to the electromagnetic environment that we are all part of, and how planetary/cosmic body alignments cause the electromagnetic disturbances to the environment – whether within or external to our body. (42)…My research, spanning many years, indicates that the ancients (whether originally from this planet or otherwise) were not the unintelligent people that many have believed them to be, but were in fact extremely knowledgeable about many aspects of life – one aspect being the study of the cosmos. (43)…Ancient and modern knowledge regarding objects in Space, and in this instance – in and around our solar system, and their physical make-up and their location in relation to our planet, has been shown by many to have correlations – in many ways……Empirical evidence has shown this to be the case time after time over the last few hundred years or so; those prepared to do the research will find this to indeed be the case. (44)… There is no doubt in my mind that one or several objects, whether large or small, are indeed heading towards our immediate area of this solar system as I write – or are in fact already well within the parameters of the solar system (there is some speculation that one or several large object/objects are actually already orbiting behind our Sun); and there is no doubt in my mind that this or these objects were spoken and written about by the ancients, and more recently, by various astronomers, cosmologists, government agencies, amateur and professional researchers and so on. (45)…I suggest that these objects (whether intelligently guided or other) and related objects (to the ones alluded to here) that may have not been detected at this moment (or have been detected by certain agencies or individuals who don’t release the information publicly) will most definitely affect all scenarios as seen in (41) above. (46)…What will defiantly transpire over the following weeks, months and decades regarding the interactions of these “foreign” cosmic bodies and our Sun and its planetary system – inclusive of Earth - has been speculated upon by many in recent years, and it is all, I suggest, conjecture (although calculated conjecture from many)…. I would suggest though that we all remain very vigilant and aware over the following weeks, months and years….I for one have a feeling that “something quite nasty” our way comes, and I also feel that there will be at the very least a moderate increase - but very probably a massive increase in severity of all of the phenomena as seen directly below…… (47)…Earthquakes – volcanic eruptions – extra magma flow/volume – very strong winds/gales/tornadoes/hurricanes/ - land slips/landslides – sink holes – avalanches – extra snow/sleet/hail/rain fall / electrical - lightening – thunder storms / – droughts – flooding / tsunamis – disturbances to the magnetosphere/geomagnetism – telluric currents (electrical current fields of planet Earth) – plant growth – viral and bacterial conditions – changes to physiological and psychological / neurological conditions of all animal life (48)…I suggest that we all prepare for the worst but expect the best (keeping a “positive” mind)…should the worst occur, then at least we’ve prepared…should nothing happen then wonderful – what will we have lost? by esoteric » Sat Feb 26, 2011 6:46 am http://www.tpuc.org/forum/viewtopic.php?f=6&t=16873&hilit=highest+points&start=440 The direness that I referred to Dee is directly related to all the information that others and I attempt to give out verbally, and via the internet through posts such as this – inclusive of many verifiable links. In a nutshell…….Escalating solar disturbance …….Escalating solar system disturbances……Escalating climate and geophysical changes……Escalating economic problems……Escalating civil unrest (good or bad depends on individual perception)……Escalating global hunger…….Escalating clean water shortages……Escalation of rapid encroachment of an Ice Age – little or full blown……………………..Evidence of a large Brown Dwarf Star/ Planet / Object (call it what you will) in our solar system right now…and so on. All of the data at my own disposal Dee, my own research and that of various others, indicates that we will all experience the huge increase in severity of at least one of the phenomena as seen above…………That’s if we are lucky!!! These are only my own thoughts, but I expect (NOT HOPE) to see several instances of a big escalation of several of the phenomena mentioned above before the end of 2011. I prefer not to detail all of my thoughts here on the internet regarding what I think may happen over the coming months and the next few years (I have informed my family of all that I know, and we have all prepared as best we can) because what I really think would really frighten many people……………..And, there is a good chance that I could be very wrong. Regarding other people – I have tried my best to be informative over the last several years now by posting information and giving masses of relevant links, but at the end of the day Dee – people will do what they want to do, think the way that they want to think and act in any way they feel appropriate ……………….And of course, this is the way that it should be!!! Even so, this doesn’t stop me being really concerned about the outcome of many things related directly to human kinds survival………… by esoteric » Sun Feb 27, 2011 9:23 am http://www.tpuc.org/forum/viewtopic.php?f=6&t=16873&p=208567&hilit=highest+points#p208567 With pre-warning of any of the phenomena that I mentioned in my post yesterday…Especially earth- changes etc. I would keep away from large or enclosed buildings / cities / towns etc…………………And preferably far inland!!! I would keep away from crowds. I would keep away from excitable or unpredictable people or violent people that may know me and/or and my family. I would keep away from low lying areas (next to the sea etc.) if current or future warnings indicated….. Preferably far inland!!! I would (pre) find caves or holes in geophysical stable areas – at high elevations if possible………see below!!! I would (pre) find the highest and most geophysical stable area in my immediate locality………………….preferably far inland!!! I would (pre) find the highest and most geophysical stable area in my nearest locality external to my immediate locality…..and so on……………………………….. Preferably far inland!!! I would (pre) determine how long it would take me to walk / run / drive to all (or most) of these areas…..ALSO, pre-planned routes or alternative routes would be a huge advantage, whilst taking into consideration how other people may react to emergency conditions – i.e. which route that they may take and their state of mind etc………..ALSO, pre-planned fuel consumption per mpg / mileage to supposed destination and amount/volume needed and so on………………. preferably far inland!!! It’s also an advantage to own a boat!!! (A massive advantage in fact) …………………………………………………….UK earthquake / fault lines……………………………………………………... First of all some reposts (from last year)…….3 in total EU Pay For Earthquake Disaster Training http://www.policeoracle.com/news/EU-Pay ... 26440.html " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; Hundreds of officers in earthquake training... despite only 11 British deaths in 1,000 years http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article ... years.html " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; Police given earthquake training for 'extremely unlikely crisis' http://www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk/earthq ... lt_map.jpg " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; Ancient fault lines that crisscross crust beneath Britain http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/fe ... ers2/print " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; 10 things YOU should know about Scotland's geological history http://www.scottishgeology.com/geology/ ... hings.html " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; Geologic map http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_map " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; And http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c ... h_1815.jpg " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; The case for large (M >7) earthquakes felt in the UK in historical times http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/5356/ " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; ……………………..Dr Roger Musson of the British Geological Survey - 20 September 2010 I was actually careful to avoid putting any alarmist slant on things, and was very pleased to see Jonathan Amos give such an accurate and balanced account of what I said. But if a journalist is determined to play a story up, they will. Actually, I was at a conference in France the week before the Festival of Science, and some seismologists were indeed asking, “1382 … 1580 … where’s the next one?”. A possible explanation is that sometimes earthquakes go in clusters with a long gap between clusters. The Dover Straits could be in such a gap phase. As for comparisons with Roermond, there is a confusion in magnitude scales. Roermond had, as I recall, a local magnitude of 5.8 but the moment magnitude was 5.3. So 1580 would have been a little larger http://volcanism.wordpress.com/2010/09/ ... mment-5199 " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; Are yesterday’s earthquakes tomorrow’s disasters? http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/highlight ... uakes.html " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; Quakes 'are an issue for London' http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11327433 " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; Earthquake Britain: Expert warns long overdue tremor could kill at least 100 http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/top-storie ... -22567033/ " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; Expert predicts 5.5 magnitude earthquake could hit London at any time Dolerite is a volcanic rock. While similar to basalt, it contains crystals which can be seen with a hand lens. This indicates that it cooled a little more slowly than basalt. Typically it is found in volcanic plugs which channelled the basalt to the surface https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=dolerite+rock&biw=1213&bih=620&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=__3tVPG9D8O9UZ6ehNAH&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ#imgdii=_&imgrc=zd7IySG-01v28M%253A%3BL7mynfC5QqQuOM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252F1.bp.blogspot.com%252F-Ct2Gyb51sa8%252FU4rIxKrStlI%252FAAAAAAAABR0%252F5wn3m6_E8q4%252Fs1600%252Fdolerite_sml.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Figneous8i.blogspot.com%252F%3B281%3B226 Great Dun Fell / Radar Station 844 to 848 (2,782 ft) Wearhead stands 1,104 feet above sea level and has some of the highest peaks in County Durham, Killhope Law (673m) and Burnhope Seat 2,452 ft (747 m). the highest point in County Durham The B6277 road between Alston and Middleton-in-Teesdale passes within 2 km of the summit, thus providing the easiest route of ascent. The hill may also be climbed from Weardale as part of high-level circuit of Burnhope Reservoir. The highest point of the hill lies in Cumbria, some 200 m west of a trig point (is a fixed surveying station, used in geodetic surveying and other surveying projects in its vicinity on the border) The River Wear has its source on Burnhope Seat, a moor situated along the two thousand, nine hundred foot high Cross Fell, situated on the eastern slopes of the Pennine Mountain Range in County Durham, England. The river travels in an easterly direction for sixty miles before it enters the North Sea at Sunderland, making the River Wear the longest river in England to run from source to sea, entirely within the boundary of one county. Burnhope Seat is a moor in the North Pennines of England. It lies between the heads of the Rivers Tees, South Tyne and Wear. The summit is crossed by the boundary between County Durham and Cumbria (historically Cumberland). Burnhope Reservoir is approx. 1 mile from Wearhead. In the construction six farms were submerged when water rose to fill the man-made reservoir in 1937. Highest Elevation points in England List of English counties by highest point http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_En ... hest_point " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; Pennines http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennines " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; Lake District http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_District " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; Scafell Pike (Elevation: 3209 feet) Scafell (Elevation: 3163 feet) Symonds Knott (Elevation: 3146 feet) Helvellyn (Elevation: 3117 feet) Ill Crag (Elevation: 3068 feet) Broad Crag (Elevation: 3064 feet) Skiddaw (Elevation: 3054 feet) Helvellyn-Lower Man (Elevation: 3035 feet) Great End (Elevation: 2986 feet) Bowfell (Elevation: 2959 feet) North York Moors http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_York_Moors " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; Peak District http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_District " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; Cotswolds http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotswolds " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; Chiltern Hills http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilterns " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; North Downs http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Downs " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; South Downs http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Downs " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; .............................................................................................UK Mountains and hills The ten tallest mountains in the UK are all found in Scotland. The highest peaks in each part of the UK are: Scotland: Ben Nevis (Aonach Mòr, 1,344 metres) Wales: Snowdon (Snowdonia, 1,085 metres) England: Scafell Pike (Cumbrian Mountains, 977 metres) Northern Ireland: Slieve Donard (Mourne Mountains, 852 metres) The ranges of mountains and hills in the UK include: Scotland: Cairngorms, Cheviot Hills, Scottish Highlands, Southern Uplands, Grampian Mountains Wales: Brecon Beacons, Cambrian Mountains, Snowdonia, Black Mountains, Preseli Hills England: Chilterns, Cotswolds, Dartmoor, Lincolnshire Wolds, Exmoor, Lake District, Malvern Hills, Mendip Hills, North Downs, Peak District, Pennines, Salisbury Plain, South Downs, Shropshire Hills, Yorkshire Wolds Northern Ireland: Mourne Mountains, Antrim Plateau, Sperrin Mountains ……………………………………………………….County Durham……………………………………………………………… NY8024 : Mickle Fell Cairn - the highest point in County Durham http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/934137 " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; Also, Cross Fell (893m / 2,930ft) - Tees Head - Little Dun Fell (842m / 2,762ft) - Great Dun Fell (848m / 2,782ft) (The radar station on the summit of Great Dun Fell) http://www.leaney.org/outside_the_lakes ... alk_id=570 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Radon areas in England and Wales ………..Radioactive elements decay and emit radiation. Any exposure to radiation is thought to be a risk to health - radiation is a form of energy and can cause damage in living tissues increasing the risk of cancer. Radon is usually found in granite rock strata………………..and granite rock is the most stable rock in the UK Granite is a natural source of radiation, like most natural stones. However, some granites have been reported to have higher radioactivity thereby raising some concerns about their safety. Some granites contain around 10 to 20 parts per million of uranium. By contrast, more mafic rocks such as tonalite, gabbro or diorite have 1 to 5 ppm uranium, and limestones and sedimentary rocks usually have equally low amounts. Many large granite plutons are the sources for palaeochannel-hosted or roll front uranium ore deposits, where the uranium washes into the sediments from the granite uplands and associated, often highly radioactive, pegmatites. Granite could be considered a potential natural radiological hazard as, for instance, villages located over granite may be susceptible to higher doses of radiation than other communities.[10] Cellars and basements sunk into soils over granite can become a trap for radon gas, which is formed by the decay of uranium.[11] Radon can also be introduced into houses by wells drilled into granite……………….EXTRACT The most stable granite rock areas…..see map http://www.ukradon.org/downloads/Report ... enames.pdf " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; Geological map of the British Isles http://www.soton.ac.uk/~imw/jpg-Geologi ... -Isles.jpg " onclick="window.open(this.href);return false; The Fens, 4.6 metres (15 feet) below sea level are the lowest point in England. by esoteric » Sun Aug 28, 2011 7:44 am http://www.tpuc.org/forum/viewtopic.php?f=6&t=16873&start=720 Comets as capacitors…………………………………………..…. ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor ) A capacitor is a device for storing electric charge. Comets are electric cosmic capacitors that gather and store energy as they pass through space. Comets are electromagnetically connected to the sun and planets by Electromagnetic (EM) “ropes” (NASA -Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2005). Extreme EM fields can cause earthquakes and fault slippage (EM energy “lubricates” tectonic fault lines and can cause fault slippage – this is what HAARP research is based upon) and some comets, when aligned with Earth and the Sun in this case, correlates seismicity. Comet Elenin has been shown to have either been the direct cause (or one of the causes) of various geophysical events over the last several months, or has been implicated in such one way or another. The reason Elenin is causing (or helping to cause) quakes when other comets do not is because Elenin has been in deep space a long time gathering electrons and storing energy for discharging to the sun at its (Elenin) perigee. The EM field that results from the storage of such a large amount of electricity is connected to the Earth and influences, not only geological activities but weather and more. Comets positively charged metallic core is ideal for storing and attracting electrons. Comets pick up electrons as they fly through space because the electrons are attracted to the metallic comet nucleus. …..The larger the comet and longer the comet travels through space without discharging, the more electricity is stored in the comet. When the comet approaches the sun, it begins to glow because the electron cloud is energized by the sun’s proton wind…… The hydrogen protons combine with the oxygen in the solar wind to produce water in the comet’s tail; which is comprised of visible photons (coma) generated by the comet’s electric circuit. The sun provides the positive charge and the stored electrons provide the negative charge to complete the electrical circuit with the sun. The metal comet nucleus behaves similar to the filament on a light-bulb. When positive and negative wires are attached, the filament of a light-bulb produces a photon glow….. The intensity of photon emission is proportional to the amount of current applied to the circuit. Comets do the same thing when the comet encounters the solar wind. Comets glow proportionally to the amount of protons and electrons interacting within the circuit. On some occasions a comet will release its stored energy in a burst of photons when the EM ropes provide a surge in protons. The luminosity can increase by millions of times when the comet discharges its capacitance to the sun…… Most don’t have enough charge or do not get close enough to the sun to explosively discharge their energy and just pass through the solar system gathering energy for the next opportunity to erupt. Map that John Moore alludes to - above & below Pole Shift (geographic): A shift in “geographic” poles is another commonly discussed concept throughout the scientific world. This is the theory that an internal or external force acts upon Earth to reposition the arctic poles anywhere from their current position by a few degree up to 180 degrees. A widely accepted, yet false, belief is that the “magnetic” poles of Earth flip as a result of a 180 degree flip in the “geographic” poles. For those who are aware of how Earth's magnetic poles and electromagnetic field are created , it becomes obvious that a 180 degree geographic shift would only result in a magnetic pole shift if the Earth Crust Displacement Theory holds true. In contrast to a shift in “magnetic” poles , the cataclysmic consequences of a shift in “geographic” poles pales in comparison. Some light can be shed on the potential of this event by considering the astronomical observations of ancient cultures. Virtually every ancient culture has left information that tells us they were well aware of the 12 constellations (The Zodiac) that encircle Earth. At the present moment, these constellations circle Earth in an elliptical orbit that crosses the equator at an angle of 23 degrees. Ancient cultures describe a time when these constellations circled the Earth directly around the equator. From this information, we can conclude that the poles have shifted 23 degrees from the time these ancient astronomers recorded those observations. In addition, there is geological proof that Earth’s poles have shifted in the past. One example of this proof was discovered by the scientists that drill for ice core samples in the Antarctic. As these scientists drill through the ice at ever increasing depths, they extract the ice samples for measurement of carbon dioxide, dust, and Earth’s temperature. However, these scientists were surprised when they found organic material underneath the ice that dates back some 450,000 years. Other examples include the well publicized Beresovka mammoth that was found frozen in the Siberian ice with grass still in its mouth and stomach. This means the mammoth was actually grazing in a field as the weather become so cold that everything froze almost instantly. You can’t even write this off as a freak storm that came through in a once-in-a-lifetime event because the mammoth wasn’t simply frozen, but also buried in the ice from that moment until it was recently discovered by man. Whatever caused the mammoth to freeze didn’t just come and go, but came and stayed from that moment until recent times. And this is not an isolated incident. The following map represents locations in the northern regions of Russia where mammoth and rhinoceros remains have been unearthed in the frozen tundra. From historic references and the ongoing excavation and mining of mammoth and rhinoceros ivory, it's estimated there could thousands of such remains in this region. Since neither of these animals can survive without grasslands for grazing, this means the region must have been warm while these animals lived there and then suddenly froze, trapping them without a source of food. There is other scientific information that refers to the mammoth and rhinoceros as tropical animals and even though the mammoth had a coat of fur, it would not be accustomed to living or able to survive in cold climates. Ancient references and recent theories into geographic pole shifts indicate that the most likely cause for such events are the result of external cosmic forces acting on Earth. Some of the theories into these external cosmic forces include: the Sun, comets, PlanetX or Niburu, plasma ribbon, superwave, and more recently, the alignment between the galactic and celestial equators. It’s theoretically possible that any one of these cosmic forces could cause a geographic pole shift on Earth. The basic theory starts with the understanding that every planet, solar system, galaxy, and potentially the entire universe operate of the principles of energy, electromagnetic forces, equilibrium, and magnetic poles. Further that rotating electromagnetic bodies attract and repel other bodies like a magnet. This can be seen by moons that orbit planets, planets that orbit stars, and stars that orbit galaxies. All of these interactions are based on the principles of electromagnetism. It doesn’t matter if these bodies are expanding or contracting, the electromagnetic principles still apply to the basic structures. The forces created by spinning iron are exactly what create electromagnetic fields and the magnetic poles around a planet, solar system, or galaxy. In essence, any rotating body composed of iron is simply an electromagnet. With this understanding of electromagnetism, it becomes easier to imagine how one such magnet might affect the rotation or geographic position of another magnet. Cosmic forces of this nature can, therefore, be expressed in a physical sense as two magnets being moved past each other. Those who have performed such experiments in high school physics class know the result. The electromagnetic forces increase as the magnets are held closer together and the larger magnet controls the action of the smaller magnet. This is an important reference to the cosmic event that is about to interaction with Earth. Whether this event is caused by a comet, brown dwarf star, galactic equator, or some other force, it’s likely that force will have a more powerful electromagnetic energy than Earth. In other words, it will overpower Earth’s electromagnetic field. Now, let’s imagine Earth being held in orbit by the electromagnetic forces of the Sun and the other planets in our solar system and something with a larger magnetic force begins to act on Earth. If the external force is strong enough, a pole shift and even a change in rotation are possible outcomes from such an event. Earth is going through a variety of changes at this moment that actually could facilitate a geographic pole shift in the very near future. These changes include a slowing of Earth’s core and a weakening of Earth’s electro-magnetic field. Since Earth’s electro-magnetic field is responsible for the stability of our geographic North and South poles, it makes sense that a weakening of that field creates a greater potential for an external force to act upon it. There isn't much scientific proof related to how far the geographic poles might shift or how long this process might take from start to completion. For now, we can only refer to information of a more esoteric nature such as ancient literature and prophecy. These sources suggest that the geographic pole shift will be between 20 to 45 degrees over a period of between 5 and 10 hours. They also suggest the new North Pole could be somewhere near Northern Mongolia in Russia. (See video on Earth’s New Equator After the Pole Shift ) In order to do some calculations on these figures, we will use the more extreme case of a 45 degree geographic pole shift over a period of 5 hours. Earth is about 40,000 km in circumference at the equator, therefore, during a 45 degree pole shift, the surface of Earth would travel approximately 5,000 km. If we use 5 hours as the time it takes to complete the shift, this means that Earth is moving at 1,000 km/hr (621 mi/hr) at the equator. If we use the more conservative predictions of 20 degrees over 10 hours, this speed becomes 222 km/hr (138 mi/hr) at the equator. Of course either of these ground speeds are reduced significantly as you move away from plane of rotation. The “geographic” and “magnetic” pole shift scenarios are unique in the overall application of force on Earth’s crust. In the case of the “magnetic” shift, Earth’s crust is coming to a complete stop in the East/West directions, but with the “geographic” shift, Earth’s crust is starting up and stopping in the North/South directions. The braking system on the crust is the same for either event and is a combination of the friction between the crust and mantle along with the buckling of the crust upon itself. The motion of the crust would eventually slowing down and stop in its new position. If there is a light side to this events, it would be that the initial cataclysmic affects probably wouldn’t last very long before the crust movement decelerated and settled into a new state of equilibrium. The most important difference between the “magnetic” and “geographic” pole shifts comes down to varying degrees of cataclysm. Both events produce rotational surface forces that can literally move mountains and could be lethal to virtually all life on the Earth's surface Pole Shift (magnetic): A shift in “magnetic” poles is one of the more common and accepted theories across the world, however, this is not to be confused with those that speak of a “geographic” pole shift . Even though these events can occur at the same time, they actually have quite different affects on Earth. Because of this, we will address these events separately as a “magnetic” pole shift and a “geographic” pole shift . Scientists have now concluded that Earth’s “magnet” poles do flip 180 degrees in what’s commonly called a “pole shift”. There are many theories as to the frequency of the shifts in magnetic poles which range anywhere from 10,000 years to almost 800,000 years. Research into these magnetic reversal events has come through analysis and measurement of the magnetic fields of rock that are located on the surface and within Earth's crust. Their measurements show that the magnetic field of some rock are exactly the opposite of the current magnetic poles. By carbon dating these rocks, scientists have attempted to determine when the last magnetic pole shift may have occurred. The commonly accepted theory is that Earth's electromagnetic field, as well as the magnetic North and South Poles are created from either the spinning of Earth's core or the mantle (hot molten lava) under Earth's crust. This means that the direction and speed of the spinning magma are directly responsible for the position of the North and South Poles, as well as the strength of Earth's electromagnetic field. This also means that a magnetic pole flip requires the magnetic field of Earth to become opposite in relationship to the Earth's crust. In other words, either the magnetic poles move 180 degrees while Earth's crust remains in the same position or Earth's crust moves 180 degrees while the magnetic poles remain in the same position. One of these two events must have occurred in order to support the evidence of a magnetic pole shift in Earth's past history. Since the magnetic poles are created by the spinning magma under Earth's crust, in order to measure a reversal of magnetic poles in Earth's crust, the magma must spin in the opposite direction in relation to the crust. There are two theories to consider how the magma-crust magnetic relationship might reverse. Both methods are based on the Earth Crust Displacement Theory of the late history professor Charles H. Hapgood. According to Hapgood's theory, Earth's crust acts like a solid disk that can slide over the more liquid characteristics of the mantle (hot molten lava) under the crust. Although we consider Earth's crust to be an unmovable solid mass, in reality the crust is a rigid mass that is floating over the top of the more viscus magma under the crust. In order for Hapgood's theory to be part of a magnetic pole shift event, one of two events must occur. First, Earth's crust slides over the mantle until it re-stabilizes after moving 180 degrees from its current position. This would basically flip the geographic positions of the Arctic and Antarctic while the mantle under the crust maintained it's current rotation. Second, Earth's crust remains stationary while the mantle slides underneath it and then re-stabilizes after moving 180 degrees from its current position. This would mean the geographic positions of continents would remain the same, however the spinning magma would have flipped over and now rotate in the opposite direction. It's important to note that in either case of Earth Crust Displacement, reversing Earth's magnetic field means that the magma would be spinning in the opposite direction in relationship to Earth's crust. Since the direction of rotation in Earth's crust is directly related to the direction of spinning magma, this also means the crust would have to reverse its direction of rotation to realign with the direction of spinning magma. In other words, Earth's crust would need to reverse rotation from East-West to West-East. Therefore, if a magnetic pole shift were to occur rapidly, then Earth's crust would also reverse rotational directions rapidly. The result would be massive displacement of Earth's crust and oceans. Any sudden movement in Earth’s rotation will result in the oceans moving in the opposite directions until the oceans reach a new equilibrium. If Earth's crust reverses rotation from the west/east direction to the west/east direction, this would result in a wall of water moving towards every western shoreline on the planet. People standing on the surface of Earth don’t feel it and often don’t even realize that Earth's rotation means the surface, and everything on it, is moving constantly. Earth’s circumference at the equator is approximately 40,000km and makes one full rotation in every 24 hours. This means that the surface of Earth is in constant motion and traveling at an average ground speed of approximately 1,667 km/hr (1,035 mi/hr) at the equator. Of course these ground speeds are reduced significantly as you move away from the equator. When you imagine Earth’s crust slowing down abruptly and eventually coming to a stop, you can begin to see the potential for a disaster of cataclysmic proportions. Ancient cultures describe a period of three days where the Sun does not rise or set. This could mean the process of Earth's crust slowing down and reversing direction. Even if the slowdown is somewhat gradual, there is still the pure physics of so much mass in motion. Have you ever seen anything traveling at 1,667 km/hr slow down quickly? Probably not since most man-made objects can’t travel that fast. Even the speed of sound is only about 1,230 km/hr (761 mi/hr). In other words, this would be even more dramatic than trying to quickly slow down a jet traveling at Mach1. This centrifugal force created by this rotation produce an equilibrium or balance between the borders of water and land. In other words, the oceans are being held in position by the gravitational and centrifugal created by Earth’s rotation. From the above explanation, one can begin to realize how a 180 degree magnetic pole shift would result in Earth's crust actually stopping rotation and then reversing direction. Although this has been referenced in ancient literature, it is an event that few can imagine and one which most scientists would claim is impossible. However, if it does occur, this means the centrifugal force on the surface of Earth will go from 1670 kph to zero and then back up to 1670 kph in the opposite direction. Earth currently rotates west to east which means that the ocean is being naturally pulled, by centrifugal forces, towards every east coastline and away from every west coastline. If Earth's crust were simply to stop rotation, the oceans would immediately inundate every western coastal area and would create new coastlines several hundred miles inland from their current positions. And yes, the tsunami from that event alone would be cataclysmic and of biblical proportions. If the Earth Crust Displacement Theory is correct, then Earth's crust would stop rotation and then start rotating in the opposite direction or in the east to west direction. This would cause the oceans to move further inland on the western shores and create new coastlines which are even further inland again. Both the stopping and reversing actions will create massive tsunamis as they move inland on all western coastlines. This theory also explains why the Western U.S. and Western Europe are mostly under water on the future world maps. This also provides a very scientific understanding of why the Western U.S. has been under the ocean several times, why there is a great salt lake nearly 1000 km from the current west coast of the U.S., and how the Grand Canyon has been created. From this data, it can easily be seen that the deluge and flooding of ancient literature and of the Western U.S. could be explained simply by the reversal in rotation of Earth’s crust. This explanation does not even consider any upward or downward movement in the Earth’s crust due to the buckling of the crust in such an abrupt movement. Yet, there is also proof that such buckling of Earth’s crust has occurred as recently as 13,000 yrs ago. The affects on Earth from such an event would be nothing less than cataclysmic. If the Earth's crust reverses rotation, the forces on the crust would be equal to the friction and rotational momentum of the semi liquid mantle underneath the crust. The braking system for such an event would be a combination of the friction between the crust and mantle along with the buckling of the crust upon itself much like the folding action of an accordion. The motion of the crust would eventually slowing down, stop, and start moving in opposite direction. If there is any good news to such an event, it would be that the initial cataclysmic affects in the crust would probably only occur while the crust movement decelerated. Now imagine what would happen to Earth’s crust during such an event. This gives a new meaning to the words “continental drift”. It gives credence to the geological proof that mountain ranges across the world have risen or fallen 3,000 to 8,000 meters in a single event. It provides a theory as to why virtually all life on Earth was eradicated during a past cataclysmic event. This could explain the movement of erratics (house sized boulders) around the world, the 30 meter cliffs along many coastlines, and angular sediment layers that don’t conform to accepted geological theories. This could also explain why there are sea shells on the top of mountains and cities under the oceans. Now imagine that you are a human on the surface of Earth when such an event occurs. There you are standing outside and looking up at the sky thinking “oh, what a glorious day”. Then all of the sudden, the ground starts moving. Maybe it starts slowly, but either way, you can not keep your footing or run to a safe location. Pretty soon, the ground under your feet is moving faster until your feet are no longer even touching the ground. Instead you are either being tossed across the ground like tumbleweed or pinned against some physical object while being crushed by objects flying through the air or by the pure force of air pressing against your body. The conventional dogma is that, during such an event, there would be less gravity causing people, animals, and objects to float off the planet. However, based on the above description of the Earth Crust Displacement Theory , it becomes evident that spinning magma under the crust continues to spin and thereby maintaining Earth's gravitational field. Another fact is that people from ancient cultures witnessed these events and lived and remained on Earth to tell about it. If they would have witnessed everything floating off the surface of Earth including: people, animals, trees, rocks, water, etc. they probably would have mentioned it. Many people are already aware that scientists have been tracking the movement of the magnetic poles for decades. The below graph provides scientific proof that the magnetic North and South Poles have been moving for over 100 years and that the annual movement of the North magnetic pole is becoming exponential. Although often described as a normal anomaly that Earth goes through regularly, the fact is that this movement is not normal or within any cyclical event that has been witnessed or measured by modern science. Scientific and practical theories suggest that this could be the beginning of Earth' s next magnetic pole shift although the estimates on how long such a shift might take is still only speculation. From this graph, it can be seen that the North Magnetic Pole is moving towards Russia while the South Magnetic Pole is moving towards South America. Whether this is the beginning of a complete magnetic pole shift or not will likely be disputed until the event actually occurs, however, the above graph clearly shows the annual movement of the north magnetic pole to be increasing exponentially. In addition, the last year data has been made available on this pole movement is from the year 2005. This suggests that there may be a reason why the governments of the world are not releasing any data past 2005. Is it possible the magnetic pole movement after 2005 would cause concern the governments would rather avoid? Something else worth mentioning and which may be significant is that the North Magnetic Pole has moved (about 12 degrees latitude and 18 degrees longitude) which is farther than the South Magnetic Pole (about 8 degrees latitude and 10 degrees longitude) during the same period of time. Could the inequality of movement between the poles be creating a potential for a spontaneous magnetic adjustment at some point in the future? Is it also possible that magnetic position data after 2005 could present an even more dramatic difference? What most theorists and scientists don’t generally agree on is whether magnetic pole shifts and geographic pole shifts are related or occur in close proximity to one another, how long the poles generally take to complete a shift, and how far the poles may actually move. From a position of probability, there is no proof that the ongoing movement in the magnetic poles is the beginning of a much larger movement or complete shift in the poles. There is also no proof that either a magnetic or geologic pole shift will occur through the possible cosmic or Earth events . It is commonly accepted, however, that any event that could result in an Earth Crust Displacement event or reverse Earth's magnetic poles would require more energy than is contained with Earth itself. In other words, scientists generally agree that such events require and are the result of some external cosmic influence acting upon Earth. There are numerous theories related to potential cosmic events that could be influencing the current magnetic pole movement. Some of these theories include: a plasma ribbon, superwave, planetX/Nibiru, and even the celestial and galactic alignment that occurs approximately once every 13,000 years. Although some of these theories include claims that they are being monitored from satellites or Earth-based telescopes, there appears to be no proof of the theories or the claims. Most people may also be aware that Earth is not the only planet being affected by whatever cosmic event is influencing Earth. There is scientific evidence that something is affecting the Sun and the heliosphere that protects Earth and every planet from galactic radiation. Scientists are also monitoring changes on virtually every planet in our solar system including and most notably: Mars, Venus, and Jupiter. The real question is whether the ongoing cosmic event is going to precipitate a magnet pole shift as theorized by scientists and if so, how fast might such a pole shift occur. If the pole shift occurs slowly, over thousands or millions of years, the effects on the crust and life on the surface of Earth is theorized to be negligible. However, what most of these theories seem to neglect is the evidence that the magnetic pole movement is not linear, but rather exponential. If the movement is exponential, then it is also highly possible that the magnetic pole shift could occur in a period of tens or hundreds of years. Clearly the measurable movement in the above graph supports the potential of eventual movement of one or more degrees longitude and latitude annually. Having access to the magnetic movement data after 2005 would certainly either support or contradict the exponential movement theory, however, the governments are not providing any recent data on this event. And if the movement is exponential, one could theorize that a one or two degree longitude and latitude annual shift of magnetic poles would ultimately be followed by five and ten degree annual shift. In fact, this theory could account for a very rapid and dramatic shift in the final steps of the entire process. And if such a rapid shift where to be part of the theorized magnetic pole shift, there is probably no way to understand the full affect on Earth's crust, a geographic pole shift, and all life on Earth's surface. A rapid shift in the magnetic poles and Earth's crust reversing direction of rotation per the Earth Crust Displacement Theory could explain ancient references that describe a time when the Sun rose on the opposite equator. Egyptian, Chinese, and South American cultures describe multiple times in their history where the Sun did not rise or set for a period of 3 days, and when the Sun did rise again, it rose from the opposite horizon. Even in the Koran, it states that a future event will result in our Sun rising from the opposite horizon. Shift in Earth’s Crust: From the previous descriptions on the potential for a “magnetic” pole shift and/or a “geographic” pole shift , you can see that Earth’s crust could be in for events that would most certainly be considered cataclysmic. Either of these events would occur quite quickly in geological terms, and therefore, the shifts in Earth’s crust would also occur quickly. If there was any good news, it's that these events would most likely be over quickly. Before we discuss the potential and possible shifts in Earth’s crust from these events, let’s first discuss the fluidity and rigidity of this crust. The image below provides a visual representation of how Earth's crust moves across the mantle or magma. We’re all aware of the continental drift and that continents fold over and under each other at specific locations around the globe. We’re also familiar with the concepts of fault lines under the ocean and on land where movement in one direction causes huge crevasse or valleys to be created while movement in the other direction causes mountains to be created. One other consequence of any of these geological actions is the movement of magma or lava either closer or farther away from Earth’s surface. One global example of this activity is around the Pacific Ocean, better known as the Pacific Rim and a region which is also known as the “Ring of Fire”. The following map displays the locations of volcanoes (black triangles) along with earthquake activity (colored by depth) along the Ring of Fire. Over 75 percent of the world’s volcanoes fall within this so-called “Ring of Fire,” circling from South America, to Alaska, to Japan, and on to New Zealand. This region is called the “Ring of Fire” because it has the highest concentration of active volcanoes and earthquakes in the world. This is a prime example of what happens when tectonic plates are in motion. Most volcanoes are located at the boundary of tectonic plates, which are massive slabs of the Earth’s crust that move slowly over what is called the asthenosphere. In the Pacific Rim region, a great number of volcanoes occur where one plate dives below another. As the plate drops deeper it sets in a motion the process that creates lava. The molten lava then begins to rise through the solid rock above and create volcanoes. Earth’s crust is quite thin as compared to the depth of the mantle, but its still up to 30 kilometers (18 miles) thick under most continents and 5 to 10 kilometers thick under most oceans. Underneath this crust is several thousand kilometers of mantle or asthenosphere which is full of magma, also known as lava. As you can imagine, it would take quite a force to move the crust up or down, left or right, or in both directions at the same time. Such events are known to most of us as earthquakes. Once a crevasse or crack is opened in the crust that is large enough for the magma to come to the surface, it tends to stay volatile for long periods of time, in extreme cases maybe even thousands of years. You can visualize the crust and magma relationship of Earth much like a cherry pie where the pie filling is the magma. If you poke holes in the pie crust, the pie filling seeps to the surface. If you cut the pie and remove a piece, the filling flows into the vacated space, but what happens if you slide that same pie across a table at high velocity and let it collide with a solid object? Of course something very catastrophic happens. In this case, the pie crust slides off the filling and onto the wall with the pie filling sprayed all over everything. Although only a metaphor, this is the concept that we’re talking about when we consider either the “magnetic” or “geographic” pole shifts. Even though Earth’s crust is quite thick, it’s also brittle. And like the pie crust, once the Earth’s crust is torn, it has much more mobility. It generally takes a lot of force from underneath the crust in order to open up new fissures for lava to flow or to raise mountains more than a few inches or feet in any single event. Now imagine the force of rotational movement that would be put on the Earth’s crust from either type of pole shift event. Basically, the affect of these forces is not entirely predictable, but will most certainly be devastating. The affect will be a buckling where the crust will push up and down as it crashes into itself. And the weakest locations, those that have moved in the past events, will likely be the points of the greatest buckling. Does this sound like what could have happened when mountain ranges were raised or lowered between 3,000 to 8,000 meters in a single event? Absolutely! The geological evidence also proves that locations on the ocean floor were once above water before this event. The geological evidence for such an event is staggering. Entire continents, portions of continents, and islands have risen or fallen in a single event. And the geological and archeological evidence does not stop there. Did you know that there are sunken cities under virtually every ocean on the planet? Some of these locations reveal entire sea ports with harbors and mooring posts for boats to dock. Some locations include solid stone walls that stretch for miles, stone temples, and other structures. Could such an extreme geological event be the reason why many regions of the planet have been submerged under oceans only to re-emerge from that same ocean at a different time and event in geological history? Absolutely! Could this be what happened to Atlantis, Lemuria, the Middle East, or even the Western United States? Absolutely! There is no question that Earth will shake and the crust will tear during such an event. Some believe that portions of continents will be submerged much they way they have been in past geological history. There are also some who believe (new or ancient) continents will emerge from the ocean depths such as Atlantis and Lemuria. Nostradamus and Edgar Casey speak of such cataclysmic events in Earth’s future. They speak as if man, as a whole, is unaware and unprepared for these events when they arrive. They speak of the few who will survive and carry on life in a new consciousness. There are references from ancient cultures that describe the Atlantean’s as being wiped from Earth during some cataclysmic event. Edgar Cayce speaks of a time when Atlantis will re-emerge from the ocean. The Bible and other prophecy often reference a “great earthquake” in reference to the “end times” or cataclysmic events. In fact a “great earthquake” is mentioned as one of the final events in the 7 Seals, 7 Trumpets, and 7 Vials. In each of these prophecies, the “great earthquake” is the final act of destruction on Earth. These passages speak of every mountain and island being moved, multitudes hid, the cities of nations fell, every island fled away, and the mountains were not found. The frequency and magnitude of earthquakes has increased across the planet in recent times. In fact, the following graph from the USGS (United States Geological Survey) shows that there has been a significant increase in earthquakes since the year 2000. The following short film depicts the realistic outcome of a hypothetical, but plausible, magnitude 7.8 earthquake on the San Andreas fault in Southern California. Up-and-coming film director, motion graphics designer and Art Center College of Design alumnus, Theo Alexopoulos, takes you on a visceral journey through the USGS ShakeOut Earthquake Scenario. The film was created by the USGS Multi-Hazards Demonstration Project in cooperation with the Designmatters program at Art Center to depict the physical, social, and economic consequences of the most comprehensive earthquake scenario ever created. Shifts in the Earth’s crust, better known as earthquakes, are often measured by the Richter scale. The Richter magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter of the California Institute of Technology as a mathematical device to compare the size of earthquakes. The Richter scale is a logarithmic scale, and thus, has a maximum value of 10. This means that all earthquakes are measured between the values of zero and ten. From this image, you can get some idea of the relationship between Richter scale values and potential geophysical damage. Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude. As an estimate of energy, each whole number step in the magnitude scale corresponds to the release of about 31 times more energy than the amount associated with the preceding whole number value. In simpler terms, every one point rise in the Richter scale reflects an event which is ten times more powerful than the previous point. Few people are aware that Charles Richter retired in 1970 and shortly thereafter, the Richter scale was reduced by one full point. This is a huge change in the Richter scale as it allows for another level which is ten times more powerful than the previous level of ten. Is it possible the USGS or U.S. Government believed the previous upper limit to the Richter scale could possibly be exceeded after the 1970’s? Or is it possible they didn’t want to explain why so many future earthquakes would be registering in the 8.0+ and 9.0+ ranges? Is it possible the U.S. government and scientists were seeing a pattern, know something was coming, or just taking precaution? If the Richter scale hadn’t been reduced, then the magnitude 9.2 earthquake that struck off the west coast of the Indonesian Island of Sumatra on December 26, 2004 would have registered a magnitude of 10. More recently and possibly as a result of the potential to exceed the Richter scales top limit of 10, geologists are moving towards a new scale for measuring earthquakes; the Moment Magnitude scale, or MW. The Moment Magnitude scale was developed in 1979 by Thomas C Hanks and Hiroo Kanamori. Scientists find this scale more useful as it measures the amount of energy released in the quake rather than the size of the seismic wave. Is there a possible connection between earthquakes and solar events? According to Mitch Battros, Producer of Earth Changes Media and Author of 'Solar Rain - The Earth Changes Have Begun' and 'Global Warming: A Convenient Disguise' , the answer is Yes! Mitch states that his research into past earthquakes reveals “a pattern of large earth changing events have occurred 14 days prior to, and or 14 day after a full solar eclipse”. “In February of 2008, Earth Changes Media made headlines providing evidence of a connection between a Solar and Lunar Eclipse and catastrophic events. We displayed well documented evidence showing large earth changing events did occur within a 14 day window prior to, and 14 days immediately following an Eclipse”. At Earth Changes Media, Mitch provides scientific evidence of "cycles" by listing the dates of 'full lunar eclipse' from 2001 to 2011 and the corresponding earthquake activity. “Although earthquakes are certainly at the top of all emergency managements list, volcanoes are not far behind. I am most concerned with recent volcanic events in Northern and Central America which may be progress to full eruptions”. Volcanoes & Nuclear Winter: From the previous topics on the potential for a “magnetic” pole shift , a “geographic” pole shift and the resulting shift in Earth’s crust , it doesn’t take much of an imagination to see that most volcanoes would likely become hyperactive during such a cataclysmic event. With either an abrupt acceleration or deceleration of the Earth’s crust, the buckling affect, and the crust being thrust up and down, there is potential that virtually every volcano on the planet could erupt simultaneously. This doesn’t mean only the active volcanoes. The magnitude of such an event could very well reactivate the dormant volcanoes as well. All volcanoes are born when hot magma rises to the surface, infiltrates a weak spot in the Earth's outer crust, and breaks through. There are over 600 active volcanoes on Earth that are generally associated with the boundaries of the tectonic plates; the seven great plates that carry the oceans and continents. They are especially common in subduction zones, which occur when one tectonic plate dips beneath another. As the plate dives into the mantle, it’s gradually heated, producing blobs of molten rock that rise to the surface. The molten rock or magma collects in weak patches of crust, in structures called magma chambers. If the pressure in the magma chamber builds high enough, the magma will erupt and a volcano is born. The majority of the damage in volcanic eruptions is not from lava flow but from a phenomenon known as pyroclastic flow. A pyroclastic flow is an avalanche of ground-hugging hot rock accompanied by a cloud of ash and gases that race down the slope of a volcano. The range of destructive force from a pyroclastic flow is directly proportional to the power of the volcanic explosion. This flow can reach speeds of up to 100 miles per hour, and temperatures of nearly 700 degrees centigrade. In other words, anything that can catch fire will be incinerated immediately. Throughout recorded history, pyroclastic flows have caused more death and destruction than any other volcanic hazard. In 1902 on the Caribbean island of Martinique, a pyroclastic flow generated by the eruption of Mt. Pelée swept into the town of St. Pierre and incinerated 29,000 people. The devastating mudflow that killed 25,000 people in Armaro, Colombia, after the 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz volcano was also triggered by a pyroclastic flow. Pyroclastic flow and lava aren't the only hazards created by volcanic eruptions. Other dangers are floods containing a mixture of rock fragments and water (mudflows are one type), landslides, gas emissions, and ash clouds. Ash clouds are a particular problem for aircraft of any kind as they quickly clog the air filters making the aircraft inoperable. They can cause engine failure, damage electrical systems, scratch the outer surface of a plane, and contaminate its interior. The effects of a volcanic eruption can also be felt over the long-term. Eruptions releasing high concentrations of sulfur-rich gas can alter global climate. The sulfur mixes with water vapor in the atmosphere to form clouds of sulfuric acid. The acid droplets both absorb incoming solar radiation and bounce it back into space. The result is lower temperatures. In the year after the eruption of Philippines' Mount Pinatubo, in 1991, global temperatures dipped by nearly one degree. Volcanic activity and variations in solar irradiance are the two main natural processes producing changes in the Earth's radiative balance on timescales of years to decades. Strong volcanic eruptions can send particulates and sulphate gas (aerosol) high into the atmosphere, where it can spread out and remain suspended for 2-3 years. Volcanic eruptions tend to cause a large increase in aerosol concentrations that can have a significant influence on the earth's climate in the short term. Aerosols in the stratosphere reflect incoming sunlight, producing a cooling effect on global temperatures. The cooling effect lasts until the aerosols are cycled out of the atmosphere by natural physical and chemical processes. In the case of large eruptions or a succession of eruptions such as in the early 1800s, the cooling effect can last several decades. A reduction in solar output is thought to be primarily responsible for the large-scale cooling experienced during the “little ice age” in the late 1600s, but strong volcanic activity at that time may have also contributed. In recent decades, observations following the major volcanic eruptions of Mount Agung in 1963, El Chichón in 1982 and Mount Pinatubo in 1991 illustrate the cooling influence of these events. Volcanic aerosols may also have indirect influences on the climate that are less well understood. For example, the presence of aerosols in parts of the stratosphere can produce temperature gradients both vertically and horizontally, which could alter the air circulation patterns in the stratosphere, and in turn affect tropospheric air circulation. Aerosols may also interact with chemical processes occurring in the stratosphere, which could affect distribution and concentration of ozone and other trace gases. There is evidence to suggest that volcanic aerosols in the stratosphere have contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer and changes in the dominant Arctic atmospheric circulation pattern. In recent times, we regularly hear of previously dormant volcanoes that spontaneously awake and become active again. In some cases, like the Chaiten Volcano in Chile, which became active on May 2, 2008, these volcanoes have been dormant for nearly 10,000 years. This information gives greater credibility to the archeological and geological proof that approximately 11,500 years ago, most mountain ranges across the planet either rose or fell 3,000 to 8,000 meters in a single event. Is it a coincidence that Chaiten was last active at approximately the same time as the last known cataclysmic event on Earth? There are more volcanoes encircling our planet than most people can even imagine with over 600 of these volcanoes currently active. Over 75 percent of the world’s volcanoes fall within the so-called “Ring of Fire,” circling from South America, to Alaska, to Japan, and on to New Zealand. The Chaiten volcano of southern Chile is one of 200 to 300 volcanoes in the "Andean Arc" region of Chile, Peru, Ecuador and Columbia considered “active” by volcanologists. This region has many more dormant volcanoes and is one of the more active regions for volcanic activity in the world. These figures begin to provide a perspective on the pure number of volcanoes that could easily get thrust into a hyperactive state under extreme circumstances. The following graph displays the annual earthquake activity in the area of the Yellowstone volcano. As you can see from this graph, there has been a measurable increase, but not a significant enough increase for geologists to conclude that a large eruption is approaching. According to some volcanologists, Yellowstone volcano, located in the central US, may be on the verge of a large scale eruption. Some researches even suggest that it’s past due for such an eruption. The changes around Yellowstone don't seem to get much media coverage for obvious reasons, but the effects are getting more extreme every year with the water tables becoming highly acidic, deforestation, and increased tremors. The caldera of Yellowstone lies under a lake, and it’s rising. It also happens to rest on a bed of Uranium, so when it does erupt, the result will be very radioactive. The image below displays the area of the United States that was affected by previous eruptions of Yellowstone. Geological findings indicate that the affected areas from three such eruptions extend some 1,600km to 2,000km in diameter. To give some perspective, the image also displays the affected area from the 1980 Mount St. Helen's eruption. The image above represents the estimated range of destruction from a large scale eruption of the Yellowstone volcano. From this image, you can see that such an eruption will virtually wipe out a large portion of the Mid-Western United States. In fact, the pyroclastic flow from Yellowstone will completely destroy everything for hundreds of kilometers in every direction. It’s further hypothesized that when Yellowstone does experience its next full eruption, that such an eruption will be large enough to plunge the entire planet into a cooling cycle and a mini ice age. For more information on volcanoes and past volcanic eruptions in the United States, you may want to look into books, maps, or even visit your local USGS (United States Geological Survey) office. The local USGS office will know of most or all volcanoes in your area. Other resources include videos from such sources as the History Channel and specifically a series entitled “Mega Disasters”. If there are no such resources in your area of the world, you may want to start your own research into local volcanoes that might be near any location where you live or are considering for a community. In this day and age, you can often search the internet using the terms “volcano” and “city name”. This may give you a quick overall picture of risk assessment. Now imagine what might occur during a cataclysmic event that hyper-activates the hundreds of already “active” volcanoes, as well as most of the currently dormant volcanoes across the entire planet. Imagine volcanic ash covering the skies and blocking out the Sun in minutes or hours. Imagine the pyroclstic flows, toxic gases, ash, and hot rocks that would permeate the air and cover the landscape so quickly that it becomes difficult or impossible to see or breathe within hours. Imagine the sky filling with sulfuric acid within and contaminating every river, lake, stream, reservoir, and even underground springs making fresh water unavailable within hours. Imagine lava, mudflows, flash floods, and torrential rains blocking roads and making mobility virtually impossible. And then imagine 3, 6, or even 15 meters of volcanic ash covering all buildings, underground shelters, and vegetation, making survival virtually impossible. Imagine how quickly animal and human life would be exterminated. The consequences from such events on human life have been recorded throughout recent history, with a pyroclastic flow incinerating 29,000 people in the 1902 eruption of Mt. Pelée and 25,000 people from a mudflow in the 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz. But the true images of suffering and helplessness from such an event can sometimes best be experienced by going further into the past. Into past cultures that may have had little understanding, warning, preparation, or emergency planning for such events. Consider the eruption of Mount Vesuvius near Pompeii, Italy in 79 A.D. which covered the landscape with 9 to 20 feet of hot ash and pumice. There are thousands of artifacts excavated from this event, but it only takes a few to represent the devastating affects on human life. The following photographs are a snapshot into the past and give us a glimpse of the human suffering that occurred at the hands of this ancient volcanic eruption as people were literally mummified into solid stone. In more recent volcanic activity, we've seen volcanoes spontaneously erupting and emerging from the Pacific Ocean along the Ring of Fire, creating the beginnings of entirely new land masses. Geologists have recently discovery a bulge in the mountainous landscape of Oregon, in the northwest region of the United States. It has been determined that this bulge is being caused by a new volcano pushing upward towards the surface. Volcanic activity appears to be increasing across the planet at the present moment. We are now seeing activity in volcanoes that are considered past due for an eruption, new volcanoes pushing to the surface, and volcanoes becoming active again after nearly 10,000 years of dormancy. All in all, we are already living in a very volatile geological time. In previous material, it was mentioned that our oceans may present the greatest threat of natural disaster to all forms of life. After reading the potential affect from simultaneous world-wide volcanic eruptions, you may beg to differ. One method to distinguish between the natural disaster impact caused by tsunami and tidal waves versus volcanic eruptions would be to classify the destructive impact of tsunami and tidal waves as short-term and volcanic eruptions as long-term. Tsunami and tidal waves will wash inland very quickly causing immediate destruction and loss of life, but after this initial inundation, the water will eventually recede back into the oceans. Of course, it's important to realize that two-thirds of the world population lives within a short distance of ocean coastlines. This means that two-thirds of the entire world population is the direct path of a tsunami or tidal wave. Volcanic eruptions have an immediate destructive impact on the local region as a result of pyroclastic flows, lava, mudflows, landslides, and toxic gas emissions. On the other hand, there is also a long-term impact that can result as the hyperactive volcanic activity could last for months, years, or even decades. The buckling of Earth’s crust during a pole shift would likely cause most active and dormant volcanoes to become extremely hyperactive. Imagine, if you can, every volcano on the Earth erupting simultaneously and for an indeterminate duration. Consider that the eruption of a single large volcano, Mount Pinatubo in 1991, lowered Earth’s overall temperature by nearly one degree centigrade. It doesn’t take much imagination to realize the potential global impact from possibly one hundred volcanoes erupting simultaneously in a cataclysmic event. These eruptions would release high concentrations of sulfur-rich gas into the atmosphere. The sulfur then mixes with water vapor in the atmosphere to form clouds of sulfuric acid. The acid droplets both absorb incoming solar radiation and bounce it back into space. The result is lower global temperatures. Such an event would certainly send so much volcanic ash into the atmosphere that the sun could be blocked out for months or possibly longer. Add to this that up to three, 6, or even 15 meters of ash could fall from the sky and completely cover the grass, bushes, and other low lying vegetation. Leaves and branches of trees would be weighed down by this ash, making it difficult for them to absorb any light or nutrients. In other words, some plants may survive for weeks, but most plants would be dead within a month. The plants would be followed by the herbivores which would probably die a week later and then the carnivores a few weeks after that. Without food reserves or special growing facilities, famine would set in quickly and humans wouldn’t be very far behind the animals. Under these circumstances, it’s possible that a majority of people would parish within about two months. As you can imagine, without adequate sunlight, plants would be difficult to grow at best, if not impossible, unless certain circumstances arise. These circumstances include: being far enough up wind from any erupting volcano, being in a location where the winds are strong enough to clear the air and allow sunlight to hit Earth, or creating an environment that can support the production of vegetation without natural sunlight. Over time, nature would eventually clean the atmosphere with rain and wind that carry the ash to the ground, a majority of which would be absorbed by the earth and the oceans. However, during this process of cleansing and renewal, the ash would block out the Sun and the planet would cool very rapidly. This process could result in a form of a nuclear winter. With lower temperatures and increased dust particles in the air, the resulting precipitation could turn from rain to snow in only a few weeks. If enough volcanoes erupt, the entire planet could be covered with a thick cloud of ash. It’s widely accepted that the eruption of even one or two large volcanoes could create the affect of a global nuclear winter. If the result is a nuclear winter, it could also explain why core sample data from Antarctica shows Earth moving into a new ice age at any moment. The real problem will become survival after such an event as food becomes more difficult to grow and the weather in some regions becomes uninhabitable.	i don't know
What is the surname of the four children in the Children’s book The Lion The Witch And The Wardrobe by C S Lewis ?	The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe \| Children's Books Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe 1,473pages on The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe Author: [ show ] Description The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe is a fantasy novel, written by C. S. Lewis . Chronologically, it is the second in The Chronicles of Narnia series, although it was the first book published, and remains the most famous book in the series. The Second World War has just begun and four children, Peter, Susan, Edmund and Lucy Pevensie, are evacuated from London in 1940 to escape the Blitz. They are sent to live with Professor Digory Kirke, who lives in a country house in the English countryside. And there they find a magic wardrobe that leads them to the magical world of Narnia. Blurb Narnia... the land beyond the wardrobe, the secret country known only to Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy...the place where the adventure begins. Lucy is the first to find the secret of the wardrobe in the professor's mysterious old house. At first, no one believes her when she tells of her adventures in the land of Narnia. But soon Edmund and then Peter and Susan discover the Magic and meet Aslan, the Great Lion, for themselves. In the blink of an eye, their lives are changed forever... Join the four Pevensie children as they discover talking animals, magical beings, a cruel Witch determined to rule Narnia with winter forever, and Aslan, the lion that changes their lives. Reader's Reviews 1 This is the first Narnia book written by C.S. Lewis and it has the magic that a first book can have. This is a great story about how good rises over evil, probably the best book to read first even though it is not first chronologically. 2 An absolutely magnificent book, rightly acclaimed as one of the best children's books ever written. My personal second-favourite in The Chronicles of Narnia , after The Voyage of the Dawn Treader . 3 The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe is a delightful story for kids at almost any age. I've reread this book several times, and I've never stopped loving Peter's courage, Edmund's change of heart, Lucy's sweetness and innocence, and Susan's sisterly support. The book is able to follow several different characters yet still remains consistent to the general plot; one of bravery, adventure, and most of all, sacrifice for others and the land of Narnia. 4 This fantasy novel written by C.S. Lewis embarks on the adventures of four siblings living during the dire period of the Second World War. Lucy, Edmund, Susan and Peter have been moved to the countryside to live with an old, kind professor until the war comes to an end. Little did they know that a harmless game of hide and seek would lead them to a magical, winter wonderland known as Narnia! The siblings must fight the evil White Witch with the help of their dear friends Mr Tumnus who is half human and half faun, the Beavers, and of course the Great Lion, Aslan. This adventurous fairy tale will surely let your child get lost in the enchanting world of Narnia and experience the valuable lessons of love, sacrifice and bravery. Although the novel has been written with children in mind, some scenes contain violence which may not be suitable for children under the age of seven. This is a timeless novel that leaves the reader feeling overwhelmed with amazement and astounded by the escapade they have just lived upon. This book is OK,but it's 2 long 4 me. The film is better,b/c it helps people understand the differences between the book and the film. Parental Guidance Reading Age: 8+ Reading Aloud Age: 7+ Lucy enters the land of Narnia and is asked to come to a friendly Faun's house. She follows him without question and talks to him, answering questions about herself. The four children also follow a beaver to his den. Parents may want to explain the issue of following strangers. Edmund also interacts with the evil witch ruler of Narnia, the White Witch, accepting candy and selfishly agreeing to take his siblings back to the witch if she will grant him kingship of Narnia. The majority of the book, Edmund complains and even leaves his siblings behind to visit the White Witch. The White Witch mocks and derides her dwarf minion. The most disturbing scene is Aslan's death by the White Witch. The Witch gets her evil minions to shave and tie down Aslan (while mocking him) and then raises her knife over Aslan, mocking him and finally saying, 'Despair and die!' The chapter does not describe Aslan actually being killed, but only says that Susan and Lucy covered their eyes and did not see it. Susan and Lucy come to Aslan lying dead on the stone table and begin to cry. Other violence includes the destruction of Tumnus the Faun's house by the White Witch's police, creatures already turned into stone by the White Witch in her courtyard, a table of animals at tea turned into stone, Edmund being tied up by the White Witch, Peter, Edmund, and other creatures fighting with swords at the end of the book, Aslan tumbling onto the White Witch and making her disappear mysteriously, Peter slashing at a wolf, and the White Witch whipping her reindeer. Various magic—such as the White Witch's ability to turn creatures into stone, Aslan's rising from the dead, and the entire concept of talking animals—is the main theme of the book, including the fact that 'the Deep Magic' is mentioned as being key to Narnia's existence. Mythical Greek creatures are used frequently, including fauns, centuars, and dwarves. The mild use of 'by jove' is used once or twice. Scary illustrations include Edmund approaching a sleeping wolf, the White Witch about to turn animals to stone, various evil creatures tying up Aslan, more creepy creatures, a battle scene, and Susan and Lucy crying at Aslan's head where he has died. If you like this you might like	Pevensie
"Which Gilbert And Sullivan opera set in Asia featured the famous saying ""Let the punishment fit the crime"" ?"	The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe - C. S. Lewis - Hardcover Chronicles of Narnia; Volume number 2 The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe ALA Notable Children's Book About the Book A beautiful hardcover edition of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, book two in C. S. Lewis's classic fantasy series, The Chronicles of Narnia. The full-color jacket features art by three time Caldecott Medal-winning illustrator David Wiesner, and interior black-and-white illustrations by Pauline Baynes, the original illustrator of Narnia. Four adventurous siblings—Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy Pevensie—step through a wardrobe door and into the land of Narnia, a land frozen in eternal winter and enslaved by the power of the White Witch. But when almost all hope is lost, the return of the Great Lion, Aslan, signals a great change . . . and a great sacrifice. Journey into the land beyond the wardrobe! The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe is the second book in C. S. Lewis's classic fantasy series, which has been captivating readers of all ages for over sixty years. This is a stand-alone novel, but if you would like journey back to Narnia, read The Horse and His Boy, the third book in The Chronicles of Narnia. Supports the Common Core State Standards. Trimsize: 0 (w) x 0 (h) x 0 (d) Pages: 208 BISAC1: JUVENILE FICTION / Fantasy & Magic BISAC2: JUVENILE FICTION / Classics	i don't know
"In which children’s comic did the character ""Roy Of The Rovers"" first appear in September 1954 ?"	Roy of the Rovers celebrates 60 years – football’s comic-book role model \| Football \| The Guardian Soccer Roy of the Rovers celebrates 60 years – football’s comic-book role model Launched in Tiger magazine in 1954, the Melchester Rovers striker’s career captured the imagination of youngsters and adults alike – and even former England manager Alf Ramsey. Click here to see how Roy of the Rovers has changed over the years in our gallery Roy of the Rovers through the ages. Photograph: 2014 ©Egmont UK Ltd. All rights reserved Monday 8 September 2014 11.50 EDT Last modified on Monday 4 April 2016 10.43 EDT Share on Messenger Close It is a phrase embedded in the game’s vernacular, a character from a bygone age and a team that, somehow, overcame the odds on a weekly basis. Sixty years ago Roy of the Rovers was first published as a comic strip – six decades since Roy Race’s golden locks and debonair charm first enraptured youngsters and adults alike to evoke dreams of glory and unlikely tales of sporting bravura. “He was everything you would want a footballer to be,” says Barrie Tomlinson, who worked on the comic strip for 30 years. “Roy was an example of how it should be done. I know it sounds corny but that’s how it was.” Say the words Roy Race and Melchester Rovers to someone of a certain generation and the eyes mist up, a reflective pause follows before a wistful smile. To many those names represent childhood, escapism and sheer joy – the weekly ritual of buying a comic , reading in rapid time before poring over the same pages again and again until the next edition hit the shelves. It was a time before the digital age, when readers wrote letters to voice their disapproval of a particular storyline or merely to ask for Roy’s autograph. It was a time when the England manager would be asked for his opinions on a fictional character and responded, sincerely. It was a time when a comic book regularly became national news. Roy of the Rovers tackled issues of the day: here the comic addressed football hooliganism in a 1977 strip. Photograph: 2014 ©Egmont UK Ltd. All rights reserved Roy of the Rovers first appeared in Tiger magazine on 11 September 1954 and during its heyday had a circulation of about 400,000. After 22 years of success it moved from Tiger in 1976 and became its own weekly publication until 1993, when sales had declined to 20,000, although the story did run on a monthly basis until 2001 in various forms . The drama never stopped. Aside from Race’s nine league titles, eight FA Cup victories, three European Cups and many international caps, there was plenty to keep readers entertained off the field. Melchester were ambushed by rebels in South America, an assassination attempt on Roy Race failed in 1981, an earthquake at Mel Park and the appointment of Geoffrey Boycott as chairman were just a few examples of the remarkable struggles at the club. There was also the time eight Melchester players were killed by terrorist activity in the Middle-East state of Basran, before the eventual demise of Race himself, the centre-forward turned player-manager’s career cruelly cut short after losing a foot in a disastrous helicopter crash. “In the early days Melchester Rovers would always do remarkably well and almost win every match that they played,” says Tomlinson, a former editor of Tiger who launched Roy of the Rovers magazine. “Then they changed it and it went much more true to life, the audience began to expect a more sophisticated storyline. Roy was the first comic book hero to get married and that had lots of support from the readers. “His wife, Penny, left him because he was spending too much time at the football club and it was national news. Every newspaper carried the story and it was on TV and radio. I was whisked on to ITN to discuss the serious situation and then in the evening on the BBC. Roy of the Rovers is such an important character in children’s comics – I was very fortunate to be part of it for so long.” Frank Pepper was the author of the original strip, while early stories were written alongside Bobby Charlton, who many associate with Race’s gentlemanly demeanour. Throughout the controversy that engulfed Melchester, throughout the myriad scandals, he remained the quintessential model professional, regularly emerging with his integrity intact and, quite often, with it enhanced. Yet while Race was a constant protagonist from 1954 to 1993, the cast of illustrators and writers changed significantly. Joe Colquhoun was the original artist but was followed by Paul Trevillion, Yvonne Hutton, David Sque and Michael White. Derek Birnage, an early editor of Tiger, played a key writing role before Tom Tully. It was in the 60s when the strip’s popularity accelerated. Trevillion, who illustrated the strip in a new style of comic realism between 1963-65, recalls one particular moment when he first realised how famous the story had become. He said: “I was at Tottenham’s training ground one day and Danny Blanchflower said to Bill Nicholson as Cliff Jones went past about three players: ‘He thinks he’s Roy of the Rovers.’ I couldn’t believe it. Then I was told that kids were writing in for Roy’s autograph.” It was at that time when Alf Ramsey took a keen interest in Race’s travails. The England manager was an avid reader and often provided Trevillion with his constructive criticism on the illustrations, before becoming a character in the strip himself. “Alf was my art teacher,” joked Trevillion. “It was always the same argument, Alf would always call me and say: ‘He’s in the wrong position, he’s leaning too far back and the ball would have gone over the bar.’ It was Alf who always said: ‘Go out and watch Bobby Charlton.’ ” However, there were storylines that readers did not always appreciate, such as the introduction to the team of Martin Kemp and Steve Norman from Spandau Ballet, or Bob Wilson and Emlyn Hughes, who many associated with TV and celebrity culture rather than football. Sque, the illustrator between 1974 and 1986, said: “Someone came up with the idea and I knew it would be the death of Roy, to make him into a ‘real character’. He married his secretary Penny, she had twins and it all tied in with Prince Charles and Diana getting married at the same time. I knew when we made him a real character his son would end up taking over. That put a time-limit on it.” Indeed, after the helicopter crash of 1993 it was Rocky Race, Roy’s son, who became the driving force of the strip. However, in the face of digital competition, there was to be no return to the glory days of old. Roy Race was involved in a terrible helicopter crash onto a football pitch in March 1993. Photograph: 2014 ©Egmont UK Ltd. All rights reserved Egmont UK currently holds the rights and is commemorating the strip’s 60th anniversary with a new Roy Race autobiography next month. There may be many young fans of the modern game for whom this will not even register, oblivious to a character who once was entwined in the very fabric of English football. For some, though, Roy of the Rovers will never die. “I think it’s a tragedy that Roy isn’t around any more,” says Tomlinson. “Football is so much more dramatic now than it was in Roy’s day that the storylines would be much easier to write – but he’s still my best friend.”	Tiger (disambiguation)
Elected on October 14th 2011, what is the name of the current Secretary of state for defence ?	From Roy of the Rovers to World War 1 – Joe Colquhoun \| Dorset Life - The Dorset Magazine From Roy of the Rovers to World War 1 – Joe Colquhoun Nick Churchill on the extraordinary body of work of Swanage illustrator Joe Colquhoun Published in September ’14 Charley Bourne says ‘Cheerio chum’ to his old mate Smokey Holmes in a Battle from 1981 Although Charley’s War was described by The Word magazine as the ‘greatest British comic strip ever created’, drawing it, was to Joe Colquhoun’s family, simply what he did for a living. It kept him fully employed for at least five, but usually more, days a week, alone at his desk in the attic of the Swanage home he shared with wife Mary and children Ian, Jane, Tracey and Kate. Charley’s War ran in Battle Picture Weekly from 1979 until Joe’s death in 1987 and followed the story of an underage British soldier called Charley Bourne who lies about his age to join up and is immediately thrust into the hell of the Somme. The commemoration of the centenary of the outbreak of World War One has accelerated a growing resurgence of interest in Joe’s work in general and Charley’s War in particular with original drawings being exhibited at the International Comic Art Festival, in major shows in France and Holland and in Joe’s hometown, at Durlston Castle. Written by Pat Mills, the strip tells of Charley’s frequently mundane and sometimes harrowing life in the trenches throughout the Great War and beyond, into the invasion of Russia in 1919 and eventually to a less successful story, penned by Scott Goodall, at the start of World War 2. ‘Joe was incredibly conscientious,’ says Mary. ‘He was always at his desk by 9.30 every morning and he worked right through until six or seven in the evening and often much later. The scripts would arrive and he would have to draw three pages a week, every week, for Charley’s War, plus whatever extra work he had taken on as well. He was always taking on extra jobs when we needed the money. If we ever took a holiday it was a nightmare for him as he would have to do all the work in advance.’ Joe at home at work Jane, herself an artist, remembers her dad constantly working, invariably to a tight deadline, although she says he always had time for the family. ‘He never seemed to mind being interrupted even though it must have been terribly annoying for him. We knew he drew but we didn’t take much notice, if anything all these war stories were a bit of a turn off. Other people were much more impressed by his work; to us it was just what he did. The ironic thing is that if he was working today he would enjoy far greater recognition.’ Joe’s drawings for Charley’s War are widely credited with pushing the boundaries of art in comics, long before they were referred to as graphic novels and artists such as Jim Lee, Steve Ditko, Frank Miller and Alan Moore enjoyed superstar status among the cognoscenti. Joe’s use of heavy inks, busy backgrounds and predominately black frames, with his unflinching portrayal of emotion in men at war, established Charley’s War as the only overtly anti-war story of its era and directly influenced the darker tone of modern graphic novels. Indeed, when Joe started working in comics artists were not even credited. ‘Dad’s name didn’t appear on the strips until the 1980s,’ says Jane. ‘I’ve been reading his diaries which go back to his school days and it seems he sort of drifted into drawing for comics in the 1950s after finishing art college. Even then he was told he was putting too much in the frames and he would never make any money out of it if he drew that much detail.’ In 1954 he became the first artist to draw Roy of the Rovers and also wrote the story for three years, despite professing to have no interest in football. In the 1960s and 1970s he worked for comics including Tiger (Football Family Robinson), Buster (City Jungle) and Corr!, for which he drew the all-colour Kid Chameleon in 1971 and The Goodies in 1973. He also created a Morecombe and Wise strip. His other strips for Battle included Johnny Red and Soldier Sharp: The Rat of the Rifles. In one particularly sinister 1976 strip for Valiant called The Final Victim, Joe drew an over-worked comics artist who grumbles about short deadlines, late payments and demanding editors. In an effort to capture the perfect expression of horror the beleaguered illustrator goes on a killing spree, studying his victims’ faces as they succumb before burying them in his basement. As if it could be any darker, Joe’s fictional artist is a perfect self-portrait. ‘I’ve only just seen this one, but it’s definitely dad,’ says Jane. ‘It’s his desk in the attic, his angle poise lamp, the same dirty cups, the flares! We didn’t even know he’d done that one. ‘However, Charley’s War was certainly his magnum opus. There’s something about the mark making in those strips that is unlike anything else of that time. It brought together all his skills and was the strip he was working on almost until he died.’ Charley's War never pulled its punches about loss (Joe Colquhoun (c) Egmont UK 2014) For all the uncompromising action sequences, the bulk of Charley’s War reflects the drudgery of life in the trenches interspersed with outbreaks of terror. In the early strips much is made of Charley’s touching friendship with Ginger Jones. After many action-packed episodes Ginger is killed by a random shell while at ease and in three agonisingly poignant frames (shown below), Charley gathers his friend’s remains in a sack only to be accused of stealing by an officer. ‘I think a lot of the stories were aimed at adults, even though the comics were read by children,’ says Mary. ‘Pat Mills was a lot younger than Joe, a different generation and he definitely wrote them with a political edge.’ Charley’s War was re-serialised in the comic 2000AD, created by Pat Mills, and has since been made into ten books, which have been translated into French. Joe’s original artwork is highly prized by collectors and some is now included in permanent collections at the Tank Museum and on long-term loan at the Cartoon Museum. ‘The interest in dad’s work has been gathering pace for a few years now,’ Jane explains, ‘ever since it featured in a BBC documentary called Comics Britannia. There are collectors wanting to buy it and the French are really keen, but the only pieces we’ve sold have been to a genuinely dedicated fan. I’m sure dad would be happy to see his family benefitting from the sale of the archive, but we felt a real pang when we let some of it go.’ Jane and Mary Colquhoun looking at some of Joe’s original artwork on his old table easel Joe’s diaries, unlooked at for years, are laced with clues to the man and his work. Mary and Jane have been unpacking these parcels from the past and through them are seeing Joe’s work in a new light. There are drawings of soldiers and footballers throughout the journals and also in Joe’s school exercise books, particularly his French grammar book: ‘He always said he wasn’t interested in fighting or football, but I suppose he was just drawing the things that boys of his generation were into,’ says Jane. ‘There are things he was drawing at 13 years old that crop up in his later work, especially Charley’s War. He had a nice childhood, I think. It was almost like a boys’ own comic strip of the day, full of adventures and trips with his mates. Later on he seems to be very disappointed as his mates started to get married and move away.’ Called up as an 18-year-old in 1944, Joe served in the Royal Navy during World War 2, mainly in the Mediterranean. He saw little action, if any, and somewhat resented spending his salad days swabbing decks in the sunshine. ‘Oh, he had a lovely war,’ says Mary, ‘if a bit boring. He writes about it in the diaries and letters home to his parents. He certainly wasn’t drawing on his own experiences in Charley’s War, but he was able to put himself in the shoes of men at war in extreme situations. He couldn’t do women though, couldn’t get the expressions right. He tried a couple of things for girls’ comics but they didn’t really work.’ A characteristically uncompromising Charley’s War strip (Joe Colquhoun (c) Egmont UK 2014) The diaries reveal Joe had considered becoming a writer and completed a correspondence course in the Navy, but he also mentions wanting to be an architect and having a job where he could travel. In the event he enrolled at art school in Kingston, close to his parents’ home, and subsequently fell in to writing and drawing for an American-backed comic. When that didn’t pay he went to work for Amalgamated Press and the die was cast. ‘Dad was a bit remote I suppose,’ says Jane, ‘always busy. As well as the drawing he took the dog for walks, did all the DIY in a crumbling house, kept an allotment, took us to school, did his accounts and insisted on taking us out on a Sunday, but he’d always come back to work. It’s strange hearing from fans of his work because he’s held in such esteem by them, but to us he’s just dad. People used to say he was everyone’s favourite uncle and he was like that as a dad as well. He was a cuddly man, very kindly, funny too.’ Joe Colquhoun goes into Battle This resonates with Mary who adds: ‘It must have been quite depressing at times to be surrounded by that much misery in the stories, but he hardly ever let on. He was a lovely dad. I was absolutely in awe of what he could do, I can’t do anything like that … I can make a cake though!’ ◗	i don't know
Introduced in 2006, What two word term was given to the optical disc storing medium, designed to be the successor to DVD, offering a much larger capacity and picture quality ?	ExplainingComputers.com: Storage INTRODUCTION This page provides an overview of the most widely available means of storing and backing-up computer data, and in doing so provides a supplement to the hardware and security pages. For more information you may also want to watch the following video on "data wrangling" in which I discuss the handling and long-term storage of large quantities of data: Computer storage is measured in bytes, kilobytes (KB), megabytes (MB), gigabytes (GB) and increasingly terabytes (TB). One byte is one character of information, and is comprised of eight bits (or eight digital 1's or 0's). Technically a kilobyte is 1024 bytes, a megabyte 1024 kilobytes, a gigabyte 1024 megabytes, and a terabyte 1024 gigabytes. This said, whilst this remains true when it comes to a computer's internal RAM and solid state storage devices (like USB memory sticks and flash memory cards), measures of hard disk capacity often take 1MB to be 1,000,000 bytes (not 1,024,768 bytes) and so on. This means that the storage capacity of two devices labelled as the same size can be different, and which remains an ongoing source of debate within the computer industry. Any sensible computer user will plan for two categories of storage. These will comprise the storage necessary to keep files internally on their computer, as well as those media required to back-up, transfer and archive data (as also explored in the security section). In turn, when deciding on suitable external storage devices, the key questions to be asked should be how much data actually needs to be stored, and whether the external data archive will be subject to random-access or incremental change. STORAGE CAPACITY AND REQUIREMENTS If a computer user is usually only going to create word processor documents and spreadsheets, then most of their files will probably be in the order of a few hundred KB or maybe occasionally a few MB in size. If, however, a computer is being used to store and manipulate digital photographs, then average file sizes will be in the region of several MB in size (and potentially tens of MB if professional digital photography is being conducted). Yet another level of storage higher, if a computer is being used to edit and store video, individual file sizes will probably be measured in hundreds of MB or even a few GB. For example, an hour of DV format video footage consumes about 12GB of storage. Non-compressed video requires even more space -- for example 2GB for every minute of standard definition footage, and 9.38GB for each minute of non-compressed 1920x1080 high definition video. Knowing what a computer is going to be used for (and of course many computers are used for a variety of purposes) is hence very important when planning storage requirements. In addition to capacity requirements, whether the data in a user's back-up archive will have to change in a random-access or incremental fashion can be a critical factor in the choice of external storage devices. A digital photographer, for example, will probably have incremental back-up requirements where each time they complete a shoot they will want to take a back-up of several hundred MB or a few GB of photographs that will subsequently never change. In other words they will want to keep a permanent record of an historical digital state of the world. Writing data like photographs to write-once media (such as CD-R or DVD-R as discussed below) would hence be perfectly acceptable. The photographer's total archive may be hundreds of GB in size, but would only be added to incrementally with previously stored data never being changed. In contrast, somebody producing 3D computer animation may be re-rendering tens of GB of output on a regular basis to replace previous files in a random-access fashion. In this situation not only would re-writable media be more suitable, but the speed of the back-up device would become far more critical. Having to take a copy of even 50GB of data at the end of a working day is a very different proposition to a few GB, let alone a few tens or hundreds of MB. Further discussion of the suitability of different media for incremental and random-access back-up continues within the following explanation of available storage devices and technologies. HARD DISK STORAGE Spinning hard disk (HD) drives are today the most common means of high capacity computer storage, with most desktop and laptop computers still relying on a spinning hard disk to store their operating system, applications programs and at least some user data. Traditional, spinning hard disk drives consist of one or more disk "platters" stacked one above the other, and coated in a magnetic media that is written to and read by the drive heads. As discussed in the hardware section, hard disk drives can transfer data directly to other computer hardware via a range of three interface types (SATA, IDE/UDMA, or SCSI) and come in a range of speeds from 4200 to 15000 revolutions per minute (RPM). Hard disks are almost always manufactured with either 3.5" of 2.5" platters (although just to break the rule a few smaller -- most notably 1.8" -- and even some larger platter disks are made by some manufacturers). For many years 3.5" hard disks have been standard for desktop computers and servers, and 2.5" hard disks for laptops. Yet this is now starting to change, with enterprise class 2.5" hard disks now increasingly being used in servers and some desktop computers due to their low power requirements. Indeed, the fact that Western Digital's top-of-the-range Velociraptor hard drives now use a 2.5" rather than a 3.5" mechanism speaks volumes and probably indicates that within a few years most spinning hard disk drives are likely to be 2.5". (Note that some raptor models are supplied in a metal "sled" for fitting into a 3.5" bay) Whilst at least one hard disk is usually required inside a computer as the "system disk", additional hard disk drives can be located either "internally" inside the main computer case, or connected "externally" as an independent hardware unit. A second internal hard disk is highly recommended where a user regularly works on very large media files (typically digital video files) that are always accessed directly off the hard disk, rather than loaded into RAM. Where such files are loaded off a computer's system disk, the disk drive heads are inevitably constantly nipping back and forth between accessing the large media file and writing temporary operating system files, and this both degrades performance and reduces the life of the disk. RAID On servers and high-end PC workstations (such as those used for high-end video editing), at least two hard disks are often linked together using a technology called RAID. This stands for "redundant array of independent disks" (or sometimes "redundant array of inexpensive drives"), and stores the data in each user volume on multiple physical drives. Many possible RAID configurations are available. The first is called "RAID 0". This divides or "strips" the data in a storage volume across two or more disks, with half of each file written to one disk, and half to another. This improves overall read/write performance without sacrificing capacity. So, for example (as shown above), two 1TB drives may be linked to form a 2TB array. Because this virtual volume is faster than either of its component disks, RAID 0 is common used on video editing workstations. In contrast to RAID 0, "RAID 1" is primarily intended to protect data against hardware failure. Here data is duplicated or "mirrored" across two or more disks. The data redundancy so created means that if one physical drive fails there is still a complete copy of its contents on another drive. However, this does mean that drive capacity is sacrificed. For example (as shown above), a 1TB RAID 1 volume requires two 1TB disks. While data write performance is not improved by using RAID 1, data read times are increased as multiple files can be accessed simultaneously from different physical drives. If more than two drives are used, several other configurations become possible. For example, using three of more drives, "RAID 5" strikes a balance between speed and redundancy by stripping data across two drives but also writing "parity" data to a third. Parity data maintains a record of the differences between the blocks of data on the other drives, in turn permitting file restoration in the event of a drive failure. (A great explanation of parity and RAID 5 in detail can be found in this video . For mission-critical applications, "RAID 10" strips and mirrors data across four or more drives to provide the gold standard in performance and redundancy. You can find a more detailed explanation of RAID 0, 1, 5 and 10 on TheGeekStuff.com . Many modern personal computer motherboards permit two SATA hard disk drives to set up in a RAID configuration. However, for users who do not require the extra speed provided by RAID 0, RAID 5 or RAID 10, there are relatively few benefits to be gained. Not least, it needs to be remembered that any hardware setup featuring more than one internal hard disk -- whether or not in a RAID configuration -- at best provides marginal improvements in data security and integrity. This is simply because it provides no more tolerance to the theft of the base unit, nor to power surges or computer power supply failures (which can simply fry two or more hard drives at once rather than one). A summary of RAID can also be found in my Explaining RAID video. EXTERNAL HARD DISKS / DIRECT ATTACHED STORAGE (DAS) Except where two internal hard disks are considered essential on the basis of performance (and possibly convenience), a second hard disk is today most advisably connected as an external unit, or what is sometimes now known as a "DAS" or direct attached storage drive. DAS external hard disks connect via a USB , firewire or an E-SATA interface (see the hardware section), with USB being the most common. The highest quality external hard drives routinely include at least two of these interfaces as standard, hence maximising their flexibility for moving data between different computers. As explained in the networking section, today some external hard disks can also be purchased as NAS (network attached storage) devices that can easily be shared between users across a network. For most purposes, external hard disks offer comparable performance to most internal hard disks -- even when used for highly disk intensive processes such as video editing. This will be especially the case when a drive is connected via an interface such as USB 3.0 . External hard disks also have the added convenience of being easily physically separable from the computer for secure and/or off-site storage. A user can also purchase additional external hard disks as their data storage requirements dictate. External hard disk units normally include one 3.5" or 2.5" hard disk inside their case. Units with a 3.5" disk tend to offer a cheaper cost per megabyte. Units based on 2.5" drives are smaller and usually do not require an external power adapter (as a computer can supply enough electricity down the USB or firewire hard disk connection cable). Some external hard disks now include several physical disks inside one unit in some form of RAID configuration. External hard disks offer a user fast and high-capacity external storage with a low cost-per-megabyte. In most instances, they are also only real option where high capacity, random access data archives have to be maintained. This said, many users will never have such archives, and there are several other disadvantages to DAS -style external hard disks. For a start, whilst their cost-per-megabyte is low, their cost-per-unit is high compared to most optical media and solid state storage devices. External hard disks are also fairly easy to physically damage via impact or by getting them wet. Reliance on a single external hard drive can also place an entire data archive "in one basket", and is of no use at all where data either needs to be physically exchanged between users (as still happens even in the days of the Internet ), or has to be accessed via a media device to which an external hard disk cannot be connected. External hard drive units are also somewhat cumbersome for those wrangling tens of terabyes of data. For this reason, some people now transfer and store large quantities of data on bare hard disks connected to their computer as required (and usually via a flying E-SATA lead). However, this is hardly ideal, not least because both connectors and the drives themselves can become damaged. As shown above in my Explaining Data Wrangling video, one solution for those who need to work with a great many hard drives is to use house the disks in caddies that then slot into PC-mounted bay. Such caddies can sometimes also be connected to other computers via USB or E-SATA . As a consequence of the above limitations, computer users handling both small and large quantities of data tend not to rely entirely on hard disk technology, and will therefore also make use of optical, solid-state or online storage technologies. OPTICAL DISK STORAGE Almost all optical storage involves the use of a 5" disk from which data is read by a laser. Optical media can be read only (such as commercial software, music or movie disks), write-one, or rewritable, and currently exists in one of three basic formats. These are compact disk (CD), digital versatile disk (DVD)and Blu-Ray disk (BD). A fourth format called High-Definition DVD (HD DVD) is now dead-in-the-water. Compact disk is a very mature, low-cost and reliable storage media particularly well suited for most personal computer users for incremental data archiving, as well as for the physical exchange of moderate-sized qualities of data. Writable compact disks can be either CD-R (which are a write-one media) or CD-RW (to which data can be written and erased typically a few hundred times). The storage capacity of a compact disk is up to about 700MB for CD-R and somewhat less for CD-RW media (and depending on the format used to write the data). For the reliable back-up or exchange of up to 700MB of data there is still little to beat a compact disk. Problems accessing a CD-R disk are now very rare, and the cost of the disks is low if bought in bulk in "pancakes" of 25, 50 or 100 disks. The media are also physically very durable -- and certainly considerably more so than an external hard disk. The only real drawbacks to compact disks for data storage are the speed of access (even if a modern drive will write and verify a CD-R in well under five minutes) and the relatively limited capacity. DVD followed compact disk into the optical storage arena, and most new computers are now equipped with an optical drive that will read and write both CD and DVD media. Due to format battles as yet unresolved (and now unlikely ever to be resolved!), DVD comes in two write-once formats (DVD-R and DVD+R), as well as two re-writable formats (DVD+RW and DVD-RW). Many older DVD writers will only write to either DVD-R and DVD-RW or to DVD+R and DVD+RW, so users need to take care to purchase the right media. Also many DVD drives will only read one type of rewritable media, and again users need to carefully take this into account when producing disks for other people. In general, it is fairly widely accepted that DVD+R is the most "stable" widely-readable write-once format (especially in domestic DVD video players) due to having superior error correction and burning control than DVD-R, whilst DVD+RW is the most flexible re-writable format. To make matters a little more confusing, Panasonic also created a format called DVD RAM. This is actually a superb re-writable technology (disks can reliably be re-written tens of thousands of times, as opposed realistically to hundreds of times for DVD-RW or DVD+RW). DVD RAM disks are also starting to be widely used in domestic DVD recorders, and are available in caddy units that can be either single or double sided. For video recording purposes and stable data archiving, DVD RAM is the media of choice. The only constraint is that many DVD drives still won't read or write DVD RAM disks (although the number is rapidly growing), with even fewer drives accepting the caddied disks that offer the media the best protection from dust, and hence maximum the durability. Windows XP also has only limited support for DVD RAM. The standard capacity for any format of DVD media is 4.7GB. Commercial read-only disks (as used to distribute movies) double this to 8.5GB by storing the data on two layers. Yet two more formats of DVD write-one disk (DVD-R DL and DVD+R DL) also exist to copy the same trick to raise writeable DVD data storage capacity to 8.5GB. However, once again not all drives will write these media, and in terms of cost per gigabyte it remains far cheaper (if less environmentally or archive-space friendly) to write two DVD-R or DVD+R disks rather than a single double layer (DL) disk. Double-sided DVD RAM disks -- that physically have to be turned over to read or write the other side -- have a capacity of 9.4GB. Blu-Ray disk is the high-capacity successor to DVD, and the only surviving new optical disk media on the block. It was developed by the Blu-Ray Disk Association (BDA) as a higher-capacity replacement for DVD (and especially to allow for the distribution and home recording of movies in high definition). Whilst most of the attention in this area has until recently been focused on Blu-Ray's battle with HD DVD (see below), for computer users Blu-Ray already offers write-once (BD-R) and re-writable (BD-RE) disk capacities of 25GB on a single-layer disk and 50GB on a dual layer disks. Just as importantly for the format, multi-hundred GB disks are already in the lab and on the consumer horizon. More information on Blu-Ray can be found via the FAQ files at Blu-Ray.com . It is worth noting for completeness that HD DVD was the contender to Blu-Ray Disk to replace DVD as the next generation optical storage media for both computer data storage and domestic video use. HD DVD disks had a 15GB capacity (lower than Blu-Ray disk at 25 or 50GB, and not that much higher than dual layer DVD-R DL or DVD+R DL disks at 8.5GB). HD DVD was created by Toshiba and NEC, and was backed by Microsoft. However, most movie studios and other computer industry players (including Sony, Panasonic, Philips, Samsung, Pioneer, Sharp, JVC, Hitachi, Mitsubishi, TDK, Thomson, LG, Apple, HP and Dell) were on the side of Blu-Ray. Indeed, it was following the defection in early 2008 of Warner Bros from HD DVD camp that Blu-Ray won the high capacity optical disk format wars. Hurrah! As an aside, in the television industry, Sony now sells professional video cameras and recorders that use its own 23.3GB XD-CAM optical disk storage system. Whatever format of optical disk media users choose, an ongoing debate concerns the archival qualities of all forms of optical media (ie how likely it is that data is going to remain on a disk in the long-term). Everybody seems to agree that archives should never be made on re-writable media (ie CD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD-RW or BD-RE), and advice to make new copies of optical media at least once every few years is not uncommon. For an in-depth discussion of this issue, see this excellent article on How To Choose CD/DVD Archival Media . And if you don't want an in-depth discussion, the short recommendation from this article is to archive on write-once media manufactured by Taiyo Yuden (the creators of recordable CD), and as available in the UK from retailers including DVDshoponline . To make matters far easier, in 2010 Taiyo Yuden bought the JVC Media brand, meaning that Taiyo Yuden media can now be purchased in (some) JVC boxes. Another solid archival option is to purchase "gold archival" DVD media made by Verbatum or Kodak, and fairly widely available (if at about triple the cost of standard DVD-R or DVD+R disks). SOLID STATE DRIVES Solid state storage devices store computer data on non-volatile "flash" memory chips rather than by changing the surface properties of a magnetic or optical spinning disk. With no moving parts solid state drives (SSDs) -- are also very much the future for almost all forms of computer storage. Sometime in the second half of this decade, solid state drives are likely to replace spinning hard disks in most computers, with several manufacturers now offering hard-disk-replacement SSDs. These are often very fast indeed, extremely robust and use very little power. As pictured above, typically today most hard disk replacement SSDs are the same size -- and hence a direct replacement for -- a 2.5" hard drive. They also usually connect via a SATA interface. Unfortunately the prices of solid state drives are currently high, with the lowest capacity disks (of 30 to 64GB) costing in the �60 to �120 bracket, and the highest capacity disks (currently up to 512GB) being in the region of �1,000. At present SSDs are therefore generally only being used in high-end PCs and laptops, and as a means of increasing robustness, reducing noise, decreasing power consumption, and often significantly decreasing boot-up times. As a notable exception, for a couple of years some ultramobile "netbook" computers and some low-power desktop computers -- such as the Asus Eee PC -- used an SSD rather than a traditional hard drive, and which was made cost-effective by limiting disk sizes to around 4-8GB. Sadly, on netbooks this trend has now died out. However, the new Google Chromebooks are SSD-based, as our the lovely if pricey Macbook Air notebooks. For more information on solid state drives as hard disk replacements, you may also like to watch the following video: FLASH MEMORY CARDS The above discussion of hard-disk replacement SSDs noted, at present for most people most solid state storage devices come in two basic forms: flash memory cards and USB memory sticks. Flash memory cards were developed as a storage media for digital cameras and mobile computers . They consist of a small plastic package with a contact array that slots into a camera or other mobile computing device, or an appropriate memory card reader. Such readers usually have several slots (to accommodate the various formats of flash memory cards now available), and can either be integrated into a desktop computer or laptop's case, or connected via a USB port as an external hardware unit. In addition to still and video digital cameras, many mobile phones, tablets, netbooks, media players, audio recorders and televisions now also have slots for reading and writing a flash memory card. The capacity of flash memory cards on the market currently ranges from 8MB to 64GB. There are also six major card formats, each with its own type of card slot. The most common format is the secure digital or SD card (see below). Next most popular are compact flash (CF) cards, which were the first popular format introduced, and which are used by many professional digital cameras and audio recorders. Finally come Sony's Memory stick format (and not to be confused with a USB memory stick), the multi-media card (MMC) and the xD picture card (XD card). Adapters are available to allow a compact flash card to be connected to a computer's motherboard instead of a hard disk, and these are becoming popular on small-format computers running the Linux operating system. As another aside, Panasonic have their own video recording flash memory card format called the P2 card. This is internally based on four high-speed SD cards, currently available in 16, 32 or 64GB capacities, and is used instead of tape on some professional video equipment. In April 2007, Sandisk and Sony also released an alternative flash memory card format -- the SxS card -- currently also available in 16, 32 and 64GB capacities. This said, even in professional video, compact flash and even SD cards are becoming the dominant recording media. SD CARDS SD cards are as noted above the most popular flash memory cards now on the market, and come in so many variants that they do require some explanation. For a start, SD cards come in three physical sizes. These comprise standard-size SD cards (first developed in 1999), smaller mini SD cards (introduced on some mobile phones in 2003), and the even smaller micro SD cards. The latter were invented in 2005 and are becoming increasingly popular on smartphones and tablets. While the larger cards cannot fit in smaller card slots, adapters are available to enable micro and mini cards to be accessed by any device that accepts a standard-size card. SD cards also come in three capacity types known as SD, SDHC and SDXC. The first of these can store up to 2GB of data. SDHC (SD high capacity) cards are then available in capacities of between 4 and 32 GB, while SDXC (SD extended capacity) cards range from 32GB up to a theoretical 2TB (although at present only 64GB cards are on the market). Because SD cards now come in three capacity syltes, not all SD devices can access all SD cards of the same physical design. While standard SD cards can be read by anything, SDHC cards should only be inserted into SDHC or SDXC devices. SDXC cards must then only be used with the latest SDXC hardware. If you try to use an SDXC or SDHC card in a device that does not support it then you may lose data or even damage the card. To further add to the confusion(!), SD cards are currently also available in five speed classes. These are known as class 2, class 4, class 6, class 10, and UHS-1 (ultra high speed 1). Many manufacturers also label cards with a speed multiple that compares them to a CD-ROM drive. Absolute data transfer ratings are sometimes also included. However, in practical terms it is the speed class that really matters. As may be expected, the higher an SD card's speed class, the faster it will be but the more it will cost. For most purposes class 4 or class 6 cards are fine. This said, class 10 or UHS-1 are best for high definition video or when otherwise handling large quantities of data. You can learn lots more about SD cards in my Explaining SD Cards video, as well as from the SD Association . USB MEMORY STICKS USB memory sticks (or USB memory keys, USB memory drives, or whatever you choose to call them!) are basically a combination of a flash memory card and a flash memory card reader in one handy and tiny package. Over the past five years, USB memory sticks have also become the dominant means of removable, re-writable portable data storage, and look set to remain so for some time. Not least this is because of their size, ever-increasing capacity (which currently ranges from about 512MB to 256GB), and perhaps most importantly their inherent durability. As with other storage devices, there are two key factors to consider when selecting a USB memory stick: capacity and data transfer speed. Whilst most consumer attention remains on the former, the later can be at least as critical. It is not uncommon for some USB memory sticks to transfer data at least ten or more times slower than others (I recently compared transferring 1GB of files between a high-specification Corsair Voyager USB memory stick and a cheaper "own brand" model and measured transfer times of under 2 minutes and approaching 30). The extent to which this matters depends as discussed previously on whether the data in your archive is only updated incrementally (with each new document), or more completely (with a large number or a few large files replaced on a regular basis). A USB memory stick that takes 30 minutes to shift a gigabyte of data is fine if you only copy a few tens of MB or less to it per day. However, if you regularly have to back-up multiple GB, you need a fast USB memory key if you are not to lose your sanity. Fortunately, just why some solid state disks are slower than others is not a mystery. Rather, it is a function of the type of flash memory chips used to hold the data. Without going into great technicalities, these chips come in two varieties called single level cell (SLC) and multi level cell (MLC). Basically, MLC flash chips store two or more bits of data in each memory cell, whilst SLC chips store only one. MLC solid state disks are therefore cheaper to produce than SLC disks at any given capacity, but due to storing more than one bit of information in each memory cell take longer to write and read data. If you need a fast USB key, memory card or indeed hard-disk replacement SSD then you need to pay more to obtain an SLC device. NETWORK AND ONLINE STORAGE Many computer users may never have to back-up their data to a removable media or external hard drive (and indeed may be discouraged or banned from doing so) because their files will be stored and backed-up on their company's network servers. Even in the home (and as discussed in the networking section), back-up to a server is also now an option for many. Far more fundamentally, all of those switching in whole or part to cloud computing are now storing at least some of their data out on the Internet. And even those not using online applications and processing power now have the option of backing up moderate amounts of data online, and often for free! Files stored and/or backed-up online are still saved to a hard disk rather than to some magic, new alternative media. However, the fact that the disk is located remotely to your computer, can be accessed from anywhere, and is probably backed up by the service provider(?), can make online storage and back-up very attractive. Indeed, when Google added 1GB of free online storage for any type of file to its Google Docs online office suite it even stated in the press release that one of their intentions was to remove the need for people to use and carry USB memory keys. Cloud data storage services come in two flavours. Some simply provide online filespace, whilst others additionally include a back-up synchronization service. An online filespace can be thought of as a hard disk in the cloud that can be accessed with a web browser to upload or download files. One example is Microsoft's Windows Live Skydrive , which provides 25GB of personal storage absolutely free (although there is a maximum file size limit of 50MB). As already noted, Google Docs offers 1GB of free online storage to which any kind of file can be uploaded up to a maximum size also of 1GB. Google then charge $5 a year for each additional 20GB. Another popular online filespace provider is box.net . For those people who may forget to regularly back-up their data to one of the above, there are cloud storage services that automate the process. These require the installation of a piece of software on each computer that uses them. This local application then automatically backs up data to the cloud, and may also synchronize it across PCs. Such a service is offered by Dropbox , which describes itself as a kind of 'magic pocket' that becomes available on all of your computing devices. For a more extensive listing of online storage services, please look in the cloud computing directory . STORAGE SUMMARY Every major media has now gone digital, and as a result both companies and individuals are creating an increasing volume of data not just to initially store, but just as importantly to manage and back-up into a coherent archive. Indeed, in the film industry where the digital storage requirements for high-speed, random access archives can run into tens of terabytes on a major blockbuster, the job title of "data wrangler" has been born to signal the requirement for people to take on effective data management in order keep the production running effectively. (With the decline of the Western, there has been a decline in the need for horse wranglers, though sadly the skill sets required for data wranglers and horse wranglers are not similar, with no former horse wrangler having been reported to have taken up residence in a data center). Back with the typical computer user, the last few years have seen the death of the floppy disk (with its 1.44MB capacity), and for many the digitization of photography and their music collection. Video collections are also due to go the same way. Many if not the majority of households as well as businesses now therefore have many gigabytes of data that they really don't want to lose. The devices and methods employed for keeping this data safe can be varied (with strategies as discussed in the security section), but the principle should always be the same: any valued piece of computer data should always be stored on at least two physically different media and which are located in two as isolated locations as possible. For most people and organizations, the only question when it comes to data storage and backup should therefore be whether they can trust one or even two of these storage locations to be online in the cloud . Storage refers to hardware (including online infra- structure) used to hold computer data. RELATED VIDEOS	Blu-ray
Which Asian country’s flag consists of a single yellow star on a red background ?	Random Access Memory \| Wikitronics \| Fandom powered by Wikia "RAM" redirects here. For other uses of the word, see Ram. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) modules Two 512 MB DRAM Modules Connects to: * PCB or motherboard via one of o Socket o Integration Types: * SDRAM * DDR * RDRAM * DDR 2 * DDR 3 Common Manufacturers: * Micron Technology * Samsung * Kingston Technology * Corsair Memory * Mushkin * Apacer Random access memory (usually known by its acronym, RAM) is a type of computer data storage. It takes the form of integrated circuits that allow the stored data to be accessed in any order — that is, at random and without the physical movement of the storage medium or a physical reading head. RAM is a volatile memory as the information or instructions stored in it will be lost if the power is switched off. The word "random" refers to the fact that any piece of data can be returned in a constant time, regardless of its physical location and whether or not it is related to the previous piece of data.[1] This contrasts with storage mechanisms such as tapes, magnetic discs and optical discs, which rely on the physical movement of the recording medium or a reading head. In these devices, the movement takes longer than the data transfer, and the retrieval time varies depending on the physical location of the next item. Contents [hide] * 1 RAM * 2 Overview * 3 Recent developments * 4 Memory wall * 5 DRAM packaging * 6 See also * 7 Notes and references * 8 External links [edit] RAM Originally, RAM referred to a type of solid-state memory, and the majority of this article deals with that, but physical devices which can emulate true RAM (or, at least, are used in a similar way) can have "RAM" in their names: for example, DVD-RAM. RAM is usually writable as well as readable, so "RAM" is often used interchangeably with "read-write memory". The alternative to this is "ROM", or Read Only Memory. Most types of RAM lose their data when the computer powers down. "Flash memory" is a ROM/RAM hybrid that can be written to, but which does not require power to maintain its contents. RAM is not strictly the opposite of ROM, however. The word random indicates a contrast with serial access or sequential access memory. "Random access" is also the name of an indexing method: hence, disk storage is often called "random access" because the reading head can move relatively quickly from one piece of data to another, and does not have to read all the data in between. However the final "M" is crucial: "RAM" (provided there is no additional term as in "DVD-RAM") always refers to a solid-state device. Many CPU-based designs actually have a memory hierarchy consisting of registers, on-die SRAM caches, DRAM, paging systems, and virtual memory or swap space on a hard-drive. This entire pool of memory may be referred to as "RAM" by many developers, even though the various subsystems can have very different access times, violating the original concept behind the "random access" term in RAM. Even within a hierarchy level such as DRAM, the specific row/column/bank/rank/channel/interleave organization of the components make the access time variable, although not to the extent that rotating storage media or a tape is variable. 1 Module of 128Mb NEC SD-RAM 1 Module of 128Mb NEC SD-RAM [edit] Overview The key benefit of RAM over types of storage which require physical movement is that retrieval times areas 'main memory' or primary storage: the working area used for loading, displaying and manipulating applications and data. In most personal computers, the RAM is not an integral part of the motherboard or CPU—it comes in the easily upgraded form of modules called memory sticks or RAM sticks about the size of a few sticks of chewing gum. These can quickly be removed and replaced should they become damaged or too small for current purposes. A smaller amount of random-access memory is also integrated with the CPU, but this is usually referred to as "cache" memory, rather than RAM. Modern RAM generally stores a bit of data as either a charge in a capacitor, as in dynamic RAM, or the state of a flip-flop, as in static RAM. Some types of RAM can detect or correct random faults called memory errors in the stored data, using RAM parity and error correction codes. Many types of RAM are volatile, which means that unlike some other forms of computer storage such as disk storage and tape storage, they lose all data when the computer is powered down. For these reasons, nearly all PCs use disks as "secondary storage". Small PDAs and music players (up to 8 GB in Jan 2007) may dispense with disks, but rely on flash memory to maintain data between sessions of use. Software can "partition" a portion of a computer's RAM, allowing it to act as a much faster hard drive that is called a RAM disk. Unless the memory used is non-volatile, a RAM disk loses the stored data when the computer is shut down. However, volatile memory can retain its data when the computer is shut down if it has a separate power source, usually a battery. If a computer becomes low on RAM during intensive application cycles, the computer can resort to swapping. In this case, the computer temporarily uses hard drive space as additional memory. Constantly relying on this type of backup memory is called thrashing, which is generally undesirably because it lowers overall system performance. In order to reduce the dependency on swapping, more RAM can be installed. [edit] Recent developments Currently, several types of non-volatile RAM are under development, which will preserve data while powered down. The technologies used include carbon nanotubes and the magnetic tunnel effect. In summer 2003, a 128 KB magnetic RAM chip manufactured with 0.18 µm technology was introduced. The core technology of MRAM is based on the magnetic tunnel effect. In June 2004, Infineon Technologies unveiled a 16 MB prototype again based on 0.18 µm technology. Nantero built a functioning carbon nanotube memory prototype 10 GB array in 2004. In 2006, Solid state memory came of age, especially when implemented as "Solid state disks", with capacities exceeding 150 gigabytes and speeds far exceeding traditional disks. This development has started to blur the definition between traditional random access memory and disks, dramatically reducing the difference in performance. [edit] Memory wall The "memory wall" is the growing disparity of speed between CPU and memory outside the CPU chip. An important reason of this disparity is the limited communication bandwidth beyond chip boundaries. From 1986 to 2000, CPU speed improved at an annual rate of 55% while memory speed only improved at 10%. Given these trends, it was expected that memory latency would become an overwhelming bottleneck in computer performance. [2] Currently, CPU speed improvements have slowed significantly partly due to major physical barriers and partly because current CPU designs have already hit the memory wall in some sense. Intel summarized these causes in their Platform 2015 documentation (PDF): “First of all, as chip geometries shrink and clock frequencies rise, the transistor leakage current increases, leading to excess power consumption and heat (more on power consumption below). Secondly, the advantages of higher clock speeds are in part negated by memory latency, since memory access times have not been able to keep pace with increasing clock frequencies. Third, for certain applications, traditional serial architectures are becoming less efficient as processors get faster (due to the so-called Von Neumann bottleneck), further undercutting any gains that frequency increases might otherwise buy. In addition, partly due to limitations in the means of producing inductance within solid state devices, resistance-capacitance (RC) delays in signal transmission are growing as feature sizes shrink, imposing an additional bottleneck that frequency increases don't address.” The RC delays in signal transmission were also noted in Clock Rate versus IPC: The End of the Road for Conventional Microarchitectures which projects a maximum of 12.5% average annual CPU performance improvement between 2000 and 2014. The data on Intel Processors clearly shows a slowdown in performance improvements in recent processors. However, Intel's new processors, Core 2 Duo (codenamed Conroe) show a significant improvement over previous Pentium 4 processors; due to a more efficient architecture, performance increased while clock rate actually decreased. [edit] DRAM packaging Main article: DRAM packaging For economic reasons, the large (main) memories found in personal computers, workstations, and non-handheld game-consoles (such as Playstation and Xbox) normally consists of dynamic RAM (DRAM). Other parts of the computer, such as cache memories and data buffers in hard disks, normally use static RAM (SRAM) Jump to: navigation, search Two types of DIMMs: a 168-pin SDRAM module (top) and a 184-pin DDR SDRAM module (bottom). Two types of DIMMs: a 168-pin SDRAM module (top) and a 184-pin DDR SDRAM module (bottom). A DIMM, or dual in-line memory module, comprises a series of random access memory integrated circuits. These modules are mounted on a printed circuit board and designed for use in personal computers. DIMMs began to replace SIMMs (single in-line memory modules) as the predominant type of memory module as Intel's Pentium processors began to control the market. The main difference between SIMMs and DIMMs is that SIMMs have a 32-bit data path, while DIMMs have a 64-bit data path. Since Intel's Pentium has (as do several other processors) a 64-bit bus width, it required SIMMs installed in matched pairs in order to use them. The processor would then access the two SIMMs simultaneously. DIMMs were introduced to eliminate this inefficiency. Another difference is that DIMMs have separate electrical contacts on each side of the module, while the contacts on SIMMs on both sides are redundant. The most common types of DIMMs are: * 72-pin DIMM, used for FPM DRAM and EDO DRAM * 72-pin SO-DIMM, used for FPM DRAM and EDO DRAM * 100-pin DIMM, used for printer SDRAM * 144-pin SO-DIMM, used for SDR SDRAM * 168-pin DIMM, used for SDR SDRAM (less frequently for FPM/EDO DRAM in workstations/servers) * 184-pin DIMM, used for DDR SDRAM * 200-pin SO-DIMM, used for DDR SDRAM and DDR2 SDRAM * 240-pin DIMM, used for DDR2 SDRAM and FB-DIMM DRAM There are 2 notches on the bottom edge of 168-pin-DIMMs, and the location of each notch determines a particular feature of the module. usually it is 13cm for desktop version and 15cm for server version. * The first notch is DRAM key position. It represents RFU (reserved future use), registered, and unbuffered. * The second notch is voltage key position. It represents 5.0V, 3.3V, and Reserved. * The upper DIMM in the photo is an unbuffered 3.3V 168-pin DIMM. A DIMM's capacity and timing parameters may be identified with SPD (Serial Presence Detect), an additional chip which contains information about the module type. ECC DIMMs are those that have extra data bits which can be used by the system memory controller to detect and correct errors. There are numerous ECC schemes, but perhaps the most common is Single Error Correct, Double Error Detect (SECDED) which uses a 9th extra bit per byte. Contents [hide] * 1 Ranking * 2 Organization * 3 Speeds * 4 Form factors * 5 See also * 6 External links [edit] Ranking The number of ranks on any DIMM is the number of independent sets of DRAMs that can be accessed simultaneously for the full data bit-width of the DIMM to be driven on the bus. The physical layout of the DRAM chips on the DIMM itself does not necessarily relate to the number of ranks. Sometimes the layout of all DRAM on one side of the DIMM PCB versus both sides is referred to as "single-sided" versus "double-sided". These terms may cause confusion as they do not necessarily relate to how the DIMMs are logically organized or accessed. For example, on a single rank DIMM that has 64 data bits of I/O pins, there is only one set of DRAMs that are turned on to drive a read or receive a write on all 64-bits. In most electronic systems, memory controllers are designed to access the full data bus width of the memory module at the same time. On a 64-bit (non-ECC) DIMM made with two ranks, there would be two sets of DRAM that could be accessed at different times. Only one of the ranks can be accessed at a time, since the DRAM data bits are tied together for two loads on the DIMM (Wired OR). Ranks are accessed through chip selects (CS). Thus for a two rank module, the two DRAMs with data bits tied together may be accessed by a CS per DRAM (e.g. CS0 goes to one DRAM chip and CS1 goes to the other). DIMMs are currently being commonly manufactured with up to four ranks per module. Consumer DIMM vendors have recently begun to distinguish between single and dual ranked DIMMs. JEDEC decided that the terms "dual-sided," "double-sided," or "dual-banked" were not correct when applied to registered DIMMs. [edit] Organization Most DIMMs are built using "x4" (by 4) memory chips or "x8" (by 8) memory chips. "x4" or "x8" refer to the data width of the DRAM chips in bits. In the case of the "x4" Registered DIMMs, the data width per side is 36 bits; therefore, the memory controller (which requires 72 bits) needs to address both sides at the same time to read or write the data it needs. In this case, the two-sided module is single-ranked. For "x8" Registered DIMMs, each side is 72 bits wide, so the memory controller only addresses one side at a time (the two-sided module is dual-ranked). [edit] Speeds For various technologies, there are certain bus and device clock frequencies that are standardized. There is also a decided nomenclature for each of these speeds for each type. SDRAM DIMMs - These first synchronous registered DRAM DIMMs had the same bus frequency for data, address and control lines. * PC66 = 66 MHz * PC100 = 100 MHz * PC133 = 133 MHz DDR SDRAM (DDR1) SDRAM DIMMs - DIMMs based on Double Data Rate (DDR) DRAM have data but not the strobe at double the rate of the clock. This is achieved by clocking on both the rising and falling edge of the data strobes. * PC1600 = 200 MHz data & strobe / 100 MHz clock for address and control * PC2100 = 266 MHz data & strobe / 133 MHz clock for address and control * PC2700 = 333 MHz data & strobe / 166 MHz clock for address and control * PC3200 = 400 MHz data & strobe / 200 MHz clock for address and control DDR2 SDRAM SDRAM DIMMs - DIMMs based on Double Data Rate 2 (DDR2) DRAM also have data and data strobe frequencies at double the rate of the clock. This is achieved by clocking on both the rising and falling edge of the data strobes. The power consumption of DDR2 is significantly lower than DDR(1) at the same speed. * PC2-3200 = 400 MHz data & strobe / 200 MHz clock for address and control * PC2-4200 = 533 MHz data & strobe / 266 MHz clock for address and control * PC2-5300 = 667 MHz data & strobe / 333 MHz clock for address and control * PC2-6400 = 800 MHz data & stOptical disc authoring * Optical disc * Optical disc image * Optical disc drive * Authoring software * Recording technologies o Recording modes o Packet writing Optical media types * Laserdisc * Compact disc (CD): CD-Audio, PhotoCD, CD-R, CD-ROM, CD-RW, Video CD, SVCD, CD+G, CD-Text, CD-ROM XA, CD-Extra, CD-i Bridge, CD-i * MiniDisc * DVD: DVD-R, DVD-D, DVD-R DL, DVD+R, DVD+R DL, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD-RW DL, DVD+RW DL, DVD-RAM * Blu-ray Disc: BD-R, BD-RE * HD DVD: HD DVD-R, HD DVD-RW, HD DVD-RAM * UDO * UMD * Holographic data storage * 3D optical data storage * History of optical storage media Standards * Rainbow Books * File systems o ISO 9660 + Joliet + Rock Ridge # Amiga Rock Ridge extensions + El Torito + Apple ISO9660 Extensions o Universal Disk Format + Mount Rainier A DVD-RAM disc can be identified by many small rectangles distributed on the surface of the data carrier. A DVD-RAM disc can be identified by many small rectangles distributed on the surface of the data carrier. These rectangles constitute the hard (factory originated) sectoring of the DVD-RAM. These rectangles constitute the hard (factory originated) sectoring of the DVD-RAM. DVD-RAM (DVD–Random Access Memory) is a disc specification presented in 1996 by the DVD Forum, which specifies rewritable DVD-RAM media and the appropriate DVD writers. DVD-RAM media have been used in computers as well as camcorders and personal video recorders since 1998. The direct successor of this format will be HD DVD-RAM. Contents [hide] * 1 Introduction * 2 DVD-RAM Cartridge types * 3 Specification * 4 Compatibility * 5 Evaluation o 5.1 Advantages of DVD-RAM o 5.2 Disadvantages of DVD-RAM * 6 See also * 7 External links [edit] Introduction Currently there are three competing technologies for rewritable DVDs: DVD-RAM, DVD+RW and DVD-RW. DVD-RAM is considered a highly reliable format, as the discs have built-in error control and a defect management system. Therefore, DVD-RAM is perceived to be better than the other DVD technologies for traditional computer usage tasks such as general data storage, backup and archival, though the Mt. Rainier standard for DVD+RW somewhat lessens the DVD-RAM format's perceived advantage. Curiously, DVD-RAM has a larger presence in camcorders and set-top boxes than in computers, although the DVD-RAM's popularity in these devices can be explained by the fact that it is very easily written to and erased, which for example allows extensive in-camera editing. The on-disc structure of DVD-RAMs is closely related to hard disk and floppy disk technology, as it stores data in concentric tracks. DVD-RAMs can be accessed just like a hard or floppy disk and usually without any special software. DVD-RWs and DVD+RWs, on the other hand, store data in one long spiral track and require special packet reading/writing software to read and write data discs. It is a common misconception that DVD-RAM uses magneto-optical (MO) technologies, since both DVD-RAM and MO have numerous rectangles on the disc surface. However, DVD-RAM is a pure phase change medium, similar to CD-RW or DVD-RW. See also DVD, Compact Disc. [edit] DVD-RAM Cartridge types Size Bare Disc Non-removable Cartridge Removable Cartridge Empty/No Cartridge sides single double single double single double single double 12 cm yes (type 0) none type 1 type 1 type 2 type 4 type 3 type 5 8 cm yes (type 0) none none none type 7 type 6 type 9 type 8 [edit] Specification A DVD-RAM Type 2. A DVD-RAM Type 2. A DVD-RAM for DVD Recorders A DVD-RAM for DVD Recorders Since the Internationale Funkausstellung Berlin 2003 the specification is being marketed by the RAM Promotion Group (RAMPRG), built by Hitachi, Toshiba, Maxell, LG Electronics, Matsushita/Panasonic, Samsung and Teac. The specification distinguishes between * DVD-RAM version 1.0, recording speed 1x o Single-sided, one layer discs with a capacity of 2.58 GB o Double-sided one layer discs with a capacity of 5.16 GB * DVD-RAM version 2.0, recording speed 2x o Single-sided, one layer discs with a capacity of 4.7 GB o Double-sided one layer discs with a capacity of 9.4 GB * DVD-RAM version 2.1/Revision 1.0, recording speed 3x * DVD-RAM version 2.2/Revision 2.0, recording speed 5x * DVD-RAM version 2.3/Revision 3.0, recording speed 6x max * DVD-RAM version 2.4/Revision 4.0, recording speed 8x max * DVD-RAM version 2.5/Revision 5.0, recording speed 12x max * DVD-RAM version 2.6/Revision 6.0, recording speed 16x max Physically smaller, 80 mm in diameter, DVD-RAM discs also exist with a capacity of 1.46 GB for a single-sided disc, but they are uncommon. DVD-RAMs were originally solely sold in cartridges; recent DVD recorders however also work with no-cartridge discs — some devices even do not support cartridges anymore. A cartridge disc is about 50% more expensive than a disc without a cartridge. A miniDVD-RAM with DVD Round Holder. A miniDVD-RAM with DVD Round Holder. How to open DVD-RAM cartridge How to open DVD-RAM cartridge [edit] Compatibility Many operating systems like Mac OS (Mac OS 8.6 up to Mac OS 9.2), Linux and Microsoft Windows XP support DVD-RAM operation directly, while earlier versions of Windows require device drivers or the program InCD. The optical drives shipped with most Apple Macintosh computers do not support DVD-RAM operation, but a third party DVD-RAM-compatible drive can be connected and used directly with Mac OS. Windows XP can only write directly to FAT32-formatted DVD-RAM discs. For UDF-formatted discs, which are considered faster, compatible device drivers or software such as InCD or DLA are required. Windows Vista can natively access and write to UDF-formatted DVD-RAM discs. This is a non-issue with Linux however, which allows the use of virtually any file system of the multitude that ship with the operating system, including UDF. It is even possible to use the ext3 file system on a DVD-RAM disc. Even though it is possible to use any file system one likes, only very few perform well on DVD-RAM. This is because some file systems frequently over-write data on the disc and the table of contents is contained at the start of the disc. Mac OS up tp 9.2 (Mac OS Classic) can read and write HFS-, HFS Plus-, FAT-, and UDF-formatted DVD-RAM discs directly. Although Mac OS X does not officially support any DVD-RAM formatting or writing operations, it is reported that it is possible to use some third-party DVD-RAM drives to format, read and write HFS Plus- and FAT32- disks (for instance see [1]). Many DVD standalone players and recorders do not support DVD-RAM, especially older or cheaper versions. However, within "RAMPRG" (the DVD-RAM Promotion Group) there are a number of well-known manufacturers of standalone players and recorders that do support DVD-RAM. Panasonic for instance have a range of players and recorders which make full use of the advantages of DVD-RAM. There are also a number of video cameras that use DVD-RAM as the recording media. [edit] Evaluation [edit] Advantages of DVD-RAM * Long life — without physical damage, data is retained for an estimated 30 years minimum. Ideal for video evidence recording in CCTV applications amongst many other uses. * Can be rewritten over 100,000 times (DVD±RW can be rewritten approx. 1,000 times). Faster DVD-RAMs support fewer rewrites (3x speed: 100,000, 5x speed: 10,000) [citation needed], but still more than DVD+RW or DVD-RW. (These are theoretical numbers. In practice they could be smaller depending on the drive, the treatment of the disc and the file system.) * Reliable writing of discs. Verification done in hardware by the drive, so post-write verification by software is unnecessary. This is disabled in all current DVD Video Recorders. * Disc defect management safeguards data, though no optical phase change media is suitable for long term archiving. * DVD-burning software may not be required — discs can be used and accessed like a removable hard disk. Mac OS (8.6 or later) supports DVD-RAM directly. Windows XP supports DVD-RAM directly only for FAT32-formatted discs. Windows Vista is able to write to both FAT32- and UDF-formatted DVD-RAM discs right from within Windows Explorer. Device drivers or other software are needed for earlier versions of Windows or if one wants to use the arguably better UDF format rather than FAT32. * Arguably easier to use than other DVD technology. * Very fast access of smaller files on the disc. * 2 KB disc block size wastes less space when writing small files. * Finalization not necessary. This is an attribute of the VR mode recording mode and is available on other media such as DVD-RW. * Media available with or without protective cartridges. * In video recorders, DVD-RAM can be written to and watched (even separate programs) at the same time, much like TiVo. This is an attribute of the VR mode recording mode and is available on other media such as DVD-RW, though this is only possible at the lower bit rates. * Supports time slip recording and recording without border in/out writing. This is an attribute of the VR mode recording mode and is available on other media such as DVD-RW, though again only at the lower bit rates. * Supported by some high end security digital video recorders, such as the Tecton Darlex, as a secure export medium. 30 year retention makes this an ideal format for evidence. * Holds more data when using Double Sided discs than dual-layer DVD+RW and DVD-RW, 9.4GB for DVD-RAM vs 8.5GB for DVD+RW DL and DVD-RW DL. [edit] Disadvantages of DVD-RAM * Less compatibility than DVD+RW and DVD-RW, despite predating both formats (as noted above). * 12x media is reportedly available at OpticStor in the USA. It is not reportedly available in Europe. 16x media may not be available anywhere except manufacturers' R&D laboratories. * DVD-RAM media was initially more expensive than other DVD types. * DVD-RAM writing will be slower than DVD+RW and DVD-RW until 12x DVD-RAM media becomes available. If write verification is enabled, corders and drives, but the media itself is further hindered by its scarcity at retail stores in contrast to other recordable DVD formats. robe / 400 MHz clock for address and control * PC2-8000 = 1000 MHz data & strobe / 500 MHz clock for address and control * PC2-8500 = 1066 MHz data & strobe / 533 MHz clock for address and control [edit] Form factors Several form factors are commonly used in DIMMs. Single Data Rate(SDR) SDRAM DIMMs commonly came in two main sizes: 1.7" and 1.5". When 1U rackmount servers started becoming popular, these form factor Registered DIMMs had to plug into angled DIMM sockets to fit in the 1.75" high box. To alleviate this issue, the next standards of DDR DIMMs were created with a "Low Profile" (LP) height of ~1.2". These fit into vertical DIMM sockets for a 1U platform. With the advent of blade servers, the LP form factor DIMMs have once again been often angled to fit in these space constrained boxes. This led to the development of the Very Low Profile (VLP) form factor DIMM with a height of ~.72" (18.3 mm). Other DIMM form factors include the SO-DIMM, the Mini-DIMM and the VLP Mini-DIMM. Static random access memory (SRAM) is a type of semiconductor memory. The word "static" indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power remains applied, unlike dynamic RAM (DRAM) that needs to be periodically refreshed (nevertheless, SRAM should not be confused with read-only memory and flash memory, since it is volatile memory and preserves data only while power is continuously applied). SRAM should not be confused with SDRAM, which stands for synchronous DRAM and is entirely different from SRAM, or with pseudostatic RAM ([PSRAM]), which is DRAM configured to function, to an extent, as SRAM. Contents [hide] * 1 Design * 2 SRAM operation o 2.1 Standby o 2.2 Reading o 2.3 Writing o 2.4 Bus behaviour * 3 Applications and Uses o 3.1 Characteristics + 3.1.1 Clock speed and power o 3.2 Embedded use o 3.3 In computers o 3.4 Hobbyists * 4 Types of SRAM o 4.1 By transistor type o 4.2 By function o 4.3 By feature * 5 See also * 6 References * 7 External links [edit] Design A six-transistor CMOS SRAM cell. A six-transistor CMOS SRAM cell. Random access means that locations in the memory can be written to or read from in any order, regardless of the memory location that was last accessed. Each bit in an SRAM is stored on four transistors that form two cross-coupled inverters. This storage cell has two stable states which are used to denote 0 and 1. Two additional access transistors serve to control the access to a storage cell during read and write operations. It thus typically takes six MOSFETs to store one memory bit. Access to the cell is enabled by the word line (WL in figure) which controls the two access transistors M5 and M6 which, in turn, control whether the cell should be connected to the bit lines: BL and BL. They are used to transfer data for both read and write operations. While it's not strictly necessary to have two bit lines, both the signal and its inverse are typically provided since it improves noise margins. During read accesses, the bit lines are actively driven high and low by the inverters in the SRAM cell. This improves SRAM speed compared to DRAMs—in a DRAM, the bit line is connected to storage capacitors and charge sharing causes the bitline to swing upwards or downwards. The symmetric structure of SRAMs also allows for differential signalling, which makes small voltage swings more easily detectable. Another difference with DRAM that contributes to making SRAM faster is that commercial chips accept all address bits at a time. By comparison, commodity DRAMs have the address multiplexed in two halves, i.e. higher bits followed by lower bits, over the same package pins in order to keep their size and cost down. The size of an SRAM with m address lines and n data lines is 2m words, or 2m × n bits. [edit] SRAM operation A SRAM cell has three different states it can be in: standby where the circuit is idle, reading when the data has been requested and writing when updating the contents. The three different states work as follows: [edit] Standby If the word line is not asserted, the access transistors M5 and M6 disconnect the cell from the bit lines. The two cross coupled inverters formed by M1 – M4 will continue to reinforce each other as long as they are disconnected from the outside world. [edit] Reading Assume that the content of the memory is a 1, stored at Q. The read cycle is started by precharging both the bit lines to a logical 1, then asserting the word line WL, enabling both the access transistors. The second step occurs when the values stored in Q and Q are transferred to the bit lines by leaving BL at its precharged value and discharging BL through M1 and M5 to a logical 0. On the BL side, the transistors M4 and M6 pull the bit line toward VDD, a logical 1. If the content of the memory was a 0, the opposite would happen and BL would be pulled toward 1 and BL toward 0. [edit] Writing The start of a write cycle begins by applying the value to be written to the bit lines. If we wish to write a 0, we would apply a 0 to the bit lines, i.e. setting BL to 1 and BL to 0. This is similar to applying a reset pulse to a SR-latch, which causes the flip flop to change state. A 1 is written by inverting the values of the bit lines. WL is then asserted and the value that is to be stored is latched in. Note that the reason this works is that the bit line input-drivers are designed to be much stronger than the relatively weak transistors in the cell itself, so that they can easily override the previous state of the cross-coupled inverters. Careful sizing of the transistors in a SRAM cell is needed to ensure proper operation. [edit] Bus behaviour A RAM memory with an access time of 70 ns will output valid data within 70 ns from the time that the address lines are valid. But the data will remain for a hold time as well (5-10ns). Rise and fall time also affect (~5ns). By reading the lower part of an address range bits in sequence (page cycle) one can read with significantly shorter access time (30ns). [1] It is also referred to as Shadow Random Access Memory. [edit] Applications and Uses [edit] Characteristics SRAM is a little more expensive, but faster and significantly less power hungry (especially idle) than DRAM. It is therefore used where either speed or low power, or both, are of prime interest. SRAM is also easier to control (interface to) and generally more truly random access than modern types of DRAM. Due to a more complex internal structure, SRAM is less dense than DRAM and is therefore not used for high-capacity, low-cost applications such as the main memory in personal computers. [edit] Clock speed and power The power consumption of SRAM varies widely depending on how frequently it is accessed; it can be as power-hungry as dynamic RAM, when used at high frequencies, and some ICs can consume many watts at full speed. On the other hand, static RAM used at a somewhat slower pace, such as in applications with moderately clocked microprocessors, draw very little power and can have a nearly negligible power consumption when sitting idle — in the region of a few microwatts. Static RAM exists primarily as: * general purpose products o with asynchronous interface, such as the 28 pin 32Kx8 chips (usually named XXC256), and similar products up to 16 Mbit per chip o with synchronous interface, usually used for caches and other applications requiring burst transfers, up to 18 Mbit (256Kx72) per chip * integrated on chip o as RAM or cache memory in microcontrollers (usually from around 32 bytes up to 128 kibibytes) o as the primary caches in powerful microprocessors, such as the x86 family, and many others (from 8 KiB, up to several mebibytes) o on application specific ICs, or ASICs (usually in the order of kibibytes) o in FPGAs and CPLDs (usually in the order of a few kilobytes or less) It may be noted that cpu registers and parts of the state-machines used in microprocessors are also often (not always!) built around static RAM. [edit] Embedded use Many categories of industrial and scientific subsystems, automotive electronics, and similar, contains static RAM. Some amounts (kibibytes or less) is also embedded in practically all modern appliances, toys, etc that implements an electronic user interface. Several mebibytes may be used in complex products such as digital cameras, cell phones, synthesizers, etc. SRAM in its dual-ported form is sometimes used for realtime digital signal processing circuits. [edit] In computers SRAM is also used in personal computers, workstations, routers and peripheral equipment: internal CPU caches and external burst mode SRAM caches, hard disk buffers, router buffers, etc. LCD screens and printers also normally employ static RAM to hold the image displayed (or to be printed). Small SRAM buffers are also found in CDROM and CDRW drives; usually 256 KiB or more are used to buffer track data, which is transferred in blocks instead of as single values. The same applies to cable modems and similar equipment connected to computers. The so called "CMOS RAM" on PC motherboards was originally a battery-powered SRAM chip, but is today more often implemented using EEPROM or Flash. [edit] Hobbyists Hobbyists often prefer SRAM due to the ease of interfacing. It is much easier to work with than DRAM as there are no refresh cycles and the address and data buses are directly accessible rather than multiplexed. In addition to buses and power connections, SRAM usually require only three controls: Chip Enable (CE), Write Enable (WE) and Output Enable (OE). [edit] Types of SRAM [edit] By transistor type * Bipolar junction transistor (used in TTL and ECL) — very fast but consumes a lot of power * MOSFET (used in CMOS) — low power and very common today [edit] By function * Asynchronous — independent of clock frequency; data in and data out are controlled by address transition * Synchronous — all timings are initiated by the clock edge(s). Address, data in and other control signals are associated with the clock signals [edit] By feature * ZBT (ZBT stands for zero bus turnaround) — the turnaround is the number of clock cycles it takes to change access to the SRAM from write to read and vice versa. The turnaround for ZBT SRAMs or the latency between read and write cycle is zero. * syncBurst (syncBurst SRAM or synchronous-burst SRAM) — features synchronous burst write access to the SRAM to speed up write operation to the SRAM. Spin torque transfer writing technology is a technology in which data is written by aligning the spin direction of the electrons flowing through a TMR (tunneling magneto-resistance) element. Data writing is performed by using a spin-polarized current with the electrons having the same spin direction. Spin torque transfer RAM (STT-RAMTM) has the advantages of lower power-consumption and better scalability over conventional MRAM. Spin torque transfer technology has the potential to make possible MRAM devices combining low current requirements and reduced cost Non-volatile random access memory (NVRAM) is the general name used to describe any type of random access memory which does not lose its information when power is turned off. This is in contrast to the most common forms of random access memory today, DRAM and SRAM, which both require continual power in order to maintain their data. NVRAM is a subgroup of the more general class of non-volatile memory types, the difference being that NVRAM devices offer random access, as opposed to sequential access like hard disks. The best-known form of NVRAM memory today is flash memory. Some claim flash memory to be a truly "universal memory", offering the performance of the best SRAM devices with the non-volatility of Flash. To date these alternatives have not yet become mainstream. Contents [hide] * 1 Early NVRAMs * 2 The floating-gate transistor * 3 Newer Approaches * 4 See also * 5 External links [edit] Early NVRAMs Early computers used a variety of memory systems, some of which happened to be non-volatile, although not typically by design but simply as a side effect of their construction. The most common form of memory through the 1960s was magnetic core memory, which stored data in the polarity of small magnets. Since the magnets held their state even with the power removed, core memory was also non-volatile. Rapid advances in semiconductor fabrication in the 1970s led to a new generation of solid state memories that core simply could not compete with. Relentless market forces have dramatically improved these devices over the years, and today the low-cost and high-performance DRAM forms the vast majority of a typical computer's main memory. However there are many roles where non-volatility is important, either in cases where the power will be removed for periods of time, or alternately where the constant power needs of DRAM conflicts with low power devices. For many years there was no practical RAM-like device to fill this niche, and many systems used a combination of RAM and some form of ROM for these roles. Custom ROM was the earliest solution, but had the disadvantage of being able to be written to only once, when the chip was initially designed. ROMs consist of a series of diodes permanently wired to return the required data, the diodes being built in this configuration when they are being fabricated. PROM improved on this design, allowing the chip to be written to electrically by the end-user. PROM consists of a series of diodes that are initially all set to a single value, "1" for instance. By applying higher power than normal, a selected diode can be "burned out" (like a fuse), thereby permanently setting that bit to "0". PROM was a boon to companies who wished to update the contents with new revisions, or alternately produce a number of different products using the same chip. For instance, PROM was widely used for game console cartridges in the 1980s. For those who required real RAM-like performance and non-volatility typically have to use conventional RAM devices and a battery backup. This was a common solution in earlier computer systems like the original Apple Macintosh, which used a small amount of memory powered by a watch "button" battery for storing basic setup information like the selected boot volume. Much larger battery backed memories are still used today as caches for high-speed databases, requiring a performance level newer NVRAM devices have not yet managed to meet. [edit] The floating-gate transistor A huge advance in NVRAM technology was the introduction of the floating-gate transistor, which led to the introduction of erasable programmable read-only memory, or EPROM. EPROM consists of a grid of transistors whose base terminal (the "switch") is protected by a high-quality insulator. By "pushing" electrons onto the base with the application of higher-than-normal power, the electrons become trapped on the far side of the insulator, thereby permanently switching the transistor "on" ("1"). EPROM can be re-set to the "base state" (all "1"s or "0"s, depending on the design) by applying ultraviolet light (UV). The UV photons have enough energy to push the electrons through the insulator and return the base to a ground state. At that point the EPROM can be re-written from scratch. An improvement on EPROM, EEPROM, soon followed. The extra "E" stands for electrically, referring to the ability to reset EEPROM using electricity instead of UV, making the devices much easier to use in practice. The bit are re-set with the application of even higher power through the other terminals of the transistor (source and drain). This high power pulse basically sucks the electrons through the insulator, returning it to the ground state. This process has the disadvantage of mechanically degrading the chip, however, so memory systems based on floating-gate transistors generally have short write-lifetimes, on the order of 105 writes to any particular bit. The basis of Flash RAM is identical to EEPROM, and differs largely in internal layout. Flash allows its memory to be written only in blocks, which greatly simplifies the internal wiring and allows for higher densities. Areal density is the main determinant of cost in most computer memory systems, and due to this Flash has evolved into one of the lowest cost solid-state memory devices available. Starting around 2000, demand for ever-greater quantities of Flash have driven manufacturers to use only the latest fabrication systems in order to increase density as much as possible. Although fabrication limits are starting to come into play, new "multi-bit" techniques appear to be able to double or quadruple the density even at existing linewidths. [edit] Newer Approaches Flash and EEPROM's limited write-cycles are a serious problem for any real RAM-like role, however. Additionally, the high power needed to write the cells is a problem in low-power roles, where NVRAM is often used. The power also needs time to be "built up" in a device known as a charge pump, which makes writing dramatically slower than reading, often as much as 1,000 times. A number of new memory devices have been proposed to address these shortcomings. To date, the only such system to enter widespread production is Ferroelectric RAM, or FeRAM. FeRAM uses a ferroelectric layer in a cell that is otherwise similar to conventional DRAM, this layer holding the charge in a 1 or 0 even with the power removed. To date, FeRAM has been produced on very old fabs, and even the most advanced research samples are still twice the linewidth of most Flash devices. Although this difference might be addressable under normal circumstances, as Flash moves to multi-bit cells the difference in memory density appears to be growing, rather than shrinking. Another approach to see major development effort is Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory, or MRAM, which uses magnetic elements and generally operates in a fashion similar to core. Only one MRAM chip has entered production to date, Freescale Semiconductor's 4 Mbit part, and using the techniques in this particular design it is unlikely to grow any time soon. Another technique, known as STT-MRAM, appears to allow for much higher densities, but is falling behind Flash for the same reasons as FeRAM – enormous competitive pressures in the Flash market. Another solid-state technology to see more than purely experimental development is Phase-change RAM, or PRAM. PRAM is based on the same storage mechanism as writable CDs and DVDs, but reads them based on their changes in electrical resistance rather than changes in their optical properties. Considered a "dark horse" for some time, in 2006 Samsung announced the availability of a 512 Mb part, considerably higher capacity than either MRAM or FeRAM. The areal density of these parts appears to be even higher than modern Flash devices, the lower overall storage being due to the lack of multi-bit encoding. This announcement was followed by one from Intel and STMicroelectronics, who demonstrated their own PRAM devices at the 2006 Intel Developer Forum in October. One of the most attended sessions in the IEDM December 2006 was the presentation by IBM of their PRAM technology. Also seeing renewed interest is silicon-oxide-nitride-oxide-silicon (SONOS) memory. Perhaps one of the more innovative solutions is millipede memory, developed by IBM. Millipede is essentially a punch card rendered using nanotechnology in order to dramatically increase areal density. Although it was planned to introduce millipede as early as 2003, unexpected problems in development delayed this until 2005, by which point it was no longer competitive with Flash. In theory the technology offers storage densities on the order of 1 Tbit/in², far greater than even the best hard drive technologies currently in use (perpendicular recording offers about 230 Gbit/in²) . However, slow read and write times for memories this large seem to limit this technology to hard drive replacements as opposed to high-speed RAM-like uses, although to a very large degree the same is true of Flash as well. It remains to be seen if this technology will ever become practical. A number of more esoteric devices have been proposed, including Nano-RAM based on carbon nanotube technology, but these are currently far from commercialization. The advantages that nanostructures such as quantum dots, carbon nanotubes and nanowires offer over their silicon-based predecessors include their tiny size, speed and their density. Several concepts of molecular-scale memory devices have been developed recently.	i don't know
Ex US President George H W Bush was born in 1924, the same year as which other still living ex US President ?	Living Presidents - List of All Living U.S. Presidents Living Presidents By Tom Murse Updated October 17, 2016. There are five living presidents, including the current commander-in-chief, President Barack Obama. The other living presidents are George W. Bush, Bill Clinton, George H.W. Bush and Jimmy Carter. The record for the most living presidents at one time is six . The last time there were six living presidents was between 2001 and 2004, when both Ronald Reagan and Gerald Ford were still alive during the George W. Bush presidency. That record is certain to be tied in January of 2017, when Obama leaves office and the next president is sworn in . Of the five living presidents, only Clinton and Obama have the distinction of entering the office in their 40s . Carter and the younger Bush entered the White House in their 50s, and the elder Bush took office when he was 64. The elder Bush is the oldest living former president, but only by a couple of months. Carter is the second-oldest. The last time a former president died was in December of 2006, when Gerald Ford passed away. Here is a list of all living presidents. Barack Obama first won election in 2008 and was re-elected in 2012. Obama was inaugurated president when he was 47 years old. He was 51 when he was sworn into a second term. Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images News/Getty Images President Barack Obama, a Democrat, is serving his second term in the White House . He first won election in 2008 and was re-elected in 2012 . Obama was inaugurated president when he was 47 years old . He was 51 when he was sworn into a second term. More » George W. Bush, a Republican, was the 43rd president of the United States and is one of five living presidents. Getty Images 2. George W. Bush George W. Bush, a Republican, was the 43rd president of the United States and is one of five living presidents. He is a member of the Bush political dynasty . Bush was born on July 6, 1946, in New Haven, Conn. He was 54-years-old when he was sworn in to his first of two terms in the White House in 2001. He was 62 when he left office eight years later, in 2009. More » President Bill Clinton deliver delivers the State of the Union address in 1999. Pool / Getty Images News 3. Bill Clinton Bill Clinton, a Democrat, was the 42nd president of the United States and is one of five living presidents. Clinton was born on Aug. 19, 1946, in Hope, Arkansas. He was 46 when he took the oath of office in 1993 for his first of two terms in the White House. Clinton was 54 when his second term expired in 2001. More » George H.W. Bush, a Republican, was the 41st president of the United States and is among five living presidents. Chris Graythen/Getty Images News 4. George H.W. Bush George H.W. Bush, a Republican, was the 41st president of the United States and is among five living presidents. Bush was born on June 12, 1924, in Milton, Mass. He was 64-years-old when he entered the White House in January 1989. He was 68 when his four-year term expired in 1993. Bush was hospitalized in 2015 after he broke the C2 vertebrae in his neck while at his summer home in Kennebunkport, Maine. He spent about a week in the hospital in 2014 after he experienced shortness of breath. More » Jimmy Carter, a Democrat, was the 39th president of the United States and is one of five living presidents. Getty Images 5. Jimmy Carter Jimmy Carter, a Democrat, was the 39th president of the United States and is one of five living presidents. Carter was born on Oct. 1, 1924, in Plains, Georgia. He was 52-years-old when he took office in 1977, and 56 years-old when he left the White House four years later, in 1981. Carter was diagnosed with cancer of the liver and brain in 2015, at age 90. He initially believed he had only weeks to live. Speaking to reporters that year, he said: "I have had a wonderful life. I'm ready for anything and I'm looking forward to new adventure. It is in the hands of God, whom I worship." More »	Jimmy Carter
Apart from it’s current presenter Kirsty Young, who has been the only regular female presenter of the radio show Desert Island Discs, doing so from 1988 to 2006 ?	President George Herber Walker Bush 1942 George Bush entered the U.S. Navy and serves in WW II. 1948 Bush graduated from Yale University. 1953 Robin Bush, daughter of George and Barbara died of leukemia. 1966 Bush was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. 1976 President Ford appoints Bush director of the CIA. 1980 Bush was elected Vice President for Ronald Reagan and served two terms. 1988 Bush was elected President. 1991 U.S. launches Operation Desert Storm. 1992 Bush was defeated by Bill Clinton for the Presidency. George Herbert Walker Bush 1988 - 1992 41st President George Herbert Walker Bush was one of four Presidents to be born in Massachusetts. He was born in Milton, Massachusetts on June 12, 1924. He as the first president to be born in June. He is one of four presidents from Massachusetts. George Bush was the captain of the baseball team at Yale University. He also liked tennis and jogging. He is still a big baseball fan and can be seen sitting in stands with other fans a Houston and Texas baseball games. George was 6' 2" tall and weighed about 195. He is left handed. Bush was one of three presidents who majored in economics while is college. Ronald Reagan and Gerald Ford were the others. Bush requested Nixon's resignation as president in the name of the Republican Party. George Bush was the fifth cousin four times removed of Franklin Pierce. George Herbert Walker Bush resigned from the CIA after Jimmy Carter was elected president in 1976. George H.W. Bush's daughter Robin died of leukemia in 1953, when she was 3. President Bush's entire family stayed in the White House the night he was inaugurated. Extra beds had to be put up in all the bedrooms. The Bush's had a springer spaniel named Millie. Millie had a book published about her life in the White House. She had six puppies during her time a the White House. He liked to play horseshoes and had a horse shoe pit installed on the White House lawn. He also enjoyed Pork Rinds with Tabasco sauce on them. George Herbert Walker Bush became the youngest pilot in the U.S. Navy, surviving some dangerous missions in the South Pacific. He flew 58 combat missions in World War II. He was shot down and rescued by a submarine. His son become a pilot in the National Guard. President Bush was a Republican. George Bush was Vice President under Ronald Reagan. He was the first Vice President elected President since Van Buren. He also served as president for seven hours when he was vice president. He was president when Reagan was shot and was undergoing surgery. George Bush's Vice President was Dan Quayle (1989-1993). President Bush signed the bill creating a Federal Holiday in memory of Martin Luther King Jr. Bush signs Martin Luther King Holiday Proclamation, May 17, 1989. George Bush Presidential Library and Museum The First Dog, Millie, had her own room, in Nancy Reagan's old beauty parlor. George Herbert Walker Bush served only one term, Bill Clinton defeated George Bush in 1992. When Bush left office in 1993, he became the nation's 5th living ex-president, joining Richard Nixon, Gerald R. Ford, Jimmy Carter, and Ronald Reagan. George Herbert Walker Bush's son George W. Bush was also a President. Quotes from George H. Bush: "If anyone tells you that America's best days are behind her they're looking the wrong way." "Read my lips, no new taxes." Said when he was campaigning for the presidency. Topics	i don't know
Which Asian country’s flag consists of a large red disc on a green background ?	Flags of Every Country Follow us... Flags of Every Country Tweet This map shows Flags of every country in the world. Flag description produced from actual flags or the best information available at the time the entry was written. The flags of independent states are used by their dependencies unless there is an officially recognized local flag. Some disputed and other areas do not have flags. Note: Flag description from CIA Factbook and Flag image from Wikipedia. Last updated: Abkhazia Afghanistan three equal vertical bands of black (hoist side), red, and green, with the national emblem in white centered on the red band and slightly overlapping the other two bands; the center of the emblem features a mosque with pulpit and flags on either side, below the mosque are numerals for the solar year 1298 (1919 in the Gregorian calendar, the year of Afghan independence from the UK); this central image is circled by a border consisting of sheaves of wheat on the left and right, in the upper-center is an Arabic inscription of the Shahada (Muslim creed) below which are rays of the rising sun over the Takbir (Arabic expression meaning "God is great"), and at bottom center is a scroll bearing the name Afghanistan; black signifies the past, red is for the blood shed for independence, and green can represent either hope for the future, agricultural prosperity, or Islam note: Afghanistan had more changes to its national flag in the 20th century than any other country; the colors black, red, and green appeared on most of them Akrotiri the flag of the UK is used Albania red with a black two-headed eagle in the center; the design is claimed to be that of 15th-century hero George Castriota SKANDERBERG, who led a successful uprising against the Turks that resulted in a short-lived independence for some Albanian regions (1443-1478); an unsubstantiated explanation for the eagle symbol is the tradition that Albanians see themselves as descendants of the eagle; they refer to themselves as "Shkypetars," which translates as "sons of the eagle" Algeria two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and white; a red, five-pointed star within a red crescent centered over the two-color boundary; the colors represent Islam (green), purity and peace (white), and liberty (red); the crescent and star are also Islamic symbols, but the crescent is more closed than those of other Muslim countries because the Algerians believe the long crescent horns bring happiness American Samoa blue, with a white triangle edged in red that is based on the fly side and extends to the hoist side; a brown and white American bald eagle flying toward the hoist side is carrying two traditional Samoan symbols of authority, a war club known as a "Fa'alaufa'i" (upper; left talon), and a coconut fiber fly whisk known as a "Fue" (lower; right talon); the combination of symbols broadly mimics that seen on the US Great Seal and reflects the relationship between the United States and American Samoa Andorra three vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red, with the national coat of arms centered in the yellow band; the latter band is slightly wider than the other two so that the ratio of band widths is 8:9:8; the coat of arms features a quartered shield with the emblems of (starting in the upper left and proceeding clockwise): Urgell, Foix, Bearn, and Catalonia; the motto reads VIRTUS UNITA FORTIOR (Strength United is Stronger); the flag combines the blue and red French colors with the red and yellow of Spain to show Franco-Spanish protection note: similar to the flags of Chad and Romania, which do not have a national coat of arms in the center, and the flag of Moldova, which does bear a national emblem Angola two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and black with a centered yellow emblem consisting of a five-pointed star within half a cogwheel crossed by a machete (in the style of a hammer and sickle); red represents liberty, black the African continent, the symbols characterize workers and peasants Anguilla blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Anguillan coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms depicts three orange dolphins in an interlocking circular design on a white background with a turquoise-blue field below; the white in the background represents peace; the blue base symbolizes the surrounding sea, as well as faith, youth, and hope; the three dolphins stand for endurance, unity, and strength Antarctica Antarctica has no official flag as it is not a nation nor is it ruled by a single government or body. The Antarctic Treaty Organization adopted a flag in 2002 and is used as an unofficial symbol of the continent. Also, several unofficial designs have been proposed. Antigua and Barbuda red, with an inverted isosceles triangle based on the top edge of the flag; the triangle contains three horizontal bands of black (top), light blue, and white, with a yellow rising sun in the black band; the sun symbolizes the dawn of a new era, black represents the African heritage of most of the population, blue is for hope, and red is for the dynamism of the people; the "V" stands for victory; the successive yellow, blue, and white coloring is also meant to evoke the country's tourist attractions of sun, sea, and sand Argentina Three equal horizontal bands of light blue (top), white, and light blue; centered in the white band is a radiant yellow sun with a human face known as the Sun of May; There are multiple interpretations on the reasons for those colors: the blue colors represent the clear skies; the sun symbol commemorates the appearance of the sun through cloudy skies on 25 May 1810 during the first mass demonstration in favor of independence; the sun features are those of Inti, the Inca god of the sun. The flag was created by Manuel Belgrano. Armenia three equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue, and orange; the color red recalls the blood shed for liberty, blue the Armenian skies as well as hope, and orange the land and the courage of the workers who farm it Aruba blue, with two narrow, horizontal, yellow stripes across the lower portion and a red, four-pointed star outlined in white in the upper hoist-side corner; the star represents Aruba and its red soil and white beaches, its four points the four major languages (Papiamento, Dutch, Spanish, English) as well as the four points of a compass, to indicate that its inhabitants come from all over the world; the blue symbolizes Caribbean waters and skies; the stripes represent the island's two main "industries": the flow of tourists to the sun-drenched beaches and the flow of minerals from the earth Ashmore and Cartier Islands the flag of Australia is used Australia blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and a large seven-pointed star in the lower hoist-side quadrant known as the Commonwealth or Federation Star, representing the federation of the colonies of Australia in 1901; the star depicts one point for each of the six original states and one representing all of Australia's internal and external territories; on the fly half is a representation of the Southern Cross constellation in white with one small five-pointed star and four larger, seven-pointed stars Austria three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and red; the flag design is certainly one of the oldest - if not the oldest - national banners in the world; according to tradition, in 1191, following a fierce battle in the Third Crusade, Duke Leopold V of Austria's white tunic became completely blood-spattered; upon removal of his wide belt or sash, a white band was revealed; the red-white-red color combination was subsequently adopted as his banner Azerbaijan three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), red, and green; a crescent and eight-pointed star in white are centered in the red band; the blue band recalls Azerbaijan's Turkic heritage, red stands for modernization and progress, and green refers to Islam; the crescent moon is an Islamic symbol, while the eight-pointed star represents the eight Turkic peoples of the world Bahamas, The three equal horizontal bands of aquamarine (top), gold, and aquamarine, with a black equilateral triangle based on the hoist side; the band colors represent the golden beaches of the islands surrounded by the aquamarine sea; black represents the vigor and force of a united people, while the pointing triangle indicates the enterprise and determination of the Bahamian people to develop the rich resources of land and sea Bahrain red, the traditional color for flags of Persian Gulf states, with a white serrated band (five white points) on the hoist side; the five points represent the five pillars of Islam note: until 2002 the flag had eight white points, but this was reduced to five to avoid confusion with the Qatari flag Bangladesh green field with a large red disk shifted slightly to the hoist side of center; the red disk represents the rising sun and the sacrifice to achieve independence; the green field symbolizes the lush vegetation of Bangladesh Barbados three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), gold, and blue with the head of a black trident centered on the gold band; the band colors represent the blue of the sea and sky and the gold of the beaches; the trident head represents independence and a break with the past (the colonial coat of arms contained a complete trident) Belarus red horizontal band (top) and green horizontal band one-half the width of the red band; a white vertical stripe on the hoist side bears Belarusian national ornamentation in red; the red band color recalls past struggles from oppression, the green band represents hope and the many forests of the country Belgium three equal vertical bands of black (hoist side), yellow, and red; the vertical design was based on the flag of France; the colors are those of the arms of the duchy of Brabant (yellow lion with red claws and tongue on a black field) Belize blue with a narrow red stripe along the top and the bottom edges; centered is a large white disk bearing the coat of arms; the coat of arms features a shield flanked by two workers in front of a mahogany tree with the related motto SUB UMBRA FLOREO (I Flourish in the Shade) on a scroll at the bottom, all encircled by a green garland of 50 mahogany leaves; the colors are those of the two main political parties: blue for the PUP and red for the UDP; various elements of the coat of arms - the figures, the tools, the mahogany tree, and the garland of leaves - recall the logging industry that led to British settlement of Belize note: Belize's flag is the only national flag that depicts human beings; two British overseas territories, Montserrat and the British Virgin Islands, also depict humans Benin two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and red (bottom) with a vertical green band on the hoist side; green symbolizes hope and revival, yellow wealth, and red courage note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia Bermuda red, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Bermudian coat of arms (a white shield with a red lion standing on a green grassy field holding a scrolled shield showing the sinking of the ship Sea Venture off Bermuda in 1609) centered on the outer half of the flag; it was the shipwreck of the vessel, filled with English colonists originally bound for Virginia, that led to settling of Bermuda note: the flag is unusual in that it is only British overseas territory that uses a red ensign, all others use blue Bhutan divided diagonally from the lower hoist-side corner; the upper triangle is yellow and the lower triangle is orange; centered along the dividing line is a large black and white dragon facing away from the hoist side; the dragon, called the Druk (Thunder Dragon), is the emblem of the nation; its white color stands for purity and the jewels in its claws symbolize wealth; the background colors represent spiritual and secular powers within Bhutan: the orange is associated with Bhuddism, while the yellow denotes the ruling dynasty Bolivia three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green with the coat of arms centered on the yellow band; red stands for bravery and the blood of national heroes, yellow for the nation's mineral resources, and green for the fertility of the land note: similar to the flag of Ghana, which has a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band; in 2009, a presidential decree made it mandatory for a so-called wiphala - a square, multi-colored flag representing the country's indigenous peoples - to be used alongside the traditional flag Bosnia and Herzegovina a wide medium blue vertical band on the fly side with a yellow isosceles triangle abutting the band and the top of the flag; the remainder of the flag is medium blue with seven full five-pointed white stars and two half stars top and bottom along the hypotenuse of the triangle; the triangle approximates the shape of the country and its three points stand for the constituent peoples - Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs; the stars represent Europe and are meant to be continuous (thus the half stars at top and bottom); the colors (white, blue, and yellow) are often associated with neutrality and peace, and traditionally are linked with Bosnia Botswana light blue with a horizontal white-edged black stripe in the center; the blue symbolizes water in the form of rain, while the black and white bands represent racial harmony Bouvet Island the flag of Norway is used Brazil green with a large yellow diamond in the center bearing a blue celestial globe with 27 white five-pointed stars; the globe has a white equatorial band with the motto ORDEM E PROGRESSO (Order and Progress); the current flag was inspired by the banner of the former Empire of Brazil (1822-1889); on the imperial flag, the green represented the House of Braganza of Pedro I, the first Emperor of Brazil, while the yellow stood for the Habsburg Family of his wife; on the modern flag the green represents the forests of the country and the yellow rhombus its mineral wealth; the blue circle and stars, which replaced the coat of arms of the original flag, depict the sky over Rio de Janeiro on the morning of 15 November 1889 - the day the Republic of Brazil was declared; the number of stars has changed with the creation of new states and has risen from an original 21 to the current 27 (one for each state and the Federal District) British Indian Ocean Territory white with six blue wavy horizontal stripes; the flag of the UK is in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the striped section bears a palm tree and yellow crown (the symbols of the territory) centered on the outer half of the flag; the wavy stripes represent the Indian Ocean; although not officially described, the six blue stripes may stand for the six main atolls of the archipelago British Virgin Islands blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Virgin Islander coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms depicts a woman flanked on either side by a vertical column of six oil lamps above a scroll bearing the Latin word VIGILATE (Be Watchful); the islands were named by COLUMBUS in 1493 in honor of Saint Ursula and her 11 virgin followers (some sources say 11,000) who reputedly were martyred by the Huns in the 4th or 5th century; the figure on the banner holding a lamp represents the saint, the other lamps symbolize her followers Brunei yellow with two diagonal bands of white (top, almost double width) and black starting from the upper hoist side; the national emblem in red is superimposed at the center; yellow is the color of royalty and symbolizes the sultanate; the white and black bands denote Brunei's chief ministers; the emblem includes five main components: a swallow-tailed flag, the royal umbrella representing the monarchy, the wings of four feathers symbolizing justice, tranquility, prosperity, and peace, the two upraised hands signifying the government's pledge to preserve and promote the welfare of the people, and the crescent moon denoting Islam, the state religion; the state motto "Always render service with God's guidance" appears in yellow Arabic script on the crescent; a ribbon below the crescent reads "Brunei, the Abode of Peace" Bulgaria three equal horizontal bands of white (top), green, and red; the pan-Slavic white-blue-red colors were modified by substituting a green band (representing freedom) for the blue note: the national emblem, formerly on the hoist side of the white stripe, has been removed Burkina Faso two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a yellow five-pointed star in the center; red recalls the country's struggle for independence, green is for hope and abundance,and yellow represents the country's mineral wealth note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia Burma design consists of three equal horizontal stripes of yellow (top), green, and red; centered on the green band is a large white five-pointed star that partially overlaps onto the adjacent colored stripes; the design revives the triband colors used by Burma from 1943-45, during the Japanese occupation Burundi divided by a white diagonal cross into red panels (top and bottom) and green panels (hoist side and fly side) with a white disk superimposed at the center bearing three red six-pointed stars outlined in green arranged in a triangular design (one star above, two stars below); green symbolizes hope and optimism, white purity and peace, and red the blood shed in the struggle for independence; the three stars in the disk represent the three major ethnic groups: Hutu, Twa, Tutsi, as well as the three elements in the national motto: unity, work, progress Cambodia three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (double width), and blue with a white three-towered temple representing Angkor Wat outlined in black in the center of the red band; red and blue are traditional Cambodian colors note: only national flag to incorporate an actual building in its design Cameroon three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), red, and yellow, with a yellow five-pointed star centered in the red band; the vertical tricolor recalls the flag of France; red symbolizes unity, yellow the sun, happiness, and the savannahs in the north, and green hope and the forests in the south; the star is referred to as the "star of unity" note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia Canada two vertical bands of red (hoist and fly side, half width) with white square between them; an 11-pointed red maple leaf is centered in the white square; the maple leaf has long been a Canadian symbol; the official colors of Canada are red and white Cape Verde five unequal horizontal bands; the top-most band of blue - equal to one half the width of the flag - is followed by three bands of white, red, and white, each equal to 1/12 of the width, and a bottom stripe of blue equal to one quarter of the flag width; a circle of 10, yellow, five-pointed stars is centered on the red stripe and positioned 3/8 of the length of the flag from the hoist side; blue stands for the sea and the sky, the circle of stars represents the 10 major islands united into a nation, the stripes symbolize the road to formation of the country through peace (white) and effort (red) Cayman Islands a blue field, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Caymanian coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms includes a crest with a pineapple, representing the connection with Jamaica, and a turtle, representing Cayman's seafaring tradition, above a shield bearing a golden lion, symbolizing Great Britain, below which are three green stars (representing the three islands) surmounting white and blue wavy lines representing the sea and a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto HE HATH FOUNDED IT UPON THE SEAS Central African Republic four equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, green, and yellow with a vertical red band in center; a yellow five-pointed star to the hoist side of the blue band; banner combines the Pan-African and French flag colors; red symbolizes the blood spilled in the struggle for independence, blue represents the sky and freedom, white peace and dignity, green hope and faith, and yellow tolerance; the star represents aspiration towards a vibrant future Chad three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; the flag combines the blue and red French (former colonial) colors with the red and yellow of the Pan-African colors; blue symbolizes the sky, hope, and the south of the country, which is relatively well-watered; yellow represents the sun, as well as the desert in the north of the country; red stands for progress, unity, and sacrifice note: similar to the flag of Romania; also similar to the flags of Andorra and Moldova, both of which have a national coat of arms centered in the yellow band; design was based on the flag of France Chile two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; a blue square the same height as the white band at the hoist-side end of the white band; the square bears a white five-pointed star in the center representing a guide to progress and honor; blue symbolizes the sky, white is for the snow-covered Andes, and red represents the blood spilled to achieve independence note: design was influenced by the US flag China red with a large yellow five-pointed star and four smaller yellow five-pointed stars (arranged in a vertical arc toward the middle of the flag) in the upper hoist-side corner; the color red represents revolution, while the stars symbolize the four social classes - the working class, the peasantry, the urban petty bourgeoisie, and the national bourgeoisie (capitalists) - united under the Communist Party of China Christmas Island territorial flag; divided diagonally from upper hoist to lower fly; the upper triangle is green with a yellow image of the Golden Bosun Bird superimposed, the lower triangle is blue with the Southern Cross constellation, representing Australia, superimposed; a centered yellow disk displays a green map of the island note: the flag of Australia is used for official purposes Clipperton Island the flag of France is used Cocos (Keeling) Islands the flag of Australia is used Colombia three horizontal bands of yellow (top, double-width), blue, and red; the flag retains the three main colors of the banner of Gran Columbia, the short-lived South American republic that broke up in 1830; various interpretations of the colors exist and include: yellow for the gold in Colombia's land, blue for the seas on its shores, and red for the blood spilled in attaining freedom; alternatively, the colors have been described as representing more elemental concepts such as sovereignty and justice (yellow), loyalty and vigilance (blue), and valour and generosity (red); or simply the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity note: similar to the flag of Ecuador, which is longer and bears the Ecuadorian coat of arms superimposed in the center Comoros four equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), white, red, and blue, with a green isosceles triangle based on the hoist; centered within the triangle is a white crescent with the convex side facing the hoist and four white, five-pointed stars placed vertically in a line between the points of the crescent; the horizontal bands and the four stars represent the four main islands of the archipelago - Mwali, N'gazidja, Nzwani, and Mahore (Mayotte - territorial collectivity of France, but claimed by Comoros) note: the crescent, stars, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam Congo, Democratic Republic of the sky blue field divided diagonally from the lower hoist corner to upper fly corner by a red stripe bordered by two narrow yellow stripes; a yellow, five-pointed star appears in the upper hoist corner; blue represents peace and hope, red the blood of the country's martyrs, and yellow the country's wealth and prosperity; the star symbolizes unity and the brilliant future for the country Congo, Republic of the divided diagonally from the lower hoist side by a yellow band; the upper triangle (hoist side) is green and the lower triangle is red; green symbolizes agriculture and forests, yellow the friendship and nobility of the people, red is unexplained but has been associated with the struggle for independence note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia Cook Islands blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and a large circle of 15 white five-pointed stars (one for every island) centered in the outer half of the flag Coral Sea Islands the flag of Australia is used Costa Rica five horizontal bands of blue (top), white, red (double width), white, and blue, with the coat of arms in a white elliptical disk toward the hoist side of the red band; Costa Rica retained the earlier blue-white-blue flag of Central America until 1848 when, in response to revolutionary activity in Europe, it was decided to incorporate the French colors into the national flag and a central red stripe was added; today the blue color is said to stand for the sky, opportunity, and perseverence, white denotes peace, happiness, and wisdom, while red represents the blood shed for freedom, as well as the generosity and vibrancy of the people note: somewhat resembles the flag of North Korea; similar to the flag of Thailand but with the blue and red colors reversed Cote d'Ivoire three equal vertical bands of orange (hoist side), white, and green; orange symbolizes the land (savannah) of the north and fertility, white stands for peace and unity, green represents the forests of the south and the hope for a bright future note: similar to the flag of Ireland, which is longer and has the colors reversed - green (hoist side), white, and orange; also similar to the flag of Italy, which is green (hoist side), white, and red; design was based on the flag of France Croatia three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and blue - the Pan-Slav colors - superimposed by the Croatian coat of arms; the coat of arms consists of one main shield (a checkerboard of 13 red and 12 silver (white) fields) surmounted by five smaller shields that form a crown over the main shield; the five small shields represent five historic regions, they are (from left to right): Croatia, Dubrovnik, Dalmatia, Istria, and Slavonia note: the Pan-Slav colors were inspired by the 19th-century flag of Russia Cuba five equal horizontal bands of blue (top, center, and bottom) alternating with white; a red equilateral triangle based on the hoist side bears a white, five-pointed star in the center; the blue bands refer to the three old divisions of the island: central, occidental, and oriental; the white bands describe the purity of the independence ideal; the triangle symbolizes liberty, equality, and fraternity, while the red color stands for the blood shed in the independence struggle; the white star, called La Estrella Solitaria (the Lone Star) lights the way to freedom and was taken from the flag of Texas note: design similar to the Puerto Rican flag, with the colors of the bands and triangle reversed Curacao on a blue field a horizontal yellow band somewhat below the center divides the flag into proportions of 5:1:2; two five-pointed white stars - the smaller above and to the left of the larger - appear in the canton; the blue of the upper and lower sections symbolizes the sky and sea respectively; yellow represents the sun; the stars symbolize Curacao and its uninhabited smaller sister island of Klein Curacao; the five star points signify the five continents from which Curacao's people derive Cyprus white with a copper-colored silhouette of the island (the name Cyprus is derived from the Greek word for copper) above two green crossed olive branches in the center of the flag; the branches symbolize the hope for peace and reconciliation between the Greek and Turkish communities note: the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" flag retains the white field of the Cyprus national flag but displays narrow horizontal red stripes positioned a small distance from the top and bottom edges between which are centered a red crescent and a red five-pointed star; the banner is modeled after the Turkish national flag but with the colors reversed Czech Republic two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side note: is identical to the flag of the former Czechoslovakia; uses the Pan-Slav colors inspired by the 19th-century flag of Russia Denmark red with a white cross that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side; the banner is referred to as the Dannebrog (Danish flag) and is one of the oldest national flags in the world; traditions as to the origin of the flag design vary, but the best known is a legend that the banner fell from the sky during an early-13th century battle; caught up by the Danish king before it ever touched the earth, this heavenly talisman inspired the royal army to victory; in actuality, the flag may derive from a crusade banner or ensign note: the shifted design element was subsequently adopted by the other Nordic countries of Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden Dhekelia the flag of the UK is used Djibouti two equal horizontal bands of light blue (top) and light green with a white isosceles triangle based on the hoist side bearing a red five-pointed star in the center; blue stands for sea and sky and the Issa Somali people; green symbolizes earth and the Afar people; white represents peace; the red star recalls the struggle for independence and stands for unity Dominica green, with a centered cross of three equal bands - the vertical part is yellow (hoist side), black, and white and the horizontal part is yellow (top), black, and white; superimposed in the center of the cross is a red disk bearing a Sisserou Parrot, unique to Dominica, encircled by 10 green, five-pointed stars edged in yellow; the 10 stars represent the 10 administrative divisions (parishes); green symbolizes the island's lush vegetation; the triple-colored cross represents the Christian Trinity; the yellow color denotes sunshine, the main agricultural products (citrus and bananas), and the native Carib Indians; black is for the rich soil and the African heritage of most citizens; white signifies rivers, waterfalls, and the purity of aspirations; the red disc stands for social justice Dominican Republic a centered white cross that extends to the edges divides the flag into four rectangles - the top ones are blue (hoist side) and red, and the bottom ones are red (hoist side) and blue; a small coat of arms featuring a shield supported by a laurel branch (left) and a palm branch (right) is at the center of the cross; above the shield a blue ribbon displays the motto, DIOS, PATRIA, LIBERTAD (God, Fatherland, Liberty), and below the shield, REPUBLICA DOMINICANA appears on a red ribbon; in the shield a bible is opened to a verse that reads "Y la verdad nos hara libre" (And the truth shall set you free); blue stands for liberty, white for salvation, and red for the blood of heroes Ecuador three horizontal bands of yellow (top, double width), blue, and red with the coat of arms superimposed at the center of the flag; the flag retains the three main colors of the banner of Gran Columbia, the South American republic that broke up in 1830; the yellow color represents sunshine, grain, and mineral wealth, blue the sky, sea, and rivers, and red the blood of patriots spilled in the struggle for freedom and justice note: similar to the flag of Colombia, which is shorter and does not bear a coat of arms Egypt three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; the national emblem (a gold Eagle of Saladin facing the hoist side with a shield superimposed on its chest above a scroll bearing the name of the country in Arabic) centered in the white band; the band colors derive from the Arab Liberation flag and represent oppression (black), overcome through bloody struggle (red), to be replaced by a bright future (white) note: similar to the flag of Syria, which has two green stars in the white band, Iraq, which has an Arabic inscription centered in the white band, and Yemen, which has a plain white band El Salvador three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue with the national coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL; the banner is based on the former blue-white-blue flag of the Federal Republic of Central America; the blue bands symbolize the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, while the white band represents the land between the two bodies of water, as well as peace and prosperity note: similar to the flag of Nicaragua, which has a different coat of arms centered in the white band - it features a triangle encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom; also similar to the flag of Honduras, which has five blue stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band Equatorial Guinea three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red, with a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side and the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms has six yellow six-pointed stars (representing the mainland and five offshore islands) above a gray shield bearing a silk-cotton tree and below which is a scroll with the motto UNIDAD, PAZ, JUSTICIA (Unity, Peace, Justice); green symbolizes the jungle and natural resources, blue represents the sea that connects the mainland to the islands, white stands for peace, and red recalls the fight for independence Eritrea red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) dividing the flag into two right triangles; the upper triangle is green, the lower one is blue; a gold wreath encircling a gold olive branch is centered on the hoist side of the red triangle; green stands for the country's agriculture economy, red signifies the blood shed in the fight for freedom, and blue symbolizes the bounty of the sea; the wreath-olive branch symbol is similar to that on the first flag of Eritrea from 1952; the shape of the red triangle broadly mimics the shape of the country Estonia three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), black, and white; various interpretations are linked to the flag colors; blue represents faith, loyalty, and devotion, while also reminiscent of the sky, sea, and lakes of the country; black symbolizes the soil of the country and the dark past and suffering endured by the Estonian people; white refers to the striving towards enlightenment and virtue, and is the color of birch bark and snow, as well as summer nights illuminated by the midnight sun Ethiopia three equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, and red, with a yellow pentagram and single yellow rays emanating from the angles between the points on a light blue disk centered on the three bands; green represents hope and the fertility of the land, yellow symbolizes justice and harmony, while red stands for sacrifice and heroism in the defense of the land; the blue of the disk symbolizes peace and the pentagram represents the unity and equality of the nationalities and peoples of Ethiopia note: Ethiopia is the oldest independent country in Africa, and the three main colors of her flag (adopted ca. 1895) were so often adopted by other African countries upon independence that they became known as the Pan-African colors; the emblem in the center of the current flag was added in 1996 European Union a blue field with 12 five-pointed gold stars arranged in a circle in the center; blue represents the sky of the Western world, the stars are the peoples of Europe in a circle, a symbol of unity; the number of stars is fixed Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Falkland Island coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms contains a white ram (sheep raising was once the major economic activity) above the sailing ship Desire (whose crew discovered the islands) with a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto DESIRE THE RIGHT Faroe Islands white with a red cross outlined in blue extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted toward the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); referred to as Merkid, meaning "the banner" or "the mark," the flag resembles those of neighboring Iceland and Norway, and uses the same three colors - but in a different sequence; white represents the clear Faroese sky as well as the foam of the waves; red and blue are traditional Faroese colors Fiji light blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Fijian shield centered on the outer half of the flag; the blue symbolizes the Pacific ocean and the Union Jack reflects the links with Great Britain; the shield - taken from Fiji's coat of arms - depicts a yellow lion above a white field quartered by the cross of Saint George; the four quarters depict stalks of sugarcane, a palm tree, bananas, and a white dove Finland white with a blue cross extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); the blue represents the thousands of lakes scattered across the country, while the white is for the snow that covers the land in winter France three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), white, and red; known as the "Le drapeau tricolore" (French Tricolor), the origin of the flag dates to 1790 and the French Revolution when the "ancient French color" of white was combined with the blue and red colors of the Parisian militia; the official flag for all French dependent areas note: the design and/or colors are similar to a number of other flags, including those of Belgium, Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, and Netherlands French Guiana unofficial, local flag: On 29 January 2010, the General Council (departmental council) unilaterally adopted a flag of French Guiana, but it has not been recognized by the regional council. Green represents the forests, yellow represents gold and other minerals of the region, while the red star represents socialism.[1] The flag is identical with the one of pro-independence trade union UGT and also MDES. note: the flag of France used for official occasions French Polynesia two red horizontal bands encase a wide white band in a 1:2:1 ratio; centered on the white band is a disk with a blue and white wave pattern depicting the sea on the lower half and a gold and white ray pattern depicting the sun on the upper half; a stylized red, blue, and white ship rides on the wave pattern; the ship has a crew of five represented by five stars that symbolize the five island groups; red and white are traditional Polynesian colors note: similar to the red-white-red flag of Tahiti, the largest of the islands in French Polynesia, which has no emblem in the white band; the flag of France is used for official occasions French Southern and Antarctic Lands the flag of France is used Gabon three equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, and blue; green represents the country's forests and natural resources, gold represents the equator (which transects Gabon) as well as the sun, blue represents the sea Gambia, The three equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue with white edges, and green; red stands for the sun and the savannah, blue represents the Gambia River, and green symbolizes forests and agriculture; the white stripes denote unity and peace Georgia white rectangle with a central red cross extending to all four sides of the flag; each of the four quadrants displays a small red bolnur-katskhuri cross; although adopted as the official Georgian flag in 2004, the five-cross flag design appears to date back to the 14th century Germany three equal horizontal bands of black (top), red, and gold; these colors have played an important role in German history and can be traced back to the medieval banner of the Holy Roman Emperor - a black eagle with red claws and beak on a gold field Ghana three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green, with a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band; red symbolizes the blood shed for independence, yellow represents the country's mineral wealth, while green stands for its forests and natural wealth; the black star is said to be the lodestar of African freedom note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; similar to the flag of Bolivia, which has a coat of arms centered in the yellow band Gibraltar two horizontal bands of white (top, double width) and red with a three-towered red castle in the center of the white band; hanging from the castle gate is a gold key centered in the red band; the design is that of Gibraltar's coat of arms granted on 10 July 1502 by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain; the castle symbolizes Gibraltar as a fortress, while the key represents Gibraltar's strategic importance - the key to the Mediterranean Greece nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white; a blue square bearing a white cross appears in the upper hoist-side corner; the cross symbolizes Greek Orthodoxy, the established religion of the country; there is no agreed upon meaning for the nine stripes or for the colors; the exact shade of blue has never been set by law and has varied from a light to a dark blue over time Greenland two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a large disk slightly to the hoist side of center - the top half of the disk is red, the bottom half is white; the design represents the sun reflecting off a field of ice; the colors are the same as those of the Danish flag and symbolize Greenland's links to the Kingdom of Denmark Grenada a rectangle divided diagonally into yellow triangles (top and bottom) and green triangles (hoist side and outer side), with a red border around the flag; there are seven yellow, five-pointed stars with three centered in the top red border, three centered in the bottom red border, and one on a red disk superimposed at the center of the flag; there is also a symbolic nutmeg pod on the hoist-side triangle (Grenada is the world's second-largest producer of nutmeg, after Indonesia); the seven stars stand for the seven administrative divisions, with the central star denoting the capital, St. George; yellow represents the sun and the warmth of the people, green stands for vegetation and agriculture, and red symbolizes harmony, unity, and courage Guadeloupe unofficial, flag the banner of the arms of Pointe-à-Pitre, the island's main city, is seldom used to represent the whole island. The flag has a black field with a yellow sun and a green sugar cane, and a blue stripe with yellow fleurs-de-lis on the top. note: the flag of France used for official occasions Guam territorial flag is dark blue with a narrow red border on all four sides; centered is a red-bordered, pointed, vertical ellipse containing a beach scene, a proa or outrigger canoe with sail, and a palm tree with the word GUAM superimposed in bold red letters; the proa is sailing in Agana Bay with the promontory of Punta Dos Amantes, near the capital, in the background; blue represents the sea and red the blood shed in the struggle against oppression note: the US flag is the national flag Guatemala three equal vertical bands of light blue (hoist side), white, and light blue, with the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms includes a green and red quetzal (the national bird) representing liberty and a scroll bearing the inscription LIBERTAD 15 DE SEPTIEMBRE DE 1821 (the original date of independence from Spain) all superimposed on a pair of crossed rifles signifying Guatemala's willingness to defend itself and a pair of crossed swords representing honor and framed by a laurel wreath symbolizing victory; the blue bands stand for the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea and the sea and sky; the white band denotes peace and purity Guernsey white with the red cross of Saint George (patron saint of England) extending to the edges of the flag and a yellow equal-armed cross of William the Conqueror superimposed on the Saint George cross; the red cross represents the old ties with England and the fact that Guernsey is a British Crown dependency; the gold cross is a replica of the one used by Duke William of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings Guinea three equal vertical bands of red (hoist side), yellow, and green; red represents the people's sacrifice for liberation and work; yellow stands for the sun, for the riches of the earth, and for justice; green symbolizes the country's vegetation and unity note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; the colors from left to right are the reverse of those on the flags of neighboring Mali and Senegal Guinea-Bissau two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and green with a vertical red band on the hoist side; there is a black five-pointed star centered in the red band; yellow symbolizes the sun; green denotes hope; red represents blood shed during the struggle for independence; the black star stands for African unity note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; the flag design was heavily influenced by the Ghanian flag Guyana green, with a red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) superimposed on a long, yellow arrowhead; there is a narrow, black border between the red and yellow, and a narrow, white border between the yellow and the green; green represents forest and foliage; yellow stands for mineral resources and a bright future; white symbolizes Guyana's rivers; red signifies zeal and the sacrifice of the people; black indicates perseverance Haiti two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red with a centered white rectangle bearing the coat of arms, which contains a palm tree flanked by flags and two cannons above a scroll bearing the motto L'UNION FAIT LA FORCE (Union Makes Strength); the colors are taken from the French Tricolor and represent the union of blacks and mulattoes Heard Island and McDonald Islands the flag of Australia is used Holy See (Vatican City) two vertical bands of yellow (hoist side) and white with the arms of the Holy See, consisting of the crossed keys of Saint Peter surmounted by the three-tiered papal tiara, centered in the white band; the yellow color represents the pope's spiritual power, the white his worldly power Honduras three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue, with five blue, five-pointed stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band; the stars represent the members of the former Federal Republic of Central America - Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua; the blue bands symbolize the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea; the white band represents the land between the two bodies of water and the peace and prosperity of its people note: similar to the flag of El Salvador, which features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL centered in the white band; also similar to the flag of Nicaragua, which features a triangle encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom, centered in the white band Hong Kong red with a stylized, white, five-petal Bauhinia flower in the center; each petal contains a small, red, five-pointed star in its middle; the red color is the same as that on the Chinese flag and represents the motherland; the fragrant Bauhinia - developed in Hong Kong the late 19th century - has come to symbolize the region; the five stars echo those on the flag of China Hungary three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and green; the flag dates to the national movement of the 18th and 19th centuries, and fuses the medieval colors of the Hungarian coat of arms with the revolutionary tricolor form of the French flag; folklore attributes virtues to the colors: red for strength, white for faithfulness, and green for hope; alternatively, the red is seen as being for the blood spilled in defense of the land, white for freedom, and green for the pasturelands that make up so much of the country Iceland blue with a red cross outlined in white extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); the colors represent three of the elements that make up the island: red is for the island's volcanic fires, white recalls the snow and ice fields of the island, and blue is for the surrounding ocean India three equal horizontal bands of saffron (subdued orange) (top), white, and green, with a blue chakra (24-spoked wheel) centered in the white band; saffron represents courage, sacrifice, and the spirit of renunciation; white signifies purity and truth; green stands for faith and fertility; the blue chakra symbolizes the wheel of life in movement and death in stagnation note: similar to the flag of Niger, which has a small orange disk centered in the white band Indonesia two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; the colors derive from the banner of the Majapahit Empire of the 13th-15th centuries; red symbolizes courage, white represents purity note: similar to the flag of Monaco, which is shorter; also similar to the flag of Poland, which is white (top) and red Iran three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red; the national emblem (a stylized representation of the word Allah in the shape of a tulip, a symbol of martyrdom) in red is centered in the white band; ALLAH AKBAR (God is Great) in white Arabic script is repeated 11 times along the bottom edge of the green band and 11 times along the top edge of the red band; green is the color of Islam and also represents growth, white symbolizes honesty and peace, red stands for bravery and martyrdom Iraq three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; the Takbir (Arabic expression meaning "God is great") in green Arabic script is centered in the white band; the band colors derive from the Arab Liberation flag and represent oppression (black), overcome through bloody struggle (red), to be replaced by a bright future (white); the Council of Representatives approved this flag in 2008 as a compromise temporary replacement for the Ba'athist Saddam-era flag note: similar to the flag of Syria, which has two stars but no script, Yemen, which has a plain white band, and that of Egypt, which has a gold Eagle of Saladin centered in the white band Ireland three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and orange; officially the flag colors have no meaning, but a common interpretation is that the green represents the Irish nationalist (Gaelic) tradition of Ireland; orange represents the Orange tradition (minority supporters of William of Orange); white symbolizes peace (or a lasting truce) between the green and the orange note: similar to the flag of Cote d'Ivoire, which is shorter and has the colors reversed - orange (hoist side), white, and green; also similar to the flag of Italy, which is shorter and has colors of green (hoist side), white, and red Isle of Man red with the Three Legs of Man emblem (triskelion), in the center; the three legs are joined at the thigh and bent at the knee; in order to have the toes pointing clockwise on both sides of the flag, a two-sided emblem is used; the flag is based on the coat-of-arms of the last recognized Norse King of Mann, Magnus III (r. 1252-1265); the triskelion has its roots in an early Celtic sun symbol Israel white with a blue hexagram (six-pointed linear star) known as the Magen David (Shield of David) centered between two equal horizontal blue bands near the top and bottom edges of the flag; the basic design resembles a Jewish prayer shawl (tallit), which is white with blue stripes; the hexagram as a Jewish symbol dates back to medieval times Italy three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and red; design inspired by the French flag brought to Italy by Napoleon in 1797; colors are those of Milan (red and white) combined with the green uniform color of the Milanese civic guard note: similar to the flag of Mexico, which is longer, uses darker shades of red and green, and has its coat of arms centered on the white band; Ireland, which is longer and is green (hoist side), white, and orange; also similar to the flag of the Cote d'Ivoire, which has the colors reversed - orange (hoist side), white, and green Jamaica diagonal yellow cross divides the flag into four triangles - green (top and bottom) and black (hoist side and outer side); green represents hope, vegetation, and agriculture, black reflects hardships overcome and to be faced, and yellow recalls golden sunshine and the island's natural resources Jan Mayen the flag of Norway is used Japan white with a large red disk (representing the sun without rays) in the center Jersey white with a diagonal red cross extending to the corners of the flag; in the upper quadrant, surmounted by a yellow crown, a red shield with three lions in yellow; according to tradition, the ships of Jersey - in an attempt to differentiate themselves from English ships flying the horizontal cross of St. George - rotated the cross to the "X" (saltire) configuration; because this arrangement still resembled the Irish cross of St. Patrick, the yellow Plantagenet crown and Jersey coat of arms were added Jordan three equal horizontal bands of black (top), representing the Abbassid Caliphate, white, representing the Ummayyad Caliphate, and green, representing the Fatimid Caliphate; a red isosceles triangle on the hoist side, representing the Great Arab Revolt of 1916, and bearing a small white seven-pointed star symbolizing the seven verses of the opening Sura (Al-Fatiha) of the Holy Koran; the seven points on the star represent faith in One God, humanity, national spirit, humility, social justice, virtue, and aspirations; design is based on the Arab Revolt flag of World War I Kazakhstan a gold sun with 32 rays above a soaring golden steppe eagle, both centered on a sky blue background; the hoist side displays a national ornamental pattern "koshkar-muiz" (the horns of the ram) in gold; the blue color is of religious significance to the Turkic peoples of the country, and so symbolizes cultural and ethnic unity; it also represents the endless sky as well as water; the sun, a source of life and energy, exemplifies wealth and plenitude; the sun's rays are shaped like grain, which is the basis of abundance and prosperity; the eagle has appeared on the flags of Kazakh tribes for centuries and represents freedom, power, and the flight to the future Kenya three equal horizontal bands of black (top), red, and green; the red band is edged in white; a large Maasai warrior's shield covering crossed spears is superimposed at the center; black symbolizes the majority population, red the blood shed in the struggle for freedom, green stands for natural wealth, and white for peace; the shield and crossed spears symbolize the defense of freedom Kiribati the upper half is red with a yellow frigate bird flying over a yellow rising sun, and the lower half is blue with three horizontal wavy white stripes to represent the Pacific ocean; the white stripes represent the three island groups - the Gilbert, Line, and Phoenix Islands; the 17 rays of the sun represent the 16 Gilbert Islands and Banaba (formerly Ocean Island); the frigate bird symbolizes authority and freedom Korea, North three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (triple width), and blue; the red band is edged in white; on the hoist side of the red band is a white disk with a red five-pointed star; the broad red band symbolizes revolutionary traditions; the narrow white bands stands for purity, strength, and dignity; the blue bands signify sovereignty, peace, and friendship; the red star represents socialism Korea, South white with a red (top) and blue yin-yang symbol in the center; there is a different black trigram from the ancient I Ching (Book of Changes) in each corner of the white field; the Korean national flag is called Taegukki; white is a traditional Korean color and represents peace and purity; the blue section represents the negative cosmic forces of the yin, while the red symbolizes the opposite postive forces of the yang; each trigram (kwae) denotes one of the four universal elements, which together express the principle of movement and harmony Kosovo centered on a dark blue field is the geographical shape of Kosovo in a gold color surmounted by six white, five-pointed stars arrayed in a slight arc; each star represents one of the major ethnic groups of Kosovo: Albanians, Serbs, Turks, Gorani, Roma, and Bosniaks Kuwait three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red with a black trapezoid based on the hoist side; colors and design are based on the Arab Revolt flag of World War I; green represents fertile fields, white stands for purity, red denotes blood on Kuwaiti swords, black signifies the defeat of the enemy Kyrgyzstan red field with a yellow sun in the center having 40 rays representing the 40 Kyrgyz tribes; on the obverse side the rays run counterclockwise, on the reverse, clockwise; in the center of the sun is a red ring crossed by two sets of three lines, a stylized representation of a "tunduk" - the crown of a traditional Kyrgyz yurt; red symbolizes bravery and valor, the sun evinces peace and wealth Laos three horizontal bands of red (top), blue (double width), and red with a large white disk centered in the blue band; the red bands recall the blood shed for liberation; the blue band represents the Mekong River and prosperity; the white disk symbolizes the full moon against the Mekong River, but also signifies the unity of the people under the Pathet Lao, as well as the country's bright future Latvia three horizontal bands of maroon (top), white (half-width), and maroon; the flag is one of the older banners in the world; a medieval chronicle mentions a red standard with a white stripe being used by Latvian tribes in about 1280 Lebanon three horizontal bands consisting of red (top), white (middle, double width), and red (bottom) with a green cedar tree centered in the white band; the red bands symbolize blood shed for liberation, the white band denotes peace, the snow of the mountains, and purity; the green cedar tree is the symbol of Lebanon and represents eternity, steadiness, happiness, and prosperity Lesotho three horizontal stripes of blue (top), white, and green in the proportions of 3:4:3; the colors represent rain, peace, and prosperity respectively; centered in the white stripe is a black Basotho hat representing the indigenous people; the flag was unfurled in October 2006 to celebrate 40 years of independence Liberia 11 equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; a white five-pointed star appears on a blue square in the upper hoist-side corner; the stripes symbolize the signatories of the Liberian Declaration of Independence; the blue square represents the African mainland, and the star represents the freedom granted to the ex-slaves; according to the constitution, the blue color signifies liberty, justice, and fidelity, the white color purity, cleanliness, and guilelessness, and the red color steadfastness, valor, and fervor note: the design is based on the US flag Libya plain green; green is the traditional color of Islam (the state religion) Liechtenstein two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red with a gold crown on the hoist side of the blue band; the colors may derive from the blue and red livery design used in the principality's household in the 18th century; the prince's crown was introduced in 1937 to distinguish the flag from that of Haiti Lithuania three equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), green, and red; yellow symbolizes golden fields, as well as the sun, light, and goodness; green represents the forests of the countryside, in addition to nature, freedom, and hope; red stands for courage and the blood spilled in defense of the homeland Luxembourg three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and light blue; similar to the flag of the Netherlands, which uses a darker blue and is shorter; the coloring is derived from the Grand Duke's coat of arms (a red lion on a white and blue striped field) Macau green with a lotus flower above a stylized bridge and water in white, beneath an arc of five gold, five-pointed stars: one large in the center of the arc and two smaller on either side; the lotus is the floral emblem of Macau, the three petals represent the peninsula and two islands that make up Macau; the five stars echo those on the flag of China Macedonia a yellow sun (the Sun of Liberty) with eight broadening rays extending to the edges of the red field; the red and yellow colors have long been associated with Macedonia Madagascar two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a vertical white band of the same width on hoist side; by tradition, red stands for sovereignty, green for hope, white for purity Malawi three equal horizontal bands of red (top), black, and green; a white sun disc is centered on the black band, its surrounding 45 white rays extend partially into the red and green bands; black represents the native peoples, red the blood shed in their struggle for freedom, and green the color of nature; the sun represents Malawi's economic progress since attaining independence Malaysia 14 equal horizontal stripes of red (top) alternating with white (bottom); there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a yellow crescent and a yellow 14-pointed star; the flag is often referred to as Jalur Gemilang (Stripes of Glory); the 14 stripes stand for the equal status in the federation of the 13 member states and the federal government; the 14 points on the star represent the unity between these entities; the crescent is a traditional symbol of Islam; blue symbolizes the unity of the Malay people and yellow is the royal color of Malay rulers note: the design is based on the flag of the US Maldives red with a large green rectangle in the center bearing a vertical white crescent moon; the closed side of the crescent is on the hoist side of the flag; red recalls those who have sacrificed their lives in defense of their country, the green rectangle represents peace and prosperity, and the white crescent signifies Islam Mali three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), yellow, and red note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; the colors from left to right are the same as those of neighboring Senegal (which has an additional green central star) and the reverse of those on the flag of neighboring Guinea Malta two equal vertical bands of white (hoist side) and red; in the upper hoist-side corner is a representation of the George Cross, edged in red; according to legend, the colors are taken from the red and white checkered banner of Count Roger of Sicily who removed a bi-colored corner and granted it to Malta in 1091; an uncontested explanation is that the colors are those of the Knights of Saint John who ruled Malta from 1530 to 1798; in 1942, King George VI of the United Kingdom awarded the George Cross to the islanders for their exceptional bravery and gallantry in World War II; since independence in 1964, the George Cross bordered in red has appeared directly on the white field Marshall Islands blue with two stripes radiating from the lower hoist-side corner - orange (top) and white; a white star with four large rays and 20 small rays appears on the hoist side above the two stripes; blue represents the Pacific Ocean, the orange stripe signifies the Ralik Chain or sunset and courage, while the white stripe signifies the Ratak Chain or sunrise and peace; the star symbolizes the cross of Christianity, each of the 24 rays designates one of the electoral districts in the country and the four larger rays highlight the principal cultural centers of Majuro, Jaluit, Wotje, and Ebeye; the rising diagonal band can also be interpreted as representing the equator, with the star showing the archipelago's position just to the north Martinique the flag of France is used Mauritania green with a yellow five-pointed star above a yellow, horizontal crescent; the closed side of the crescent is down; the crescent, star, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam; the gold color stands for the sands of the Sahara Mauritius four equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue, yellow, and green; red represents the blood shed for independence, blue the Indian Ocean surrounding the island, yellow has been interpreted as the new light of independence, golden sunshine, or the bright future, and green can symbolize either agriculture or the lush vegetation of the island Mayotte unofficial, local flag with the coat of arms of Mayotte centered on a white field, above which the name of the island appears in red capital letters; the main elements of the coat of arms are a blue upper half with white upturned crescent moon and a red lower half with two yellow ylang-ylang flowers, supported on either side by a white seahorse, and set above a scroll with the motto RA HACHIRI (We are Vigilant) note: the flag of France used for official occasions Mexico three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and red; Mexico's coat of arms (an eagle with a snake in its beak perched on a cactus) is centered in the white band; green signifies hope, joy, and love; white represents peace and honesty; red stands for hardiness, bravery, strength, and valor; the coat of arms is derived from a legend that the wandering Aztec people were to settle at a location where they would see an eagle on a catus eating a snake; the city they founded, Tenochtitlan, is now Mexico City note: similar to the flag of Italy, which is shorter, uses lighter shades of red and green, and does not have anything in its white band Micronesia, Federated States of light blue with four white five-pointed stars centered; the stars are arranged in a diamond pattern; blue symbolizes the Pacific Ocean, the stars represent the four island groups of Chuuk, Kosrae, Pohnpei, and Yap Moldova three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; emblem in center of flag is of a Roman eagle of gold outlined in black with a red beak and talons carrying a yellow cross in its beak and a green olive branch in its right talons and a yellow scepter in its left talons; on its breast is a shield divided horizontally red over blue with a stylized ox head, star, rose, and crescent all in black-outlined yellow; based on the color scheme of the flag of Romania - with whom Moldova shares a history and culture - but Moldova's blue band is lighter; the reverse of the flag does not display any coat of arms note: one of only three national flags that differ on their obverse and reverse sides - the others are Paraguay and Saudi Arabia Monaco two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; the colors are those of the ruling House of Grimaldi and have been in use since 1339, making the flag one of the world's oldest national banners note: similar to the flag of Indonesia which is longer and the flag of Poland which is white (top) and red Mongolia three equal, vertical bands of red (hoist side), blue, and red; centered on the hoist-side red band in yellow is the national emblem ("soyombo" - a columnar arrangement of abstract and geometric representation for fire, sun, moon, earth, water, and the yin-yang symbol); blue represents the sky, red symbolizes progress and prosperity Montenegro a red field bordered by a narrow golden-yellow stripe with the Montenegrin coat of arms centered; the arms consist of a double-headed golden eagle - symbolizing the unity of church and state - surmounted by a crown; the eagle holds a golden scepter in its right claw and a blue orb in its left; the breast shield over the eagle shows a golden lion passant on a green field in front of a blue sky; the lion is symbol of episcopal authority and harks back to the three and a half centuries that Montenegro was ruled as a theocracy Montserrat blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Montserratian coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the arms feature a woman in green dress, Erin, the female personification of Ireland, standing beside a yellow harp and embracing a large dark cross with her right arm; Erin and the harp are symbols of Ireland reflecting the territory's Irish ancestry; blue represents awareness, trustworthiness, determination, and righteousness Morocco red with a green pentacle (five-pointed, linear star) known as Sulayman's (Solomon's) seal in the center of the flag; red and green are traditional colors in Arab flags, although the use of red is more commonly associated with the Arab states of the Persian gulf; the pentacle represents the five pillars of Islam and signifies the association between God and the nation; design dates to 1912 Mozambique three equal horizontal bands of green (top), black, and yellow with a red isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; the black band is edged in white; centered in the triangle is a yellow five-pointed star bearing a crossed rifle and hoe in black superimposed on an open white book; green represents the riches of the land, white peace, black the African continent, yellow the country's minerals, and red the struggle for independence; the rifle symbolizes defense and vigilance, the hoe refers to the country's agriculture, the open book stresses the importance of education, and the star represents Marxism and internationalism Namibia a wide red stripe edged by narrow white stripes divides the flag diagonally from lower hoist corner to upper fly corner; the upper hoist-side triangle is blue and charged with a yellow, 12-rayed sunburst; the lower fly-side triangle is green; red signifies the heroism of the people and their determination to build a future of equal opportunity for all; white stands for peace, unity, tranquility, and harmony; blue represents the Namibian sky and the Atlantic Ocean, the country's precious water resources and rain; the yellow sun denotes power and existence; green symbolizes vegetation and agricultural resources Nauru blue with a narrow, horizontal, yellow stripe across the center and a large white 12-pointed star below the stripe on the hoist side; blue stands for the Pacific Ocean, the star indicates the country's location in relation to the Equator (the yellow stripe) and the 12 points symbolize the 12 original tribes of Nauru Navassa Island the flag of the US is used Nepal red with a blue border around the unique shape of two overlapping right triangles; the smaller, upper triangle bears a white stylized moon and the larger, lower triangle displays a white 12-pointed sun; the color red represents the rhododendron (Nepal's national flower) and is a sign of victory and bravery, the blue border signifies peace and harmony; the two right triangles are a combination of two single pennons (pennants) that originally symbolized the Himalaya Mountains while their charges represented the families of the king (upper) and the prime minister, but today they are understood to denote Hinduism and Buddhism, the country's two main religions; the moon represents the serenity of the Nepalese people and the shade and cool weather in the Himalayas, while the sun depicts the heat and higher temperatures of the lower parts of Nepal; the moon and the sun are also said to express the hope that the nation will endure as long as these heavenly bodies note: Nepal is the only country in the world whose flag is not rectangular or square Netherlands three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and blue; similar to the flag of Luxembourg, which uses a lighter blue and is longer; the colors were those of WILLIAM I, Prince of Orange, who led the Dutch Revolt against Spanish sovereignty in the latter half of the 16th century; originally the upper band was orange, but because it tended to fade to red over time, the red shade was eventually made the permanent color; the banner is perhaps the oldest tricolor in continuous use Netherlands Antilles white, with a horizontal blue stripe in the center superimposed on a vertical red band, also centered; five white, five-pointed stars are arranged in an oval pattern in the center of the blue band; the colors reflect those of the Netherlands; the five stars represent the five main islands of Bonaire, Curacao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, and Sint Maarten New Caledonia the flag of France is used New Zealand blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant with four red five-pointed stars edged in white centered in the outer half of the flag; the stars represent the Southern Cross constellation Nicaragua three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue with the national coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a triangle encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on the top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom; the banner is based on the former blue-white-blue flag of the Federal Republic of Central America; the blue bands symbolize the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, while the white band represents the land between the two bodies of water note: similar to the flag of El Salvador, which features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL centered in the white band; also similar to the flag of Honduras, which has five blue stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band Niger three equal horizontal bands of orange (top), white, and green with a small orange disk centered in the white band; the orange band denotes the drier northern regions of the Sahara; white stands for purity and innocence; green symbolizes hope and the fertile and productive southern and western areas, as well as the Niger River; the orange disc represents the sun and the sacrifices made by the people note: similar to the flag of India, which has a blue spoked wheel centered in the white band Nigeria three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and green; the color green represents the forests and abundant natural wealth of the country, white stands for peace and unity Niue yellow with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the flag of the UK bears five yellow five-pointed stars - a large star on a blue disk in the center and a smaller star on each arm of the bold red cross; the larger star stands for Niue, the smaller stars recall the Southern Cross constellation on the New Zealand flag and symbolize links with that country; yellow represents the bright sunshine of Niue and the warmth and friendship between Niue and New Zealand Norfolk Island three vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and green with a large green Norfolk Island pine tree centered in the slightly wider white band; green stands for the rich vegetation on the island, and the pine tree - endemic to the island - is a symbol of Norfolk Island note: somewhat reminiscent of the flag of Canada with its use of only two colors and depiction of a prominent local floral symbol in the central white band Northern Mariana Islands blue, with a white, five-pointed star superimposed on a gray latte stone (the traditional foundation stone used in building) in the center, surrounded by a wreath; blue symbolizes the Pacific Ocean, the star represents the Commonwealth; the latte stone and the floral head wreath display elements of the native Chamorro culture Norway red with a blue cross outlined in white that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); the colors recall Norway's past political unions with Denmark (red and white) and Sweden (blue) Oman three horizontal bands of white, red, and green of equal width with a broad, vertical, red band on the hoist side; the national emblem (a khanjar dagger in its sheath superimposed on two crossed swords in scabbards) in white is centered near the top of the vertical band; white represents peace and prosperity, red recalls battles against foreign invaders, and green symbolizes the Jebel Akhdar (Green Mountains) and fertility Pakistan green with a vertical white band (symbolizing the role of religious minorities) on the hoist side; a large white crescent and star are centered in the green field; the crescent, star, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam Palau light blue with a large yellow disk shifted slightly to the hoist side; the blue color represents the ocean, the disk represents the moon; Palauans consider the full moon to be the optimum time for human activity; it is also considered a symbol of peace, love, and tranquility Palestinian territories the flag is constituted of three equal horizontal bands (black, white, and green from top to bottom) overlaid by a red chevron issuing from the hoist. The flag is almost identical to that of the Baath Party, and very similar to the flags of Jordan, and Western Sahara, all of which draw their inspiration from the Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule (1916–1918). Panama divided into four, equal rectangles; the top quadrants are white (hoist side) with a blue five-pointed star in the center and plain red; the bottom quadrants are plain blue (hoist side) and white with a red five-pointed star in the center; the blue and red colors are those of the main political parties (Conservatives and Liberals respectively) and the white denotes peace between them; the blue star stands for the civic virtues of purity and honesty, the red star signifies authority and law Papua New Guinea divided diagonally from upper hoist-side corner; the upper triangle is red with a soaring yellow bird of paradise centered; the lower triangle is black with five, white, five-pointed stars of the Southern Cross constellation centered; red, black, and yellow are traditional colors of Papua New Guinea; the bird of paradise - endemic to the island of New Guinea - is an emblem of regional tribal culture and represents the emergence of Papua New Guinea as a nation; the Southern Cross, visible in the night sky, symbolizes Papua New Guinea's connection with Australia and several other countries in the South Pacific Paraguay three equal, horizontal bands of red (top), white, and blue with an emblem centered in the white band; unusual flag in that the emblem is different on each side; the obverse (hoist side at the left) bears the national coat of arms (a yellow five-pointed star within a green wreath capped by the words REPUBLICA DEL PARAGUAY, all within two circles); the reverse (hoist side at the right) bears a circular seal of the treasury (a yellow lion below a red Cap of Liberty and the words PAZ Y JUSTICIA (Peace and Justice)); red symbolizes bravery and patriotism, white represents integrity and peace, and blue denotes liberty and generosity note: the three color bands resemble those on the flag of the Netherlands; one of only three national flags that differ on their obverse and reverse sides - the others are Moldova and Saudi Arabia Peru three equal, vertical bands of red (hoist side), white, and red with the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a shield bearing a vicuna (representing fauna), a cinchona tree (the source of quinine, signifying flora), and a yellow cornucopia spilling out coins (denoting mineral wealth); red recalls blood shed for independence, white symbolizes peace Philippines two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red; a white equilateral triangle is based on the hoist side; the center of the triangle displays a yellow sun with eight primary rays; each corner of the triangle contains a small, yellow, five-pointed star; blue stands for peace and justice, red symbolizes courage, the white equal-sided triangle represents equality; the rays recall the first eight provinces that sought independence from Spain, while the stars represent the three major geographical divisions of the country: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao; the design of the flag dates to 1897 note: in wartime the flag is flown upside down with the red band at the top Pitcairn Islands blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Pitcairn Islander coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the green, yellow, and blue of the shield represents the island rising from the ocean; the green field features a yellow anchor surmounted by a bible (both the anchor and the bible were items found on the HMS Bounty); sitting on the crest is a Pitcairn Island wheelbarrow from which springs a slip of miro (a local plant) Poland two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; colors derive from the Polish emblem - a white eagle on a red field note: similar to the flags of Indonesia and Monaco which are red (top) and white Portugal two vertical bands of green (hoist side, two-fifths) and red (three-fifths) with the national coat of arms (armillary sphere and Portuguese shield) centered on the dividing line; explanations for the color meanings are ambiguous, but a popular interpretation has green symbolizing hope and red the blood of those defending the nation Puerto Rico five equal horizontal bands of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side bears a large, white, five-pointed star in the center; the white star symbolizes Puerto Rico; the three sides of the triangle signify the executive, legislative and judicial parts of the government; blue stands for the sky and the coastal waters; red symbolizes the blood shed by warriors, while white represents liberty, victory, and peace note: design initially influenced by the US flag, but similar to the Cuban flag, with the colors of the bands and triangle reversed Qatar maroon with a broad white serrated band (nine white points) on the hoist side; maroon represents the blood shed in Qatari wars, white stands for peace; the nine-pointed serrated edge signifies Qatar as the ninth member of the "reconciled emirates" in the wake of the Qatari-British treaty of 1916 note: the other eight emirates are the seven that compose the UAE and Bahrain; according to some sources, the dominant color was formerly red, but this darkened to maroon upon exposure to the sun and the new shade was eventually adopted Réunion does not have a separate official flag. note: the flag of France used for official occasions Romania three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; modeled after the flag of France, the colors are those of the principalities of Walachia (red and yellow) and Moldavia (red and blue), which united in 1861 to form Romania; the national coat of arms that used to be centered in the yellow band has been removed note: now similar to the flag of Chad, whose blue band is darker; also resembles the flags of Andorra and Moldova Russia three equal horizontal bands of white (top), blue, and red note: the colors may have been based on those of the Dutch flag; despite many popular interpretations, there is no official meaning assigned to the colors of the Russian flag; this flag inspired other Slav countries to adopt horizontal tricolors of the same colors but in different arrangements, and so red, blue, and white became the Pan-Slav colors Rwanda three horizontal bands of sky blue (top, double width), yellow, and green, with a golden sun with 24 rays near the fly end of the blue band; blue represents happiness and peace, yellow economic development and mineral wealth, green hope of prosperity and natural resources; the sun symbolizes unity, as well as enlightenment and transparency from ignorance Saint Barthelemy the flag of France is used Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Saint Helenian shield centered on the outer half of the flag; the upper third of the shield depicts a white plover (wire bird) on a yellow field; the remainder of the shield depicts a rocky coastline on the left, offshore is a three-masted sailing ship with sails furled but flying an English flag Saint Kitts and Nevis divided diagonally from the lower hoist side by a broad black band bearing two white, five-pointed stars; the black band is edged in yellow; the upper triangle is green, the lower triangle is red; green signifies the island's fertility, red symbolizes the struggles of the people from slavery, yellow denotes year-round sunshine, and black represents the African heritage of the people; the white stars stand for the islands of Saint Kitts and Nevis, but can also express hope and liberty, or independence and optimism Saint Lucia blue, with a gold isosceles triangle below a black arrowhead; the upper edges of the arrowhead have a white border; the blue color represents the sky and sea, gold stands for sunshine and prosperity, and white and black the racial composition of the island (with the latter being dominant); the two major triangles invoke the twin Pitons (Gros Piton and Petit Piton), cone-shaped volcanic plugs that are a symbol of the island Saint Martin the flag of France is used Saint Pierre and Miquelon a yellow three-masted sailing ship facing the hoist side rides on a blue background with scattered, white, wavy lines under the ship; a continuous black-over-white wavy line divides the ship from the white wavy lines; on the hoist side, a vertical band is divided into three parts: the top part (called ikkurina) is red with a green diagonal cross extending to the corners overlaid by a white cross dividing the rectangle into four sections; the middle part has a white background with an ermine pattern; the third part has a red background with two stylized yellow lions outlined in black, one above the other; these three heraldic arms represent settlement by colonists from the Basque Country (top), Brittany, and Normandy; the blue on the main portion of the flag symbolizes the Atlantic Ocean and the stylized ship represents the Grande Hermine in which Jacques Cartier "discovered" the islands in 1536 note: the flag of France used for official occasions Saint Vincent and the Grenadines three vertical bands of blue (hoist side), gold (double width), and green; the gold band bears three green diamonds arranged in a V pattern, which stands for Vincent; the diamonds recall the islands as the "Gems of the Antilles"; blue conveys the colors of a tropical sky and crystal waters, yellow signifies the golden Grenadine sands, and green represents lush vegetation Samoa red with a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side quadrant bearing five white five-pointed stars representing the Southern Cross constellation; red stands for courage, blue represents freedom, and white signifies purity San Marino two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and light blue with the national coat of arms superimposed in the center; the main colors derive from the shield of the coat of arms, which features three white towers on three peaks on a blue field; the towers represent three castles built on San Marino's highest feature Mount Titano: Guaita, Cesta, and Montale; the coat of arms is flanked by a wreath, below a crown and above a scroll bearing the word LIBERTAS (Liberty); the white and blue colors are also said to stand for peace and liberty respectively Sao Tome and Principe three horizontal bands of green (top), yellow (double width), and green with two black five-pointed stars placed side by side in the center of the yellow band and a red isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; green stands for the country's rich vegetation, red recalls the struggle for independence, and yellow represents cocoa, one of the country's main agricultural products; the two stars symbolize the two main islands note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia Saudi Arabia green, a traditional color in Islamic flags, with the Shahada or Muslim creed in large white Arabic script (translated as "There is no god but God; Muhammad is the Messenger of God") above a white horizontal saber (the tip points to the hoist side); design dates to the early twentieth century and is closely associated with the Al Saud family which established the kingdom in 1932; the flag is manufactured with differing obverse and reverse sides so that the Shahada reads - and the sword points - correctly from right to left on both sides note: one of only three national flags that differ on their obverse and reverse sides - the others are Moldova and Paraguay Senegal three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), yellow, and red with a small green five-pointed star centered in the yellow band; green represents Islam, progress, and hope; yellow signifies natural wealth and progress; red symbolizes sacrifice and determination; the star denotes unity and hope note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; the colors from left to right are the same as those of neighboring Mali and the reverse of those on the flag of neighboring Guinea Serbia three equal horizontal stripes of red (top), blue, and white - the Pan-Slav colors representing freedom and revolutionary ideals; charged with the coat of arms of Serbia shifted slightly to the hoist side; the principal field of the coat of arms represents the Serbian state and displays a white two-headed eagle on a red shield; a smaller red shield on the eagle represents the Serbian nation, and is divided into four quarters by a white cross; a white Cyrillic letters "S" (written like Latin "C") in each quarter stands for the phrase "Only Unity Saves the Serbs"; a royal crown surmounts the coat of arms note: the Pan-Slav colors were inspired by the 19th-century flag of Russia Seychelles five oblique bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, red, white, and green (bottom) radiating from the bottom of the hoist side; the oblique bands are meant to symbolize a dynamic new country moving into the future; blue represents sky and sea, yellow the sun giving light and life, red the peoples' determination to work for the future in unity and love, white social justice and harmony, green the land and natural environment Sierra Leone three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and blue; green symbolizes agriculture, mountains, and natural resources, white represents unity and justice, and blue the sea and the natural harbor in Freetown Singapore two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; near the hoist side of the red band, there is a vertical, white crescent (closed portion is toward the hoist side) partially enclosing five white five-pointed stars arranged in a circle; red denotes brotherhood and equality; white signifies purity and virtue; the waxing crescent moon symbolizes a young nation on the ascendancy; the five stars represent the nation's ideals of democracy, peace, progress, justice, and equality Sint Maarten two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and blue with a white isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; the center of the triangle displays the Sint Maarten coat of arms; the arms consist of an orange-bordered blue shield prominently displaying the white court house in Philipsburg, as well as a bouquet of yellow sage (the national flower) in the upper left, and the silhouette of a Dutch-French friendship monument in the upper right; the shield is surmounted by a yellow rising sun in front of which is a Brown Pelican in flight; a yellow scroll below the shield bears the motto: SEMPER PROGREDIENS (Always Progressing); the three main colors are identical to those on the Dutch flag note: the flag somewhat resembles that of the Philippines, but with the main red and blue bands reversed; the banner more closely evokes the wartime Philippine flag Slovakia three equal horizontal bands of white (top), blue, and red derive from the Pan-Slav colors; the Slovakian coat of arms (consisting of a red shield bordered in white and bearing a white Cross of Lorraine surmounting three blue hills) is centered over the bands but offset slightly to the hoist side note: the Pan-Slav colors were inspired by the 19th-century flag of Russia Slovenia three equal horizontal bands of white (top), blue, and red, derive from the medieval coat of arms of the Duchy of Carniola; the Slovenian seal (a shield with the image of Triglav, Slovenia's highest peak, in white against a blue background at the center; beneath it are two wavy blue lines depicting seas and rivers, and above it are three six-pointed stars arranged in an inverted triangle, which are taken from the coat of arms of the Counts of Celje, the great Slovene dynastic house of the late 14th and early 15th centuries) appears in the upper hoist side of the flag centered on the white and blue bands Solomon Islands divided diagonally by a thin yellow stripe from the lower hoist-side corner; the upper triangle (hoist side) is blue with five white five-pointed stars arranged in an X pattern; the lower triangle is green; blue represents the ocean; green the land; and yellow sunshine; the five stars stand for the five main island groups of the Solomon Islands Somalia light blue with a large white five-pointed star in the center; the blue field was originally influenced by the flag of the UN, but today is said to denote the sky and the neighboring Indian Ocean; the five points of the star represent the five regions in the horn of Africa that are inhabited by Somali people: the former British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland (which together make up Somalia), Djibouti, Ogaden (Ethiopia), and the Northern Frontier District (Kenya) South Africa two equal width horizontal bands of red (top) and blue separated by a central green band that splits into a horizontal Y, the arms of which end at the corners of the hoist side; the Y embraces a black isosceles triangle from which the arms are separated by narrow yellow bands; the red and blue bands are separated from the green band and its arms by narrow white stripes; the flag colors do not have any official symbolism, but the Y stands for the "convergence of diverse elements within South African society, taking the road ahead in unity"; black, yellow, and green are found on the flag of the African National Congress, while red, white, and blue are the colors in the flags of the Netherlands and the UK, whose settlers ruled South Africa during the colonial era note: the South African flag is the only national flag to display six colors as part of its primary design South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms features a shield with a golden lion rampant, holding a torch; the shield is supported by a fur seal on the left and a Macaroni penguin on the right; a reindeer appears above the crest, and below the shield on a scroll is the motto LEO TERRAM PROPRIAM PROTEGAT (Let the Lion Protect its Own Land)); the lion with the torch represents the UK and discovery; the background of the shield, blue and white estoiles, are found in the coat of arms of James Cook, discoverer of the islands; all the outer supporting animals represented are native to the islands South Ossetia Spain three horizontal bands of red (top), yellow (double width), and red with the national coat of arms on the hoist side of the yellow band; the coat of arms is quartered to display the emblems of the traditional kingdoms of Spain (clockwise from upper left, Castile, Leon, Navarre, and Aragon) while Granada is represented by the stylized pomegranate at the bottom of the shield; the arms are framed by two columns representing the Pillars of Hercules, which are the two promontories (Gibraltar and Ceuta) on either side of the eastern end of the Strait of Gibraltar; the red scroll across the two columns bears the imperial motto of "Plus Ultra" (further beyond) referring to Spanish lands beyond Europe; the triband arrangement with the center stripe twice the width of the outer dates to the 18th century note: the red and yellow colors are related to those of the oldest Spanish kingdoms: Aragon, Castile, Leon, and Navarre Sri Lanka yellow with two panels; the smaller hoist-side panel has two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and orange; the other larger panel depicts a yellow lion holding a sword on a dark red rectangular field that also displays a yellow bo leaf in each corner; the yellow field appears as a border around the entire flag and extends between the two panels; the lion represents Sinhalese ethnicity, the strength of the nation, and bravery; the sword demonstrates the sovereignty of the nation; the four bo leaves - symbolizing Buddhism and its influence on the country - stand for the four virtues of kindness, friendliness, happiness, and equanimity; orange signifies Sri Lankan Tamils, green the Sri Lankan Moors; dark red represents the European Burghers, but also refers to the rich colonial background of the country; yellow denotes other ethnic groups; also referred to as the Lion Flag Sudan three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black with a green isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; colors and design based on the Arab Revolt flag of World War I, but the meanings of the colors are expressed as follows: red signifies the struggle for freedom, white is the color of peace, light, and love, black represents Sudan itself (in Arabic 'Sudan' means black), green is the color of Islam, agriculture, and prosperity Suriname five horizontal bands of green (top, double width), white, red (quadruple width), white, and green (double width); a large, yellow, five-pointed star is centered in the red band; red stands for progress and love; green symbolizes hope and fertility; white signifies peace, justice, and freedom; the star represents the unity of all ethnic groups; from its yellow light the nation draws strength to bear sacrifices patiently while working toward a golden future Svalbard the flag of Norway is used Swaziland three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (triple width), and blue; the red band is edged in yellow; centered in the red band is a large black and white shield covering two spears and a staff decorated with feather tassels, all placed horizontally; blue stands for peace and stability, red represents past struggles, and yellow the mineral resources of the country; the shield, spears, and staff symbolize protection from the country's enemies, while the black and white of the shield are meant to portray black and white people living in peaceful coexistence Sweden blue with a golden yellow cross extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); the colors reflect those of the Swedish coat of arms - three gold crowns on a blue field Switzerland red square with a bold, equilateral white cross in the center that does not extend to the edges of the flag; various medieval legends purport to describe the origin of the flag; a white cross used as identification for troops of the Swiss Confederation is first attested at the Battle of Laupen (1339) Syria three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; two small, green, five-pointed stars in a horizontal line centered in the white band; the band colors derive from the Arab Liberation flag and represent oppression (black), overcome through bloody struggle (red), to be replaced by a bright future (white); identical to the former flag of the United Arab Republic (1958-1961) where the two stars represented the constituent states of Syria and Egypt; the current design dates to 1980 note: similar to the flag of Yemen, which has a plain white band, Iraq, which has an Arabic inscription centered in the white band, and that of Egypt, which has a gold Eagle of Saladin centered in the white band Taiwan red field with a dark blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a white sun with 12 triangular rays; the blue and white design of the canton (symbolizing the sun of progress) dates to 1895; it was later adopted as the flag of the Kuomintang Party; blue signifies liberty, justice, and democracy; red stands for fraternity, sacrifice, and nationaliam, white represents equality, frankness, and the people's livelihood; the 12 rays of the sun are those of the months and the twelve traditional Chinese hours (each ray equals two hours) note: somewhat resembles the flag of Burma Tajikistan three horizontal stripes of red (top), a wider stripe of white, and green; a gold crown surmounted by seven gold, five-pointed stars is located in the center of the white stripe; red represents the sun, victory, and the unity of the nation, white stands for purity, cotton, and mountain snows, while green is the color of Islam and the bounty of nature; the crown symbolizes the Tajik people; the seven stars signify the Tajik magic word "seven" - a symbol of perfection and the embodiment of happiness Tanzania divided diagonally by a yellow-edged black band from the lower hoist-side corner; the upper triangle (hoist side) is green and the lower triangle is blue; the banner combines colors found on the flags of Tanganyika and Zanzibar; green represents the natural vegetation of the country, gold its rich mineral deposits, black the native Swahili people, and blue the country's many lakes and rivers, as well as the Indian Ocean Thailand five horizontal bands of red (top), white, blue (double width), white, and red; the red color symbolizes the nation and the blood of life; white represents religion and the purity of Buddhism; blue stands for the monarchy note: similar to the flag of Costa Rica but with the blue and red colors reversed Timor-Leste red, with a black isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) superimposed on a slightly longer yellow arrowhead that extends to the center of the flag; a white star - pointing to the upper hoist-side corner of the flag - is in the center of the black triangle; yellow denotes the colonialism in Timor-Leste's past; black represents the obscurantism that needs to be overcome; red stands for the national liberation struggle; the white star symbolizes peace and serves as a guiding light Togo five equal horizontal bands of green (top and bottom) alternating with yellow; a white five-pointed star on a red square is in the upper hoist-side corner; the five horizontal stripes stand for the five different regions of the country; the red square is meant to express the loyalty and patriotism of the people; green symbolizes hope, fertility, and agriculture; yellow represents mineral wealth and faith that hard work and strength will bring prosperity; the star symbolizes life, purity, peace, dignity, and Togo's independence note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia Tokelau a yellow stylized Tokelauan canoe on a dark blue field sails toward the manu - the Southern Cross constellation of four, white, five-pointed stars at the hoist side; the Southern Cross represents the role of Christianity in Tokelauan culture and symbolizes the country's navigating into the future, the color yellow indicates happiness and peace, and the blue field represents the ocean on which the community relies Tonga red with a bold red cross on a white rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner; the cross reflects the deep-rooted Christianity in Tonga; red represents the blood of Christ and his sacrifice; white signifies purity Trinidad and Tobago red with a white-edged black diagonal band from the upper hoist side to the lower fly side; the colors represent the elements of earth, water, and fire; black stands for the wealth of the land and the dedication of the people; white symbolizes the sea surrounding the islands, the purity of the country's aspirations, and equality; red symbolizes the warmth and energy of the sun, the vitality of the land, and the courage and friendliness of its people Tunisia red with a white disk in the center bearing a red crescent nearly encircling a red five-pointed star; resembles the Ottoman flag (red banner with white crescent and star) and recalls Tunisia's history as part of the Ottoman Empire; red represents the blood shed by martyrs in the struggle against oppression, white stands for peace; the crescent and star are traditional symbols of Islam note: the flag is based on that of Turkey, itself a succesor state to the Ottoman Empire Turkey red with a vertical white crescent moon (the closed portion is toward the hoist side) and white five-pointed star centered just outside the crescent opening; the flag colors and designs closely resemble those on the banner of Ottoman Empire, which preceded modern-day Turkey; the crescent moon and star serve as insignia for the Turks, as well as being traditional symbols of Islam; according to legend, the flag represents the reflection of the moon and a star in a pool of blood of Turkish warriors Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus Turkmenistan green field with a vertical red stripe near the hoist side, containing five tribal guls (designs used in producing carpets) stacked above two crossed olive branches; five white stars and a white crescent moon appear in the upper corner of the field just to the fly side of the red stripe; the green color and crescent moon represent Islam; the five stars symbolize the regions or welayats of Turkmenistan; the guls reflect the national identity of Turkmenistan where carpet-making has long been a part of traditional nomadic life note: the flag of Turkmenistan is the most intricate of all national flags Turks and Caicos Islands blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the colonial shield centered on the outer half of the flag; the shield is yellow and displays a conch shell, a spiny lobster, and Turks Head cactus - three common elements of the islands' biota Tuvalu light blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the outer half of the flag represents a map of the country with nine yellow, five-pointed stars on a blue field symbolizing the nine atolls in the ocean Uganda six equal horizontal bands of black (top), yellow, red, black, yellow, and red; a white disk is superimposed at the center and depicts a red-crested crane (the national symbol) facing the hoist side; black symbolizes the African people, yellow sunshine and vitality, red African brotherhood; the crane was the military badge of Ugandan soldiers under the UK Ukraine two equal horizontal bands of azure (top) and golden yellow represent grain fields under a blue sky United Arab Emirates three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and black with a wider vertical red band on the hoist side; the flag incorporates all four Pan-Arab colors, which in this case represent fertility (green), neutrality (white), petroleum resources (black), and unity (red); red was the traditional color incorporated into all flags of the emirates before their unification United Kingdom blue field with the red cross of Saint George (patron saint of England) edged in white superimposed on the diagonal red cross of Saint Patrick (patron saint of Ireland), which is superimposed on the diagonal white cross of Saint Andrew (patron saint of Scotland); properly known as the Union Flag, but commonly called the Union Jack; the design and colors (especially the Blue Ensign) have been the basis for a number of other flags including other Commonwealth countries and their constituent states or provinces, and British overseas territories United States 13 equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing 50 small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars; the 50 stars represent the 50 states, the 13 stripes represent the 13 original colonies; the blue stands for loyalty, devotion, truth, justice, and friendship; red symbolizes courage, zeal, and fervency, while white denotes purity and rectitude of conduct; commonly referred to by its nickname of Old Glory note: the design and colors have been the basis for a number of other flags, including Chile, Liberia, Malaysia, and Puerto Rico United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges the flag of the US is used Uruguay nine equal horizontal stripes of white (top and bottom) alternating with blue; a white square in the upper hoist-side corner with a yellow sun bearing a human face known as the Sun of May with 16 rays that alternate between triangular and wavy; the stripes represent the nine original departments of Uruguay; the sun symbol evokes the legend of the sun breaking through the clouds on 25 May 1810 as independence was first declared from Spain (Uruguay subsequently won its independence from Brazil) note: the banner was inspired by the national colors of Argentina and by the design of the US flag Uzbekistan three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and green separated by red fimbriations with a white crescent moon (closed side to the hoist) and 12 white stars shifted to the hoist on the top band; blue is the color of the Turkic peoples and of the sky, white signifies peace and the striving for purity in thoughts and deeds, while green represents nature and is the color of Islam; the red stripes are the vital force of all living organisms that links good and pure ideas with the eternal sky and with deeds on earth; the crescent represents Islam and the 12 stars the months and constellations of the Uzbek calendar Vanuatu two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a black isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) all separated by a black-edged yellow stripe in the shape of a horizontal Y (the two points of the Y face the hoist side and enclose the triangle); centered in the triangle is a boar's tusk encircling two crossed namele fern fronds, all in yellow; red represents the blood of boars and men, green the richness of the islands, and black the ni-Vanuatu people; the yellow Y-shape - which reflects the pattern of the islands in the Pacific Ocean - symbolizes the light of the Gospel spreading through the islands; the boar's tusk is a symbol of prosperity frequently worn as a pendant on the islands; the fern fronds represent peace Venezuela three equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), blue, and red with the coat of arms on the hoist side of the yellow band and an arc of eight white five-pointed stars centered in the blue band; the flag retains the three equal horizontal bands and three main colors of the banner of Gran Columbia, the South American republic that broke up in 1830; yellow is interpreted as standing for the riches of the land, blue for the courage of its people, and red for the blood shed in attaining independence; the seven stars on the original flag represented the seven provinces in Venezuela that united in the war of independence; in 2006, President Hugo CHAVEZ ordered an eighth star added to the star arc - a decision that sparked much controversy Vietnam red field with a large yellow five-pointed star in the center; red symbolizes revolution and blood, the five-pointed star represents the five elements of the populace - peasants, workers, intellectuals, traders, and soldiers - that unite to build socialism Virgin Islands white field with a modified US coat of arms in the center between the large blue initials V and I; the coat of arms shows a yellow eagle holding an olive branch in its right talon and three arrows in the left with a superimposed shield of seven red and six white vertical stripes below a blue panel; white is a symbol of purity, the letters stand for the Virgin Islands Wake Island	Bangladesh
Introduced in 2007 what six letter name is given to the device described as being an e – book reader or a software and hardware platform designed by Amazon for the rendering of e – books and other digital media., they are often able to download over 1,000 books ?	Culture of Bangladesh - history, people, clothing, traditions, women, beliefs, food, customs, family Culture of Bangladesh Bengali Orientation Identification. "Bangladesh" is a combination of the Bengali words, Bangla and Desh, meaning the country or land where the Bangla language is spoken. The country formerly was known as East Pakistan. Location and Geography. Bangladesh straddles the Bay of Bengal in south Asia. To the west and north it is bounded by India; to the southeast, it borders Myanmar. The topography is predominantly a low-lying floodplain. About half the total area is actively deltaic and is prone to flooding in the monsoon season from May through September. The Ganges/Padma River flows into the country from the northwest, while the Brahmaputra/ Jamuna enters from the north. The capital city, Dhaka, is near the point where those river systems meet. The land is suitable for rice cultivation. In the north and the southeast the land is more hilly and dry, and tea is grown. The Chittagong Hill Tracts have extensive hardwood forests. The vast river delta area is home to the dominant plains culture. The hilly areas of the northeast and southeast are occupied by much smaller tribal groups, many of which have strongly resisted domination by the national government and the population pressure from Bangladeshis who move into and attempt to settle in their traditional areas. In 1998 an accord was reached between the armed tribal group Shanti Bahini and the government. Demography. Bangladesh is the most densely populated nonisland nation in the world. With approximately 125 million inhabitants living in an area of 55,813 square miles, there are about 2,240 persons per square mile. The majority of the population (98 percent) is Bengali, with 2 percent belonging to tribal or other non-Bengali groups. Approximately 83 percent of the population is Muslim, 16 percent is Hindu, and 1 percent is Buddhist, Christian, or other. Annual population growth rate is at about 2 percent. Infant mortality is approximately seventy-five per one thousand live births. Life expectancy for both men and women is fifty-eight years, yet the sex ratios for cohorts above sixty years of age are skewed toward males. Girls between one and four years of age are almost twice as likely as boys to die. In the early 1980s the annual rate of population increase was above 2.5 percent, but in the late 1990s it decreased to 1.9 percent. The success of population control may be due to the demographic transition (decreasing birth and death rates), decreasing farm sizes, increasing urbanization, and national campaigns to control fertility (funded largely by other nations). Linguistic Affiliation. The primary language is Bangla, called Bengali by most nonnatives, an Indo-European language spoken not just by Bangladeshis, but also by people who are culturally Bengali. This includes about 300 million people from Bangladesh, West Bengal, and Bihar, as well as Bengali speakers in other Indian states. The language dates from well before the birth of Christ. Bangla varies by region, and people may not understand the language of a person from another district. However, differences in dialect consist primarily of slight differences in accent or pronunciation and minor grammatical usages. Language differences mirror social and religious divisions. Bangla is divided into two fairly distinct forms: sadhu basha, learned or formal language, and cholit basha, common language. Sadhu basha is the language of the literate tradition, formal essays Bangladesh and poetry, and the well educated. Cholit basha is the spoken vernacular, the language of the great majority of Bengalis. Cholit basha is the medium by which the great majority of people communicate in a country in which 50 percent of men and 26 percent of women are literate. There are also small usage variations between Muslims and Hindus, along with minor vocabulary differences. Symbolism. The most important symbol of national identity is the Bangla language. The flag is a dark green rectangle with a red circle just left of center. Green symbolizes the trees and fields of the countryside; red represents the rising sun and the blood spilled in the 1971 war for liberation. The national anthem was taken from a poem by Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore and links a love of the natural realm and land with the national identity. Since independence in 1971, the national identity has evolved. Islamic religious identity has become an increasingly important element in the national dialogue. Many Islamic holy days are nationally celebrated, and Islam pervades public space and the media. History and Ethnic Relations Emergence of the Nation. The creation of the independent nation represents the triumph of ethnic and cultural politics. The region that is now Bangladesh has been part of a number of important political entities, including Indian empires, Buddhist kingdoms, the Moghul empire, the British empire and the Pakistani nation. Until 1947 Bangladesh was known as East Bengal province and had been part of Great Britain's India holding since the 1700s. In 1947, Britain, in conjunction with India's leading indigenous political organizations, partitioned the Indian colony into India and Pakistan. The province of East Bengal was made part of Pakistan and was referred to as East Pakistan. West Pakistan was carved from the northwest provinces of the British Indian empire. This division of territory represented an attempt to create a Muslim nation on Hindu India's peripheries. However, the west and east wings of Pakistan were separated by more than 1,000 miles of India, creating cultural discontinuity between the two wings. The ethnic groups of Pakistan and the Indian Muslims who left India after partition were greatly different in language and way of life from the former East Bengalis: West Pakistan was more oriented toward the Middle East and Arab Islamic influence than was East Pakistan, which contained Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, and British cultural influences. From the beginning of Pakistan's creation, the Bengali population in the east was more numerous than the Pakistani population in the western wing, yet West Pakistan became the seat of government and controlled nearly all national resources. West Pakistanis generally viewed Bengalis as inferior, weak, and less Islamic. From 1947 to 1970, West Pakistan reluctantly gave in to Bengali calls for power within the government, armed forces, and civil service, but increasing social unrest in the east led to a perception among government officials that the people of Bengal were unruly and untrust worthy "Hinduized" citizens. Successive Pakistani regimes, increasingly concerned with consolidating their power over the entire country, often criticized the Hindu minority in Bengal. This was evident in Prime Minister Nazimuddin's attempt in 1952 to make Urdu, the predominant language of West Pakistan, the state language. The effect in the east was to energize opposition movements, radicalize students at Dhaka University, and give new meaning to a Bengali identity that stressed the cultural unity of the east instead of a pan-Islamic brotherhood. Through the 1960s, the Bengali public welcomed a message that stressed the uniqueness of Bengali culture, and this formed the basis for calls for self-determination or autonomy. In the late 1960s, the Pakistani government attempted to fore-stall scheduled elections. The elections were held on 7 December 1970, and Pakistanis voted directly for members of the National Assembly. The Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, was largely a Bengali party which called for autonomy for the east. Sheikh Mujib wanted to reconfigure Pakistan as a confederation of two equal partners. His party won one of 162 seats in the East Pakistan provincial assembly and 160 of the three hundred seats in the National Assembly. The Awami League would control national politics and have the ability to name the prime minister. President Yahya, however, postponed the convening of the National Assembly to prevent a Bengali power grab. In response, Sheikh Mujib and the Awami League led civil disobedience in East Pakistan. West Pakistan began to move more troops into the east, and on 25 March 1971, the Pakistani army carried out a systematic execution of several hundred people, arrested Mujib, and transported him to the west. On 26 March the Awami League declared East Pakistan an independent nation, and by April the Bengalis were in open conflict with the Pakistani military. In a 10-month war of liberation, Bangladeshi units called Mukhti Bahini (freedom fighters), largely trained and armed by Indian forces, battled Pakistani troops throughout the country in guerrilla skirmishes. The Pakistanis systematically sought out political opponents and executed Hindu men on sight. Close to 10 million people fled Bangladesh for West Bengal, in India. In early December 1971, the Indian army entered Bangladesh, engaged Pakistani military forces with the help of the Mukhti Bahini, and in a ten-day period subdued the Pakistani forces. On 16 December the Pakistani military surrendered. In January 1972, Mujib was released from confinement and became the prime minister of Bangladesh. Bangladesh was founded as a "democratic, secular, socialist state," but the new state represented the triumph of a Bangladeshi Muslim culture and language. The administration degenerated into corruption, and Mujib attempted to create a one-party state. On 15 August 1975 he was assassinated, along with much of his family, by army officers. Since that time, Bangladesh has been both less socialistic and less secular. General Ziaur Rahman became martial law administrator in December 1976 and president in 1977. On 30 May 1981, Zia was assassinated by army officers. His rule had been violent and repressive, but he had improved national economy. After a short-lived civilian government, a bloodless coup placed Army chief of staff General Mohammed Ershad in office as martial law administrator; he later became president. Civilian opposition increased, and the Awami League, the Bangladesh National Party (BNP), and the religious fundamentalist party Jamaat-i-Islami united in a seven-year series of crippling strikes. In December 1990, Ershad was forced to resign. A caretaker government held national elections early in 1991. The BNP, headed by Khaleda Zia, widow of former President Zia, formed a government in an alliance with the Jamaat-i-Islami. Political factionalism intensified over the next five years, and on 23 June 1996, the Awami League took control of Parliament. At its head was Sheikh Hasina Wazed, the daughter of Sheikh Mujib. National Identity. Bangladeshi national identity is rooted in a Bengali culture that transcends international borders and includes the area of Bangladesh itself and West Bengal, India. Symbolically, Bangladeshi identity is centered on the 1971 struggle for independence from Pakistan. During that struggle, the key elements of Bangladeshi identity coalesced around the importance of the Bengali mother tongue and the distinctiveness of a culture or way of life connected to the floodplains of the region. Since that time, national identity has become increasingly linked to Islamic symbols as opposed to the Hindu Bengali, a fact that serves to reinforce the difference between Hindu West Bengal and Islamic Bangladesh. Being Bangladeshi in some sense means feeling connected to the natural land–water systems of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and other rivers that drain into the Bay of Bengal. There is an envisioning of nature and the annual cycle as intensely beautiful, as deep green paddy turns A man eating a meal on his houseboat in Sunderbans National Park. Fish and rice are a common part of the diet. golden, dark clouds heavy with monsoon rains gradually clear, and flooded fields dry. Even urban families retain a sense of connectedness to this rural system. The great poets of the region, Rabindranath Tagore and Kazi Nurul Islam have enshrined the Bengali sense of the beauty and power of the region's nature. Ethnic Relations. The most significant social divide is between Muslims and Hindus. In 1947 millions of Hindus moved west into West Bengal, while millions of Muslims moved east into the newly created East Pakistan. Violence occurred as the columns of people moved past each other. Today, in most sections of the country, Hindus and Muslims live peacefully in adjacent areas and are connected by their economic roles and structures. Both groups view themselves as members of the same culture. From 1976 to 1998 there was sustained cultural conflict over the control of the southeastern Chittagong Hill Tracts. That area is home to a number of tribal groups that resisted the movement of Bangladeshi Muslims into their territory. In 1998, a peace accord granted those groups a degree of autonomy and self-governance. These tribal groups still do not identify themselves with the national culture. Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space Bangladesh is still primarily a rural culture, and the gram or village is an important spatial and cultural concept even for residents of the major cities. Most people identify with a natal or ancestral village in the countryside. Houses in villages are commonly rectangular, and are dried mud, bamboo, or red brick structures with thatch roofs. Many are built on top of earthen or wooden platforms to keep them above the flood line. Houses have little interior decoration, and wall space is reserved for storage. Furniture is minimal, often consisting only of low stools. People sleep on thin bamboo mats. Houses have verandas in the front, and much of daily life takes place under their eaves rather than indoors. A separate smaller mud or bamboo structure serves as a kitchen ( rana ghor ), but during the dry season many women construct hearths and cook in the household courtyard. Rural houses are simple and functional, but are not generally considered aesthetic showcases. The village household is a patrilineal extended compound linked to a pond used for daily household needs, a nearby river that provides fish, trees that provide fruit (mango and jackfruit especially), and rice fields. The village and the household not only embody important natural motifs but serve as the locus of ancestral family identity. Urban dwellers try to make at least one trip per year to "their village." Architectural styles in the cities show numerous historical influences, including Moghul and Islamic motifs with curved arches, windows, and minarets, and square British colonial wood and concrete construction. The National Parliament building (Shongshad Bhabon) in Dhaka, designed by the American architect Louis Kahn, reflects a synthesis of western modernity and curved Islamic-influenced spaces. The National Monument in Savar, a wide-based spire that becomes narrower as it rises, is the symbol of the country's liberation. Because of the population density, space is at a premium. People of the same sex interact closely, and touching is common. On public transportation strangers often are pressed together for long periods. In public spaces, women are constrained in their movements and they rarely enter the public sphere unaccompanied. Men are much more free in their movement. The rules regarding the gender differential in the use of public space are less closely adhered to in urban areas than in rural areas. Food and Economy Food in Daily Life. Rice and fish are the foundation of the diet; a day without a meal with rice is nearly inconceivable. Fish, meats, poultry, and vegetables are cooked in spicy curry ( torkari ) sauces that incorporate cumin, coriander, cloves, cinnamon, garlic, and other spices. Muslims do not consume pork and Hindus do not consume beef. Increasingly common is the preparation of ruti, a whole wheat circular flatbread, in the morning, which is eaten with curries from the night before. Also important to the diet is dal, a thin soup based on ground lentils, chickpeas, or other legumes that is poured over rice. A sweet homemade yogurt commonly finishes a meal. A typical meal consists of a large bowl of rice to which is added small portions of fish and vegetable curries. Breakfast is the meal that varies the most, being rice- or bread-based. A favorite breakfast dish is panthabhat, leftover cold rice in water or milk mixed with gur (date palm sugar). Food is eaten with the right hand by mixing the curry into the rice and then gathering portions with the fingertips. In city restaurants that cater to foreigners, people may use silverware. Three meals are consumed daily. Water is the most common beverage. Before the meal, the right hand is washed with water above the eating bowl. With the clean knuckles of the right hand the interior of the bowl is rubbed, the water is discarded, and the bowl is filled with food. After the meal, one washes the right hand again, holding it over the emptied bowl. Snacks include fruits such as banana, mango, and jackfruit, as well as puffed rice and small fried food items. For many men, especially in urbanized regions and bazaars, no day is complete without a cup of sweet tea with milk at a small tea stall, sometimes accompanied by confections. Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. At weddings and on important holidays, food plays an important role. At holiday or formal functions, guests are encouraged to eat to their capacity. At weddings, a common food is biryani, a rice dish with lamb or beef and a blend of spices, particularly saffron. On special occasions, the rice used is one of the finer, thinner-grained types. If biryani is not eaten, a complete multicourse meal is served: foods are brought out sequentially and added to one's rice bowl after the previous course is finished. A complete dinner may include chicken, fish, vegetable, goat, or beef curries and dal. The final bit of rice is finished with yogurt ( doi ). On other important occasions, such as the Eid holidays, a goat or cow is slaughtered on the premises and curries are prepared from the fresh meat. Some of the meat is given to relatives and to the poor. Basic Economy. With a per capita gross national product (GNP) of $350 and an overall GNP of $44 billion, Bangladesh is one of the poorest countries in the world. The only significant natural resource is natural gas. Approximately 75 percent of the workforce is involved in agriculture, and 15 percent and 10 percent are employed in the service and industrial sectors, respectively. Bangladesh has been characterized as a nation of small, subsistence-based farmers, and nearly all people in rural areas are involved in the production or processing of agricultural goods. The majority of the rural population engages in agricultural production, primarily of rice, jute, pulses, wheat, and some vegetables. Virtually all agricultural output is consumed within the country, and grain must be imported. The large population places heavy demands on the food-producing sectors of the economy. The majority of the labor involved in food production is human- and animal-based. Relatively little agricultural export takes place. A Bangladeshi man hanging fish to dry in the sun in Sunderbans. Bangladesh topography is predominantly a low-lying floodplain. In the countryside, typically about ten villages are linked in a market system that centers on a bazaar occurring at least once per week. On bazaar days, villagers bring in agricultural produce or crafts such as water pots to sell to town and city agents. Farmers then visit kiosks to purchase spices, kerosene, soap, vegetables or fish, and salt. Land Tenure and Property. With a population density of more than two thousand per square mile, land tenure and property rights are critical aspects of survival. The average farm owner has less than three acres of land divided into a number of small plots scattered in different directions from the household. Property is sold only in cases of family emergency, since agricultural land is the primary means of survival. Ordinarily, among Muslims land is inherited equally by a household head's sons, despite Islamic laws that specify shares for daughters and wives. Among Hindu farmers inheritance practices are similar. When agricultural land is partitioned, each plot is divided among a man's sons, ensuring that each one has a geographically dispersed holding. The only sections of rural areas that are not privately owned are rivers and paths. Commercial Activities. In rural areas Hindus perform much of the traditional craft production of items for everyday life; caste groups include weavers, potters, iron and gold smiths, and carpenters. Some of these groups have been greatly reduced in number, particularly weavers, who have been replaced by ready-made clothing produced primarily in Dhaka. Agriculture accounts for 25 percent of GDP. The major crops are rice, jute, wheat, tea, sugarcane, and vegetables. Major Industries. In recent years industrial growth has occurred primarily in the garment and textile industries. Jute processing and jute product fabrication remain major industries. Overall, industry accounted for about 28 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in 1998. Trade. Exports totaled $4.4 billion in 1996, with the United States consuming one-third of those exports. Primary export markets are for jute (used in carpet backing, burlap, and rope), fish, garments, and textiles. Imports totaled $7.1 billion and largely consisted of capital goods, grains, petroleum, and chemicals. The country relies on an annual inflow of at least $1 billion from international sources, not including the humanitarian aid that is part of the national economic system. Agriculture accounted for about 25 percent of the GDP in 1998. Transporting straw on the Ganges River Delta. The majority of Bangladeshi, about 75 percent, are agricultural workers. Division of Labor. The division of labor is based on age and education. Young children are economically productive in rural areas, hauling water, watching animals, and helping with postharvest processing. The primary agricultural tasks, however, are performed by men. Education allows an individual to seek employment outside the agricultural sector, although the opportunities for educated young men in rural areas are extremely limited. A service or industry job often goes to the individual who can offer the highest bribe to company officials. Social Stratification Classes and Castes. The Muslim class system is similar to a caste structure. The ashraf is a small upperclass of old-money descendants of early Muslim officials and merchants whose roots are in Afghanistan, Turkey, and Iran. Some ashraf families trace their lineage to the Prophet Mohammed. The rest of the population is conceived of as the indigenous majority atraf. This distinction mirrors the Hindu separation between the Brahman and those in lower castes. While both Muslim and Hindu categories are recognized by educated people, the vast majority of citizens envision class in a more localized, rural context. In rural areas, class is linked to the amount of land owned, occupation, and education. A landowner with more than five acres is at the top of the socioeconomic scale, and small subsistence farmers are in the middle. At the bottom of the scale are the landless rural households that account for about 30 percent of the rural population. Landowning status reflects socioeconomic class position in rural areas, although occupation and education also play a role. The most highly educated people hold positions requiring literacy and mathematical skills, such as in banks and government offices, and are generally accorded a higher status than are farmers. Small businessmen may earn as much as those who have jobs requiring an education but have a lower social status. Hindu castes also play a role in the rural economy. Hindu groups are involved in the hereditary occupations that fill the economic niches that support a farming-based economy. Small numbers of higher caste groups have remained in the country, and some of those people are large landowners, businessmen, and service providers. In urban areas the great majority of people are laborers. There is a middle class of small businessmen and midlevel office workers, and above this is an emerging entrepreneurial group and upper-level service workers. Symbols of Social Stratification. One of the most obvious symbols of class status is dress. The traditional garment for men is the lungi, a cloth tube skirt that hangs to the ankles; for women, the sari is the norm. The lungi is worn by most men, except those who consider themselves to have high socioeconomic status, among whom pants and shirt are worn. Also indicative of high standing are loose white cotton pajama pants and a long white shirt. White dress among men symbolizes an occupation that does not require physical labor. A man with high standing will not be seen physically carrying anything; that task is left to an assistant or laborer. Saris also serve as class markers, with elaborate and finely worked cloth symbolizing high status. Poverty is marked by the cheap, rough green or indigo cotton cloth saris of poor women. Gold jewelry indicates a high social standing among women. A concrete-faced house and a ceramic tile roof provide evidence of wealth. An automobile is well beyond the means of most people, and a motorcycle is a sign of status. Color televisions, telephones, and electricity are other symbols associated with wealth. Political Life Government. The People's Republic of Bangladesh is a parliamentary democracy that includes a president, a prime minister, and a unicameral parliament ( Jayitya Shongshod ). Three hundred members of parliament are elected to the 330-seat legislature in local elections held every five years. Thirty seats are reserved for women members of parliament. The prime minister, who is appointed by the president, must have the support of a majority of parliament members. The president is elected by the parliament every five years to that largely ceremonial post. The country is divided into four divisions, twenty districts, subdistricts, union parishads, and villages. In local politics, the most important political level is the union in rural areas; in urban regions, it is the municipality ( pourashava ). Members are elected locally, and campaigning is extremely competitive. Leadership and Political Officials. There are more than 50 political parties. Party adherence extends from the national level down to the village, where factions with links to the national parties vie for local control and help solve local disputes. Leaders at the local level are socioeconomically well-off individuals who gain respect within the party structure, are charismatic, and have strong kinship ties. Local leaders draw and maintain supporters, particularly at election time, by offering tangible, relatively small rewards. The dominant political parties are the Awami League (AL), the BNP, the Jatiya Party (JP), and the Jamaat-i-Islami (JI). The Awami League is a secular-oriented, formerly socialist-leaning party. It is not stringently anti-India, is fairly liberal with regard to ethnic and religious groups, and supports a free-market economy. The BNP, headed by former Prime Minister Khaleda Zia, is less secular, more explicitly Islamic in orientation, and more anti-India. The JP is close to the BNP in overall orientation, but pushed through a bill in Parliament that made Islam the state religion in 1988. The JI emphasizes Islam, Koranic law, and connections to the Arab Middle East. Social Problems and Control. Legal procedures are based on the English common-law system, and supreme court justices and lower-level judges are appointed by the president. District courts at the district capitals are the closest formal venues for legal proceedings arising from local disputes. There are police forces only in the cities and towns. When there is a severe conflict or crime in rural areas, it may take days for the police to arrive. In rural areas, a great deal of social control takes place informally. When a criminal is caught, justice may be apportioned locally. In the case of minor theft, a thief may be beaten by a crowd. In serious disputes between families, heads of the involved kinship groups or local political leaders negotiate and the offending party is required to make restitution in money and/or land. Police may be paid to ensure that they do not investigate. Nonviolent disputes over property or rights may be decided through village councils ( panchayat ) headed by the most respected heads of the strongest kinship groups. When mediation or negotiation fails, the police may be called in and formal legal proceedings may begin. People do not conceive of the informal procedures as taking the law into their own hands. Military Activity. The military has played an active role in the development of the political structure and climate of the country since its inception and has been a source of structure during crises. It has been involved in two coups since 1971. The only real conflict the army has encountered was sporadic fighting with the Shakti Bahini in the Chittagong Hill Tracts from the mid-1970s until 1998, after which an accord between the government and those tribal groups was produced. Road workers undertake construction work in Decca. Laborers make up the vast majority of workers in urban areas. Social Welfare and Change Programs Bangladesh is awash in social change programs sponsored by international organizations such as the United Nations, the World Bank, Care, USAID, and other nations' development agencies. Those organizations support project areas such as population control, agricultural and economic development, urban poverty, environmental conservation, and women's economic development. Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations The Grameen Bank created the popular microcredit practice, which has given the poor, especially poor women, access to credit. This model is based on creating small circles of people who know and can influence each other to pay back loans. When one member has repaid a loan, another member of the group becomes eligible to receive credit. Other nongovernmental organizations include the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee, Probashi, and Aat Din. Gender Roles and Statuses Division of Labor by Gender. Women traditionally are in charge of household affairs and are not encouraged to move outside the immediate neighborhood unaccompanied. Thus, most women's economic and social lives revolve around the home, children, and family. Islamic practice reserves prayer inside the mosque for males only; women practice religion within the home. Bangladesh has had two female prime ministers since 1991, both elected with widespread popular support, but women are not generally publicly active in politics. Men are expected to be the heads of their households and to work outside the home. Men often do the majority of the shopping, since that requires interaction in crowded markets. Men spend a lot of time socializing with other men outside the home. The Relative Status of Women and Men. The society is patriarchal in nearly every area of life, although some women have achieved significant positions of political power at the national level. For ordinary women, movement is confined, education is stressed less than it is for men, and authority is reserved for a woman's father, older brother, and husband. Marriage, Family, and Kinship Marriage. Marriage is almost always an arranged affair and takes place when the parents, particularly the father, decide that a child should be married. Men marry typically around age twenty-five or older, and women marry between ages fifteen and twenty; thus the husband is usually at least ten years older than the wife. Muslims allow polygynous marriage, but its occurrence is rare and is dependent on a man's ability to support multiple households. A parent who decides that a child is ready to marry may contact agencies, go-betweens, relatives, and friends to find an appropriate mate. Of immediate concern are the status and characteristics of the potential in-law's family. Generally an equal match is sought in terms of family economic status, educational background, and piousness. A father may allow his child to choose among five or six potential mates, providing the child with the relevant data on each candidate. It is customary for the child to rule out clearly unacceptable candidates, leaving a slate of candidates from which the father can choose. An arrangement between two families may be sealed with an agreement on a dowry and the types of gifts to be made to the groom. Among The Sitara (star) mosque in Dacca. Religion plays a fundamental role in society, and almost every village has a mosque. the educated the dowry practice is no longer prevalent. Divorce is a source of social stigma. A Muslim man may initiate a divorce by stating "I divorce you" three times, but very strong family pressure ordinarily ensures that divorces do not occur. A divorce can be most difficult for the woman, who must return to her parent's household. Domestic Unit. The most common unit is the patrilineally-related extended family living in a household called a barhi. A barhi is composed of a husband and wife, their unmarried children, and their adult sons with their wives and children. Grandparents also may be present, as well as patrilineally-related brothers, cousins, nieces, and nephews. The oldest man is the authority figure, although the oldest woman may exert considerable authority within the household. A barhi in rural areas is composed of three or four houses which face each other to form a square courtyard in which common tasks are done. Food supplies often are shared, and young couples must contribute their earnings to the household head. Cooking, however, often is done within the constituent nuclear family units. Inheritance. Islamic inheritance rules specify that a daughter should receive one-half the share of a son. However, this practice is rarely followed, and upon a household head's death, property is divided equally among his sons. Daughters may receive produce and gifts from their brothers when they visit as "compensation" for their lack of an inheritance. A widow may receive a share of her husband's property, but this is rare. Sons, however, are custom-bound to care for their mothers, who retain significant power over the rest of the household. Kin Groups. The patrilineal descent principle is important, and the lineage is very often localized within a geographic neighborhood in which it constitutes a majority. Lineage members can be called on in times of financial crisis, particularly when support is needed to settle local disputes. Lineages do not meet regularly or control group resources. Socialization Infant Care. Most women give birth in their natal households, to which they return when childbirth is near. A husband is sent a message when the child is born. Five or seven days after the birth the husband and his close male relatives visit the newborn, and a feast and ritual haircutting take place. The newborn is given an amulet that is tied around the waist, its eye sockets may be blackened with soot or makeup, and a small soot mark is applied to the infant's forehead and the sole of the foot for protection against spirits. Newborns and infants are seldom left unattended. Most infants are in constant contact with their mothers, other women, or the daughters in the household. Since almost all women breastfeed, infant and mother sleep within close reach. Infants' needs are attended to constantly; a crying baby is given attention immediately. Child Rearing and Education. Children are raised within the extended family and learn early that individual desires are secondary to the needs of the family group. Following orders is expected on the basis of age; an adult or older child's commands must be obeyed as a sign of respect. Child care falls primarily to household women and their daughters. Boys have more latitude for movement outside the household. Between ages five and ten, boys undergo a circumcision ( musulmani ), usually during the cool months. There is no comparable ritual for girls, and the menarche is not publicly marked. Most children begin school at age five or six, and attendance tends to drop off as children become more productive within the household (female) and agricultural economy (male). About 75 percent of children attend primary school. The higher a family's socioeconomic status, the more likely it is for both boys and girls to finish their primary educations. Relatively few families can afford to send their children to college (about 17 percent), and even fewer children attend a university. Those who enter a university usually come from relatively well-off families. While school attendance drops off overall as the grades increase, females stop attending school earlier than do males. Higher Education. Great value is placed on higher education, and those who have university degrees and professional qualifications are accorded high status. In rural areas the opportunities for individuals with such experience are limited; thus, most educated people are concentrated in urban areas. Bangladesh has a number of excellent universities in its largest urban areas that offer both undergraduate through post-graduate degrees. The most prominent universities, most of which are state supported, include: Dhaka University, Rajshahi University, Chittagong University, Jahngirnagar University, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, and Bangladesh Agricultural University. Competition for university admission is intense (especially at Dhaka University) and admission is dependent on scores received on high school examinations held annually, as in the British system A young girl makes matchboxes in the slums of Khulna. There is a marked split between rich and poor in most of the country. of education. University life in Bangladesh can be difficult. A four-year degree may actually require five to eight years to complete due to frequent university closings. The student bodies and faculties of universities are heavily politicized along national political party lines. Protests, strikes, and sporadic political party-based violence are common, as student groups play out national political agendas on their campuses and vie for members. Virtually every university student finds it easier to survive the system by becoming a member of the student wing of a political party. While the universities are the scenes of political struggle, they are also centers of intellectual and cultural creativity. Students may obtain excellent training in all fields, including the arts, law, medicine, and engineering. Universities are also somewhat like islands where some of the ordinary rules of social interaction are relaxed. For example, male– female interaction on campuses is more open and less monitored than in society as a whole. Dance and theater presentations are common, as are academic debates. Etiquette Personal interaction is initiated with the greeting Assalam Waleykum ("peace be with you"), to which the required response is, Waleykum Assalam ("and with you"). Among Hindus, the correct greeting is Nomoshkar, as the hands are brought together under the chin. Men may shake hands if they are of equal status but do not grasp hands firmly. Respect is expressed after a handshake by placing the right hand over the heart. Men and women do not shake hands with each other. In same-sex conversation, touching is common and individuals may stand or sit very close. The closer individuals are in terms of status, the closer their spatial interaction is. Leave-taking is sealed with the phrase Khoda Hafez. Differences in age and status are marked through language conventions. Individuals with higher status are not addressed by personal name; instead, a title or kinship term is used. Visitors are always asked to sit, and if no chairs are available, a low stool or a bamboo mat is provided. It is considered improper for a visitor to sit on the floor or ground. It is incumbent on the host to offer guests something to eat. In crowded public places that provide services, such as train stations, the post office, or bazaars, queuing is not practiced and receiving service is dependent on pushing and maintaining one's place within the throng. Open staring is not considered impolite. Religion Religious Beliefs. The symbols and sounds of Islam, such as the call to prayer, punctuate daily life. Bangladeshis conceptualize themselves and others fundamentally through their religious heritage. For example, the nationality of foreigners is considered secondary to their religious identity. Islam is a part of everyday life in all parts of the country, and nearly every village has at least a small mosque and an imam (cleric). Prayer is supposed to be performed five times daily, but only the committed uphold that standard. Friday afternoon prayer is often the only time that mosques become crowded. Throughout the country there is a belief in spirits that inhabit natural spaces such as trees, hollows, and riverbanks. These beliefs are derided by Islamic religious authorities. Hinduism encompasses an array of deities, including Krishna, Ram, Durga, Kali, and Ganesh. Bangladeshi Hindus pay particular attention to the female goddess Durga, and rituals devoted to her are among the most widely celebrated. Religious Practitioners. The imam is associated with a mosque and is an important person in both rural and urban society, leading a group of followers. The imam's power is based on his knowledge of the Koran and memorization of phrases in Arabic. Relatively few imams understand Arabic in the spoken or written form. An imam's power is based on his ability to persuade groups of men to act in conjunction with Islamic rules. In many villages the imam is believed to have access to the supernatural, with the ability to write charms that protect individuals from evil spirits, imbue liquids with holy healing properties, or ward off or reverse of bad luck. Brahman priests perform rituals for the Hindu community during the major festivals when offerings are made but also in daily acts of worship. They are respected, but Hinduism does not have the codified hierarchical structure of Islam. Thus, a Brahman priest may not have a position of leadership outside his religious duties. Rituals and Holy Places. The primary Islamic holidays in Bangladesh include: Eid-ul-Azha (the tenth day of the Muslim month Zilhaj ), in which a goat or cow is sacrificed in honor of Allah; Shob-i-Barat (the fourteenth or fifteenth day of Shaban ), when Allah records an individual's future for the rest of the year; Ramadan (the month Ramzan ), a month-long period of fasting between dawn and dusk; Eid-ul-Fitr (the first day of the month Shawal, following the end of Ramzan ), characterized by alms giving to the poor; and Shob-i-Meraz (the twenty-seventh day of Rajab ), which commemorates the night when Mohammed ascended to heaven. Islamic holidays are publicly celebrated in afternoon prayers at mosques and outdoor open areas, where many men assemble and move through their prayers in unison. Among the most important Hindu celebrations are Saraswati Puja (February), dedicated to the deity Saraswati, who takes the form of a swan. She is the patron of learning, and propitiating her is important for students. Durga Puja (October) pays homage to the female warrior goddess Durga, who has ten arms, carries a sword, and rides a lion. After a nine-day festival, images of Durga and her associates are placed in a procession and set into a river. Kali Puja (November) is also called the Festival of Lights and honors Kali, a female deity who has the power to give and take away life. Candles are lit in and around homes. A young Bengali woman performs a traditional Manipuri dance. Almost all traditional dancers are women. Other Hindu and Islamic rituals are celebrated in villages and neighborhoods and are dependent on important family or local traditions. Celebrations take place at many local shrines and temples. Death and the Afterlife. Muslims believe that after death the soul is judged and moves to heaven or hell. Funerals require that the body be washed, the nostrils and ears be plugged with cotton or cloth, and the body be wrapped in a white shroud. The body is buried or entombed in a brick or concrete structure. In Hinduism, reincarnation is expected and one's actions throughout life determine one's future lives. As the family mourns and close relatives shave their heads, the body is transported to the funeral ghat (bank along a river), where prayers are recited. The body is to be placed on a pyre and cremated, and the ashes are thrown into the river. Medicine and Health Care The pluralistic health care system includes healers such as physicians, nonprofessionally trained doctors, Aryuvedic practitioners, homeopaths, fakirs, and naturopaths. In rural areas, for non-life-threatening acute conditions, the type of healer consulted depends largely on local reputation. In many places, the patient consults a homeopath or a nonprofessional doctor who is familiar with local remedies as well as modern medical practices. Professional physicians are consulted by the educated and by those who have not received relief from other sources. Commonly, people pursue alternative treatments simultaneously, visiting a fakir for an amulet, an imam for blessed oil, and a physician for medicine. A nationally run system of public hospitals provides free service. However, prescriptions and some medical supplies are the responsibility of patients and their families. Aryuvedic beliefs based on humoral theories are common among both Hindus and Muslims. These beliefs are commonly expressed through the categorization of the inherent hot or cold properties of foods. An imbalance in hot or cold food intake is believed to lead to sickness. Health is restored when this imbalance is counteracted through dietary means. Secular Celebrations Ekushee (21 February), also called Shaheed Dibash, is the National Day of Martyrs commemorating those who died defending the Bangla language in 1952. Political speeches are held, and a memorial service takes place at the Shaheed Minar (Martyr's Monument) in Dhaka. Shadheenata Dibash, or Independence Day (26 March), marks the day when Bangladesh declared itself separate from Pakistan. The event is marked with military parades and political speeches. Poila Boishakh, the Bengali New Year, is celebrated on the first day of the month of Boishakh (generally in April). Poetry readings and musical events take place. May Day (1 May) celebrates labor and workers with speeches and cultural events. Bijoy Dibosh, or Victory Day (16 December), commemorates the day in 1971 when Pakistani forces surrendered to a joint Bangladeshi–Indian force. Cultural and political events are held. The Arts and Humanities Support for the Arts. Artists are largely self-supporting. The Bangla Academy in Dhaka provides support for some artists, particularly writers and poets. Many artists sell aesthetic works that have utilitarian functions. Literature. Most people, regardless of their degree of literacy, can recite more than one poem with dramatic inflection. Best known are the works of the two poet–heroes of the region: Rabindranath Tagore and Kazi Nurul Islam. Tagore was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913. Although from West Bengal, he is respected as a Bengali who championed the preservation of Bangla language and culture. His poem "Golden Bengal" was adopted as the national anthem. The most famous contemporary writer is Taslima Nasreen, whose novellas and essays question the Islamic justification for the customary treatment of women. Conservative religious authorities have tried to have her arrested and have called for her death for blasphemy. She lives in exile. Graphic Arts. Most graphic arts fall within the domain of traditional production by Hindu caste groups. The most pervasive art form throughout the country is pottery, including water jugs and bowls of red clay, often with a red slip and incising. Some Hindu sculptors produce brightly painted works depicting Durga and other deities. Drawing and painting are most visible on the backs of rickshaws and the wooden sides of trucks. Performance Arts. Bengali music encompasses a number of traditions and mirrors some of the country's poetry. The most common instruments are the harmonium, the tabla, and the sitar. Generally, classical musicians are adept at the rhythms and melodic properties associated with Hindu and Urdu devotional music. More popular today are the secular male–female duets that accompany Bengali and Hindi films. These songs are rooted in the classical tradition but have a freer contemporary melodic structure. Traditional dance is characterized by a rural thematic element with particular hand, foot, and head movements. Dance is virtually a female-only enterprise. Plays are traditionally an important part of village life, and traveling shows stop throughout the countryside. Television dramas portray family relationships, love, and economic advantage and disadvantage. Plays in the cities, particularly in Dhaka, are attended by the educated young. The State of the Physical and Social Sciences Dhaka University offers courses in most academic disciplines. Sciences such as physics and chemistry have very good programs, although there is a lack of up-to-date laboratories and equipment. In the social sciences, the field of economics is particularly strong, along with anthropology, sociology, and political science. Many top students in the physical and social sciences study abroad, especially in the United States and Europe. The top engineering program is at the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology. Electrical, ocean/naval, civil, and mechanical engineering have very good programs. Education in computer engineering is improving rapidly. Bibliography	i don't know
Which county won the Cricket County Championship on six occasions during the 1960’s Including three consecutive titles in 1966, 1967 and 1968 ?	Goalkeeper facts and trivia \| Goalkeepers are Different All those little oddities, snippets of trivia and quirky facts about goalkeepers that you were just dying to know about Goalkeeper Awards, Gongs & Other Achievements International honours England, Wales and Northern Ireland's most capped players are all goalkeepers, namely Peter Shilton (125), Neville Southall (91) and Pat Jennings (119). Scotland's most capped player is Kenny Dalglish, who picked up 102 caps during his International career. Italy's Walter Zenga holds the record of longest unbeaten run in World Cup history. He played 517 minutes (Almost 6 games) without letting in a goal in the 1990 tournament, beating the previous record held by England's Peter Shilton. Claudio Caniggia of Argentina eventually ended Zenga's run in the semifinals. Peter Shilton does hold the record for the number of clean sheets in the World Cup finals, however, a record he shares with France's Fabien Barthez. Both keepers kept ten clean sheets in the final stages New Zealand keeper Richard Wilson went 921 minutes without conceding a goal during New Zealand's successful World Cup qualifying campaign in 1982. At the other end of the scale, Mexico's Antonia Carbajal and Mohamed Al-Deayea have the unfortunate honour of conceding the most goals in the final stages - 25 apiece. However, Carbajal also holds the honour of becoming the first player to compete in five successive World Cup finals, from 1950-1966, although Mexico never got beyond the first round on all five occasions. Spare a thought for Nicky Salapu of American Samoa. This fine figure of a goalie entered the record books in April, 2001 after conceeding 31 goals in a World Cup Qualifying game against Australia. The record for most goals conceded in one tournament is the 16 that went past South Korea's Hong Duk-Yung in 1954. To make matters worse, he only played two games. El Salvador's Luis Guevara Mora conceded 10 against Hungary in 1982. Switzerland's Pascal Zuberbühler didn't conceded a single goal in 2006. The Swiss were eventually knocked out on penalties by Ukraine. USA's Tim Howard set a new record for the number of saves during his side's second round game against Belgium during the 2014 World Cup, making 16 in total. Netherlands' Tim Krul became the first goalkeeper to be brought on specifically for a penalty shoot-out when he entered the field of play during his side's quarter-final game against Costa Rica in the last minute in 2014. Oscar Cordoba kept a clean sheet in every game during Colombia's victorious run in the 2001 Copa America tournament. Speaking of penalties, Poland's Jan Tomaszewski (1974) and the United States' Brad Friedel (2002) share the record for most penalty saves in open play, both saving twice from the spot in their respective tournaments. The first player to be replaced in a World Cup finals due to injury was French goalkeeper Alex Thepot, who sustained a jaw injury after being kicked in the face by one of his Mexican opponents in the opening match of the 1930 World Cup. He was replaced by midfielder Augustin Chantrel. The first goalkeeper to be sent-off was Gianluca Pagliuca of Italy in a match against Norway during the opening round of the 1994 World Cup. Only three goalkeepers have ever captained a World Cup winning side. What's more, the first two were both Italian. Giampiero Combi led Italy to their first title way back in 1934 and he was followed forty-eight years later by Dino Zoff, who skippered the Italians to victory in Spain in 1982. They were joined by Spain's Iker Casillas, who lifted the trophy in 2010. Giampiero Combi and Czechoslovakia's František Plánička led their countries in the 1934 World Cup Final, the only time both goalkeeepers have captained their sides in the final. The first Fourth Division player to win a full international cap was also a goalkeeper - Crystal Palace's Vic Rouse, who was selected to play for Wales in a game against Northern Ireland in 1959. American goalkeeper James Douglas recorded the first-ever clean-sheet in the finals of the World Cup when the United States played Belgium in a group game in 1930. The USA won the match 3-0. On 10 October 2009, West Ham United goalkeeper Rob Green became the first ever England goalkeeper to be sent off during a match against Ukraine for a professional foul on Artem Milevskiy. Spanish goalkeeper Andrés Palop was part of Spain's victorious Euro 2008 championship winning side and duly picked up a winners' medal, despite the fact he is yet to make his debut at international level. Colombia's Faryd Mondragón is believed to be the only footballer ever to compete in six consecutive World Cup qualifying tournaments. And finally, Saudi Arabia's Mohamed Al-Deayea holds the record for most international appearances, winning 181 caps in total. Steaua Bucharest's Helmuth Duckadam became the first person to save four consecutive penalties when the Romanian side beat Barcelona in the 1986 European Cup Final. José Ram&#243n Alexanko, Ángel Pedraza, Pichi Alonso and Marcos were all denied by Duckadam during the shoot-out after the match ended 0-0. Brazil's Gilmar is only goalkeeper to win back-to-back World Cups, doing so in 1958 and 1962. In 1982, Jimmy Rimmer became the second player after Italy's Saul Malatrasi to win a European Cup winners' medal with two different clubs, despite only ever playing nine minutes in the actual final. He was a non-playing substitute when Manchester United triumphed in 1968 and was in goal when Aston Villa triumphed in 1982, but was replaced by Nigel Spink after picking up an injury in the opening stages against Bayern Munich. West Germany's Bodo Illgner became the first goalkeeper to keep a clean sheet in a World Cup final when he kept Argentina at bay in 1990 as the Germans ran out 1-0 winners. Ukraine's Olexandr Shovkovskiy became the first keeper to keep a clean sheet in a World Cup finals penalty shoot-out when he kept Switzerland out in 2006. In Juy 2016, United States' Hope Solo became the first goalkeeper in history to achieve 100 clean sheets in international competition when she kept South Africa out at Soldier Field. The match was Solo's 150th career win and 197th cap, with the USA winning 1-0. Players of the year Winners of the Football Writers' Association Award for the Footballer of the Year include Bert Trautmann (Manchester City, 1955-56), Gordon Banks (Stoke City, 1971-72), Pat Jennings (Tottenham Hotspur, 1972-73) and Neville Southall (Everton, 1984-85). Goalkeepers have fared slightly better North of the Border. Ronnie Simpson (Celtic, 1967), Alan Rough (Partick Thistle, 1981), Hamish McAlpine (Dundee United, 1985), Andy Goram (Rangers, 1993) and Craig Gordon (Hearts, 2006) have all won the Scottish Football Writers' Association Player of the Year title. Only two Goalkeepers have won the PFA Player of the Year Award: Pat Jennings (Tottenham Hotspur, 1976) and Peter Shilton (Nottingham Forest, 1978). Likewise, only two keepers have won the Scottish PFA award - Dutchman Theo Snelders (Aberdeen, 1989) and Andy Goram (Rangers, 1993). Only one goalkeeper has ever won the PFA Young Player of the Year - Mervyn Day of West Ham United Football Club, who won the award back in 1975. Moscow Dynamo's Lev Yashin is the only goalkeeper to win the European Footballer of the Year Award, doing so in 1963. He's also the only football player ever to win the Order of Lenin. Cameroon goalkeeper Thomas Nkono was twice voted African Footballer of the Year, in 1979 and 1982. Peter Enckelman's father, Göran, did the double in 1975, winning both the Finnish FA and Sports Writers' Player of the Year awards. Leif Nielsen, who spent most of his career with BK Frem before spells with Houston Stars and Greenock Morton, was the first goalkeeper to win the Danish Player of the Year award, doing so in 1966. Esbjerg and Denmark goalkeepr Ole Kjær won the Danish Player of the Year title in 1978. Peter Schmeichel won the same award three times during his career - in 1990, 1993 and finally in 1999. Arguably Sweden's greatest goalkeeper, Ronnie Hellström won Player of the Year twice in his homeland, in 1971 and 1978. Mart Poom won the Estonian Footballer of the Year award six times - 1993, 1994, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2003. Manchester United's Tim Howard won a number of awards in his native USA, including Aquafina Goalkeeper of the Year, Nickelodeon GAS Player of the Year and - bizarrely for a goalkeeper - New York Life's Humanitarian of the Year! Both Sepp Maier and Oliver Kahn have been voted German Footballer of the Year in successive seasons. Maier picked up the award in 1977 and '78 (to add to the title he won in 1975) while Kahn was victorious in 2000 and 2001. Harald Schmumacher has also won the award twice but was prevented from claiming a unique hattrick of wins when Hans-Peter Briegel pipped him to the title in 1985. The only other goalkeeper to ever win the award was Andres Köpke, who won it in 1993. On the other side of the wall, Jürgen Croy won the East German Footballer of the Year award three times - in 1972, '76 and '78. Stipe Pletikosa won the Croatia Footballer of the Year title in 2002 during his first spell with Hajduk Split. Zoran Simovic, who also played for Hajduk Split, was named Yugoslav Footballer of the Year in 1983. In 1977 Ubaldo Fillol became the first goalkeeper to be awarded the Footballer of the Year title in Argentina. Boca Juniors's Hugo Gatti was also voted Argentina's Footballer of the Year back in 1982. Spain's Luis Arconada won the Zamora Trophy in Spain for the lowest goals-to-game ratio three years on the spin between 1980-82. Barcelona legend Antoni Ramallets holds the record for most wins with five. Hope Solo won U.S. Soccer Female Athlete of the Year in 2009. Kasey Keller was named U.S. Soccer Male Athlete of the Year three times (1997, 1999 & 2005). Tim Howard won the award in 2008 & 2014 while Brad Friedal triumphed in 2002. Aleksandrs Kolinko became the first goalkeeper to win Latvia's Player of the Year award in 2006. Fan Chun Yip was elected Hong Kong's Footballer of the Year in 2004 during his spell with Happy Valley. Peter Cech has won Footballer of the Year in the Czech Republic an incredible eight times, including six in succession between 2008 and 2013. The only other keeper to win the award was Sparta Prague's Petr Kouba back in 1993. Vincent Chileshe was crowned Zambian Player of the Year in 1977 at the tender age of 20, the first goalkeeper to achieve that feat. Spartak Moscow's Rinat Dasayev won the Soviet Union's Football of the Year award in 1982. In 2008 Khazar Lankaran goalkeeper Kamran Aghayev was named Azerbaijani Footballer of the Year. Enver Marić of Velež and Hajduk Split's Zoran Simović were the only goalkeepers to win the Yugoslav Footballer of the Year, doing so ten years apart, in 1974 and 1983 respectively. Clean sheets and other club honours After going a World Record 1,275 minutes without conceding a goal in a single season, Athletico Madrid's Abel Resno was finally beaten by Enrique of Sporting Gijon on 19 March, 1991. Manchester United goalkeeper Edwin van der Saar narrowly missed out on the European record during the 2008/09 season. The Dutch international went 1,311 minutes before an error allowed Newcastle United's Peter Løvenkrands to score, breaking former Rangers keeper Chris Woods' British record of 1,196 minutes set during the 1986/87 season. The World Record for clean sheets belongs to Brazilian Matos Filho Mazarópi, who went 1816 minutes without conceding a goal for Vasco da Gama between May 1977 and September 1978. The European Record is held by Belgian Dany Verlinden of Club Brügge who kept a clean sheet for 1390 minutes in 1990. Oliver Kahn holds the record for the longest unbeaten run in the Bundesliga. In 2002/03, he went 737 minutes without conceding a goal. In February 2014, Celtic keeper Fraser Forster broke Bobby Clark's Scottish League record of 1155 minutes without conceding a goal in a league match. Forster's clean sheet run ended on 1,256 minutes when he was finally beaten by Aberdeen's Jonny Hayes. The record for most consecutive clean sheets in a row in England is held by Dagenham & Redbridge's Paul Gothard, who kept 12 shut-outs during the 1998/99 season. Former Italian international Stefano Tacconi is the only goalkeeper to have won all five international club competitions - the European Cup, the UEFA Cup, the Cup Winners Cup, the Super Cup and the Intercontinental Cup. He won all five trophies while with Juventus. Stoke City's Asmir Begovic scored after just 12 seconds during the Potters' Premier League clash against Southampton in November, 2013. It is believed to be the quickest goal ever scored by a goalkeeper. Former Welsh international keeper Leigh Richmond Roose won a posthumous Military Medal for bravery during the First World War. He died on the Somme in 1916. In 1986/87, Tranmere goalkeeper Eric Nixon became the first player to play in all four divisions of the Football League in the same season. Although registered with Manchester City, he played 44 games while on loan at Wolves, Southampton, Bradford City and Carlisle United. The most penalties saved in a single season by a goalkeeper is 8 (out of 10) by Paul Cooper of Ipswich Town in 1979-80. Walter Scott of Grimsby Town was the first goalkeeper to save three penalties in asingle game; he performed this heroic feat in 1909 against Burnley. Other goalkeepers to achieve this feat include Manchester United F.C.'s Gary Bailey, who saved three penalties against Ipswich Town at Portman Road in 1980 but still conceded six goals from open play, and Huddersfield Town's Matt Glennon, who saved three spot-kicks in a League game against Crewe Alexandra in 2007. In September 2016 Dundee United's Cammy Bell went one better in a Scottish Championship game against Dunfermline, saving three penalties in quick succession in the first half. The score was 0-0 when Bell palmed away Gavin Reilly's first attempt after just nine minutes before he blocked Nicky Clark's effort in the 27th minute. Five minutes later he completed his "hattrick" but stopping Paul McMullan spotkick. United won 3-1. The first goalkeeper to save a spot-kick during a penalty shoot-out was Hull City's Ian McKechnie, who kept out Denis Law's effort after The Tigers 1970 Watney Cup semi-final against Manchester United ended in a draw. McKechnie was also the first keeper to concede a penalty in a shoot-out when he failed to stop George Best's opener and became the first goalkeeper to take a spot-kick when he stepped up to take Hull's fifth penalty. Unfortunately for McKechnie he put the ball wide and thus became the first player to miss the deciding kick! Former Coventry City stalwart Steve Ogrizovic holds the club record for the highest number of consecutive League appearances: 209 from August 1984 to September 1989. Pat Jennings became the first player in English football to make 1,000 senior appearances when he turned out for Arsenal against West Bromwich Albion in February, 1983. He marked the occasion by keeping a clean sheet. Sheffield Wednesday keeper Kevin Pressman has the somewhat dubious distinction of holding the record for the fastest ever red card in English football. He was sent off after just 13 seconds on the opening day of the 2000/01 season against Wolverhampton Wanderers. Colorado Rapids keeper Joe Nasco holds the record for the fastest sending off in the MLS, a distinction he achieved in February 2014 when he denied LA Galaxy's Alan Gordon with a clear goalscoring opportunity after just 34 seconds. Botswana goalkeeper and captain Modiri Marumo became the first - and so far only - goalkeeper to be sent off during a penalty shoot-out in May 2003. Marumo was dimissed for punching his opposite number, Philip Nyasulu, during a Castle Cup tie between Botswana and Malawi, after Nyasulu gave him a sporting pat on the shoulder. Malawi won 4-1 to reach the semi-finals of the competition. If you think that was quick, Real Betis goalie Joaquin Valerio went one better and was sent off 40 minutes BEFORE his team's Spanish Second Division game with Albacete had even kicked off. Valerios insulted the referee Fidel Valle Gil in the tunnel and the offical had no hesitation in producing a red card. On a similar line, Ljungskile goalkeeper Michal Slawuta became the first goalkeeper to be sent off for receiving two yellow cards for timewasting during an away match against Trelleborg in April 2008. Even more impressive, both cautions came within minutes of each other. With Ljungskile leading 2-1 in the 90th minute, he was booked for taking too over a goal kick. He then went over to the other post to drink water, and was promptly booked for a second time. In 1999 France's World Cup winning goalkeeper Fabien Barthez topped a poll run by a French Sunday newspaper to find the country's favourite sports person. The chrome-domed keeper beat the likes of Zinedine Zidane, Laurent Blanc, Didier Deschamps and David Ginola to win the award. The first goalkeeper to concede a goal in the Football League was Aston Villa's Jimmy Warner, who couldn't stop team mate Gershom Cox from putting the ball into his own net on the opening day of the first ever season back in 1888. The tallest keeper to have played professionally in England is believed to have been Bill Carr, who stood at 6' 8" and kept goal for Bournemouth in 1924. The game's first black professional footballer was a goalie. Born in Gold Coast (now Ghana), Arthur Wharton picked up his first pay packet in 1889 when he turned out for Rotherham United and later played in Divison One with Sheffield United. Tottenham keeper Erik Thorstvedt became the first Premiership substitute to enter the field of play when he replaced Ian Walker on the opening day of the season in 1992. Romania's Rǎducanu Necula had the honour of being the first goalkeeper to be used as a sub in a World Cup game, coming on for his compatriot Stere Adamache during a group match against Brazil in 1970. The first substitute in international football was Wrexham's Sam Gillam, who came on to replace local amateur Alf Pugh during a game against Scotland twenty minutes into the game. Pugh had started the game after Wales' intended keeper Jim Trainer failed to show up after Preston North End refused to release him. Scottish side East Stirlingshire have the dubious honour of fielding the most goalkeepers in one game, using four different keepers in a match against Albion Rovers. First choice keeper Chris Todd was replaced early on by Scott Findlay, who was subsequently sent off, as was his replacement Graham McLaren. Shire's fourth and final keeper Kevin McCann saved a penalty as they went down 3-1 to Albion. In 2004, Manchester United goalkeeper Tim Howard became the first American to win an FA Cup winners' medal when they beat Millwall 3-0 at the Millennium Stadium, Cardiff. The last goalkeeper to take his place between the sticks without gloves - in English football at least - is reputed to be Bolton Wanderers' Simon Farnworth, when he lined up against Bristol City in the final of the Freight Rover Trophy at Wembley in 1986. His side lost 3-0. Gianluigi Buffon currently holds the record for the biggest transfer fee paid out for a goalkeeper, costing Juventus a cool £33 million when they signed him from Parma in 2001 The most travelled English goalkeeper is John "Budgie" Burridge, who was attached to thirty three different clubs during the course of his 29-year career. After mkaing his debut with Workington Town in 1968 he then played for (in order) Blackpool, Aston Villa, Southend United (loan), Crystal Palace, Queens Park Rangers, Wolverhampton Wanderers, Derby County (loan), Sheffield United, Southampton, Newcastle United, Hibernian, Newcastle United (second spell), Scarborough, Lincoln City, Enfield, Aberdeen, Newcastle United (third spell), Dumbarton, Dunfermline, Falkirk, Manchester City, Notts County, Witton Albion, Darlington, Grimsby Town, Northampton Town, Queen of the South, Purfleet, Blyth Spartans and Scarborough (second spell) before finishing his career with a return to Blyth Spartans - a total of 771 first class matches in England and Scotland plus a further 121 non-league appearances. Robert Gardner was the fist goalkeeper to captain an international side, doing so for Scotland against England in football's second international, way back in 1873. Scottish goalkeeper Joe Crozier, who spent twelve years with Brentford, became a Freeman of the City of London after a successful post-football business career. Bob Wilson was the first amateur to command a transfer fee when he moved from Wolverhampton Wanderers to Arsenal in 1963 for the princely sum of £7,500. IFFHS' World's Best Goalkeeper of the Year Year Sporting Masters Goalkeepers have proved to be quite adept sportsmen down the years, with several goalies enjoying parallel careers in other sports. Others had to make a choice at an early age while some keepers discovered hidden talents after they had hung up their gloves for good. Cricket Former Scottish International Andy Goram also played cricket for Scotland, keeping wicket against Australia in 1989. He won three caps in total and was told to stick to football by Australian bowler Merv Hughes... Morton 'Monty' Betts played County Cricket for Middlesex and Kent as well as keeping goal for England. He also scored the only goal in the first ever FA Cup while playing up front for Wanderers. As well as being the heaviest man ever to play football for England, Sheffield United's Willie 'Fatty' Foulke also represented his country playing cricket. Leslie Gay of the Old Brightonians has the unique distinction of keeping goal for England's national football team as well as keeping wicket for England in a test match. Coventry City goalkeeper Steve Ogrizovic also used to play cricket in his spare time and once bowled out Viv Richards. West Ham United keeper Jim Standen played cricket for Worcestershire during the summer months and topped the county bowling averages. He could apparently hurl a football 60-70 yards. Queens Park and Scotland custodian Archibald Rowan was also a successful cricketer in the late 19th Century. Former Tranmere, West Brom and Aston Villa goalkeper Jim Cumbes won the cricket county championship with Worcestershire in 1974. He is now Chief Executive of Lancashire Country Cricket Club. Arthur Jepson, who played for Port Vale, Stoke City and Lincoln during his career, also played County Cricket for Nottinghamshire and became a Test umpire following his retirement from the game. In August 1920, keeper Jack Durston took five wickets for Middlesex against Surrey in the morning then kept a clean sheet for Brentford in their opening game of the season in the afternoon. Aston Villa's England international goalkeeper Bill George also played cricket for Warickshire. Another England goalkeeper who also played cricket was Alexander Morten. Morten played both sports for the original Crystal Palace side of the 1800s. Scottish goalkeeper Hamish McAlpine regularly turned out for Perthshire cricket club Rossie Priory. New Zealand test cricketer Don McRae also played in goal for his country - winning one cap in 1936 in a 7-1 defeat to Australia. Further afield, Charlie Gardiner, of the Unity Club in Belize, also turned out for the club's cricketing counterpart as well as keeping goal in the 1960s. Blackpool goalkeeper Lewis Edge played cricket for both Morecambe and Cumbria County Cricket Clubs, keeping wicket as a youngster. After retiring from football, Burnley's Jerry Dawson - who holds the record for most league appearances for The Clarets - became a batsman in the Lancashire League for Burnley Cricket Club. Another goalkeeper who opted to take up cricket on his retirement was former Swindon Town and Torquay goalkeeper Kenny Allen, who went on to captain his local team, Chudleigh. Former England test-batsman Phil Mead played one game in goal for Southampton way back in 1907, keeping a clean sheet in the process! England Test cricketer Abe Waddington could be considered something of an all-rounder in the world of sport. As well as playing for England and enjoying a successful county career with Yorkshire, Waddington also played seven league games for Halifax Town during the 1921-22 season and later took part in the qualifying rounds of The Open golf championship. George Raikes, who kept goal for England four times in the 1890s, enjoyed a first class county career with Oxford University and Hampshire before twice winning the Minor Counties Championship with Norfolk. Another goalkeeper to enjoy success in the Minor Counties Championship was Watford goalkeeper Bill Yates, who played for Buckinghamshire and took two five wicket hauls against Hertfordshire and Oxfordshire in the early 1950s. George Harris, who kept goal for Mansfield Town and Swansea, played one first-class cricket game for Glamorgan against Surrey in 1932 and was dismissed for a duck in his only innings. Forest Green Rovers goalkeeper Steve Perrin is captain of Wiltshire County Cricket Club in the Minor Counties League, where, unsurprisingly, he plays as wicket keeper. Newcastle United's Steve Harper played local league cricket when was not warming the bench at St. James' Park! Veteran Watford goalkeeper Alec Chamberlain once had trials with Middlesex County Cricket Club before being snapped up by Ipswich Town. Albert Iremonger played cricket for Nottinghamshire as well as keeping goal for Notts County Football Club at the turn of the 20th Century. The strangely named Mordecai Sherwin also kept goal for Notts County and played cricket for Nottinghamshire, later playing three test matches for England in Australia. Billy Moon, who once held the distinction of being England's youngest ever goalkeeper, kept wicket for Middlesex in two first-class cricket matches during the 1891 County Championship. Chesterfield, Stockport County and York City goalkeeper Chris Marples played a string of first class County Cricket matches as wicket-keeper for Derbyshire during the mid-1980s. One time Norwich City keeper Sandy Kennon played cricket for Norfolk in the 1970 Minor Counties Championship. Edward Nash, who enjoyed spells between the sticks with Swindon Town, Crystal Palace and Brentford, played Minor Counties for Wiltshire after retiring from football, keeping wicket. While at Oxford University, Charles Nepean played 10 first class cricket games for the University and Middlesex County Cricket Club. He also won an FA Cup Winners medal after Oxford beat Royal Engineers in the 1874 final. He retired from both sports on graduation to take holy orders. Another goalkeeper who excelled at both sports was Ron Nicholls, who played first class cricket for Gloucestershire as well as keeping goal for Bristol Rovers, Bristol City and Cardiff City amongst others. Glan Letheren, who kept goal for Leeds United and Swansea City in the 1970s, enjoyed a minor counties cricker career with the South Wales Cricket Association as a medium pace bowler and middle order batsman. Scottish goalkeeper Dave Edwards, who enjoyed a varied career with Greenock Morton, Bethlehem Steel in the United States and Cowdenbeath amongst others, became a wicketkeeper/batsman with Cowdenbeath Cricket Club after retiring from football. Victor Barton enjoyed a successful cricket career with the Army and Hampshire, making one Test appearance for England against South Africa. He was also on the books of Southampton St. Mary's, making an appearace in the semi-final of the Hampshire Senior Cup in 1893. Len Beel, who played for Shrewsbury Town and Birmingham City in his short career, also made one appearance for Somerset in a Sunday League match against Warwickshire. The wonderfully named Desire Montgomery Butler made appearances for both the British Virgin Islands' football and cricket teams in a long career, keeping goal and wicket respectively. Tommy Thorpe, who kept goal for Doncaster Rovers, Barnsley and Northampton Town amongst others, played three first class games for Northamptonshire during the 1913 County Cricket Championship. Aston Villa's Billy George, who won three caps for England before the First World War, made thirteen first-class cricket matches as a batsman for Warwickshire. Steve Adlard never quite made it as either a goalkeeper or a cricketer. A reserve keeper for both Nottingham Forest and Lincoln City, he played one first class game of cricket for Lincolnshire against Derbyshire in the Gillette Cup in 1976 before enjoying a career in the Minor Counties. Scottish goalkeeper Tom Crosskey, who enjoyed spells with Crystal Palace, Hearts and Raith Rovers, played four first class Cricket matches for Scotland betwen 1949 and 1950. A right-handed batsman, he top-scored with 49 during a tour game against the 1948 Australian Invincibles. England international Nigel Martyn played for Cornwall Schoolboys - keeping wicket, naturally - as well as his local side before pursuing a career in football. Following his retirement, the former Crystal Palace and Leeds United goalkeeper resumed playing cricket, turning out for a team called Old Modernians in the Wetherby League. Willis Walker enjoyed a successful cricket career that ran alongside his goalkeeping duties with the likes of Doncaster Rovers, Leeds City and South Shields amongst others. He played County Cricket with Nottinghamshire, scoring 18,259 runs before retiring in 1937. Australian cricketer Ken Grieves, who made 452 first-class appearances for Lancashire and made a county record 555 catches, also pursued a career in football after emigrating to England, turning out for Bury, Bolton Wanderers and Stockport County as a goalkeeper between 1947 and 1958. Leicester City and Gillingham goalkeeper Jack Beby was something of an all-rounder during his spell with the Grenadier Guards, representing his regiment at cricket and the shot put. Rebecca Rolls was capped by New Zealand in both football and cricket. The Metro FC goalkeeper won 21 caps for the Football Ferns and made over 100 appearances in One Day Internationals as a wicketkeeper batsman. George Waller, who kept goal for both Sheffield clubs as well as Middlesbrough before the turn of the 20th Century, also made three first class appearances for Yorkshire Cricket Club taking four wickets and scoring seventeen runs. David Thomson, one of the founding fathers of Welsh football, was also something of a useful cricketer, regularly turning out for Wynnstay Cricket Club before his unexpected early death in 1876. Reginald Courtenay Welch, who kept goal for England and played in the first two FA Cup Finals for The Wanderers, represented Harrow School at cricket, playing five matches during the 1871 season. His highest score as a batsman came against the Lords and Commons Cricket Club when he scored 12 while his best bowling figures of 4 for 17 came in a match against the Marylebone Cricket Club. York City and Darlington goalkeeper Tony Moor captained Scarborough Cricket Club to the Yorkshire League title three times in the 1970s. He was also selected for the National Cricket Association XI gainst the touring Canadian team in 1974, and for the Yorkshire League XI against the West Indies tourists in 1973 and Pakistan in 1974. Peter Pickering, the South African goalkeeper who played for York City and Chelsea after the Second World War, appeared in one first-class game for Northamptonshire during his time with Northampton Town. He scored 59 runs over the course of two innings. Great Britain's 1936 Olympic team goalkeeper Haydn Hill, who also had a spell with Sheffield Wednesday, played cricket for Dorset, making 24 appearances in the Minor Counties Cricket Championship between 1948 and 1953 Antipodean goalkeeper Ken Hough played two Tests against England in 1958-59 and 28 first-class matches for Northern Districts and Auckland. A right-arm fast bowler and something of a useful lower-order batsman, he holds the record for taking the most wickets - 6 - without having a batsman caught. Rugby Union Clapham Rovers' goalie Reginald Birkett was capped by his country at both football and Rugby Union. Former Bolton Wanderers and Millwall goalie JW Sutcliffe was the last man to play both Rugby Union and football for England. French World Cup winning goalie Fabien Barthez was brought up playing rugby and only turned to football when he was 15 years of age. After retiring from football, Barthez took up motor racing. Another rugby playing goalkeeper was former Wales international Dai Davies, who turned out for West Wales Schools as a teenager. Another keeper called Dai Davies, who played for Bolton Wanderers before the First World War, had spells playing both codes of Rugby alongside his football career and holds the distinction of being capped at international level by Wales for both football and Rugby League. German keeper Oliver Kahn also enjoys playing rugby and regularly competes in local tournaments when not playing football. Luxembourg international goalkeeper Stéphane Gillet, who enjoyed spells with SV Elversberg, Racing FC Luxembourg and Jeunesse Esch, took up up rugby at the end of his career, playing second row for Rugby Club Luxembourg. Former Manchester United, Arsenal and Aston Villa keeper Jimmy Rimmer played both rugby and football for Lancashire & England Boys Winter Sports Former European Footballer of the Year Lev Yashin started life as an Ice Hockey goalie before finding fame with the powerful USSR side of the 1960s. Sweden's Magnus Hedman also played Ice Hockey as a youngster before being picked for the Swedish U-15 football team and had trials with Stockholm's leading Hockey team. While competing in ITV's Dancing on Ice, former England and Arsenal goalkeeper David Seaman revealed that he used to play ice hockey as a youngster and like Magnus Hedman had trials with several local sides before deciding on a career in football. Henry Johansen, who played for Vålerenga and was capped by Norway prior to the Second World War, was also a dab hand at Ski Jumping and was awarded the Egebergs Ærespris, a prize awarded to Norwegian athletes who excel in more than one sport, in 1938. He was also a keen Ice Hockey and Bandy player. American Football After the 1994 World Cup, USA goalie Tony Meola received a number of offers to play American Football professionally. His NFL career proved short-lived however, and he quickly returned to the game that made in him a household name in the States. When Former Barcelona keeper Jesus Angoy decided that he needed a career change he didn't hang about weighing up all the possible options in front of him and signed for the Denver Broncos, then one of the hottest sides in the NFL, as a specialist field-goal kicker. The Catalonian custodian is still famous in Barcelona for marrying Johan Cruyff's daughter if nothing else... Horst Muhlmann was rather more successful when it came to pursuing a career in American Football. The former Schalke 04 keeper played nine NFL seasons with the Cincinnati Bengals and the Philadelphia Eagles having previously played in the NASL with Kansas City Spurs. Basketball Former Brentford and Hibernian Icelandic goalkeeper Oli Gottskalksson has represented his country at both football and basketball. In his youth ex-Leicester City and Blackburn Rovers goalkeeper Tim Flowers used to be something of a mean basketball player and represented the Midlands. He went on to have trials for England before deciding on a career in football. The much-travelled American goalkeeper Brad Friedel was an All-State basketball player in Ohio and had try outs for UCLA before his goalkeeping career took off. Everton's Tim Howard is also reputed to be something of a mean basketball player. Another American goalkeeper with a strong basketball background is Celtic's Dominic Cervi, who picked up several High School awards while growing up in Oklahmoma. Golf One-time Asian Goalkeeper of the Year and Malaysian international Chow Chee-keong became a professional golf coach after retiring from football. Former Scotland and Glasgow Rangers keeper Peter McCloy was something of a keen golfer and represented Scotland at amateur level. West Ham United F.C. goalkeeper George Kitchen, who played for the Hammers before the start of the First World War, was a professional golf player at the age of 14 and became a club pro after retiring from football. Scottish goalkeeper John Jackson, who counted Partick Thistle and Chelsea amongst his clubs and was capped by Scotland eight times, became a professional golfer after retiring from football. Boxing Another Hibs goalkeeper to excel at a second sport was William Harper, who was a heavyweight boxing champion in the Scots Guards and also played rugby for his regiment Joe Nicholls, who played for Tottenham Hotspur F.C. and Bristol Rovers between the wars, was the Heavyweight Boxing Champion of the Grenadier Guards during his spell in the army. Former Everton F.C. & Chelsea F.C. goalkeeper Ben Howard Baker had something of a sporting career that has yet to be surpassed. Not only was he capped by his country at football but he was also an international high jumper of some repute - He held the British record, was AAAs Champion and represented Great Britain at both the 1912 and 1920 Olympics. Track & Field Ex-Manchester United and England goalkeeper Ray Wood had the opportunity to become a professional sprinter as a teenager but chose to play football instead. Germany's Hans Jakob, who played in both the 1934 and 1938 World Cup Finals, also enjoyed a successful Track & Field career, winning several Bavarian Hurdles titles. Arsenal's Wojciech Szczesny was a promising javelin thrower as a youngster. Perugia and Reggiana Lamberto Boranga took up athletics after retiring from the professional game and has set Masters World records in both the long jump and triple jump. Baseball As a teenager, Bruce Grobbelaar was once offered a baseball scholarship in the United States but decided to stick with football. Frank Borghi, who played in goal when the USA beat England 1-0 in the 1950 World Cup Finals, began life as a professional baseball player and always preferred to the throw the ball out rather than kick it. Southampton, Derby County and England goalkeeper Jack Robinson won the British Baseball championship twice in the 1890s with Derby County Baseball Club alongside Steve Bloomer. Hockey Malaysian Michael Shepherdson was something of an all-rounder. As well as keeping goal for Selangor he was part of the Malaysia Olympic field hockey team at the 1956 Melbourne Olympics and competed in the Asian games in 1958 and 1962, where he won Bronze in Jakarta. He also captained the national cricket team. Wilfred Skinner represented Singapore at both football and hockey, captaining the national hockey team in the 1962 Asian games, having first appeared in the 1954 games as part of Singapore's football squad. Aussie Rules Australian international goalkeeper Joanne Butland switched codes at the suggestion of her sister-in-law and gave up football to become play Australian Rules Football for North Cairns in the AFL Cairns Women's League. She was selected in the All-Australian team three times between 2005 and 2011. Another Aussie international goalkeeper to ditch football was Brianna Davey, who took up Australian Rules with St Kilda Sharks in the Victorian Women's Football League in the winter of 2015 after missing out on selection for the Women's World Cup. Having played both codes in parallel for two years, Davey hung up her gloves for good and signed professionally for Carlton Football Club in the inaugural AFL Women's competition in 2016. GAA & Shinty Former Northern Ireland international Norman Uprichard played Gaelic football as a teenager and won a minor league medal with St. Peter's - however he was banned by the GAA before he could receive his medal because he had signed for Glenavon! One-time Aston Villa and Leeds United goalkeeper Con Martin also played Gaelic Football, winning the Leinster title with Dublin, before he too was expelled by the GAA after they discovered he was playing a foreign sport with Drumcondra. Like Uprichard, his medal stayed with the GAA until 1971 when they finally lifted their ban. Hugh Kelly, who carved out a career with Fulham, Southampton and Exeter City during the 1950s, represented County Armagh in Gaelic Handball. Portsmouth and Ireland goalkeeper Matt "Gunner" Reilly played Gaelic Football before switching codes while serving in the armed forces in Glasgow. Inverness Caledonian Thistle and Motherwell keeper Michael Fraser was a talented shinty player, regularly turning out for Glenurquhart Shinty Club, but gave up the sport in 2002 after signing on with Caley Thistle. Ned Courtney played Gaelic football for Cork during the Second World War, winning the Munster Senior Football Championship, before winning three League of Ireland titles and playing in three successive FAI Cup finals with Cork United and Cork Athletic. Shane Curran enjoyed a parallel career keeping goal for Athlone Town and Roscommon. Bowls Ian Wilkinson, who made a brief appearance for Manchester United in the League Cup back in October 1991, went on to play crown green bowls at County level after injury curtailed his career. One time Southampton and Fulham goalkeeper Ian Black represented Surrey at bowls following his retirement from football. Former Bradford City goalkeeper Geoff Smith, who played over 250 games for the Bantams, played bowls for Skipton Vets during his later years. Handball Faroe Islands international goalkeeper Kaj Leo Johannesen also played handball at club level, playing 163 matches for Kyndil and scoring 625 goals. Spain international and former Real Madrid goalkeeper Miguel Ángel was a promising handball player before switching codes. Saudi keeper Mohamed Al-Deyea could have had a career in handball but was persuaded by his older brother, Abdullah, to stick with football. He went on to make over 180 appearances for Saudi Arabia. Fritz Herkenrath, who won 21 caps for West Germany in the 1950s, was initially a handball player before switching to football after World War II. Wrestling When Thomas Boric's goalkeeping career in the NASL, which included spells with Tampa Bay Rowdies and the Calgary Boomers, came to an end he decided to become a professional wrestler, fighting under the name of Paul Diamond. In a similar vein, former Crewe Alexandra and Port Vale goalkeeper Stuart Tomlinson began training as a professional wrestler after hanging up his gloves, earning a development contract with WWE. Fighing under the name Hugo Knox he made his wrestling debut at a WWE NXT event in November, 2014. Other Sports Not sure if Ballroom Dancing is still officially classed as a sport, but Peter Schmeichel didn't do too badly on BBC TV's Strictly Come Dancing. Unfortunately the same could not be said of Peter Shilton... United States international goalkeeper Hope Solo was a contestant on the 13th season of the Dancing with the Stars television series in the USA but was eliminated in the semi-finals. Former Southampton reserve goalkeeper Eddie Thomas represented Wiltshire at water polo in later life. Australia international goalkeeper Jack Reilly, who played in all three of the Socceroos' World Cup games in 1974, became a horse trainer and breeder after hanging up his gloves. Former Team USA coach Bruce Arena also represented his country at Lacrosse, winning the World title in 1974, a year after he won his one and only cap in goal for the States in a 2-0 defeat against Israel. Cardiff City's Dilwyn John was also a talented snooker player and claimed the Welsh amateur champion title during the 1980s. He was also runner-up at the IBSF World Snooker Championships in 1985. Blackburn Rovers goalkeeper Peter Enckelman has a keen interest in motor sport and the 2007 British Touring Car Championship season featured a team named after him, Encke Sport. Ton van Engelen, who kept goal for PSV Eindhoven, Feyenoord and Go Ahead Eagles, became a soigneur for a number of Dutch cycling teams after he retired, participating in over twenty Tour de France events. Goalkeeper Jay Timo represented Tuvalu at the Pacific Games in both football and volleyball. Quirky Coincidences On August 28 1993, Ian Rush scored his 200th League goal of his Liverpool career against Leeds United goalkeeper John Lukic. He scored his first goal for the Reds 12 years earlier in a game against Arsenal. The Gunners' keeper that day was a certain John Lukic He may only have been capped twice, but England goalkeeper Ernie 'Tim' Williamson conceded three goals while on international duty. The strange thing was that Sweden's Harry Dahl scored all three goals in those two games - he grabbed two on May 21 1923 and then added a third four days later when the sides met for a second time. Dahl was the first foreign player to score twice, let alone three times, against England. In 1963, Denis Law played at Wembley three times - once in the FA Cup Final for Manchester United, once for a Rest of the World select XI and once for Scotland. On each occasion the opposition goalkeeper was none other than Gordon Banks. Not many goalkeepers can claim to have played in a Cup Final at Wembley. Even fewer could claim to have played in the final of three separate competitions and been on the losing side each time. Former Charlton Athletic and Middlesbrough custodian Ben Roberts can. In 1997 he was in goal for Boro as they lost both the FA and League Cup Finals to Chelsea and Leicester City respectively, then in 1999 he was on the losing side again as Millwall went down 1-0 in the final of the Auto Windscreen Shield. Speaking of Millwall, when they played in the 2004 FA Cup Final, they ended up facing the same keeper that kept goal against them in the AWS Shield Final in 1999, namely Northern Ireland international Roy Carroll. Carroll kept a clean sheet on both occasions. Preston North End fielded amateur goalkeepers in their first two appearances in the FA Cup Final. Dr Mills Roberts kept goal in 1889 while James Frederick Mitchell was between the sticks in 1922. All three goalkeepers in South Korea's 2002 World Cup squad - Lee Woon-Jae, Choi Eun-Sung and Kim Byung-Ji - were born in the month of April! During the course of the 2004/2005 season, Rangers beat Dundee United 7-1 in the Semi-Final of the Scottish League Cup. Earlier that season, Manchester City beat Barnsley 7-1 in the English League Cup. Nothing strange about that, you might consider, except for one small matter - the same two goalkeepers played in both games. On the receiving end of the seven-goal thrashings on both occasions for Barnsley and Dundee United was Nick Colgan while his opposite number in the Manchester City and Rangers goal was Ronald Waterreus. Arguably two of Scotland's greatest post-war keepers, Jim Leighton and Andy Goram both made their international debuts in the same month, against the same country and both kept a clean sheet. Leighton made his debut against East Germany in the 2-0 victory in October 1982 while Goram was capped in the corresponding international fixture in October 1985 which ended 0-0. When Chic Brodie's professional career was ended after a collision with a stray dog while playing for Brentford at Colchester United's Layer Road ground, he became a taxi driver in the capital. While driving through Westminster he had to swerve his cab to avoid hitting another stray dog that had run out into the road and hit another vehicle, driven by former West Ham and England striker Geoff Hurst... Barrow goalkeeper Alan Coglan had the misfortune to break his leg three times during his career. The strange thing was that on all three occasions he was playing in a reserve team fixture against the same opposition - Sunderland. There must be something in the water in Barrow - striker Bobby Knox had the distinction of becoming the first substitute to come and score a goal when he netted against Wrexham on the opening day of the 1965/66 season. However, Knox also went on to become the first substitute to come on and save a penalty, after he replaced the injured Ken Mulholland and kept out a Doncaster spot kick. From 1894 to 1936 Ireland's goalkeeper was named Scott for all but a handful of games. First to keep goal was Tommy Scott of Linfield, who won 13 caps before being replaced by Billy Scott, who made 23 appearances during a career that included spells with Linfield, Everton and Leeds City. After a break of five games either side of the First World War, Billy's brother Elisha of Liverpool became Ireland's first choice keeper and remained between the sticks for 16 years. Swindon Town achieved something rather unique during the 2015/16 Football League season. On the opening day, debutant goalkeeper Lawrence Vigouroux, who was on loan from Liverpool Football Club, saved a penalty during a 4-1 victory over Bradford City. On the final day of the season, teenage debutant Will Henry also saved a spot-kick for the Robins. England goalkeeper Chris Woods eight-year, 43-cap international career began and ended with an away game against the United States. It was the only time the two teams met during this period. In 1948 goalkeeper Ken Hough made his international debut for Australia against New Zealand. Ten years later, he made his debut for New Zealand against Australia. Book Keepers Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, author of the Sherlock Holmes novels, was a founder member of Portsmouth FC and also the team's first ever goalkeeper. After writing his first book about his life as a vet, author Alf Wight couldn't find a suitable pseudonym under which to publish his memoirs until one night he was watching a game of football and was rather taken with the name of Hibernian's goalkeeper - Jim Herriot. The name James Herriot went on to become a household name in the UK thanks to the TV series All Creatures Great and Small. Alan Simpson, one half of the comedy writing duo Galton & Simpson, who were responsible for such classics as Hancock's Half Hour and Steptoe & Son, was set to sign for Chelsea in 1947 but before he could put pen to paper, he contracted tuberculosis, which brought his goalkeeping career to a premature end. Martin Waddell, awarded winning children's author of such classics as Little Dracula and the Napper series of football books, was an aspiring footballer as a youngster and kept goal for Fulham's youth team in the late 1950s. Philosopher, journalist and author Albert Camus' career may have taken a different path had tuberculosis not curtailed his promising football career in 1930. The Frenchman had kept goal for his university side and was reportedly quite taken with the game. Former French international and Auxerre goalkeeper Joël Bats took up writing poetry while recovering from testicular cancer in 1982 and has had two volumes of his work published. Slightly off subject, former Arsenal and Scotland goalkeeper Bob Wilson was immortalised in print when he signed for Melchester Rovers in the comic strip Roy of the Rovers in the mid-1980s. Wilson helped Rovers win the Milk Cup and kept a record-breaking successive number of clean sheets during the course of the season. Not a bad achievement considering he hadn't played for ten years... Another goalkeeper to appear in a comic strip was former QPR and West Ham goalkeeper Phil Parkes, who featured a storyline of Thunderbolt and Smokey!, which featured in Eagle in 1982. Parkes was called up to provide a coaching session to a schoolboy striker who was forced to play in goal in a cup semi-final after the regular keeper was beaten up by a rival player from the opposition team! In 2008 David James illustrated the children's book Harry's Magic Pockets: The Circus, written by his friend and Portsmouth's stadium announcer, Steve Pearson. Goalkeepers Name Checked by Half Man Half Bisuit Goalkeeper The Referee's Alphabet Music To Their Ears Hamish McAlpine, formerly of Dundee United and Raith Rovers, once had a song written about him - Hamish the Goalie - by Dundonian musician Michael Marra. The song was later covered by Seventies pop star Leo Sayer. Former United States goalkeeper Kasey Keller was once the subject of song by American indie group Barcelona. The song, Kasey Keller, was a tribute to the keeper's match-winning performance against Brazil in 1998 and appeared on the band's 2000 album, Zero One Infinity. Former Westlife member Nicky Byrne was a professional goalkeeper before a career in the boyband beckoned. Byrne was part of Leeds United FA Youth Cup winning team of 1997 and also played for Shelbourne, Home Farm and Cobh Ramblers in his native Ireland. In 2006, British indie pop group Saint Etienne - who took their name from the leading French football club of the 1970s - released an album entitled What Have You Done Today Mervyn Day?, which was the soundtrack to a film the band made about the redevelopment of Lea Valley. The album title was inspired by the former West Ham and Leyton Orient goalkeeper of the same name. England goalkeeper Gordon Banks' nephew, Nick, is the drummer for the band Pulp. Speaking of Gordon Banks, in 1970 he was part of the England team that recorded an album that included the number one hit Back Home. The album, titled The World Beaters Sing The World Beaters, saw members of the squad cover a range of popular tunes and Banks' contribution was to take lead vocals on a song called Lovey Dovey, which was described in the cover notes as "your actual reggae music"... Probably one of the greatest crimes ever committed to vinyl was the duet featuring none other than England's finest, Ray Clemence and Peter Shilton. Recorded in time for the Three Lions' appearance in the 1980 European Championships in Italy, Side By Side failed to make any kind of impact on the UK charts. Irish country singer Margo O'Donnell, elder sister of Irish singer Daniel, once recorded a track in honour of Republic of Ireland goalkeeper Packie Bonner. The track, unsurprisingly titled Packie Bonner can be found on Margo's greatest hits collection 50 Songs, 50 Years. In a similar vein, German group Die Prinzen released the single Olli Kahn in 2002 to celebrate the World Cup performances of Oliver Kahn. The track reached number 32 in the German hit parade. One of the more obscure songs about a goalkeeper was a track recorded by a "supergroup" of Indie pop stars who all happened to be Tottenham Hotspur fans. Called The Lillies, the band comprised of Simon Raymonde from the Cocteau Twins, Miki Berenyi and Chris Acland from Lush and Moose's Kevin McKillop and Russell Yates, but they only ever released one record - a flexi-disc given away free with a Spurs fanzine in September 1991 featuring a song called And David Seaman Will Be Very Disappointed About That... The song commemorated the club's 3-1 victory over arch rivals Arsenal in the FA Cup semi-finals the previous season. Woking stalwart Laurence Batty, who also had spells with Fulham and Brentford, is the son of songwriter Steve Wolfe, who co-wrote such hits as Beg, Borrow or Steal by the New Seekers and Lost in France by Bonnie Tyler. Former Barcelona goalkeeper José Manuel Pinto became a music producer after retiring from football, having set up his own record label, Wahin Makinaciones, back in 2000 while with Celta Vigo. Another former Barca goalkeeper with musical connections is international Victor Valdes, who lists AC/DC as his favourite band. In 2010, the keeper had a song written about him by Spanish soft rocker Joaquin titled Victor Valdés (el numero uno) Reading and USA international keeper Marcus Hahnemann once performed on stage with Tenacious D at the Reading Festival and in 2012 recorded a track with thrash metallers Malefice called Omega. South African goalkeeper Sandy Kennon, who made over 200 appearances for Norwich City, had a four-piece band called 'Sandy Kennon and his Blazes'. With Kennon on lead vocals, the band used to perform all over Norfolk during the keeper's spell at Carrow Road. Lionel Messi's grandfather, Julio Musimessi, who was capped by Argentina in the 1950s, was known as "El Arquero cantor" (the singing goalkeeper) because of his vocal performances on radio. Yugoslavian goalkeeper Petar Radenković, who played over 200 times for 1860 Munich, released three singles in the mid-1960s, the most famous of which was Bin I Radi - Bin I König. Former San Jose Earthquakes, Colorado Rapids and USA goalkeeper Joe Cannon's father, Joe Snr, was a Country & Western singer in the early 1970s and released a couple of albums. Hungary goalkeeper Gábor Király has listened to Bon Jovi's It's My Life before every game he has taken part in since 2000. Such is his devotion to the band than his car is spray painted with the band's name. Swedish goalkeeper Aron Ekberg, who plays in the lower echelons of Sweden's football pyramid with Byttorps IF, combines his custodian duties with an unlikely career as a rapper, record producer and record label owner. Ekberg, who performs under the stage name of AronChupa, was a founding member of the electro-hip hop group Albatraoz, who spent nineteen weeks on the Swedish hit parade in 2013. However, he found more success as a solo artist and enjoyed a Number One hit in Sweden and Denmark with the single I'm an Albatraoz in August, 2014. It also reach the top ten in Germany, Austria, Norway, Finland, Australia and the Netherlands. Stars of the Silver Screen George Marks only played twice for Arsenal, thanks in part to the Second World War, but his second appearance against Brentford proved to a memorable one as the game was recorded and used the film The Arsenal Stadium Mystery, a murder whodunnit from 1939 involving a fictitious amateur side called The Trojans who draw Arsenal in the FA Cup. Ipswich Town goalkeepers Paul Cooper and Laurie Sivell both had parts in the 1981 prisoner of war yarn Escape to Victory. Cooper, who was Ipswich's first choice keeper, acted as a stand-in and stunt double for star Sylvester Stallone while Sivell had a more prominent role as the goalkeeper of the German opposition team. World Cup winner Gordon Banks also worked on the film, coaching Stallone for his role between the sticks. Airdrieonians Football Club goalkeeper John Martin had a small role in the Robert Duvall film, A Shot at Glory. Former Borussia Mönchengladbach and West Germany goalkeeper Wolfgang Kleff bore such a resemblence to German actor and comedian Otto Waalkes that he was cast in a number of German films, albeit in minor cameo roles, including the 1985 farce Otto - Der Film. Ex-Tottenham Hotspur and Norway international Erik Thorstvedt appears in the Norwegian film The Liverpool Goalkeeper, a 2010 movie about a hapless 13-year-old goalkeeper and an elusive trading card. German international Manuel Neuer vocied the character Frank McCay in the German version of the Disney film Monsters University. England goalkeepers Peter Shilton and David Seaman appeared as themselves in the UK film My Summer With Des. David Seaman also had a role in the 2004 British comedy The Baby Juice Express, playing a "huge gangster". Andreas Kontra, who played in the lower leagues of Germany with VfB Hilden and is currently a goalkeeper coach at MSV Duisburg, played Hungarian legend Gyula Grosicz in the 2003 film The Miracle of Bern. Dino Zoff had a cameo appearance in the 2015 Italian comedy Basta Poco Former international goalkeeper Theresa Wiseman, who won 60 caps for England, enjoyed a parallel career as an animator, working on such classics as The Snowman before moving to Los Angeles to work for Disney on programmes such as Phineas and Ferb. Bert Trautmann and Pat Dunne both appeared in the 1965 film Cup Fever, a British film about a children's team trying to win a local cup competition with a little help from Manchester United manager Matt Busby. Iceland's Euro 2016 goalkeeper Hannes Þór Halldórsson is a film director in his spare time and has a contract of employment with SagaFilm once his football career comes to an end. His credits include directing video to Iceland's 2012 Eurovision entry! Juventus and Italy goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon made a cameo appearance in the Italian comedy L'allenatore nel pallone 2 in 2008. Henry Cele, who played for Aces United in the South African Soccer League in the 1960s, was also something of an accomplished actor, earning rave reviews for his portrayal of the Zulu warrior king Shaka in the miniseries Shaka Zulu. He later appeared alongside Michael Douglas and Val Kilmer in the 1996 film The Ghost and the Darkness. Ray Clemence played a character called 'Ray Clemence the Younger' in the 1999 TV movie The Nearly Complete and Utter History of Everything. Former Brighton & Hove Albion and Watford goalkeeper Perry Digweed appeared alongside Vinny Jones in the 2001 film Mean Machine. Bob Wilson became better known as an anchorman after hanging up his gloves but in 1995 he appeared in the TV film The Perfect Match alongside Denis Law. United States goalkeeper Tony Meola had a cameo in the 2001 Jason Priestly vehicle Zigs as a card player. It wasn't the first time Meola had tried his hand at acting, appearing in an off-Broadway show titled Tony and Tina's Wedding in 1995. Facts You Probably Didn't Want to Know The only player ever to be capped for England while playing for Stockport County was a goalkeeper. Henry Hardy made his one and only appearance in an England shirt in 1924 in a game against Belgium. He kept a clean sheet too, as the national side ran out 4-0 winners. How many times have current Rangers and Celtic goalkeepers faced each other in an international fixture that didn't include Scotland? It certainly happened at Lansdowne Road in 1990 when Chris Woods and Pat Bonner were in goal. Wigan Athletic had the "distinction" of providing both goalkeepers when Serbia met Ghana in the 2010 World Cup finals in the form of Vladimir Stojkovic and Richard Kingson. However, neither goalkeeper was retained by the Latics for the 2010/11 season after the club decided not to extend Stojkovic's loan spell and released Kingson from his contract. When Wales played Finland at the Millennium Stadium in 2004, both first choice goalkeepers came from the same English club, namely Paul Jones and Antii Niemi of Southampton. Liverpool provided both goalkeepers when Northern Ireland met Scotland in 1920 - with Elisha Scott keeping goal for the Irish and reserve keeper Kenny Campbell between the sticks at the other end. Jones also became the first goalkeeper ever to come on as a substitute in the FA Cup Final, replacing the injured Niemi when Southampton faced Arsenal in 2003. The following year, Manchester United's Roy Carroll replaced Tim Howard in their FA Cup Final against Millwall. In England's first ever international football match, against Scotland in 1872, goalkeeper WJ Maynard changed places with Robert Baker during the second half and played up front. Both keepers kept a clean sheet. Not to be outdone, Scotland also changed goalkeepers when they played England in 1872. Captain Bob Gardner kept goals in the first half before changing positions with Robert Smith to play outfield in the second. Like their English counterparts, both keepers kept a clean sheet and the game - unsurprisingly - finished 0-0! Former Leicester City and Millwall Football Club goalkeeper Kasey Keller used to be the proud owner of a gas-powered car that was unable to reverse. The first West German player to touch the ball in the 1974 World Cup Final was goalkeeper Sepp Maier, who picked the ball out of his net after Holland's Johan Neeskens scored from the penalty spot in the opening minute. Liverpool Football Club has a proud tradition when it comes to goalkeepers. In 2730 games only six players kept goal: Ray Clemence (656), Bruce Grobbelaar (643), Elisha Scott (467), Tommy Lawrence (387), Arthur Riley (338) and Sam Hardy (239). Peru's Ramon Quiroga holds the distinction of being the only keeper ever to be booked during the World Cup Finals for a tackle in the opponents half of the field! It happened in 1978 when Peru met Poland. Three goalkeepers have played against England without being registered to a recognised club. The first was Welshman Bob Mills-Robert who came out of retirement to play against England in 1892. At the time he was listed as being with a club called Llanberis, but Llanberis was simply the place where he lived and had no official team! The other two keepers were both from North America and played against England nearly a century later. In 1985 the USA fielded a team made up of college and Indoor League players but goalie Arnie Mausser, who was setting a new US record of 35 caps, had no club at all. Canadian goalie Paul Dolan found himself in a similar position a year later when he was selected to play against England. Both keepers were victims of the collapse of the NASL. On October 16 1993, Colchester United became the first League club to have both keepers sent off in a game against Hereford United. John Keeley and Nathan Munson were both dismissed for professional fouls as the U's slumped to a 5-0 defeat. When England played Malta in 1971, Gordon Banks touched the ball just four times - all from back passes - and didn't have a single save to make. England won 5-0. Shaka Hislop used to work for NASA. Towards the end of the 1998/99 season, Millwall conceded three penalties over the course of a few weeks. All three penalties were saved. The strange thing is, on each occasion the Lions had a different goalkeeper between the sticks - Phil Smith, Ben Roberts and veteran Nigel Spink. Zairean Muampa Kazadi was the first goalkeeper to be replaced for any other reason than injury in World Cup history, when Zaïre were 0-3 down versus Yugoslavia after just 22 minutes in 1974. However, his replacement Dimbi Tubilandu couldn't stop the goalrush and his country eventually lost the game 9-0! The only other time a goalkeeper has been replaced in similar circumstances occurred in USA 1994, when Bulgarian keeper Mihailov was substituted at half time when Sweden lead 4-0. Nikolov came in for him and kept a clean sheet in the second half. Netherlands keeper Jasper Cillessen became the first goalie to be substituted twice in the World Cup Finals. First he was replaced by Tim Krul in the dying minutes of their quarter-final against Costa Rica in a tactical move as the match was on the verge of going into penalties. Then in the Third Place Play-off game against Brazil he was replaced by Michel Vorm, who was given a sentimental run-out by boss Louis van Gaal to ensure every member of the Dutch squad got a game. In July 1999, all six races at Wolverhampton race track were named in honour of Mike Stowell, Wolves' long-serving goalie! During the 1997/8 Second Division Championship season, Watford defender Steve Palmer wore all 14 shirts during the campaign. In the last home game of the season he started in goal and switched with the Hornets' regular keeper Alec Chamberlain after five seconds. Sheffield Wednesday's Lee Bullen repeated Palmer's feat eight seasons later when he played in every possible outfield position for The Owls during the 2005/06 season, including a spell in goal when regular 'keeper David Lucas was injured during a game against relegation rivals Millwall. Bullen kept a clean sheet as Wednesday ran out 1-0 winners. In January 2004, Jan Moons of Racing Genk became the first footballer to receive instructions from the bench via an earpiece in a first class professional game. Genk won and the goalkeeper insists he wasn't told which way to dive... Despite producing some the best goalkeepers the game has ever seen, no keeper from the British Isles has ever topped the International Federation of Football History and Statistics' (IFFHS) goalkeeping rankings ever since they were first introduced way back in 1987. To make matters worse, the last British goalkeeper to even appear in the Top Ten was David Seaman in 1999 until Joe Hart claimed 7th place in 2011. Brothers John and Charles Sutcliffe hold the record for the longest period between two brothers appearing in an F.A. Cup Final. Both goalkeepers, John kept goal for Bolton Wanderers when they lost to Notts County in 1894 while Charles turned out for Sheffield United 31 years later when they beat Cardiff City in the final in 1925. Bolton Wanderers goalkeeper Dick Pym won three FA Cup Winners' medals during the 1920s (1923, 1926 & 1929) and never conceded a goal at Wembley. He also lived longer than any other England international. When Ron Springett returned to Queens Park Rangers from Sheffield Wednesday in 1967, his brother Peter moved in the opposite direction as part of the transfer deal. In a similar vein, when goalkeeper Bert Slater was transferred from Liverpool to Dundee, it was also something of a family affair. Reds manager Bill Shankly had sold the keeper to his brother, Bob, who was boss at Dens Park at the time. German goalkeeper Oliver Kahn is very protective of his image rights, so protective in fact that he refuses to lend his name to the popular computer game Football Manager. He therefore appears as 'Jens Mustermann' - Mustermann being the fictitious name used for sample IDs and passports in Germany, while the name Jens was selected as it's the name of his rival for the German goalkeeping shirt, Jens Lehmann. Edwin van der Sar collects goalkeeping jerseys worn by the great custodians of the game. The Dutchman was also the first non-Italian player to keep goal for Juventus. Mart Poom's last-minute goal for Sunderland against Derby County in 2003 inspired one local brewery to produce a special edition of a beer called Poominator Ale. In November, 1985, TV presenter Bob Wilson signed for Bristol Rovers as a standby goalkeeper. He was 44-years-old at the time. Peter Shilton was sent off for the first time in his career on August 28th, 1992 in his 971st League game. When Spanish goalkeeper Íker Casillas first broke into the Real Madrid first team squad he was forced to travel to training by public transport because he wasn't old enough to hold a driving licence. Italian goalkeeper Angelo Peruzzi was a ballboy at the 1984 European Cup Final between Liverpool and AS Roma. Olympiakos goalkeeper Kleopas Giannou won €1m in the Greek National Lottery in 2002. Liverpool goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar once won a bet by walking the length of Wembley Stadium on his hands. DC United keeper Troy Perkins took a second job as a mortgage loan advisor at the start of the 2006 MLS season, which led to one wag in the crowd putting up a banner that read "Troy saves - and loans!". Scotland goalkeeper Bobby Brown holds two distinctive international honours for his country. Not only was he the last amateur player ever to play for Scotland, doing so in 1946, but he also became their first full-time manager in 1967. As an aside, he's also the last player from Queen's Park to be capped at full international level by the Scots. Ex-England goalkeeper David James collects Raleigh Choppers. Germany international Tim Wiese apparently has an expensive collection of model aeroplanes and helicopters Former Arsenal, Crystal Palace and Scotland keeper George Wood is a keen bird watcher and has a nature reserve named after him back home in Lanarkshire. In 1955 Doncaster Rovers Keeper Ken Hardwick was invited to attend an England Under-23 trial despite being 30 at the time. An embarrassed FA withdrew the invite once the error came to light. When Pedro Almenez finally called it a day after twenty-two years between the sticks for Spanish amateur club Espira he was presented with a parting gift of one of the club's goals, complete with netting, which he set up in his garden as a hammock! Former Hungary internationl Gyula Grosics finally got to play for his boyhood team, Ferencváros in 2008, 46 years after the Communist regime refused to allow him to sign for them. The then 82-year-old Grosics stood in goal for the opening minutes of a friendly match against Sheffield United before being substituted. Tony Roberts has the distinction of being the only goalkeeper ever to be sent off in the opponents penalty box in an F.A. Cup ties. The former Welsh international recorded the "feat" in January 2008 while playing for Dagenham & Redbridge after clashing with Southend United's Peter Clark. Former West Ham United and England centre half Alvin Martin scored a hattrick against three different keepers during a game against Newcastle United in April, 1986. He netted his first passed Martin Thomas, who was subsequently injured and replaced by defender Chris Hedworth, who Martin also beat. Hedworth was finally replaced by ex-England striker Peter Beardsley, allowing Martin to complete his hattrick in an 8-1 rout. Belgian goalkeeping legend Jean-Marie Pfaff was dropped from Belgium's 1982 World Cup side after pretending to drown in the team's hotel swimming pool. England and Old Etonians keeper John Hawtrey was the brother of famed stage actor Sir Charles Hawtrey In June 2012, Republic of Ireland goalkeeper Shay Given had the honour of having a baby gibbon named after him. The ape, born in County Cork's Fota Wildlife Park, was christened Shay Gibbon after the name topped an online poll. Scotland's Alan Rough was the only goalkeeper not to wear gloves during the 1978 World Cup finals. He let in six goals in three games as the Scots crashed out, despite beating eventual finalists Holland 3-2. One-time Birmingham City and Wrexham goalkeeper Johnny Schofield survived a pit explosion at Baddesley Colliery in Warwickshire in November 1957! Former AC Milan keeper Dida is the only Brazilian internaional goalie to be known by a nickname! When the Republic of Ireland went to the World Cup in 1990 striker Niall Quinn was registered as their thrid-choice goalkeeper. In March 2014, Eintracht Braunschweig goalkeeper Daniel Davari and his Borussia Mönchengladbach counterpart Marc-André ter Stegen both scored own goals in the same match. Davari has the misfortune of giving Mönchengladbach the lead in the first half before ter Stegen failed to control a backpass and ended up putting the ball into his own net. The match finished 1-1. In 1978 France became the first team to field all three of their goalkeepers in a single World Cup tournament. First choice keeper Jean-Paul Bertrand-Demanes started both of France's opening games but in their second group game against Argentina, he was forced of the pitch injured after colliding with the goalposts and was replaced by Dominique Baratelli, who went on to concede the host nation's winner and like Bertrand-Demanes would never play for the national team again. Third-choice keeper Dominique Dropsy coming into the side for their final game of the tournament, making his debut in the process. Other teams to have used all three goalkeepers at a World Cup include Belgium and Czechoslovakia, who both fielded all their custodians during the 1982 tournament in Spain, and Greece, who followed suit twelve years later as they struggled to keep out Argentina (4-0), Bulgaria (4-0) and Nigeria (2-0) in the group stages in the United States having gone undefeated through qualifying. Portugal used all of their goalkeepers during the 2014 World Cup Finals, with the Netherlands later following suit in the same competition. In November 2014 Roy Carroll played two first class games in 24 hours. Having turned out for Northern Ireland in the Euro 2016 qualifier against Romania, the 37-year-old kept a clean sheet for Notts County against Coventry City in a League One clash the following afternoon. Scott Howie went one better than Carroll back in February, 1993. Having played in Scotland's Under-21 3-0 victory over Malta, a game that kicked off at 1.30pm, Howie took the field for Clyde's 2-1 win over Queen of the South later that evening. New York Cosmos and Boston Minutemen keeper Shep Messing posed naked for the December 1974 issue of Viva magazine, having previously posed for a centrefold in Playgirl. He was paid $5,000 and sacked by the Cosmos for his trouble. Twenty years or so later, Tottenham Hotspur F.C. and England goalkeeper Ian Walker was reputedly paid £10,000 for posing naked in For Women magazine in the UK. In January 2015 an Australian ballboy by the name of Stephen White became the unofficial mascot and lucky charm of the China national team during the Asian Cup when he advised keeper Wang Delai which way to dive for a penalty during a group game against Saudi Arabia. Delai was seen consulting the ballboy prior to Naif Hazazi's spot kick and the 12-year-old correctly instructed the China keeper to go to his left. Malaysia used three goalkeepers during their 10-0 thrashing by the United Arab Emirates in a World Cup qualifier in September, 2015. Khairul Fahmi Che Mat (four), Zamir Selamat (three) and Khairul Azhan Khalid (two) were all unable to keep UAE at bay as Malaysia succumbed to their heaviest defeat in international football. In September 2015, Liverpool goalkeeper Lawrence Vigouroux had his loan spell with Swindon Town terminated after he paid a £50 fine for turning up late for training in pennies. Queen of the South legend Allan Ball played over 700 games for the club and was only ever booked once - for blaspheming on Christmas Day by Scotland's most infamous referee, Tiny Wharton. The last goalkeeper reputed to have pick the ball up from a backpass is believed to be Leonel Cárcamo, who kept goal for El Salvador during their 5-1 win over Nicuragua on July 23rd, 1992 a day before the rule change came into force at the Barcelona Olympic games. The last goalkeeper do the same during an FA Cup Final in England came at the end of the match between Liverpool and Sunderland at Wembley Stadium when Steve Nicol passed the ball back to Bruce Grobelaar. Ipswich Town and Wales goalkeeper Jack Perry became a notable brick layer after hanging up his gloves and later "topped off" the Natwest building in London. Middlesbrough goalkeeper Stephen Pears scored from the penalty spot during his testimonial at the end of the 1995 season. It proved to be the last goal scored at Ayresome Park before the club moved home to the Riverside Stadium. Back in December 1891, Blackburn Rovers' Herby Arthur found himself in a bit of a predicament when the rest of his team left the field in protest during a game against Burnley following an altercation that saw a player from both sides sent off. The referee, Charlie Clegg, ordered the game to continue despite the fact Rovers now only had one player on the field. However, after Burnley scored Arthur successfully claimed offside and took so long to take the freekick that Clegg gave up and abandoned the match. England international goalkeeper Arthur Savage was the organiser and participant in the first documented football match played in Australia, at Parramatta in August, 1880. When Manchester City goalkeeper Joe Hart joined Serie A club Torino during the 2016/17 transfer window he became the first English goalkeeper to ever appear in the top flight of Italian football since the league's formation back in 1929. Former Everton, Swansea City and Wales goalkeeper Dai Davies is a recognised druid, having been initiated into the Welsh Gorsedd of Bards in 1978.	Yorkshire
Which county won the Cricket County Championship seven years in succession between 1952 and 1958 ?	Club History \| Lymington Cricket Club Lymington Cricket Club Club History Beginnings The first known report of cricket in Lymington appeared in the Salisbury & Winchester Journal of July 20th 1807. The paper reported that ‘On Monday and Tuesday last was played at Lymington a match of cricket between 11 Gentlemen of Lymington and the district against 11 of Southampton which was won by the former by 37 runs’. A return match played at Peartree Green proved to be rather less successful for Lymington who totalled 101 in their two innings in reply to Southampton’s 269. A third and deciding match at Brockenhurst was won by Southampton whose score of 111 was more than ample to overcome Lymington’s 18. The next mention of cricket in the town came in September of 1813 when the Salisbury & Winchester Journal reported that, ‘On Monday last a grand match at Cricket was played on Pennington Common, for eleven guineas, between eleven gentlemen of the New Town and eleven of the Old Town of Lymington, which at first was well contested, but was ultimately won by the former, who beat their opponents by six wickets’. The article went on to report that ‘Both parties repaired to the Ship Inn, in Lymington, where a sumptuous supper was provided, and where, being joined by a number of friends, they remained till a late hour. During the evening many national toasts and sentiments were given and loyal songs sung, and the company separated in the greatest good humour and harmony.’ Even in those early days, it was apparent that post-match socialising was as important a part of cricket as it is today. The following year the Hampshire Courier reported that a match between eleven married and eleven young men of the town was ‘decided in the favour of the latter, having three wickets to go down.’ Again, following the match the players ventured to the Ship Inn for supper. In 1816 there was a report of Lyndhurst defeating Lymington by an innings and 123 runs, while the Hampshire Chronicle described a match on Pennington Common between ‘eleven young gentlemen of the borough of New Lymington and 11 young gentlemen of the manor of Old Lymington, which was decided in favour of the former by 16 runs’. Cricket was clearly becoming a very popular pastime in post-Napoleonic War England. In 1820 a match on Pennington Common between Lymington and Milford drew a large crowd which prompted the press to comment that, ‘so great an assemblage of company can never be remembered, and the Common bore the appearance of a pleasure fair.’ Intriguingly, the report also reveals that the match was to be played for a ‘purse of 20 guineas’. Placing bets on the results of fixtures was an important part of the game. The report of the Lymington/Milford encounter went on to describe the variations in odds during the match: ‘Betting, at the outset, was 5 to 3 on Milford, which varied after the second innings of the Lymington Club to even, and afterwards, from Milford having 15 runs to get and 4 wickets to go down, 5 to 1 was freely offered throughout the field.’ Those lucky punters who placed their money on the home side were celebrating as Lymington won the match by 6 runs. Ringwood were regular opponents in the early days of Lymington cricket, and a score sheet for the fixture between the two clubs in 1825 reveals several names which would feature in the development of both the club and town over the prevailing years: Green, Skeates Snr, Miller, Fig, Rogers, Skeates, Beckley, Hicks, St Barbe and Winsey. Ringwood would appear to have been the stronger of the two clubs on this occasion, beating Lymington by a convincing margin of an innings and 74 runs. Lymington’s top scorer was Rogers with 26 while Ringwood’s Critchell took 12 wickets in the match. Again the newspaper report mentioned the post match jolification: ‘The remainder of the day was spent in harmony and conviviality, and parted by singing the national anthem of ‘God save the King,’ and each party giving three hearty cheers as a token of good fellowship.’ Other opponents around this time included Minstead, Christchurch, Newport, Milton and Brockenhurst. Indeed, it was the latter club who in 1836 may well have been the first opponents to visit Lymington’s new ‘Bar Field’ ground which was used for the first time in this year. Lymington cricket appeared to be thriving by the early 1840s. The club boasted a membership of upwards of 60 and it was reported that the team was unbeaten during the first half of the season. Lymington’s visit to Bolton Bench in 1846 to face the New Forest Cricket Club was captured in a painting which appeared Admiral Burrard’s ‘Red Book’. The illustration (above) depicts the last wicket stand which saw the New Forest successfully overcome Lymington’s 137 all out. Lymington’s fortunes on and off the field fluctuated greatly from year to year, and it seems that the club even disbanded for a short while during the latter part of the 1840s. Happily, the club was revived and there followed a period of some success. 1853 was perhaps the best season since the formation of a cricket team in Lymington. At the end of the summer, following a win over South Hants, the Hampshire Independent wrote, ‘The Lymington Club have thus closed the season with high honour to themselves, and, with continued and liberal support, bid fair to prove themselves one of the strongest teams in the county.’ Interestingly, even back in those days matches between Lymington and teams from the Isle of Wight could be niggly affairs. Lymington’s attempts to boost their side with the inclusion of three South Hants players for their visit to Newport in 1854 was not well received on the other side of The Solent, despite the fact that the mainlanders were well beaten. Whether or not any ill-feeling from that fixture was carried over is a matter of conjecture, but it may perhaps have contributed to an unsavoury incident some some eight years later on another visit by Lymington to Newport’s Trafalgar Road ground. Reports suggest that a disturbance broke out among the ‘large concourse of spectators’ and a Mr Charles Ingwell was charged with assaulting the police after giving ‘annoyance to spectators’. Ingwell was duly fined 20 shillings, plus 5 shillings costs. By the 1860s press reports were beginning to mention individual performances rather than just the match results. Names that would become synonymous with Lymington cricket for many years began to crop up on a regular basis: Jenvey, Maturin, Crouch, to name but a few. Dr Henry Maturin was a renowned local club cricketer around this time and went on to appear for Hampshire on twelve occasions between 1864 and 1882. A distinguished all-rounder, Maturin’s availability for Lymington matches often appeared to be the difference between victory and defeat. This was no greater illustrated than in the innings victory over Lyndhurst in 1865 when he took 8 wickets and scored an unbeaten half century. Indeed, Lymington’s reliance on Maturin was subject of a good deal of debate in the local press during this year. A Hampshire Advertiser report concluded that Lymington’s defeat against a combined Brockenhurst and Pylewell XI was to be expected due to the absence of Maturin and another accomplished player by the name of Chapman, ‘whose effect on the score is like that of the weather on the thermometer’. Scores in the latter half of the 19th Century could vary greatly. In 1860 Lymington recorded a creditable 233 against old adversaries Ringwood, but in the return fixture at Bickerley Common, Lymington were bowled out for just 9 in their first innings with seven Lymington batsmen failing to trouble the scorers. A Professional Outlook An elegantly-posed photograph (above), dated 1863, is believed to be the oldest pictorial image of a Lymington cricketer. The caption underneath reads: ‘Mr Cutts, Professional Cricketer, Lymington’. This would almost certainly be the same Mr Cutts who played for the club during the 1865 season and took 5 wickets in a heavy defeat against South Hants. The picture would also be the first reference to the club employing the services of a professional within its ranks – a practice which has continued into modern times. The benefits of a good professional were not necessarily confined to the cricket field, as was noted by the club in 1871: ‘It is understood that a professional is engaged to instruct the younger hands, and improve the older ones – a wise step, and one sure to pay.’ Like today, the recruitment of a professional made a good story for the local press. The Lymington Chronicle in 1874 made a colourful comment about Lymington’s professional bowler Gilbert: ‘His balls are sent in straight as an arrow and with the force of a catapult’. Frank Goulding proved to be another successful professional recruit. In a comprehensive innings victory over Bournemouth in 1878 Goulding took 13 wickets and scored 55. In 1882 Goulding scored 96 – the highest recorded score yet by a Lymington batsman – against RA Golden Hill, and took 7 for 13 in the defeat of Brockenhurst. So it was perhaps with some regret that the club announced Goulding’s decision to take up the post of professional bowler with Boston Park Cricket Club in Brentford. Harry Jupp Young Stonewall Goulding’s departure was tempered somewhat at the 1883 club AGM by the stunning news that Lymington had secured the services of the former England and Surrey cricketer Harry Jupp. This signing was a major coup for Lymington – only six years previous Jupp had been the first Englishman to score a Test half century in England’s first ever Test match against Australia in Melbourne. Jupp’s sound defensive technique earned him the nickname ‘Young Stonewall’. He also obviously displayed terrific powers of concentration. On several occasions for Surrey Jupp achieved the rare feat of being on the field for every run scored in a First Class match, batting through both of his side’s innings, occasionally keeping wicket too. Although Jupp made just two Test appearances – both on the inaugural Australia tour, he played in 378 First Class matches, scoring 15,319 runs including 12 centuries. Some reports suggest that Jupp not only made England’s first ever Test half century, but that he was England’s first Test wicketkeeper too. The story goes that regular keeper Dick Pooley was unavailable for the start of that First Test due to being detained in jail in New Zealand following a dispute over betting with some inhabitants of the Shaky Isles. There are many stories about Henry Jupp, but perhaps the most popular is the tale of when he was bowled first ball whilst batting for his local Dorking club. Instead of leaving the field, Jupp calmly replaced the bails and prepared himself for the next delivery. “Ain’t you going, Juppy?” enquired the umpire. “No”, replied Jupp, “not at Dorking I ain’t”. Quite how or why Jupp came to play for Lymington is unclear, although it is known that he was running the Sun Hotel in Weston near Southampton two years prior to joining the club. It is known that Jupp went on to play for Buckinghamshire in 1886, three years before his death, in London, aged just 48. Predictably, Jupp’s effect on Lymington’s results in 1883 were apparent as the club enjoyed a successful season. As well as taking a host of wickets – 11 versus Lyndhurst, 10 against Southampton – he also appeared to bring out the best in his teammates too. Against local rivals Milton, a bowler by the name of Hampton took all 10 wickets for 30 runs in Milton’s second innings, thus becoming the first of only three Lymington bowlers in the history of the club to achieve that feat. Later in the season the same bowler would almost repeat the achievement, taking 9 for 24 against Mudeford with the press reporting that Hampton received ‘a present of ‘talent’ money at the close’. Henry Jupp wasn’t the only Test player to appear for Lymington around this time. Christopher Heseltine of Walhampton made 72 First Class appearances for Hampshire and, like Jupp, played twice for his country. In his second and final Test in 1896 Heseltine took 5 for 38 against South Africa at Johannesburg, and in later life was awarded an OBE. Of course, employing professionals didn’t come cheaply, and Lymington’s 1884 AGM revealed that Jupp’s account for the previous season had amounted to £35-18s-2d. Perhaps with this in mind, the club decided against hiring a professional for the forthcoming season, except for important matches. Lymington’s results suffered accordingly with defeats against Bassett, Portswood, Brockenhurst and Battersea Park who amassed a massive 335 before bowling out Lymington for just 72. Lymington’s results improved over the next few seasons, and the team generally won more matches than it lost. Totals of over 200 were still quite rare and matches were usually low scoring two innings affairs. One such example was the 1890 fixture against Lyndhurst who were twice bowled out for 43, with Lymington replying with 49 all out and 38 for 1. One performance in 1890 well worth noting was that of William Dible who took 8 for 5 against St Martins Athletic. Dible had just five years previously taken 7 for 60 for Hampshire against Sussex. In 1893 HA Adams became the first batsman to record a century at the Sports Ground. His 110 runs, in a Lymington total of 172 was said to have included a drive for 8 (at the time there was no limit on the amount of runs that could be taken from a single delivery). Adams proved to be a prolific runscorer for the club during the mid 1890s. In 1893, as well as the aforementioned century, he also registered scores of 78 against Milford, 67 against Fawley and 71 against RA Golden Hill, not to mention 76 for the Lymington Single XI against their Married counterparts. Ups and downs Lymington’s fortunes continued to prosper, and in 1896 the club recorded one of the most convincing victories in its history. At the Sports Ground on Whit Monday Lymington scored a massive 372 for 4 declared against Yarmouth thanks to centuries from Heppenstall and Hibbert. The unfortunate Islanders were then bowled out for just 9 runs in 20 minutes. Yarmouth fared a little better in their second innings but were still dismissed for 50. However, Lymington were themselves on the receiving end a year later as they were skittled out for just 8 runs against old rivals Ringwood. The first eight batsmen all registered ducks as Lymington were at one stage 2 for 8. Earlier, Ringwood had been dismissed for 61 with JW Gibson taking 6 wickets. Fortunately, such batting calamities were few and far between, and with a run of victories over the likes of Ringwood, Brockenhurst and Pylewell Park in 1899, Lymington could look forward to the new century with a great deal of optimism. There were some noteworthy individual performances in the early stages of the 20th century. Toogood, the club’s professional bowler for 1900 was, as his name suggested, too good for 91 opposing batsmen during the season, while in the same year Walter Turner produced the highest score yet by a Lymington batsman when he scored an unbeaten 163 in the 121 run victory over Trojans. Turner would later play First Class cricket, and in 1919 scored 172 for Essex against Middlesex. Herbert Cullin Heppenstall was captain of the side around this time. A batsman of undeniable ability, he captained the side between 1898 and 1911, and went on to be president of the club until 1944. An important figure around the town, he was joint founder of Lymington Hospital and became Mayor of the Borough in 1922. During the First World War Herbert Heppenstall commanded the Lymington Company of the Hampshire Volunteers (a kind of ‘Dad’s Army’ of its day) which included several names well known to the cricket club such as Fred and Frank Totterdell and a young Leonard Hoare. The Sports Ground pavilion is officially opened, 1913 On the rise As the standard of pitches at the Sports Ground improved, so did the scores. Among the batsmen to take full advantage of this were Lt Abercrombie and Charlie Down. Lt Cecil Halliday Abercrombie was a highly promising all rounder for Lymington and went on to make 126 for Hampshire on his debut First Class debut against Essex in 1913. Tragically, just three years later Abercrombie was killed aboard HMS Defence during the Battle of Jutland. Charlie Down was another accomplished all-rounder who would represent the club both on and off the field for many years. An elegant batsman and useful off-spin bowler, Down was perhaps a little harshly described as a ‘highly successful trundler’. He would be elected as a life member in 1952 in recognition of more than 50 years service to the club and he died, appropriately enough, while listening to a Test Match on the radio. Almost 100 years before Lymington formed a women’s section, there was in 1903 a report of a ladies’ cricket match at the Sports Ground watched by ‘a very good attendance of the elite of the neighbourhood’. There was no mention of Lymington’s opponents, although the home side were apparently victorious with one lady scoring 40 in each innings. Lymington continued their steady growth in the years leading up the the First World War. In 1913 a new pavilion was erected at the Cricket Field (as it was then known). In front of more than a hundred members and supporters of the club, the new building was officially opened by the Viscountess St Cyres of Walhampton. The town band played, and a commemorative match was staged between twelve from Lymington, Boldre and Pylewell against twelve from Brockenhurst, Milton, Milford and Sway – the latter scoring 137 for 7 in reply to the former’s 160. Although there was the first mention of a Lymington Second XI in 1914, precious little cricket would be played for the next four years while the War dominated everyone’s thoughts. Lymington’s Golden Age Lymington finally recommenced playing in 1920. In time the 1920s and 30s would be seen as a golden period in the history of the club, not far behind the 1980s in terms of playing strength and success. The team contained hugely talented cricketers such as captain Dr Kay, Herbert ‘Ticker’ Firth, Dick Jenvey, Herbert Blagrave and Joe Walsh, to name but a few. Dr Kay was well known for his big-hitting, and legend has it that he once struck a ball out of the Sports Ground into St Thomas’ Street – if correct, a truly massive shot. Cricket weeks were introduced in the early 1920s. In 1923 cricket week not only saw high scoring matches, but also a century from one of the elite band of Lymington players who appeared in Test matches. At the age of 57, General Robert M Poore (above) scored 124 against Dorset Rangers in a Lymington total of 459 for 8 (FC Weaver 127). Poore had previously made three appearances for South Africa and in 1899 scored 1,399 runs for Hampshire including 304 against Somerset at Taunton. Those runscoring feats earned Poore the Wisden Cricketer of the Year award for 1900. A sign of how much the club had progressed came in 1925 when the First XI lost just three times in 26 matches. There were noteworthy wins over Trojans and the Hampshire Hogs, while Harland & Wolff were shot out for just 14 with Ticker Firth taking 6 wickets for 4 runs. Firth was a watchmaker in the town (hence the nickname) and a prolific all-rounder for Lymington. In 1926 alone he had the distinction of scoring 1,000 runs and taking 100 wickets. Walsh, Blagrave and Jack Booth were also in the runs in 1926, all three scoring centuries. Herbert Blagrave was a pace bowler and free scoring batsman who had twice represented Gloucestershire. In later years he would become a racehorse trainer and president of Southampton Football Club. Joe Walsh was elected as First XI skipper in 1934 and would go on to captain the side for more than a decade. In the year 2000 club historian Norman Gannaway was invited to select his Lymington team of the Millennium and had no hesitation in naming Joe Walsh as his captain. As a skipper and bowler, Walsh used craft and guile to outfox his opposition, and he was as meticulous on the cricket field as he was off it. A cricketer of outstanding all-round ability (he averaged 80 in the 1943 season), Walsh possessed what Norman described as, “an innate shrewd awareness, with a clearly competitive outlook”. The visit of I. Zingari to Lymington for a two day match in 1926 brought 933 runs spread over both days. For Zingari’s one-legged wicketkeeper Bunny Tattersall, the match also meant a 180 mile dash to collect a mechanical limb to replace the one which had been damaged during the first day’s play. Almost certainly Lymington’s highest ever 7th wicket stand came in 1928 when Ben Maturin (175) and Ticker Firth (122 not out) added 293 runs against the Hampshire Hoggetts. Bert Matthews achieved another record-breaking feat a year later when he took all 10 Hordle wickets for just 15 runs for Lymington Second XI. Incredibly, Matthews repeated the act in 1931 when he took 10 for 27 against RAF Calshot. Lymington’s good form continued into the 1930s. An MCC XI was defeated over two innings during cricket week in 1931 with Firth taking 9 wickets in the match. The following year Lymington notched up a massive 451 for 8 declared to beat Chiswick Priory with Owen Ayles scoring 108. The Second XI, under the captaincy of John Howlett, was also dominant, losing just twice in 1932 – ironically to Boldre on both occasions. Strange as it may seem now, for many years spectators had to pay an admission fee to enter the Sports Ground to watch Lymington matches. By 1929, however, gate receipts had fallen to £7 11s 1d and so the club decided scrap entrance fees in 1930 and rely on collections instead. This appeared to be a shrewd move as the collections amounted to £11 10s 5d. Lymington 1932 The Stone Cup When, in 1933, the Mayor, Alderman EAG Stone, generously donated a cup to be competed for by local cricket clubs, he could scarcely have realised that for the next 55 years the Stone Cup would become such an institution in the local cricketing calendar. Each match was held at the Sports Ground with the innings of the team batting first lasting no longer than one hour. The competition proved to be a great draw for local cricket spectators, and the collections from the sizeable crowds in turn helped to boost Lymington’s ailing finances. Lymington were dominant in the early years of the Stone Cup, initially entering two teams. Indeed in the inaugural season Lymington’s A team met the the B side in the final, Firth’s 5 for 20 tipping the balance for the former. In an earlier round Perce Goff had scored an amazing 158 against Brockenhurst B. The Lymington B team had to wait just two years to avenge that cup final defeat, beating their club counterparts in the 1935 final by 6 runs in front of a large crowd. Perce Goff proved to be the match winner, taking 5 wickets, including that of the dangerous Dick Jenvey. Jenvey had, in the previous season, recorded the highest individual total by a Lymington player when he scored 202 not out against Aldenham at the Sports Ground. He batted for five hours and the innings included 17 fours and 5 sixes. Jenvey’s record stood for 67 years until Australian Brian Clemow scored 213 not out in a Southern Premier League match against Cove at the Sports Ground in 2001. As well as being a talented batsman, Dick Jenvey was also a highly adept groundsman who kept the Sports Ground square in top condition for a number of years. Harold Gossip, who had shared a century stand with Jenvey during his famous Aldenham innings, also enjoyed a successful 1934 season scoring nearly 400 runs including an unbeaten century versus Poole. The following season Gossip would gain the distinction of becoming the first Lymington batsman to be dismissed under the revised LBW law when Lymington took on New Milton. Ironically, many years later Harold Gossip’s son Nick would become a stalwart of New Milton Cricket Club, although occasionally touring with Lymington. Lymington’s GL Jones made nine First Class appearance for Hampshire during the 1937 season, recording a top score of 37 not out against the touring New Zealanders at Dean Park. In his five innings for Lymington Jones averaged a remarkable 129.5. Adolf Hitler, presumably a secret cricket lover, waited for the 1939 season to end before invading Poland. This gave Lymington‘s WEN (Bill) Scott ample opportunity to score a hatful of runs, including exactly 100 in the draw with Bournemouth and 70 in the 10 wicket win over Ringwood. Hailing from the Isle of Wight, Scott came to Lymington in the 1930s in pursuit of a banking career, and soon formed an opening partnership with Jack Williams (ironically, another banker). Just two years before joining Lymington Scott had played five times for Hampshire, making a highest score of 35 at Portsmouth against a Nottinghamshire side including Harold Larwood. Arthur Smith Cricket continued to be played during the War years, although there was generally a limited programme of fixtures and Lymington ran just one XI. There were still a number of outstanding performances to report. In 1944 Jimmy Green took 9 for 36 against a combined Boldre & Brockenhurst XI, while a year later Arthur Smith took 8 Calmore wickets for just 10 runs. Lymington teamed up with Southampton Touring Club (who included Arthur Holt and Lloyd Budd) to defeat the renowned British Empire XI by 42 runs. Many of Lymington’s wartime fixtures were against service XIs. One such match versus HMS Safeguard was abandoned due to the smoke caused by an Air Raid Precaution smokescreen drill. During the War Lymington also started playing Sunday matches, although only on the strict instructions from the local vicar that the games commence after the end of the morning church service and conclude before the start of evensong. The War affected just about everyone’s lives in the town, not least Lymington cricketer Dick Marshall. He had been captured by the Germans in North Africa and spent the duration of the War in a POW camp. A giant of a man, Marshall was a successful seam bowler and a fine striker of the ball. On a visit to Winchmore Hill he achieved the rare feat of hitting a six on to the roof of the pavilion. A butcher by trade, Marshall was a handy man to have in the club because, as Lew Gregory puts it, “we never went short of sawdust or white coats for the umpires!” Marshall became chairman of the club a number of years later, and was generally described by all who knew him as, “a lovely man”. The Stone Cup resumed in 1946 and was won by Lymington who beat RAF Calshot by 74 to 62. Arthur Curtis, a fierce competitor and fine cover point fielder, scored a century in the competition against SMES, and also notched up 708 runs in all other forms of the game during the year. Best bowling analysis in the Stone Cup undoubtedly went to Arthur Smith who took 9 for 32 against the Lymington Youth Fellowship. By the late 1940s Smith had established himself as one of Lymington’s all-time great bowlers. As if to emphasise this he took each of the five wickets to fall when Worcestershire brought a near full strength side to the Sports Ground in 1948. The fixture came about thanks to Worcestershire’s Reg Perks who had been stationed locally during the War. Although Lymington were predictably no match for the county side, Smith’s spell of 16 overs, 5 for 33, and Dick Rowe’s six-strewn 44, were the two performances that caught the eye. Another county side graced the Sports Ground a few months later when Hampshire defeated Lymington, despite the fact that the hosts used 15 batsmen. Hampshire’s Tom Dean took 10 for 48 as Lymington’s XV totalled just 97 (Mike Dupre 25). Johnny Arnold scored 70 as Hampshire earned a comfortable victory. The decade ended with Frank Robinson taking 5 for 6 as Lymington skittled out Pylewell Park for just 13. Lymington make their way onto the field, 1958 Tough Times With several members of the team coming towards the end of their careers, Lymington First XI sometimes found the going tough during the 1950s. However, the Second XI under Dick Jenvey’s captaincy enjoyed one of their best ever seasons in 1950 with excellent performances from Terence Walsh who took 9 for 14 in the win over SRDE at Somerford and Bill Brooks who scored exactly 100 against Hordle. Spinner Terence Walsh possessed the most peculiar bowling action, releasing the ball at a decent pace from almost behind his right ear, making it extremely difficult for the batsman to pick up the flight. Over the years, Terence Walsh’s unorthodox action would bamboozle many a batsman. There is a story of one such batsman, Reg Haskell, walking away from the crease having been comprehensively bowled by Terence, repeatedly muttering to himself, “I don’t believe it”. The finest performance of the 1950 season came from 16 year old debutant Raymond Flood who scored 85 in a then record stand of 139 for the fifth wicket with Sid Fryer against Pylewell Park. When club stalwart Frank Robinson sadly passed away in 1953 it was decided that a trophy in his name would be awarded to the Second XI player of the year. The very first recipient was bowler Ken Savill who not only took 60 wickets in the season but also achieved the extremely rare distinction of taking all 10 in an innings at Pylewell Park Leonard Hoare 1958 saw the resignation of Leonard Hoare as Honourary Secretary, to be replaced by Lewis Gregory. Leonard had held the post since 1922 when, in his own prophetic words, he had agreed to do it “until someone else can be found.” Many local cricketers owe Leonard a big debt of gratitude for introducing them to the game. Ray Flood had begun his cricketing life at the Sports Ground as a scoreboard operator on the orders of Len Hoare who was a schoolmaster at Lymington Church of England School. “I didn’t have much choice, really” he recalled, “Mr Hoare told me, “You WILL do the scoreboard on Saturday, Flood!” and that was it.” Leonard later sent Flood for a trial with Hampshire and the young batsman went on to play 24 First Class matches for the county with a top score of 138 not out against Sussex at Hove in 1958. Leonard would also encourage boys from the school to push the big old roller up and down the Sports Ground square, and was perhaps best remembered for taking a collection box around the boundary during important Stone Cup matches, and shaking it vigorously until spectators eventually put some money in. In 1949 he had the honour of becoming Lymington Cricket Club’s first Life Member. Transition Youngsters coming to the fore at the beginning of the 1960s included Robin Goff, Michael Pardey and John Chidsey, the latter scoring 500 runs in 1961. But it was generally a barren spell for Lymington as was reflected by the 1960 season when just 5 matches were won out of the 30 played. It would take a good few years for things to improve significantly. Arguably, the turnaround in fortunes can be attributed to the introduction of Sunday cricket at Lymington, and the arrival of influential players such as Chris Allen, Brian Hobby and Andrew King. Lymington had traditionally only organised Saturday fixtures, and several members of the side would go off and play for other local sides on Sundays. But with the encouragement of Chris Allen and Andrew King, Lymington adopted a full Sunday programme in 1966 and this trend began to be reversed. Players such as David Thompson, Chris James and Alan Wheeler came to play Sunday cricket and, in due course, would turn out for the club on Saturdays too. Brian Hobby was one of Lymington’s most effective all rounders during the 1960s and also a thoughtful captain. He joined the club as an opening batsman, but developed into a fine seam bowler who could bowl big away swingers. Former teammate Chris James considers Brian to have been, “a typical English seam bowler: not overly quick, but on the uncovered wickets of his day he could be extremely effective.” Brian was also an accomplished batsman with a highest score of 110 for Lymington; and he was always the most immaculately dressed member of the team, whether on or off the field. On a very hot day in 1968 Brian took nine wickets against Bournemouth Amateurs to win the game, and while the rest of the team came off hot and thirsty, Brian reportedly left the field with not one bead of sweat on him, and his hair still immaculately groomed! Andrew King had moved into the area in 1966 when he took up a teaching post at Brockenhurst Grammar School. He went on to play for Lymington for seven seasons before taking up another teaching post in Sussex. During his time at Lymington Andrew was instrumental in bringing several fellow teachers into the club, including Steve Goater and Peter Green, and the excellent pace bowler from Yorkshire, David Maughan. King himself was a more than useful wicketkeeper/batsman who was always highly competitive. In 1969 alone he scored more than 1,100 runs and took 40 catches and 10 stumpings. Perhaps the finest batting performance of the decade came in 1969 from 19 year old Graham Waters. His 172 against Gosport at the Sports Ground included 6 sixes and 25 fours. The enigmatic Waters then followed it up with 140 against Hythe, before making himself unavailable for the following week due to a pop festival. Andrew King recalls, “It must have been a good pop festival because we didn’t see him again for about six weeks! He didn’t play too many games for the club; when I last heard of him he was a postman.” Waters arguably holds the record for the biggest six in the club’s history, certainly one to rival Dr Kay’s strike into St Thomas’ Street some five decades earlier. As Brian Hobby remembered: “Graham hit the ball way over the houses at The Tins end and it ended up on the steps of the old Lyric cinema in St Thomas’ Street. It was definitely the biggest hit I ever saw at the ground”. With the influx of players, results slowly improved, and in 1970 Lymington lost just two of its 41 matches played. One of the most notable successes came against Guildford side Burpham who returned home with a crushing 10 wicket defeat courtesy of an unbeaten stand of 165 between Robin Goff and Dave Paramore. In 1970 Lymington tasted success in an evening knockout competition for the first time in more than twenty years when they defeated Calmore by 11 runs in the final of the Sidney Wyatt Cup at Bolton’s Bench. Paramore guided Lymington to 105 for 3, before Hobby’s 4 wickets helped restrict Calmore to 94 for 6. There was further good news with the selection of Peter Barrett for England Schoolboys (Peter’s England Schoolboys cap is pictured on the back cover of this brochure). The following year Peter, with 762, was one of five Lymington batsmen to top 500 runs; the others being Andrew King (905), Robin Goff (807), Bill Craft (531) and Garth Thomas (514). Lymington: Sydney-Wyatt Cup Winners, 1970 In 1971 Lymington again reached the Sidney Wyatt final, but were this time beaten by Paultons. In the Stone Cup Lymington, defending a respectable 131 for 5 (Bill Craft 44), appeared to be cruising to victory until Lyndhurst’s John Harris smashed a superb 82 to win the match with seven balls to spare. The coming of league cricket The Southern Cricket League had been formed in 1969, but Lymington had opted not to be involved. Strange as it may seem, there were those on the committee who felt that league cricket was a passing fad that wouldn’t last. However, by 1973 Andrew King had managed to persuade the club that the time was right to join the newly established Hampshire Cricket League, and on Saturday May 12th, 1973 Lymington took on Worthies in their first ever league match. Appropriately enough, King struck the first ball of the match for four and Lymington went on to score 307 for 3 declared with King (102), Peter Barrett (104) and Steve Goater (66) all finding league cricket much to their liking. Worthies were then dismissed for just 30 with Chris Allen taking the first eight of his huge haul of Lymington league wickets for just 14 runs. Ironically, Lymington’s 277 run victory was not only their first, but would also prove to be largest winning margin ever recorded by the club in a league fixture. A young Peter Barrett Success continued throughout the 1973 season, and just one match (against Petersfield) was lost as Lymington cruised to the Hampshire League Division 2 title. Chris Allen topped the league bowling averages with 50 wickets among a personal total of 140 in all cricket. Elegant middle order batsman Bill Craft notched up 1,083 runs in all competitions. The following season Lymington more than held their own in Division 1, and had the added bonus of a rare Stone Cup win when they defeated old foes Lyndhurst by 5 runs. The Second XI were also in league action for the first time, competing in the newly established New Forest League. A creditable fourth place out of 17 was due largely to the fine form of Len Booker who took 37 wickets and scored 235 runs, while there were also contributions from Peter Soffe (257 runs) and Chris James (242). In June 1975 Peter Barrett made his First Class debut for Hampshire against Yorkshire at Sheffield’s Abbeydale Park. In 1976 no fewer than five bowlers – John Stanley, Mike Barton, Len Booker, Chris James and George Hollobone – took 20 or more wickets for the Second XI. Jack Barrett, a sound batsman and widely regarded as one of the finest slip fielders in the history of the club, topped the batting charts with 265 runs as Lymington finished third. The First XI, meanwhile were not so successful, finishing in 13th place. Only batsmen Don Whitlock (308) and John Lawson (207) scored in excess of 200 as runs were generally hard to come by in a campaign marked by heavy reverses against Hythe & Dibden and New Milton. Butch White inspired Milton to a 7 wicket win over Lymington, the lightening quick Hampshire bowler taking 5 wickets before wrapping up the match with a series of huge sixes. The Hythe defeat saw Lymington skittled out for just 42 with Phil Pick taking 6 for 15. Hythe also recorded a comprehensive 8 wicket win over Lymington in the Sidney Wyatt final. Butch White’s fearsome pace would achieve legendary status in local cricket. Robin Goff recalls how on one occasion against the Hampshire Club & Ground side he upset Butch by edging a ball to the boundary. “He wasn’t happy and he let me have a short one next ball. I felt it go past my ears and heard it thud into Brian Timms’ gloves before I could even lift the bat”. Lymington made the local news headlines in 1976 when it was announced that a team of touring Rhodesians wanted to play a match at the Sports Ground. This proved to be a highly contentious issue at the time as it would have contravened the British Government’s policies on sporting links with Rhodesia and the fixture was dropped. Into the Southern League The club took the major step of entering both its two Saturday sides into the Southern League in 1978. The Second XI, which had won the New Forest League the previous season, took its place in a Second XI Championship. But both teams were to find the going extremely tough in that first season, with the First XI winning just twice (against Poole and New Milton), and the Seconds winning just three times. Steve Coltman was top runscorer for the Firsts with 307 runs, while youngsters John Williamson (215) and Roy Harris (209) were the main contributors for the Second XI. Sadly, having organised and hosted the Stone Cup since 1933, Lymington decided to hand over the running of the competition to the New Forest Club Cricket Association in 1978. Interest had certainly waned in recent years and the once profit-making competition had started to incur financial losses. The club also pointed to over-use of the Sports Ground square as another reason. In many ways, the end of Lymington’s association with the Stone Cup was a sad development. Over the years it had become part of local cricketing folklore, with oft-told tales of huge crowds at the Sports Ground for important matches. Having won the competition six times in its first 15 seasons, Lymington thereafter only won it on one more occasion, in 1974. Various theories suggest why Lymington, after that successful early run, fared so badly in the competition in later years. Brian Hobby feels that many players preferred not to play the limited overs format as it was not considered to be ‘proper cricket’. Some may have even felt that the Stone Cup was below them in some way. It was certainly true in later years that Lymington rarely fielded their best XI in the cup, and the team also suffered from a lack of competitive league cricket, something that unquestionably gave Bournemouth League clubs such as Rydal a distinct advantage in cup competitions. Rydal’s Brian Pardey also makes the valid point that most Lymington batsmen were generally too correct for the shorter format of the game when the long handle was often called for. One exception to this was George Crouch, a hugely powerful puller and hooker of the ball who was well suited to limited overs cricket. In 1977 the club entered a side in the New Forest Indoor League at Brockenhurst College. Indoor cricket would prove to be a popular winter pastime for Lymington cricketers and some years later the club would enter the Farley’s Indoor League at Eastleigh’s Fleming Park. The calm before the storm The introduction of Hampshire’s Mike Bailey helped the team climb the table to 12th place in 1979. Bailey showed his undoubted class in the 74 run win over old rivals New Milton, scoring 67 and taking 5 wickets. Other contributors in that victory were Mike Halliwell with 52 and Colin Coxon who scored an unbeaten 54. Despite 370 runs from the club’s new young batsman Jon Hardy, only four matches were won in the 1980 season. The Seconds also suffered from a lack of batting, highlighted by the low scoring match against New Milton when Lymington, replying to Milton’s 91 all out, were themselves shot out for just 64. Tony Jenkin at least provided some cheer against Petersfield with match-winning figures of 7 for 64. Fortunes sank even lower the following year with the Firsts finishing 16th and the Seconds just one place higher. To make matters worse, at the end of the season prolific spinner Don Whitlock joined Rydal. Away from the rigours of league cricket Brian Rickman took 6 for 8 (including a hat trick) as Exbury were dismissed for 28. Brian Rickman’s speciality was the famous ‘ice-ball’, a lobbed delivery which could induce confusion in the batsman who was unsure whether to charge up the pitch and hit it on the full or wait for it to bounce. The end result was generally either a catch in the deep or a stumping. The ultimate gentleman on and off the field, Brian did everything possible to encourage youngsters to play the game, and to that end founded The Elite cricket team in 1983 principally for those too young or too old to take part in league matches. Andrew Jones 1982 got off to the worst possible start for Lymington cricket when the hugely talented Under 15 colt Quentin Lacey was involved in a horrific accident while cycling home from school. Quentin, described as a “born leader” by his colts manager Chris Whitehouse, fought a brave battle to recover from his terrible injuries, and in 1986 was awarded life membership of the club. On a happier note 1982 marked the 175th anniversary of Lymington Cricket Club, and to celebrate the event Norman Gannaway produced an extensive history of the club. Four years later Norman penned another book, ‘The Barfield’, to mark 150 years of cricket at Lymington Sports Ground. Norman’s association with Lymington stretched back to 1942 when, as a young lad and with the encouragement of Mr Leonard Hoare, he became a scorer for the club. Over the years Norman also filled various roles, including president, secretary, umpire and club historian, and under the pen name ‘Spectator’ wrote regular nostalgic articles for the club programme. Jon Hardy’s election as First XI captain in 1982 was to trigger the most successful period in the club’s history. After a poor start to the season the team rallied to finish in tenth place. This improvement co-incided with the introduction of several new faces – New Zealander Andrew Jones and South African Peter Williams among them. A run to the Echo Trophy semi-final was another sign of the team’s growing potential. Two Sunday Second XI batsmen deserve special mention for noteworthy performances in 1982. Against Hythe & Dibden at the Sports Ground, Edward Wilson scored a remarkable 167 in a Lymington total of 259 for 5. Wilson’s innings included 11 sixes and 6 fours. In a 10 wicket win at Pennington, James Lowe scored an unbeaten 64 out of a total of 68 for 0, Lowe’s fellow batsman John Pawley ending on 0 not out. Lymington: 1983 Southern League Champions The ‘big jump’ Reflecting on the First XI’s marked improvement during the previous season, Chairman Richard Truscott warned members against getting too carried away in 1983. “There is a small difference between abject failure and medium success”, he stressed, “but a big jump to being a serious contender for Southern League honours”. A few months later Jon Hardy and his new look squad were preparing to make the ‘big jump’. The Chairman needn’t have worried. From the opening day 7 wicket success at Gosport, to the final day victory at New Milton, Lymington were unstoppable. In the space of four months the team swept all before them, creating records left, right and centre, and etching their name both in club and league history. Not only were the team unbeaten all season, but such was their superiority that they dropped just 9 points all summer. The formidable bowling attack of Peter Williams, Stephen Andrew, Jeff Hose, Alan Wright and Dick Page never once conceded more than 200 in an innings, while tailender Page was not required to bat in any match. The young captain Hardy led from the front with 607 runs, while Andrew Jones had an inspired season, averaging 107 with the bat, taking 12 wickets and holding on to 17 catches. Lymington also had a good run in the Bertie Joel Trophy, defeating Gosport, Wimbledon, Worcester Park and Maidenhead & Bray, before eventfully losing to Epsom. Peter Tapper kindly volunteered to sort out the travel arrangements for Lymington’s tie with Worcester Park. However, with all the plans in place and a coach booked for the trip to London, Tapper was somewhat embarrassed to discover that Lymington had in fact been drawn at home! A season of so much joy and celebration ended on a desperately sad note with the tragic deaths of 16 year old Glenn Whitehouse in September, and Peter Barrett just a month later. A pace bowler with huge potential, Glenn had taken 19 wickets for the Second XI during the 1983 season, and was surely destined for greater things. Peter had played for the club since the age of 15 and had made six First Class appearances for Hampshire. 1984: double trouble Despite the departures of Andy Jones and Peter Williams, Lymington carried on their unbeaten run well into the 1984 season. The team was further weakened by Hampshire’s selection of both Stephen Andrew and Jon Hardy – the latter scoring an unbeaten 94 against Somerset on his First Class debut. But in Hardy’s absence Lymington broke the Southern League record for consecutive victories in some style with a massive 178 run win – their 25th in a row – over New Milton. On July 24th, the Echo even suggested that Lymington should put the champagne on ice following their 7 run win over nearest rivals Gosport. However, with the title within touching distance Lymington incredibly lost their next three matches against Bournemouth, Alton and Trojans, and hopes of a second consecutive title were gone. Peter Tapper ended the season with 500 runs ahead of youngster Max Smith who totalled 376. Tapper and Clive Plant both shared the Southern League six-hitting award, and spinner Chris Allen also clinched the League’s bowling award with 36. Lymington also came tantalisingly close to winning the Echo Trophy. Following huge wins over Trojans (Jon Hardy smashing 110 not out and a car window) and South Wilts (Lymington scoring a then record 221 for 6), in the semi final Lymington registered a nailbiting 1 wicket win over Winchester. Having restricted opponents Waterlooville to 92 for 5 in the final at the County Ground, Lymington appeared to be cruising to victory. But from 50 for 2 Lymington collapsed, losing their last 8 wickets for just 29 runs, with Ville’s man-of-the-match Neil McGarry taking 5 for 13 in 6 overs. The club’s Second XI lost their first eight matches but recovered well to finish 10th in 1984, while the Third XI, in its first season in the New Forest League, secured a mid-table finish. Bob Iles snared a highly creditable 48 wickets, ahead of Luigi Di Maria who took 20. Jack Barrett headed the Third XI batting averages, while promising batsman Neil Perrett scored a century for the Sunday Seconds. Off the field, in an effort to raise vital funds the club launched a matchday programme. Another title 1985 saw the arrival of several new faces at the Sports Ground. All rounder Neil Trestrail joined the club from Sussex League side Horsham. Trestrail’s club debut was most definitely worthy of mention – a half century and 7 for 55 in the friendly fixture with Trojans. Also arriving at the Sports Ground were Surrey Second XI batsman Paul Taylor and Chris Noble from Ellingham. In July the team was strengthened further by the arrival of South African leg spinner Richard McGlashan who made an immediate impact with three wickets in each of his first three matches and went on to score the League’s fastest fifty (29 balls) of the season. While perhaps not being the all-conquering force of two years previous, Lymington were nonetheless never out of the top two all season. The side lost just two matches on their way to the championship, although once again they almost contrived to throw away the title. Going into the last match at Bournemouth, just 8 points were required to ensure the championship. Neil Trestrail’s 5 for 32 helped dismiss Bournemouth for 159 with the final wicket – that of tailender Paul Garlick – coming off the very last ball of the innings. Garlick’s dismissal, courtesy of a catch by Paul Taylor off Trestrail, gave Lymington a crucial extra two bowling points. This meant that only two batting points were now required. This seemed a mere formality as Lymington cantered to 142 for 3, but high drama followed as the innings then collapsed to 149 for 8. It was left to Jeff Hose to score the 150th run of the innings to ensure the precious eighth bonus point with just a few balls of the innings remaining. Despite going on to lose the match by 5 runs, the bonus points were enough to give Lymington the title by just 0.14 points on average. As Lymington’s relieved players cracked open the champagne at Kinson, 35 miles away Trojans, the team who Lymington had pipped for the title, were also celebrating, believing that Lymington had not reached the required points total. They wrongly assumed that the two extra bonus points gained for bowling out a team only applied if the team went on to win the match. Lymington celebrate the 1985 Southern League title Lymington’s title success proved to be a real team effort, with everyone chipping in at various times of the season. Paul Taylor led the batting averages with 413 runs, but there were also significant contributions from Max Smith (329), Tapper (281), Trestrail (226) and Will Seaby (169). Chris Allen topped the bowling averages with 32 wickets at just 12.68, while the ever reliable Dick Page took 27 and McGlashan 19. Trojans gained some compensation for losing the league title by defeating Lymington by 19 runs in the semi-finals of the Echo Trophy. In the Sydney Wyatt Trophy Lymington were defeated by Lyndhurst in the final for the third year running. The Second XI finished the 1985 season in seventh place, with teenage wicketkeeper/batsman Derek Pepperell enhancing his growing reputation with scores of 66 versus Waterlooville and 74 not out (in a Lymington total of 111 for 4) against Deanery. Nick Gannaway’s Third XI won 11 matches to ensure a second place finish, the highlights being Luigi Di Maria’s 8 wicket haul against Romsey and David Coles’ 89 at Minstead. Chris Cooper received the Third XI player of the year award for his 279 runs, and it was estimated that the 19 year old had scored more than a thousand runs in all cricket during the season. Sunday cricket was positively booming in 1985. The First XI lost just once, while George Hollobone’s Second XI (more popularly known as ‘Hollobone’s Heroes’) won two matches and drew most of the rest. It’s hard to believe nowadays when the popularity of social cricket is on the wane, but back then Lymington also fielded a Third XI under the name of the ‘Woodside Wanderers’. The team won 10 of its 16 matches in 1985 with Tim Hunter scoring 106 not out against Exbury. Indoor cricket was also rising in popularity, and a Lymington team was entered into the Farley’s Indoor League at Eastleigh’s Fleming Park. In the New Forest Indoor League Lymington achieved their second consecutive promotion in winning the Division Three title. Neil Trestrail would go on to become one of Lymington’s all-time highest runscorers in the Southern League. A hugely likable and colourful character, Neil’s competitive streak sometimes led to the odd spot of bother on the cricket field (on one never-to-be-forgotten occasion an opposing captain actually took a swing at Neil during the toss-up!), although differences of opinion are invariably sorted out amicably over a pint in the clubhouse after the game. Damian Shirazi, who lists Neil as one of the major influences in his development as a cricketer, sums Neil up well: “An unbelievable competitor and shrewd captain; nasty and aggressive on the pitch; an absolute gent off it.” Lymington relinquished their league title to South Hants Touring Club in 1986 in a season decimated by the weather. But Lymington still managed a second place finish and again reached the semi-finals of the Echo Trophy. Another South African, Paul Smith, troubled opposition batsmen with his lively pace all season, taking 30 wickets at 12.66 apiece. Paul Taylor’s 422 runs made him Lymington’s top scorer with Peter Tapper next on 268. Derek Pepperell performed well enough to be selected for Hampshire Under 19s, and would later appear for Hampshire Second XI and Dorset. In an indifferent season for the Second XI, newcomer David Griffiths topped the batting averages – something he would do on a regular basis over the next 20 years – with 261 runs at 21.7. Tony Thorp became the first Lymington Third XI player to score a century with 102 in the defeat of Minstead, and Luigi Di Maria and Matt Hayward both figured in the New Forest League Division 3 averages with 40 and 35 wickets respectively. To accommodate the growing number of youngsters progressing onto senior cricket from the colts section, a Fourth XI under the captaincy of Chris Walford was established in 1986. Despite predictable teething problems, there was great encouragement in the displays of young bowlers John McGuirk and Neil Pardoe who both took 16 wickets, and Dominic Di Maria who scored 108 runs. On Spring Bank Holiday Monday Lymington hosted three special matches to celebrate 150 years of cricket at the Sports Ground. A match between a Lymington side captained by Robin Goff and a New Forest XI was won by the home side by 5 wickets, while down at Woodside a New Forest Under 19 side recorded a last ball victory over Lymington Under 19s. There were also many familiar old faces on show as the New Forest Veterans comfortably defeated a Lymington side featuring the likes of Jack Barrett, Bill Craft, Lew Gregory, David Heppenstall and three Flood brothers including former Hampshire batsman Raymond. Umpiring in the main match at the Sports Ground was Walt Drodge, a highly respected umpire who stood in First XI matches for a number of years. During the season Walt was given the honour of officiating at Arundel when the Duchess of Norfolk’s XI hosted the Indian tourists. The 1986 edition of Wisden mentioned six past and present Lymington players – Jon Hardy, Stephen Andrew, Andrew Jones, Richard McGlashan, Peter Williams and Paul Smith. Perhaps as a result of Lymington’s emergence as a force in recent years, the Southern League decided to change their rules on the use of overseas players. From the 1987 season clubs would have the choice of fielding either one overseas player or one contracted county professional, unless the county professional was deemed to be ‘home-grown’. Back to reality After the euphoria of the previous four seasons, Lymington First XI were highly disappointed to finish ninth in 1987. Neil Trestrail, despite missing a fair proportion of the season due to work commitments, was Lymington’s most successful player with 414 runs at an average of 69 and 19 wickets at 12.8. The Second XI fared even worse, winning just 6 matches, although they did record a noteworthy 5 wicket win over Second XI championship leaders Bournemouth with captain Jerry Holt scoring an unbeaten 44. John McGuirk’s 27 wickets for the Third XI earned him an end-of-season call up for the Seconds, while a half century from captain Chris Walford against Michelmersh inspired the Fourth XI to a first win of the season in early August. Lymington’s Sidney Wyatt Cup quarter final clash with Bashley produced the highly unusual spectacle of two tied matches, before the Hampshire League side eventually won through in the second replay. A midweek league featuring a host of local clubs including Lymington, Hordle, Bashley, Pennington, Burley, New Milton and West Hants Water Company was established in 1987. Under Ronnie Hawker’s leadership Lymington won three of their 11 matches in that opening season. Another midweek competition, the Whitbread pub six-a-sides, saw Lymington’s White Hart team beat their namesakes from Penton Mewsey in the final. In an earlier round Lymington’s Peter Tapper (182) and Guy Hayward (77) had amassed a huge 277 for no wicket in just 12 overs against the Royal Oak at Bartley’s quaint ground in the middle of the New Forest. The White Hart, run by the inimitable John Mayman, had become a second home for Lymington cricketers during the winter months, not to mention a useful recruiting ground for needy captains on a Friday night during the season. Fourth XI captain Chris Walford spent many Friday nights at the pub hoping to persuade anyone who looked remotely athletic into playing for his side the following afternoon. “We generally succeeded in getting a side together,” Chris commented, “although in hindsight it must have cost me a small fortune in beer!” Chris Walford was a dedicated clubman who took on a number of roles and spent endless hours organising and captaining sides. Eventually Chris decided it was time to take a rest, and announced his decision to move to Milford Cricket Club where, it was intended, he would simply play cricket without the burden of so much off-field responsibility. However, all didn’t go according to plan.“Within weeks I was Milford’s captain, secretary and groundsman!” he laughed. In early July Lymington hosted a strong Inanda team featuring eight former Rhodesians. Lymington were skittled out for just 53 giving Inanda a handsome 160 run victory. With the Lymington club President David Heppenstall having strong links with Rhodesia, many of the visitors ended up at his house until the early hours of the morning sampling KWV wine and listening to Rhodesian records. During the winter a Lymington Cricket Club XI defeated a Lymington Town FC XI 7-3 with Luigi Di Maria bagging four goals. The footballers gained their revenge during the summer in a return cricket match with Russell Perrett – who would go on to play for Portsmouth, Cardiff and Luton Town – making 64 in the footballers’ 65 run victory. Trestrail’s University Challenge Neil Trestrail’s appointment as First XI captain led to the club bringing in several new young players from Southampton University whose cricket team played an annual pre-season fixture against Trestrail’s MCC side. In 1988 students Gary Corcoran and Jeff O’Hara joined the club, while the university connection in later years saw the arrival of Will Buck, Will Follett, David England and Phil Pineo among others. A promising local lad by the name of Sean Morris also joined the club in 1988 with a big reputation after scoring five centuries for his Stowe school side, and when the club’s plans to sign up the 18 year old Hampshire prospect Alan Mullally fell through, Trestrail turned to another county player Tony Middleton. Clive Kitcher, Guy Andrew and David Coles further reduced the average age of the side. With a young and talented new-look side in place Lymington started the season well, and on June 25th the team rose to the top of the table following a 5 wicket win over champions South Hants. Although the team then suffered a 49 run home defeat by Bournemouth, Lymington were still in with a chance of the title until two late season defeats by United Services and Waterlooville forced them to settle for the runners-up spot. Captain Trestrail was top runscorer with 420. Corcoran was just behind on 398, albeit from three less innings, while Chris Allen yet again finished as top wicket taker with 36. Trestrail would end a highly satisfying season by guiding the Save & Prosper Southern League representative side to victory over the Three Counties League from Wales in the Famous Grouse inter-league final at the County Ground. Trestrail’s battling 79 was an innings he later described as one of the best of his career. When Stephen Andrew suffered an injury during Hampshire’s County Championship match against Somerset at Southampton, the 12th Man who came on to replace him was none other than Lymington’s Derek Pepperell who proceeded to take a catch on his championship debut. To complete the Lymington connection Jon Hardy was playing for Somerset in the match After a good start to the 1988 season the Second XI slipped to a final position in the lower half of the table, while the Thirds and Fourths both endured mediocre campaigns in their respective divisions of the New Forest League. The highlight of the Sunday friendly programme was an unbeaten 149 from Sean Morris in the 125 run win over Lyndhurst, while elsewhere there were centuries for David Coles (v Old Symondian Ramblers), Tony Jenkin (v Brockenhurst) and Darren Price whose 110 not out helped the Woodside Wanderers defeat the Sunday Second XI counterparts by three wickets in a typically competitive inter-club match. In October 1988 the club held its first golf tournament at Barton Golf Club. Entitled the ‘Lymington Open’, the inaugural competition was won by Darren Price who finished just ahead of Neil Perrett. The Open has been played ever since, and in 1999 was complemented by an annual corporate spring golf tournament which has since raised thousands of pounds towards club funds. Deportation for Dr Du Plessis The 1989 season got off to a troubled start for Lymington when South African signing John Du Plessis was prevented from entering the UK. During a five hour interrogation at Heathrow the immigration authorities claimed that Du Plessis should have acquired a work permit, even though the 27 year old – a doctor by trade – was effectively holidaying in England and not intending to earn money from cricket. Pleas to the South African Embassy and UK Immigration Appeals Office fell on deaf ears and Du Plessis was deported back to Cape Town just eight days after arriving. An indifferent start to the season was compounded by Derek Pepperell’s sudden departure to Bournemouth at the start of June (Pepperell ended the season with 855 runs), and the team eventually had to settle for a disappointing 7th place finish. Low point of the summer was the dismal 30 run defeat by New Milton – the team’s first derby reverse in seven years. On the plus side Lymington recorded their best performance against leaders Bournemouth when Gary Corcoran (98 not out) and Tony Middleton (72) helped Lymington to a fine 9 wicket win. Elsewhere the Seconds too endured a poor start but recovered to finish in a best ever fourth place with 10 wins from 16 matches. The Fourths, under Chris Walford, also enjoyed their most successful season, culminating in promotion from New Forest Division 5. During the season there were Fourth XI centuries from Tim Hunter (v Bramshaw) and Tony Webb (v Alderholt). The top Sunday performance came from Andy Wilson who scored a magnificent 129 not out against Wimborne. During the 1989 season a St Thomas’ Park resident asked the Town Council if they could move the Sports Ground square further away from her property to stop cricket balls landing in her garden! John Du Plessis finally made his long-awaited Lymington debut in 1990. He initially replaced Peter Tapper who dropped out of the First XI after 134 consecutive appearances. Tapper was soon to return, and he and Du Plessis both scored centuries in Lymington’s massive 328 for 5 against Petersfield who replied with 207 for 7. There were also hundreds from Corcoran (v Andover and Trojans), Tony Middleton (v Alton), and Sean Morris whose brilliant unbeaten 135 ensured an exciting win over Bournemouth. However, despite this plethora of centuries, the Firsts suffered from inconsistency and a lack of penetration in the bowling department, although a late rally pushed them up to an eventual 5th place finish. Under Don Whitlock’s captaincy the Second XI were briefly in with a shout of the title in 1990 until losing to Bournemouth in late July. Teenage South African Richard Allen provided the highlight of the season with 125 against South Wilts, while opening batting partner Tony Wharton notched up a ton against Gosport. Norman Wilkie’s Third XI gained promotion to New Forest Division 1, despite using 37 players during the season. John McGuirk was awarded the the club’s best all rounder award for his numerous match-winning feats with both bat and ball. The highest individual score ever recorded by a Fourth XI batsmen came in August when Tony Game smashed 155 not out at Bramshaw. Game, who hit 10 sixes, only came into the side at the last minute due to a shortage of players, but his miraculous innings helped Lymington overhaul the home side’s 248 for 4 to win by 3 wickets. Another noteworthy feat came from young spinner Paul Coles who took four wickets in four balls against Michelmersh. There was a controversial end to the Midweek League when second placed Lymington were awarded the title after it was discovered that New Milton had fielded a semi-professional, thereby breaking the rules of the competition. 1991: The flourish of youth The cupboard was looking somewhat bare at the start of the 1991 season with John Du Plessis not returning from South Africa, Tony Middleton on Hampshire duty, Matt King returning to Bashley and Andy Wilson and Gary Corcoran moving away. However, captain Trestrail was more than happy to put his faith in the club’s talented up and coming young players such as John McGuirk, Mark Thorne, David Blizzard, Chris Grant Foster and Guy Andrew. They all certainly rose to the challenge as Lymington finished in a highly creditable fourth place. Bowlers McGuirk (19 wickets) and Clive Kitcher (24 wickets) formed a formidable opening partnership, the former taking a career best 6 for 30 against Portsmouth who were dismissed for just 76 in reply to Lymington’s 184 for 6. A pacey, aggressive bowler with the ability to swing the ball and extract bounce, McGuirk on his day could prove to be quite a handful for any batsman. A powerful striker of the ball too, it is sad that McGuirk’s cricket career was so often blighted by injury. Chris Grant-Foster also enjoyed a fine season, taking 31 league wickets, while Trestrail headed the batting averages with 387 at a little under 30, and Blizzard snared 15 catches and 2 stumpings. A good league season was tempered a little by an incredible 4 wicket defeat by at New Milton in the Echo Trophy. Chasing a seemingly impossible 178 for victory, Milton cruised home with 10 balls to spare thanks to a stunning innings from Ian Griffiths who smashed an unbeaten 72, including one huge six over the Ashley pavilion which landed on Peter Tapper’s car. There was also the disappointment of a derby defeat in the Presidents Cup semi final when Lymington somehow lost after restricting Bashley to just 57. With one run required from the final ball of the match Don Whitlock thought he had won the game for Lymington thanks to a scrambled leg bye . . . until the umpire signalled ‘dead ball’. An interesting insight into the fierce Lymington/New Milton rivalry came in a Lymington Times article at the end of the 1991 season. Reflecting on a poor season which saw his side finish near the foot of the table, Milton captain Neil Taylor was quoted as saying, “…but we beat Lymington and that’s what matters most.” This remark drew short shrift from Lymington’s scrapbook compiler who scribbled next to the article, “One has to wonder and even worry about the mentality of one of our local rivals when it is more important to beat us than bother about ending up almost bottom of the league!!” Like the First XI, the Seconds also put their faith in youth in 1991 with young faces such as Jason Andrew, Neil Pardoe and Martin Cooper complementing the older legs of Whitlock, Truscott and Wharton. There were plenty of unfamiliar opponents too, with the Southern League Second XI Championship now incorporated into a restructured Hampshire League. Lymington found themselves in Division 3A playing the likes of Frimchett, Crown Taverners, Winterslow, Steep and Monksbrook. However, it was old foes Poole who provided the team with their best result of the season – a 10 wicket thrashing after Poole had been skittled out for just 22 with Andrew (4 for 12) and Luigi Di Maria (3 for 10) doing the damage. Batsman Darren Price had an August to remember, scoring hundreds against Whitchurch Wayfareres and Exbury. Although small in stature, Price was a tremendous timer of the ball – particularly through the covers. However, the batting performance of 1991 came, predictably, from Peter Tapper who made a quite remarkable 128 not out during a Midweek league match against Hordle at the Sports Ground. In the 13th of Lymington’s 14 eight ball overs, Tapper struck seven sixes – two of which landed in the churchyard, the others ending up in the tennis courts – and was only denied possibly the unique record of eight sixes in an over, when – in his own words – “I just ran out of steam for the eighth ball” (although the more cynical of his Lymington teammates suggested that Tapper deliberately scored a single to keep the strike!). Many Lymington members travelled to Lord’s in September to witness Tony Middleton score a gritty 78 as Hampshire beat Surrey in a nailbiting Nat West Final. Almost certainly the oldest player to ever take the field at Lymington Sports Ground was Will Rickman. In 1991, at the age of 88 Bill opened the batting for the Young Elite against their Old Elite counterparts, but unfortunately his innings was cut short when he was forced to retire hurt for 6 after being struck on the hand by a delivery from son Brian. Will, who had played cricket in his younger days for the Efford House estate where he worked as a gardener, carried on playing in the Young v Old fixture for a few more years before eventually passing away in 2002 just one year short of his century. Runners-up again The pre-season acquisition of Old Tauntonians’ prolific all-rounder Chris Thomason, coupled with the return to the club of Derek Pepperell and Andy Wilson, and the promise of a few appearances from Jon Hardy and Sean Morris, meant that Lymington were installed as early favourites for the 1992 Southern League title. Although Lymington lost just twice all season, they had to settle for runners-up spot behind a Hursley Park side they had beaten in May. There was a little consolation with the league bowling award going to Chris Allen who took 36 wickets. The Second XI meanwhile lost just once, at Esso, on their way to the Hampshire League Division 3 title. A jubilant captain Whitlock admitted that the most satisfying aspect of the season was that every member of the team contributed at some point. The team was the perfect blend of youth and experience: a young pace attack of Jason Andrew and Paul Allen claimed more than 40 wickets between them, while the batting relied more on the old hands of Tony Oxley, Tony Wharton and Jerry Holt. Several of the Second XI were also instrumental in the club’s first knockout trophy success in 18 years when Lymington defeated Langley Manor by 70 runs in the final at Paultons. Neil Trestrail’s 80 had set Lymington on their way to 142 for 5, although it was John McGuirk who surprisingly won the man of the match award for his 3 for 12 as Langley Manor were restricted to 72 for 8 in reply. The real excitement in the Presidents Cup had come in an earlier round when Peter Tapper went on what the Lymington Times report described as ‘his annual rampage’. Tapper bludgeoned his way to 114 not out in just 69 balls against Bashley, the report adding that the ‘tennis courts and cemetery were special targets’. 1992 saw the first playing of the Lymington inter-club six-a-side tournament. The inaugural winners were the appropriately named ‘Headcases’ who comprised of captain Jon Head, Tony Oxley, Matt Hayward, Luigi Di Maria, Martin Hunt and Jerry Holt. They beat ‘Perrett’s Posers’ in a rather one-sided final. The Lymington six-a-sides have always striven to break new ground, and innovations over the years have included white balls, music to greet a new batsman and ‘Max Zones’ where boundaries count double (although in Lymington’s case the areas, strategically positioned at cow corner, were renamed ‘Meg Zones’ in honour of cow shot specialist Mark ‘Meg’ Gannaway). Lymington: Cross Solent League Winners, 1993 1993: the year of the Wildebeest Lymington’s failure to win the Southern League in 1992 was attributed to a lack of a strike bowler, so Neil Trestrail hoped to remedy the situation in 1993 by recruiting the former Hampshire and Glamorgan pace bowler Steve Malone. In South African Grant Van Heerden, the First XI also had a quality overseas player. Therefore it was a great disappointment to all concerned that Lymington could finish just eighth, although a top three finish might have been attained had the team not lost its last four matches. The stocky Van Heerden, nicknamed ‘The Wildebeest’ proved to be frustratingly erratic throughout the season. Undeniably a class batsman who could destroy a bowling attack on his own (witness the brilliant 96 against South Wilts), Van Heerden had an infuriating habit of running himself out at the most inopportune moments. Many of Van Heerden’s best performances were reserved for friendlies and cup competitions, and he played a big part in the club winning the newly established Cross Solent League. The league had been set up to counter the falling standards of Sunday cricket, and in its first season members included Lymington, Bashley, Calmore, New Milton, Wimborne and Colehill from the mainland and Shanklin and Ventnor from the Island. The league title went down to a winner-takes-all battle between Lymington and a strong Ventnor team which included Ian Botham’s 17 year old son Liam in its ranks. On a misty Sunday afternoon at Steephill Tim Hunter’s typically gritty 62 enabled Lymington to post a challenging 169 for 6. With Trevor Phillips grabbing the vital wickets of Mark Garraway, Jeff Hose and Botham, Ventnor eventually subsided to 154 all out, making Lymington the first ever winners of the Cross Solent League. Lymington’s Southern League match against Old Tauntonians at Redbridge Lane had a remarkable finish when OTs’ Dean Blackwood believed he had struck the winning boundary off the last ball of the match and began to walk off the field. However, unbeknown to Blackwood, the ball had not crossed the line and Chris Thomason hurled the ball in to Derek Pepperell who ran out Blackwood to give Lymington an unlikely victory. The Lymington/New Milton rivalry reached a crescendo during Lymington’s thrilling 1 run win in the Echo Trophy. Lymington were unhappy about Van Heerden’s dismissal, claiming that a Milton fielder had stepped over the boundary in taking the catch. The slightly over-the-top report of the match in the Lymington Times mentioned that, “there were comments exchanged on both sides, showing that where rivalries are concerned, Rangers and Celtic have nothing on these two!” The Second XI, boosted by the arrival of Neill Denby, Trevor Phillips and Stuart Simkins, ended their first season in Hants Division 2 in third place. Opening batsman Mark Thorne had a fine season, as was typified by his defiant 104 not out in a Lymington total of 140 against Burridge. The Midweek League saw Matt Hayward take a hat trick against Hordle, while Robin Goff rolled back the years in the drawn friendly with Rownhams with an unbeaten 102. Norman Wilkie narrowly missed out on his century in the win over Pylewell Park, caught on the boundary for 99. A cricket week was successfully re-introduced in 1993 after a lapse of several decades. Matches were scheduled against a Southern League rep side, Hampshire Over 50s, a Bournemouth Echo XI, a New Forest XI and Bashley Under 16s. Death of a true sportsman In May of 1994 Lymington was saddened by the news of Brian Rickman’s death at the age of 56 following a two and a half year battle with cancer. A wonderful man who always felt compassion for others, Brian was a true sportsman of the old school. Winning, of course, was important to Brian, but it always came second to making sure that everyone in the team – especially the youngsters – made a contribution. Shortly before his death Brian was nominated for the Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Award – an annual award presented in acknowledgement of outstanding public service to others. Sadly Brian died a few days before the presentation, and the award was collected posthumously by wife Pat. Later in the season the three clubs who meant so much to Brian – Lymington, Milford and The Elite – staged a game in his memory at the Sports Ground. The combined Lymington and Milford XI’s 180 for 5 proved just too much for The Elite who ended just 10 runs short despite 60 from Richard Bodley-Scott. The luckiest boys in the world! Also in 1994 Lymington committee member Jon Head and fixture secretary Richard Bodley-Scott had a miraculous escape when the BMW they were travelling in careered off the road at the bottom of Passford Hill and smashed into a tree before ending up in a ditch. Amazingly both survived the crash which was described by a shocked eye witness as “like watching a film in slow motion”. The pair, dubbed “the luckiest boys in the world” by the eye witness, fully recovered after lengthy spells in hospital. On the field, Derek Pepperell took over the captaincy of the First XI and his side was strengthened by the arrival of Hampshire prospect Glyn Treagus from Trojans, former Yorkshire Second XI pace bowler Dan Goldstraw and promising 16 year old wicketkeeper Derek Kenway. Unfortunately, frustrated by a lack of opportunities with the bat, Kenway lasted just four matches before departing for Hambledon, later playing 93 First Class matches for Hampshire, scoring more than 4,000 runs. After an erratic start Lymington picked up momentum as the season progressed, eventually finishing fourth. Van Heerden scored just under 500 runs at an average of 60, while Treagus totalled 431. Don Whitlock’s Second XI were promoted to Hants Division One – the first second XI to reach that level of the league pyramid. The team possessed a potent batting line-up of Holt, Griffiths, Gilder, Gillett and Tapper, and also fully utilised the experienced seam bowling talents of the eccentric Chris Noble. The former Wiltshire and England Schoolboy representative Noble never tired of telling tales of the mythical Swindon Midnight League, or the story of how he once dismissed a young Ian Botham. Presidents Cup winners 1994 Lymington regained the President’s Cup in 1994, beating Bashley by 7 wickets at Hythe. Peter Tapper made light of the bouncy Jones Lane pitch by smashing an unbeaten 50 which included one boundary which struck his wife a glancing blow to the head. The concerned batsman hurried to the boundary where he was heard to say to his thankfully unhurt wife Suzanne, “was that four or six, dear?” Lymington members arrived at the Sports Ground for the first match of the 1995 season to find a new-look pavilion. A conservatory-style extension had been erected by AFC Lymington, while a new paved area and railings in front of the clubhouse had been designed, built and partly funded (along with a kind donation from the town council) by Brian Hobby. Inside the clubhouse new honours boards adorned the walls. Former player Terence Walsh unveiled the boards which listed all the club’s honourary life members and presidents since 1878. Conscious that a great deal of money would be needed to further improve facilities at the Sports Ground, Tony Oxley introduced a development fund, into which club members could pay money in return for the chance of winning a monthly cash prize. In its first year the fund raised more than £2,200, and over the next 12 years sufficient funds would be raised to help purchase a roller, pitch covers, sightscreens and new practice nets. A bee farmer named Bevan Grant Van Heerden returned for a third season in 1995, and this time brought with him another strapping South African by the name of Bevan Pope. A descendant of the Eldridge Pope brewing family, all-rounder Pope soon made his mark in the Second XI with a ferocious 161 against Old Basing. Although Pope arguably underachieved for the Second XI, his runs and wickets on Sundays helped Lymington win the Cross Solent League for a third consecutive season. As in 1993 the title was clinched at Ventnor thanks principally to colt Dale Middleton who took two wickets with his left arm spin and scored a superb half century that belied his age. There was some confusion over Bevan Pope’s occupation even before he had set foot in England. Hampered by a poor telephone line to South Africa, Second XI captain Tim Hunter thought he heard Pope claiming to be a bee farmer. Several days after arriving in Lymington the bemused South African finally realised why his new clubmates were asking him about bees. He was, in fact, a beef farmer! As usual the First XI were well fancied to win the Southern League in 1995, but again fell away after a promising start and finished fourth. Six batsmen scored in excess of 300 runs, but only one – David Coles – managed to record a century (v Hambledon). The Second XI recovered from a terrible start to finish mid-table. Their best performance was a thrilling 3 wicket defeat of league leaders BAT which saw veteran Chris Allen hitting the winning runs with just 2 balls to spare. Pride of place in 1995 went to Lymington Third XI. Inspired by new captain Don Whitlock, the team lost just once in clinching the Hampshire Combination West Division title. Newcomer Simon Eakins proved to be a useful acquisition for the Third XI, although the programme editor and local press never really came to grips with his relatively straightforward surname. On various occasions he was described in reports as Simon ‘Erkins’, ‘Elkins’, ‘Eskins’ and ‘Baskins’, although teammates eventually settled on ‘Biscuit’. Lymington First XI’s ninth place finish in 1996 was its worst for a number of years, and this despite the addition of Nottinghamshire Second XI spinner Rob Howarth. There was a little consolation in the Presidents Cup final at Langley Manor where Lymington defeated old rivals New Milton by 3 runs. Les Browning received the man of the match award for his three wicket burst which stopped Milton in their tracks as they chased Lymington’s modest 114 all out. Presidents Cup winners 1996 The Second XI, boosted by Australian Tim Smith who scored 639 runs, enjoyed a much better season. Jerry Holt played the innings of the summer at Paultons in August, scoring an unbeaten 130 as Lymington romped home by 8 wickets having been set 233 for victory. Don Whitlock guided the Third XI to yet another league title as they won Hants Division West II. But it was to be his last trophy for Lymington as he decided to leave the club at the end of the season to return to Bashley as first team coach. Whitlock’s style of captaincy was not always appreciated by everyone, but there are very few people who can deny that he was one of the most tactically astute and successful captains in the club’s history. 14 year old Damian Shirazi scored his first senior 50 for Tony Jenkin’s Fourth XI against Esso, while in the same match Jason Carr, also just 14, took 3 for 10. There were celebrations in the clubhouse on June 1st when not only did all four Lymington teams win their respective matches, but the Firsts, Seconds and Thirds all contained a centurion. Glyn Treagus hit 130 at Calmore for the First XI, Tim Smith notched up 111 against Hook & Newnham for the Seconds and Steve Coltman rolled back the years with 124 not out at Godshill. The Fourth XI batsmen were prevented from adding to the list by their bowlers who skittled out Minstead for just 56 at Woodside. Tony Wharton scored a century against Malvern Wayfarers in August, but was left to rue one particular boundary which bounced into the car park and dented his own car! Humbled by Havant The major pre-season talking point in the local press in 1997 was the club’s decision to allow women to attend the annual dinner. But on the field there were far more important matters as Lymington First XI’s slump continued. They won just four matches all season and were only saved from the threat of relegation on the final day by rain. Ironically, amidst Lymington’s worst spell of league form in 17 years came it’s best Echo Trophy run since 1984. BAT, Parley, Old Tauntonians and Winchester were all defeated on the way to a meeting with Havant in the final at the County Ground. Unfortunately, Lymington then came up against Havant’s West Indian Wilden Cornwall. On the hard and fast Northlands Road track Lymington failed to cope with Cornwall’s pace and stuttered to just 83 for 9 – one of the lowest scores in the final since Lymington’s last final appearance in 1984. Cornwall (44 not out) completed an embarrassingly one-sided final in just 11 overs. After the game, man-of-the-match Cornwall expressed his bemusement at Lymington’s decision to open the batting with Peter Tapper, memorably commenting, “I was surprised they opened with the old guy.” Lymington wouldn’t have made it to the Echo final in the first place had it not been for a Parley Springfield tailender called Dean Burgess. With just one ball of the second round tie remaining Parley needed two runs to tie the match and progress to the next round by virtue of losing less wickets. The Parley last pair duly scored the two runs but then, for reasons only known to himself, Burgess set off on a suicidal third and was run out by Allan Spencer. Had Burgess stayed put Parley would have won, but as it was, with the scores tied at 97 each and both teams bowled out, a mightily relieved Lymington were declared winners on a faster run rate after 10 overs. There was drama of a different type at Hook during a Second XI fixture when Lymington supporter Syed Shirazi became embroiled in a spot of wrestling with a member of the home side. Syed’s son Damian takes up the story: “Tony Oxley brought me on as a partnership breaker. I remember receiving quite a bit of stick from a section of the opposition players in the pavilion who, in fairness to them, didn’t realise they were standing right next to my dad. So when I removed the batman’s middle pole next ball my dad gave them some stick back and it all kicked off.” The match was halted for a good few minutes while the situation was defused and Syed was sent to the farthest boundary to cool off. Damian adds, “As everyone knows, us Shirazis stick together, so there was a mixture of pride and embarrassment. Some years later I played against Hook in an evening game for BAT and absolutely let them have it from ball one. I’d been waiting for that game for a few years and it was great get one back for my dad.” Leaving the club in 1997 was Paul Coles who emigrated to Australia. The left handed batsman and occasional spinner had played for every one the club’s sides from the youngest colts team to the First XI, but was perhaps best known for his amazing propensity to consume any quantity of food laid before him, earning him the nickname ‘The Locust’. Tim Smith, a fairly big eater himself, made the mistake of challenging The Locust to an eating competition at McDonalds on the way back from an away match, but had barely unwrapped his Big Mac before his opposite number Coles had not only wolfed down his burger and fries, but was already on his way to the counter to order seconds! Lymington’s Women’s Section, 1998 Maidens of a different type 1998 saw the return to the New Forest of ladies’ league cricket for the first time in 95 years. Martina Powell and Anne Craft were the driving force behind the establishment of a woman’s side at Lymington, and under the captaincy of Sarah Carr the team duly won their opening match against Langley Manor by 96 runs. Lorna Jesty, daughter of former Hampshire star Trevor, scored 90 as Lymington totalled 220 for 8 before Paula Carr’s 3 for 39 helped restrict Langley to 124 for 8. During the season Amy Francis would be selected for the Hampshire Under 15 girls team. In order to arrest the First XI’s recent slump, the club brought in Hampshire’s Zac Morris as their professional for 1998, and also signed up former Hampshire pace bowler Martin Thursfield. With Dan Goldstraw and Treagus likely to be available for most of the season, Lymington could rightly boast their strongest line up for some years. A vastly improved Sports Ground wicket – thanks to the valuable contribution of Allan Spencer – gave further cause for optimism. However, a bright start came to an abrupt halt at Hungerford, and Lymington’s title hopes were effectively ended on a black day at Bashley when the team were rolled over for just 97. While a final position of third was a little disappointing, the club was heartened by the form of Damian Shirazi. The 15 year old started the season with 78 versus Bournemouth and 64 against South Wilts, and later in the season would score a brilliant match winning century in the Under 15 Europa Cup final. Another Lymington youngster, Ben Craft, was also making headlines for Hampshire Under 19s who won their County Championship. With stories of match-fixing at professional level in both cricket and football coming to light at this time, the cricket authorities may have been forgiven for investigating Lymington Second XI who incredibly tied three consecutive Hants County Division 1 matches at the end of the 1998 season. Lymington firstly tied with Winchester, both teams scoring 177 all out, and then matched Penton’s 274 in a thrilling match at the Sports Ground. The near impossible happened a week later at Sparsholt when Lymington dismissed the home side’s last man with the scores again level, not only ensuring a remarkable third tie in a row, but also earning a mention in the 1999 edition of Wisden. There were also mysterious goings-on during a midweek League fixture on a blustery evening at Esso when Peter Tapper was very nearly run over by a runaway mobile net. Esso’s batting was similarly blown away with Simon Hayes and Jason Carr both recording the unlikely bowling figures of 4 for 2 as Esso, chasing Lymington’s 126 for 5, sank to 23 all out. Lymington went on to complete the Midweek League and Cup double. In the Cross Solent League there was a high-scoring win for Lymington at New Milton. The home side had set an imposing victory target of 260, but centuries from Mark Jackson (108) and Jon Mottashead (111 not out) saw Lymington home to a memorable victory. Club President David Heppenstall was the proud receiver of an award for services to sport in 1998. However, the year ended on a sad note with the death of a former President Ossie Halliwell. Ossie had been a great supporter of the club; it was he who introduced the popular President’s tea parties in 1977. 1999: a year to forget The final year of the 20th Century saw all four of Lymington’s senior sides suffer a wretched season. First XI captain Glyn Treagus missed much of the summer after suffering a bad injury to his hand during a trial match with Worcestershire, and there were also injuries at various times to Goldstraw, Browning, Hardy and Shirazi. With Lymington’s resources stretched to the limit the Firsts relied heavily on their Southampton University connection with students Will Buck, Will Follett and David England coming into the side in the early part of the season. The low point of the campaign came with an embarrassing 44 all out against South Wilts, although equally humbling were the three defeats in league and cup competitions by local rivals Bashley who were hailed in the local press as undisputed ‘Kings of the Forest’. There were, however, noteworthy wins at Winchester, where Zac Morris memorably flayed Sussex bowler Billy Taylor to all parts of River Park, and at Bournemouth where Dave Griffiths smashed three huge sixes into the Chapelgate car park to ensure a 3 wicket victory in the final over. The Seconds similarly endured a poor season, finally winning their first match in July when they beat Old Basing by 6 wickets. Stuart Simkins notched up the side’s only century against Winchester II, and the following day the big Australian had further cause to celebrate as he led his side to victory in the annual Lymington six-a-side tournament, defeating the team captained by fellow Aussie Dan Rutherford in the final. The Third and Fourth XIs enjoyed mid-table finishes, although in July at Esso the Third XI somehow managed to lose a game from an almost impregnable position. Lymington were seemingly cruising to victory with 3 runs required from the final 13 balls and 6 wickets in hand. The dismissal of Guy Hayward suddenly triggered a dramatic collapse as 5 wickets fell without addition to the score, giving the home side an incredible 2 run victory. England’s hosting of the 1999 Cricket World Cup benefited Lymington in an unlikely way. The New Zealand team, who were based in Southampton, asked Neil Trestrail if two of their squad – Mathew Hart and Carl Bulfin – could take part in a Lymington match to gain some much needed match practice. Trestrail naturally obliged and the pair turned out for the club’s Sunday League encounter with New Milton at the Sports Ground. Milton’s own Kiwi Russell Thomas could barely believe his eyes as fellow countryman Bulfin, generally regarded as one of the quickest bowlers in New Zealand, came charging in to bowl at him. Fourth XI wicketkeeper Fred McKie was similarly shocked by Bulfin’s speed, having become used to the rather more sedate pace of Bob Iles. Shaun Lilley departed courtesy of a dubious caught behind off Bulfin (although Lilley was in no hurry to argue with the decision!) as Milton were dismissed for 140. Test spinner Hart took 3 wickets but suffered the ignomy of being unceremoniously dumped into the car park by veteran Ian Bowie. Bulfin (42) and Hart (58) then wrapped up a comprehensive 7 wicket victory for Lymington before decamping to the bar for autographs and photos. The writer of this article is still regularly reminded by Shaun Lilley about his “you can let him have one now” comment to Carl Bulfin, especially if the writer happens to be batting while Lilley’s teammate Matt King is bowling! Lymington v Hampshire, February 2000 Floodlit first On a chilly February evening in 2000 the Sports Ground hosted the first ever floodlit cricket match in Hampshire as Lymington took on a Hampshire XI as part of Adrian Aymes’ benefit year. As well as Adi Aymes, the Hampshire team also included Robin Smith and Shaun Udal, Southampton footballing legend Matt Le Tissier and TV sports presenter Andy Steggall. On a coconut matting wicket specially laid in the centre of the football pitch, the county side scored 102 for 4. Lymington’s reply fell 11 runs short despite 28 from Treagus and 20 from Mark Gannaway who had the satisfaction of hitting England bowler Udal into the adjoining bowling green. The stroke merited a “good shot!” comment from wicketkeeper Le Tissier to the batsman, prompting the blushing Gannaway to turn round and say, “that’s what I normally say to you Matt!” Following the cricket, the Hampshire players donned their football boots for a match against a side containing many of Aymes’ former teammates from his time with Wellworthy Athletic and AFC Lymington. Once again Hampshire came out on top, winning the match 5-2. New Millennium, new division The new Millennium brought radical changes to the structure of the Southern League, which was now to be called the ECB Southern Premier League and split into three divisions, popularly known as gold, silver and bronze. The consequence of Lymington’s poor season in 1999 was that it now found itself in the new second tier – a mighty blow to a proud club who had become used to challenging at the highest level. The lure of ‘gold’ cricket proved too much for Goldstraw and Shirazi who both departed for BAT. Shirazi’s departure was a bitter pill to swallow, particularly to those who had witnessed his progress from Under 11s through to the First XI. Commendably, Lymington’s other most desirable commodity Glyn Treagus stayed loyal and guided the team through an extremely tough season. Treagus provided the highlight of the summer with a magnificent 131 in the 117 run win at Alton. In the home match against the same opposition James Allen struck a maiden league century. Generally though it was a struggle for each of Lymington’s four Saturday sides who all faced relegation battles, although in the end only the Third XI endured the drop. The club’s plight was put into perspective during the season when Fixture Secretary Neill Denby was taken seriously ill during a Cross Solent League match at Bashley and required a major operation. Thankfully, Neill pulled through after a lengthy spell in hospital, although it was to be a long road to recovery for the former Third XI captain. The Sports Ground received an unexpected visit from Indian Test star Vinod Kambli in August. The little opener, who scored 227 against England at Calcutta in 1993, was part of the touring Worli CC side from Bombay. Having got off the mark by smoting the ball out of the ground, Kambli was eventually dismissed by a superb diving catch by Adie Hunt off Jason Carr for a fairy brisk 27. Rain sadly ended the match early, although Lymington looked unlikely to overhaul the Indian’s 175 for 4 scored from just 23 overs. Off the field John Woolcott took over as President from the retiring David Heppenstall who had, during his 14 years in office, raised many thousands of pounds through the matchday programme and inspired the club with his drive and enthusiasm. The square further benefited from the purchase of a new motor roller. New hope The threat to New Forest cricket from an outbreak of foot and mouth disease in the Spring of 2001 fortunately failed to materialise. Lymington, meanwhile, were preparing for the 2001 season with their strongest First XI for a number of years. In Brian Clemow and Dan Peacock the club had acquired two quality cricketers. Aussie Clemow arrived with a reputation as a big runscorer in Sydney’s highly competitive Grade cricket. He had previously won the Wisden Young Australian Cricketer of the Year award, and would have played the game professionally but for a terrible car crash which had put him out of action for three years. Peacock, meanwhile, hailed originally from Zimbabwe where he had represented his country at ‘A’ level. A top-class off-spin bowler, he was also a hard-hitting batsman and brilliant fielder. Dan Peacock’s arrival at Lymington was more by luck than judgement. Whilst looking for a job in the Southampton area, he happened to ring up Neil Trestrail’s recruitment agency. When Peacock mentioned his cricketing background Trestrail swiftly agreed to find him the best job available . . . providing he agreed to play for Lymington! With the new players living up to all the pre-season promise, and home-grown Ben Craft in scintillating early-season form, Lymington soon leapt to the top of the SPL Division 2 table. In July Clemow broke the club and league scoring records with 213 not out against Cove at the Sports Ground, his innings including 29 fours and 7 sixes. Brian Clemow following his record-breaking innings A week later Lymington rattled up a record 383 for 4 against Old Basing with Peacock scoring 176 not out. However, two crucial top of the table matches against eventual champions Portsmouth were lost and Lymington’s promotion hopes slipped away. The second defeat was particularly hard to swallow after Lymington, defending a modest 141, had reduced Portsmouth to 84 for 8. One silver lining at the end of the season was the awarding of the SPL Division 2 batting award to Ben Craft. Sadly, after grimly hanging on to their SPL Division 3 status for the past two years Lymington Seconds finally succumbed and were relegated in 2001 – and this despite winning their first two matches of the season. The Third XI, under the energetic captaincy of Ben Sanger, held their own while the Fourths thought they had won their division but eventually finished third due to an unfortunate oversight (that oversight being the fact that in their final ‘must-win’ match of the season Lymington fielded four ineligible players!). Despite this aberration, Bob Iles and Mark Gannaway were still able to pick up the divisional bowling and batting awards respectively. Captain Dan Peacock with the SEC Trophy Cup glory at last For all the explosive batsmen that Lymington have fielded within their ranks in the past 30 years, it’s surprising to discover just how poorly the club has fared in Southern League’s evening knock-out competition. Two unsuccessful final appearances at Northlands Road were all the club could show for all those years of entering what was then called the Echo Trophy. However, by 2001 the trophy had both a new name – The Southern Electric Contracting Cup – and a new venue: Hampshire’s magnificent new Rose Bowl on the outskirts of Southampton. And a storming cup run meant that Lymington would be one of the first club sides to grace the new arena. Passage to the final was by no means easy for Lymington, and while the first round defeat of OTs & Romsey was straightforward enough, Paultons and then BAT, proved much tougher opposition. BAT in particular were the team to beat in the Southern League at the time, and few gave Lymington any hope against the highly rated Division One outfit. However, Clemow, Peacock (46) and Dave Griffiths helped Lymington to a challenging 141-9 from their 23 overs, before spinners Treagus and Wayne Smith kept their nerve at the death as Lymington ran out winners by 11 runs. A rain delayed semi-final at Rowledge was eventually won by 10 wickets with Treagus smashing a superb 53 not out after Phillips (4 for 20) had helped restrict the home side to just 103 for 9. Meeting Lymington in the final were Division One side Andover, and while captain Neil Trestrail accepted that Lymington were the underdogs, he also knew full well that the wicket – which had been used for Hampshire’s surprise victory over the Australian tourists just two days previous – would be tailor-made for his three-pronged spin attack. He boldly predicted in the Echo, “I know we haven’t got anyone of Shane Warne’s class in our attack, but Dan Peacock, Glyn Treagus and Wayne Smith are all quality spinners – and I’m going to back them.” On a perfect summer’s evening at the Rose Bowl Andover made a reasonable start, reaching 30 before Paul Allen struck twice. From thereon the Andover innings became bogged down in the face of some top quality bowling from Lymington’s trio of spinners. As the captain had rightly predicted, the slow bowlers all produced enough turn and lift from the rock-hard pitch to bamboozle the Andover side who struggled up to 95 for 8 from 24 overs. The collapse was lapped up by Lymington’s large contingent of supporters, and in particular by Bob Iles who greeted each Andover wicket with a mighty cry of “NEXT!” which boomed across the cavernous arena. Clemow and Treagus guided Lymington’s reply through a tricky opening period, and although Treagus eventually fell for 33, Peacock and Clemow (52 not out) saw Lymington home with nine wickets and more than 11 overs to spare. After 17 long years, Lymington had at last claimed another major trophy. After the final, jubilant Wayne Smith returned to the Rose Bowl dressing rooms to discover that someone had stolen his trainers. Wayne’s footwear had become infamous for its highly odorous state, and there were some members of the team who suggested that the trainers had walked out on their own! The other end of the scale! Ironically, just five days before the Rose Bowl triumph, Lymington had endured their largest ever defeat when Ventnor visited the Sports Ground for a Cross Solent League fixture. Lymington had been struggling to field decent sides in the Sunday league all season, and when their old foes from the Island turned up with a pretty powerful line-up only one result seemed possible, although not even the most pessimistic Lymingtonian could have predicted the magnitude of the impending defeat. Batting first, Ventnor piled up a massive 374 for no wicket from 40 overs thanks to Mark Fletcher (204 not out) and Fred Smith (154 not out). Fletcher later recalled that it was a good day to be batting first. “It was very hot weather and the outfield was quick. It was a good wicket too, and the bowling was, how shall I put it, not too great on the day!” Having amassed nearly 400 runs between them, Fletcher and Smith were then given the honour of opening the bowling, which proved to be just an appetiser to the main feast supplied by Walter Masimula. The lightening quick South African, arguably one of the fastest bowlers ever to appear at the Sports Ground, ripped through the Lymington top order. The hard and bouncy track made it a nightmare for many of the Lymington batsmen who were simply not used to facing such pace, and the team were rapidly skittled out for just 48. Fourth XI captain Meg Gannaway had the dubious pleasure of facing Masimula. “I remember the fielder at silly mid-on saying to me, “This will be an experience for you”. “In what way exactly?” I replied. I think the ball rapped me somewhere on the pads and I didn’t bother waiting for the appeal. The umpire might not have even given me out . . . but I certainly wasn’t hanging around to find out!” Lymington’s Ian Young arrived at Paultons for a Cross Solent League match so early that he decided to take a nap in the changing room. He was somewhat surprised to wake up a little later to find a room full of strangers. It only then dawned on the sleepy wicketkeeper that he was actually at the wrong ground! Lymington were in fact playing at Purbrook some 30 miles away. Lymington miss out once more The 2002 season was to follow a similar pattern to the previous summer for Lymington First XI. 19 year old Australian Aaron Heal arrived from Perth on the recommendation of Hampshire’s Tony Middleton, and the left arm spinner and opening bat proved to be Lymington’s key player throughout the season. The tall Western Australian took over 30 league wickets and scored more than 500 runs, the highlight being a superb 108 against OTs & Romsey. Youngster Matt Molloy supported the Australian with some unorthodox cameo innings, and with Heal, Treagus and Peacock forming a formidable spin attack Lymington again flirted with promotion. Ultimately though, it was Lymington’s lack of strike bowlers that led to a disappointing third place finish behind the newly created Hampshire Academy side and Easton & Martyr Worthy. Highlight of the league season was undoubtedly an amazing run chase in July which saw Lymington overhaul Hungerford’s massive 280 for 5 to win by 2 wickets with an over to spare, thanks in the main to a brilliant century from captain Dan Peacock. The club also enjoyed success in the Presidents Cup, beating old rivals Bashley in the final at the Sports Ground. 2002 President’s Cup winners A bizarre set of circumstances also enabled Lymington to reach the semi-final of the New Forest Cup without actually winning a match. Their first round opponents were unable to raise a side and their quarter final conquerors Hythe & Dibden were subsequently found to have played an ineligible player. Lymington’s luck ran out in the semi final when they were defeated by Brockenhurst by 13 runs. Will Naylor had a day to remember in July 2002 when he registered a remarkable 149 for the Third XI in the 89 run defeat of South Wilts. Bob Iles also produced a vintage performance for the Fourth XI against Whiteparish, taking 6 for 20 as Lymington won by 8 wickets. 2003: third yet again The club entered the 2003 season with a new coach in the form of Dave Gelling, and hopes of the elusive promotion to the top division were soon boosted following three wins out of three in May. But injuries and illness to Peacock and Treagus prompted a dismal June and July in which Lymington were soundly beaten in all but one of their next six matches. However, in true Lymington-style the team then won their last five matches to secure their familiar third spot. Ben Craft ended the season with a creditable 510 runs, although on a worrying note Lymington finished 37th out of 38 teams in the fair play table – an unpleasant statistic for a club that had always prided itself on its friendliness and hospitality. Stone Cup runners up 2003 Mark Jackson, with 676 runs, inspired the the Seconds to a fifth pace finish in Hants Division 1 while Trevor Phillips enjoyed his day of days at Bramshaw in August where he scored 152 and took 4 wickets. Nick Jenkin’s 430 runs kept the Third XI afloat while Jim Lowe finished the season with the amazing average of 154 for the Fourth XI who recovered from a dreadful May to win their next 11 matches. They also embarked on a fine run in the Stone Cup with Mark Gannaway and Dominic Di Maria sharing major match-winning stands in the quarter and semi finals. Unfortunately New Milton proved too strong in the final at Hythe & Dibden. Lymington Cricket Club was shocked and saddened in May 2003 to learn of the tragic death of former member Dale Middleton. Dale had been a popular player both at Lymington where he had played the majority of his colts cricket, and at Bashley where he had impressed after breaking into their Southern Premier League Division One side. Later in the season, the two clubs met for a fixture in Dale’s memory with Bashley coming out on top on a highly emotional day at the BCG. Having won the first three Cross Solent League titles, it was with great regret that Lymington decided to withdraw from the league at the end of the 2003 season. Sunday First XI cricket had been on the wane for some years, and the league eventually disbanded a year later. Deja vu It was definitely a case of deja vu for Lymington First XI in 2004 as the team started brightly and were unbeaten after seven matches. However, as was becoming the norm, Lymington then self destructed, firstly at Calmore where they fell to a crushing 151 run defeat, and then at home to Ventnor who inflicted one of the most demoralising defeats on Lymington since the club’s entry to the Southern League. The game appeared to be won as Glyn Treagus (154) and Karl Whatham (106 not out) notched up 266 for the first wicket as Lymington totalled a seemingly invincible 288 for 1. Incredibly Ventnor cruised to a 5 wicket victory with almost four overs to spare. It was particularly tough on Treagus whose innings was described as one of the finest ever played by a Lymington batsman at the Sports Ground. Lymington certainly got full value from overseas player Karl Whatham in 2004. The softly spoken Aussie overcame acute homesickness to amass 570 runs, but it was his bowling that really surprised everyone. By the end of the season Whatham’s huge outswingers had gleaned 37 wickets – the best in the division. Not bad for a cricketer who wasn’t allowed to bowl back in Australia. Ben Craft provided another highlight with a match-winning 129 at Hursley Park. That match was also memorable for the fact that Lymington used four wicketkeepers during the Hursley innings. Regular keeper Scott Sivier injured his ankle and was replaced by Treagus, who in turn handed the gloves to Whatham and then Peacock. Interestingly, none of the four keepers conceded a single bye and Peacock even managed to take two stumpings. The Second XI finished the season in 12th place in County Division 1 with Mark Jackson scoring well over 500 runs. The performance of the summer came on an eventful day at Eastleigh & Otterbourne. Having arrived an hour late due to one of the players being involved in an accident en route and another suffering a puncture, Lymington were then smashed for 274 on a stiflingly hot day. However, against all odds Lymington fought back, and in the gathering gloom tailenders Chris Nutt, Lloyd Scott and Chris Noble secured a most improbable victory. The Third XI, under Jerry Holt, only won four matches all season but just about managed to avoid relegation. Nick Lee top scored with 305 runs, although 167 of those did come on a highly memorable day at Hyde. The Fourths also struggled, but could at least take heart from the performances of youngsters Scott Tapper, Tom Thorp and Peter Harding. There was an amazing finish to Lymington’s SEC Cup tie against Bournemouth. Needing 14 runs from Christian Pain’s final three deliveries, former Hampshire batsman Richard Scott slogged a four and two sixes over midwicket to give Bournemouth victory. There was also an unusual result in a Sunday afternoon friendly at Christchurch when Lymington defeated the home side by an innings. Geoff Renshaw ripped through the Christchurch second innings, taking 5 wickets including Christchurch’s last man with the final ball of the match. Ironically, the same batsman had earlier been clean bowled by Martin Hunt with the very first ball of the day. Presidents Day in 2004 saw Dan Peacock bring a team of fellow Zimbabweans to the Sports Ground. The Africans, who included Test players Brian Murphy and Trevor Gripper, scored a massive 330 off just 45 overs with Neil Ferrara scoring 148 and Gripper 78. Jon Hardy’s classy 87 wasn’t enough to save Lymington from a 139 run drubbing as the Zimbabweans lifted the Global Peaks trophy which had been donated by Dan Peacock. Peter Smith 2005: a new look team New First XI captain Adie Hunt faced a daunting task at the start of the 2005 season as the club came to terms with the loss of not only Glyn Treagus to Bashley, but also Dan Peacock and Ben Craft who had moved out of the area. The blow was softened a little by the return of all-rounder Mark Burrett from Ellingham and the promise of a full season from the enigmatic Bryn Darbyshire. But the real bonus for the captain was the arrival of Australian Peter Smith, an opening bowler who also came with a reputation for hitting the ball a very long way. Smith took just one ball to justify the hype, his first scoring shot in England dislodging a tile on the roof of a house behind The Tins. He continued in similar vein throughout the summer, scoring 570 runs, as well as taking 25 wickets despite a persistent ankle injury that often restricted his bowling. Smith will perhaps be best remembered for the six sixes he struck in one over against Shooters Hill at the Sports Ground on June 21st, although many will also recall his massive six in the Presidents Cup semi-final at Bashley when he smashed a Matt King full toss over the road and into the Bashley football ground. With Smith ably assisted by Darbyshire who scored 488 runs (often at a rate that even Smith couldn’t keep up with), Lymington avoided relegation thanks in the main to four wins in their last six matches. But there were some catastrophic batting collapses during the season: in one four week spell the side was dismissed for 115, 89, 66 and 83. Conversely there were huge scores of 348 at Calmore and 297 at Havant. Away from their league struggles, Lymington lifted the Presidents Cup, recovering from 12 for 3 to comfortably beat Cadnam at Langley Manor. Pete Smith’s brutal half century earned him the man of the match award, although many felt that Christian Pain deserved the award for his gritty 40 which saved Lymington from potential embarrassment. The Seconds, Thirds and Fourths all finished in the lower half of their respective divisions. Dominic Norton, with 26 wickets, was the Second XI’s top bowler while Dave Griffiths scored 340 runs. The Thirds, under new skipper Peter Tapper, won just four times, but one of those victories – against Southampton Travellers – saw Jerry Holt score a majestic 127. Despite 600 runs from captain Mark Gannaway, the Fourth XI badly missed stalwarts Robin Goff and Bob Iles who had both retired the previous season, and tasted victory just once all season. There was some solace, however, in the performances of 14 year old Will Thorp who took 6 for 13 against Suttoners and scored a maiden league 50, and 13 year old Aidan Lindsay-Wood who took a wicket with his very first ball in senior league cricket. Testing times for Lymington 2006 – the club’s 199th year of existence – could well be described as one of its most testing. Severe player shortages forced the club to scrap its Fourth XI mid-season, the breaking point coming at Hordle when a woefully understrength Lymington were bowled out for just 24. The Second XI also endured a nightmare start to the season but, inspired by the belated arrival of Australian youngster Matt Bowdler, improved as the summer wore on and finished just above the relegation zone. Following in the footsteps of former Lymingtonians Henry Jupp, Christopher Heseltine, General Poore and Andrew Jones, all of whom had played Test cricket, came Zimbabwean all rounder Keith Dabengwa. The 24 year old from Bulawayo had made three Test and twelve one day international appearances for his country, and also held the distinction of being one of only three batsmen to start their Test careers with a six. Dabengwa arrived at Lymington three weeks into the 2006 season with the team unbeaten and close to the top of the table. But despite showing occasional glimpses of his international pedigree, the Zimbabwean too often got himself out when looking set for a big innings, and ultimately ended the league season with just two half centuries. With Dabengwa struggling for form Lymington went on a losing streak which saw them lurch towards the bottom of the table, and were thankful for those early season wins which ultimately proved enough to keep them out of the relegation places. Dan Wiggins, in his first season with the club, scored 392 runs including centuries against OTs & Romsey and Havant, while Lloyd Scott took 25 wickets. Mark Newton was an unlikely winner of the Division Two wicketkeeping award, snaring 23 victims, an achievement made even more remarkable by the fact that Newton had actually joined the club two years earlier as a fast bowler. In July at Canford School, Lymington recorded their highest ever winning total batting second when Bowdler’s unbeaten 132 helped Lymington overhaul the home side’s massive 309 for 7. Ironically, the record lasted just a few weeks until Lymington went seven runs better in the Dale Middleton Memorial Match at Bashley. Chasing Bashley’s 316, Keith Dabengwa (80) guided Lymington to a 6 wicket victory. At the end of a fairly traumatic season, Adie Hunt did at least have the satisfaction of lifting the Global Peaks trophy for Lymington at the fourth time of asking. Dan Peacock’s Zimbabweans were dismissed for 190 before 73 from Bashley guest player Drew Porter helped Lymington to a 3 wicket victory. Lymington at Lord’s September, 2007 200 Not Out 2007 proved to be a memorable year for Lymington Cricket Club as the club celebrated its Bicentenary with a series of events, culminating in a match at the Home of Cricket. The season began on a sad note with the death of Tickle Jenkin at the age of 88. Tickle had been a keen follower of the club for many years, helping to put out the boundary markers and tend the flowers outside the pavilion. His often impenetrable New Forest accent and sharp wit made him popular with home and opposition players and supporters alike. It was a shame that Tickle wasn’t around to witness the 200th anniversary celebrations. They began with a high scoring match against the MCC at the Sports Ground. Australian Sam Raphael, Lymington’s overseas player for 2007, struck a brilliant 147 as Lymington won by 4 wickets. The match saw the unveiling of Lymington’s new electronic scoreboard which had been paid for thanks to generous donations from club members and the Town Council. Raphael also recorded a century as a current Lymington side defeated an Ex-Lymington XI at the Sports Ground. Included in the Ex XI were four members of the 1983 Southern League title winning squad – Jon Hardy, Guy Hayward, Steve Andrew and Clive Plant – and also Tim Smith who had flown in from Australia especially for the match. Next up was a re-enactment of the very first Lymington match on Pennington Common. Passers by might have been forgiven for thinking they’d stepped into a scene from a Jane Austen novel as Lymingtonians, dressed in full Georgian period costume, played out a match under the 1807 laws of the game, complete with underarm bowling and bats made of ash. Match Report . In September, England legend David Gower was guest speaker at the club’s Bicentenary Dinner at Shorefield, an event attended by more than 170 diners. A week later Lymington concluded celebrations with a historic trip to Lord’s where they took on Cross Arrows CC on the Nursery Ground. Sadly Lymington, missing the influence of Raphael who had returned to Australia, were well beaten despite Mark Jackson’s gritty 87. Lymington cricketers re-enact their club’s very first match on Pennington Common Sam Raphael proved to be as prolific in league matches as he was in the Bicentenary fixtures. His 561 SEPCL runs helped Lymington to finish fourth in the league. He also played a major part in Lymington’s Presidents Cup success, scoring a half century in a 55 run victory over Bashley in the final at the Sports Ground. The Seconds and Thirds finished 13th and 12th respectively in their divisions, while the club celebrated the awarding of Clubmark status. The club bade farewell to perhaps its longest serving member in 2007 when Robin Goff and wife Mary emigrated to Canada. Many former teammates and friends gathered at the Sports Ground to honour Robin who had been associated with club for over 50 years as player, committee member and more latterly as the man responsible for rolling the wicket. Another Lymington stalwart, Peter Tapper, was awarded life membership at the club’s AGM in November. Lymington CC – T20 winners 2009 Lymington strike gold at last! After eight long years and several near misses, Lymington First XI finally achieved their dream of SEPCL Divsion One cricket in 2008. Aussie Craig O’Shannesy (39 wickets) and Morgan Rushbrook (548 runs) helped Lymington finish third in Division Two, and this was enough to secure promotion to the top flight. Glamorgan 2nd XI all-rounder Rushbrook proved to be a valuable find, taking on the role of player/coach during the season. The Hunt family had to cause to celebrate in June as brothers Martin (81) and Adie (42) shared a partnership of 142 at Liphook. Sadly, the Seconds and Thirds both suffered relegation while Lymington’s proud record of having never lost a President’s Cup final was ended by Cadnam in the most farcical of conditions at New Milton. At the club’s AGM Neil Trestrail was deservedly awarded life membership. One of the effects of Lymington’s promotion was to attract Glyn Treagus back to the club for the 2009 season, and he was joined by former Australian Test bowler Simon Cook. With the majestic Cook taking 33 wickets, the team just about held its own, finishing eighth out of ten teams. But it was to be in the T20 competition where Lymington really shone. They defeated Bashley (where Morgan Rushbrook hit a brilliant 94) and Portsmouth to set up a final meeting with old foes Ventnor under the Rose Bowl floodlights. Tommy Barton struck a rapid 35 as Lymington totalled 176-5 before Simon Cook ripped the heart out of the Islanders reply with 3-14 in four overs to set up a 17 run victory. Lymington Third XI – champions 2009 There was more success in the President’s Cup as Lymington beat Bashley by seven wickets, and in HCLSW4 where Lee Moors captained the Third XI to the title with Luigi Di Maria taking 29 wickets. The Second XI finished ninth with skipper Simon Naylor topping the batting averages. The year ended on a terribly sad note with the sudden passing, on Christmas Day, of former player, committee member and umpire Bob Iles. A packed funeral ceremony was testament to the popularity of the larger-than-life Lymington legend, and a memorial match the following season was similarly well attended. Morgan Rushbrook The 2010 season ended on a dramatic note for all three of Lymington’s league sides. The First XI, needing to win at Bournemouth to have any chance of avoiding relegation, scraped a one run victory off the final ball of the match, condemning Ventnor to the drop instead. Morgan Rushbrook, in his final match for Lymington before departing for Australia, almost won the game on his own, notching up a century before taking five wickets. The Second XI were able to celebrate promotion back to Hants League One with a last day victory. Neil Trestrail top scored with 542 while captain Simon Naylor took 29 wickets. Alas, there was no such joy for the Thirds who missed out on a second consecutive promotion by the narrowest of margins on the final day. Jerry Holt received life membership at the club’s end of season AGM. 2011 was Lymington First XI’s most successful to date. Under Christian Pain’s captaincy the team finished seventh with new acquisition Darren Cowley scoring 540 runs. The performance of the season came from Matt Mixer who took an incredible 9-32 on his club debut at Bashley. The team came close to a return trip to the Rose Bowl but were narrowly beaten by Havant in the semi finals of the T20 competition. The Second XI had a solid first season back in HCL1, while the Third XI gained promotion to HCLSW2 thanks mainly to Chris Noble’s 25 wickets and captain Adie Hunt’s 290 runs. The Fourth XI flirted with promotion before settling for sixth place at the end of the season. Lymington recreate the very first match at the Sports Ground 175 years earlier During the 2011 season Lymington held a special match at the Sports Ground – in full 1836-style costume – to celebrate the 175th anniversary of cricket at the venue. So there was some irony when the year ended with speculation again rife about the future of the Sports Ground with the town council proposing to relocate the cricket club to Woodside. As with the previous attempts by the council, the move was met with much scepticism from cricket club members. The safety of tennis players in the adjoining courts was cited by the council as one of the reasons for moving the club – during the season several cricket balls had landed in the tennis courts, prompting complaints from the tennis club. The council intimated that cricket might be banned at the Sports Ground unless the a safety of tennis players could be guaranteed. The Lymington Times was awash with letters of protestation from all sides, and national newspapers even picked up on the story. Support for the cricket club’s cause came from all round the world via a Facebook campaign, and DJ Chris Evans even came out in support of the club live on his Radio Two breakfast show. Happily, the safety issue was resolved by the erection of a high net (funded predominantly by the council with support from the respective clubs) to stop cricket balls entering the tennis courts. New First XI captain Darren Cowley tested the new netting on numerous occasions early in the new 2012 season, not least over the May Bank Holiday weekend when the powerful left-hander smashed 92 against the Academy in the SPL and 118 (including 7 sixes) in just 43 balls the following day in a T20 tie against Tichborne Park. However, the dominant factor of the 2012 season was the appalling weather which not only caused the postponement of numerous matches, but also cost the club a small fortune in lost bar revenue. When the rain did eventually stop, the First XI were able to record five victories from their 12 matches played, finishing seventh in the table. Glyn Treagus topped the averages with 387 runs while Cowley took most wickets (20). The Seconds recovered from a poor start to finish eleventh in HCL Division One, while the Third and Fourth XIs both ended the season in creditable third positions in their respective divisions. The month of August in 2013 proved to be a sad one for Lymington CC who lost two of it’s greatest stalwarts. Jack Barrett and Bill Craft had been players and supporters of the club since the 1960s. Bill, in particular, had been a prolific batsman for the club, notching up an estimated 6000 runs, while Jack was perhaps best known for his brilliant slip catching and amazing propensity for drinking whisky. Perhaps reflecting the overall mood around the Sports Ground at the time, the First XI, under the captaincy of Ali Jaffir, lost their final two league matches to ruin any chances of a first ever 50-over pennant. They ultimately finished in a rather disappointing sixth overall, although Matt Metcalfe was the league’s top bowler with 34 wickets. The club saved their worst performance for the Presidents Cup final where they were resoundingly thrashed by New Milton. The Second XI finished twelfth in HCL1, the highlight of the season being 16 year old Felix Ambrose’s 101 and 4-26 in the defeat of St Cross. The Under 11s were the pride of the colts section, losing just one match all season, capturing the New Forest league, cup and play-off treble in the process; their only defeat coming at the Ageas Bowl against Odiham in the Alan Rowe County Cup Final. The Under 12 Lymington Lightening Girls team found success at the Portsmouth Festival. One of the heroes in Lymo’s last Southern League title in 1985 returned to the Sports Ground during the season. Richard McGlashan brought his South African Crickets CC to Lymington and brought back many happy memories, still bowling his fast leg breaks, albeit at a few mph slower than 28 years previous. Another South African from that golden period in Lymington history – Peter Williams – would tragically take his own life just a year later. 2013 also saw the end of an era for midweek cricket in Lymington with the final match played by the Elite CC. The club which had been formed by the late Brian Rickman way back in 1987 had traditionally offered a place to those too young or too old for the rigours of league cricket. One of those most ‘capped’ Elite players – Dom Di Maria – also announced his retirement from senior cricket at the end of the 2013 season, joining his brother Luigi who had been forced to give up the game through injury the previous years. The Di Marias, along with Tony Thorp, John McGurik and Mark Gannaway had been stalwarts of Lymington cricket over the past three decades or more. The highlight of the 2014 season was undoubtedly the club’s run to the final of the T20 competition at the Ageas Bowl. Comprehensive victories over Totton, Bashley and Hartley Wintney set up a thrilling semi-final win over Havant. The final proved to be one match too many for Simon Beetham’s side who were well beaten by a superb South Wilts team. The best individual performance of the competition came from Darren Cowley who scored a blistering 35 ball century in the quarter finals. In the league, once again Lymington’s form in the all-day matches proved to be their weak point. Australian Damien Mortimer scored 543 runs while Matt Metcalfe was again the club’s top wicket taker with 20. Inconsistency was a frustration for captain Beetham: just one day after Lymington’s mauling by South Wilts at the Ageas Bowl, his young team comfortably beat the same opposition in a league fixture. A full history of the colts section can be found by clicking here .	i don't know
Clara Petacci, who lived from 1912 – 1945 was the mistress of which famous politician who lived from 1883 – 1945 ?	1000+ images about WWII: Mussolini on Pinterest \| Prime minister of italy, Italian and Prime minister Forward 23 Dec 40: Churchill broadcasts to Italy, "We have never been your foes till now" and blames Mussolini saying, "all because of one man." Various sources, including interrogation of Italian POWs, made it clear that a great number of Italians were less than enthusiastic about the war and the direction that Mussolini's dictatorship was taking them. Churchill's speech was part of a longer campaign to turn the loyalties of the people of Italy. #WWII #History See More	Benito Mussolini
The Brenner Pass connects Italy with which other country ?	Benito Mussolini facts, information, pictures \| Encyclopedia.com articles about Benito Mussolini COPYRIGHT 2004 The Gale Group Inc. Benito Mussolini The Italian dictator Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) was head of the Italian government from 1922 to 1943. A Fascist dictator, he led Italy into three sucessive wars, the last of which overturned his regime. Benito Mussolini was born at Dovia di Predappio in Forlì province on July 29, 1883. His father was a blacksmith and an ardent Socialist; his mother taught elementary school. His family belonged to the impoverished middle classes. Benito, with a sharp and lively intelligence, early demonstrated a powerful ego. Violent and undisciplined, he learned little at school. In 1901, at the age of 18, he took his diploma di maestro and then taught secondary school briefly. Voluntarily exiling himself to Switzerland (1902-1904), he formed a dilettante's culture notable only for its philistinism. Not surprisingly, Mussolini based it on Friedrich Nietzsche, Georges Sorel, and Max Stirner, on the advocates of force, will, and the superego. Culturally armed, Mussolini returned to Italy in 1904, rendered military service, and engaged in politics full time thereafter. Early Career and Politics Mussolini became a member of the Socialist party in 1900, and his politics, like his culture, were exquisitely bohemian. He crossed anarchism with syndicalism, matched Peter Kropotkin and Louis Blanqui with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. More Nietzschean than Marxist, Mussolini's socialism was sui generis, a concoction created entirely by himself. In Socialist circles, nonetheless, he first attracted attention, then applause, and soon widespread admiration. He "specialized" in attacking clericalism, militarism, and reformism. Mussolini urged revolution at any cost. In each attack he was extremist and violent. But he was also eloquent and forceful. Mussolini occupied several provincial posts as editor and labor leader until he suddenly emerged in the 1912 Socialist Party Congress. Shattering all precedent, he became editor of the party's daily paper, Avanti, at a youthful 29. His editorial tenure during 1913-1914 abundantly confirmed his promise. He wrote a new journalism, pungent and polemical, hammered his readership, and injected a new excitement into Socialist ranks. On the Socialist platform, he spoke sharply and well, deft in phrase and savage in irony. The young Mussolini proved a formidable opponent. In a party long inert, bureaucratic, and burdened with mediocrity, he capitalized on his youth, offered modernity with dynamism, and decried the need for revolution in a moment when revolutionary ferment was sweeping the country. An opportunist to his bones, Mussolini early mastered the direction of the winds and learned quickly to turn full sail into them. From Socialist to Fascist This much-envied talent led Mussolini to desert the Socialist party in 1914 and to cross over to the enemy camp, the Italian bourgeoisie. He rightly understood that World War I would bury the old Europe. Upheaval would follow its wake. He determined to prepare for "the unknown." In late 1914 he founded an independent newspaper, Popolo d'Italia, and backed it up with his own independent movement (Autonomous Fascists). He drew close to the new forces in Italian politics, the radicalized middle-class youth, and made himself their national spokesman. Mussolini developed a new program, substituting nationalism for internationalism, militarism for antimilitarism, and the aggressive restoration of the bourgeois state instead of its revolutionary destruction. He had thus completely reversed himself. The Italian working classes called him "Judas" and "traitor." Drafted into the trenches in 1915, Mussolini was wounded during training exercises in 1917, but he managed to return to active politics that same year. His newspaper, which he now reinforced with a second political movement (Revolutionary Fascists), was his main card; his talents and his reputation guaranteed him a hand in the game. After the end of the war, Mussolini's career, so promising at the outset, slumped badly. He organized his third movement (Constituent Fascists) in 1918, but it was stillborn. Mussolini ran for office in the 1919 parliamentary elections but was defeated. Nonetheless, he persisted. Head of the Government In March 1919 Mussolini founded another movement (Fighting Fascists), courted the militant Italian youth, and waited for events to favor him. The tide turned in 1921. The elections that year sent him victoriously to Parliament at the head of 35 Fascist deputies; the third assembly of his fledgling movement gave birth to a national party, the National Fascist party (PNF), with more than 250,000 followers and Mussolini as its uncontested leader, its duce. The following year, in October 1922, Mussolini successfully "marched" on Rome. But, in fact, the back door to power had been opened by key ruling groups (industry try and agriculture, military, monarchy, and Church), whose support Mussolini now enjoyed. These groups, economically desperate and politically threatened, accepted Mussolini's solution to their crisis: mobilize middle-class youth, repress the workers violently, and set up a tough central government to restore "law and order." Accordingly, with the youth as his "flying wedge," Mussolini attacked the workers, spilled their blood liberally over the Italian peninsula, and completed triumphantly the betrayal of his early socialism. Without scruple or remorse, Mussolini now showed the extent to which ambition, opportunism, and utter amorality constituted his very core. He was in fact eminently a product of a particular crisis, World War I, and a special social class, the petty bourgeoisie. Mussolini's capture of power was classic: he was the right national leader at the right historical moment. Fascist State Once in power, Mussolini attacked the problem of survival. With accomplished tact, he set general elections, violated their constitutional norms freely, and concluded them in 1924 with an absolute majority in Parliament. But the assassination immediately thereafter of the Socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti, a noted opponent, by Fascist hirelings suddenly reversed his fortunes, threw his regime into crisis, and nearly toppled him. Mussolini, however, recouped and with his pivotal speech of Jan. 3, 1925, took the offensive. He suppressed civil liberties, annihilated the opposition, and imposed open dictatorship. Between 1926 and 1929 Mussolini moved to consolidate his regime through the enactment of "the most Fascist laws" (le leggi fascistissime). He concluded the decade on a high note: his Concordat with the Vatican in 1929 settled the historic differences between the Italian state and the Roman Catholic Church. Awed by a generosity that multiplied his annual income fourfold, Pope Pius XI confirmed to the world that Mussolini had been sent "by Divine Providence." As the 1930s opened, Mussolini, seated safely in power and enjoying wide support from the middle classes, undertook to shape his regime and fix its image. Italy, he announced, had commenced the epoch of the "Third Rome." The "Fascist Revolution," after the French original, would itself date civilized progress anew: 1922 became "Year I of the New Era"; 1932, Year X. The regime called itself the "Corporate State" and offered Italy a bewildering brood of institutions, all splendidly titled but sparsely endowed. For if the rhetoric impressed, the reality denied. The strongest economic groups remained entrenched. They had put Mussolini into power, and they now reaped their fruits. While they accumulated unprecedented economic control and vast personal fortunes, while a class of nouveau riche attached itself to the regime and parasitically sucked the nation's blood, the living standard of the working majority fell to subsistence. The daily consumption of calories per capita placed Italy near the bottom among European nations; the average Italian worker's income amounted to onehalf his French counterpart's, one-third his English, and one-fourth his American. As national leader, Mussolini offered neither solutions nor analyses for Italy's fundamental problems, preferring slogans to facts and propaganda to hard results. The face of the state he indeed refashioned; its substance he left intact. The "new order" was coating only. Il Duce ruled from the top of this hollow pyramid. A consummate poseur, he approached government as a drama to be enacted, every scene an opportunity to display ample but superficial talents. Cynical and arrogant, he despised men in the same measure that he manipulated them. Without inspired or noble sentiments himself, he instinctively sought the defects in others, their weaknesses, and mastered the craft of corrupting them. He surrounded himself with ambitious opportunists and allowed full rein to their greed and to their other, unnameable vices while his secret agents compiled incriminating dossiers. Count Galeatto Ciano, his son-in-law and successor-designate, defined Mussolini's entourage as "that coterie of old prostitutes." Such was Mussolini's "new governing class." Mussolini's Three Wars In 1930 the worldwide economic depression arrived in Italy. The middle classes succumbed to discontent; the working people suffered aggravated misery. Mussolini initially reacted with a public works program but soon shifted to foreign adventure. The 1935 Ethiopian War, a classic diversionary exercise, was planned to direct attention away from internal discontent and to the myth of imperial grandeur. The "Italian Empire," Mussolini's creation, was announced in 1936. It pushed his star to new heights. But it also exacted its price. The man of destiny lost his balance, and with it that elementary talent that measures real against acclaimed success. No ruler confuses the two and remains in power long. Mussolini thus began his precipitous slide. The 1936 Spanish intervention, in which Mussolini aided Francisco Franco in the Civil War, followed hard on Ethiopia but returned none of its anticipated gains. Mussolini compounded this error with a headlong rush into Adolf Hitler's embrace. The Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936 and the Tripartite Pact in 1937 were succeeded by the ill-fated Steel Pact in 1939. Meanwhile, Mussolini's pro-Hitlerism struck internally. Having declared earlier that the racial problem did not exist for Italy, Mussolini in 1938 unleashed his own anti-Semitic blows against Italian Jewry. As the 1930s closed, Mussolini had nearly exhausted all toleration for himself and his regime within Italy. World War II's surprise outbreak in 1939 left Mussolini standing on the margins of world politics, and he saw Hitler redrawing the map of Europe without him. Impelled by the prospect of easy victory, Mussolini determined "to make war at any cost." The cost was clear: modern industry, modern armies, and popular support. Mussolini unfortunately lacked all of these. Nonetheless, in 1940 he pushed a reluctant Italy into war on Hitler's side. He thus ignored the only meaningful lesson of World War I: the United States alone had decided that conflict, and consequently America, not Germany, was the key hegemonic power. Disaster and Death In 1940-1941 Mussolini's armies, badly supplied and impossibly led, strung their defeats from Europe across the Mediterranean to the African continent. These defeats constituted the full measure of Mussolini's bankruptcy. Italy lost its war in 1942; Mussolini collapsed 6 months later. Restored as Hitler's puppet in northern Italy in 1943, he drove Italy deeper into the tragedy of invasion, occupation, and civil war during 1944-1945. The end approached, but Mussolini struggled vainly to survive, unwilling to pay the price for folly. The debt was discharged by a partisan firing squad on April 28, 1945, at Dongo in Como province. In the end Mussolini failed where he had believed himself most successful: he was not a modern statesman. His politics and culture had been formed before World War I, and they had remained rooted there. After that war, though land empire had become ossified and increasingly superfluous, Mussolini had embarked on territorial expansion in the grand manner. In a moment when the European nation-state had passed its apogee and entered decline (the economic depression had underscored it), Mussolini had pursued ultranationalism abroad and an iron state within. He had never grasped the lines of the new world already emerging. He had gone to war for more territory and greater influence when he needed new markets and more capital. Tied to a decaying world about to disappear forever, Mussolini was anachronistic, a man of the past, not the future. His Fascist slogan served as his own epitaph: Non si torna indietro (There is no turning back). A 19th-century statesman could not survive long in the 20th-century world, and history swept him brutally but rightly aside. Further Reading Mussolini wrote My Autobiography (1928; rev. ed. 1939) and The Fall of Mussolini: His Own Story, edited with a preface by Max Ascoli (trans. 1948). Most of the studies of Mussolini in English are either archaic and sterile or anecdotal and useless. A comprehensive, objective, and well-written biography is lvone Kirkpatrick, Mussolini: A Study in Power (1964). Frederick W. Deakin, The Brutal Friendship (1962; rev. ed. 1966), offers valid, original scholarship but unfortunately treats only Mussolini's last years. Alan Cassels, Mussolini's Early Diplomacy (1970), is a well-documented study of Mussolini during the 1920s. Works on the history of fascism in Italy include Frederico Chabod, A History of Italian Fascism (1961; trans. 1963), and Elizabeth Wiskemann, Fascism in Italy: Its Development and Influence (1969). Ernst Nolte, Three Faces of Fascism (1963; trans. 1965), discusses the theory and the history of the movement in Italy, France, and Germany. For pertinent documents of the Fascist era in Italy and a brief study of the period see S. William Halperin, Mussolini and Italian Fascism (1964). For general background see Denis Mack Smith, Italy: A Modern History (1959). □ Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. MLA The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright The Columbia University Press Benito Mussolini (bānē´tō mōōs-sōlē´nē), 1883–1945, Italian dictator and leader of the Fascist movement. Early Career His father, an ardent Socialist, was a blacksmith; his mother was a teacher. Mussolini taught briefly and lived (1902–4) in Switzerland to avoid military service. He achieved national prominence for his opposition to the Libyan War (1911–12) and, as leader of the revolutionary left of the Socialist party, became editor of the Socialist daily Avanti (1913). Soon after World War I began, Mussolini abruptly turned nationalist and joined the pro-Allied interventionists. The Socialist party, which opposed all participation in nationalist wars, expelled him. He then founded his own daily, the Popolo d'Italia, which was subsidized by the French to encourage Italy's entry into the war on the side of the Allies. He joined (1915) the army and attained the rank of corporal. The Fascist Leader In the troubled postwar period Mussolini organized his followers, mostly war veterans, in the Fasci di combattimento, which advocated aggressive nationalism, violently opposed the Communists and Socialists, and dressed in black shirts like the followers of D'Annunzio . Amid strikes, social unrest, and parliamentary breakdown, Mussolini preached forcible restoration of order and practiced terrorism with armed groups. In 1921 he was elected to parliament and the National Fascist party (see fascism ) was officially organized. Backed by nationalists and propertied interests, in Oct., 1922, Mussolini sent the Fascists to march on Rome. King Victor Emmanuel III permitted them to enter the city and called on Mussolini, who had remained in Milan, to form a cabinet. As the new premier, he gradually transformed the government into a dictatorship. In 1924 the Socialist deputy Matteotti was murdered. Opposition was put down by an efficient secret police and the Fascist party militia, and the press was regimented. Parliamentary government ended in 1928, and the state economy was reorganized along the lines of the Fascist corporative state . Conflict between church and state was ended by the Lateran Treaty (1929). Mussolini was called Duce [leader] by his followers; his official title was "head of the government," and he held, besides the premiership, as many portfolios as he saw fit. His ambition to restore ancient greatness found expression in grandiloquent slogans and speeches and in the erection of monumental buildings. The encouragement he gave to the already high Italian birth rate, his imperialistic designs, and his incitement of extreme nationalist groups created an explosive situation. Fateful Alliance with Germany Mussolini was at first cool to Adolf Hitler and opposed his designs on Austria. However, Mussolini's diplomatic isolation after his attack (1935) on Ethiopia led to a rapprochement with Germany. In 1936, Hitler and Mussolini aided Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War; the Rome-Berlin Axis was strengthened by a formal alliance (1939), which Mussolini's son-in-law and foreign minister, Galeazzo Ciano , helped to create. In 1938, Mussolini allowed Hitler to annex Austria and helped bring about the Munich Pact ; in Apr., 1939, he ordered the Italian occupation of Albania. Under German pressure, he inaugurated an anti-Semitic policy in Italy, which found little popular response. The Ethiopian and Spanish wars had diminished the Duce's popularity, and he did not enter World War II until France was falling in June, 1940. The failure of Italian arms in Greece and Africa and the imminent invasion by the Allies of the Italian mainland at last caused a rebellion within the Fascist party. In July, 1943, the Fascist grand council refused to support his policy—dictated by Hitler—and the king dismissed him and had him placed under arrest. He was freed two months later by a daring German rescue party and became head of the Fascist puppet government set up in N Italy by Hitler. On the German collapse (Apr., 1945) Mussolini was captured, tried in a summary court-martial, and shot with his mistress, Clara Petacci. Their bodies, brought to Milan, were hanged in a public square and buried in an unmarked grave. Mussolini's body was later removed, and in 1957 it was placed in his family's vault. Bibliography Many of Mussolini's political speeches and pamphlets have been translated into English. Mussolini's literary productions include The Cardinal's Mistress (tr. 1928) and John Huss (tr. 1929). My Autobiography (Eng. ed. 1939) is supplemented by The Fall of Mussolini: His Own Story (tr. ed. by M. Ascoli, 1948). See also biographies by L. C. Fermi (1961), R. Collier (1971), M. Gallo (tr. 1973), by his widow, Rachele Mussolini (tr. 1974), and R. J. B. Bosworth (2002); study by A. Cassels (1970). Cite this article West's Encyclopedia of American Law COPYRIGHT 2005 The Gale Group, Inc. MUSSOLINI, BENITO Benito Mussolini ruled as dictator of Italy from 1922 to 1943. His political philosophy, which he called fascism, was based on the total domination of the government in all spheres of political, social, economic, and cultural life. Initially seen by the Italian people as a hero, Mussolini was driven from government before the end of world war ii. Mussolini was born in Dovia di Predappio, Italy, on July 29, 1883, the son of a socialist blacksmith. He embraced socialism as a teenager and as a young man became a schoolteacher and socialist journalist in northern Italy. In 1902 he moved to Switzerland and earned a living as a laborer. He returned to Italy in 1904 to perform his required military service and then resumed his teaching. His wanderlust, however, resumed. He went to Trent, Austria, in 1909 and worked for a socialist newspaper. He was expelled from Austria after he publicly urged the return of Trent to Italy. In 1912 he became editor of Avanti!, the most important Italian socialist newspaper, with headquarters in Milan. When world war i broke out in August 1914, Mussolini proved unwilling to toe the socialist line. Socialists argued that disputes between nations were not their concern and that Italy should stay out of the conflict. Mussolini disagreed, whereupon the socialists expelled him from the party. This expulsion radically changed Mussolini's political outlook. He founded Il Popol d'Italia (The People of Italy), a strident newspaper that argued that Italy should enter the war against Germany. When Italy did join the war, Mussolini enlisted in the army and served from 1915 to 1917, when he was wounded. After the war Mussolini started his own political movement. In 1919 he formed the Fascist party, called the Fasci di Combattimento. The name fascism is derived from the Latin fascis, meaning bundle. The fasces is a bundle of rods strapped together around an axe. A symbol of authority in ancient Rome, it represented absolute, unbreakable power. Mussolini promised to recreate the glories of the Roman Empire in a movement that was nationalistic, antiliberal, and antisocialist. Mussolini's movement struck a chord with lower-middle-class people. Supporters wore black shirts and formed private militias. In 1922 Mussolini threatened a march on Rome to take over the government. King Victor Emmanuel capitulated to this threat and asked Mussolini to form a government. Once in power Mussolini abolished all other political parties and set out to transform Italy into a fascist state. Initially Italians and foreign observers saw Mussolini as a strong leader who brought needed discipline to the economy and social structure of Italy. He poured money into building the infrastructure of a modern country. In a country known for disorganization, it was said that Mussolini made the trains run on time. He also, however, abolished trade unions and closed newspapers that did not follow the party line. He used the police to enforce his rule and imprisoned thousands of people for their political views. In the 1930s Mussolini sought to make Italy an international power. In 1935 Italy invaded the East African country of Ethiopia. Mussolini ignored the League of Nations' demand that he withdraw and proceeded to conquer the country. In 1936 he sent Italian troops to support General Francisco Franco's Loyalist Army in the Spanish Civil War. By the end of the 1930s, Mussolini also moved closer to adolf hitler and Nazi Germany. In 1939 he invaded nearby Albania. Mussolini did not enter World War II until June 1940, when he invaded the south of France. At first his alliance with Hitler appeared propitious. However, the Italian army suffered defeat in North Africa, and the Allies invaded Sicily in 1943. Mussolini's regime crumbled. King Victor Emmanuel dismissed Mussolini as the head of state on July 25, 1943. Mussolini was briefly imprisoned, but German troops rescued him. Hitler directed Mussolini to head an Italian puppet state in northern Italy, then under the control of German forces. As the Allies moved north in 1945, Mussolini tried to escape to Switzerland. He was captured by Italian partisans and shot on April 28, 1945. The bodies of Mussolini and his mistress, Clara Petacci, were displayed to jeering crowds on the streets of Milan. further readings World Encyclopedia © World Encyclopedia 2005, originally published by Oxford University Press 2005. Mussolini, Benito (1883–1945) Italian fascist dictator, prime minister (1922–43). Mussolini turned to revolutionary nationalism in World War I, and in 1919 founded the Italian fascist movement. The fascists' march on Rome in 1922 secured his appointment as prime minister. Mussolini imposed one-party government with himself as Il Duce (lit. ‘the leader’), or dictator. His movement was a model for Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party, with whom Mussolini formed an alliance in 1936. Imperial ambitions led to the conquest of Ethiopia (1935–36) and the invasion of Albania (1939). Mussolini delayed entering World War II until a German victory seemed probable in 1940. A succession of defeats led to his fall from power. Mussolini was briefly restored by the Germans as head of a puppet government in n Italy, but in April 1945, fleeing Allied forces, he was captured and killed by Italian partisans. Cite this article	i don't know
Which famous historical figure who lived from 1595 to 1617 was famously linked to English captain John Smith who arrived in her country with more than 100 settlers in April 1607 ?	Matoaka Amonute "Rebecca" Powhatan, aka Pocahontas (1595 - 1617) - Genealogy Matoaka Amonute "Rebecca" Powhatan, aka Pocahontas Kent, England, United Kingdom Share your family tree and photos with the people you know and love Build your family tree online Share photos and videos Matoaka Amonute "Rebecca" Powhatan, aka Pocahontas Also Known As: "Pocahontas", "Pocohantas", "Powhattan", "Princess Matoaka", "Matoika / Wrolfe / Lady Rebecca Rolfe / Matoaka Pohatan / Lady Rebecca / Amonute / Rebecca (Christian Name) / born as Matoaka", "Rebecca Rolfe", "powhaten", "Matoaka", "Lady Rebecca Rolfe", "Rebecca", "Amonute", "..." Birthdate: Tidewater, James City County, Virginia Death: Old World Disease - Pneumonia or Tuberculosis. Place of Burial: Gravesend, Kent, England, United Kingdom Immediate Family: Half sister of Tahacope Powhatan Managed by: Added 2016-05-26 18:39:15 -0700 by Robert Spencer Collection: Sep 17 1595 - Werowocomoco Village, On Pamunkey River York River, Virginia, United States Death: ...mily's return to Virginia, Pocahontas is invited to dinner with Cpt. Argall but becomes very ill and is taken off the ship dying soon after. Added 2014-12-19 21:19:39 -0800 by Raleigh Jackson OAKS I Collection: Mar 21 1617 - Gravesend, Kent, England Parents: Added 2015-11-01 10:38:46 -0800 by Robert Spencer Collection: 1614 - Jamestown, James, Virginia, United States Death: Added 2014-12-19 21:19:32 -0800 by Raleigh Jackson OAKS I Collection: Sep 17 1595 - Werowocomoco Village, York, Virginia, USA Death: Mar 21 1617 - Graves End, London, London, England Parents: Chief Wahunsonacock Powhatan, Nonoma Winanuske Sibling: Added 2014-12-19 21:19:42 -0800 by Raleigh Jackson OAKS I Collection: Added 2014-12-19 21:19:34 -0800 by Raleigh Jackson OAKS I Collection: Sep 17 1595 - Werowocomoco village on Pamunkey River (York River, Virginia) Death: Mar 21 1617 - Gravesend, England Parents: Weroance Wahunsenacawh Powhatan, Queen Winganuske Powhatan Husband: John Thomas Rolfe, Kocoum Powhatan Children: Lieutenant Thomas Pepsironemeh Rolfe, Ka Okee Pettus Siblings: Added 2015-11-01 10:38:43 -0800 by Robert Spencer Collection: 1614 - Jamestown, James, Virginia, United States Death: Wahunsonacock Powhatan, Winanuske Powhatan (born Nonoma) Siblings: Added 2014-12-19 21:19:30 -0800 by Raleigh Jackson OAKS I Collection: Nov 13 1595 - Tidewater,James City,Virginia,USA Death: Mar 21 1617 - Gravesend, Kent, , England, Parents: Chief Wahansonacock of Powhatan, Nonoma of Powhatan Husband: Captain John Rolfe, Kocoum UNKNOWN, John Rolfe, Jr. Children: Lieutenant Thomas Powhatan Rolfe, Bermuda Rolfe Siblings: About Matoaka Amonute "Rebecca" Powhatan, aka Pocahontas A note about names and titles from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocahontas : Although Pocahontas was not a princess in the context of Powhatan culture, the Virginia Company nevertheless presented her as a princess to the English public. The inscription on a 1616 engraving of Pocahontas, made for the company, reads: "MATOAKA ALS REBECCA FILIA POTENTISS : PRINC : POWHATANI IMP:VIRGINIÆ", which means: "Matoaka, alias Rebecca, daughter of the most powerful prince of the Powhatan Empire of Virginia." From http://powhatan.org , Information from the Powhatan Nation: In 1995, Roy Disney decided to release an animated movie about a Powhatan woman known as "Pocahontas". In answer to a complaint by the Powhatan Nation, he claims the film is "responsible, accurate, and respectful." We of the Powhatan Nation disagree. The film distorts history beyond recognition. Our offers to assist Disney with cultural and historical accuracy were rejected. Our efforts urging him to reconsider his misguided mission were spurred. "Pocahontas" was a nickname, meaning "the naughty one" or "spoiled child". Her real name was Matoaka. The legend is that she saved a heroic John Smith from being clubbed to death by her father in 1607 - she would have been about 10 or 11 at the time. The truth is that Smith's fellow colonists described him as an abrasive, ambitious, self-promoting mercenary soldier. Of all of Powhatan's children, only "Pocahontas" is known, primarily because she became the hero of Euro-Americans as the "good Indian", one who saved the life of a white man. Not only is the "good Indian/bad Indian theme" inevitably given new life by Disney, but the history, as recorded by the English themselves, is badly falsified in the name of "entertainment". The truth of the matter is that the first time John Smith told the story about this rescue was 17 years after it happened, and it was but one of three reported by the pretentious Smith that he was saved from death by a prominent woman. Yet in an account Smith wrote after his winter stay with Powhatan's people, he never mentioned such an incident. In fact, the starving adventurer reported he had been kept comfortable and treated in a friendly fashion as an honored guest of Powhatan and Powhatan's brothers. Most scholars think the "Pocahontas incident" would have been highly unlikely, especially since it was part of a longer account used as justification to wage war on Powhatan's Nation. Euro-Americans must ask themselves why it has been so important to elevate Smith's fibbing to status as a national myth worthy of being recycled again by Disney. Disney even improves upon it by changing Pocahontas from a little girl into a young woman. The true Pocahontas story has a sad ending. In 1612, at the age of 17, Pocahontas was treacherously taken prisoner by the English while she was on a social visit, and was held hostage at Jamestown for over a year. During her captivity, a 28-year-old widower named John Rolfe took a "special interest" in the attractive young prisoner. As a condition of her release, she agreed to marry Rolfe, who the world can thank for commercializing tobacco. Thus, in April 1614, Matoaka, also known as "Pocahontas", daughter of Chief Powhatan, became "Rebecca Rolfe". Shortly after, they had a son, whom they named Thomas Rolfe. The descendants of Pocahontas and John Rolfe were known as the "Red Rolfes." Two years later on the spring of 1616, Rolfe took her to England where the Virginia Company of London used her in their propaganda campaign to support the colony. She was wined and dined and taken to theaters. It was recorded that on one occasion when she encountered John Smith (who was also in London at the time), she was so furious with him that she turned her back to him, hid her face, and went off by herself for several hours. Later, in a second encounter, she called him a liar and showed him the door. Rolfe, his young wife, and their son set off for Virginia in March of 1617, but "Rebecca" had to be taken off the ship at Gravesend. She died there on March 21, 1617, at the age of 21. She was buried at Gravesend, but the grave was destroyed in a reconstruction of the church. It was only after her death and her fame in London society that Smith found it convenient to invent the yarn that she had rescued him. History tells the rest. Chief Powhatan died the following spring of 1618. The people of Smith and Rolfe turned upon the people who had shared their resources with them and had shown them friendship. During Pocahontas' generation, Powhatan's people were decimated and dispersed and their lands were taken over. A clear pattern had been set which would soon spread across the American continent. ~Chief Roy Crazy Horse It is unfortunate that this sad story, which Euro-Americans should find embarrassing, Disney makes "entertainment" and perpetuates a dishonest and self-serving myth at the expense of the Powhatan Nation. The original burial registry indicates that Pocahontas was interred on 17 Mar 1617 in a vault beneath the Chancellery of the Church in Gravesend, England, which shows the esteem in which she was held. A representative of the church stated "you don't get buried under a church in a private vault unless you are quite important." The church burned in 1727 and a new one was built on the same site. Several graves were opened during the construction and the remains were re-interred in the church courtyard. There is no record indicating which graves from the hundreds on site were moved. Many of those were moved again in 1890 when an addition to the church was built. So, it is not exactly known where her bones are, as stated by Gravesend Chamber of Commerce Director Graham Sawell said. "We believe they may be underneath the church, but without digging up the whole thing, we will never find them" There is positive and indisputable proof (Strong Words for Genealogy) that Pocahontas had a sister named Cleopatra (?Matachanna). This proofwas located in the old library of the Maryland Historical Society, an item of three lines covering eleven years. During the period covered by the fragment, matters became so bad between the Whites and the Indians that Opechancanough , Chief of the Powhatans, was induced to agree upon a line being established which neither White nor Indian, excepting truce bearers, should cross under penalty of being shot on sight. To insure strict obedience to the compact, a law was passed at Jamestown imposing a heavy penalty on any people crossing the line without a special permit from the Commissioners Council and the General Court. This accounts for the item alluded to, which is given verbatim. It reads: "Note: Dec. 17th, 1641 -- Thomas Rolfe petitions the governor to let him see Opechankeno to whom he is allied, and Cleopatra, his mother's sister." Note: The record of the General Court was evidently intended to be a verbatim copy though they differ in phraseology and spelling:Note: "Dec. 17th, 1641 -- Thomas Rolph petitions Gov. to let him go see Opechanko, to whom he is allied, and Cleopatre, his mother's sister." Links to additional material: http://powhatan.org Pocahontas "[Our records start] with the Indian chief, Murmuring Ripple, who died in 1495. According to the olden history, he was the father of Dashing Stream, who was born May 6, 1474, on the banks of a tributary of the Lancer river, which headed in the Blue Ridge mountains. He died in 1540. Dashing Stream was the father of Scented Flower, who was born June 3, 1517, at the junction of the Dan and Staunton rivers in Virginia. Scented Flower was the father of Powhatan [whose real name was Wahunsenacawh, a Pamunkey who became king, or powhatan, of the confederation of coastal tribes], born June 17, 1545, near New River, Va., and died in 1622, at the age of 77 years. [He had] a daughter by the name of Pocahontas, who was born in 1596, near Jamestown, Va." Oddly enough, this record of Native American lineage is more complete than anything left behind by the family's more "civilized" European ancestors. The reasons are two-fold. First, people almost always immigrate because they are glad to leave their home country, a circumstance that does not encourage the remembering or recording of what came before. Secondly, life was very hard in the early decades of colonial Virginia and there was little time or interest in writing up the details of either people's past history or their current daily lives. Also, those few personal accounts that have survived are often difficult to sort out because of identity confusion, caused by a common tendency to give newborn children the same, timeworn first names over and over and over. Death, which came easily during the early days, further muddied the identification waters because spouses often remarried and the wives naturally changed their names. While finding good historical data on colonial males is hard enough, it is almost impossible to locate documentation on females. This stems from their status, which was a condition uncomfortably close to chattel. Women were considered men's property--they did not participate in business, were restricted in what property they could own, and couldn't vote or hold public office. As a result, they rarely show up in the public record, a prime source of genealogical evidence. Also, the institution of holy matrimony as it existed in primitive North America often bore little resemblance to the original model back in Britain. In some cases, these "marriages" involved Native American women, making matters that much more delicate. In those days, and indeed well into the twentieth century, individuals having Indian blood were especially restricted with regard to civil and social matters, and rarely appear in the written record. Aunt Mary Barnett spoke to this point as well: "Ah, well do we remember when our father conveyed the intelligence that the same little Indian girl who was so highly eulogized in our child history . . . was among the number of our great grandmothers. It was given to us as a profound secret, but a real truth, which we pondered over with a feeling of disgrace to think there was Indian blood in our veins. We never dared speak of it. But as time went on everything took a change and so did this." Taking all these things into account, it's no wonder information on the founding Virginians is so often vague, conflicting, lost [many early public records were destroyed by fire], or simply never put to paper in the first place. It has also become clear that despite their "prominence," the families of English tobacco planter John Rolfe, and his mixed-blood son, Thomas Rolfe, were not excepted from these patterns. As a consequence, it is very difficult, perhaps even impossible, for anyone in America to unequivocally prove descendency from John Rolfe's wife, Matoaka, the favored Powhatan daughter and respected medicine woman who is more commonly known by her affectionate, informal nickname, Pocahontas. Everyone today claiming descent from Matoaka, whether they realize it or not, is fundamentally relying on their family's oral history [See below discussion on Elizabeth Washington of England for the exception]. Until recently, historians had unconditionally accepted the 'Pocahontas genealogy' supplied by nineteenth-century writer and Bolling family descendant Wyndam Robertson (his scholarly standing was bolstered by the presence within the Bolling clan of such notable Virginians as John Randolph and President Thomas Jefferson). The gist of Robertson's conclusions were as follows: Pocahontas had but one child, a son Thomas, and Thomas had but one child, Jane, by his wife, Jane Poythress. Daughter Jane married a Bolling, and from that union came the single bloodline Matoaka left behind. Based on extensive new research by scholars and independent researchers, we now know that wasn't the whole story, not by a country mile. To begin the narrative anew: Pocahontas was born circa 1595-96, and was possibly married, at least for a time, to a Powhatan warrior named Kocoum, circa 1610. Vague references have been found suggesting one or two native children were born to this union, but no evidence has surfaced. Kocoum abruptly stepped off the historical stage [for reasons unknown] and in 1613 Pocahontas married John Rolfe [NOT John Smith!]. They had one child, a son, Thomas Rolfe, born in 1614. Pocahontas died of an undetermined illness while on a 1617 business visit to England with her merchant husband and was buried in that country at a place called Gravesend. Their infant son, Thomas, was too small and fragile to withstand the risky sea journey back to America so John Rolfe left him in England under the care of his brother, Uncle Henry Rolfe. Henry raised the boy as an Englishman. John Rolfe died in Virginia in 1622, either from a lingering illness or during an Indian raid. According to his will, son Thomas could not inherit his father's rather sizable estate before reaching age twenty-one unless he married prior to that time. In what may have been at least a partial response to this stipulation, seventeen-year-old Thomas married Elizabeth Washington in England in 1632. In 1633, Elizabeth died giving birth to a daughter, Anne, who later married Peter Elwyn, and they had at least three sons and four daughters. The Elwyns inherited several of Pocahontas' personal possessions. In 1635, Thomas Rolfe, now twenty-one years old, returned to the Virginia colony in North America. It is at this point the record gets murky and the serious detective work begins. As previously stated, the official Bolling histories have long maintained their version of events is the only true one--that Thomas had but one child by Jane Poythress, a daughter also called Jane [circa 1650-1676], and that she married Colonel Robert Bolling [1646-1709], and they were the root parents of all of Pocahontas' descendants. But that would mean that during Thomas' entire adult life [by some accounts he died circa 1675, by others circa 1707], he had only one child (The Bollings were apparently unaware of his daughter Anne by the Englishwoman, Elizabeth Washington). Given the way things were done in those days--have as many children as possible to help earn a living and ensure the preservation of the family name--that seems very unlikely. Indeed, there is a large amount of circumstantial evidence suggesting Thomas Rolfe sired several, perhaps many, North American children, and that he did it by several wives. And it is here the story gets really interesting. While the history books have long insisted Thomas had but one New World wife, the aforementioned Jane Poythress, recent scholarship has shown that Wyndam Robertson, in his 1887 book, "Pocahontas and Her Descendants," took it upon himself, ostensibly in the interest of clearing up all the spousal confusion, to simply designate an 'official wife' ["I adopt (the name) Jane Poythress"]. As a result of this sloppy genealogy by a prominent historian and theologian, 'Jane Poythress,' a clearly arbitrary name, has ever since been identified by nearly all historians as the undisputed, lone American wife of Thomas Rolfe. New research over the past few decades [Slatten and Moore, John Brayton, and others] has exposed this long-lived, self-serving Robertson fabrication. It has also unearthed tantalizing fresh evidence linking Thomas Rolfe to other females besides "Jane Poythress" (whoever she was). They include: 1) a cousin of Pocahontas named Oconoco, or Oi Poi. One of their children has been identified as Thomas "Powhatan" Rolfe. Oral tradition says he insisted all his life on being called "Powhatan" 2) a Dorothy Jennings of North Carolina 3) an Indian maid of Dorothy's named Mary Grimes We almost certainly will never know the absolute truth about these women, for the same reasons it may never be determined whether Thomas Rolfe died circa 1675, or if he was the same Thomas Rolfe of North Carolina (then a part of Virginia), "reputed son of Pocahontas," who died in 1707 at a very ripe old age. In any event, the bits and pieces of evidence suggesting Thomas had both white and Indian liaisons has the ring of truth to it. After all, that was the way things were done in those rough and tumble frontier days, far from British legalities and the Church of England. Furthermore, it must be remembered that Thomas Rolfe was one-half Powhatan, a man who throughout his life remained close to his mother's Native American community, despite his ability to also conduct himself as a proper Englishman. To summarize then, Thomas Rolfe must have had several children, perhaps as many as twelve according to some reports, and they almost certainly issued from more than one wife or mistress. The following offspring have been named in several different accounts, with varying degrees of evidence and conjecture in their support: - Anne Rolfe Elwyn, born 1633, mother, Elizabeth Washington - John Rolfe, born circa early 1640s, mother, "Jane Poythress" - Thomas Rolfe, Jr., born circa 1645, mother, "Jane Poythress" - William Rolfe, born circa late 1640s, mother, "Jane Poythress" - Jane Rolfe Bolling, born circa 1650, mother, "Jane Poythress" - Ann/Anne/Anna Rolfe Barnett, born circa 1653-65, mother unknown--"Jane Poythress?" Oi Poi? - Thomas "Powhatan" Rolfe, born circa 1665, mother, Oi Poi Pocahontas was most likely born in Werawocomoco (what is now Wicomico, Gloucester County, Virginia) on the north side of the Pamaunkee (York) River, around the year 1595. Her true name was Matoaka, but that name was only used within her tribe. Native Americans believed harm would come to a person if outsiders learned of their tribal name. Pocahontas was one of many daughters of a powerful chief named Powhatan, who ruled more than 25 tribes. Pocahontas first became acquainted with the English colonists who settled in the Chesapeake Bay area in 1607. Along with her tribe, Pocahontas watched the colonists build a fort and search for food. The next year, Powhatan's brother Opechancanough captured colonist John Smith. Smith was brought to Powhatan, who decided he must die. According to an account written later by Smith, Pocahontas saved Smith's life by throwing herself down and cradling his head before he was clubbed to death. After promising to supply Powhatan with several guns, Smith was allowed to return to Jamestown. He did not deliver the guns, but sent many other presents instead. Over the next year, Pocahontas and other tribal women visited the fort and brought food to the settlers. However, in 1609, Smith was forced to return to England after being badly burned in a gun powder accident. After his departure, relations deteriorated between the natives and settlers. Several years later, Pocahontas was taken hostage by the colonists. She was treated kindly during her captivity and lived in the home of a minister. During this time, Pocahontas converted to Christianity and was baptized with the name Rebecca. While being held in Jamestown, Pocahontas met a distinguished colonist named John Rolfe. The two fell in love and planned to marry. The marriage was blessed by Virginia governor Sir Thomas Dale, as well as Chief Powhatan. Although the chief did not attend the wedding, he sent others in his place and a pearl necklace for his daughter. In 1615, Rolfe and Pocahontas had their first and only child, Thomas. The following year, the family was invited to England, where Pocahontas became the center of attention of English society. Banquets and dances were given in her honor, and her portrait was painted by famous artists. Pocahontas was received with royal honor by the king and queen. While in England, Pocahontas was also reunited with her friend John Smith, whom she had believed dead. Before returning to Virginia, Pocahontas contracted small pox. She died in England in March, 1617, at the age of 21. Pocahontas was buried in the chapel of the parish church in Gravesend, England. Rolfe returned to Virginia, where he developed a popular sweet variety of high-grade tobacco. Its export provided a way for the colonists to support themselves. Their son, Thomas, remained in England, where he was educated. He returned to the colonies at the age of 20 and became an important member of the community. Namesakes Several places and landmarks take their name from Pocahontas. Pocahontas was the namesake for one of the richest seams of bituminous coal ever found in Virginia and West Virginia, and the Pocahontas Land Company, a subsidiary of the Norfolk and Western Railway. From 1930 into the 1960s, one of the Norfolk and Western Railway's named luxury trains was the "Pocahontas" and ran between Norfolk, Virginia and Cincinnati, Ohio behind the Norfolk and Western Railway's famous J class 4-8-4 streamlined steam engines. In 1946, the Norfolk and Western Railway added the similarly-equipped "Powhatan Arrow" on the same route. The town of Pocahontas, Virginia. Pocahontas County, West Virginia. The village of Indian Queens in Cornwall, UK is sometimes said to be named after her, although this is highly dubious. Matoaca, Virginia is located in Chesterfield County on the Appomattox River. County historians say this is the site of the Indian village Matoax, where she was raised. It is about three miles (5 km) from the present city of Petersburg, Virginia — which in 1784 incorporated another town that had been called 'Pocahontas', where her great grandson, Col. John Bolling, had run a tobacco warehouse. This is still called the "Pocahontas neighbourhood" of Petersburg today. Matoaka, West Virginia. Pocahontas, Iowa is in Pocahontas County. Pocahontas, Arkansas. Po-ca-hon-tas, or The Gentle Savage is a 19th-century burlesque about the woman by John Brougham Fort Pocahontas was an American Civil War fortification in Charles City County, Virginia. Lake Matoaka, part of the campus of the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia. Pocahontas State Park in Chesterfield Virginia. Pocahontas Village, a neighborhood in Virginia Beach, Virginia. MV Pocahontas is a river tour boat operated from Gravesend in London, UK. Four United States Navy ships named USS Pocahontas and one named USS Princess Matoika. Pocahontas, Mississippi. In Henrico County, Virginia, where Pocahontas and John Rolfe lived together at the Varina Farms Plantation, a middle school has been named after each of them. Pocahontas Middle School and John Rolfe Middle School thus reunite the historic couple in the local educational system—Henrico being one of 5 remaining original shires that date to the early 17th century of the Virginia Colony. Although her life was short, is remembered for contributing to the maintenance of peace between the colonists and the natives. She remains an important part of American folk history to this day. CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH 37. New and successful attempt to make a settlement in Virginia; Captain John Smith.—One of the leaders in the new expedition sent out to make a settlement in Virginia, while Raleigh was in prison, was Captain John Smith. He began life as a clerk in England. Not liking his work, he ran away and turned soldier. After many strange adventures, he was captured by the Turks and sold as a slave. His master, who was a Turk, riveted a heavy iron collar around his neck and set him to thrashing grain with a big wooden bat like a ball-club. One day the Turk rode up and struck his slave with his riding-whip. This was more than Smith could bear; he rushed at his master, and with one blow of his bat knocked his brains out. He then mounted the dead man's horse and escaped. After a time he got back to England; but as England seemed a little dull to Captain Smith, he resolved to join some emigrants who were going to Virginia. 38. What happened to Captain Smith on the voyage; the landing at Jamestown; what the settlers wanted to do; Smith's plan.—On the way to America, Smith was accused of plotting to murder the chief men among the settlers so that he might make himself "King of Virginia." The accusation was false, but he was put in irons and kept a prisoner for the rest of the voyage. In the spring of 1607 the emigrants reached Chesapeake[1] Bay, and sailed up a river which they named the James in honor of King James of England; when they landed they named the settlement Jamestown for the same reason. Here they built a log fort, and placed three or four small cannon on its walls. Most of the men who settled Jamestown came hoping to find mines of gold in Virginia, or else a way through to the Pacific Ocean and to the Indies, which they thought could not be very far away. But Captain Smith wanted to help his countrymen to make homes here for themselves and their children. 1 Chesapeake (Ches'a-peek). 39. Smith's trial and what came of it; how the settlers lived; the first English church; sickness; attempted desertion.—As soon as Captain Smith landed, he demanded to be tried by a jury[2] of twelve men. The trial took place. It was the first English court and the first English jury that ever sat in America. The captain proved his innocence and was set free. His chief accuser was condemned to pay him a large sum of money for damages. Smith generously gave this money to help the settlement. As the weather was warm, the emigrants did not begin building log cabins at once, but slept on the ground, sheltered by boughs of trees. For a church they had an old tent, in which they met on Sunday. They were all members of the Church of England, or the Episcopal Church, and that tent was the first place of worship that we know of which was opened by Englishmen in America. When the hot weather came, many fell sick. Soon the whole settlement was like a hospital. Sometimes three or four would die in one night. Captain Smith, though not well himself, did everything he could for those who needed his help. When the sickness was over, some of the settlers were so discontented that they determined to seize the only vessel there was at Jamestown and go back to England. Captain Smith turned the cannon of the fort against them. The deserters saw that if they tried to leave the harbor he would knock their vessel to pieces, so they came back. One of the leaders of these men was tried and shot; the other was sent to England in disgrace. 2 Jury: a number of men, generally twelve, selected according to law to try a case in a court of law; in criminal cases they declare the person accused to be either guilty or not guilty. 40. The Indians of Virginia.—When the Indians of America first met the white men, they were very friendly to them; but this did not last long, because often the whites treated the Indians very badly; in fact, the Spaniards made slaves of them and whipped many of them to death. But these were the Indians of the south; some of the northern tribes were terribly fierce and a match for the Spaniards in cruelty. BUILDING A WIGWAM. The Indians at the east did not build cities, but lived in small villages. These villages were made up of huts, covered with the bark of trees. Such huts were called wigwams. The women did nearly all the work, such as building the wigwams and hoeing corn and tobacco. The men hunted and made war. Instead of guns the Indians had bows and arrows. With these they could bring down a deer or a squirrel quite as well as a white man could now with a rifle. They had no iron, but made hatchets and knives out of sharp, flat stones. They never built roads, for they had no wagons, and at the east they did not use horses; but they could find their way with ease through the thickest forest. When they came to a river they swam across it, so they had no need of bridges. For boats they made canoes of birch bark. These canoes were almost as light as paper, yet they were very strong and handsome, and they "floated on the river Like a yellow leaf in autumn, Like a yellow water-lily."[3] In them they could go hundreds of miles quickly and silently. So every river and stream became a roadway to the Indian. 3 Longfellow's Hiawatha (Hiawatha's Sailing). POCKET COMPASS. 41. Captain Smith goes in search of the Pacific; he is captured by Indians.—After that first long, hot summer was over, some of the settlers wished to explore the country and see if they could not find a short way through to the Pacific Ocean. Captain Smith led the expedition. The Indians attacked them, killed three of the men, and took the captain prisoner. To amuse the Indians, Smith showed them his pocket compass. When the savages saw that the needle always pointed toward the north they were greatly astonished, and instead of killing their prisoner they decided to take him to their chief. This chief was named Powhatan.[4] He was a tall, grim-looking old man, and he hated the settlers at Jamestown, because he believed that they had come to steal the land from the Indians. 4 Powhatan (Pow-ha-tan'). 42. Smith's life is saved by Pocahontas;[5] her marriage to John Rolfe.[6]—Smith was dragged into the chief's wigwam; his head was laid on a large, flat stone, and a tall savage with a big club stood ready to dash out his brains. Just as Powhatan was about to cry "strike!" his daughter Pocahontas, a girl of twelve or thirteen, ran up, and, putting her arms round the prisoner's head, she laid her own head on his—now let the Indian with his uplifted club strike if he dare.[7] Instead of being angry with his daughter, Powhatan promised her that he would spare Smith's life. When an Indian made such a promise as that he kept it, so the captain knew that his head was safe. Powhatan released his prisoner and soon sent him back to Jamestown, and Pocahontas, followed by a number of Indians, carried to the settlers presents of corn and venison. Some years after this the Indian maiden married John Rolfe, an Englishman who had come to Virginia. They went to London, and Pocahontas died not far from that city. She left a son; from that son came some noted Virginians. One of them was John Randolph. He was a famous man in his day, and he always spoke with pride of the Indian princess, as he called her. 5 Pocahontas (Po-ka-hon'tas). 6 Rolfe (Rolf). 7 On Pocahontas, see List of Books at the end of this book. 43. Captain Smith is made governor of Jamestown; the gold-diggers; "Corn, or your life."—More emigrants came over from England, and Captain Smith was now made governor of Jamestown. Some of the emigrants found some glittering earth which they thought was gold. Soon nearly every one was hard at work digging it. Smith laughed at them; but they insisted on loading a ship with the worthless stuff and sending it to London. That was the last that was heard of it. "CORN, OR YOUR LIFE!" The people had wasted their time digging this shining dirt when they should have been hoeing their gardens. Soon they began to be in great want of food. The captain started off with a party of men to buy corn of the Indians. The Indians contrived a cunning plot to kill the whole party. Smith luckily found it out; seizing the chief by the hair, he pressed the muzzle of a pistol against his heart and gave him his choice,—"Corn, or your life!" He got the corn, and plenty of it. 44. "He who will not work shall not eat."—Captain Smith then set part of the men to planting corn, so that they might raise what they needed. The rest of the settlers he took with him into the woods to chop down trees and saw them into boards to send to England. Many tried to escape from this labor; but Smith said, Men who are able to dig for gold are able to chop; then he made this rule: "He who will not work shall not eat." Rather than lose his dinner, the laziest man now took his axe and set off for the woods. 45. Captain Smith's cold-water cure.—But though the choppers worked, they grumbled. They liked to see the chips fly and to hear the great trees "thunder as they fell," but the axe-handles raised blisters on their fingers. These blisters made the men swear, so that often one would hear an oath for every stroke of the axe. Smith said the swearing must be stopped. He had each man's oaths set down in a book. When the day's work was done, every offender was called up; his oaths were counted; then he was told to hold up his right hand, and a can of cold water was poured down his sleeve for each oath. This new style of water cure did wonders; in a short time not an oath was heard: it was just chop, chop, chop, and the madder the men got, the more the chips would fly. 46. Captain Smith meets with an accident and goes back to England; his return to America; his death.—Captain Smith had not been governor very long when he met with a terrible accident. He was out in a boat, and a bag of gunpowder he had with him exploded. He was so badly hurt that he had to go back to England to get proper treatment for his wounds. He returned to America a number of years later, explored the coast north of Virginia, and gave it the name of New England, but he never went back to Jamestown again. He died in London, and was buried in a famous old church in that city.[8] 8 The church of St. Sepulchre: it is not very far from St. Paul's Cathedral. A SETTLER'S LOG CABIN. 47. What Captain Smith did for Virginia.—Captain John Smith was in Virginia less than three years, yet in that short time he did a great deal. First, he saved the settlers from starving, by making the Indians sell them corn. Next, by his courage, he saved them from the attacks of the savages. Lastly, he taught them how to work. Had it not been for him the people of Jamestown would probably have lost all heart and gone back to England. He insisted on their staying, and so, through him, the English got their first real foothold in America. But this was not all; he wrote two books on Virginia, describing the soil, the trees, the animals, and the Indians. He also made some excellent maps of Virginia and of New England. These books and maps taught the English people many things about this country, and helped those who wished to emigrate. For these reasons Captain Smith has rightfully been called the "Father of Virginia." 48. Negro slaves sent to Virginia; tobacco.—About ten years after Captain Smith left Jamestown, the commander of a Dutch ship brought a number of negro slaves to Virginia (1619), and sold them to the settlers. That was the beginning of slavery in this country. Later, when other English settlements had been made, they bought slaves, and so, after a time, every settlement north as well as south owned more or less negroes. The people of Virginia employed most of their slaves in raising tobacco. They sold this in England, and, as it generally brought a good price, many of the planters[9] became quite rich. 9 Planter: a person who owns a plantation or large farm at the South; it is cultivated by laborers living on it; once these laborers were generally negro slaves. THE BURNING OF JAMESTOWN. 49. Bacon's war against Governor Berkeley;[10] Jamestown burned.—Long after Captain Smith was in his grave, Sir William Berkeley was made governor of Virginia by the king of England. He treated the people very badly. At last a young planter named Bacon raised a small army and marched against the governor, who was in Jamestown. The governor, finding that he had few friends to fight for him, made haste to get out of the place. Bacon then entered it with his men; but as he knew that, if necessary, the king would send soldiers from England to aid the governor in getting it back, he set fire to the place and burned it. It was never built up again, and so only a crumbling church-tower and a few gravestones can now be seen where Jamestown once stood. Those ruins mark the first English town settled in America. 10 Berkeley (Berk'li). 50. What happened later in Virginia; the Revolution; Washington; four presidents.—But though Jamestown was destroyed, Virginia kept growing in strength and wealth. What was better still, the country grew in the number of its great men. The king of England continued to rule America until, in 1776, the people of Virginia demanded that independence should be declared. The great war of the Revolution overthrew the king's power and made us free. The military leader of that war was a Virginia planter named George Washington. After we had gained the victory and peace was made, we chose presidents to govern the country. Four out of six of our first presidents, beginning with Washington, came from Virginia. For this reason that state has sometimes been called the "Mother of Presidents." 51. Summary.—In 1607 Captain John Smith, with others, made the first lasting settlement built up by Englishmen in America. Through Captain Smith's energy and courage, Jamestown, Virginia, took firm root. Virginia was the first state to demand the independence of America, and Washington, who was a Virginian, led the war of the Revolution by which that independence was gained. What can you tell about Captain John Smith before he went to Virginia? What happened to him on his way to Virginia? What is said about the landing of the settlers in Virginia? What did they want to do? What did Captain Smith want to do? What about Captain Smith's trial? What is said about the church in Jamestown? What happened to the settlers? What did some of them try to do? Who stopped them? Tell what you can about the Indians. What kind of houses did they live in? Did they have guns? Did they have iron hatchets and knives? Did they have horses and wagons? What kind of boats did they have? What happened to Captain Smith when he went in search of the Pacific? What did Pocahontas do? What is said about her afterward? What about the gold-diggers? How did Captain Smith get corn? What did he make the settlers do? What is said about Captain Smith's cold-water cure? Why did Captain Smith go back to England? What three things did he do for Virginia? What about his books and maps? What is said of negro slaves? What about tobacco? What about Governor Berkeley and Mr. Bacon? What happened to Jamestown? What did the war of the Revolution do? Who was its great military leader? Why is Virginia sometimes called the "Mother of Presidents"? =========================================== READING NOTES: This is an excerpt from an old American history book and shows the traditional Eurocentric view of the English settlement at Jamestown and of John Smith's life. It is hopelessly outdated, but for that very reason is valuable: this is what our grandparents or their grandparents were reading. I took a look around the children's book section at a major bookseller the other day as I was planning to buy a book for my little nephew. I thought, hmm. How about an American history book? I was fascinated at how cleverly the books werer packaged, how beautfully they were illustrated and how current their langugage was. Then I began reading and saw that nothing had changed at all. Not a bit. Sure there were other little books about Susussanah and her good friend the slave child Monday holding hands and gathering flowers but so what? What did that show? Was it real? Maybe. But hardly the whole story. There were little books called IF YOU WERE LIVING IN COLONIAL AMERICA, IF YOU WERE LIVING IN THE TIME OF THE CIVIL WAR, IF YOU WERE ON THE SHIP THE MAYFLOWER, etc. All had their charm and some educational value. But what was the point of view? There were. to be sure, attempts to include, to show both good and bad people from each group, to show times of sadness and times of joy. Attempts to suggest the horror of war and the necessity of it, sometimes. And reconciliation. Always that. But what was the point of view of the writer? Who did she or he think the audience was? What would the Native Ameicans and English settlers have thought of such books? Would they have laughed? Or got angry? Or shrugged? Who are the readers of such books today? For certain, beng called a savage would smart, then or now. The books of the twenty-first century would not dare use such a term. But it was an everday word for the nineteenth century writer. For certain, havnig it assumed to be the English people's right to come and settle and not be questoned, would be questioned. How would Smith be assessed? Would the settlers have appreciated what he did to same their skins? How would various Native Americans see him aside from his role in entertaining the child (what is now called a "Tween") Pocahontas? By the way, I am sure you KNOW that John Smith DID NOT not marry Pocahontas. John Rolfe did. His descendents all come from the Bollings, the family into which Jane Rolfe, the only child of Pocahontas and John rolfe's son Thomas "Pepsicanough" Rolfe. There was no son to carry on the Rolfe name though other Rolfe's who were related to the family may claim to be related to John Rolfe; they cannot, however, claim to be related "by blood" to Pocahontas and the Powhattan clan however. And, although they are not properly kin of Pocahontas herself or her Native American frebearer, they are kin to her child Thomas Rolfe (half Cherokee) and his daughter Jane Rolfe and to her Bolling descendants. You can find all sorts of free ebooks to read at the Gutenberg Project from which this excerpt of this old history book was taken. There are many primary sources on line if their copyright has expired and was not renewed. Nearly all of the classics are online as well. Take a look around. There is also a chapter on Sir Walter Raleigh following the John Smith one. Many are written with the same old-fashioned and naive point of view common at the time. - vb ====================================== The American Colonies of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries all had stringent laws prohibiting interracial marriages. Because Pocahontas and John Rolfe were married very early in the seventeenth century with the approval of the then Governor of the colony, and because Pocahontas was of royal (albeit aborigine) blood, the statutes in Virginia made an exception in their case. The laws of the other colonies, however, were very strict, and the punishment was severe. Thus, Thomas Rolfe was "safe" but only in Virginia or back in England. He chose to return to Virginia to claim the vast amount of land Powhatan had given the couple when John and Pocahontas married. When Jane Poythress died, after bearing an only daughter, Thomas Rolfe is reputed to have left Virginia and moved to North Carolina, where he is also reputed to have married again. With the laws of North Carolina so strict, both then and during the next century or so, it is understandable that Thomas would never have mentioned the fact that he was half Indian, nor would that information have likely been passed down in the family tales. If, in fact, Thomas did remarry after he left Virginia and sired a number of male children, it would be reasonable to assume that one or more of them returned to the motherland, particularly if they knew of their ancestor's ethnic background and were therefore nervous about remaining in the colonies." Matoaka "Princess Pocahontas" Powhatan b. Sep 17 1595 Gloucester VA, Christened 1614 Henrico VA d. Mar 1617 Gravesend, Kent England buried Mar 21 1617 St George's Church, Gravesend, Kent Died of Smallpox, just after sailing from London with her husband and son on their way back to Virginia. After she married John Rolfe her alternate name was Rebecca Rolfe Matoaka "Princess Pocahontas" Powhatan b. Sep 17 1595 Gloucester VA, Christened 1614 Henrico VA d. Mar 1617 Gravesend, Kent England buried Mar 21 1617 St George's Church, Gravesend, Kent Died of Smallpox, just after sailing from London with her husband and son on their way back to Virginia. After she married John Rolfe her alternate name was Rebecca Rolfe Information from the Powhatan Nation: In 1995, Roy Disney decided to release an animated movie about a Powhatan woman known as "Pocahontas". In answer to a complaint by the Powhatan Nation, he claims the film is "responsible, accurate, and respectful." We of the Powhatan Nation disagree. The film distorts history beyond recognition. Our offers to assist Disney with cultural and historical accuracy were rejected. Our efforts urging him to reconsider his misguided mission were spurred. "Pocahontas" was a nickname, meaning "the naughty one" or "spoiled child". Her real name was Matoaka. The legend is that she saved a heroic John Smith from being clubbed to death by her father in 1607 - she would have been about 10 or 11 at the time. The truth is that Smith's fellow colonists described him as an abrasive, ambitious, self-promoting mercenary soldier. Of all of Powhatan's children, only "Pocahontas" is known, primarily because she became the hero of Euro-Americans as the "good Indian", one who saved the life of a white man. Not only is the "good Indian/bad Indian theme" inevitably given new life by Disney, but the history, as recorded by the English themselves, is badly falsified in the name of "entertainment". The truth of the matter is that the first time John Smith told the story about this rescue was 17 years after it happened, and it was but one of three reported by the pretentious Smith that he was saved from death by a prominent woman. Yet in an account Smith wrote after his winter stay with Powhatan's people, he never mentioned such an incident. In fact, the starving adventurer reported he had been kept comfortable and treated in a friendly fashion as an honored guest of Powhatan and Powhatan's brothers. Most scholars think the "Pocahontas incident" would have been highly unlikely, especially since it was part of a longer account used as justification to wage war on Powhatan's Nation. Euro-Americans must ask themselves why it has been so important to elevate Smith's fibbing to status as a national myth worthy of being recycled again by Disney. Disney even improves upon it by changing Pocahontas from a little girl into a young woman. The true Pocahontas story has a sad ending. In 1612, at the age of 17, Pocahontas was treacherously taken prisoner by the English while she was on a social visit, and was held hostage at Jamestown for over a year. During her captivity, a 28-year-old widower named John Rolfe took a "special interest" in the attractive young prisoner. As a condition of her release, she agreed to marry Rolfe, who the world can thank for commercializing tobacco. Thus, in April 1614, Matoaka, also known as "Pocahontas", daughter of Chief Powhatan, became "Rebecca Rolfe". Shortly after, they had a son, whom they named Thomas Rolfe. The descendants of Pocahontas and John Rolfe were known as the "Red Rolfes." Two years later on the spring of 1616, Rolfe took her to England where the Virginia Company of London used her in their propaganda campaign to support the colony. She was wined and dined and taken to theaters. It was recorded that on one occasion when she encountered John Smith (who was also in London at the time), she was so furious with him that she turned her back to him, hid her face, and went off by herself for several hours. Later, in a second encounter, she called him a liar and showed him the door. Rolfe, his young wife, and their son set off for Virginia in March of 1617, but "Rebecca" had to be taken off the ship at Gravesend. She died there on March 21, 1617, at the age of 21. She was buried at Gravesend, but the grave was destroyed in a reconstruction of the church. It was only after her death and her fame in London society that Smith found it convenient to invent the yarn that she had rescued him. History tells the rest. Chief Powhatan died the following spring of 1618. The people of Smith and Rolfe turned upon the people who had shared their resources with them and had shown them friendship. During Pocahontas' generation, Powhatan's people were decimated and dispersed and their lands were taken over. A clear pattern had been set which would soon spread across the American continent. Before Pocahontas married John, She converted to Christianity and took the name of Rebecca. "Matoaka" was her Algonquian name. Her father Powhatan was a historical figure; born in present-day Virginia. She reportedly interceded with her father, Chief Powhatan, to spare the life of John Smith of Jamestown colony (1608). After adopting Christianity, she married John Rolfe (1614) and traveled to England in 1616. She died (possibly of smallpox) on the trip back. Through her son, Thomas Rolfe, she is an ancestor of the Randolph family of Virginia. Source: www.biography.com The original burial registry indicates that Pocahontas was interred on 17 Mar 1617 in a vault beneath the Chancellor of the Church in Gravesend, England, which shows the esteem in which she was held. A representative of the church stated "you don't get buried under a church in a private vault unless you are quite important." The church burned in 1727 and a new one was built on the same site. Several graves were opened during the construction and the remains were re-interred in the church courtyard. There is no record indicating which graves from the hundreds on site were moved. Many of those were moved again in 1890 when an addition to the church was built. So, it is not exactly known where her bones are, as stated by Gravesend Chamber of Commerce Director Graham Sawell said. "We believe they may be underneath the church, but without digging up the whole thing, we will never find them" There is positive and indisputable proof (Strong Words for Genealogy) that Pocahontas had a sister named Cleopatra (?Matachanna). This proofwas located in the old library of the Maryland Historical Society, an item of three lines covering eleven years. During the period covered by the fragment, matters became so bad between the Whites and the Indians that Opechancanough , Chief of the Powhatans, was induced to agree upon a line being established which neither White nor Indian, excepting truce bearers, should cross under penalty of being shot on sight. To insure strict obedience to the compact, a law was passed at Jamestown imposing a heavy penalty on any people crossing the line without a special permit from the Commissioners Council and the General Court. This accounts for the item alluded to, which is given verbatim. It reads: "Note: Dec. 17th, 1641 -- Thomas Rolfe petitions the governor to let him see Opechankeno to whom he is allied, and Cleopatra, his mother's sister." Note: The record of the General Court was evidently intended to be a verbatim copy though they differ in phraseology and spelling:Note: "Dec. 17th, 1641 -- Thomas Rolph petitions Gov. to let him go see Opechanko, to whom he is allied, and Cleopatre, his mother's sister." Note: Thomas Rolfe was the son of John Rolfe and Pocahontas. Rebecca's more famous name is Pocahontas, which is actually her nickname. Pocahontas means 'little wanton' in Powhatan. Her formal names were Matoaka and Amonute. When she was baptized, she changed her name to Rebecca. Pocahontas (c.1595 – March 21, 1617) was a Virginia Indian chief's daughter notable for having assisted colonial settlers at Jamestown in present-day Virginia. She converted to Christianity and married the English settler John Rolfe. After they traveled to London, she became famous in the last year of her life. She was a daughter of Wahunsunacawh, better known as Chief or Emperor Powhatan (to indicate his primacy), who headed a network of tributary tribal nations in the Tidewater region of Virginia (called Tenakomakah by the Powhatan). These tribes made up what is known as the Powhatan Chiefdom and were part of the Algonquian language family Pocahontas's formal names were Matoaka (or Matoika) and Amonute;[2] Pocahontas was a childhood nickname referring to her frolicsome nature (in the Powhatan language it meant "little wanton", according to 17th century writer William Strachey).[3] The 18th century historian William Stith claimed that "the 'Indians' carefully concealed [her real name] from the 'English', and changed it to Pocahontas, out of a superstitious Fear, lest they, by the knowledge of her true Name, should be enabled to do her some hurt."[4] After her baptism, Pocahontas was given the English name Rebecca. She was called Rebecca Rolfe by the English after her marriage. On her conversion to Christianity in 1613, she received in baptism the name Rebecca and shortly afterwards became the wife of John Rolfe. A settler in Virginia, she visited England with her husband in 1616. She died at Gravesend, England while preparing to revisit her native country, and was buried there in St. George's Church on March 21,1617. Two years later on the spring of 1616, Rolfe took her to England where the Virginia Company of London used her in their propaganda campaign to support the colony. She was wined and dined and taken to theaters. It was recorded that on one occasion when she encountered John Smith (who was also in London at the time), she was so furious with him that she turned her back to him, hid her face, and went off by herself for several hours. Later, in a second encounter, she called him a liar and showed him the door. Rolfe, his young wife, and their son set off for Virginia in March of 1617, but "Rebecca" had to be taken off the ship at Gravesend. She died there on March 21, 1617, at the age of 21. She was buried at Gravesend, but the grave was destroyed in a reconstruction of the church. It was only after her death and her fame in London society that Smith found it convenient to invent the yarn that she had rescued him. History tells the rest. Chief Powhatan died the following spring of 1618. The people of Smith and Rolfe turned upon the people who had shared their resources with them and had shown them friendship. During Pocahontas' generation, Powhatan's people were decimated and dispersed and their lands were taken over. A clear pattern had been set which would soon spread across the American continent. There is positive and indisputable proof (Strong Words for Genealogy) that Pocahontas had a sister named Cleopatra (?Matachanna). This proofwas located in the old library of the Maryland Historical Society, an item of three lines covering eleven years. During the period covered by the fragment, matters became so bad between the Whites and the Indians that Opechancanough , Chief of the Powhatans, was induced to agree upon a line being established which neither White nor Indian, excepting truce bearers, should cross under penalty of being shot on sight. To insure strict obedience to the compact, a law was passed at Jamestown imposing a heavy penalty on any people crossing the line without a special permit from the Commissioners Council and the General Court. This accounts for the item alluded to, which is given verbatim. It reads: "Note: Dec. 17th, 1641 -- Thomas Rolfe petitions the governor to let him see Opechankeno to whom he is allied, and Cleopatra, his mother's sister." Note: The record of the General Court was evidently intended to be a verbatim copy though they differ in phraseology and spelling:Note: "Dec. 17th, 1641 -- Thomas Rolph petitions Gov. to let him go see Opechanko, to whom he is allied, and Cleopatre, his mother's sister." Our records start] with the Indian chief, Murmuring Ripple, who died in 1495. According to the olden history, he was the father of Dashing Stream, who was born May 6, 1474, on the banks of a tributary of the Lancer river, which headed in the Blue Ridge mountains. He died in 1540. Dashing Stream was the father of Scented Flower, who was born June 3, 1517, at the junction of the Dan and Staunton rivers in Virginia. Scented Flower was the father of Powhatan [whose real name was Wahunsenacawh, a Pamunkey who became king, or powhatan, of the confederation of coastal tribes], born June 17, 1545, near New River, Va., and died in 1622, at the age of 77 years. [He had] a daughter by the name of Pocahontas, who was born in 1596, near Jamestown, Va." Oddly enough, this record of Native American lineage is more complete than anything left behind by the family's more "civilized" European ancestors. The reasons are two-fold. First, people almost always immigrate because they are glad to leave their home country, a circumstance that does not encourage the remembering or recording of what came before. Secondly, life was very hard in the early decades of colonial Virginia and there was little time or interest in writing up the details of either people's past history or their current daily lives. Also, those few personal accounts that have survived are often difficult to sort out because of identity confusion, caused by a common tendency to give newborn children the same, timeworn first names over and over and over. Death, which came easily during the early days, further muddied the identification waters because spouses often remarried and the wives naturally changed their names. While finding good historical data on colonial males is hard enough, it is almost impossible to locate documentation on females. This stems from their status, which was a condition uncomfortably close to chattel. Women were considered men's property--they did not participate in business, were restricted in what property they could own, and couldn't vote or hold public office. As a result, they rarely show up in the public record, a prime source of genealogical evidence. Also, the institution of holy matrimony as it existed in primitive North America often bore little resemblance to the original model back in Britain. In some cases, these "marriages" involved Native American women, making matters that much more delicate. In those days, and indeed well into the twentieth century, individuals having Indian blood were especially restricted with regard to civil and social matters, and rarely appear in the written record. Aunt Mary Barnett spoke to this point as well: "Ah, well do we remember when our father conveyed the intelligence that the same little Indian girl who was so highly eulogized in our child history . . . was among the number of our great grandmothers. It was given to us as a profound secret, but a real truth, which we pondered over with a feeling of disgrace to think there was Indian blood in our veins. We never dared speak of it. But as time went on everything took a change and so did this." Taking all these things into account, it's no wonder information on the founding Virginians is so often vague, conflicting, lost [many early public records were destroyed by fire], or simply never put to paper in the first place. It has also become clear that despite their "prominence," the families of English tobacco planter John Rolfe, and his mixed-blood son, Thomas Rolfe, were not excepted from these patterns. As a consequence, it is very difficult, perhaps even impossible, for anyone in America to unequivocally prove descendency from John Rolfe's wife, Matoaka, the favored Powhatan daughter and res "Thomas Eldredge married a daughter of Colonel John or Robert Bolling of Virginia. Robert Bolling's wife was a daughter of Thomas Rolfe and Potthress (Indian) and granddaughter of Pocahontas, who died at Gravesend, England." Daughter of Powhatan Chief of the Algonquin Indians. Wikipedia Biography on Pocohontas: "Pocahontas (born Matoaka, known as Amonute, and later known as Rebecca Rolfe, c. 1595 – March 1617) was a Virginia Indian notable for her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. Pocahontas was the daughter of Powhatan, the paramount chiefof a network of tributary tribal nations in the Tsenacommacah, encompassing the Tidewater region of Virginia. In a well-known historical anecdote, she is said to have saved the life of an Indian captive, Englishman John Smith, in 1607 by placing her head upon his own when her father raised his war club to execute him. Pocahontas was captured by the English during Anglo-Indian hostilities in 1613, and held for ransom. During her captivity, she converted to Christianity and took the name Rebecca. When the opportunity arose for her to return to her people, she chose to remain with the English. In April 1614, she married tobacco planter John Rolfe, and in January 1615, bore him a son, Thomas Rolfe. Pocahontas's marriage to Rolfe was the first recorded interracial marriage in North American history. In 1616, the Rolfes traveled to London. Pocahontas was presented to English society as an example of the civilized "savage" in hopes of stimulating investment in the Jamestown settlement. She became something of a celebrity, was elegantly fêted, and attended a masque at Whitehall Palace. In 1617, the Rolfes set sail for Virginia, but Pocahontas died at Gravesend of unknown causes. She was buried in a church in Gravesend, but the exact location of her grave is unknown. Descendants through her son Thomas include members of the First Families of Virginia, First Ladies Edith Wilson and Nancy Reagan, and astronomer Percival Lowell. Pocahontas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Pocahontas (born Matoaka, and later known as Rebecca Rolfe, c. 1595 – March 1617) was a Virginia Indian notable for her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. She was the daughter of Chief Powhatan, the head of a network of tributary tribal nations in Tidewater Virginia. In a well-known historical anecdote that may or may not be true, she is said to have saved the life of Indian captive, Englishman John Smith in 1607 by placing her head upon his own when her father raised his war club to execute him. Pocahontas was captured by the English during Anglo-Indian hostilities in 1613, and held for ransom. During her captivity, she converted to Christianity and took the name Rebecca. When the opportunity arose for her to return to her people, she chose to remain with the English. In April 1614, she married tobacco planter John Rolfe, and, in January 1615, bore him a son, Thomas Rolfe. In 1616, the Rolfes traveled to London. Pocahontas was presented to English society as an example of the civilized "savage" in hopes of stimulating investment in the Jamestown settlement. She became something of a celebrity, was elegantly fêted, and attended a masque at Whitehall Palace. In 1617, the Rolfes set sail for home, but Pocahontas died at Gravesend of unknown causes. She was buried in England, but her resting place is not known. Numerous places, landmarks, and products in the United States have been named after Pocahontas. Her story has been romanticized over the years, and she is the subject of art, literature, and film. Her descendants through her son Thomas include members of the First Families of Virginia‎, First Ladies Edith Wilson and Nancy Reagan, astronomer Percival Lowell and American reality television personality Benjamin Wade. Early life Pocahontas's birth year is unknown, but some historians estimate it to have been around 1595 based on the accounts of Captain John Smith. In A True Relation of Virginia (1608), Smith described the Pocahontas he met in the spring of 1608 as being "a child of tenne years old". In a letter written in 1616, he again described her as she was in 1608, but this time she had grown slightly to "a child of twelve or thirteen years of age". Pocahontas was the daughter of Powhatan, the paramount chief of Tsenacommacah, an alliance of about thirty Algonquian-speaking groups and petty chiefdoms in Tidewater Virginia. Her mother, whose name and specific group of origin are unknown, was one of dozens of wives taken by Powhatan; each wife gave him a single child and then was sent back to her village to be supported by the paramount chief until she found another husband. Pocahontas's childhood was probably little different from that of most girls who lived in Tsenacommacah. She learned how to perform what was considered to be women's work, which included foraging for food and firewood, farming, and searching for the plant materials used in building thatched houses. As she grew older, she probably helped other members of Powhatan's household with preparations for large feasts. Serving feasts such as the one presented to John Smith after his capture was a regular obligation of the mamanatowick, or paramount chief. Names At the time Pocahontas was born, it was common for the Algonquian-speaking Virginia Indians to be given several personal names. Bestowed at different times, the names carried different meanings and might be used in different contexts. It was not uncommon for American Indians to have more than one name at the same time, to have secret names that only a select few knew, and to change their names on important occasions. Pocahontas was no different. Early in her life she was given a secret name, Matoaka, but later she was also known as Amonute. None of these names can be translated. The name Pocahontas was a childhood nickname that probably referred to her frolicsome nature; according to the colonist William Strachey, it meant "little wanton". The 18th-century historian William Stith claimed that "her real name, it seems, was originally Matoax, which the Indians carefully concealed from the English and changed it to Pocahontas, out of a superstitious fear, lest they, by the knowledge of her true name, should be enabled to do her some hurt." According to the anthropologist Helen C. Rountree, Pocahontas "revealed to the English only after she had taken another religious—baptismal—name, Rebecca". Pocahontas's Christian name, Rebecca, may have been a symbolic gesture to Rebecca of the Book of Genesis who, as the mother of Jacob and Esau, was the mother of two "nations", or distinct peoples. Pocahontas, as an American Indian marrying an Englishman, may have been seen by herself and by her contemporaries as being also, potentially, the mother of two nations. Title and status For hundreds of years after her death, Pocahontas was considered in popular culture, and even by many academics, to be a princess. In 1841, William Watson Waldron of Trinity College, Dublin, in Ireland, published Pocahontas, American Princess: and Other Poems, calling Pocahontas "the beloved and only surviving daughter of the king". His point of view was typical: by being the daughter of the paramount chief Powhatan—–who was often called a "king" or an "emperor" by the English colonists—–she must necessarily be a princess. As late as 1969, the historian Grace Steele Woodward authored Pocahontas, a biography in which she referred to her subject as "a young Powhatan Indian princess". Indeed, Pocahontas was a favorite of her father's—–his "delight and darling", according to the colonist Captain Ralph Hamor —–but she was not a princess in the conventional European sense of the word. She was not in line to inherit a position as a weroance, or subchief, let alone her father's exalted rank of mamanatowick, or paramount chief. Some women did become weroansquas, or female chiefs, and Powhatan's brothers, sisters, and his sisters' children all stood in line to succeed him. In his A Map of Virginia John Smith explained how matrilineal inheritance worked among the Powhatans: His kingdome descendeth not to his sonnes nor children: but first to his brethren, whereof he hath 3 namely Opitchapan, Opechanncanough, and Catataugh; and after their decease to his sisters. First to the eldest sister, then to the rest: and after them to the heires male and female of the eldest sister; but never to the heires of the males. In addition, Pocahontas's mother's status was probably lowly. In his Relation of Virginia (1609), the colonist Henry Spelman, who had lived among the American Indians serving as an interpreter, noted Powhatan's many wives. Each wife gave the paramount chief one child, after which she not only resumed her status as a commoner but was also sent back where she had come from. Interactions with the English "Saving" John Smith Pocahontas is most famously linked to the English colonist Captain John Smith, who arrived in Virginia with just more than a hundred other settlers in April 1607. After building a fort on a marshy peninsula poking out into the James River, the Englishmen had numerous encounters over the next several months with the American Indians of Tsenacommacah, some of them friendly, some hostile. Then, in December 1607, while exploring on the Chickahominy River, Smith was captured by a hunting party led by Powhatan's younger brother (or close relative) Opechancanough and brought to Powhatan's capital at Werowocomoco. In his 1608 account, Smith described a large feast followed by a long talk with Powhatan. He does not mention Pocahontas in relation to his capture; in fact, in this account, he does not meet Pocahontas for the first time until a few months later. In 1616, however, Smith wrote a letter to Queen Anne in anticipation of Pocahontas's visit to England. In this new account, his capture included the threat of his own death: "... at the minute of my execution", he wrote, "she hazarded the beating out of her own brains to save mine; and not only that, but so prevailed with her father, that I was safely conducted to Jamestown." Eight years later, in his Generall Historie, Smith expanded upon the story. Writing about himself in the third person, he explained that after he was captured and taken to the paramount chief, "two great stones were brought before Powhatan: then as many as could layd hands on him , dragged him to them, and thereon laid his head, and being ready with their clubs, to beate out his braines, Pocahontas the Kings dearest daughter, when no intreaty could prevaile, got his head in her armes, and laid her owne upon his to save him from death ..." Historians have long expressed doubts that the story of Pocahontas saving Smith occurred as told in these later accounts. The anthropologist Helen C. Rountree has argued that Smith's first "version of events makes sense, given how eager the Indian leadership was to find out why the English had come and stayed in Virginia." Smith may have exaggerated or invented the account to enhance Pocahontas's standing. On the other hand, he may have been telling the truth. Some scholars have argued that the absence of the episode in Smith's earlier works should not be definitive evidence that it did not happen. Historian J. A. Leo Lemay, for instance, noted in his 1992 book that, as Smith's earlier writing was primarily concerned with geographical and ethnographic matters, he had no reason then to recount the story of Pocahontas. Stan Birchfield has written that "Smith's writings are perfectly consistent with the truthfulness of the episode", but he does not take into account the strong implication, in Smith's True Relation, that he did not first meet Pocahontas until the spring of 1608. In True Travels (1630), Smith told a similar story of having been rescued by the intervention of a young girl after having been captured in 1602 by Turks in Hungary. The historian Karen Ordahl Kupperman has suggested that he "presented those remembered events from decades earlier" when telling the story of Pocahontas. In other words, his story may have grown taller over time. A different theory suggests that Smith may have misunderstood what had happened to him in Powhatan's longhouse. Rather than the near victim of an execution, he may have been subject to a tribal ritual intended to symbolize his death and rebirth as a member of the tribe. However, this theory is unlikely being as that little is known of Powhatan rituals, nor is there evidence of similar rituals among other North American Indian groups. The historian Margaret Williamson Huber has argued that Powhatan, in this case, was being politically pragmatic by attempting to bring Smith, and so the English, into his chiefdom. According to Huber, Powhatan attempted to offer Smith rule of the town of Capahosic, which was close to Powhatan's capital at Werowocomoco. In this way, the paramount chief hoped to keep Smith and his men "nearby and better under control". Early histories did establish that Pocahontas befriended Smith and the Jamestown colony. Pocahontas often went to the settlement and played games with the boys there. When the colonists were starving, "every once in four or five days, Pocahontas with her attendants brought him so much provision that saved many of their lives that else for all this had starved with hunger." As the colonists expanded their settlement further, the Virginia Indians felt their lands were threatened, and conflicts arose again. In late 1609, an injury from a gunpowder explosion forced Smith to return to England for medical care. The English told the American Indians that Smith was dead. Pocahontas believed that account until she learned that he was living in England when she traveled there several years later, already the wife of John Rolfe. According to the colonist William Strachey, Pocahontas married a common warrior called Kocoum at some point before 1612. Nothing more is known about this marriage. It likely ended, according to American Indian custom, when Pocahontas was captured by the English in 1613. Historical records do not suggest that Smith and Pocahontas were lovers. The romance is featured only (but repeatedly) in fictional versions of their relationship (such as the 1995 animated film by Walt Disney). The first romance was written about them in the early 19th century, suggesting the story's mythic appeal. Accounts of such a romance have been repeated in films made in the United States as late as 2009. Capture Pocahontas's capture occurred in the context of the First Anglo-Powhatan War, a conflict between the Jamestown settlers and the American Indians that began late in the summer of 1609. In the first years of war, the English took control of the James River, both at its mouth and at the falls. Captain Samuel Argall, in the meantime, pursued contacts with American Indian groups in the northern portion of Powhatan's paramount chiefdom. The Patawomecks, who lived on the Potomac River, were not always loyal to Powhatan, and living with them was a young English interpreter named Henry Spelman. In March 1613, Argall learned that Pocahontas was visiting the Patawomeck village of Passapatanzy and living under the protection of the weroance Iopassus (also known as Japazaws). With Spelman's help translating, Argall pressured Iopassus to assist in Pocahontas's capture by promising an alliance with the English against the Powhatans. They tricked Pocahontas into boarding Argall's ship and held her for ransom, demanding the release of English prisoners held by her father, along with various stolen weapons and tools. Powhatan returned the prisoners, but failed to satisfy the colonists with the number of weapons and tools he returned. A long standoff ensued, during which the English kept Pocahontas captive. During the year-long wait, she was held at Henricus, in modern-day Chesterfield County, Virginia. Little is known about her life there, although colonist Ralph Hamor wrote that she received "extraordinary courteous usage". Linwood "Little Bear" Custalow, in a 2007 book, asserted that Pocahontas was raped during this time, citing oral tradition handed down over four centuries. According to Helen Rountree, "Other historians have disputed that such oral tradition survived and instead argue that any mistreatment of Pocahontas would have gone against the interests of the English in their negotiations with Powhatan." At this time, the minister at Henricus, Alexander Whitaker, taught Pocahontas about Christianity and helped her to improve her English. Upon her baptism, Pocahontas took the Christian name "Rebecca". In March 1614, the standoff built up to a violent confrontation between hundreds of English and Powhatan men on the Pamunkey River. At Powhatan's capital of Matchcot, the English encountered a group of some senior American Indian leaders (but not Powhatan himself, who was away). The English permitted Pocahontas to talk to her countrymen. Pocahontas reportedly rebuked her father for valuing her "less than old swords, pieces, or axes", and told the Powhatan she preferred to live with the English. Marriage to John Rolfe During her stay in Henricus, Pocahontas met John Rolfe. Rolfe's English-born wife and child had died on the journey over to Virginia. He had successfully cultivated a new strain of tobacco there and spent much of his time there tending to his crop. He was a pious man who agonized over the potential moral repercussions of marrying a heathen. In a long letter to the governor requesting permission to wed her, he expressed both his love for her and his belief he would be saving her soul claiming he was: motivated not by the unbridled desire of carnal affection, but for the good of this plantation, for the honor of our country, for the Glory of God, for my own salvation... namely Pocahontas, to whom my hearty and best thoughts are, and have been a long time so entangled, and enthralled in so intricate a labyrinth that I was even a-wearied to unwind myself thereout Pocahontas's feelings about Rolfe and the marriage are unknown. They were married on April 5, 1614, and lived for two years on Rolfe's plantation, Varina Farms, which was located across the James River from the new community of Henricus. They had a child, Thomas Rolfe, born on January 30, 1615. Their marriage was unsuccessful in winning the English captives back, but it did create a climate of peace between the Jamestown colonists and Powhatan's tribes for several years; in 1615, Ralph Hamor wrote: Since the wedding we have had friendly commerce and trade not only with Powhatan but also with his subjects round about us. England The Virginia Company of London had long seen one of its primary goals as the conversion of American Indians to Christianity. With the conversion of Pocahontas and her marriage to an Englishman–all of which helped bring an end to the First Anglo-Powhatan War–the company saw an opportunity to promote investment. The company decided to bring Pocahontas to England as a symbol of the tamed New World "savage" and the success of the Jamestown settlement. In 1616, the Rolfes traveled to England, arriving at the port of Plymouth on June 12. They journeyed to London by coach, accompanied by a group of about eleven other Powhatans, including a holy man named Tomocomo. John Smith was living in London at the time and while Pocahontas was in Plymouth, she learned he was still alive. Smith did not meet Pocahontas, but wrote to Queen Anne, the wife of King James, urging that Pocahontas be treated with respect as a royal visitor. He suggested that if she were treated badly, her "present love to us and Christianity might turn to ... scorn and fury", and England might lose the chance to "rightly have a Kingdom by her means". Pocahontas was entertained at various society gatherings. On January 5, 1617, she and Tomocomo were brought before the king at the Banqueting House in Whitehall Palace at a performance of Ben Jonson's masque The Vision of Delight. According to Smith, King James was so unprepossessing that neither Pocahontas nor Tomocomo realized whom they had met until it was explained to them afterward. Although Pocahontas was not a princess in the context of Powhatan culture, the Virginia Company nevertheless presented her as a princess to the English public. The inscription on a 1616 engraving of Pocahontas, made for the company, reads: "MATOAKA ALS REBECCA FILIA POTENTISS : PRINC : POWHATANI IMP:VIRGINIÆ", which means: "Matoaka, alias Rebecca, daughter of the most powerful prince of the Powhatan Empire of Virginia". Many English at this time recognized Powhatan to be the ruler of an empire, and they presumably accorded to his daughter what they considered appropriate status. Smith's letter to Queen Anne refers to "Powhatan their chief King". Samuel Purchas recalled meeting Pocahontas in London, writing that she impressed those she met because she "carried her selfe as the daughter of a king". When he met her again in London, Smith referred to Pocahontas deferentially as a "Kings daughter". Pocahontas was apparently treated well in London. At the masque, her seats were described as "well placed", and, according to Purchas, John King, Bishop of London, "entertained her with festival state and pomp beyond what I have seen in his greate hospitalitie afforded to other ladies." Not all the English were so impressed. According to Helen C. Rountree, "there is no contemporary evidence to suggest ... that Pocahontas was regarded as anything like royalty." Rather, she was considered to be something of a curiosity and, according to one observer, she was merely "the Virginian woman". Pocahontas and Rolfe lived in the suburb of Brentford, Middlesex, for some time, as well as at Rolfe's family home at Heacham Hall, Heacham, Norfolk. In early 1617, Smith met the couple at a social gathering, and later wrote that when Pocahontas saw him, "without any words, she turned about, obscured her face, as not seeming well contented", and was left alone for two or three hours. Later, they spoke more; Smith's record of what she said to him is fragmentary and enigmatic. She reminded him of the "courtesies she had done", saying, "you did promise Powhatan what was yours would be his, and he the like to you." She then discomfited him by calling him "father", explaining Smith had called Powhatan "father" when a stranger in Virginia, "and by the same reason so must I do you". Smith did not accept this form of address because, he wrote, Pocahontas outranked him as "a King's daughter". Pocahontas then, "with a well-set countenance", said: {{{1}}} Finally, Pocahontas told Smith that she and her fellow American Indians had thought him dead, but her father had told Tomocomo to seek him "because your countrymen will lie much". Death In March 1617, Rolfe and Pocahontas boarded a ship to return to Virginia; the ship had only gone as far as Gravesend on the River Thames when Pocahontas became gravely ill. She was taken ashore and died in John Rolfe's arms at the age of twenty-two. It is unknown what caused her death, but theories range from smallpox, pneumonia, or tuberculosis, to her having been poisoned. According to Rolfe, she died saying, "all must die, but tis enough that her child liveth". Her funeral took place on March 21, 1617 in the parish of Saint George's, Gravesend. The site of her grave is unknown, but her memory is honored in Gravesend with a life-size bronze statue at St. George's Church. Descendants Pocahontas and Rolfe had one child, Thomas Rolfe, who was born in 1615 before his parents left for England. Through this son, Pocahontas has many living descendants. Descendants of many First Families of Virginia trace their roots to Pocahontas and Chief Powhatan, including such notable individuals as Edith Bolling Galt Wilson, wife of Woodrow Wilson; George Wythe Randolph; Admiral Richard Byrd; Virginia Governor Harry Flood Byrd; fashion-designer and socialite Pauline de Rothschild; former First Lady Nancy Reagan; actor Glenn Strange; and astronomer and mathematician Percival Lowell. Her "blood" was introduced to the Randolph family of Virginia via the marriage of her great-great-granddaughter, Jane Bolling, to Richard Randolph. Popular legend After her death, increasingly fanciful and romanticized representations of Pocahontas were produced. The only contemporary portrait of Pocahontas is Simon van de Passe's engraving of 1616. In this portrait, he tried to portray her Virginia Indian features. Later portraits often portrayed her as more European in appearance. The myths that arose around Pocahontas' story portrayed her as one who demonstrated the potential of Native Americans to be assimilated into European society. For example, the United States Capitol displays an 1840 painting by John Gadsby Chapman, The Baptism of Pocahontas, in the Rotunda. A government pamphlet, entitled The Picture of the Baptism of Pocahontas, explained the characters in the painting, and praised the Jamestown settlers for introducing Christianity to the "heathen savages". In another development, Pocahontas' story was romanticized. Some writers preferred accounts of a love story between her and John Smith. The first to publish such a story at length was John Davis in his Travels in the United States of America (1803). In the 19th century, John Brougham produced a burlesque, Po-ca-hon-tas, or The Gentle Savage. Several films about Pocahontas have been made, beginning with a silent film in 1924. Captain John Smith and Pocahontas was released in 1953 with Jody Lawrance as the titular heroine. In more recent films since the late 20th century, Pocahontas has represented the perceived moral superiority of traditional Native American values over Western ones. The Walt Disney Company's 1995 animated feature Pocahontas presented a fictional love affair between Pocahontas and John Smith. In addition, Pocahontas teaches Smith respect for nature. The sequel, Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World, depicts her journey to England. Pocahontas: The Legend is the second feature film based on her life. Terrence Malick tried for more historical accuracy in his film The New World (2005), but still portrayed Pocahontas and Smith as lovers. Neil Young recorded a song about Pocahontas on his album Rust Never Sleeps (1979). Namesakes Numerous places and landmarks were named after Pocahontas: Pocahontas was the namesake for one of the richest seams of bituminous coal found in Virginia and West Virginia, and the Pocahontas Land Company, a subsidiary of the Norfolk and Western Railway. From 1930 into the 1960s, one of the Norfolk and Western Railway's named luxury trains was the "Pocahontas". The town of Pocahontas, Virginia. Pocahontas County, West Virginia. Matoaca, Virginia is located in Chesterfield County on the Appomattox River. County historians say this is the site of the American Indian village Matoax, where she was raised. Matoaka, West Virginia. Pocahontas, Iowa is in Pocahontas County. Pocahontas, Arkansas. Pocahontas, Illinois. Fort Pocahontas, an American Civil War fortification in Charles City County, Virginia. Lake Matoaka, part of the campus of the College of William and Mary. Pocahontas State Park, Chesterfield, Virginia. MV Pocahontas is a river tour boat operated from Gravesend in London, UK. Four United States Navy ships named USS Pocahontas and one named USS Princess Matoika. Pocahontas, Mississippi. In Henrico County, Virginia, a middle school has been named after Pocahontas and John Rolfe. Matoaca High School, located in Chesterfield County, Virginia. Their teams are called The Warriors. =This ancestry information has not been verified!== This is mostly based on oral family history passed down from Louis Baker AKA Rebecca Rolfe, forced to marry Thomas Rolfe, who was pressured into doing so. He referred to her as 'that creature'.	Pocahontas
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He spent his life attempting to protect indigenous peoples from exploitation. He wrote histories detailing Spanish atrocities and helped bring about the New Laws of 1542, which limited the ability of Spanish settlers to compel the indigenous population to work for them. Johan Ludvig Runeberg (1804-1877) Finnish poet. His works written, as was then routine, in Swedish, include the long narrative poems The Elk Hunters in 1832 and The Tales of Ensign Stal in 1848. The latter is an older soldier’s memories of the war with Russia of 1808, the opening poem of which has become Finland’s national anthem. A large number of Runeberg’s ballads and lyrics were set to music by Sibelius. Ito Hirobumi (1841-1909) Hirobumi played a key role in shaping modern Japan. Born a low-level Shogun in Choshu, he, remarkably, was prime minister four times. Ito was assassinated by a Korean nationalist in 1909. Hirobumi was credited with raising Japan from a backward and vulnerable national entity into a modern industrial empire. September 2016 Edgar the Aethling (c1055-after1125) English prince. He was the next in the royal line of descent when Edward the Confessor died and Harold became king. After the Norman conquest he submitted to William I but took refuge with his sister Margaret, who became the wife of Malcolm III of Scotland. He was a crusader in 1099 and fought against Henry I at Tenchebrai in 1106. Sargon of Akkad (??-2284 BCE) Mesopotamian ruler. Founder of the Akkadian dynasty and known for his conquests of the Sumerian city states in 23-24th Century BCE. Often credited as the first ruler of an empire built by annexation of territories and multi-ethnic groups. Mesopotamian kings followed his example until the rise of the Achaemenids in 539 BCE. Tupac Amaru II (1738-1781) Inca ruler. A member of the Inca aristocracy, he led an indigenous uprising against Spanish authorities in Peru (1780-1781). Captured and executed with his wife and other members of his family, he became a mythical figure in the Peruvian independence movement. Nicholas Hawksmoor (1661-1739) English architect. He began his career as a clerk to Sir Christopher Wren, working on buildings such as Chelsea Hospital and St Paul’s Cathedral. His own later work, such as Blenheim Palace, is known for its stately and impressive style, in some ways superior to Wren’s. Michael Madhusudan Dutt (1824-1873) Indian poet. A convert to Christianity in 1843, he became known as the “Milton of India” for his introduction of English poetic forms into Bengal. His early poetry was in English, but his later work, such as his most famous poem Meghanadvadh (1861), was written in Bengali. August 2016 Josiah Child (1630-1699) English administrator. A dominant figure in the East India Company, he envied Dutch success in Batavia (modern day Jakarta), and imitated it by establishing coastal forts to protect trade. While unsuccessful in Bengal, his ambition of a permanent British presence in India was realised at Madras and Bombay. José María Morelos (1765-1815) Mexican priest. A former student of Mexican national independence leader Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, he led the forces fighting for Mexican independence from Spain until he was captured and executed in 1815. A capable military leader despite his clerical background, he became a national hero in Mexico. Robert Schumann (1810-1856) German composer. A member of the German romantic school of the early 19th century, his wife Clara was also an outstanding pianist. He wrote four symphonies, a piano concerto and a selection of chamber and choral music, but it is his early piano works for which he is best known. Whitaker Wright (1846-1904) British conman. He made a fortune in the USA in the 1870s promoting profitless mining companies to investors, and on return to the UK he engaged in similar practices, becoming acquainted with leading figures of Victorian society. Convicted of fraud in 1904, he committed suicide shortly after. July 2016 Arturo Alessandri Palma (1868-1950) Chilean statesman. Twice president of Chile, he began his career defending workers’ groups but later became more conservative. He leadership saw the beginnings of the extensive economic and societal changes of later years, and he was the first of an Alessandri political dynasty. T.S. Eliot (1888-1965) Anglo-American poet. Born in St. Louis, Missouri, he settled in the UK in 1915 and published his first volume of poems in 1917. His works included poems such as ‘The Waste Land’ and ‘Four Quartets’, and the play ‘Murder in the Cathedral’. He received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1948. Harun al-Rashid (766-809) Abbasid ruler. The fifth caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, the third Islamic caliphate to succeed Muhammad. Al-Rashid’s reign saw Abbasid’s power and prosperity reach its peak, though issues that emerged during his reign have led some to speculate his rule was the beginning of its decline. Friedrich Schlegel (1772-1829) German philosopher. He was a prominent figure among the founders of German romanticism, his revolutionary and persuasive ideas doing much to influence early 19th century thought. Later he converted to Catholicism and served as a diplomat under Clement von Metternich (1773-1859). June 2016 Rudolf Hilferding (1877-1943) German political economist. One of the most gifted political thinkers of his generation, he published a variety of famed works, including Finance Capital in 1910. Serving as finance minister between in 1923 and 1928, he later fled Germany for France after the rise of Hitler. Friedrich Schlegel (1772-1829) German philosopher. He was a prominent figure among the founders of German romanticism, his revolutionary and persuasive ideas doing much to influence early 19th century thought. Later he converted to Catholicism and served as a diplomat under Clement von Metternich (1773-1859). Charles ‘Chinese’ Gordon (1833-1885) British general and colonial governor. After early service in the Crimean War and in China, he became involved in the Sudan, where he organised a year long defense of Khartoum against Sudanese rebels. The siege was eventually broken and Gordon killed, after which he was hailed a national hero. Pindar (522-440 BCE) Greek poet. The chief lyric poet of Greece, he became famous as a composer of odes for people all across the Greek world. Although he was a highly versatile poet, only his triumphant Odes (Epinikia) have survived to the modern day. Jeremiah O’Brien (1744-1818) American revolutionary. He ably led the defense of Machias, Maine, against the Royal Navy, and captured HMS Margaretta in what was the first naval battle of the Revolutionary War. He commanded privateers between 1777 and 1780, but was imprisoned in Britain in 1780. May 2016 Fan Zhongyan (989-1052) Chinese statesman. Chancellor during the Song dynasty, he was a skilled reformer who contributed to developments in administration and agriculture. He created a widespread state funded national school system for the first time. Arthur Whitten Brown (1886-1948) British aviator. As navigator with John Alcock he made the first non-stop crossing of the Atlantic on June 14 1919, in a Vickers-Vimy biplane. He shared the £10,000 first prize offered by the Daily Mail newspaper, and both he and Alcock were subsequently knighted. Al-Muqaddasi (945-988) Arab geographer. Born in Jerusalem, he was a pioneer of fieldwork and traveled widely in the course of his work. He detailed the extent of Muslim lands in a geographical compendium published in 985 CE, with his description of Jerusalem and Palestine particularly noteworthy. Black Hawk (1767-1838) Native American leader. Chief of the Sax and Fox tribe, he was an ally of the British in the War of 1812 and fought against the United States Government when they tried to move his tribe west (1831-1832). He was defeated at Bad Axe River, Wisconsin. April 2016 José Miguel Carrera (1785-1821) Chilean statesman. A member of a prominent family, he was one of the key leaders of the Chilean independence movement. He attempted to overthrow the Chilean dictatorship of Bernando O’Higgins (1778-1842), but was betrayed and executed in Mendoza, Argentina. René Laennec (1781-1826) French physician. He invented the stethoscope in 1816 while working at the Hôpital Necker in Paris, and its use in diagnosing various chest conditions quickly replaced the previous method of placing the ear over the patient’s chest. He died aged 45 from tuberculosis. Wang Chengzong (? - 820 CE) Chinese warlord. Like his father and grandfather before him he ruled the province of Chengde independently of the Imperial government. While he withheld two imperial campaigns against him, he eventually submitted in 1817, after which Chengde’s independence from the Tang Dynasty ceased. Kazimir Malevich (1879-1935) Russian painter. A pioneer of geometric abstract art, he unveiled Suprematism, a revolutionary approach to abstract art, at an exhibition in St. Petersburg in 1915. He rejected the traditional role of the artist as the imitator of nature, in favour of the creation of new artistic forms. March 2016 Joseph Duveen (1869-1939) British art dealer. The eldest child of a Dutch importer, he became immensely successful due to his wry observation that “Europe has a great deal of art, and America has a great deal of money.” A major philanthropist, he is considered one of the greatest art dealers in history. Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee (1844-1906) Indian politician. A barrister by trade, Bonnerjee was a founder and the first President of the Indian National Congress (INC). Splitting his time between London and India, he was the first Indian to contest an election to the British Parliament, though he was unable to win a seat. Al-Idrisi (1100-1166) Explorer and geographer. Born in Morocco, Ai-Idrisi studied in many Islamic centers, but worked mainly at the Christian court of the Norman King Roger II of Sicily. His most famous work was a silver globe of the world. Idrisi’s maps show the supremacy of Arab geography at this time. Antonio José de Sucre (1793-1830) Venezuelan statesman. A close associate of Simón Bolívar, he helped free Bolivia from Spanish rule through the Victory of Aya Cucho in 1825, becoming its first president in 1826. He later fought for Colombia, overseeing victory at the Battle of Giron in 1829. Queen Seondeok (? - 647) Queen of Silla, one of the three traditional Kingdoms of Korea, from 632 to 647 CE. Only the second female ruler in East Asian history, her reign saw the proliferation of education, religion and other culture manifestations, with the temple of Bunhwangsa constructed in 634 February 2016 Heliodorus (?) Greek writer. Born in Emesa, Syria, he came from a family of priests of the sun. One of the earliest Greek novelists, he was the author of Aethiopica, which narrates in poetic prose the loves of Theagenes and Chariclea. Benjamin Robins (1707-1751) British mathematician. A teacher in London, he carried out experiments on the air resistance of projectiles, studied fortification and invented the ballistic pendulum, which for the first time allowed the measurements of muzzle velocities. Consequently he is considered the father of the art of gunnery. Cato Maximilian Guldberg (1836-1902) Norwegian chemist. He studied at Oslo and later became Professor of Applied Mathematics there. With his brother-in-law, Peter Waage (1833-1900), he formulated the chemical law of mass action governing the speed of reaction and the relative concentrations of the reactants. Karl Liebknecht (1871-1919) German politician. An influential revolutionary Marxist in Germany during the First World War (1914-1918), he founded the German Communist Party in 1919. He led the failed Spartacist Uprising of 1919, and was later killed by Freikorps mercenaries allied with the Government. January 2016 Esarhaddon (?-669 BCE) Assyrian ruler. King of Assyria from 680-669 BCE, he was the son of Sennacherib and father of Assurbanipal. He is best known for his conquest of Egypt in 671 BCE and for the court intrigues that developed during his reign. He died suddenly in Harran, Upper Mesopotamia, in 669 BCE. George Cayley (1773-1857) British engineer. From a wealthy aristocratic background, Cayley carried out the first truly scientific study of how birds fly – correctly describing the the principles of lift, drag and thrust that underpin flight. He pioneered the first glider to carry a human being and is considered “the father of aviation.” Victor Hugo (1802-1885) French Romantic author, regarded as the greatest in this genre. Hugo’s writings are remarkable for their metrical skill and colorful diction, and his work has been made immortal by its tremendous vitality. His Notre Dame de Paris in 1831 revolutionised prose. In 1852 he was exiled from France for his political opinions. Probably his most famous work is Les Miserables, published in 1862. One of the longest novels ever, it still resonates today. Alfonso the Wise (1221-1284) Acclaimed King of Leon and Castille and founder of the legal code which became the foundation stone of Spanish jurisprudence. He was a liberal patron of literature and science, especially astronomy. In 1282 he was dethroned by his son Sancho. December 2015 Aaron Burr (1756-1836) U.S. Vice President, 1801-1805. The first vice president to not be eventually elected in his own right, Burr was one of the most colorful political figures of his era. While vice president he killed political rival Alexander Hamilton in a duel and later was arrested on charges of treason. Chika Kuroda (1884-1968) Japanese chemist. Talented from a young age, she was unable to attend university until age 29, as until then women were barred from studying. The first women to receive a Bachelor of Science in 1916, she went on to study natural pigments and became a leader in Japanese chemistry. Suetonius (75-160 CE) Roman biographer. His rose through the ranks to become secretary for Emperor Hadrian (76-138 CE), but lost his post when compromised in a court intrigue. He then devoted himself to writing, with his best known work “De Vita Caesarum” remarkable for its elegance and impartiality. William Dampier (1651-1715) English explorer. Involved in a number of discovery voyages from a young age, his writings about his discoveries won considerable plaudits. While the naval voyages he led were of mixed success, he nonetheless became the first Englishman to circumnavigate the world three times. Fukuzawa Yukichi (1835-1901) Japanese writer. A member of the first Japanese delegation to the United States, his first publication was a Japanese-English dictionary. His writings were a key conduit of Western thought into Japan, and he is often considered the most important intellectual figure of the Mejia Period (1868-1912). November 2015 Hermann Oberth (1894-1989) German engineer. In 1923, while still a doctoral student, he published “The Rocket into Interplanetary Space”, one of the most influential works ever on astronautics. He later contributed to the idea of space travel by advising on Fritz Lang’s 1929 film “The Woman in the Moon”. Suleiman I (1494-1566) Ottoman Sultan. He acceded to the throne in 1520, and under him the Ottoman Empire reach its zenith. He conquered Belgrade, Budapest, Rhodes and Baghdad among others, and his system of laws regulating land tenure earned him the name Kanumi (“Law giver”). John Wallis (1616-1703) English mathematician. While Professor of Geometry at Oxford, he published Arithmetica infinitorum, a landmark work that profoundly influenced English mathematics. A founder of the royal society, he is considered the leading English Mathematician before Isaac Newton. William A. Wheeler (1819-1887) American politician. Growing up in poverty, he rose to become a capable lawyer and railroad businessman. First elected as a congressman for New York in 1861, his reputation for honesty led to his election as vice-president under Rutherford B. Hayes (1877-1881). October 2015 Ellen Richards (1842-1911) American chemist. The first woman admitted to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, she became a leader in the movement to educate women in the sciences, establishing programs in Boston schools. She was a leader in sanitary chemistry, teaching this at MIT from 1884-1911. Panaetius (185-110 BCE) Greek philosopher. He studied in Greece and Rome and while his writings are now lost, he was an important figure in the popularisation of stoicism in Rome. His ethical and political works were an significant source for Cicero’s influential treatise, De officiis. Jerome of Prague (1365-1416) Czech religious reformer. He studied at Prague and Oxford, where he became a disciple of John Wycliffe (1331-1384). On return to the mainland he evangelised in various cities but was regularly criticised for his teachings. In 1515 he was labeled a heretic in Bavaria and burnt at the stake. Owen Swift (1814-1879) British bare-knuckle fighter. A slender fighter, in 1848 he infamously killed his opponent William Phelps after an 85 round bout and was convicted of manslaughter. The fiasco led to the re-writing of the rules of boxing. He later became a tavern-owner and author. Josiah Wedgwood (1730-1795) British designer. Born into a family of potters in Staffordshire, his own pottery business produced innovative and high-quality crockery, a vast improvement on the standards of the day. He would later use his fame and prominence as a campaigner for social reform. September 2015 Shibukawa Shunkai (1639 - 1715) Japanese scholar. Born in Kyoto, his successful work studying eclipses led to him being appointed the first official astronomer of the Edo period. He revised the Chinese calendar, creating the Jōkyō calendar first issued in 1684. He also excelled as a Go player. Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) Indian nationalist and statesman. Became India’s first Prime Minister of India after gaining independence in 1947. He presided over an India until his death in 1964, by which time his daughter Indira Gandhi took office. Sir Owen Seaman (1861-1935) English author and humorist who joined the staff of the satirical magazine Punch in 1897 and was its editor from 1906 to 1932. His many volumes of verse were characterised by a remarkable gift for humor and parody, combining scholarship with glittering wit, and satire with sting that was never in bad taste. Eduard Zeller (1814-1908) Noted German philosopher and theologian who became professor of theology at Berne in 1847 and at Marburg in 1849. He later became professor of philosophy at Heidelberg in 1862 and at Berlin between 1872 and 1895. His great work is the History of Greek Philosophy. August 2015 Solon (638-558 BCE) One of the Seven Sages of Greece who became an eminent legislator, after having made a reputation as a poet. Solon’s Laws were so highly esteemed that they were adopted by the Romans in their Twelve Tables. He was, however, a friend of the tyrant Pisistratus. Maria Luigi Cario Cherubini (1760-1842) Italian composer and one of the most important composers of the early French school, and a noted musical theorist. After producing his first opera in 1780, he went to London where two new operas were produced. He was greatly admired by Beethoven and for 20 years was Director of the Conservatoire at Paris. Marcus Porcius Cato (234-149BCE) Roman statesman, soldier and writer of strict virtue, simplicity and wisdom. He strongly condemned the luxury of his time and was nicknamed “the censor”. He became Consul in 195BCE, took part in the defeat of Hannibal at Zama, held command in Sardinia and Spain, and in 191 BCE assisted the Greeks in overthrowing Antiochus III at Thermopolyae. Samuel Alexander (1859 – 1938) Australian born British philosopher. Was professor of philosophy at the University of Manchester. He was the first Jewish fellow of an Oxbridge college. Alexander was the author of Moral Order and Progress, Art and the Material and many papers on philosophical subjects. July 2015 Leos Janacek (1854-1928) Czech composer. Janacek was appointed director of the Conservatoire at Brno in 1919 and professor at the Prague Conservatoire in 1920. His music was highly original and influenced by Moravian folk music. Examples included The Cunning Little Vixen 1924 and Glagolitic Mass 1927. Douglas Strachan (1875-1950) British artist. Spending his formative years as a political cartoonist, he later took a radical change of course and started working in stained-glass work. Here he contributed to the Palace of Peace at The Hague and completed celebrated work in other buildings, including Kings Chapel, Aberdeen. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) German experimental psychologist. He carried out pioneering experimental research on memory to investigate higher mental processes, and discovered the so-called “forgetting curve”. He published his findings in 1885. Anders Fryxell (1795-1881) Swedish historian. He was a parish priest from 1835 to 1847, but thereafter gave himself entirely to literary work at Stockholm. His Narratives from Swedish History (46 volumes, 1832-80), were translated into English in 1844. Charles Pritchard (1808-93) Englishman astronomer and clergyman. From 1870 he was Savilian professor at Oxford, where he established an observatory. He wrote on stellar photometry in Uranometria Nova Oxoniensis (1885). June 2015 Gaius (130-180 CE) Roman jurist. Little is known of Gaius other than by his role as author of ‘Institutiones’ (161 CE), four books of Roman law. They are the only substantial texts of classical Roman law that have survived. They were lost until a manuscript was discovered by historian Barthold Niebuhr in 1816. Charles, Duke of Orleans (1391-1465) French nobleman. In 1406 he married his cousin Isabella, the widow of Richard II of England, and in 1415 commanded at Agincourt, where he was taken captive. A prisoner for 25 years, he composed poetry in French and English before being finally ransomed. His son became Louis XII. Priscian (circa 5th century) Latin grammarian of Caesarea. At the beginning of the 6th century her taught Latin at Constantinople. As well as his 18 volume Instsitutioners Grammaticae, which was highly thought of in the Middle Ages, he wrote six smaller grammatical treatises and two hexameter poems. Douglas Strachan (1875-1950) British artist. Spending his formative years as a political cartoonist, he later took a radical change of course and started working in stained-glass work. Here he contributed to the Palace of Peace at The Hague and completed celebrated work in other buildings, including Kings Chapel, Aberdeen. May 2015 Montezuma II (1466-1520) Aztec ruler. The last Aztec emperor from 1502 to 1520. A feared warrior and capable legislator, he died during the Spanish conquest of Hernan Cortes. One of his descendants became viceroy of Mexico between 1697 and 1701. Praaxedes Mateo Sagasta (1827-1903) Spanish Liberal leader, born in Torrecila. A member of the Cortes from 1855, he took part in insurrections in 1856 and 1866, and had twice to flee to France. Spanish premier on a number of occasions, he introduced universal male suffrage and trial by jury. Nevil Maskelyne (1732-1811) English astronomer. In 1763 he produced the ‘British Mariner’s Guide’. Appointed astronomer-royal, he improved methods and instruments of observation, invented the prismatic micrometer, and made important observations. In 1774, he measured the earth’s density from the reflection of the plumb-line. Gaius (130-180 CE) Roman jurist. Little is known of Gaius other than by his role as author of ‘Institutiones’ (161 CE), four books of Roman law. They are the only substantial texts of classical Roman law that have survived. They were lost until a manuscript was discovered by historian Barthold Niebuhr in 1816. April 2015 Douglas Strachan (1875-1950) British artist. Spending his formative years as a political cartoonist, he later took a radical change of course and started working in stained-glass work. Here he contributed to the Palace of Peace at The Hague and completed celebrated work in other buildings, including Kings Chapel Aberdeen. Montezuma II (1466-1520) Aztec ruler. The last Aztec emperor from 1502 to 1520. A feared warrior and capable legislator, he died during the Spanish conquest of Hernan Cortes. One of his descendants became viceroy of Mexico between 1697 and 1701. Charles, Duke of Orleans (1391-1465) French nobleman. In 1406 he married his cousin Isabella, the widow of Richard II of England, and in 1415 commanded at Agincourt, where he was taken captive. A prisoner for 25 years, he composed poetry in French and English before being finally ransomed. His son became Louis XII. Claude Grahame-White (1879-1959) British aviator. Born in Hampshire, he was the first Englishman to be granted a British certificate of proficiency in Aviation in 1910. Later the same year he founded his own company to build aircraft, and in 1911 helped establish the London Aerodrome in Hendon. Hans Christian Gram (1853-1938) Danish bacteriologist. Professor at the University of Copenhagen, he established in 1884 a microbiological staining method for bacteria, distinguishing the ‘Gram-positive’ from the ‘Gram-negative,’ allowing bacteria to be seen much more easily under a microscope. March 2015 Tecumseh (1768-1813) Native American Chief. Leader of the Shawnees, he joined his brother, ‘the Prophet’, in a rising against White settlers, suppressed at Tippecanoe in 1811. Passing into British service, he commanded Native allies in the War of 1812 before being killed in action at Thames in Canada. Cypselus (655-625 BCE) Ruler of Corinth. One of the earliest of the self-made rulers who rose in a range of Greek cities in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE. He seized power against the narrow and select oligarchy of the Bacchiads, who had ruled Corinth since the 8th century, and started the Cypselid dynasty. Hu Shih (1891-1962) Chinese scholar. He was professor of psychology at Beijing University from 1917-1949. Here he led the gradualist New Culture movement, urging a re-examination of Chinese culture and opposing the rigid Marxism of Chen Duxiu. He later served as ambassador to the UN for the Nationalist Chinese government. Petrus Peregrinus (13th century) French scientist and soldier. He was a prominent crusader, his Latin name meaning ‘Pilgrim’. He also made a string of scientific discoveries; he invented a compass with a graduated scale and was the first to mark the ends of a round natural magnet and call them poles. February 2015 Hyder Ali (1722-1782) Indian Ruler. The sultan of Mysore in Southern India, he conquered Calicut before coming into conflict with the British in 1767, winning several gains. In 1779 he again fought the British colonial forces, this time with the aide of his son Tippo, but could not repeat his success and was overwhelmed and defeated in 1782. Harry Moseley (1887-1915) British physicist. He worked under Ernest Rutherford at Manchester University between 1910-1914. Here he worked on radioactivity, determining by means of X-ray spectra the atomic numbers of the elements (Moseley’s law), the basis of 20th century nuclear physics. He was killed in action in the First World War. Friedrich von Paulus (1890-1957) German soldier. He served during the First World War (1914-1918) and by 1940 was deputy chief of the general staff. As commander of the 6th Army, he led the attack on Stalingrad (1942), but was trapped in the city by a Russian counter-attack. Completely cut-off, he and his troops held out for three months before capitulating in February 1943. Veit Stoss (1447-1533) German sculptor. He worked mainly in Krakow (1477-1496), where he carved the celebrated high altar of Marjacki Church. Later in his home town of Nuremberg he worked for thirty years in various churches, including the Church of St. Lorenz. January 2015 John Gower (1325-1408) English medieval poet. A friend of Geoffrey Chaucer, his works include many French ballads, written in his youth, and ‘Vox clamantis’, which describes the rising under Watt Tyler. His best known work is the poem ‘Confessio Amantis’ on the theme of Christian and courtly love. Robert Catesby (1573-1605) British conspirator. A Catholic of wealth and lineage, he had suffered much for his Catholicism through fines and imprisonment. He was named as an accomplice in the Rye Plot (1603) against James I, and was shot and killed while resisting arrest after the failed Gunpowder Plot (1605). Jean Marc Nattier (1685-1766) French artist. He produced historical pictures and portraits, including those of Peter the Great and Catherine II of Russia. After losing money in the John Law financial crisis, he changed tact and took up the stereotyped style of portraiture favoured in the court of Louis XV of France. Henry Dunkenfield Scott (1854-1934) British botanist. The son of George Gilbert Scott, after studying at Oxford and Wurzberg universities he became assistant professor at the Royal College of Science. In 1892 he became keeper at the Jodrell Laboratory, Kew, devoting himself to plant anatomy and palaeobotany. Narses (478-573) Persian statesman. He rose in the imperial household in Constantinople to be keeper of the privy purse to Justinian I. In 552, he became leader of a military conquest of Rome, defeating the Ostrogoths and eliminating Gothic power in Italy. In 554 Justinian appointed him prefect of Italy. December 2014 Harlan Stone (1972-1946) American lawyer. After teaching at Columbia Law school (1910-1923), he was appointed associate justice of the Supreme Court in 1925. Later becoming Chief Justice in 1941, he upheld the view the courts should defer to legislatures when individual liberty was not threatened. James Dewar (1842-1923) British chemist. After studying at Edinburgh and Cambridge, he became Professor at the Royal Institution in 1877. Here he developed a range of experimental research, including studies of low temperature and gas liquefaction which led to the invention of the Dewar flask (Thermos flask). Cratinus (519-423 BCE) Greek playwright. Along with Aristophanes, he best represents the Old Attic comedy style. He limited the number of actors to three, and was the first to add to comedy the interest of sharp personal attacks. Of his 21 comedies, only a handful of fragments exist. Phillip Hardwick (1792-1870) British architect. Born in London, he most famously designed the old Euston Railway station, Goldsmiths hall and Limerick Cathedral. He also designed Curzon Street station in Birmingham, which remains the oldest railway station building in the world. November 2014 Osman I (1258-1324) Turkish ruler. The son of a border chief, he founded a small Turkish state in Asia minor called Osmanli (Ottoman). On the overthrow of the Seljuk sultanate of Iconium in 1299 by the Mongols, he gradually subdued a great part of Asia Minor, founding the Ottoman Empire. “Nothing is more essential to the establishment of manners in a State than that all those in positions of power and trust be men of unexceptionable character. The public cannot be too curious concerning the character of public men.” Vitus Bering (1681-1741) Danish explorer. He led an expedition in the Sea of Kamchatka (1782) to determine whether the continents of Asia and America were joined. He later led the Great Northern Expedition (1733) to analyse the Siberia coast, but in 1741 he died when his shipped was wrecked en route to America. Bernard de Montfaucon (1655-1741) French scholar. A Benedictine monk at Saint-Maur, he went to Paris to edit the Latin works of the Greek fathers of the Church and published ‘Palaeographia Graeca’ (1807), the first work to be based on the study of manuscript writing. As a result he is considered the founder of palaeography. Thutmose III (?-1450 BCE) Egyptian Pharaoh. Ruling from 1504-1450 BCE, he was one of the greatest Egyptian rulers. He re-established Egyptian control over Syria and Numbia, and ornamented his Kingdom with revenues from these conquests. Civic buildings he constructed including the temple of Amon at Karnak. October 2014 Jacopo della Quercia (1374-1438) Italian sculptor. Born in Siena, he was a prominent figure during the Italian Renaissance. His greatest works can be found in Siena, including the city’s fountain, the ‘Fonte Gaia’, crafted from 1414-1419, and the reliefs of the portal of San Petronia, Bologna. Nagarjuna (150-250) Indian buddhist monk-philospher. Born in southern India, he was the founder of the Madhyamika or Middle Path school of Buddhism. Some consider that he was likely an adviser to the rulers of the Śātavāhana Empire, though exact details of his life remain unclear. Lester Pelton (1829-1918) American inventor. He was a carpenter when he joined the gold rush to California in 1849, becoming interested in the water wheels used in mining machinery. He designed an improved wheel using hemispherical cups which was patented in 1880 and saw considerable success. Manetho (fl. 300 BCE) Egyptian historian. He was high priest of Heliopolis, and wrote in Greek a celebrated history of the 30 dynasties from mythical times to 323 BCE. Parts of this work have been preserved in the writings of Julius Africanus (300 CE) and George Syncellus (800 CE). Crates of Chalkis (335-325 BCE) Greek engineer. He was one of several leading engineers who carried out notable works for Alexander the Great, most notably the building of the new city and port of Alexandria in the Nile delta. Other work included those relating to drainage, irrigation and water supply. September 2014 John Mott (1865-1955) American religious leader. A Methodist layman, he became known the world over for his social work at the Young Men’s Christian Association (1915-1931), the Student Volunteer Movement (1888-1920) and the World Missionary Council (1941-42). He shared the 1946 Nobel Peace Prize. Marie Tussaud (1761-1850) French modeller. Apprenticed to her uncle in Paris, she inherited his wax museums after his death. She took the death masks of various French statesmen after the revolution and later toured Britain with her life size waxworks, setting up a permanent exhibition in London in 1835. Gnaeus Naevius (264-194 BCE) Ancient poet and playwright. Born in Campania, modern day Italy, he served in the first Punic War (264-241 BCE), and started producing his own plays in 235 CE. A plebian, for thirty years he satirised Roman nobles before being compelled to leave Rome and retire to Utica in Africa. Fritz von Opel (1899-1971) German industrialist. He worked for his grandfather’s manufacturing firm, which began experimenting with rocket propulsion for cars and aircraft. He test drove Opel’s rocket propelled cars and planes personally, leading to him being dubbed ‘Rocket Fritz’. August 2014 Jane Porter (1776-1850) British novelist. She enjoyed a great reputation as an author of historical romances, which enjoyed considerable success in their time. Her reputation was made with ‘Thaddeus of Warsaw’ (1803), one of the first historical novels, and cemented with ‘Scottish Chiefs’ (1810). Antoine Sax (1814-1894) French musician and inventor. With his father he invented and patented in 1845, a valved brass wind-instrument he called the sax-horn, along with the saxophone and saxtuba. While respected by his contemporaries, he failed to make a commercial success of his products and died in poverty. James Skinner (1778-1841) Anglo-Indian soldier. Under General Lord Lake (1744-1808), he formed ‘Skinner’s Horse’, one of the most famous regiments in India. With the incredible wealth of thirty years of looting, and several wives, he settled in Delhi where he constructed a number of public buildings. Juan de La Cueva (1550-1607) Spanish poet and playwright. Born in Seville, he is best known for his use of new metrical forms and his introduction of historical mature into his drama. These were highly influential within drama, paving the way for the Spanish romantic drama of the seventeenth century. Pacal the Great (603-683) Mayan ruler. King of Palenque from 615 to 683 CE, he extended Palenque’s territory significantly while also developing its architecture and civil institutions. Many civic buildings of note were constructed during his reign. William John Wills (1834-1861) British explorer. Born in Totnes, he studied medicine before becoming a surveyor of crown lands in Victoria, Australia. He was second in command of Robert O’Hara Burke’s ill fated expedition to the North of Australia, on which he died if starvation. Motilal Nehru (1861-1931) Indian nationalist leader. He became a follower of Mahatma Gandhi in 1919, founded the ‘Independent’ of Allahabad, and became the first President of the reconstructed Indian National Congress. He was the father of Jawaharlal, who was India’s first Prime Minister. Francis Younghusband (1863-1942) British explorer. Born in India, he explored Manchuria in 1866, and on the way back discovered the route from Kashgar into India via the Mustagh Pass. In 1902 he was part of the expedition which opened up Tibet to the Western world. Gustav Cassell (1866-1945) Swedish economist. Born in Stockholm, he was professor at the University of Stockholm from 1904 onwards. He was considered a world authority on monetary policy, and notably first raised the notion of purchasing power parity. James Oglethorpe (1696-1785) British statesman. Born in Surrey, he founded the colony of Georgia in 1732 as a refuge for paupers and debtors, as well as a barrier against Spanish expansion. He later returned to Britain and played a significant role in defeating the Jacobites. July 2014 Publius Cornelius Dolabella (70-43 BCE) Roman politician. He became an elected official in 47 BCE, where he brought forward a debt canceling bill, which led to bloody struggle in Rome. On Caesar’s murder (44 BCE), he usurped the consulate and obtained a province in Syria, which he ruled ruthlessly until he was overthrown in 43 BCE. Tolbert Lanston (1844-1913) American inventor. Born in Ohio to a poor family, in 1887 he patented the monotype, a type-formatting and composing machine. Despite no background as an engineer, the process was first used commercially in 1897 and revolutionised printing processes. Emelio de Bono (1866-1944) Italian fascist. Involved in Mussolini’s famed March on Rome in 1922, he became Governor of Tripolitania (1925) and colonial secretary (1939), and commanded the Italian forces invading Abyssinia (1935). He later opposed Mussolini, and was tried and executed as a traitor. Carl Zeiss (1816-1888) German optician. Born in Weimar, in 1846 he established a factory which became noted for its production of lenses, microscopes and other optical instruments. His business was innovative in that it allowed workers a share in the profits. Zeuxis (5th Century BCE) Greek painter. Born in Heraclea, he excelled in the representation of natural objects, though none of his paintings survive. According to legend, his painting of a bunch of grapes was so realistic that birds tried to eat the fruit. De Witt Clinton (1769-1828) American politician. Becoming a lawyer in 1788, he sat in the New York state legislature (1797) and US senate (1798-1802), but was defeated by Madison in the presidential contest of 1812. He planned the Erie Canal scheme, which he opened in 1825. Faisal I (1885-1933) Arab ruler. Borin in Ta’if, Iraq, he was the son of Hussein ibn Ali, king of the Hejaz. He played a major rule in the Arab revolt of 1916, and was for a short while King of Syria after the First World War. Installed as King of Iraq by the British, he became a leader of Arab nationalism. George Eastman (1853-1932) American inventor. After beginning his career in banking he turned to photography, producing a successful roll-film in 1884 and the ‘Kodak’ box camera in 1888. In 1889 he manufactured transparent celluloid film, later crucial in helping develop the moving-picture industry. Hans Kluge (1882-1944) German soldier. Born in Poland, in 1939 he carried out the Nazi occupation of the Polish corridor and in July 1944 replaced Rundstedt as commander-in-chief of armies in France. He later committed suicide after being implicated in the plot to kill Hitler. Cypselus (655-623 BCE) Greek ruler. Tyrant of Corinth, he was the earliest of a series of self-made rulers who emerged in many Greek cities in the 7th and 6th century BCE. He seized power against the narrow oligarchy of the Bacchiads and founded the Cypselid dynasty. Esarhaddon (?-669 BCE) Assyrian King. The youngest son of Sennacherib and father of Assurbanipal. He is best known for his conquest of Egypt in 671 BCE, which came despite notably civil unrest at home in the provinces of Tyre and Askelon. John Napier (1550-1617) Scottish mathematician. Born in Edinburgh, he studied at St Andrews and travelled in Europe before settling down to a life of literary and scientific study. He invented logarithms and also devised a calculating machine nicknamed ‘Napier’s bones’. Peter Faneuil (1700-1743) American merchant. Born in New York state, he built a fortune in Boston, partly from the triangular slave trade. In 1742 he built the impressive Faneuil Hall, which would become known as ‘the cradle of liberty’ due to its role in the American War of Independence. Georges Couthon (1755-1794) French politician. A lawyer by profession, he acted as a deputy to the revolutionary legislative assembly and National Convention, and was also a member of the influential Committee of Public Safety. Arrested with his idol Robespierre, he was guillotined for treason. Cesar Antonovich Cui (1835-1918) Lithuanian engineer and composer. An expert on fortifications, he became lieutenant-general of engineers. A self-taught musician, he composed operas including William Ratcliff in 1861, as well as piano music and songs. Arnold von Winkelried (?-1386) Swiss soldier. A knight of Unterwalden. At the Battle of Sempach in 1386, with the Swiss failing to break the compact line of Austrian spears, he is said to have grasped as many pikes as he could reach and buried them in his chest – inspiring the Swiss to a decisive victory. Johann Winckelmann (1717-1768) German archaeologist. Born in Stendal, he studied theology and medicine at Halle and Jena universities. In 1748 he turned to the history of art, and became librarian to a cardinal in Rome (1755). In 1763 he became superintendent of Roman antiquities. Imhotep (2667 BC - 2648 BC) Ancient Egyptian architect. Regarded as one of the significant architects of ancient times. He was the chief architect to the Egyptian pharaoh Djoser, who reigned circa 2630 BC to 2611 BC. Imhotep designed the first stone monument in the world, the step pyramid at Saqqara, and is the first ancient architect named in texts and scrolls, which survive to this day. Mehmed II (the Conqueror) (1432-1481) Sultan of the Ottoman Empire twice, from 1444 to 1446, and 1451 to 1481. During his second reign he captured Constantinople, bringing to an end the Byzantine Empire, and establishing the Ottoman state as a major power on the Mediterranean. He also consolidated Ottoman hold over all of Anatolia – modern-day Turkey – and over major strategic territories in the Balkans. Pope Urban II (1035-1099) Religious leader. Born in France Iurban became Pope in 1088. He called for a Crusade to reconquer the Christian Holy Lands in 1095 at the Council of Clermont in France. He also sought to unify the Western Latin and Eastern Greek Catholic Churches, to secure the unity of all Christendom. The First Crusade was successful in seizing Jerusalem in 1099, however, Urban’s effort to unify the two branches of the church failed. Saint Paul of Tarsus - 5–67 AD Biblical figure. St. Paul referred to himself as the Apostle to the Gentiles and was one of the main contributors to the New Testament Bible. Thirteen epistles have been attributed to him. His writings are still cited today as an authority on Christian behaviour and belief. In around 50 AD, when St. Paul set off on a ship from Troas, in the north western part of Anatolia, crossing the Aegean and arriving in the shores of Europe, he probably did not know the significance that this move would have in world history. It was here that Christianity made its first documented appearance in the continent Olympe de Gouges - 1748-1793 Political activist of the French Revolution and one of the first feminists in history. She began her career as a playwright in the early 1780s. As political tension rose in France, de Gouges became increasingly politically involved and was an outspoken advocate for improving the condition of slaves in the colonies. She is perhaps best remembered as an early feminist who demanded that French women be given the same rights as French men. Author of the Rights of Woman and of the Citizen. Ashoka the Great - 304-232 BC Indian Emperor who ruled between 274 and 232 BC. In his early reign, he embarked on several military conquests which enlarged the size of his empire over much of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and even Iran. During one of these wars of conquest, however, Ashoka became repulsed by the number of deaths that he witnessed and decided to reject violence and adopt Vedic Buddhism and vegetarianism. Callimachus 31-240 BC Greek poet and critic known for his epigrams. Born in Cyrene, he taught in Alexandria, Egypt, where he is reputed to have been in charge of the great library. Luciano Laurana (1420-1479) Italian architect. Little is known of his early life or training, but by 1468 he had been appointed architect in chief at the Ducal Palace in Urbino. Highly influenced by designs of the Italian renaissance, he is considered a leading figure of fifteenth century Italian architecture. Mercy Otis Warren (1728-1814) American writer. She wrote on historical and political themes, publishing ‘Observations on the New Constitution’ in 1788. A regular correspondent with American political figures such as Abigail and John Adams, she is often considered America’s first major female intellectual. Jean Patou (1880-1936) French fashion designer. The son of a successful tanner, he opened ‘Maison Perry’ in Paris in 1912, before selling it to a US buyer. After war service, he successfully opened again as couturier in 1919, famed for his designs for sports starts and actresses. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) Irish philosopher. A follower of the alchemical tradition, his advances in modern scientific method mean he is considered the founder of modern chemistry. Notably he developed Boyle’s law, which describes how the pressure of a gas decreases as the volume of a gas increases. Offa (?-796) King of Mercia. He consolidated his control of all Kingdoms south of the Humber, making local rulers akin to subordinate governors. Considered the greatest Anglo-Saxon ruler of the 8th Century, he was treated as an equal by Charlemagne. Hernando de Soto (1496-1542) Spanish explorer. Famed for his skills as a horseman and tactician, in 1539 he entered Florida, leading the first European expedition deep into North America. In 1541 he managed to cross the Mississippi, but died of a fever on its banks. Jonas Lie (1833-1908) Norwegian novelist. Trained as a lawyer, he turned to writing after being made bankrupt. His novels portray the lives of ordinary people, and he also wrote poetry and fairytales. He is considered one of Norway’s four great men of literature. June 2014 Emanuel Leutze (1816-1868) German painter. He emigrated to America in 1825, though returned to Europe regularly to study the latest developments in painting. He is most famous for his historical paintings, notably ‘Washington Crossing the Delaware’, a popular painting with American patriots. Wang Jingwei (1883-1944) Chinese nationalist. After studying in Japan he joined Sun’s Revolutionary party, and in 1927 was appointed head of the new Nationalist government at Wuhan. After the Japanese invasion of China in 1938, he offered to co-operate with the Japanese, leading a puppet regime in occupied areas. Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682-1771) Italian anatomist. He studied in Bologna and became professor of medicine at Padua in 1711. In his writings he correlated pathological lesions with symptoms in over 700 cases. He is widely considered to be the father of the discipline of pathological anatomy. Han Gan (706-783) Chinese painter. Growing up in a poor family in Chang’an, he studied painting and eventually became a renowned painter in the court of the Tang Dynasty. His work concerned a range of themes, but he is most famous for his accurate depictions of horses. Ernst Rohm (1887-1934) Nazi leader. He became an early support of Adolf Hitler, and the organiser of the Nazi party’s paramilitaries, the ‘brownshirts’. He became state commissioner of Bavaria, but in 1934 his attempt to solidify his power resulted in his execution at Hitler’s behest. Omar (581-644) Muslim caliph. The father of one of Mohammed’s wives, he succeeded Abu-Bakr as caliph in 634. He helped lead his generals to build up an empire comprising Syria, Persia and much of North Africa. He was assassinated it 644 by a Persian slave. Henry Dodge (1782-1867) American politician. He served in the War of 1812 and the Black Hawk War of 1832, before becoming famous as a frontiersman. In 1836 he was appointed governor of the Territory of Wisconsin, and later represented the area in the House of Representatives and Senate. Edward Robinson (1749-1863) American biblical scholar. He studied in Germany and became Professor of Theology at the Union Theological Seminary in New York City (1837-1863). In 1838 he conducted pioneering explorations of Palestine and Syria, leading to him being dubbed the father of biblical geography. Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) Danish physicist. He became a professor at the University of Copenhagen in 1806, where he discovered the magnetic effect of an electric current. Considered a figure of the ‘Danish Golden Age’, the unit of magnetic field strength is named after him. Emiliano Zapata (1879-1919) Mexican revolutionary. A sharecropper and local leader, after the onset of the Mexican Revolution he initiated a land distribution programme in areas under his control. Along with Pancho Villa, he fought the Carranza government before being lured to his death at the Chinameca hacienda. James Weddell (1787-1834) Belgian-British explorer. A merchant seaman from a young age, he undertook three voyages to Antarctica in the sealing brig Jane. On the third voyage he discovered a new sea and quadrant, which have since been named after him. Hong Xiuquan (1814-1864) Chinese religious leader. He was the founder of the Taipeng sect, a religious belief with roots in Christianity. The power of these beliefs were a fundamental factor behind the breakout of the Taiping Rebellion, which would last for ten years. Robert II (1316-1390) King of Scots. Son of Walter, the hereditary steward of Scotland, he acted as regent during the exile of David II. On David’s death, he became King in his own right in 1371, and founded the Stuart royal dynasty. Bernardino Rivadavia (1780 - 1845) Argentinian statesman. A participant in the May revolutionary movement for Argentine Independence, his influence led to him becoming the first president of Argentina in 1826, though revolts across the country led to his resignation a little over a year later. George Cadbury (1839-1922) British businessman. In partnership with his brother Richard, he expanded his father’s chocolate making business and established for his workers in 1879 the model village of Bournville, a prototype for modern methods of housing and town planning. John Moresby (1830-1922) British naval commander. He led exploration and surveys in South East Asia, notably in the region around New Guinea. Here he discovered the prime natural harbour now fronted by Port Moresby, which was named after him. Wang Mang (43 BCE - 23 CE) Chinese minister-regent. Born into an aristocratic family, he became a government official who later usurped the throne and established the Xin dynasty. His achievements include nationalizing land, abolishing slavery and carrying out a number of financial reforms. Ferdinand Zeppelin (1838-1917) German army officer. After serving in the Franco-Prussian War, between 1897 and 1900 he constructed the first airship, constructing a factory for the purpose in Friedrichshafen. These Zeppelin airships became hugely influential in creating the era of air transportation. Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543 - 1616) Japanese statesman. He was the founder of the Tokugawa dynasty of shoguns, seizing power after the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Becoming the first shogun in 1603, he relinquished the role two years later but remained in effective power until his death in 1616. Ai of Tang (892-908) Chinese emperor. He acceded to the throne at the age of eleven in 904 after his father, Emperor Zhaozong, was killed by warlord Zhu Quanzhong. Largely a puppet ruler controlled by Quanzhong, his reign only lasted three years before he was poisoned by rivals. James Drummond (1876-1951) British statesman. Born in North Yorkshire to an aristocratic family, he became a leading diplomat. He was the first secretary-general of the League of Nations from 1919-1932, and later British ambassador in Rome between 1933 and 1939. Etienne Dolat (1509-1546) French humanist. He owned a printing press in Lyon, where he printed translations of the classics, as well as Erasmus and Rabelais. He was arrested for publishing heretical books in 1544 and burned in Paris, and as a result is sometimes dubbed ‘the first martyr of the renaissance.’ John Flamsteed (1646-1719) British astronomer. After studying at Cambridge he became the first Astronomer Royal of England in 1675-1719. In 1676 he instituted reliable observations from Greenwich, providing data from which Newton was later able to verify the gravitational theory. Manuel José Arce (1787-1847) Central American statesman. Joining the independence movement in 1811, Arce rose to become a key general fighting Spain and then Mexico. In 1825 he became President of the Federal Republic of Central America, though his authoritarian tendencies alienated many. Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582) Japanese warlord. Directing almost continuous military conquest, in 1560s he began unifying Japan under the Shogunate. By the late 1570s he was controlling nearly half of Japan, and on the verge of greater victories before being killed by a fellow commander. Albert Ball (1896-1917) British fighter pilot. Originally a second lieutenant in the Sherwood Foresters, Ball transferred to the Royal Flying Corps in 1915. Here he excelled, becoming Britain’s leading flying ace with 44 victories before he was killed in an unexplained crash in 1917. Muhyi al-Dīn al-Maghribī (1220-1280) Islamic astronomer. Spanish born, he studied both in Syria and then in Persia, where he worked under Nasir al-Din al-Tusi. He is most famous for this work on trigonometry, where he used interpolation to calculate the value for the sine of one degree. Charles James Fox (1749-1806) British parliamentarian. Originally unremarkable in his opinions, he grew to become one of the most radical politicians of his era, dubbed ‘the man of the people’. He championed the abolition of the slave trade, the French revolution and the defence of political minorities. Euclid (325-265 BCE) Greek mathematician. Residing in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I, he is known for his treatise on geometry, The Elements. This influenced the development of Western mathematics for more than two millennia. Lorenzo Batlle y Grau (1810-1887) Uruguayan statesman. After fighting in the Great War, he became a prominent postwar figure, acting as minister of war in the cabinet of Joaquin Suarez. Elected president in 1868, he struggled to contain internal conflict or resolve the country’s monetary crisis. May 2014 Liu Xiang (77-76 BCE) Chinese scholar. Spending much of his career employed as a government official, he made significant contributions to Chinese astronomy, historical study and literature. Notably he compiled the first comprehensive catalogue of the imperial library. Mihail Lozanov (1911-1994) Bulgarian soccer player. He developed to become one of the most successful players of his generation, playing for Levski Sofia and then Bayern Munich in the 1930s. Dubbed ‘the Tank’ because of his strength, he once shattered a crossbar with a powerful shot. Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) British nurse. Keen to become a nurse from a young age, she became famous for her work in hospitals during the Crimean War (1853-1856). Originally considered too high class for the profession, her work helped establish nursing as a respectable profession. Zu Chongzhi (429-500) Chinese mathematician. A leading figure during the Liu Song and Southern Qi dynasties, his mathematical achievements included developing the calendar year and creating a new approximation of Pi, which remained the most accurate for over 900 years. Marcus Garvey (1887-1940) American political leader. Born in Jamaica, he became a leading black nationalist who created the Back to Africa movement in the United States. His Pan-African beliefs and skill in mobilization would prove highly influential to later generations of civil rights activists. Eleonora Duse (1859-1924) Italian actress. She rose to fame in Italy, then triumphed throughout the European capitals, mainly acting in plays by contemporary French playwrights and her lover, Gabriele D’Annunzio. She retired through ill health in 1909, but returned to the stage in 1921. Richard Hakluyt (1552-1616) British geographer. A vicar by profession, he wrote widely on exploration and navigation, notably his Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation. He was the first to introduce the use of globes into English schools. Charles Wettach (1880-1959) Swiss clown. Best known by his stage name of ‘Grock’, he became world famous for his virtuosity in both circus and theatre. He was particularly known for his clowning with musical instruments, and released an autobiography, ‘Grock, King of Clowns’, in 1956. Thabit ibn Qurra (836-901) Iraqi polymath. Residing in Baghdad, he made important contributions to number theory, statics and astronomy. In the latter he is well known as one of the first reformers of the notion that the Earth was the orbital centre of the solar system. William Fettes (1750-1836) British merchant. He made a fortune trading tea and wine during the Napoleonic Wars, and was twice Lord Provost of Edinburgh. In 1870 he left £66,000 to found Fettes College in Edinburgh, which remains a prestigious private school to this day. Lewis Cass (1782-1866) American statesman. A general in the War of 1812, he was for 18 years the Governor of Michigan before his election to the US senate. Secretary of War (1831-1836) and Secretary of State (1857-1860), he twice failed in a bid for the presidency. Jethro Tull (1674-1741) British inventor. Training as a barrister, he set his attention to developments in agriculture, influenced by the ideals of the age of enlightenment. His major invention was the seed drill, a sewing device which was a major development in the agricultural revolution. Zhang Qiujian (430-390) Chinese mathematician. Little is known about him other than he wrote the text Zhang Qiujian suanjing (Zhang Qiujian’s Mathematical Manual). Clear, concise and methodological, the work is highly important in understanding early Chinese mathematics. Johan Christian Dahl (1788-1857) Norwegian artist. Specialising in landscapes, he was connected to the Romantic movement and spent much of his career in Germany. He is nevertheless a highly influential part of Norwegian artistic life, considered ‘the father of Norwegian landscape painting.’ George Byng (1663-1733) English sailor. Joining the navy at 15, he gained rapid promotion as a supporter of William of Orange. In 1708 he defeated the French fleet of James Stuart the Pretender, and in 1718 destroyed the Spanish fleet of Messina. He was created Viscount in 1721. Yi Sun-Sin (1545–1598) Korean Admiral. Growing up in a political family, he nevertheless pursued a career in the military, excelling as a naval commander and strategist. He was famed for his victories against the Japanese during the Imjin war, and for his respectful conduct on the battlefield. Charles Ulm (1898-1934) Australian aviator. He engaged in several expeditions with friend and fellow aviator Charles Kingsford Smith. He carried the first airmail between Australia and New Zealand, but disappeared attempting to plot airmail routes across the Pacific Ocean. Alfred Ewing (1855-1935) British engineer. He discovered and explained magnetic hysteresis in 1890. His posts including Professor of Engineering at Tokyo (1878-1883), director of naval education (1903-1916) and Principal of Edinburgh University (1916-1929.) Bartolommeo Eustachio (1520-1574) Italian anatomist. A pioneer of modern anatomy, he discovered the Eustachian tube in the ear and the Eustachian valve of the heart. Professor of anatomy at Rome, he wrote Opuscula anatomica in 1564, and Tabulae anatomicae in 1714. Umberto Bocciano (1882 – 1916) An Italian esoteric painter, sculptor and theorist, he was trained in the studio of Giacomo Balla. The most prominent member of the Futurist group, he helped publish the Technical Manifesto for Futurist Painters, promoting this particular representation of modern technology, power, time, motion and speed. Elizabeth Cochrane (1867 – 1922) A U.S writer, she started writing at the Pittsburgh Dispatch aged 18, producing feature articles on subjects as diverse as divorce and slum life. After joining The New York World, she feigned insanity to get into an asylum, and then wrote an expose which led to much needed reforms. Robert Goddard (1882 – 1945) Goddard is credited with building the world’s first liquid-fuel rocket launched in 1926. Although his work received little recognition during his lifetime, he is now considered one of the founding fathers of modern rocketry and was one of the first to recognise the scientific potential of missiles and space travel. Rabindranath Tagore (1861 – 1941) Poet, writer and humanitarian; Rabindranath Tagore was the first Indian to be awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature and played an important role in the renaissance of modern India. Tagore is most widely known for his work Gitanjali but he was also an accomplished writer of short stories, novels, plays and articles. He wrote the national anthems of India and Bangladesh. Georges Méliès (1861 – 1938) A pioneer in the art of film direction, Méliès created the basic elements of special effects and built the first glass studio that was widely used during the silent film era. A magician by training, he made over 500 films, his most famous being Voyage to the Moon (1902). Unable to keep up with the changing demands of the industry, he lived his later life in obscurity and poverty. Jean Bugatti (1909 – 1939) Jean Bugatti, the third of Ettore Bugatti’s four children. Being exposed to the early racetrack successes of Bugatti cars, he developed his own talents in designing in touring and sports cars. Aged just 23, he designed the legendary Roadster Royale and progressively took over the family business. He died at the age of 30, while test driving the Type 57 C Tank sports car. Max Weber (1864 – 1920) German academic. Teaching at various universities Weber he is best known for his essays, titled The Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism, where he outlined the impact of Protestant thought and teachings in fostering capitalism in America. In his The Religion of China, The Religion of India and Ancient Judaism, he contrasted the respective Western religions and cultures. On his death his Economy and Society unfinished. Nichiren (1222 – 1282) Japanese Buddhist monk. Living during the 13th century Kamakura period in Japan, he argued that the Lotus Sutra contains the essence of the teachings of Gautama Buddha and he advocated this philosophy to his followers. Critical to the established schools of Buddhist thought, he was exiled twice. David Emile Durkheim (1858 - 1917) French sociologist. Best known as the Father of Sociology. Along with Max Weber and Karl Marx he forms the triumvirate that has established the foundation of modern social science. His monograph Suicide studied the suicide rates between Protestant and Catholic populations, pioneering methods used in modern social research. Akbar the Great (1542-1605) Born in India, Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great began his military conquests under the tutelage of a regent before claiming power and expanding his empire. He was well known for entertaining the Navaratnas or Nine Jewels in his darbar (court), consisting of men with extraordinary talents. He was seen as a just emperor and was as famous for his religious tolerance as for his military prowess. During his reign India saw unprecedented growth in the fields of art, music and architecture. William Wells Brown (1814 - 1884) American writer. Born into slavery, Brown escaped and educated himself eventually settling in Boston to become a writer. His autobiography, Narrative of William W. Brown, A Fugitive Slave was a popular narrative on abolition and slavery. His only novel Clotel about the descendants of Thomas Jefferson and a slave is the first novel ever published by an African American. D.W. Griffith (1875-1948) American filmmaker. Considered to be the first great genius of American film direction, Griffith pioneered various techniques of film direction such as the dramatic use of camera angles, camera movement, lighting effects and film editing. Despite being a racist vision of the Civil war, his masterpiece The Birth of a Nation is still lauded as one of the finest works of American cinematographic history. April 2014 George Boole (1815 – 1864) A self taught British mathematician. He became professor of mathematics at Queens College in Ireland. He wrote Laws of Thought where he argued that logic was closer to the school of mathematics than the school of philosophy. His Boolean Algebra is used in a number of technological applications including telephones and computers. Casimir the Great (1310-1370) The son of Wladyslaw I, he was the King of Poland and like his father sought to make Poland the central power in Europe. He established treaties with Hungary, Bohemia and the Teutonic order and also dynastic alliances that tied him to several royal European families. As well as codifying the Teutonic law, he founded the University of Krakow. Louis Brandeis (1856-1941) US lawyer and Associate Supreme Court Justice. The son of Bohemian Jewish immigrants, Brandeis was a Harvard law graduate who became known as ‘the people’s attorney’ for his defence of the constitutionality of labour laws. He played a key role in the movement to provide life insurance plans for working people and in passing the Clayton Anti Trust Act in 1914. He is also known to have developed the ‘Brandeis brief’ which uses economic and sociological data along with historical facts and expert opinion to support any legal argument. Edward Dickinson Baker (1811-1861) U.S Senator from Oregon. Baker was a close friend of President Lincoln and raised the California Regiment at the outbreak of the Civil War. He became acquainted to Lincoln when they served together at the Illinois legislature. The President’s second son, Edward, was named after him. Edvard Munch (1863 – 1944) Norwegian painter and printmaker. Munch was famed for his expansion of psychological themes built upon Symbolism. He had a great impact on 20th century German Expressionism. His most famous work is The Scream produced in 1893. Pasquale Paoli (1725-1807) Neapolitan soldier and statesman. A young junior officer in the Neapolitan Army, he placed himself at the head of the revolt of the island of Corsica against the Republic of Genoa in 1775. Despite failing to procure a military victory, he succeeded in creating a functioning state, promulgating a written constitution and establishing a parliament, thus, gaining the admiration of the likes of Jean Jacques Rousseau and James Boswell. Robert Bosch (1861 – 1942) German industrialist, engineer and inventor. Born to a farming family, his father laid special emphasis upon the education of his twelve children, of which Bosch was the youngest. He founded the Robert Bosch GmBH, a German multinational engineering and electrics company. Andreas Hofer (1767-1810) Tyrolese nationalist. An innkeeper by trade, in 1808 he called the Tyrolese to arms to expel the French and Bavarians, and twice succeeded in freeing the Tyrol from invaders. He was eventually captured however and, on Napoleon’s instigation, executed. Edwin Lutyens (1869 – 1944) British architect. Known for his ingenuous adaptations of traditional architectural styles into modern usage. Widely regarded as ‘the greatest British architect’ he designed much of New Delhi, the present capital of India, including the India Gate and the Rashtrapati Bhavan. Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906 – 1945) Bonhoeffer was a German Lutheran Pastor, theologian and anti-Nazi dissident and founding member of the Confessing Church. His writings on Christianity’s role in the secular world were immensely popular and his seminal work The Cost of Discipleship became a modern classic. Edward Milne (1896-1950) British astrophysicist. Professor of Mathematics at Manchester and Oxford Universities, he made notable contributions to the study of cosmic dynamics. Notably, he estimated the age of the earth to be two thousand millions years. Chulalongkorn (1853-1910) Siamese ruler. He acted to combat the influence of European colonial powers over Siam. His use of military skirmishes, territorial appeasement and wider diplomatic shrewdness helped make Siam one of the few nations in the region to avoid colonial conquest. Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) Indian statesman. An Indian nationalist who campaigned for Indian independence, he worked closely with Mahatma Gandhi. He became India’s first prime minister on gaining independence in 1947, holding the role until his death in 1964. Pak Hon-yong (1900-1956) Korean politician. A leader in the Korean communist movement during Japanese rule, after the Second World War he moved to establish communist rule in the North. A key leader during the Korean war, he was later executed by rival Kim Il-Sung. Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789-1857) French mathematician. Originally planning to become an engineer, ill-health forced him to retire and teach mathematics. He is best known as the founder of the theory of functions of a complex variable, but he also made significant contributions to algebra and wave theory. Ma Rulung (1856-?) Chinese Muslim warlord. Along with Du Wenxiu he initially rebelled against the Chinese Qing Dynasty in the Panthay Rebellion, though later defected to the Qing. He defeated the remaining Muslim rebels and went on to exercise almost total control over Yunnan province. Pieter Gerardus van Overstraten (1755- 1801) Dutch colonial administrator. After spending his early years in the colony, he became Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies in 1796, staying in the post until 1801, when the colony became property of the Dutch state. Artaxerxes II (453 - 350 BCE) Persian King. Succeeding Darius II, upon his ascension to the throne he faced significant revolt in Egypt, while also facing rebellion from his brother, Cyrus. While able to defeat Cyrus he failed to re-conquer Egypt, despite several attempts to do so. Artaxerxes II (453 - 350 BCE) Persian King. Succeeding Darius II, upon his ascension to the throne he faced significant revolt in Egypt, while also facing rebellion from his brother, Cyrus. While able to defeat Cyrus he failed to re-conquer Egypt, despite several attempts to do so. Basil Zaharoff (1849-1936) Turkish armaments magnate. He amassed millions from the sales of arms between 1880 and 1900, and subsequently became a French citizen in 1913. In 1918 he was knighted by the British for his services during the Second World War Emiliano Zapata (1879-1919) Mexican revolutionary. A share cropper and local leader, after the onset of the Mexican revolution he mounted a land distribution program in areas under his control. Along with Pancho Villa, he fought the government of Venustiano Caranza, who eventually executed him. Cuahtemoc (1495-1525) Aztec ruler. The last Aztec leader and successor to Montezuma, he resisted Spain at the siege of Tenochtitlan in 1521. He was later executed while on an expedition with Hernan Cortes to Honduras. Charles Yerkes (1837-1905) American financier. A clerk who worked as a commission broker, he made and squandered a number of fortunes. He led the consortium which built Chicago’s street railways, but in 1899 was forced to sell out in Chicago amidst accusations of political deception. Charles Yerkes (1837-1905) American financier. A clerk who worked as a commission broker, he made and squandered a number of fortunes. He led the consortium which built Chicago’s street railways, but in 1899 was forced to sell out in Chicago amidst accusations of political deception. Thomas Cubitt (1788-1855) British builder. He revolutionised trade practices in the 19th century building industry, and with his brother Lewis was responsible for many significant projects in London, including Belgravia and the E front of Buckingham Palace. Hereward the Wake (1035-1072) English rebel. Through resisting the rule of William the Conquerer he became a subject of literary romance. He ambushed Normans who possessed his ancestral lands and attacked Ely and Peterborough Abbey. After escaping an attack in 1071 he disappeared. Ban Chao (32-102 CE) Chinese military leader. After a string of successful victories in battle, he became protector of the Western Regions in 91 CE and conquered much of western Turkistan up to the Caspian for the Han Dynasty – being the first to establish Chinese control over Turkistan. William Whitehead (1715-1785) British playwright. A fellow of Clare Hall, Cambridge, he travelled as tutor to Lord Jersey’s son, and in 1755 became secretary of the Order of Bath. In 1757 he was appointed Poet Laureate. He wrote tragedies, most notably The Roman Father in 1750. Eunomius (335-394) Turkish clergyman. Bishop of Cyzicus in 360, he was deposed for his radical Arian views, which argued that God the father was senior to Jesus. He became the leader of an extreme sect of Arians, known as the Eunomians. March 2014 William Whitehead (1715-1785) British playwright. A fellow of Clare Hall, Cambridge, he travelled as tutor to Lord Jersey’s son, and in 1755 became secretary of the Order of Bath. In 1757 he was appointed Poet Laureate. He wrote tragedies, most notably The Roman Father in 1750. Edvard Munch (1863-1944) Norwegian painter. He travelled through Europe before finally settling in Norway in 1908. While in Paris he came under the influence of Gauguin, and his paintings deal with themes of death and love. His most famous work, ‘the Scream’, was created in 1893. Mohammed Ahmed (1844-1885) African political leader. He was in the Egyptian civil service, then became a slave trader before finally becoming an effective rebel again British and Egyptian rule in East Sudan. He became known to his supports as ‘the Mahdi’, or Muslim messiah. James Bruce (1730-1794) British explorer. He became consul-general in Algiers (1763-1765), and in 1768 journeyed to Abyssinia by the Nile, Red Sea, Aswan and Massowah. His Travels to Discover the Sources of the Nile was published in 1790. Guan Tianpei (1781-1841) Chinese admiral. A Commander-in-Chief of naval forces under the Qing Dynasty, he played a key role in the First Opium War, fighting in the Battles of Chuenpee and the Battle of the Bogue. Highly respected by the British, he died in the Bogue conflict of 1841. Georgi Dimitrov (1882-1949) Bulgarian statesman. He helped form the Bulgarian communist party in 1919, but after leading an unsuccessful uprising in 1923 was forced to flee to the Soviet Union. In 1945 he returned to Bulgaria as head of the transitional government, and later became premier. Yongle (1360-1424) Chinese emperor. Third emperor of the Ming Dynasty, he seized the crown from his nephew after considerable bloodshed. His achievements included moving the capital to Beijing in 1421 and instituting civil service examinations, which lasted for nearly 700 years. Edward Whymper (1840-1911) British explorer. Originally a wood-engraver, he became better known for his mountaineering. Between 1860 and 1869 he conquered several previously un-scaled peaks, including the Matterhorn in 1865, where four of his party fell to their death. Edward Whymper (1840-1911) British explorer. Originally a wood-engraver, he became better known for his mountaineering. Between 1860 and 1869 he conquered several previously un-scaled peaks, including the Matterhorn in 1865, where four of his party fell to their death. Charles Foucauld (1858-1916) French soldier and monk. He led a military exploration to Morocco in 1883, but became known for his life as an ascetic. He became a trappist monk in France and Syria, a hermit in Nazareth, a garrison-priest in Beni-Abbes and a nomadic figure among the Tuareg, where he died. George Everest (1790-1866) British military engineer. He worked on the trigonometrical survey of India (1813-1843), being appointed surveyor-general in 1830. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1827 and knighted in 1861. Mount Everest is named in his honour. Henry Sacheverell (1674-1722) British preacher. Educated at Oxford, he began preaching sermons against Whigs, moderate Tories and dissenters. Such was the power of one sermon at St Paul’s Cathedral, where he attacked a Whig minister, that he was suspended from preaching for three years. Mirabai (1498-1565) Hindu mystic. Born into a privileged Hindu family, she broke social convention to live the life of a mystic and follower of Krishna. As a result of her lifestyle, her family unsuccessfully tried to have her killed. Her many poems remain widely popular in India to this day. Chiang Chen (1627-1699) Chinese academic. A native of Zhejiang, he was noted in his youth for his poetical talents and wide knowledge of ancient literature. Summoned to the Imperial Court, he was charged with writing a history of the Mings, and also produced many poems and essays. John Selden (1584-1654) English jurist. After studying at Oxford he was called to the bar in 1612, and from 1621 took an active role in the affairs of Parliament. He became a well known political figure, a distinguished legal historian and renowned Orientalist. Hipólito Yrigoyen (1852-1933) Argentinean politician. Born in Buenos Aires, he became leader of the Radical Civic Union party in 1892. Campaigning heavily for electoral reform, the achievement of this in 1912 ushered him into power as the first radical President of Argentina. Olaudah Equiano (1745 - 1797) African slave. A skilled writer, his work ‘The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano’ was a pioneering firsthand account of the horrors of slavery. He played a key role in the British abolitionist movement, helping to bring about the abolition of the slave trade. Michael Drayton (1563-1631) English poet. He wrote a large body of work in a great variety of styles, including plays and poetry. He benefitted from the generosity of many Noble patrons, and as a result his work is typically Elizabethan in style and conception. Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (1533-1592) French author. His witty, conversational style influenced not only French authors but also English speaking writers like Francis Bacon and Ralph Waldo Emerson. He invented the personal essay, a literary form based on individual observation and reflection. Millicent Fawcett (1847-1929) British suffragette. She led the non-violent National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS), and was an influential figure in women gaining the vote. She also campaigned in other areas, notably against the use of concentration camps in South Africa. Sophie Scholl (1921-1943) German revolutionary. A student, she took part in resistance to Nazi rule during the Second World War as part of the White Rose movement. She distributed leaflets criticising the conduct of the war and fascist ideology, but was executed for treason in 1943. Francois Rabelais (1494-1553) French writer and physician. A broadly educated and versatile scholar considered a father of European literature, he produced medical studies and translated Latin works into French. He is best known however for his comic masterpiece, Gargantua and Pantagruel. John Logie Baird (1888 - 1946) British inventor. Considered a pioneer in the development of television, he demonstrated the first televised moving objects, as well as making the first transatlantic TV broadcast and demonstrating the first color television. Saadi Shirazi (1184-1291) Persian poet. One of the greatest figures in classical Persian literature, his catalogue of work comprises 22 different kinds of writings in prose and verse. A keen traveler, he was taken prisoner during the Crusades but ransomed by a merchant of Aleppo. Brigham Young (1801-1877) American Mormon leader. Converted in 1832, he became one of the twelve apostles of the church in 1835 and its president upon the death of Joseph Smith in 1844. He led the Mormons to Utah in 1847, where they founded Salt Lake City. Omar Khayyam (1048-1131) Persian philosopher. His written works crossed a number of areas, including science, metaphysics and algebra. His skill as an astronomer led to him being asked by the sultan to reform the Muslim calendar, though his agnosticism frustrated Islamic religious figures. Xenophon (427 BCE - 355 BCE) Greek historian. While originally a pupil of Socrates, he showed more interest in war than philosophy, fighting in the armies of Cyrus the Younger of Persia. He later won acclaim as an essayist, with his work Hellenica the only surviving history of the Greece of this period. Marie Salle (1707-1756) French dancer. A child performer and daughter of an acrobat, she appeared in London in pantomime, making her Paris debut in 1718. One of the pioneers of dance without masks or elaborate hairstyles, she also created a number of roles of her own, notably Pygmalion. Johannes Gutenberg (1398 - 1468) German printer. After an early career as a blacksmith, he invented the world’s first printing press. Considered one of the most important developments in European history, it revolutionized publishing and introduced an era of cheaper and more accessible literature. J.A. Hobson (1858–1940) British social theorist. His writings on poverty helped influence the Edwardian liberal social conscience, leading to social reforms which introduced pensions and unemployment benefit for the first time. He later became an impassioned critic of imperialism. Helena Rubinstein (1870 - 1965) Polish businesswoman. Migrating first to Australia and then to the United States, she formed an immensely successful cosmetic company, one of the world’s first. Among the world’s richest women, she dedicated much of her late life to philanthropy, especially in the arts. John Dalberg-Acton (1834-1902) British intellectual. Considered one of the foremost intellects of his age, he excelled as both a scientific historian and Catholic philosopher. His work is distinguished by the application of rigorous standards of accuracy and ethical principles to history. February 2014 John Harrison (1693 – 1776) British clockmaker. His life work was the invention of the marine Chronometer in 1737, enabling a ship to accurately know its longitude at sea for the first time. This major technical achievement was critical in the development of long-distance sea travel. Samuel Dupont (1803-1865) American naval officer. During the American Civil War he organised the blockade of the South Atlantic by Federal forces and captured the ports of South Carolina and Georgia. Wrongly blamed for the failure of attacks on Charleston in 1863, he was relieved of command. Ch'u Sui-liang (596-698) Chinese official. He rose to high office under the first emperor of the Tang dynasty, Gaozu, becoming Guardian of the Heir Apparent. In 655 however, he opposed the elevation of Empress Wu Hou, and was dismissed to a provincial post and later banished to Korea, where he died. Pindar (522 BCE - 438 BCE) Greek writer. Growing up in Thebes, he was sent to Athens where his writing skill was quickly recognized. A compose of odes, his works concentrate on sporting and religious festivals. He was regarded by the ancient Greeks as the greatest of their lyric poets. Ouyang Xun (557-641) Chinese scholar. Originally in the service of the Sui dynasty, he became supervising censor under Emperor Gaozu of Tang. Famous as a calligraphist, he gained such a reputation that envoys were sent from as far afield as Korea to learn his style. Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906) American social activist. She began campaigning within the temperance movement, from where she became convinced of the need for female suffrage. She regularly toured America campaigning against slavery and for women’s and workers rights. Nicarao (?) Cacique chieftain. A chief in what is now south-east Nicaragua, in 1522 he was one of the first in the region to interact with Spanish conquistadors. He entered into a treaty with the Spanish, who then dubbed the region Nicarao. Eventually the word became ‘Nicaragua.’ Heraclitus Ephesus (535-475 BCE) Greek philosopher. Despite only writing one work, his ideas influenced Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Popularly associated with the idea that the only unchanging feature of the universe is its changefulness, he is known as ‘the obscure.’ William Lendrum Mitchell (1879-1936) American soldier and airman. After World War 1, during which became chief of air operations, he conducted an energetic campaign against official failure to realise the importance of air power. When he attacked a superior for ‘almost treasonable incompetence’ he was court-martialled and forced to resign. He predicted the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour. Nine years after his death the US Congress posthumously promoted him to the rank of major-general and awarded him the Medal of Honour. Joseph Black (1728-1799) Scottish physician and chemist. He realised that carbon dioxide is chemically distinct from air, and was the first to show the differences between mild and caustic alkalis. Black also advanced the theories of specific and latent heat and laid the foundations of calorimetry. Charles the Fat (839-888) Carolingian emperor, the last to rule over a united empire. Charles was granted lordship of Alemannia after the division of East Francia and also succeeded to the Italian throne. Upon the death of his cousin Carloman II in 884, he inherited all of West Francia. He was deposed by his nephew in 887 and died a few weeks later. John, Duke of Bedford (1389-1435) English regent in France after the death in 1422 of his brother King Henry V. The maintenance of English rule in northern France depended chiefly on him. His prolonger success rested on his good relations with his brother-in-law, Duke Philip of Burgundy. Dalip Singh (1837-93) Son and successor of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. During his minority the Sikhs were defeated and the Punjab annexed to British India in 1849. Dalip was granted a pension. He became a Christian and an English landowner in Norfolk, but in 1886 re-embraced Sikhism. Georgii Apolloonovich Gapon (1870-1906) Russian priest, who founded the association of Russian Factory Workers in St Petersburg in 1903 with police protection, and who led the procession on Bloody Sunday in 1905. He was murdered by Socialist-Revolutionaries. Knut Hanson (1859-1952) Norwegian author who was an early critic of the materialism and industrialization of his times, and became a romantic in his prose and verse works. His admiration of German philosophers such as Nietzsche, and of the German romantic ideals led him to support that country in both world wars, and despite German occupation of Norway in 1940. John Hancock (1737-93) US politician and merchant who supported the sons of liberty and became a popular figure when his sloop Liberty was seized by the British for smuggling in 1768. The subsequent legal case became a symbol of opposition to British custom laws. Hang Tuah (15th century) Popular hero of ancient Malaya, admiral (laksamana) of the sultanate of Malacca during the reigns of Mansur Shah and Alauddin Riayat. He was also a contemporary of the prime minister, Tun Perak, and is, together with the latter, closely associated with the expansion of Malacca. Frumentius (300-380 CE) Apostle of Ethiopia. Originally from Lebanon, he was captured by Ethiopians while on a voyage, became the King’s secretary, and gradually secured the introduction of Christianity. He was consecrated Bishop of Axum in 346 CE. Frederick II (1194-1250) Holy Roman Emperor. His reign was marked with clashes with the papacy, desiring to consolidate imperial power in Italy and the expense of the Holy See. He led the Sixth Crusade, taking possession of Jerusalem and crowning himself King in 1229. Al Jolson (1886-1950) American entertainer. Born Asa Yoelson, he became one of America’s most popular entertainers. He impressed vaudeville audience of the 1920s with his comic routines and songs, which included ‘Mammy’ and ‘Sonny Boy’. Sequoyah (1770-1843) Cherokee Indian leader. Likely the son of Nathaniel Gist, a British trader, and a Cherokee mother, he was a major influence behind the decision of the Cherokee to integrate more with white culture. He also invented an alphabet for the Cherokee language. Harold L. Ickes (1874-1952) American politician. Originally a Republican, he later joined the Democrats and was a passionate supported of Franklin Roosevelt – acting as his ‘hatchet man.’ As head of the Public Works Administration, he played a major role in the New Deal (1933-1939). Alfred Nobel (1833-1896) Swedish industrialist. After living in Russia, America and Paris early in his career, he settled in Stockholm and built a vast industrial empire, the centre point of which was dynamite, which he invented in 1866. He left his vast fortune to endow the annual Nobel Peace Prizes. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935) Russian rocket scientist. He is considered a founding father in Rocketry and Astronautic theory. He was the first to argue for multi-stage rockets and to suggest the use of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen as propellants, burnt in a combustion chamber. Theodore Richards (1868-1928) American chemist. He studied at Haverford and at Harvard, where he became professor of chemistry in 1901. He is best known for his work on atomic weights which indicated the existence of isotopes, and was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1914. John Forrest (1847-1918) Australian explorer. Working in Western Australia’s survey department from 1864, he led expeditions from Perth to Adelaide along the Great Australian Bight (1870) and into the interior (1874). He later served as the first premier of Western Australia from 1890-1901. Dolores Ibárruri (1895-1989) Spanish politician. Joining the Spanish Communist party in 1921, she was arguably the most effective propagandist during the Spanish Civil War. She was elected as a Communist deputy to the Cortes in 1936 and fled to the USSR after Franco’s victory. Al-Ghazali (1058-1111) Islamic philosopher. He wielded considerable political and academic influence as professor of Philosophy at Nizamiyah College, Baghdad, before suffering a spiritual crisis which caused him to leave his position. He later founded a monastic community. January 2014 John Boyd Dunlop (1840-1921) British inventor. While working as a veterinary surgeon in Belfast, he invented the pneumatic tyre in 1887, originally for bicycles. He formed a business in 1889 which eventually came to be known as the Dunlop Rubbery Company. Du Fu (712-770) Chinese poet. A minor official at the Tang court of Xuanzong, he was a prolific writer whose works centered on themes of friendship, political comment and social criticism. His best known works include ‘Journey from the Capital’, ‘Autumn Day’ and ‘The War Chariot.’ Pope John XXIII (1881-1963) Italian clergyman. Born Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli, elected Pope in 1958. He was responsible for convening the Second Vatican Council in 1962, through which he intended to update and reform the church, but died after the first session. Thomas Pride (?-1658) English general. Little is known of his early life, but by 1645 he was commanding a regiment at Naseby for the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War. In 1648 he was appointed by the army to remove Royalists in the House of Commons, in an event known as Pride’s Purge. Nicéphore Niépce (1765-1833) French chemist. Early in life he served in the army, and in 1795 became administrator of Nice. In 1801 he devoted himself to Chemistry, and in 1826 succeeded in producing a permanent photographic image on metal, a considerable development in photography. Antonio José de Sucre (1793-1830) Venezuelan statesman. A close confidant of Simón Bolívar, he helped free Bolivia from Spanish Rule through the Victory of Aya Cucho in 1825, becoming its first president in 1826. He later fought for Colombia, supervising victory at the Battle of Giron in 1829. Sima Qian (145-97 BCE) Chinese historian. He succeeded his father as grand historian in 110 BCE, but angered the emperor when he defended a disgraced military leader. Escaping execution, he went on to produce Shih Chi, a revolutionary dynastic history of China. Muhammad Iqbal (1873-1938) Indian philosopher. A classical style author whose writings were intended for recitation, his work was formative on the movement which led to the creation of the separate Muslim of Pakistan. His best known work is Secrets of the Self, published in 1915. C.E.M. Joad (1891-1953) British philosopher. A prolific author of more than forty books, he made the subject of philosophy accessible to the general reader, often including his own forthright opinions. His most successful work was a Guide to Philosophy, published in 1936. Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582) Japanese daimyo. Born into a noble family, he became a general and occupied the old Japanese capital, Kyoto, in 1568. Here he destroyed the power of the Buddhist Church, promoting Christianity as a counter balance, and built Azuchi Castle as his headquarters. John Wesley Powell (1834-1902) American explorer. Despite having lost an arm during the American Civil War, he became one of the foremost explorers of the American west. He led the Powell Geographic Expedition in 1869, which discovered the first known passage through the Grand Canyon. Percival Pott (1714-1788) British surgeon. He acted as senior surgeon at St Bartholomew’s Hospital in London, where he introduced improvements to make surgery more humane. In 1765 he wrote Fractures and Dislocations, an influential study on a leg fracture he suffered himself. Gus Khan (1886-1941) American songwriter. A Tin Pan Alley writer for film and musical theatre, he shared a successful partnership with Walter Donaldson and provided a number of hit songs. These included ‘Yes, Sir, That’s My Baby’ (1925) and ‘All God’s Chillun Got Rhythm’ (1926). Queen Seondeok (? - 647) Korean ruler. Queen of Silla, one of the three Traditional Kingdoms of Korea, from 632 to 647 CE. Only the second female ruler in East Asian history, her reign saw the flourishing of education and religious culture, with the temple of Bunhwangsa constructed in 634. Rose Macaulay (1881-1958) British author. Her work was often humorous and urbane, with the most notable being Potterism (1920), Told by An Idiot (1923) and They Were Defeated (1932). She also worked as a journalist and published travel writing. Sennacherib (? - 681 BCE) Assyrian king. The son of Sargon II and grandfather of Assurbanipal, he was a strong ruler, famous for his conquest of Babylon (689 BCE) and his rebuilding of Ninevah. As a result of his attack on Jerusalem, he features prominently in the Bible. Manuel Quezon (1878-1944) Filipino statesman. Acting as President of the Philippine Senate from 1916-1935, he was elected the first president of the Philippine Commonwealth. Here he introduced a highly centralized government, but won admiration for his courage during the Second World War. Charles Goodyear (1800-1860) American inventor. Amid poverty and ridicule, he pursued experiments into the properties of rubber, eventually inventing vulcanised rubber. This led to the development of the rubber-manufacturing industry and the tyre brand named after him. Apollonius of Tyana (3-97 CE) Greek philosopher. A zealous teacher in the tradition of Pythagorus, he was hailed as a prophet and a worker of miracles. Worshipped after his death, his legend even led to the philosopher Philostratus to erroneously suggest he was a heathen rival to Jesus Christ. Qiu Jin (1875-1907) Chinese revolutionary. She acted as a leading advocate for women’s rights, holding membership in various organistions plotting against the ruling Qing Dynasty. Executed after a failed uprising in 1907, she is lauded as a Chinese revolutionary heroine. Nathan Hale (1755-1776) American soldier. He volunteered for the Continental Army shortly after the commencement of the War of Independence. During the Battle of Long Island he operated behind enemy lines as a spy, but was caught and hanged for espionage by British forces. His purported final words were regret that ‘I have only one life to give for my country’. Henry Flood (1732-1791) Irish statesman. After studying at Dublin and Oxford, he became leader of the Popular Party in the Irish Parliament after his election in 1759. In 1775 he became vice-treasurer of Ireland, but he was removed in 1781 for his nationalist views. Elected to Westminster in 1783, he failed to make the same impact. Albert I (1875-1934) Belgian king. Acceding to the throne on the death of his father, Leopold II, in 1909, he was considered a successful and well liked monarch. He was noted for his defense of Belgium during the First World War, where he urged ‘stubborn resistance’ and personally directed forces in the field. James Glaisher (1809-1903) British meteorologist. Joining the Ordnance Survey aged twenty, he later became chief meteorologist at Greenwich. Here he conducted a range of pioneering experiments, including a number of balloon ascents to study the atmosphere, with one such ascent reaching a height of over 11km. Frits Zernike (1888-1966) Dutch physicist. Professor of Physics at Groningen University for nearly fifty years, he developed the phase-contrast microscope in 1938, which allowed the study of cell structure without the use of stains that kill the cell. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1953. John Hadley (1682-1744) British mathematician. He developed a string of improvements to the Gregorian reflecting telescope, succeeding in making it into an accurate and effective tool for use in astronomy. He later also designed a double-reflecting quadrant which became the basis for the sextant. Pindar (522 BCE - 440 BCE) Greek poet. He studied in Athens and became famous as a composer of odes throughout the Greek world, becoming the chief lyric poet of Greece. Although his work encompassed a range of themes and styles, only his Epinikia (Triumphal Odes) have survived in entirety. Nicholas Nikolaevich (1856-1929) Russian general. A member of the Romanov dynasty, he served with distinction during the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78). His career peak would come at the onset of the First World War, when he was placed in command of all Russian armies, but he was ill-equipped for the task and sacked by Tsar Nicholas II in 1915. Mei Sheng (?-141 BCE) Chinese poet. Writing during the Han Dynasty, he was a pioneer of the Fu (rhapsody) form of poetry. He is credited with the introduction of the five-character line, and for this reason is often considered ‘the father of modern Chinese Poetry.’ Ashoka (304-232 BCE) Indian king. The last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, he grew his territory through constant conquest until it stretched across nearly the whole Indian subcontinent. The destructive nature of his conquests led him to become a convert to Buddhism, establishing it as the state religion. Zog I (1895-1961) Albanian statesman. Born Ahmed Bey Zogu, he formed a republican government in Albania, acting as Prime Minister from 1922-1924 and then President from 1925-1928. He remarkably proclaimed himself king in 1928, but was forced to flee after the Italian invasion in 1939 and abdicated in 1946. December 2013 August Neidhardt von Gneisenau (1760-1831) Prussian field marshal. He joined the Prussian Army in 1786, and his long distinguished service included fighting at Saalfeld and Jena in 1806 and acting as an architect of Prussia’s victory at Liepzeig in 1813. He is often considered the greatest Prussian general since Frederick the Great. Henry Harwood (1888-1959) British naval commander. As the commander of the Royal Navy’s South American fleet, he was responsible for British ships at the Battle of the River Plate, in which the German pocket Battleship Graf Spree was trapped and scuttled. In 1942 he became commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean fleet. James Forrestal (1892-1949) American politician. After serving during the First World War and a career in business, he served as secretary of the navy from 1944-1947. He was then appointed to the newly created post of secretary of defence, but resigned in 1949 and committed suicide shortly afterwards. Ancus Marcius (642-617 BCE) Roman ruler. Traditionally the fourth King of Rome, he is said to have conquered the neighboring Latin tribes, settling them on the Aventine Hill. This was part of the extension of Roman territory under his rule which saw it reach the sea, where he established the port of Ostia. Isaac Barre (1726-1802) British politician. After an early career as a soldier, including a stint during the Seven Years War, Barre became a passionate follower of William Pitt the Elder, knows as ‘The Great Commoner’. Notably, Barre joined Pitt in sympathising with the British colonies in North America, attacking the Stamp Act, dubbing those who opposed it ‘Sons of Liberty’. Zhou Enlai (1898-1975) Chinese politician. Born in Kiangsu Province, in 1927 he became a member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of China, later holding a number of key positions within the party. In 1947 he became prime minister of the Chinese People’s Republic, holding this role until his death. Christy Mathewson (1880-1925) American baseball player. A leading right-hand pitcher, he played seventeen seasons for the New York Giants between 1900 and 1916, joint holding the record of 373 wins. He was one of the first five players to be elected to the baseball hall of fame in 1936. Frederick Soddy (1877-1956) British radiochemist. Studying in Wales and at Oxford, he spent most of his career at the latter as professor of chemistry. In 1913 he discovered forms of the same element with identical chemical qualities but different atomic weights (Isotopes), for which he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1921. Joseph Fouché (1759-1820) French statesman. Born in Nantes, he was elected to the National Convention in 1792 as a Jacobin, and in 1799 he became minister of police, a post he successfully held until 1815. A noted intriguer, once the Bourbon monarchy was restored, he was exiled and died in Trieste. Samuel Franklin Cody (1862-1913) British-American aviator. Moving to Britain in 1896, he experimented with man-lifting kites and participated in the construction of the first British dirigible. In 1908 he built an early aeroplane, but was tragically killed in a flying accident five years later. Gyula Andrássy (1823-1890) Hungarian statesman. A supporter of Lajos Kossuth, he was prominent in the struggle for independence in 1848-49, which resulted in his exile until 1858. When the Dual-Monarchy was created in 1867, he became Hungary’s first Prime Minister, serving until 1861. Otto Braun (1900-1974) German communist. After origins in left-wing German politics, he fled to the Soviet Union where he was dispatched by the Comintern to aide Chinese communists. Here he helped shape the Chinese approach, but power struggles eventually left him isolated and he returned to the Soviet Union. Josef Pilsudski (1867-1935) Polish statesman. An army leader and primary figure in the Polish independence movement during the First World War. He became frustrated with the newly independent Polish democratic government, and in May 1926 staged a coup, subsequently ruling Poland until his death in 1935. Adolphus Greeley (1844-1935) American explorer. He led a US exhibition in 1881 to Smith Sound in the Arctic, where metereological station was set up, and travelled to within 396 miles of the North Pole, the farthest point reached till then. In 1888 he helped form the American Geographical Society. Zhang Guotao (1897-1979) Chinese politician. While a student he was involved in the May Fourth Movement of 1919, and by 1921 had joined the new Chinese Communist party. Playing a lead role in the Nanching Mutiny in 1927, he later opposed the elevation of Mao as leader, defecting to the nationalists in 1938. Vladimir Ipatieff (1867-1952) Russian chemist. An officer in the Russian army, he was professor of chemistry at the Artillery Academy in St. Petersburg. He synthesised isoprene, a basic unit of rubber, and contributed to the understanding of catalytic chemistry. During the First World War he directed Russia’s chemical industry. John L. Lewis (1880-1969) American trade unionist. Growing up in Iowa, he was leader of the United Mine Workers Union for forty years, forming in 1935 the combined Congress of International Organizations. A skilled spokesperson, he made the Miner’s Union one of America’s most powerful. Heraclius (? - 641) Byzantine emperor. He became Emperor in 610 CE, with the Byzantine Empire crumbling, but within six years had strengthened the imperial army and produced a string of victories. These came most notably against the Persians, who had almost captured Byzantine, but he struggled later to combat the Arabs. Lucia Elizabeth Vestris (1797-1856) British actress. The daughter of a renowned German pianist, her incredible singing ability led her to hold the starring role in a string of successful opera productions in London. From this she accumulated a small fortune which she used to start a career as a theatre producer and manager. Simonides of Ceos (556-468 CE) Greek poet. Born on the island of Ceos, he was a seasoned traveler, and lived for many years in Athens. When Persia invaded Greece, his poems concentrated on the heroes and the battles of the conflict. He was believed to have been the first Greek poet who wrote for fees. Etienne Dolat (1509-1546) French publisher. Settling in Lyon in 1534, he set up a printing press on which he printed translations of the classics, as well as Erasmus and Rabelais. He was often arrested for publishing heretical books, being burned for this in 1546 – an event which lead to his nickname as ‘the first martyr of the Renaissance.’ Jane Shore (?-1527) English courtesan. Originally marrying a goldsmith, in 1470 she became the mistress of Edward IV, living in luxury till his death in 1483. She was not favoured by Richard III however, who forced her to do public penance from which she never recovered, and she died a beggar. Kim Gu (1876-1949) Korean politician. A member of the Donghak movement in his early age, he grew to become one of the most prominent leaders of the Korean Independence Movement against Japanese rule. The last leader of the Korean government in exile before 1945, he is considered one of the founding fathers of modern day South Korea. Christopher Latham Sholes (1819-1890) American inventor. After an early career as a newspaper editor and government official, his most famous creation was the typewriter, which he invented with Carlos Glidden and Samuel Soule. A patent was granted in 1868, which Sholes later sold to the Remington Arms Company. Yamagata Aritomo (1838-1922) Japanese statesman. He helped develop the Japanese Army in the wake of the Meiji Restoration, and would go on to become field marshall and twice Japanese prime minister. His influence contributed to the development of the modern militarist Japanese nation state of the early twentieth century. Robert Napier (1810-1890) British field marshall. Born in Ceylon, he joined the Bengal Engineers in 1826, distinguishing himself at the Siege of Lucknow in 1857, the Chinese War in 1860 and the expedition of Abyssinia in 1868. In 1870 he became commander-in-chief in India. Étienne Lenoir (1822-1900) Belgian inventor. By converting a steam engine to burn a mixture of coal-gas and air, and by successfully commercialising it, he became the inventor of the first widespread internal combustion engine. He later adapted it to run on liquid fuel, and used it in 1860 to propel a vehicle. Kazimierz Pulaski (1748-1779) Polish soldier. He fought against Russia, and was outlawed at the partition of Poland in 1772. In 1777 he went to America, organising ‘Pulaski’s legion’, a brigade of cavalry who entered Charleston in 1779 and held it until it was relieved. He was mortally wounded at the Siege of Savannah. Karl Liebknecht (1871-1919) German politician. A leading Marxist in Germany, his work was intensified during the First World War and he founded the Communist Party of Germany in 1919. He instigated the doomed Spartacist Uprising of 1919, and was later killed with co conspirator Rose Luxemburg by the right wing Freikorps. Liu Xin (50 BCE-23CE) Chinese astronomer. Scholar-minister to the Chinese usurper Wang Mang, he was the son of Confucian scholar Liu Xiang. He produced pioneering astronomical tables, catalogued 1080 stars and calculated the year at 365 385/1539 days. Henry Hudson (?-1611) English explorer. He explored the North East coast of North America, making claims for both the English and the Dutch. He entered the river which bears his name in 1609, and through the strait also named for him in 1610. Running short on supplies, his crew mutinied and he died a year later. November 2013 Procopius (499-565) Byzantine historian. He studied law, and accompanied Belisarius against the Persians in 526, Vandals in Africa in 533, and the Ostrogoths in Italy in 536. He was highly honored by Emperor Justinian for his work, and was appointed prefect of Constantinople in 562. John Gower (1325-1408) Medieval poet. A friend of Chaucer, his works include many French ballads written in his youth. He is best known however for a long English poem, Confessio Amantis, which comprises over one hundred stories on the theme of Christian and courtly love. Fu Zuoyi (1895-1971) Chinese general. Serving his military apprentice under the Warlord Yan Xishan, he won significant praise for his skilled defense of Suiyuan from the Japanese in 1936. During the Chinese Civil War, he surrendered the important garrison at Beiping to communist forces, and later served in the government of Communist China. Wilhelm Röntgen (1845-1923) German physicist. Throughout a career at the Universities of Giessen, Wurzberg and Munich, he produced key breakthroughs in physics. Notably in 1895 he produced and detected electromagnetic radiation in a wavelength range known now as X-rays – an achievement which won him the first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901. Eugene Burton Ely (1886-1911) American aviator. From humble origins as a car salesman, he grew to become a pioneer in aviation. He was involved in the first shipboard aircraft take off and landing in 1910, from the Cruiser USS Birmingham, though he tragically died at flying exhibition a year later. Valerian (?-260) Roman emperor. Proclaimed emperor by the legions in Rhaetia after the murder of Gallus in 253, he appointed his eldest son Gallienus as co-ruler. Plagued by problems throughout the empire, he was defeated by the Persians in Edessa in 260 CE, and was captured by Shapur I, dieing in captivity. Timothy Hackworth (1786-1850) British locomotive engineer. Manager of the Stockton-Darlington Railway between 1825 and 1840, he developed a number of famous railway engines, including the Royal George and most notably the Sans Pareil, rival of George Stephenson’s Rocket. William Wheeler (1819-1887) American statesman. Growing up impoverished in Malone, New York, he became a successful lawyer and businessman. Elected Vice President under Rutherford B Hayes, he served from 1877-1881 but showed little interest in the position – not standing for another term in 1880. Christian Doppler (1803-1855) Austrian physicist. A student at Vienna, where he became Professor of Physics at the same institution in 1851. He is best known for his breakthrough in discovery of the Doppler effect, the explanation of the perceived frequency variation of sound and light waves. Fan Zhongyan (989-1052) Chinese statesman. Serving as Chancellor during the Song dynasty, he was an energetic reformer, advocating administrative, social and agricultural reforms. He notably created a national school system for the first time, which raised standards and improved social mobility. JJ Thomson (1856-1940) British physicist. Professor of Experimental Physics at Cambridge University, in 1896 he demonstrated that cathode rays were rapidly-moving particles and that corspiscles (electrons) must be significantly smaller than the hydrogen ion. He won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1906, and was knighted in 1908. Robert Ripley (1893-1949) American illustrator. Beginning his career as a tombstone polisher, he became a newspaper cartoonist before founding the ‘Believe it or Not!’ cartoon of oddities in 1918. A roaring success, he used the wealth he acquired to buy an island in Long Island sound, naming it Bion, an acronym of ‘Believe It or Not!’ Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) Polish anthropologist. After studying at the Jagiellonian University, he moved to London and taught at the London School of Economics, where he became a Professor in 1927. He was a pioneer of ‘participant observation’ as a method of fieldwork, and a major proponent of functionalism in anthropology. Black Caesar (?-1718) African pirate. A tribal chieftain in West Africa, he was captured and sold into slavery before escaping to become a pirate. He spent nearly a decade terrorising ships around the Florida keys, before leaving to become a key figure aboard the Queen Anne’s Revenge, captained by the legendary Blackbeard. Ignaz Seipel (1876-1932) Austrian statesman. Formerly a Roman Catholic priest, he entered the government under Lammasch in 1918. After the collapse of Austro-Hungarian monarchy, he became leader of the Conservative party in 1920, being appointed Austrian chancellor two years later. He rebuilt the financial system of Austria by foreign loans. He died soon after an attempt on his life in 1932. Christy Mathewson (1880-1925) American baseball player. A leading right-hand pitcher, he played seventeen seasons for the New York Giants between 1900 and 1916, joint holding the record of 373 wins. He was one of the first five players to be elected to the baseball hall of fame in 1936. Osami Nagano (1880-1947) Japanese admiral. A fierce advocate of Japanese Naval power, he served as navy minister and commander-in-chief of the combined fleet in the years before the Second World War. During the conflict he was chief of the naval staff, planning the attack on Pearl Harbour. He died while on trial for war crimes. Aphra Behn (1640-1689) English writer. Raising in the Dutch colony of Surinam, she became a English spy in Antwerp, handling sensitive naval information. She later become known for her writing, notably her novel ‘Oroonoko’, and is widely considered the first professional female writer in English literature. Ayeshah (613-678) Muslim pioneer. The third and widely considered favourite of the nine wives of the Prophet Mohammed, she was the daughter of Abu-Bakr, the first Caliph. Embroiled in conflict over the role of Calpih after Mohammed’s death, she is nevertheless considered the ‘Mother of believers.’ Fra Diavolo (1771-1806) Italian guerrilla. He led resistance to the French occupation of Naples during the French Revolutionary Wars. His intense fighting habit and wild appearance led to him being dubbed by peasants as ‘Brother Devil’, with many considering him supernatural. Carl Wernicke (1848-1905) German neurologist. A professor at Breslau university, he studied brain damage involving the serious loss of language ability, known as aphasia. He successfully deduced the part of brain which this chiefly concerns. Theodore Richards (1868-1928) American chemist. After studying at Haverford College, he became professor of Chemistry at Harvard in 1901. He is best known for his investigations into atomic weights, which indicated the existence of isotopes. He won the Nobel Price for Chemistry in 1914. Charles Montagu (1661-1775) British statesman. He initiated the concept of the national debt with a proposal to raise a government loan of £1 million, a revolutionary step in national finance. He later founded the Bank of England in 1694 and acted as Chancellor of the Exchequer. Kang Youwei (1858-1927) Chinese philosopher. He organised thousands of scholars to demand national reforms as part of the Hundred Days of Reform in 1898. Despite initial approval by Emperor Zaitain, the movement collapsed after the Emperor was seized by Dowager Empress Ci-Xi. Youwei fled to Japan, only returning in 1914. Jebidiah Smith (1799-1831) American explorer. Originally a fur trader, he undertook two major expeditions of exploration in the Central Rockies and Columbia river areas between 1823 and 1830. Later he became the first white man to reach California overland. Porfirio Diaz (1830-1915) Mexican statesman. Spending his early years serving in the army resisting the French occupation, he was defeated in Presidential elections in 1875 before seizing power a year later. Ruling Mexico for thirty years, the revolution of Francisco Madero eventually forced him to resign in 1911. James Longstreet (1821-1904) American soldier. After serving the US army in the Mexican War, he resigned at the outbreak of the US Civil War to join the Confederacy. He fought in the Battle of Bull Run in 1861 and at Gettysburg in 1863, before surrendering with Robert E. Lee in 1865. Ahmed Arabi (1839-1911) Egyptian nationalist. He was the leader of a rebellion in 1881 against the Khedive Tewfik Pasha, which resulted in a nationalist government. The British intervened to defend their interests in the Suez Canal, and Arabi’s movement was eventually defeated at Tel-el-Kebir in 1882. Henry Ireton (1611 - 1651) English general. Serving in the Parliamentary Army during the English Civil War, he was one of the most aggressive enemies of King Charles I, signing the warrant for his execution. Serving by Cromwell’s side in Ireland, he died of the plague during the Siege of Limerick. Sitting Bull (1834-1890) Native American chief. Leader of the Dakota Sioux during the Sioux War, he led the defeat of Custer and his men at the Little Big Horn in 1876 before escaping to Canada. Surrendering in 1881, he later toured with Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show. October 2013 Ahmad Shah Durani (1724-1773) Afghan monarch. A chieftain of the Durani clan of the Abdali tribe, and a calvary general under the Persian Emperor Nadir Shah, he was elected King of the Afghan provinces in 1745. His reign was characterized by regular clashes with Sikh armies over the Punjab region. Mohammed Naguib (1901-1984) Egyptian general. As general of an army division in 1952 he carried out a coup in Cairo, ousting the monarchy of Farouk I and initiating the ‘Egyptian revolution’. Taking the office of president and commander-in-chief, he too was deposed two years later by Nasser. Saya San (1876-1937) Burmese nationalist. A passionate advocate for the rights of Burma’s peasant majority, he fomented a rebellion in Lower Burma in December 1930. The rebellion grew rapidly, only being suppressed after the colonial government deployed 10,000 troops to suppress it. San was arrested in 1932 and later executed. John Davis (1550-1605) English explorer. He undertook three major Arctic voyages in search of the Northwest Passage, the last of which he found the strait later named after him. He later discovered the Falkland Islands in 1592, but was killed by Japanese pirates off the coast of Singapore in 1605. Zhu De (1886-1976) Chinese soldier. Considered one of the founders of the Chinese Red Army, his career was closely associated with Mao Zedong, joining his troops with Mao during the Nanchang Mutiny of 1927. He later successfully combated Nationalist forces and led the Red Army during the Long March of 1934. Moses Maimonides (1135-1204) Spanish philosopher. A student of Aristotelian philosophy and Greek medicine from Arab teachers, he migrated to Egypt where he was close to Saladin, acting as his physician. His written works were a considerable influence of Jewish thought, notably his Dalat al-ha’irin from 1190. Haider Ali (1722-1782) Ruler of Mysore, India. Having conquered Calicut and fought the Marathas, he engaged in conflict with the British in 1767, winning several gains. In 1779 he and his son, Tippo, again fought the British colonial forces, but could not repeat their success – being finally defeated in 1782. Tintoretto (1518-1594) Venetian painter. Real name Jacopo Robusti, he began his studies under Titian. At 30 his qualities obtained general recognition through his paintings for the Scuola di San Marco. These included the Miracle of the Slave, in the Accademia at Venice. His other works included the colossal 74 feet by 30 feet Paradise. John Napier (1550-1617) Scottish mathematician. Although remembered as the inventor of logarithms, he was also an ardent Protestant theologian. In 1593 he published Canonis Descrioptio, the first explanation of the nature of logarithms. In 1617 he published Raddologia, which describes the method of using numerating rods for mechanical multiplication and division. These are commonly called ‘Napier’s bones’. Franz Liszt (1811-1886) Hungarian pianist and composer. An exceptional virtuoso of the piano – he was taught by his father – by the age of 12 he was an established concert artist. His romantic, expressive and often chromatic works include music for piano, symphonies, concertos and organ music. He died of pneumonia in Bayreuth, Germany, during a festival of Wagner’s music. Maximilian I (1459-1519) Holy Roman Emperor. His engaged in military campaigns in Italy and Switzerland but was plagued by financial difficulties, losing Austrian territories to the Swiss confederacy. He negotiated crucial marriage alliances however, with the lands inherited from these forming the Empire of Charles V, his grandson. Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519) Spanish soldier and explorer. Inspired by the success of Columbus, he first travelled to the New Word in 1500. He most famously crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513, where he was the first European to see the Pacific Ocean from the western shore of the New World. William I (1131-1166) King of Sicily. He ruled skillfully, promoting religious tolerance and science and letters during his reign. Unpopularity with Sicilian Barons led to his infamy however, dubbing him ‘William the Bad’, and his later reign was characterized by rebellions within his territories. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632 - 1723) Dutch biologist. Originally a successful textile merchant, he later began experimenting with micro-biographic study. His discovery of organisms in water in 1676 was the first case of bacteria being seen by man, and he is considered a father of microbiology. Douglas Bader (1910-1982) British airman. He was one of the leading flying aces of the Second World War, despite losing both legs in an aerobatic accident. He was shot down over German-occupied France and apprehended as a P.O.W., eventually being relocated to Colditz in response to his frequent attempts at escape. Harriet Taylor Mill (1807 - 1858) British philosopher. She was an early advocate for women’s rights, attacking those who felt women should exist in ‘separate spheres’ to men. Her work is often connected to that of her second husband, the philosopher John Stuart Mill, with whom she held a strong influence. Pacal the Great (603-683) Mayan King. Ruler of Palenque for 68 years from 615 to 683, he extended Palenque’s territory significantly and developed its architecture. Many civic buildings of note were constructed during his reign, some of which survive to this day. J.B. Danquah (1895-1965) Ghanian politician. A leading African nationalist, he sought greater self government for the colony of Gold coast, founding the United Gold Coast convention in 1947. After independence he clashed with President Kwame Nkrumah, being arrested twice for criticizing his rule. Kebineng (?-235) Chinese leader. An influential figure in Northern China during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period, he rose to power after the defeat of the rival Wuhuan people at the hands of the warlord Cao Cao, with whom Kebineng was willing to pay tribute in exchange for regional power. Joseph Bazalgette (1819-1891) British civil engineer. Through his role as chief engineer of London’s metropolitan Board of Works he had a significant impact on the development of London’s infrastructure. His creation of a sewer network between 1859 and 1865 improved the health of thousands of Londoners. Chulalongkorn (1853-1910) Siamese ruler. He acted to combat the influence of European colonial powers over Siam (modern day Thailand). His shrewd diplomatic skills, as well as the use of military skirmishes and territorial appeasement, helped make Siam one of the few nations in the region to avoid colonial conquest. Eduard Ivanovich Todleben (1818-1884) Russian soldier. A genius in military engineering, he won international fame for his defence of Sebastopol during the Crimean War (1854-55). In the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78) he was placed in charge of the siege of Plevna, which he ultimately captured. William Tyndale (1494-1536) English theologian. His translation of the New Testament was the first to be printed in English, with its simple, clear style a model for subsequent English translations of the Bible. Such translation was dangerously radical for the time, and he was executed for heresy and treason in 1536. Agesilaus II (444-360 BCE) Spartan king. Despite being disabled from birth, he grew to dominate Spartan politics. Through military might, tactical brilliance and ruthless subjugation, he made his state supreme in the Ancient Greek World by 380 BCE. Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969) Vietnamese revolutionary. He was the figurehead of the Vietnamese nationalist movement for over thirty years, leading the fight against the Japanese, the colonial French and the US-backed South Vietnamese. He was president of North Vietnam from 1954 until his death. Mithridates VI (120 BCE-63 BCE) King of Pontos. He acted as the figurehead for the resistance of the Hellenistic East against Roman expansion in the first century BCE. He inspired a feeling of revolt as far as Greece, but after three sapping wars, he was finally defeated by Pompey the Great and committed suicide. Roman von Ungern-Sternberg (1885-1921) Russian general. A combatant on the white side in the Russian Civil War, his eccentric behaviour and vicious treatment of enemies led to the nickname ‘Mad Baron.’ Afterwards he became an independent warlord, fighting the Chinese in outer Mongolia, before being executed by the Red Army. William II (1056-1100) Norman king. Popularly known as William Rufus because of his ruddy complexion, he was the third son of William the Conqueror (William I) and inherited the English throne. Killed by an arrow while out hunting, it remains unclear whether this was an accident or assassination. Marie Curie (1867-1934) French-Polish physicist and chemist. Together with her husband Pierre, she made incredible strides in the investigation of radioactivity. She was awarded the Nobel Prize twice, in 1903 and 1911, and her discoveries made her one of the most famous scientists of the time Philippe Pétain (1856 - 1951) French statesman. He was a national hero in France for his leadership during the defence of Verdun in the First World War. He was later however discredited for his leadership of the French collaborationist Vichy government in the Second World War, and sentenced to death. Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536) Queen of England. A Spanish princess, she was the first wife of Henry VIII and mother of the future Mary I. Henry’s desire to repeal his marriage to Catherine was the essential component in the beginning of the English reformation, and Henry would go on to have five more wives. September 2013 Pedro de Valdivia (1500-1553) Spanish conquistador. Originally serving with the Spanish army in Europe, in 1534 he was sent to South America, where he helped establish Santiago and extended Spanish influence to the Bío-Bío River. He became Governor of Chile in 1549, but was killed while attempting to pacify Southern Chile in 1553. Artaxerxes II (? - 358 BCE) Persian ruler. The son and successor of Darius II, much of his reign was spent fighting the rebellion incited by rival Cyrus the Younger. Heavily reliant on a close circle of advisers, in particular his wife Stateira, he is often dubbed ‘Artaxerxes the thoughtful’. John Cronyn Tovey (1885-1971) British admiral. He acted as the commander of the Home Fleet between 1940-3, under which he led the pursuit and destruction of the Bismarck, pride of Hitler’s Navy. The sinking was the most important surface battle fought by the Royal Navy in home waters during the Second World War. Jean-François Champollion (1790 - 1832) French intellectual. A classical scholar and archaeologist, he is often considered the key person responsible for deciphering the mystery of Egyptian hieroglyphics, successfully translating the Rosetta Stone in 1822. He is celebrated as the founding father of Egyptology. Titus (31-81) Roman emperor. The tenth emperor, his two year reign from 79-81 was short but eventful, witnessing the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79. He was noted for his positive relationship with his subjects, and his reign saw the opening of the Colosseum in 80. George Eliot (1819-1880) British author. The male title ‘George Eliot’ was the pen name of Mary Ann Evans, a leading English novelist of the 19th century. Her novels are celebrated for their realism and psychological insights, with ‘Middlemarch’ considered a British classic. Robert Smalls (1839-1915) American soldier and politician. Born into slavery, Smalls was forced into Confederate service aboard the ship CSS Planter, but along with other impressed seaman stole the ship and fled to the Union in 1862. He became a hero in the North, later being a navy captain and politician in South Carolina. Pliny the Younger (61-112) Roman statesman. He was an official and writer, whose most prominent post was as Governor of Bithynia-Pontusis from 110. He is most famous however for his letters, which chronicled political matters and domestic events and are an important source for Roman history. Alaric I (370-410) Goth tribal leader. He achieved rule over the Goths in the 390s, and he created the Visigoths, a powerful amalgamation of tribes which the Romans could never defeat militarily. His crowning achievement came in 410 when he conquered Rome, the first army to do so in 800 years. Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (1836 - 1917) British feminist. A pioneering political campaigner, her achievements included becoming the first Englishwoman to qualify as a doctor, though she was forced to study for her degree outside Britain at the University of Paris. She later also became the first female mayor and magistrate in the UK. Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616) Japanese statesman. He grew to fame as a skilled warrior, and seized control over Japan in 1600. He was the founder of the Tokugawa dynasty of shoguns, which would last until the Meiji Restoration in 1868, and thus is considered one of the most significant figures in Japanese history. Léonce Lagarde (1860-1936) French colonial administrator. He spent most of his career in East Africa, where he established the city of Djibouti. From here he expanded French territory westwards, creating the protectorate of French Somaliland and attempting to restrain the growth of British influence. Edward VI (1537-1553) English King. A member of the Tudor dynasty and son of Henry VIII, Edward was King for only a few years, and often in poor health. Dying at the mere age of 15, his short reign saw the comprehensive introduction of Protestantism. Charles Joseph Latrobe (1801-1875) Australian administrator, born in London of a Moravian family. He was an expert mountaineer and explorer and in 1834 crossed the American prairies from New Orleans to Mexico with Washington Irving. He was made Lieutenant-Governor of Victoria in 1851, retiring three years later. Mary Russell Mitford (1797-1855) English novelist. Tthe author of ‘Our Village’ (1824-32), five volumes of sketches descriptive of rural life. She also wrote several successful plays, including ‘Julian’ (1823) and ‘Rienzi’ (1828.) William Massey Ferguson (1856-1925) Prime Minister of New Zealand between 1912 and 1925. Born in Ireland, he emigrated to New Zealand in 1870 and entered parliament in 1894. He joined the Imperial War Cabinet in 1917 and represented New Zealand in the Treaty of Versailles of 1919. Vaslav Nijinsky (1892-1950) Russian dancer. He was one of the famous company of dancers which include Pavlova, Karsavina and Fokine brought by Diaghilev to Paris and London just before World War One. He was to establish for himself a supreme place among male dancers. Sir Isaac Pitman (1813-1897) The originator of modern shorthand writing and founder of the commercial school which bears his name. He as first a clerk, then a school teacher. His shorthand method revolutionised reporting around the world. Cesare Borgia (1476-1507) Italian cardinal and general. The illegitimate son of Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia (later Pope Alexander VI) and brother of Lucrezia Borgio. Originally a cardinal, he became the first person to resign a cardinalcy in 1498, and was later captain general of the papal army. Thomas Chatterton (1752-1770) English poet. Obsessed by the medieval period, he is chiefly remembered for his fabricated poems purporting to be those of a fifteenth century monk. He died from arsenic poisoning, a likely suicide, at the age of 17. Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) German engraver and painter. He was the leading German artist of the Renaissance, important for his technically advanced woodcuts and copper engravings. His vast body of work also included excellent examples of other mediums, including drawings and water colours. Khaemwese (1285-1230 BCE) Egyptian priest. The fourth son of King Ramesses II by Isitnofret, he was appointed to the priesthood of Ptah where he reached the position of high priest. He worked to maintain older Egyptian monuments and also served briefly as crown prince before predeceasing his father. Mario Garcia Menocal (1866-1941) Cuban solider and politician. He served in the war of independence (1895-1898), and was later a conservative president of Cuba between 1913 and 1921. His administration was market by material progress but much corruption and repression, notably putting down a liberal revolt in 1917. Thomas Arundel (1353-1414) English clergyman. After early positions as Bishop of Ely and Archbishop of York, Arundel served as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1397 and from 1399 until his death. While at Canterbury he spent much of his time aggressively attacking the Lollards, followers of John Wycliffe who sought Christian reform. Artaxerxes II (453 - 350 BCE) Persian King. Succeeding Darius II, upon his ascension to the throne he faced significant revolt, primarily in Egypt. He also faced a rebellion by his younger brother, Cyrus. While he was able to defeat Cyrus he never was able to re-conquer Egypt, despite several attempts to do so. Titus Oates (1649-1705) English perjurer. He is known for his role in concocting a story about a Catholic plot to murder King Charles II in 1678. He was initially lauded as a hero for detailing the plot, one which led to numerous executions, before the plot was found to be an elaborate hoax. Oates was fined and jailed for perjury. Nekau II (? - 595 BCE) Egyptian ruler. Ascending to the throne in 610 BCE, he attempted to stop the growth of Babylonian power by supporting the Assyrians, though this did little to stop his defeat at Babylonian hands at the Battle of Carchemish in 609 BCE. Elsewhere he was more successful, defeating the army of King Josiah of Israel the same year. Augustine of Hippo (354-430) Christian saint. After a serious of spiritual crises in his early life, he was baptised by St. Ambrose and became bishop of Hippo in 396. His writings, such as Confessions and the City of God, dominated subsequent Western Christian theology. He is considered a Doctor of the Church. Joe Hill (1879-1915) American labour leader. Emigrating from Sweden in 1901, he became active in the Industrial Workers of the World and also known for his songwriting. Arrested and convicted of murder in 1914, primarily on the basis of circumstantial evidence, he was executed and became a hero of the labour movement. Homer (?) Greek epic poet. Little is known of his life, though he is traditionally held to be the author of the Illiad and the Odyssey, two of the most influential works of western literature. Modern scholarship however has suggested it is likely these poems existed in a pre-literate oral tradition. August 2013 Robert William Wilcox (1855-1903) Hawaiian revolutionary. After military training at the Royal Military Academy in Italy, he led uprisings against both the government of the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1889, and its later successor, the Republic of Hawaii, in 1895. Pardoned in 1898, he was later elected U.S. Congress for the Territory of Hawaii. Prince William, Duke of Cumberland (1721-1765) British royal. The son of King George II, he is infamous for his brutal role in quelling the Jacobite rising of 1746. His ‘no quarter’ style for dealing with highlanders who supported Bonnie Prince Charlie earned him the nickname ‘Butcher’. He later became a key advisor during the early reign of King George III. Erwin Schrödinger (1887-1961) Austrian theoretical physicist. He founded the study of wave mechanics, notably through his development of the wave equation. After fleeing Nazi rule, he directed the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies in Ireland, and his works influenced scientists of many different disciplines. Mbande Nzinga (1582-1663) Angolan Queen. The ruler of the Ndongo and Matamba kingdoms, she led resistance against the Portuguese empire, who were increasingly encroaching on her territory in modern day Angola. After imaginatively defying their advance, she negotiated a peace treaty with the Portugal in 1620, continuing to refuse to pay tribute to the Portuguese king. Andre Massena (1756-1817) Duke of Rivoli and Marshal of France under Napoleon. After many military victories, including those at Saorgio, Zurich and Genoa, he became a marshal in 1804. The year 1810, however, saw his participation in the Peninsula War and the reversal of his fortunes. Robert Hooke (1635-1703) English natural philosopher. As the curator of experiments at the Royal Society, he formulated the law of elasticity and introduced the term cell to biological science. He also invented and developed many scientific instruments and mechanical devices, including some of the earliest Gregorian telescopes. Magnus V (1156-1184) Norwegian King. He was highly influenced by his father, who remained the real power behind the throne. Ruling during the Norwegian civil war era, he fought a long conflict with Sverrir Sigurdsson, being finally defeated in 1179. He fled to Denmark, where he was later slain in a naval battle. Nefertiti (1370-1330 BCE) Egyptian ruler. Renowned for her beauty, she was the powerful wife of Akhenaton, the Pharaoh who broke with religious tradition to promote the monotheistic worship of Aten. She later rejected this religion, backing her half-brother and helping him re-establish the old worship of the sun-god Amon. William Herschel (1738-1822) German born British astronomer. His cataloguing of the skies resulted in the discovery of the planet Uranus, along with two of its prominent moons, Oberon and Titania. He was one of the first astronomers to appreciate the great remoteness of stars. Booker T. Washington (1856-1915) American educationalist. He established the Tuskegee institute in Alabama and was a prominent leader of the African-American community. His support for segregation and his emphasis on black people’s vocational skills attracted criticism from other black leaders. Liliuokalani (1838-1917) Hawaiian Queen. Her short reign, from 1891 to 1893, was characterized by conflict with the USA, who had enforced a constitution on Hawaii rendering the monarchy almost powerless. Her push for a new political settlement led her to be deposed and arrested by a provisional government. She was the last monarch of Hawaii. Henryk Sienkiewicz (1846-1916) Polish novelist. He is best known for his novel dealing with the life of Christians under the Emperor Nero, Quo Vadis written in 1895, which was translated into many languages, and in the 1950s made into a Hollywood epic. Other of his works include Without Dogma (1893) and The Third Woman (1898). John Horne Tooke (1736-1812) English politician and pamphleteer, was a supporter of Wilkes and, later, of Pitt the Elder. His tracts advocated reforms; and after the French Revolution, he was tried for high treason and acquitted. Xenophanes of Colophon (500 CE) The founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy, developed by Parmenides of Elea. His philosophy was expressed in rhapsodical elegiac poems of which fragments only survive. Origen (185-253) Christian theologian born in Egypt. When he was aged 15 he attended the lectures of Pantaenus and Clement in Alexandria, and signs of his grasp of Greek philosophy and the Scriptures were soon apparent. He devoted much of his time to interpretation of the Scriptures, while he also studied Hebrew and the works of Plato. Francois Quesnay (1694-1774) French economist and surgeon, a founder of the Physiocrats. He was the author of the Tableau economique, a work which sought to demonstrate the ideal methods for the distribution of wealth, which was ultimately deprived from agriculture. Siraj ud-Daulah (1732-1757) Indian prince. As Nawab of Bengal, in 1756 he marched on the British fortification at Calcutta and captured Fort William. In retaliation, British forces joined with Siraj ud-Daulah’s general, Mir Jafar, and defeated him at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. He was captured and executed. Haakon I Haroldsson (914-961) Norwegian King. Brought up in England among the Christian court of King Athelstan, he seized the Norwegian throne in 945. While an able administrator and legislator, his attempts to convert Norway to Christianity brought intense resistance, and he died in battle fighting an insurrection. R.J. Mitchell (1895-1937) British aircraft designer. He joined the Vickers Armstrong Supermarine co in 1916, where he quickly became chief designer. He designed sea-planes, many of which won the Schneider trophy races, from which evolved the Spitfire, whose triumph in the Second World War he did not live to see. Antonio José de Sucre (1793-1830) South American statesman. He was Simón Bolívar’s lieutenant and help freed Bolivia from Spanish Rule through the Victory of Aya Cucho in 1825. He became the first President of Bolivia in 1826. He later fought for Colombia, winning the Battle of Giron in 1829, before being assassinated. Gautama (First Century CE) Indian philosopher. Born in Bihar, he founded Nyaya, one of the six classical systems of Hindu Philosophy. His Nyaya Sutras concern ways of knowing and reaching valid logical conclusions. These claims were later disputed by Srishasha and the Navya-nyaya school. Samuel Seabury (1729-1796) American clergyman. After education in the United States and Britain, he was imprisoned during the American War of Independence for his continued loyalty to Britain. Despite this, he was later elected as the first Episcopal Bishop of Connecticut and Rhode Island in 1785. Antonio Guzman Blanco (1829-1899) Venezuelan politician. Becoming Vice President in 1863, he was driven from office in 1868 before helping foment a revolution which returned him to power in 1870. He consequently installed dictatorial rule, holding the presidency on three occasions. In 1888 he was toppled, and he died in exile. August Bebel (1840-1913) German politician. One of the founders of the Social Democratic movement, he became one of its key leaders and its chief spokesman in the Reichstag. He wrote widely on a range of issues, including Marxist theory and the rights of women. Eusebius of Caesarea (264-340) Palestinian churchman. He had a long ecclesiastical career in the early church, becoming Bishop of Caesarea in 313 and being involved the Council of Nicea discussions. His wrote Ecclesiastical History, an important record of the events of the early Christian Church until 324. Xuanzong (685-761) Chinese Emperor. Of royal ancestry, he seized the crown in 712. His reign was highly successful, as he maintained a lavish court, reformed coinage, defeated the Tibetans in 747 and supported leading painters and poets. It ended in disaster however, during the An Lushan Rebellion. Lorenzo Batlle (1810-1887) Uruguayan statesman. After fighting in the Great War (1843-52), he became a key figure in the postwar period, acting as minister of war in the cabinet of Joaquin Suarez. Elected president in 1868, he struggled to contain internal and external conflict, as well as a destabalising economic crisis. François Joseph Paul de Grasse (1722-1788) French admiral. He served in the War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years War. As commander of the French fleet in Chesapeake Bay during the American War of Independence, he blockaded the York and James Rivers, trapping Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown and enabling the American victory. Albrecht Kossel (1853-1927) German biochemist. A professor of physiology at Marburg and then Heidelberg university, he investigated the chemistry of cells and of proteins, and the chemical processes in living tissue. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology of Medicine in 1910. Sargon II (705 CE) Assyrian king. One of the most powerful of Assyria’s rulers, he consolidated the empire through a series of long campaigns on the its north, east and western borders. He also continued military expansion, exercising hold over Syria, Babylon and Cyprus. Günther von Kluge (1882-1944) German general. After roles directing Nazi efforts on the Eastern front, in July 1944 he became commander of the Nazi armies in France confronting the Allied invasion. Relieved soon after for failing to halt the advance, he committed suicide after being implicated in the plot to kill Hitler. July 2013 Cixi (1835-1908) Chinese empress. Empress dowager of the Qing Xianfeng emperor and regent for both of his successors, she presided over the dynasty for nearly half a century. A controversial figure, she frustrated foreign powers and stifled reform, notably that of the hundred day movement. Hubert Gautier (1660-1747) French civil engineer. Originally a government engineer in the province of Laguedoc, he was appointed inspector of the Corps des Ponts in 1716, responsible for major public works in France. He was one of the first to recognise the importance of applying scientific principles to the design of engineering projects. Sulaiman II (1642-1691) Ottoman sultan. After spending the majority of his life in prison, he assumed the throne in 1687. From 1689 he secured a string of military victories, driving the Austrians out of Bulgaria, Serbia and Transylvania. After only four years as sultan however he was killed in battle, in 1691. John Nance Garner (1863-1967) American statesman. Born in Red River county, Texas, he became a Democratic congressman from Texas in 1903 and speaker of the House in 1931. Later vice president under Franklin D. Roosevelt, he helped steer much New Deal legislation through Congress in his first two terms. Atahualpa (1498-1533) Inca Emperor. On the death of his father, he ruled the northern half of the Inca Empire, the Kingdom of Quito, and in 1532 overthrew his brother who ruled Peru. During the period of European conquest, he was captured by the Spanish in 1532 and executed. He was the last Inca Emperor. Charles VIII (1408-1470) Swedish magnate. Elected King of Sweden and Norway in 1448, after the death of previous ruler Christopher III. He lost the Norwegian throne in 1450, and in 1457 a Danish inspired insurrection drove him out of Sweden. He was twice recalled to the throne however, in 1464 and 1467. Alexander Severus (208-235) Roman Emperor. The cousin and adopted son of Heliogabalus, whom he succeeded, Severus ruled from 221. A poor ruler, he was often controlled by others, principally his mother, and failed to control Rome’s military. He was eventually murdered by mutinous troops during a campaign in Germany. Edmond Rostand (1868-1918) French playwright. Best known as the author of the popular heroic comedy Cyrano de Bergerac in 1897. His other works included Les Romanesques and La Samaritaine. In 1901, Rostand became the youngest writer to be elected to the Académie Française. Sir John Pringle (1707-1782) Founder of modern military medicine. He revolutionised camp sanitation and ventilation in hospitals. He discovered that ‘Gaol Fever’, ‘Camp Fever’, and ‘Hospital Fever’ were all the same disease: typhus. Although it was not known until 1910 that this was carried by lice. James Gates Percival (1795-1856) US poet. Born in Berlin, Connecticut, in 1815 he graduated from Yale having studied medicine and botany. He became professor of chemistry at West Point in 1824 and of Geology at Wisconsin University in 1854. His poems included Prometheus, Clio, The Dream of the Day and James Gates Percival and his Friends. Ida (d 559) King of Northumbria, then known as Bernicia. The historian the Venerable Bede describes him as an Anglican king who advanced northwards over the River Tees in 547, landing at Flamborough. He created a fortified stronghold on the rocks of Bamburgh as his kingdom’s new capital. Leonard Digges (1520-1559) English mathematician. Believed to be self-educated, his books on navigation and surveying were re-printed many times in the 16th century. His ballistics’ work from his own experiments were documented in Strioticos, published, after his death, by his son Thomas in 1579. In 1554, he took part in Thomas Watt’s insurrection and was condemned to death. But subsequently pardoned and fined. Barney Barnato (1852-1857) South African mining speculator. London born, Barnato worked in vaudeville, then following his brother, went to the Kimberley region of South Africa with a small circus troupe. He made a fortune through diamonds there, but after playing a pivotal role in bringing about the 1895 Kaffir boom in mining shares, took his own life at sea. James Jeffries (1875-1953) American boxer. After training with ‘Gentleman’ Jim Corbett, he won the World Heavyweight Championship in 1899, retiring in 1905. He came out of retirement in 1910 to fight the new champion Jack Johnson, but was knocked out in the fifteenth round. His nickname was ‘the Boilermaker.’ J.S. Woodsworth (1874-1942) Canadian politician. A Methodist minister, he wrote literature concerning the problems of recent European immigrants to the Canadian prairies. A pacifist during the First World War, he was elected as a Manitoba Independent Labour MP in 1921, and advocated legislation for old age pensions. Miyamoto Musashi (1584 - 1645) Japanese warrior. Renowned for his remarkable swordsmanship, which he demonstrated regularly in duels. He founded the Niten-ryū sword fighting technique. He authored the Book of Five Rings, which dealt with fighting strategy, philosophy and tactics, which continues to be studied to this day. Lysius (c458-c380 BCE) Greek orator. The son of a rich Syracusian, he was educated in Italy before moving to Athens around 440 BCE. His family’s wealth was lost due to the Thirty Tyrants in 404, and his brother Polemarchus killed. He provided speeches for litigants, among others. His speeches were remarkably lucid and convincing. Plato’s Republic portrays the family home in Athens. John Russell, First Earl of Bedford (1486-1555) English courtier. Originally a gentleman usher to Henry VIII, he was entrusted with sever diplomatic missions and held influential court positions like Lord Privy Seal. He amassed considerable wealth, including the abbeys of Woburn and Tavistock, and the London properties of Long Acre and Convent Garden. Charles Marie de Lacondamine (1701-1774) French mathematician and geographer. He served in the army and explored extensively, and between 1735 and 1743 was sent to Peru to measure a degree of the meridian. He also explored the Amazon, making the first map of it based on astronomical observations, bringing back data on platinum and rubber. Ko Hung (283-343) Chinese intellectual and writer. A civil official during the Jin Dynasty, his considerable output of writing including historical writing, poetry, religious and esoteric questions. He is particularly known for his interest in Daoism and, above all, alchemy. Gilbert White (1720-1793) British clergyman. Spending most of his life living uneventfully as a curate in Hampshire, while here he kept a journal containing observations made in his garden. His letters on the subject, written over two decades, were published in 1789. They have since become a naturalist classic, never being out of print. James Scott, Duke of Monmouth (1649-1685) English statesman. The illegitimate son of Charles II, he was created Duke of Monmouth and became captain-general in 1670. He had significant popular support, and as a Protestant became a form of opposition to James II. Amidst fighting James at the Battle of Sedgemoor, he was captured and executed. James McGill (1744-1813) Scots-Canadian entrepreneur. Born in Glasgow, he immigrated to Canada in the 1770s and made a fortune in the fur trade. He bequeathed his fortune to found McGill College, Montreal, which became McGill University in 1821. Charlotte Despard (1844-1939) British social reformer. She was an advocate of women’s rights, Irish self-determination and other social causes connected to the Labour Party. As the brother of John French, a British military commander and later viceroy of Ireland, she received many headlines and caused much embarrassment for her famous brother. Claude Dornier (1884-1969) German aircraft engineer. After studying at Munich Technical College, he began work at the Zeppelin factory at Friedrichshafen. He later established his own aircraft division, where he made seaplanes and flying boats. The Dornier Do 17 was a well known Luftwaffe aircraft of the Second World War. Phidias (480-430 BCE) Greek sculptor. He received from Pericles a commission to produce the chief statues of the city, and became superintendent of all public works. He constructed the Propylaea and the Parthenon, before being forced into exile. He is widely considered the greatest sculptor of Ancient Greece. Eugene Sandow (1867-1925) Born in Konigsberg Prussia of Russian parents he came into prominence as a strong man at the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair. He later became an artist’s model and devotee and exponent of physical excellence, later opening an Institute of Health in London. Prince Eugene de Beaharnais (1781 - 1824) Viceroy of Italy. The son of Napoelon’s wife Josephine from her first marriage, he became Napoleon’s stepson and adopted child. Spending most of his life as a military leader, he was highly popular throughout the army and esteemed by his peers for his bravery and chivalry. Georgy Lvov (1861-1925) Russian statesman. He was a civil servant and later prominent political figure in the liberal Constitutional Democratic Party. He became head of the provisional government in 1917, before being succeeded by Alexander Kerensky. Despite later being arrested by the Bolsheviks, he fled and eventually resided in Paris. Marshal Davout (1770 - 1823) French military leader. Holding the honorary title Marshal of France, he successfully directed armies during Napoleonic battles at Austerlitz, Eylau and Friedland amongst others. A strict disciplinarian, he was one of the most capable and loyal of Napoleon’s marshals. Dionysius Longinus (213-273) Greek philosopher. He taught rhetoric in Athens and later became chief councilor to Queen Zenobia, for which Emperor Aurelian had him beheaded. He is often credited as the author of the treatise, ‘On The Sublime’, which influenced many neo-classical writers such as Dryden and Pope. June 2013 Llywelyn ap lorwerth (1172-1240) Welsh prince. Ruler of Gwynedd in North Wales, he seized power from his uncle in 1194 and soon extended his territory. Despite marrying the illegitimate daughter of King John of England, he managed to maintain his independence against both John and later Henry III. Li Po (700-762) Chinese poet. Part of the Emperor’s court, he was involved in a wandering band called ‘The Eight Immortals of the Win Cup.’ Regarded as amongst the greatest poets in China, he wrote lively verse on nature, women and wine. Legend had it that he died while trying to pluck the moon from a lake. Pontiac (1720-1769) Native American leader. Chief of the Ottawa Americans, in 1763 he organised an alliance of tribes in an uprising against the British garrisons. For five months he besieged Detroit before concluding a peace treaty in 1766. He was later murdered by an Illinois American, with his death avenged by the annihilation of the Illinois tribe. Gerald Desmond (1538-1583) Irish nobleman. He played a key role in a rebellion against Elizabeth II between 1579 and 1583, one which carried his name as the Second Desmond Rebellion. He sacked the town of Youghal, County Cork, and was proclaimed a traitor in London. While in retreat, he was located and killed in the Kerry mountains. Sir John Elliot (1592-1632) English statesman. Born in Port Eliot, Cornwall, he entered parliament in 1614 and was knighted in 1618. He later condemned arbitrary taxation and helped to force the Petition of Right from King Charles I. After further protests against the king, he was sent with eight others to the Tower of London, where he died from consumption. Pedro Teixeira (1575-1640) Portuguese soldier. He fought against the French in Brazil in 1614 and assisted in the founding of Para in 1615, of which he was to become governor. Teixeira was in charge of an expedition up the Amazon River between 1637 and 1639, and across the mountains to Quito, coming back by the same route. Empress Dou (?-135 BCE) Chinese empress. Known also as Shiao Wen, she was a committed follower of Taoist philosophy and promoted this through her considerable influence with her husband Emperor Wen. This influence came during a golden age of Chinese history and as a consequence she is one of the most famous figures of Ancient China. Karl Baedeker (1801-1859) Leipzig based, publisher and writer of guide books to many countries in the world. They were issued in German, English and French, as at the time, these were the principal countries from which tourists were likely to come. Anne of Denmark (1574-1619 Daughter of Frederick II of Denmark and Norway; in 1589, she married James VI of Scotland, afterwards James I of England. Her marriage without dowry confirmed the Scottish claim of Orkney and Shetland, which had been mortgaged by Christian I to James III. Abu Nuwas (756-810) One of the finest of the Arabian lyric poets. He was a pioneer in the reaction against the conventional forms of poetic elegy. His geniality and poetic excellence kept him in the favour of Harun al-Rashid, in spite of his indulgencies in wine and debaucheries. Ernest Charles Jones (1819-1869) English political writer. Educated in Germany, he returned to England in 1838 and was called to the Bar in 1844. From 1845 onwards he devoted his life to Socialism, becoming a chartist, for which he was imprisoned in 1848. William Randolph Hearst (1863-1951) American publisher. Founder of the then largest newspaper group in the world. The Rupert Murdoch of his age. He began by editing the San Francisco Examiner in 1887. He purchased the unsuccessful New York Morning Journal and raised it to the front rank by sensational methods. By 1925 he owned 25 newspapers. The subject of Orson Welles movie ‘Citizen Kane’. Sejong the Great (1397-1450) Korean ruler. Ruling the Korean state of Joseon from 1418 until his death, he helped produce a number of innovations, including advances in science and the development of the Hangeul alphabet. A strict believer in Confucianism, he is one of only two Korean rulers granted the title ‘the great’. Paul Waner (1903-1965) American baseball player. Playing between 1926 and 1945, his nickname was ‘Big Poison.’ He turned out for a range of different sides in his career, including the Pittsburgh Pirates and New York Yankees. The winner of three National League batting titles, he finished his career with 3,152 hits. Henry Ireton (1611-1651) English soldier. Originally a lawyer, Ireton became a key military figure in the Parliamentarian army of Oliver Cromwell. After Charles I’s surrender, he acted as one of the army’s leading political figures, signing Charles I’s death warrant. He died in action, leading his army at the Siege of Limerick. Munmu of Silla (621-681 BCE) Korean ruler. Before he became king, he held the office of pajinchan, responsible for trade and maritime links. Acceding to the throne in 661, he was the thirtieth ruler of the kingdom of Silla. Under his leadership Silla became the most powerful nation on the Korean peninsula, unifying the area under its rule. William Kidd (1645-1701) British pirate. Born in Scotland, he established himself as a sea captain in New York, gaining a reputation for fearsome courage. In 1696 he was commissioned to suppress piracy, reaching Madagascar before turning pirate himself. After two years of success, he was later captured and hanged in London. Reinhard Scheer (1863-1928) German admiral. From humble origins as a navel cadet in a torpedo craft, he later became vice-admiral and commanded the second battle squadron of the German High Seas fleet at the outbreak of the Second World War. Becoming Commander-in-Chief in 1916, he was in command at the Battle of Jutland later that same year. Ellen Wilkinson (1891-1947) British statesman. An early member of the Independent Labour Party, she was an active campaigner for women’s suffrage. Briefly a member of the Communist Party, she was an MP for over twenty years; in 1945 she became the first female to hold the post of Minister of Education. Zebulon Pike (1779-1813) American explorer. While serving as a lieutenant in the U.S. Army, he explored the territory around the Red and Arkansas rivers. Encountering the edge of the Rocky Mountains, the mountain peak discovered was later named Pike’s Peak. His promising career was cut short early however, when he was killed in action during the War of 1812. John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich (1718-1792) British politician. He is best known as the inventor of sandwiches, which he created so he could continue to eat while playing at a gaming table around the clock. In his wider career he twice served as First Lords of the Admiralty (1748-51 and 1771-1782), though was frequently attacked for corruption. James August Grant (1827-1892) British explorer. He spent his early career as colonel in the British Army and fought in the Indian Mutiny and Abyssinian Campaign of 1868. He is best known for his travels with colleague John Hanning Speke, with whom he explored the source of the Nile, recording the geography and native customs of the region. Ana Sewell (1820-1878) British novelist. Spending most of her life unable to walk without crutches, her consequent use of horse drawn carriages inspired her to write the famous book Black Beauty. This involved a plea for the more humane treatment of animals, and was her only published work. Roman emperor. Reaching the exalted position of emperor in 375, he ruled the Western Empire with his brother Valentinian II. A committed Christian influenced by Saint Ambrose, he was eventually overthrown by the usurper Magnus Maximus, and was murdered at Lyon. Zhang Qian (200 BCE - 114 BCE) Chinese military officer. After excursions early in his career to protect the Silk Road against the Huns, Qian became head of the Foreign Office, granted the name ‘Great Traveler.’ Later he led two expeditions that helped increase Han Chinese trade and its interest in Western policy. Saint Winifred (?-660) Welsh saint. The legend of her life describes how she repelled the unholy and immoral advances of Prince Caradog, for which she was beheaded. Her head rolled down a hill and where it stopped a spring developed, the spot of which is famous still as a place of pilgrimage in north Wales. Nathaniel Bacon (1647-1676) American colonist. A member of Virginia’s governing council, he is known for instigating Bacon’s Rebellion, an uprising against the rule of Governor William Berkeley. The importance of Bacon’s leadership was demonstrated when the rebellion collapsed as a result of Bacon’s death from dysentery in October 1676. Pindar (522 BCE -440 BCE) Greek poet. The chief lyric poet of Greece, he studied in Athens and became famous as a composer of odes for citizens in all parts of the Greek world. Although his work encompassed a range of themes, only his Epinikia (Triumphal Odes) have survived in their entirety. Pierre Laclos (1741-1803) French soldier and author. He spent nearly all his life in the army, but saw no active service until he was 60, and ended his career as a general. Also a writer, his one masterpiece was ‘Dangerous Acquaintances’, published in 1780, which caused an immediate sensation through its analysis of personal and sexual relationships. Pompey (106-48 BCE) Roman politician. His formidable military skills, as demonstrated in victories over the Marians, Spartacus and Mithridates VI, placed him at the forefront of Roman politics. Clashing with Julius Caesar in 50s BCE, he was finally defeated by him at the Battle of Pharsalus, and was killed in Egypt shortly after. Edward Winslow (1595-1655) British colonist. One of the Pilgrim Fathers, he sailed in the Mayflower in 1620, and from 1624 was a key administrator of the Plymouth colony. His publications describing the colony and defending its customs became well known, notably his ‘Good Newes from New England’, published in 1624. Elisha Gray (1810-1888) American inventor. A manufacturer of telegraphic apparatus, his firm became the Western Electric Company. He held 60 patents, including the multiplex telegraph, and he also claimed invention of the telephone, but lost the patent rights to Alexander Graham Bell after an exhaustive legal battle. Abulfeda (1273-1331) Muslim prince. Successful in wars against Crusaders and Tartars, he was made King of Hamah in 1310. He wrote a valuable universal history which received wide acclaim. May 2013 John Manners, Marquis of Granby (1721-1770) British army officer. After an unremarkable early career, his reputation was made in the French and Indian War, when he led the British Calvary in a major victory over the French at Warburg in 1760. He became a popular hero back home, and was appointed Master General of the Ordnance in 1763. Benjamin Viucuna Mackenna (1831-86) Chilean historian, journalist and politician. He spent a considerable number of years in political exile and wrote voluminous and numerous histories of Chile and prominent Chileans. Thomas Savery (1650-1715) English engineer and inventor of a comparatively simple pumping engine in 1698. Using his knowledge of Dutch he translated one of Coehoorn’s books on military engineering. He contributed to the development of the steam engine. Alejandro Malaspina (1725-1809) Spanish navigator who led an acclaimed scientific survey of the Galapagos, Tonga and parts of North America and the Philippines. Michele Sanmichele (1484-1559) Italian architect and engineer. Learning as an apprentice to his father, he moved to Rome where he won much praise, becoming master builder of the cathedral of Orvieto. His talent was later put to more destructive purposes, becoming military architect for Venice, with his work on fortifications particularly pioneering. Erich Raeder (1876-1960) German grand admiral. He joined the navy in 1894, becoming chief of staff during the First World War. In 1928, he became commander-in-chief of the navy, and in 1939 became grand admiral. He often disagreed with Hitler on the deployment of the navy however, and was removed in 1943. Shen Kua (1031-1095) Chinese scientist. A director of the astronomical bureau, he mapped areas of China’s North West frontier and designed fortifications there. His major piece of writing, Brush Talks from Dream Brook, is an essential source of information on early science and technology. Roger Sherman (1721-1793) American statesman. First elected to the state assembly in Connecticut in 1755, he was a judge of the Superior Court and mayor of New Haven between. A signatory of the Declaration of Independence, in 1787 he took a prominent role in the debates on the new Constitution. Marsilius of Padua (1275-1342) Italian political philosopher. A noted polymath, he engaged in natural philosophy, medical research and politics. His political treatise, Defensor pacis, argued against the temporal power of clergy and pope. Consequently he was excommunicated and exiled, taking refuge at the court of Louis of Bavaria. James Marsh (1789-1846) British chemist. An expert in poisons, he produced pioneering work at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, and assisted Michael Faraday at the Military Academy. He invented the standard test for the notoriously poisonous arsenic, which was named after him. Sappho (610-580 BCE) Greek poet. The most famous female poet of classical times, her lyrics concentrated on depth of feeling, passion and grace. Only two of her odes are existent in full, though a range of fragments of her work have been discovered in Egypt. Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887-1920) Indian mathematician. The child of poor parents, he taught himself elementary English and did not graduate college. While working as a clerk, he exposed over 100 theorems and was discovered by Cambridge mathematician, Godfrey Hardy. He was the first Indian elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Gaius Marius (157-86 BCE) Roman general and politician. From humble origins, thanks to his military brilliance and personal ambition he rose rapidly within Roman society. His military victories at Jugurtha and Teutones were widely celebrated, and he later held an unprecedented seven consularships. Semaun 1899-1971 Indonesian politician who was responsible for developing communist influence within the Sarekat Islam Movement. He was chairman of the Indonesia Communist Party between 1920 and 1923, persuing a moderate and nationalist line until 1923, when he was exiled. Raymond Radiguet (1903-1923) French writer. A precocious young talent, he became incredibly popular in Paris for his poetry and drama as a teenager. He later produced two masterpiece works, The Devil in the Flesh and Count Orgel Opens the Ball. He lived a decadent life however and died of typhoid. Francis Marion (1732-1795) American soldier. Originally a planter, he was initially involved in conflicts with the native Cherokees. Later he led a group of ‘Irregulars’ during the American War of Independence, where he was particularly adept at using guerrilla tactics. After the war he became a South Carolina senator. Ramakrishna (1836-1886) Indian religious figure. Born Gadadhar Chatterjee, he became a Hindu priest at Calcutta and formed his own religious order. He believed in self-realisation and God-realisation, and taught that all religions were different paths to the same goal. Peter Stuyvesant (1592-1672) Dutch administrator. He became Governor of Curacao in the Caribbean, and from 1646 directed New Netherland (present day New York). An arbitrary ruler and an opponent of much political and religious freedom, his actions nevertheless promoted commercial prosperity in the colony before it was handed over to the English. Zenobia (240-275) Queen of Palmyra. Wife of the Bedouin Odenathus, on her husband’s murder she assumed control. She embarked on a war of expansion, conquered Egypt in 269, and in 270 overran much of the Eastern provinces of Asia Minor. She was eventually defeated by Emperor Aurelian at Antioch. Charles Sturt (1795-1869) British explorer. Born in Bengal, India, he headed three important expeditions of discovery in Australia, discovering the Darling and lower Murray rivers. The hardship and exposure led to blindness however, and he retired to England in 1853. Mansa Musa (1280-1337) Malian emperor. Under his reign the Mali Empire reached the height of its power, and the city of Timbuktu became an influential city of Muslim culture and scholarship. The wealth he assembled as emperor was staggering; some estimate him to be the wealthiest individual in human history. Richard Willstatter (1872-1942) German organic chemist. He did pioneering work on plant pigments, for which he won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1915, as well as on medicinal chemicals, developing gas masks in the First World War. Being Jewish, growing anti-Semitism led to his position becoming untenable, and he fled Germany in 1939. Xuanzang (600-664) Chinese Buddhist explorer. Inspired by earlier travelers, he made an epic journey to India in 629. He crossed the Xinjiang and Gobi rivers, traversed Afghanistan, and stayed two years in the Indus Valley. He returned to China in 645 with 657 books and the recipe for making sugar. John Thurloe (1616-1668) English spymaster. While working under Oliver Cromwell, he ran a network of secret agents who kept the leadership abreast of potential royalist plots. He made significant profit out of the secret service and at the end of the Interregnum promptly offered his services to Charles II. Jose Gervasio Artigas (1764-1850) Uruguayan solider. In 1810 he became involved in the independence movement against Spain. Achieving a famous victory as Las Piedras, he was one of the Independence movements leading military figures. Later exiled to Paraguay, he is considered the father of Uruguayan nationhood. Bagoda (10th-11th centuries) The first Kutumbawa ruler of Kano, northern Nigeria. He was a grandson of Bayajida of Daura and one of the sons of Bawo. Marie Louise (1791-1847) Empress of France. Born in Vienna, she was the daughter of the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II. She married Napoleon in 1810, after his divorce from Josephine, and in 1811 bore him an heir, the future Napoleon II. After his abdication she returned to Austria. Tomoyuki 'Tiger' Yamashita (1885-1946) Japanese soldier. Born in Kochi, he commanded a division in China in 1939, and in 1942 led the forces that overran Singapore. He then directed the Philippines campaign, capturing Bataan. On the retreat in 1944, he was captured, tried for war crimes and executed. Bao Dai (1913-1997) Vietnamese ruler. The son of Emperor Khai Dai, he ruled as emperor of Annam (1932-45). In 1949, having renounced his hereditary title, he returned to Saigon as chief of the state of Vietnam within the French Union. In 1955 he was deposed and South Vietnam became a republic. Walter Hines Page (1855-1918) US journalist, publisher and diplomat who was a vigorous advocate for better social conditions in America’s South. As ambassador to Britain (1913-18) he advocated US participation in World War One and was an ardent and outspoken anglophile. Sir Francis Knolly (1514-96) Elizabethan politician, who opposed the government of Mary I and exiled himself to Germany. His friendship with Elizabeth I and William Cecil later secured him many offices. Though close to the government, he never resiled in his consistent championing of Puritanism. April 2013 David Dixon Porter (1813-91) US sailor who was master of the Powhatan on its unsuccessful mission to relieve Fort Pickens, Florida, at the commencement of the American Civil War. He commanded several successful naval sorties and later became superintendent of the US Naval Academy. Andrea Doria (1466-1560) Genoese admiral who joined the French when his native city was plundered by the imperialists in 1522. When the French gave commercial benefits to the rival port of Savona, he swapped sides and recovered Genoa for Charles V, governing it as an independent republic until his death. Thomas Blamey (1884-1951) Australian field marshal. After first joining the army in 1906, at the outbreak of the Second World War he was given command of the Australian Imperial forces in the Middle East. On the establishment of the South West Pacific Command he led Allied land forces in Australia and was among those who received the Japanese Surrender in 1945. Qi Jiguang (1528-1588) Chinese general. Born to a military family, he rose to become a senior figure in the military commission. He played a major role in combating attacks by Wokou Pirates along the southeast coast of China, attacking their inland strongholds, and published a range of works on military theory. Bertrand de Guesclin (1320-1380) French military leader. He entered royal service on the eve of Charles’ accession, and on becoming Constable of France in 1370, assumed command of the French armies during the Hundred Years War. Under his command, they re-conquered Brittany and most of South West France. Barnes Wallis (1887-1979) British aviation engineer. After an early career in airships and aircraft, he pioneered his most famous design, the ‘bouncing bomb’, during the Second World War. This was used to lethal effect during the ‘Dambusters’ Raid of 1943. He continued to work in aviation research until the 1970s. Hongi Hika (1772-1828) Maori war leader. He protected the first missionaries who arrived in New Zealand in 1814. In 1820 he visited England and Australia and acquired muskets, using them later to wage war on other Maori tribes. This severely disrupted traditional political orthodoxy, and had an enduring influence on New Zealand development. William Henry Harrison (1773-1841) American statesman. After an early career on the frontier, including as Governor of Indiana territory, he served in the War of 1812, which saw the defeat of the British at the Battle of the Thames. In 1816 he was elected to Congress, becoming a senator in 1824. He was elected president in 1841, but died of pneumonia a month after his inauguration. John Wilkinson (1728-1808) British industrialist. He pioneered the use of cast iron, with his company Bersham becoming a world leader in iron technology. He also contributed to the development of the steam engine and to cannon design. His countless contributions were an essential basis for the Industrial Revolution. Herophilus (335-280 BCE) Greek anatomist. He was the founded of a school of anatomy in Alexandria, and was the first to dissect the human body and compare it with that of other animals. He described the brain, liver, spleen, nervous system and other organs for the first time. John Colet (1467-1519) English priest and educationalist. As a priest, he was a pioneering but controversial figure, whose application of Humanist views brought him into conflict with other religious leaders. He endowed a school, St Paul’s, and his statutes on how it should be run were influential in the development of education. Xiang Yu (232–202 BCE) Chinese statesman. Active in the late Qin Dynasty, he was a leader of the Huji Rebellion against the Qin Empire. After the demise of the Qin dynasty, he engaged in a long power struggle with the founder of the Han Dynasty, Liu Bang. After defeat to Bang, who declared himself Emperor of China, he committed suicide. Leo III (680-741) Byzantine emperor. Leading the empire from 717, he reorganised the army and financial system, also repelling a major attack by the Saracens in 718. In 726 he issued an edict prohibiting the use of images in public worship, a controversy which affected the empire for over a century. Rodolfo Graziani (1882-1955) Italian administrator. During the Second World War, as Governor of Libya, he was involved in the invasion of Egypt, before Italy’s defeat triggered his resignation. He later emerged as a leader of the fascist resistance after the fall of Mussolini, being arrested and tried for war crimes in 1945. Galen (130-200) Roman physician. He contributed greatly to the understanding of disciplines including anatomy, physiology, and neurology. The most famous doctor in the Roman Empire, his theories continued to dominate Western medicine for a thousand years. George Lansbury (1859-1940) British politician. He became a convinced socialist in 1890, and a Labor MP in 1910, resigning in 1912 to stand in support of female suffrage. He founded and edited the Daily Herald newspaper (later The Sun), and was leader of the Labor Party between 1931 and 1935. Wilfrid Laurier (1841-1919) Canadian politician. He entered federal politics in 1874, becoming minister of the inland revenue in 1877. He became the first French-Canadian prime minister of Canada in 1896. A strong supporter of self-government, in home affairs he advocated compromise and free trade with the USA. Guo Ziyi (697-781) Chinese general. After origins as an infantry solider, he became one of the most famous generals during the Tang Dynasty. He helped suppress the An Shi Rebellion, and participated in the expeditions against Huihu and Tubo. He continued to command units in the field until he was 84. Jacob Leisler (1640-91) American politician, born in Germany, he arrived in America in 1660 and became active in New York politics. Leisler served as Governor of New York between 1689 and 1691, but was accused of treason by the English and hanged. Cornelius Drebbel (1572 - 1633) Dutch inventor. Splitting his time throughout his life between his native Netherlands and London, over many years he promoted new concepts in measurement, chemistry and optics. He is particularly renowned for developing the first working submarine. Benito Pablo Juarez (1806-1872) Mexican statesman. His political ideals forced him to live in exile in the 1850s, but he then joined the new liberal government. During the Civil War of 1857-1860, he assumed the presidency, and achieved a further liberal victory in 1861. After the invasion of France, he helped lead Mexican resistance until French defeat in 1867. Inigo Jones (1573-1652) English architect. After studying landscape painting in Italy, he went on to design stage sets for the plays of Ben Jonson. In 1615, he became surveyor-general of the royal buildings, going on to design the Queens House in Greenwich and the outline for Covent Garden and Lincoln’s Inn Fields, both in London. Lajos Kosuth (1802-1894) Hungarian statesman. He began his career as a political journalist, before becoming a parliamentary opposition leader in 1847. During the 1848 Hungarian revolution, he called for an independent Hungary and became provisional governor, before internal dissension led to his resignation and exile. Sacagawea (1787–1812) Native American guide. While little is known of her early life, she rose to prominence as the interpreter and guide who accompanied Lewis and Clark during the U.S. Government’s expedition in exploration of the Northwest. After the exhibition, she resided in St. Louis, Missouri, before dying of an unknown sickness. Sundiata Keita (1217-1255) Malian emperor. As a child he suffered from a disability where was unable to speak or walk. After being driven into exile by a rival queen, he overcame these obstacles to triumphantly return and seize the kingdom in the battle of Kirina. He later conquered other nearby states, founding the Malian Empire. John Hanning Speke (1827-1864) British explorer. After military service in the Punjab and Somaliland, he joined Richard Burton in 1856 on an expedition to the African lakes. He undertook several major expeditions for which he was held in high esteem. He accidentally shot himself whilst partridge shooting. George Wither (1588-1667) English poet. He was twice sent to prison for libels contained in his Abuses Stript and Whipt (1613) and Wither’s Motto (1621). After the English Civil War he took the side of Parliament, then became a Puritan, and his later poetry was religious. Lyuh Woon-Hyung (1883-1947) Korean communist. He proclaimed a ‘Korean People’s Republic’ in August 1945, but no major politician joined his ‘government’ and the occupation authorities refused to recognize him. He was assassinated in 1947. John Cassell (1817-65) British pioneer of the popular educational press. He was the self-educated son of a Manchester publican. By the 1850s he had become an educational publisher and radical champion of a free press, launching his Popular Educator in 1852. Shapur the Great (309-379) Persian king. Declared king at birth by the Persian nobility, he ruled to the age of 16 with the help of regents. Under his direct leadership, the Sassanian Empire reached its largest extent. He successfully challenged Roman control, forcing Emperor Jovian to cede him provinces. March 2013 Dorothea Lynde Dix (1802-1887) US reformer whose campaigns for better conditions in prisons and asylums began in Massachusetts in 1843. It was then extended to the other states and then Europe. During the Civil War she was superintendent of female nurses. Gustavus Horn (1592-1657) Gustavus Adolphus’s chief general in Germany. He was in command at the battle of Nordlingen in 1634 where he was defeated and taken prisoner by the imperialists. In 1643-5 he commanded the invasion of Scania. Eratosthenes (276 BCE - 194 BCE) Greek astronomer and scholar. Born in the town of Cyrene, he became the chief librarian at Alexandria. He is best known for producing the first scientific calculation of the Earth’s circumference, which was remarkably correct to within 50 miles. Powhatan (?-1618) Native American chief. He was leader of the confederacy of Tidewater tribes of New England, and managed to maintain an uneasy peace with white settlers in Virginia. His daughter, Pocahontas, was kidnapped by settlers in 1609, but married a white colonist with her father’s permission. Giulio Dohet (1868-1930) Italian general. In 1909 he foresaw the importance of air supremacy, becoming commander of Italy’s first military aviation division. He became head of the Italian Army Aviation Service in 1918, and a general in 1921. His writings on bombing influenced air force thinking prior to the Second World War. Godric of Finchale (1069-1170) English saint. In his early life he acted as a pedlar, pilgrim and sailor, the latter of which likely involve a stint as a pirate. From 1110 and for the rest of his long life, he lived as a hermit in Finchale, near Durham. His life became heavily celebrated in the Middle Ages. Erskine Childers (1870-1922) English-Born Irish nationalist. A successful British soldier in the Boer War and First World War, he smuggled guns into Ireland and joined the Irish Republican Army (IRA) in 1921, fighting in the Irish Civil War. He was later captured and executed by the Irish government. Fletcher Christian (1764-1793) British seaman. After a successful early naval career, he became first mate on the ship HMS Bounty, under Captain William Bligh. He became the ringleader of the mutiny against Bligh on the Bounty in 1789, fleeing to Tahiti where he was likely killed by the local population. Martin Behaim (1449-1507) German navigator and geographer. Originally from Nuremberg, he settled in Portugal in 1484 and contributed to the pioneering Portuguese discoveries along the coast of Africa. He returned to Nuremberg in 1490, where he constructed the oldest terrestrial globe Surendranath Banerjea (1848-1925) Indian politician. An ardent Indian Nationalist, he founded the Calcutta Indian Association in 1876 and was editor of The Bengali newspaper. He acted as one of the initiators of the Indian National Congress, but subsequently broke with the Congress because of its extremism. Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson (1832-1910) Norwegian writer. A writer and playwright of wide ranging interests, he was also an ardent Norwegian patriot. He fought hard to revive Norwegian as a literary language and was named Norway’s national poet, writing the national anthem. In 1903 he received the Nobel Prize for Literature. David Dixon Porter (1813-1891) American naval officer. After early experiences fighting pirates in the West Indies and in the Mexican War, he played a significant role during the Civil War. Commanding the federal mortar flotilla, he bombarded forts in New Orleans and in 1864 took Fort Fisher. He was made Admiral in 1870. Horemheb (?-1292 BCE) Egyptian pharaoh. A noted scribe and the chief of the army under Tutankamun and Ay, he acted as the last Pharaoh of the 18th dynasty. He engaged in large building projects and returned Egypt to stability after the period of upheaval since the death of Pharoah Akhenaten in 1336 BCE. Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (1738-1814) French physician and revolutionary. While a deputy of the Constituent Assembly, he proposed the use of a decapitating apparatus for executions. This was adopted in 1791 and named after him (the guillotine), though similar mechanisms had been previously used in Scotland and Germany. Jovian (331-364) Roman emperor. Originally the commander of the Emperor’s personal bodyguards, he succeeded Emperor Julian after his death during the campaign against the Sassanid Empire. Ruling for only eight months before his death, his reign saw the reestablishment of Christianity and peace with the Persians. Seru Epenisa Cakobau (1815-1883) Fijian chief. Declaring himself King of Fiji, he waged constant warfare for the best part of two decades to unify the islands and the warring tribes under his leadership, which he completed by 1871. Facing international debt and invasion however, he later ceded the islands to the British Empire. Sir Arthur Gordon (1829-1912) British colonial administrator. Son of Prime Minister George Hamilton-Gordon, he was a Liberal politician and close confidant of William Gladstone. He held a variety of postings including in Trinidad, New Zealand and Fiji, where he attempted to safeguard Fijian tradition and culture. Manuel de Godoy (1767-1851) Spanish politician. Starting as an obscure guards officer, he achieved dictatorial power at the age of 25 through the favour of the queen, whose lover he was. His decisions as leader however, notably his decision to ally with France, saw him become unpopular, and in 1808 he was overthrown. Joseph Banks (1743-1820) British botanist. He accompanied James Cook on his expeditions around the world in the Endeavour, and the Australian colony of New South Wales owed its origin mainly to him. A patron of the sciences, he founded the African Association and was the president of the Royal Society for 41 years. Karl Friedrich Goerdeler (1884-1945) German politician. He served under Hitler as Commissar for Price Control in 1934 and mayor of Leipzig. He later became one of the leaders of the opposition to Hitler, culminating in the unsuccessful bomb plot of 20 July 1944, for which he, together with a number of other generals, were executed. Senzangakhona kaJama (1762-1816) Zulu chief. He ruled as Chief for thirty five years, when Zulu was but a small nation, until his death in 1816, He was the major ancestor of many pioneering Zulu leaders, most notably father of the Shaka Zulu, along with two other Zulu kings, Dingane and Mpande, and grandfather to Cetshwayo. Edward Frederick Mutesa (1924-1969) Ugandan politician. King of the BaGanda people, he acted as the first president of the newly independent Uganda. He was deposed by Milton Obote in 1966, who ordered the Ugandan army to attack his residence during the Battle of Mengo Hill. He escaped and later went into exile in Britain. Francis Light (1740-1794) British colonialist. As a country trader, he left Britain to seek his fortune in India, but ended up played a decisive role in the establishment of a British outpost at Penang, in the Malay Peninsula, in 1786. Penang acted as the base for the expansion of British influence in the region. Jayavarman VII (1125-1218) Cambodian king. He was ruler of the Khmer Empire in modern day Siem Reap, Cambodia. Despite ascending the throne after a thirty year period of warfare, his reign become one of the greatest in Angkor history. He particular engaged in mass building programs, with these enduring monuments lasting to this day. Georges Couthon (1755-1794) French revolutionary politician. Trained in law, Couthon acted as a deputy to the Legislative Assembly and National Convention, and was also a member of the all powerful Committee of Public Safety. Arrested with his mentor Robespierre, he was eventually guillotined. William Henry Drayton (1742-1779) American patriot. A prosperous low country planter in South Carolina, he became an American patriot leader in the American Revolutionary War. A member of the Second Continental Congress, he acted as a strong advocate of the Continental Army, working to combat army corruption. Sejong (1397–1450) Korean king. He ruled the state of Joseon, the equivalent of modern day Korea, from 1418 to his death. The achievements under his rule were unparalleled, with clear improvements in military capacity, land law and criminal justice. He even published agricultural books on how to improve yields. Túpac Amaru II (1742-1781) Peruvian indigenous leader. Born José Gabriel Condorcanqui, he considered himself to be a descendant of the last Inca leader Tupac Amaru. Drawing on years of resentment, he led an indigenous uprising against Spanish rule, for which he was captured and executed in 1780. José de San Martín (1778-1850) Argentine general. He helped lead the uprising against Spanish rule in Argentina in 1812, later doing the same in Chile and Peru. His bold attack of Spanish Royalists in Chile by crossing the Andes mountain range is considered one of the greatest military feats of the nineteenth century. Thomas Johnson (1872-1963) Anglo-Irish politician. An English immigrant to Ireland, he founded the Irish Labor Party in 1912. He acted as a leading figure in resisting the British conscription of Irishmen in 1918, and became leader of the opposition in the newly independent Irish parliament in the 1920s. Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) Serbian inventor. He made pioneering developments in areas including X-Rays, Wireless transmission and most notably electrical supply, contributing to the design of the alternating current system. An eccentric personality, his lack of business acumen led him to die a half forgotten man, heavily in debt. February 2013 John Redmond (1856-1918) Irish Nationalist politician. Redmond helped reunite the Irish Parliamentary Party after its split over the leadership of Charles Stewart Parnell. Pressuring the Liberal Party into supporting Dublin Home Rule, his authority was undermined during the First World War as more militant Irish nationalism developed. Samuel Hoare (1880-1959) British politician. A Conservative Party MP, Hoare held a string of influential political positions and roles in the lead up to the Second World War, including Foreign Minister and First Lord of the Admiralty. During the war he acted as British Ambassador to Spain, pressuring Madrid to stay out of the conflict. Arthur Griffith (1871-1922) Irish politician. A leading Irish Nationalist who sought to end union with Great Britain, founding the party Sinn Fein (‘Ourselves Alone’) in 1907. Chair of the revolutionary Irish Parliament during the Anglo-Irish War, he died of a cerebral hemorrhage mere months after confirming peace with Britain. Bartolomeu de Gusmão (1685-1724) Portuguese priest. Born in Brazil before traveling study at the University of Coimbra in Portugal, he was an early pioneer of the airship and impressed the court of King V by demonstrating an early prototype in 1709. He was later caught in the Spanish Inquisition however and never developed the concept further. Mei Sheng (?-141 BCE) Chinese writer and poet. Writing In the era of the Han Dynasty, he was one of the pioneers of the Fu form of poetry. He is often credited with the introduction of the five-character line, and for this reason is commonly dubbed ‘the father of modern Chinese poetry.’ Xenophanes (570-480 BCE) Greek philosopher. Leaving his home of Ionia at the age of 25, he spent the rest of his life travelling, spending much time in Sicily. He satirized much of traditional Greek conceptions, including the Greek understanding of the Gods and the works of Homer. Jan van Riebeeck (1619-1677) Dutch statesman. Joint the Dutch East India Company (VOC) at a young age, he rose to become the commander of the initial Dutch ambition to colonise present day South Africa. He founded the city of Cape Town in 1652, and was the commander of the Cape Colony from 1652 until 1662. René Réaumur (1683-1787) French scientist. He developed breakthroughs in areas as differing as the study of insects and geometry. His lasting legacy was the creation of a new temperature scale, based on the freezing point of water at 0 degrees. Considered more accurate than Fahrenheit, its use quickly became widespread. James Lind (1716 - 1794) British doctor. He became a surgeon in the Royal Navy in 1739, where he conducted pioneering research into the development of scurvy. He observed those who suffered from the disease lacked sufficient citrus fruits in their diet. He also later strived successfully to prevent the spread of typhus in naval vessels. Nakayama Miki (1798-1887) Japanese peasant and religious leader. Oppressed by her family and husband, she became an impassioned advocate for the poor and needy. Her experiences of the joy helping others and healing of those afflicted became the basis for the religion of Tenrikyo. Louis Pasteur (1822 - 1895) French chemist. He revolutionised the understanding of illness, proving the germ theory of disease and inventing the pasteurisation process. He also created the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax, though these were often achieved by the secret incorporation of the findings of his scientific rivals. Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo (1699-1782) Portuguese statesman. He served as Prime Minister of Portugal between 1750 and 1777. He carried out a range of economic and social reforms, including the abolition of slavery, one of the first European leaders to do so. He also pursued secularist policies, undermining the power of the Portuguese Inquisition. John Pym (1584-1643) English statesman. A leader of the Parliament against Charles I, he worked for Buckingham’s impeachment in 1614. He supported the Petition of Right of 1628 and strongly opposed Charles’ oppressive taxation measures. On the outbreak of the English Civil War, Pym facilitated the alliance of the English Parliamentarians with the Scots. Daniel Webster (1782-1852) American politician and lawyer. Admitted to the Bar in 1805, he rapidly earned a great reputation for forensic oratory. He was elected to Congress in 1813 and 1822. Webster was twice US Secretary of State under Harrison and Fillmore and in 1836 was an unsuccessful candidate for the presidency. Juan Leo (c 1495-1553) ‘Leo Africanus’, a Moorish traveler, who journeyed in Africa and Asia Minor and published an account of his travels, Descriptions of Africa in 1550. Irene of Athens (752-803) Byzantine Empress. Blinding her own son in order to ascend to the throne, she became the Empires first female ruler between 797 and 802. She broke with her predecessors in nearly every sphere. This included abolishing iconoclasm, disbanding the elite soldiery and preferring to sue for peace rather than make war. King Stanislaw II (1732-1798) King of Poland between 1764 and 1795. He was the favorite of Catherine the Great who secured his election. He sought to bring about reforms, however, after three partitions by Russia, Prussia and Austria in the years 1772, 1793 and 1795, his kingdom no longer existed. Gouverneur Morris (1752-1816) American politician. Of Huguenot descent, he featured in New York politics and was a conservative at the 1787 Federal Constitutional Convention. He played a key role in the drafting of the US Constitution. He was US minister to France at the time of ‘Terror’ during the revolution there. He later served as a US senator. Alphonse Leveran (1845-1922) French parasitologist. Serving as a military surgeon in Algeria, in 1880 he discovered the parasite which causes malaria. He published some 600 research papers and established the laboratory of tropical diseases at the Pasteur Institute. In 1907 he won the Nobel Peace Prize for Medicine. Edward the Martyr (c973-978) King of England, son of Edgar the Peaceful. His reign was characterised by great disorder and he was murdered at Corfe-Castle in Dorset. This was probably instigated by his stepmother Aelfthryth. Her son Ethelred the Unready succeeded him. Saad Zaghlul (1859-1927) Egyptian politician. After an early career as education and law minister, inspired by Woodrow Wilson, he proclaimed Egyptian independence in 1918. He led the delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 and founded the Wafd Party, a force in Egyptian politics after formal independence from Britain in 1922. Don Stephen Senanayake (1884-1952) Sri Lankan politician. Minister in the State Council of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) after its establishment in 1931, and chair from 1942. He was the first Prime Minister in 1947, and negotiated the transfer of power in 1948, remaining in the position until his death. Saya San (1876-1937) Buddhist monk and Burmese nationalist. An advocate for peasant rights, he led a rebellion, starting in the Tharrawaddy District of Lower Burma, in December 1930. The rebellion grew rapidly, with the British forced to deploy 10,000 troops to suppress it. San was arrested in 1932 and later executed. Chinese general. A string of early victories under his command in the North-Western territories led to a rapid rise in favor, and he soon became a crucial commander and favorite of the Song Emperor, Huizong. Military defeat at the hands of the Jurchens later discredited him, and Huizong’s successor had him executed. Ramon Magsaysay (1907-1957) President of the Philippines. He fought against the invading Japanese in 1942, and continued later as an underground guerrilla commander. A member of Parliament after the war, he served as Defense Minister while putting an end to the Huk insurgency. President between 1953 and 1957, he died in a plane crash. Henry IV (1367-1413) English King. Ruling from 1399, he usurped the throne from Richard II to establish the Lancastrian dynasty. After military adventures on the Baltic crusade in 1390 and in Jerusalem in 1392, he was exiled by Richard II in 1398. A year later he returned and seized the throne, where he had Richard imprisoned, deposed and killed. Hugh Capet (938-996) King of France. Ruling from 987, he was the founder of the Capetian dynasty, which ruled until 1328. He suppressed various rebellions against Royal rule, particularly one in 985 and later a rebellion by Charles of Lorraine in 991. Erik Haroldsson, c.930-54 King of Norway and York. Removed as King of Norway in 947, he became the last Scandinavian King of York, England. Here he fought constantly with Saxons, being defeated by Eadred of Wessex in 954. The character of his rule led to him being dubbed ‘Bloodaxe’ after his death. Baldwin IV (1162-1185) King of Jerusalem. Became king as a young child. While an able leader, his leprosy, which he had developed as a young child, hampered his political position. Despite this he fought a number of key battles to resist the attacks of Saladin, defeating him in battle at Montisgard in 1177. January 2013 Ambrosious Aurelianus (?) Romano-British leader. He was a precursor of Arthur who resisted the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain in the 5th century. According to the historical account of Gildas, he was the victor of the Battle of Mount Baldon. He later developed into a mythical figure of early British defiance. Alfonso III (848-910) Spanish King. From 866 was King of the northern Iberian kingdom of Oviedo. He advanced the Christian frontier, defeating the Muslims of Toledo in 874. He captured Zamora and Toro on the Duero. His military success led to him being dubbed ‘Alfonso the Great.’ Erich Ludendorff (1865-1937) German general. After early success in the First World War, he became Chief of Staff to Paul Von Hindenburg. The two effectively worked as a team, managing Germany’s war effort in the east and then, between August 1916 and October 1918, acting as effective dictators of Germany. Ludendorff later took part in Hitler’s failed Munich takeover in 1923. Raymond Poincare (1860-1934) French statesman. He was prime minister of France between 1912 and 1913 and president between 1913 and 1920, incorporating the crucial years of the First World War, and later prime minister again between 1926 and 1929. He pursued a policy of stability in international relations and home affairs. Rudolf Hilferding (1877-1943) German political economist. One of the most gifted political thinkers of his generation, he published a variety of famed works, including Finance Capital in 1910. Serving as finance minister between in 1923 and 1928, he later fled Germany for France after the rise of Hitler. Vasily Stalin (1921 -1962) Soviet pilot. The son of Joseph Stalin, Vasily served as a poor and unreliable regimental commander during the Second World War. His positions were achieved solely due to his father’s influence. He later managed an ice hockey team, and after his father’s death became a degenerate figure, destroyed by alcoholism. Gajah Mada (c.1290 -1364) Indonesian military leader. He served as the mahapatih (prime minister) of the Majapahit Empire, on the island of Java. He worked to extend the reach of the empire, conquering a range of nearby islands and settlements. While much of his life is mythological, he remains a famed national figure in Indonesia to this day. Hjalmer Branting (1860-1925) Swedish politician. A leading figure in the development of Swedish Social Democracy, he was active in its origins from the 1880s and a major influence on its future direction. He was the Party Leader from 1907, and Prime Minister on three occasions between 1920 and 1925. Pyotr Stolypin (1862-1911) Russian politician. He served as Prime Minister between 1906 and 1911. He advocated a range of reforms designed to industrialize Russia and to permit the peasantry to work their own individual holdings. He was assassinated by a social revolutionary, after which Russia struggled to fill the void left by his leadership. Vidkun Quisling (1887-1945) Norwegian politician. Leader of Norwegian Fascists, he was never electorally popular but seized power on 9 April 1940 amidst the Nazi invasion. Executed in October 1945, such was his infamy that his name has become part of European vocabulary, denoting collaboration and treachery. Ellen Key (1849-1926) Swedish feminist and author. She was an early advocate for women’s rights, publishing a range of works advocating the sexual liberation of women and more support for women from the state. This lead critics to attack her as a proponent of ‘Free Love’ and ‘unstable’ moral standards. Keir Hardie (1856-1915) British politician. One of the founding fathers of British Socialism, Hardie campaigned tirelessly on issues such as unemployment and working class living conditions. While less successful as a political leader in Parliament, after his death he became a legendary figure of British Labour. Hubert Lyautey (1854-1934) French statesman. He was the founder of the French Empire in Morocco, and advocate for the civilizing virtues of colonialism. As Resident General of Morocco between 1912 and 1925, he eliminated resistance to French Rule and established a colonial administration. Hereward the Wake (c.1035-1072) English rebel. He resisted the rule of William the Conquerer and became a subject of literary romance. After a brief exile in Flanders, he returned and attacked the Normans who had taken his family lands, along with attacking Ely and Peterborough Abbey. He escaped an attack by William in 1071 and was never heard of again. Fan Zhongyan (989-1052) Chinese politician. As Chancellor to the Song emperor Renzong, he is considered one of the great Chinese reformers. He advocated administrative and agricultural reforms, while his main legacy was the creation of a national school system, which raised standards and allowed anonymity for examination candidates. Thomas Young (1507-1568) British clergyman. Despite an unremarkable early career, he became Archbishop of York in 1561. Acting as more of a royal administrator than Church leader, he was an idle and ineffectual Archbishop who left the North of England dangerously lacking in Royal control on the eve of the Rising of the North in 1569. Frederick Engels (1820-1896) Socialist friend of the famed Karl Marx, arguably the father of Communism. An active propagandist of socialist theories, Engels was an author of several works on Socialism. William Beckford (1760-1844) Son of a rich London alderman, he was bequeathed property which produced an income of one hundred thousand pounds a year, a staggering sum at the time. Aged 22, he is alleged to have written the Arabic tale ‘Vathek’, in only three days and two nights. Upon this work his fame rests. He spent the rest of his days spending his fortune on extravagances and vagaries. Cerdic (d 534 CE) First king of the West Saxons and ancestor of the kings and queens of England. Landing in Britain in 495 he gradually made enough conquests to call himself king, but was defeated – some say by Arthur – in the valley of the Frome in 520. Chang-Tso-Lin (1873-1928) Chinese marshal. From leader of bandits who helped the Japanese in their war against Russia, he rose to be a general of a division. He suppressed republicanism in Mukden in 1911-12, and remained as military governor of South Manchuria. Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) English poet, philosopher and critic passionately devoted to classical and metaphysical studies. Educated and Christ’s Hospital and Cambridge, he fell into debt and enlisted in the army only to be bought out four months later by his friends. He gave himself up to a literary life and wrote, among others, the Ancient Mariner, Kubla Khan and Remorse. Manuel Garcia (1775-1832) Spanish singer and composer. In 1808 he went to Paris with a reputation already gained in Madrid and Cadiz. Later he became famous as an operatic tenor and in 1825 visited the United States. Louis de Bourbon, Duc d’ Enghien (1772-1804) Ill-fated French Royalist, born at Chantilly. He took part in the Rhine campaign against the Republicans. He was suspected of being involved in a Bourbon plot to assassinate the Emperor Napoleon. He was arrested on Napoleon’s orders and after an inconclusive and illegal trial was shot. John Stow (1525-1605) English antiquary, born in London. By profession a tailor, he wrote several works on antiquities, the chief and most valuable being his ‘Survey of London and Westminster’. He ended his days in poverty. Leopold I (1790-1865) King of the Belgians, son of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfield. In his youth he served in the Russian army. He visited England in 1815. In 1816 he married Princess Charlotte who died the following year. He declined the throne of Greece in 1830, but became King of the Belgians in 1831. John Napier (1550-1617) Scottish mathematician, born at Merchiston Castle, near Edinburgh. In 1614 he published his invention of logarithms. He also went on to invent the computing device known as ‘Napier’s Bones’. Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908) French physicist, he discovered that uranium gives off rays which affect a photographic plate, and carried out research on magnetism and phosphorescence. His work on radioactivity won him a Nobel Prize in 1903. Ossian (Third Century) The heroic poet of the Gaels, the son of Fingal. James Macpherson (1736-1796) published in 1762-63 what he claimed to be the poems of Ossian, which he had translated from the Gaelic. The production of these aroused the hostility of the famed Dr Johnson who questioned their veracity. Olive Schreiner (1855-1920) South African author. Breaking into the literary milieu in 1883 with her work “Story of an African Farm”, she is considered a pioneering South African writer, as well as one of the most significant feminist theorists of her era. Maximilian I (1459-1519) Holy Roman Emperor. He engaged in a variety of military campaigns in Italy and Switzerland but fared poorly, plagued by financial difficulties. The marriage alliances he negotiated were successful however, with the lands inherited from these forming the Empire of Charles V, his grandson. Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583-1634) Bohemian military leader. Fought for Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II during the Thirty Years War. He was an effective commander, securing a string of victories before Ferdinand, suspicious of his power, removed him in 1630. He was eventually assassinated by some of his own men. December 2012 Catherine de Medici (1519-1589) Queen of France. French regent between 1560 and 1574, she attempted to implement moderate policies, especially in religious matters, to keep the peace and authority of the crown. Though her influence declined after 1574, three of her sons would subsequently become kings of France. Charles XII (1682-1718) King of Sweden. An able military commander, his armies quickly defeated Denmark and conquered Poland. His attempts to conquer Russia led to total defeat at Poltava in 1709 however. After this he fled and returned to Scandinavia, where he later died fighting in Norway. Sully Prudhomme (1839-1907) French writer. His work strongly reflects the emerging trends of the late nineteenth century, in particular the desire to reconcile the concepts of pure thought and poetry. In 1901 he was the first winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature. Gruffudd ap Llywelyn (1007-1063) Welsh king. He became King of Gywnedd in 1039, and Deheubarth in 1044, and ruled virtually all of Wales by 1055. He began to attack a number of English settlements before eventually being defeated by English forces at Rhuddlan. He was later killed by his own followers. James Oglethorpe (1696-1785) British general and politician. He founded the American colony of Georgia in 1732 as a refuge for paupers and debtors and a barrier against Spanish expansion. He later returned to England and played a key role in defeating Jacobite rebels. Charles Montagu (1661-1775) British statesman. Originally an MP, he initiated the concept of the national debt with a proposal to raise a government loan of £1 million. He later founded the Bank of England in 1694 and become Chancellor of the Exchequer. Sir Phelim O’Neill (1604-1653) Irish rebel. He was a member of the Irish parliament and a prominent leader of the Irish Rebellion of 1641 against English protestant influence in Ireland. He was captured during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland and executed by English forces. Robert Dudley (1532-1588) English nobleman. He acted for many years as a courtier and councilor, with a strong interest in foreign affairs. He is best known as Queen Elizabeth I’s favorite, and in 1560 was rumored to have killed his wife, Amy Robsart, to obtain Elizabeth’s hand. Warren Hastings (1732-1818) British politician. Beginning his long career at the East India Company as a clerk, he became the first Governor-General of India in 1774 and pacified much of the country. He was impeached for corruption in 1788 before being acquitted after a seven year trial. Louis de Casabianca (1755-1798) French naval officer, born in Corsica, who, at the battle of Aboukir, after securing the safety of his crew, blew up his ship and perished along with his son, who would not leave him. Kit Carson (1809-1868) American trapper and soldier. After running away from home as a child he became an experienced trapper and Indian fighter. He helped lead expeditions during the Mexican-American War and the American Civil War, eventually reaching the rank of Brigadier-General in the U.S. Army. John Dickinson (1732-1808) American Statesman. He advocated a peaceful settlement with Britain in the 1770s and voted against the declaration of independence. He was, however, one of the two members of the Continental Congress who volunteered for armed service, serving as a militia officer. Enoch Johnson (1883-1968) American politician and racketeer. Johnson was the head of a powerful Republican party consortium which controlled the Atlantic City, New Jersey government during the Prohibition Era. His lax enforcement of the Volstead act in the city rendered it “The World’s Playground” and was spearheaded by his bootlegging, prostitution and gambling cartels. His income from vice totaled over $500,000 a year, an extraordinary sum at the time, until his conviction in 1941. He served four years in prison. Fra Diavolo (1771-1806) Italian guerrilla leader. He helped galvanise resistance to the French occupation of Naples during the French Revolutionary Wars. His fighting skill and appearance led to him being given the nickname ‘Brother Devil’ by peasants who thought he was supernatural. Joachim Murat (1767-1815) French soldier and royal. An early ally of Napoleon, serving alongside him in Italy and Egypt. He married Napoleon’s youngest sister Caroline in 1800. In 1808 Napoleon made him King of Naples, but unrest there, coupled with Napoleons defeat, lead to him losing the kingdom in 1815. Clemens von Metternich (1773-1859) Austrian statesman. He served as an ambassador and then Austrian foreign minister from 1809 to 1848. A key advocate of maintaining the balance of power in Europe, he is considered one of the most important diplomats of the early Nineteenth Century. Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) American writer and philosopher. Seen by some as a pioneer for anarchism, he only published two books in his own lifetime, notably the work Walden. He has, however, come to be regarded as one of the greatest writers America has produced. Enoch Sontonga (c.1873-1905) South African composer. He is best known for composing the anthem Nikosi Sikelel iAfrika (‘Lord Bless Africa’) in 1897, which subsequently became the national anthem of the states of South Africa, Zambia and Tanzania. Bernardo O’Higgins (1778-1842) Chilean statesman. A leader of the Chilean independence movement, he helped Chile achieve independence from Spain in the early nineteenth century. He went on to become Supreme Director of Chile between 1817 and 1824. Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598) Japanese politician. From humble origins he went on to unify the disparate political factions of Japan. He developed considerable national moral authority and instituted a number of reforms, including barring the right for non Samurai to posses weapons. Julian (332-363) Roman emperor. The successor of Constantius II, he officially proclaimed freedom of worship but secretly attempted to restore old Roman religion at the expense of Christianity. His anti Christian views led him to be known as ‘Julian the Apostate’. Diodorus of Sicily (c.80 BCE-29 BCE) Greek writer. He wrote the Historical Library, a general world history in forty installments covering the age of myth to 60 BCE. His work, while extensive, is today considered largely inaccurate and obsessed with the ‘strong man’ of history. Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia (1873-1918) Russian royal. The youngest brother of Tsar Nicholas II, he was named heir as Michael II when Nicholas abdicated in March 1917 amidst the Russian Revolution. He did not survive the revolution however and was later imprisoned and killed. William Weir (1877-1959) British politician. Originally a successful businessman in the manufacturing sector, he went on to become Scottish Director of Munitions and then the first Secretary of State for Air during the First World War. Dame Nellie Melba (1861-31) Australian opera singer born in Melbourne, Australia, she made her first appearance when she was six. She studied in Paris in 1882 and appeared in opera for the first time in Brussels in 1887. Melba received the DBE for her charitable work during the First World War. James Belcher (1781-1811) English prize fighter. Born in Bristol he was victorious in six great fights between 1799 and 1803. In 1805, he was beaten by Hen Pearce, who was known as ‘the game chicken’. He was beaten also by the boxer Cribb in 1807 and 1809. Belcher died at the age of 30. Nicolai Andreyevich Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1905) Russian composer born at Tikhvin. He attended St Petersburg Military Academy where he studied under Balakirev. His first symphony was produced at St Petersburg in 1865. He was a professor at the Conservatoire there from 1871 until his death. He composed 13 operas. Akhenaten (? - 1336 BC) Egyptian Pharaoh. Ruling for seventeen years, he is known for his attempts to radically change Egyptian religious beliefs towards the worship of one deity, Aten, the Sun God. His religious changes were not popular however, and did not last after his death. He was later known as the ‘Heretic King’. Tatsukichi Minobe (1873-1948) Japanese constitutional lawyer and professor at Tokyo University. He devised a constitutional concept centering on the principal that the emperor was no more than the chief organ of state. By such a concept, this lent theoretical support to the further development of political parties and responsible cabinets. Qaydu (1269-1303) Mongol ruler in eastern Turkestan and parts of western Mongolia. The grandson of Ogetei, he claimed the title of Great Khan, which was held by Kublai Khan. Qaydu united behind him many Mongols who were opposed to the increasing Sinification of the empire. Nekhtnebef (380-363 BCE) Egyptian King who instituted a massive building program, notably on the island of Philae. In 373 he repelled a Persian invasion of the Egyptian Delta. November 2012 Manuel Belgrano (1770-1820) Argentine general and independence leader. After a career as revolutionary general with sympathies for the monarchy, he lost his position as leader of the patriot armies in 1814. Then turning to civil and diplomatic matters, my reform proposals embraced manufacturing, agriculture, trade and education. Robert Whitehead (1823-1905) British inventor of the torpedo that bears his name in 1866. Ten years later he improved the weapon by installing the ‘servomotor’ and finally by the addition of the gyroscope. Siegfried In German legend, a king of the lower Rhine, who captured the treasure of the Nibelungs. He is the central figure in Wagner’s operas, ‘The Ring of the Niebulungs’. Robert Koch (1843-1910) German bacteriologist. A surgeon during the France Prussian War, he later commenced research into the causative organisms of infectious diseases. In 12 years, he and his pupils discovered 11 such organisms. In 1905, he was awarded the Nobel Prize. Edwin (583-633) King of Northumbria. He was the first northern ruler to make himself overlord of all the English kingdoms, apart from Kent, and the first Christian ruler of the north. When he died in battle against the Welsh this led to a transitory collapse of Christianity in Northumbria. Sakamoto Ryoma (1836-1867) Japanese Samurai. A talented swordsman, he was the leader of the patriotic movement which sought to overthrow that Tokugowa Shogunate and restore Imperial rule to Japan. He was assassinated at the age of 33, months before his ambitions were largely fulfilled by the Meiji Restoration of 1868. Francis Townsend (1867-1960) American Reformer. A physician by trade, he became known for his campaign for generous pensions for the American elderly. At its peak the movement had 3.5 million members, and gave American senior citizens political clout which continues to this day. Alberto Santos-Dumont (1873-1932) Brazillian Aeronaut. Moving to Paris at aged 18, he began mastering airships, flying such a ship around the Eiffel Tower in 1902, and later become a pioneer of heavier than air machines. He committed suicide in 1932 however, depressed by, amongst other things, the use of aircraft in war. Ramesses II (1303 BCE - 1213 BCE) Egyptian Pharaoh. Acting as regent since the age of 14, his reign is known for the large cities and monuments he constructed, his war with the Hittites and at 67 years, for its long duration. He is considered as one of the greatest Pharaohs in Egyptian history. Robert Koch (1843-1910) German bacteriologist. A surgeon during the France Prussian War, he later commenced research into the causative organisms of infectious diseases. In 12 years, he and his pupils discovered 11 such organisms. In 1905, he was awarded the Nobel Prize. J.A. Hobson (1858–1940) British Social theorist. His writings on poverty helped influence Edwardian liberal social reforms which introduced pensions and unemployment benefit. He later became an impassioned critic of imperialism, stating it was damaging both for colonies and the mother country. Thetis In Greek mythology, one of the Nereids, the wife of Peleus, and mother of Achilles. It was at the wedding of Thetis and Peleus that Eris, who had been left uninvited, threw into the midst of the gods the golden apple, which was ultimately the cause of the fall of Troy. Feng Yuxiang (1882-1938) Chinese General and Warlord. Yuxiang had a long and varied career, acting as an officer for the Imperial Army and Nationalist party, and instituting the Beijing Coup in 1924. His tendency to switch sides led him to be nicknamed the ‘Betraying General’. Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794) French Philosopher. A leading figure in the French Revolution, he acted as a Paris representative and later secretary of the Revolutionary Assembly. Many of his views, such as a universal woman’s suffrage, were too radical for many revolutionaries however, and he died in suspicious circumstances in 1794. Karl Liebknecht (1871-1919) German Politician. A key figure of the Socialist left in Germany during the First World War, he founded the Communist Party of Germany in 1919. He directed the failed Spartacist Uprising of 1919, and was later killed, along with co conspirator Rose Luxemburg, by right wing forces. Gustav Stresemann (1978-1929) German Statesman. He was one of the key figures of stability in the tumultuous years of the Weimar Republic in Germany, acting as Chancellor and Foreign Minister. Winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1926, his untimely death coincided with the beginning of Weimar’s demise. Jose Miguel Carrera (1785-1821) Chilean General. Noted for his charisma, he fought for the patriot side in Chile’s War for Independence again Spain. After the success of the war, he plotted against Chilean leader Bernando O’Higgins, and was later executed. Shaka Zulu (1787-1828) Zulu King. After defeating his brother to secure the Zulu crown in 1816, within the space of twelve years he had organised an immense army of skilled and disciplined warriors, conquering and pacifying a territory larger than Europe. He is considered the most influential leader of the Zulu kingdom. Jean Moulin (1899 - 1943) French Spy. Originating as a civil servant, his left wing views led to him being sacked in 1940, inspiring him to join the sparse French resistance. After meeting with De Gaulle in London, he helped unite the free French forces dispersed around France, before being betrayed and captured in 1943. Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582) Japanese Warlord. Living a life of continuous military conquest, he began unifying Japan under the Shogunate in the 1560s. Towards the end of his life he dominated nearly half of Japan, and was on the brink of conquering much more, before he was killed by a disloyal commander. Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf (1852-1925) Austrian General. Chief of the Austria-Hungary General Staff at the outset of the First World War, he is often advanced as the most passionate Austrian advocate of war. His military success was limited however, and his influence steadily declined by the end of the conflict. George Stephenson (1781-1848) British Engineer. A pioneer in the development of railways, he invented the ‘Rocket’, the most famous early railway locomotive. Lauded by British Victorian society, he became known as the ‘Father of Railways’, with railway track gauge still named after him. Ashoka (Maurya) (272-232 BCE) Indian emperor. Inheriting an East Indian dynasty, a string of military conquests led to his empire growing to encompass nearly all of the Indian subcontinent. After a subsequent conversion to Buddhism, he abandoned conquest and embraced nonviolent principles. Sigismund (1368-1437) Roman Emperor, son of Charles IV. He became Margrave of Brandenburg in 1378 and King of Hungary in 1387. In 1396, he led a crusade against the Turks and was routed at Nicopolis. After many protracted conflicts he was elected German king in 1410, and crowned emperor in 1433. Robin Hood In English folk-lore and literature a celebrated outlaw, who dwelt in Sherwood Forest. He is first mentioned in 1377 in Piers Plowman. Later on poems, stories and ballads concerning him are common. A Lytell Geste of Robyn Hode (1510) was a collection of earlier stories and set the standard of future tales of Robin Hood. Vincent Novello (1781-1861) English composer and music publisher, founder of the Novello & Co and part-founder of the Philharmonic Society of London. His works consisted mostly of church music. He was succeeded by his son, Joseph Alfred, who carried on his father’s business and did valuable work in publishing affordable quality music. George Lockhart (1673-1731) Scottish politician and writer. MP for Edinburgh, and a commissioner to arrange the Union with England in 1705. He took part in the Jacobite uprising of 1715 and was imprisoned. Justus von Liebig (1803-1873) German chemist born in Darmstadt; one of the founders of modern organic chemistry. He was appointed Professor of Chemistry at Giessen, and later at Munich. Apart from his work in organic chemistry, he also discovered a large number of new compounds such as chloroform and chloral. Shivaji Bhonsle (1620-1680) Indian Emperor. Founder of the Maratha Empire, he was an able administrator and military leader. His military prowess, particularly the pioneering use of guerilla tactics, helped him defeat much more powerful enemies like the Mughal Empire. John D Rockefeller (1839-1937) American oil billionaire, financier and founder of Standard Oil, the precursor of, inter alia, Exxon-Mobil. Born at Richford New York, after a few years as an assistant book keeper, at 19 he bought a share in a produce commission firm. He and his partner invested $1,600 in support of a new oil-refining process, which proved enormously successful. Rockefeller gave away around half his wealth and in today’s currency would be two or three times wealthier than the world’s richest individual. October 2012 Octave Henri Marie Mirabeau (1850-1917) French playwright, novelist and journalist. He is best known for his dramas, of which Les Mauvais Bergers (1897) and Les son les Affaires (1903) were the most popular. Prester John In medieval legend, a Christian king of an undefined eastern country, mentioned in many early books of travel. According to some accounts he reigned in Asia, according to others, in Abyssinia. The leaders of the Seventh Crusade unsuccessfully sought to establish contact with him. Frances Wright (1795-1852) Scots-American social reformer. She emigrated from Scotland in 1824, and quickly became a leading reformer. A passionate advocate for abolition, universal education and equal rights for women, she led the Workingmen’s Party in New York. Josef Pilsudski (1867-1935) Polish Statesman. An agitator for Polish independence and army leader during the First World War. After becoming frustrated with the newly independent Polish democratic government, he staged a coup and ruled Poland until his death in 1935. Georges Boulanger (1837-1891) French general and politician. After a successful army career, he moved into politics and became a right wing leader. By 1888 many expected he would institute a coup, but he never did, and he later became discredited, committing suicide in 1891. Michael Collins (1890-1922) Irish nationalist. A highly effective military leader during the Irish War of Independence, he was later selected to negotiate peace with the rest of Britain. After successfully brokering the Anglo-Irish Treaty, he was assassinated months later by dissident republicans. Paul von Hindenburg (1847-1934) German soldier and statesman. He rose to the position of Chief of the General Staff during the First World War, gradually usurping the authority of Kaiser Wilhelm II. Elected German President in 1925, he appointed Hitler Chancellor in 1933. Squanto (c.1580s-1622) Native American guide. A Patuxet tribe member, he was kidnapped in 1614 by English explorer Thomas Hunt and taken to Europe. Squanto eventually returned to his native region and became an interpreter and guide to the Pilgrim settlers in New England. Behramji Malabari (1853-1912) Indian journalist. Possessing considerable literary talent, he was an editor of the Indian Spectator, and also an outspoken social reformer, particularly on women’s rights. His impassioned advocacy for the rights of widows and against child marriage attracted much attention in Britain. Qiu Jin (1875-1907) Chinese revolutionary. She was an outspoken advocate of women’s rights and a member of various organisations plotting against the ruling Qing Dynasty. Executed after a failed uprising in 1907, she is lauded as a revolutionary heroine in China. Nennius (circa 800) Welsh chronicler. The supposed author of the Historia Britonum, which deals with the early legendary history of Britain, and is the chief sources for the history of King Arthur and the Round Table. Frederick Jackson Turner (1861-1932) American historian. Holding positions at the University of Wisconsin and later Harvard, his ‘frontier thesis’, that American expansion westwards was essential to American development, colored American identity for a generation. Gouverneur Morris (1752-1816) American statesman. Called to the Bar in 1771, Morris was a member of the Continential Congress from 1777 to 1780. He assisted in the preparation of the United Sates Constitution in 1787, and played a pivotal role in establishing the United States’ coinage system. Olaudah Equiano (1745-1797) African freed slave and author. Equiano was born into slavery but later managed to purchase his freedom. His heart-rending account of being kidnapped and sold into slavery became a bestseller and fuelled the abolitionist campaign. W.H. Russell (1820-1907) Irish Journalist. A journalist at The Times, Russell at first hand reported the Indian Mutiny, American Civil War and, most notably, Crimean War, where he spent 22 months covering the conflict. He is often considered one of the first modern war correspondents. Joseph Paxton (1803-1865) British gardener and architect. Despite being self-taught, Paxton became one of the most visionary architects of his age. His most famous design, the Crystal Palace in London, was originally conceived by Paxton as a doodle on a blotter during a meeting. Sir Surendranath Banerji (1848-1925) Indian Revolutionary. After facing racial discrimination in the Civil Service, he became a prominent Indian political leader during British rule. He founded the Indian National Association, ‘The Bengali’ newspaper and became a leader in the Indian National Congress. John Newton (1725-1807) British sailor and Anglican clergyman. He began his career as a slave trader and slave ship captain, before undergoing a religious conversion; becoming an Anglican priest and prominent abolitionist. He authored the famous hymn ‘Amazing Grace’. Huang Jinrong (1867-1951) Chinese gangster. Known as ‘Pockmarked Huang’, he was leader of the infamous ‘Green Gang’ crime syndicate in Shanghai, as well as acting as a senior detective. His criminal activities and government links led to his execution by the communists in 1951. Claire Chennault (1893-1958) U.S. military aviator. In a career with the United States Army Air Corps, he often clashed with his superiors on air tactics, and he later became an air force strategist for the Chinese Nationalists. He led the ‘Flying Tigers’ of American air force volunteers in China. Lin Biao (1907-1971) Chinese general and politician. He started his career as an army general, leading the civil war campaign in Northern China. During the cultural revolution he was designated as Mao’s successor, but later died mysteriously in a plane crash while trying to flee China. Lala Lajpat Rai (1865-1928) Indian revolutionary. He held the presidency of the Indian National Congress in 1920 and travelled throughout the United States to encourage support for the cause. He died after being heavily beaten during a protest, with his death date a martyr’s day in India. Puyi (1906–1967) Chinese Qing emperor. He ruled as the Xuantong Emperor from 1908 until his abdication on 12 February 1912, marking the end of centuries of dynastic rule in China. Commonly known as the ‘Last Emperor’, Puyi continued to be involved in Chinese affairs in different guises until his death. Vespasian (9-79) Roman military commander and emperor. After many military successes, including the Roman invasion of Britain, Vespasian outmaneuvered his rivals to become emperor. He succeeded in restoring peace and stability after a year of civil war and founded the Flavian dynasty of emperors. King Charles II (1630 – 1685) In 1649 Charles II, whilst still Prince of Wales witnessed the execution of his father King Charles I, in the dramatic conclusion to the English Civil War. On his father’s death, Charles was immediately declared King of Scotland, however during the English Interregnum, Charles was effectively exiled, spending his time in France, the United Provinces and the Spanish Netherlands. In 1660, Charles was invited to return to London as King, and the monarchy was restored. The ensuring decades became known as the Restoration, which sparked a new age of culture, literature, architecture and art in Britain. Captain Matthew Flinders (1774 – 1814) Matthew Flinders was a British navigator and cartographer, who was the first to circumnavigate Australia, and declare it a continent, as well as identifying Tasmania as an island, when he successfully sailed through Bass Strait. Flinders was imprisoned for six years by the French governor of Mauritius. It was during this captivity that he recorded the details of his voyages, in which he also suggested the new found continent be named ‘Australia’. Empress Dowager Cixi of China (1835 – 1908) Cixi was a powerful and charismatic woman who effectively controlled China for 47 years, from 1861 to her death in 1908, as the matriarch of the Manchu Qing dynasty. Cixi was the mother of the Emperor Tongzhi, and was appointed the regent upon his accession. However on the death of her son, she appointed her nephew as the Emperor Guangxu, thus consolidating her power. Historians have generally portrayed her as a despot and villain responsible for the fall of the Dynasty, which collapsed in 1912. Queen Maud of Norway (1869 – 1938) Born HRH Princess Maud of Wales in 1869, she was the youngest daughter of the future King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra. In 1896 she married Prince Carl of Denmark, who was later created King of Norway in 1905, thus Maud became Queen of Norway. She died in London in 1938, the last surviving child of Edward VII. Pheidippides (530 – 490 BC) Pheidippides was a hero of Ancient Greece, whose story has inspired the modern day marathon. Pheidippides was an Athenian herald, or messenger, who ran from Marathon of Athens, a distance of 25 miles, to announce the Greek victory over the Persians, only to then collapse and die. Edward W Scripps (1854-1926) United States newspaper mogul who created a publishing empire which controlled some 30 newspapers in 15 US states, and a news service that became the United Press Association. Robert Oppenheimer (1904-1967) American theoretical physicist. He was one of the leading scientists involved in the Manhattan Project to develop nuclear weapons, and to this end was dubbed the ‘Father of the Atomic Bomb’. Frictions developed with the government however, and his security clearance was revoked in 1954. September 2012 Huang Zongxi (1610-1695) Chinese Scholar. A member of a resistance movement against the Manchu Qing Dynasty in early life, he later devoted himself to scholarship. His critique of Imperial Absolutism, written in 1662, exerted a considerable influence on early 20th century Chinese revolutionaries. Abigail Adams (1744-1818) American first lady. She was the wife of John Adams and mother to John Quincey Adams, both Presidents of the United States. She is famed for her letters, which show her skill in debating political issues and her influence with two Presidents. Louisa May Alcott (1832-1888) American novelist. Growing up in poverty, she resorted to writing to support her family and produced over 300 novels, stories and poems during her lifetime. Alcott was a strong supporter of black rights and women’s suffrage, and has since become a cult American literary figure. Aristilde Briand (1862-1932) French socialist statesman. He served as Prime Minister eleven times between 1909 and 1929, where he holds a strong legacy for peace efforts, being active in the League of Nations and urging the formation of a United Europe to avoid conflict. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1926. Marc Bloch (1886-1944) French historian and soldier. He fought bravely in the First World War, being admitted to the Legion d’Honneur, and in the interwar period published a range of pioneering historical works. At the outset of the Second World War he joined the Resistance, and was later tortured and killed by the Nazis. Noor Inayat Khan (1914-1944) British special operations officer. Khan was the first female radio operator sent into Nazi occupied France by the Special Operations Executive (SOE). Initially she was the only operator in Paris to avoid detection, but was later arrested and executed by the Gestapo. Charles Gordon (1833-1885) British general and colonial governor. After early service in the Crimean War and in China, he became involved in the Sudan, where he organised a year long defense of Khartoum against Sudanese rebels. The siege was eventually broken and Gordon killed, after which he was hailed a national hero. Agricola (40-93) Roman statesman and soldier. As Governor of Britannia he did much to assert Roman authority, completing the subjugation of Welsh tribes and conquering areas of northern England and Scotland. He was awarded ornaments of a triumph, the highest military honor expected. Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) British economist. He is known for his widely read theories on the perils of population growth, contained in his ‘Essay on the Principle of Population’. Often termed Malthusianism, his ideas heavily influenced Charles Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection, which to this day remain controversial. John Donne (1572–1631) British poet and priest. The most famous of the metaphysical poets, Donne produced a vast range of work from love sonnets to religious poems. He rose to become Dean of St Paul’s Cathedral and also served twice as a member of Parliament. Charles Hughes (1862–1948) U.S. Republican Statesman. Originally a lawyer, Hughes went on to hold a variety of noted posts including Governor of New York, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and Secretary of State. He was the Republican candidate in the 1916 Presidential election, but was defeated by Woodrow Wilson. Tiradentes (1746–1792) Brazilian revolutionary. He was part of the ‘Inconfidência Mineira’ movement, which sought to achieve Brazilian independence from Portugal. After betrayal by one of his co-conspirators, the plan was discovered and Tiradentes was arrested and hanged. The date of his death is now a public holiday in Brazil. Khafra (2558 BC-2532 BC) Egyptian pharoah. Considered by historical records to be a cruel and heretical ruler, Khafra was the builder of the second largest pyramid of Giza. Many Egyptologists also credit him with the building of the Great Sphinx, which guards his tomb. Yu Kwan-Sun (1904–1920) Korean Student and Independence Figure. She helped organise protests for Korean Independence from Japan, including the March 1st Movement, before she was arrested and imprisoned in 1920. Here she died at the age of 16, and was later dubbed the Korean ‘Joan of Arc’. Prince Shotoku (574-622) Japanese Regent. A prominent Buddhist, he helped spread Buddhism and Chinese culture and ideas, across Japan. A devotional cult developed around him in the generations after his death, and he remains a revered figure to this day. Admiral Yi Sun-Shin (1545–1598) Korean Military Leader. Despite never having received formal naval training, he grew to excel as a naval commander and strategist. He was famed for his victories against the Japanese navy during the Imjin war, and for his contributions to the development of naval tactics. Yongzheng Emperor (1678-1735) Chinese Qing emperor. A noted hard worker, his reign was a prosperous era in Chinese history. His many reforms, such as improving financial administration and initial formulation of the Junjichu (Grand Council), held a considerable impact on the future of imperial China. Georgi Zhukov (1896-1974) Soviet Military Commander. One of most distinguished Soviet army leaders of the Second World War, his often costly victories over the German army did much to accelerate Soviet progress to Berlin. He was awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union four times. Roy Jenkins British Labor politician and author. Jenkins served with distinction in the Second World War and was a leading member of the British Cabinet before becoming president of the European Community in 1977. He later was a founder of the Social Democratic Party. Henry Grattan (1746-1820) Irish statesman. He was elected to the Irish Parliament in 1775, where his notably eloquent speeches made a deep impression. A fervent nationalist, Grattan was a leading force in gaining the independence of the Irish Parliament. Rob Roy McGregor (1671-1734) Scots Highlander who raised clansmen and obtained a commission from James II to make war on all who refused to acknowledge the ex-monarch. In 1722 he was sentenced to transportation to Barbados, but was pardoned at the last moment. John Hunter (1728-1793) British surgeon and anatomist. In his youth he was a cabinet maker in Glasgow, but went to London to study surgery. In 1776 he was appointed surgeon-extraordinary by King George III. He built an anatomical museum in Leicester Square in 1784-85. His principal writings included On the Venereal Disease and Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation and Gunshot Wounds. Janos Hunyadi (1387-1456) Famous Hungarian soldier, born in Transylvania. He fought under King Sigismund in the Hussite War and later against the Turks. He was regent during the minority of Ladislaus V. Hunyadi’s generalship was far in advance of his time. He was the first to use a regular army on a large scale and to rely on strategy rather than on brute strength and courage. Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly (1559-1631) Holy Roman Empire commander. His success in the first half of the Thirty Years War won him many plaudits, but his devotion to traditional military tactics was cruelly exposed in the later stages of the war by King Gustav II of Sweden. Manuel Godoy (1767-1851) Dictator of Spain between 1792 and 1808. He rose from an obscure guardsman to become a court favorite as a result of a claimed romantic relationship with Queen Maria Luisa and through him being a confidant to King Charles IV. At the age of 25 he effectively became the dictator of Spain. Unsuccessfully ought to negotiate with Napoleon the creation of a kingdom in Algarve with him as sovereign. Võ Nguyên Giáp (1911-) Vietnamese military commander. He helped build up the Vietnamese People’s Army with scant resources. With it he defeated two of the great powers, France and the United States, in the First Indochina War and Vietnam War respectively. Prince Eugene of Savoy (1663-1735) Habsburg military commander. He was one of the most successful military commanders in modern history, rising to the highest offices of state at the Imperial court in Vienna. He won European wide fame for military success against the Ottomans and during the War of Spanish Succession. Joan of Arc (c. 1412 - 1431) French national heroine. Led a troop of French soldiers and served as a temporary focus of French resistance to English occupation in the last phase of the Hundred Years War. John Jay (1745-1829) American Diplomat and Optician. He guided American foreign policy from the end of the Revolution until George Washington’s first administration was under way. Jay headed the U.S. Supreme Court during its formative years. Hung Hsiu-ch'uan (1814-1864) Chinese religious leader. He was the founder of the Taipeng sect, a religious belief with roots in Christianity. These beliefs led to the ten year long Taipeng Rebellion. August 2012 William Prynne (1600-1699) English Puritan and pamphleteer. He was imprisoned and lost his ears for aspersions on the Queen in Histriomastix (1634). He supported the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War, but was an enemy of the Commonwealth. Jesse Woodson James (1847-1882) American outlaw. A confederate guerilla during the American Civil War, James became a colorful bandit and gang member, contributing to bank, train and stagecoach robberies. His escapades made him a legendary figure of the American Wild West. Victor Marie Hugo (1802-1885) Greatest of the French Romantic authors. Hugo’s writings are notable for their metrical skill and colorful diction, and his work has been made immortal by his tremendous vitality. His Notre Dame de Paris in 1831 revolutionised prose. In 1852 he was exiled from France for his political opinions. Perhaps his most famous work is Les Miserables, published in 1862. James II (1633-1701) King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1685-1688. Britain’s last Stuart and Catholic Monarch, he granted religious minorities the right to worship. His motives were treated as suspicious by many and he was deposed by the ‘Glorious Revolution’. Innocent III (1160-1216) Pope from 1198 to 1216. He was an Italian aristocrat, theologian and canon lawyer before acceding to the pontificate. His reign has customarily been taken to mark the most splendid moment of the medieval papacy. Imhotep (?-300 BCE) Ancient Egyptian polymath. He is often considered the first architect, engineer and physician in early history, with achievements including the invention of the pyramid. His talents were so vast that he became one of only a handful of individuals of non-royal birth to be promoted to godhood. St. Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) Spanish soldier and ecclesiastic. After an early career as a soldier, his conversion led to his desire to live as a Knight for Christ. He was one of the greatest mystics of Christianity and the founder of the Society of Jesus, or Jesuit order. Anne Marbury Hutchinson (1591-1643) Early Massachusetts colonist. She was banished from Massachusetts colony for dissenting traditional religious beliefs. Her ‘case’ was one of several pre-figuring the eventual separation of church and state in the United States. William Hull (1753-1825) American military commander. He surrendered United States troops at Detroit to the British during the War of 1812, dealing a severe blow to the American war effort. A court-martial found Hull guilty of cowardice and neglect of duty. Howard Robard Hughes (1905-1976) American entrepreneur. He was a flamboyant figure who used an inherited fortune to achieve a national reputation in the motion picture and aviation industries, remaining in the news in later years because of his adroit increase in his net worth and paranoid concern for privacy. Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928) English suffragette. The beautiful daughter of a Manchester cotton manufacturer she was a brilliant speaker, and formed the Women’s Social and Political Union in 1903. She was sentenced to three years jail in 1913 but released after a year. Later in life her politics moved to the Right and she agreed to stand as a Conservative Party candidate but died before the election took place. Edwin Powell Hubble (1889-1953) American astronomer. Established the scale of the universe and laid the observational basis for the cosmological theory of the expanding universe. In 1990, NASA launched the Hubble Space Telescope, which was named in his honor. Boris Fedorovich Godunov (1552-1605) Tsar of Muscovy, elected Tsar in 1598 on the death of Theodore. The greatest of the Muscovite Tsars, he encouraged commercial and cultural relations with foreign powers and re-colonised Siberia. His liberalism did not extend to the lower classes, and he introduced a tyrannical system of serfdom. John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich (1718-1792) British politician, became earl at the age of 11. From 1784-1751 he was First Lord of the Admiralty. The navy deteriorated under his control and fell into disrepute. He is said to have originated the sandwich as a convenient form of food, to permit him to gamble without interruptions for meals. Hsun-tzu (312-235 B.C.E) Chinese philosopher. He was one of the most important early Confucian philosophers and was a stringent critic of superstition and religious observances of his time. He is famous for his theory that human nature is basically evil. Enver Hoxha (1908-1985) Albanian political leader. Leader of the Communist Party of Albania from its foundation in 1941 and a leader of the effort to force German withdrawal in 1944. He headed the Albanian government for the next four decades, longer than any other postwar European Leader. Johnnie Jonson (1916-2001) British fighter pilot. He was the top fighter pilot of the RAF in the Second World War, with a score of 38 planes shot down, as well as being the highest scoring Allied fighter ace against the Luftwaffe. He flew in the Battle of Britain, the Dieppe Raid and during the D-Day build-up. Nicholas Sebastien Roch (1741-1794) French man of letters, famed for his witty conversations, which made him welcome at the French Court and in the Jacobin Club alike. During the Reign of Terror he committed suicide. The gems of his wit are recorded in his uncompleted Maximes et Pensees. Milan I (1854-1901) King of Serbia, he was proclaimed prince, under a regency, on the assassination of his cousin Michael Obrenovich in 1868 and became king in 1882. Seven years later he abdicated in favor of his son. He later was made Commander-in-Chief of the Serbian army. He was banished in 1900. Sebastien le Prestre de Vaughan (1633-1707) French soldier and engineer, known for his extensive construction of fortresses, and his conduct of many sieges. He improved or constructed some 160 fortresses and wrote treatises on attack and defense. He was made Marshal of France in 1703. Charlotte Corday (1768-1793) French revolutionary who assassinated Marat. She became involved in politics on the outbreak of the revolution. Believing Marat to be a tyrant, she went to Paris in July 1793 and stabbed him in his bath. She was subsequently tried and guillotined. Coriolanus (5 Century BC) Roman legendary patrician, he was awarded his name after the capture of Volscian Corioli. In 493BC he was exiled from Rome and took refuge with the Volscians. A play of Shakespeare’s is based on his life. Chester Nimitz (1885-1966) U.S. admiral. Nimitz was Commander in Chief of the US Pacific Fleet during the Second World War. An outstanding strategist, he was responsible for bringing the US fleet from its weak situation after Pearl Harbour to a position of initiative within the first year of the war in the Far East. Xuanzong of Tang (685-762) Chinese Emperor of the Tang Dynasty. While an astute ruler and capable administrator in the early years of his reign, his poor choice of allies towards the end of his life led to the Anshi Rebellion and the end of the Tang dynasty’s’ golden age. Vasco da Gama (1460-1524) Portuguese navigator. He was the first to travel by sea from Portugal to India. The term “Da Gama epoch” is used to describe the era of European commercial and imperial expansion launched by his navigational enterprise. Galen (130-200) Greek physician, anatomist and philosopher. He contributed greatly to the understanding of disciplines including anatomy, physiology, pathology, and neurology. His works were largely undisputed for the next 1500 years, and he was perhaps the most influential physician of all time. John Charles Fremont (1813-1890) American explorer, politician and soldier. Through his exploration of the American West, Fremont helped foster America’s desire to expand into these regions. He was later the first presidential candidate of the Republican Party. St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) Italian mystic. He founded the religious order known as the Franciscans. Renowned for his love, simplicity and practice of poverty, he is one of the most famous and venerated religious figures in history. Charles James Fox (1749-1806) English parliamentarian. He won the reputation of being the champion of individual liberties against the oppressive tendencies of government and was dubbed ‘the man of the people’. He was a stringent critic of George III. July 2012 Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) British bacteriologist. He is best known for helping to discover penicillin, which has been hailed as the ‘greatest contribution medical science ever made to humanity’. For this he shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 with Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Chain. Luigi Galvani II (1737-1798) Distinguished Italian scientist, whose experiments during a course of lectures on anatomy at Bologna discovered the principle of animal electricity, hence the term Galvanism. Edward VIII (1894-1972) King of the United Kingdom. Edward was King for only one year, 1936, abdicating the throne to marry the ‘woman I love’, the twice divorced American Wallis Simpson. Controversy continued to later surround Edward when he was suspected of holding Nazi sympathies. Leif Ericson (971-1015) Norse mariner and adventurer. He was the first Norseman to seek out the coast of North America, and introduced Christianity into Greenland. He is often regarded as being the first European to land in North America, 500 years before Christopher Columbus. Robert Emmett (1778-1803) Irish Nationalist. He was executed after leading an unsuccessful revolution against British Rule. His youth, passionate oratory, and courage in the face of death made him a symbol of romantic, revolutionary, Irish Nationalism. Elizabeth I (1533-1603) Queen of England and Ireland. She preserved stability in a nation rent by political and religious dissension and maintained the authority of the Crown against the growing pressures of Parliament. Famously dubbed the ‘Virgin Queen’ for not marrying or bequeathing an heir. James Harold Doolittle (1896-1993) American pilot. Doolittle set two early transcontinental flying time records, pioneered advancements in aviation, led the Tokyo raid in 1942, and commanded the Eighth Air Force attack on Germany. He was awarded the US Medal of Honor. John Frederick Charles Fuller (1878-1966) British soldier and early tank expert. After serving in the South African War and First World War he was appointed chief of the fledging tank corps in 1917. The British tanks success at Cambrai was attributed to him. He later wrote Tanks in the Great War and Foundations of a Science of War, among other books. Sir Francis Drake (ca.1541-1596) English navigator. He was the first of his countrymen to circumnavigate the globe. His daring exploits at sea helped to establish England’s naval supremacy over other European nations and contain the threat of Spain. Ngo Dinh Diem (1901-1963) South Vietnam’s first premier and president. Leader of South Vietnam after the 1954 partition, he initially provided inspiring leadership but later became dictatorial when pressed by the Vietcong assault against his government. John Dillinger (1903-1934) American criminal. During the depression of the 1930s his bank robberies were seen by many as revenge on society’s financial institutions that were unfairly exploiting the economically distressed, winning him short-lived national fame and popularity. Edward VI (1537-1553) King of England and Ireland. Ascending to the throne at the age of 9, at the death of his father Henry VIII, his short reign witnessed the introduction of the English Prayer Book and the Forty-Two articles, and thus was important for the development of English Protestantism. Mary Baker Eddy (1821-1910) Religious leader. Eddy was the American founder of the Christian Science Church, which developed a unique understanding of the relationship between religion and health. It resulted in one of the era’s most influential religious books, ‘Science and Health’. Thomas Paine (1737-1809) English American Author. Paine wrote the successful pamphlet Common Sense, published in January 1776, which argued for American independence from Britain. The work was hugely popular across the colonies and was even read to American solders prior to battle. King Stephen (1097-1154) English King, 1135-1154. Stephen reigned during a dismal period known as ‘the anarchy’. The King was in constant conflict with rival claimant to the throne, Empress Matilda, amid escalating lawlessness elsewhere. Medieval texts describe Stephen’s reign as one of ‘nineteen long winters’. Charles De Gaulle (1898-1970) French statesman. An army general, he escaped to Britain when France was conquered in 1940, and became the leader of the Free French, uniting those who opposed the German occupation. He was an influential president of France in 1944-46, and in 1959-69. David Glasgow Farragut (1801-1870) American (Union) Admiral. A midshipman at the age of 11 and a prize master of a captured British Ship at 12, Farragut excelled during the American Civil War, where he led the New Orleans expedition and later captured the town of Mobile. He was promoted Admiral in 1866, the first to hold the rank in the United States Navy. John Cronyn Tovey (1885-1971) British admiral and commander of the Home Fleet 1940-3. Tovey led the pursuit and destruction of the Bismarck, pride of Hitler’s Navy, whose escape into the North Atlantic threatened North American trade routes. The sinking was the most important surface battle fought by the Royal Navy in home waters during the Second World War. Mao Zedong (1893-1976) Chinese communist leader. He helped establish the Chinese Communist Party, eventually defeating Chinese nationalists to establish the People’s Republic of China in 1949. He was ruler of China until his death, taking the country through both the ‘Great Leap Forward’ from 1958-1962 and the ‘Cultural Revolution’ of 1966. Richard Sorge (1985-1944) A Soviet spy based in Shanghai and later Tokyo, Sorge developed a sophisticated spy ring with high level sources in the Japanese government. His prescient warnings that the Nazis intended to invade the USSR in June 1941 were ignored. He later was hanged by Japanese authorities and was made a posthumous hero of the USSR. Mungo Park (1771-1806) Scottish explorer. In 1794 he was appointed by the African Association to explore the Niger. After his first African expedition he produced his book Travels in the Interior of Africa. In a second expedition in 1803 to Niger with a party of 35 private soldiers the group was struck down by disease leaving only six. He and the remainder of the party subsequently drowned. Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) Italian religious reformer of the Dominican Order. His oratory against the sins and apostasy of the age excited great popular interest. Attempted to set up a ‘Christian commonwealth’ in Florence. In response to his speeches against sin, the women of Florence eagerly cast their jewels into ‘bonfires of vanities’. Claimed the gift of prophecy and was suspected of heresy. Tried and found guilty, and was strangled and burnt. Pedro I (1798-1834) Emperor of Brazil, the son of John VI of Portugal. On the invasion of his country by Napoleon in 1807, his father retired to Brazil, and on his return to Portugal in 1821, left Pedro in Brazil. In the following year Pedro was elected emperor, and in 1825 succeeded in establishing Brazil as an independent kingdom. Joseph Pulitzer (1847-1911) American newspaper owner of Hungarian birth. He fought in the Civil War and later became a reporter. He went on to buy the St Louis Post Despatch in 1877 and the New York World in 1883. In his will be set up a fund for annual prizes for journalism, literature and music. Lepidus, Marcus Aemilius (d 13BC) Roman leader. A strong supporter of Julius Caesar, yet after his murder he joined with Mark Anthony and Octavian in forming the Second Triumvirate. He was appointed commander of Africa and seized Sicily for Rome. Augustus then removed him from office. Ethelred I (d 871) King of Wessex, brother and predecessor of Alfred the Great. He was at his prayers when the Battle of Asldown (871) began, yet the Danes sustained their first decisive defeat. Thomas Erskine 1st Baron Erskine (1750-1823) British lawyer, born in Scotland. Successfully defended Admiral Keppel who was charged with incompetence. He secured the acquittal of Lord George Gordon who was charged with treason for the riots that bore his name. Later Erskine was appointed Lord Chancellor of England. He was an advocate of the emancipation of Black slaves. William Avery Bishop (1894-1956) Canadian fighter ace. Second-ranking amongst British aces of the First World War, Bishop shot down seventy two enemy aircraft and was awarded the Victoria Cross, despite not starting operational flying until March 1917. In 1918 he scored twenty five victories in a mere twelve-day period. William Wallace (1272-1305) Scottish resistance hero. By 1296, England had conquered much of Scotland, but under Wallace’s leadership the English were driven out of Perthshire and Lanarkshire, with a famous victory secured at Stirling Bridge. In 1305 he was betrayed and captured, sent to the Tower of London and later hanged and quartered. Al 'Scarface' Capone (1888-1947) American Gangster. A notorious figure of the prohibition era, he led criminal activities that included smuggling, bootlegging liquor and prostitution in Chicago in the 1920s. His career illustrated the power and influence or organised crime in the United States during this era. Jailed for tax evasion. Died of syphilis. Aristotle (384 - 322 BCE) Greek Philosopher and scientist. He organised the knowledge of his time into a coherent whole, which served as the base for much of the science and philosophy of Greek and Roman times, and even affected medieval science and philosophy. June 2012 Spiro Agnew (1918-1996) American politician. Vice president to Richard Nixon between 1968 and 1973, dubbed by Nixon as leading spokesman for ‘the silent majority’. He was later forced to resign after being charged with bribe-taking, an event which preceded by less than a year Nixon’s own resignation. John Acton, 1st Baron Acton (1834-1902) British intellectual. Action was a famous scientific historian and Catholic philosopher. His work is distinguished by the application of rigorous standards of accuracy and ethical principles to history. William Beveridge (1879-1963) British liberal politician and economist. He drew up the Beveridge Plan in 1942, which in the post war era became the backbone of the British system of social security initiated by the Labour Party. Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) British-American Inventor. Originally born in Edinburgh before emigrating to Canada, and later America. In 1876 he exhibited an invention that eventually developed into the telephone. He devoted much attention to the education of deaf-mutes. Hugh Latimer (1485-1555) English Protestant reformer and priest. He favored Henry VIII’s divorce. In 1535 he became Bishop of Worcester. His famous sermons included On the Plough, and that preached at Jane Seymour’s funeral. Under Queen Mary he was condemned for heresy and burnt at Oxford with Nicholas Ridley in 1555. Ferdinand Lasalle (1825-1864) German socialist politician. He conducted an intensive campaign using speeches and pamphleteering aimed at improving the social and political status of the poor. He was wealthy and lived lavishly and founded the German Socialist movement. He was killed in a duel. James Gillespie Blaine (1830-1893) US politician, who, in 1884, was a Republican presidential candidate against incumbent Garfield. He was defeated after a bitter campaign in which his slogan directed against his opponent of ‘Rum, Romanism and Rebellion’ was his undoing. Qintilian (35-95 AD) Roman orator and critic. His school of oratory was the greatest of his day. His great work was his Institutio Oratoria, an expert critique of the rhetoric of his time. George Mortimer Pullman (1831-97) American industrialist. He invented and, in America, practically monopolized the manufacture of the railway sleeping cars and luxury day coaches named after him. The town of Pullman, Illinois was built for his employees. Franz von Hipper (1863-1962) German admiral. The commander of the German battle cruiser force at the inconclusive Battle of Jutland in World War One, and the final commander-in-chief of the High Seas Fleet. Notably he spent his whole life at sea, never once holding a shore staff appointment. Kublai Khan (1215-1294) Mongol Emperor. The greatest Mongol emperor after Genghis Khan and founder of the Yuan dynasty in China. Though basically a nomad, he was able to rule a vast empire of different nations by adapting their traditions to his on government. Sir Douglas Haig (1861-1928) British field marshal. He commanded the British Expeditionary Force from 1915 until 1918. His command involved considerable lows, such as the Battle of the Somme, and highs, such as repulsing of the Luddendorf Offensive and ensuing counter attack, which helped lead to the 1918 armistice. Lavr Kornilov (1870-1918) Russian General. He acted as general for both the Imperial Russian Army and the counter-revolutionary army fighting the Bolsheviks. He is most famous for attempting a military coup against the Russian Government while serving as its commander-in-chief. Ferdinand Foch (1851-1929) Marshal of France. Foch attained early prestige for the 1914 victory at the Marne and eventually rose to become supreme commander of the Allied Forces in 1918, overseeing the final stages of the war. Foch was the only French general also to be named a British field marshal. Hugh Dowding (1882-1970) British air marshal. Named commander-in-chief of RAF fighter command in 1936, Dowding prepared it for the Second World War and masterfully directed it in the pivotal Battle of Britain in 1940. Karl Donitz (1981-1980) German admiral. He had a long and varied career in the Germany navy before becoming grand admiral in 1943. Named as his successor by Hitler in his will, Donitz presided over the last days of the Third Reich and surrounded unconditionally to the Allies on May 7, 1945. Geoffrey De Haviland (1882-1965) British Aircraft Designer. He founded the de Haviland Aircraft Company in 1920 and developed revolutionary aircraft, most famously the Mosquito, which was made primarily of wood and was the fastest operational aircraft in the world when it entered production. Lazaro Cardenas (1895-1970) Mexican President. During his administration he revitalized the people’s faith in the revolution by implementing extensive land reforms, expropriating foreign-owned properties, and nationalising the oil industry. Hattie Wyatt Caraway (1878-1950) American Politician. She was elected to the U.S. Senate in early 1931 to complete her late husband’s term, and she won election to a full six-year term in 1932, and again in 1938, to become the first women elected to the U.S. Senate in her own right. Canute the Great (ca. 995-1035) Viking king. He united the English and Danish people to become the first ruler since the fall of Rome to rule over all of England. He ruled England through a combination of English and Scandinavian customs. George Canning (1770-1827) British orator and statesman. He opposed intervention by continental powers like France and Spain in the affairs of other states. He successfully supported the insurgent Spanish-American colonies and the establishment of Greek autonomy. Daniel Burnham (1846-1913) American architect and city planner. His maxim, ‘think big’, dominated his successful career and he created master plans for the development of a number of cities, including Chicago and Washington D.C. The firm of Burnham & Root played a significant role in developing the skyscraper. William Jennings Bryan (1860-1925) American lawyer, editor and politician. He was the Democratic Party’s presidential nominee three times, losing each time, but eventually became secretary of state. Called the ‘Great Commoner’, Bryan advocated grass roots rural democracy. Marcus Junious Brutus (ca. 85-42 BC) Roman Statesman. Brutus’ contemporaries admired him for his political integrity, powerful oratory and eclectic intellectual and literary achievements. He was one of the key conspirators who assassinated Julius Caesar. John Bright (1811-1889) British politician. He was one of the leading figures of 19th century British reform. An outstanding orator, he was the most prominent British supporter of the North during the American Civil War. James Bridger (1804-1881) American trapper and fur trader. He was one of the most famous frontiersmen, credited with discovering the Great Salt Lake, Utah. He acted as a wilderness guide for many military units and married a number of native American women. William Balfour Baikie (1825-1864) British explorer. He proved in his 1854 expedition up the Niger and Benue rivers that Europeans could not only penetrate the interior of tropical Africa but also survive it. It opened up much of central Africa to both commerce and religious missionaries. Stephen F. Austin (1793-1836) American pioneer. He was the chief coloniser of Texas, possessing a grant that allowed him to bring 300 American families to Texas. With the exception of Utah, no other US state so owes its existence to one man. Aurangzeb (1618-1707) Mughal Emperor. He was the sixth Mughal Emperor of India and the last of the ‘Great Mughals’. He extended the Empire to its farthest boundaries, ruling nearly a quarter of the world’s population, but his reign was harsh and marked by constant revolts. Benedict Arnold (1741-1801) American general. Arnold was a skilled American revolutionary general who defected to the British, plotting to surrender his command of the fort at West Point, New York. After the plot was exposed, he was commissioned into the British Army as a brigadier general. May 2012 Agesilaus II (444-360 BC) Spartan king and general. Despite being lame from birth, he grew to dominate and control Spartan politics. Through military might and ruthless subjugation, he made his state supreme in the Greek world by 380. Aelfric (955 - 1012) Anglo-Saxon monk. He was a scholar and a writer, and his works, especially his collection of sermons, are often considered to be stylistically the most accomplished in Old English. They were designed to explain Christianity simply and clearly to his fellow citizens. John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) Sixth President of the United States. A brilliant statesman and outstanding secretary of state, he played a major role in formulating the basic principles of American foreign policy and promoting economic modernization. Charles Francis Adams (1807-1886) American diplomat and politician. He was the United States ambassador to Great Britain during the American Civil War. By helping to preserve the neutrality of the British, he frustrated Confederate hopes for foreign aid and intervention in the war. Robert Adam (1728-1792) British architect. He was the leading practitioner of the neo-classic design style in the late 18th century. His graceful, elegant work is based chiefly on Ancient Roman and Renaissance motifs, and strongly influenced the development of western architecture. Charlemagne (742-814) King of the Franks. He came to govern an empire comprising Gaul, Italy and large parts of Spain and Germany, and was crowned emperor by the Pope on Christmas Day 800. His revival of the Western Empire was the foundation of the Holy Roman Empire. Abu Bakr (573-624) Arab Ruler. He was the first caliph, or successor of Mohammed, as ruler of the Arab State. He held together the political structure created by Mohammed at Medina, defeated separatist revolts, and initiated the expansion of Islam into Syria and Iraq. Al-Idrisi (1100-1166) Traveler and geographer. Born in Morocco, Ai-Idrisi studied in many Islamic centers, but worked mainly at the Christian court of the Norman King Roger II of Sicily. His most famous work was a silver globe of the world. Idrisi’s maps show the superiority of Arab geography at this time. Abbas the Great (1558-1629) Shah of Persia. The greatest of the Safavid rulers, he created a professional army and greatly enlarged Persian territory, driving out the Uzbeks and wining land from the Ottoman Turks. He encouraged the arts and trade, granting commerce rights to European merchants. Akbar (1542-1605) Mughal Emperor of India. After conquering most of India, he had ambitions to develop a strong and united empire, in which Muslims and Hindus held parity. He even tried to introduce a religion that combined elements of Hindu and Muslim orthodoxy. Ptolemy (? - 168) Greek Scholar of Alexandria. The study of Astronomy and Geography in Europe was based on his writings until disproved by Renaissance astronomers, such as Copernicus, in the 16th century. He believed that the Earth was the centre of the universe, and thought it smaller than it really is. Justinian (483-565) Byzantine Emperor. With his wife Theodora, he reigned over an acclaimed court. He is remembered best for his collection of Roman law and his buildings, especially the Church of St. Sophia. His generals and allies succeeded in winning back much of the western empire for a short time. Hannibal (247-183 BC) Carthaginian general. In 218 BC he invaded Italy by crossing the Alps from Spain with an army including elephants. He defeated the Romans in Italy but could not capture Rome. After 15 years in Italy, he returned to defend Carthage from a Roman attack and was defeated at the Battle of Zama (202 BC). Heraclius (? - 641) Byzantine emperor. The Byzantine (East Roman) Empire was in a state of collapse when Heraclius became emperor in 610. He built up the military and in six years defeated many of his enemies, including the Persians, who had almost captured Byzantine. In the 630s he was unable to stop new invaders, the Arabs. Hugo Junkers (1859-1935) German aeronautical Engineer. Junker’s aircraft innovations included the production of the world’s first all metal plane, the J1, in 1915, While his name is most commonly associated with Nazi Germany combat aircraft, he was in fact a pacifist and lost control of his company in 1934 because of his refusal to cooperate with the Nazi’s. Alexander the Great (356 - 323 BC) King of Macedon. He led a Greek army against the Persians and in 13 years conquered an immense empire that stretched from Greece to India. His empire did not last long after his death, but it spread Greek ideas in Asia and brought Eastern Influences into the Mediterranean world. Pacal (603-683) Mayan King of Palenque, 615-683. During the reign of Pacal and his son, Palenque’s control extended to many Mayan cities and a large number of fine buildings were erected in Palenque. Pacal, who was only five feet tall, was still leading his army when he was seventy. 1st Marquess Cornwallis (1738-1805) British General who commanded the British forces which surrendered to the Americans at Yorktown in 1781, thus ending the American War of Independence. He later forged a career as a Colonial administrator, being twice Governor-General of India. Cyrus the Great (? - 529 BC) Founder of the Persian Empire. After uniting the Medes and the Persians, he conquered Babylon in 529 BC. He was more tolerant than most conquerors and allowed the Jews, held captive in Babylon, to return home. His dynasty, the Achaemaenids, ruled the huge Persian Empire until 331 BC. James Cook (1728-1779) British Explorer. Cook surveyed the coast of Newfoundland before he made pioneering voyages of discovery to New Zealand and Australia in the ships under his command, Endeavour, Resolution and Adventure. Cook was killed in Hawaii in a fight with natives during his third voyage in the Pacific. Constantine (? - 337) Roman Emperor. Became sole emperor in 324AD after defeating several rivals. He founded an eastern capital of the empire at Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople after himself. He made Christianity a legal religion and became a prominent Christian figure, calling the Council of Nicaea (325) to settle differences in Christian doctrine. Jefferson Davis (1808-1889) American Civil War leader. Born in Kentucky, he was made president of the Confederate States when the Civil War broke out. He struggled to effectively direct the conflict in the South’s favour and drastically faltered in the management of its economy. After the war he was tried for treason but discharged. Thomas Cochrane (1775-1860) A British naval flag officer who enjoyed much success in different conflicts. Originally a British captain, where he helped to cripple a French fleet in Biscay (1809), he later served other navies, where he aided the liberation of Chile and Peru from Spanish rule (1819-22), of Brazil from Portuguese rule (1823-25), and assisted the Greeks in their independence struggle. William Pitt the Elder (1708-1788) British statesman. His skillful conduct of the Seven Years War was an important factor in the British victory, and to acquisitions in Canada and India. In the dispute with the American colonies he upheld their right to resist imposed taxation, and collapsed while making a last speech on this dispute. Archimedes (? - 221 BC) Inventor. He invented a water pump which used the principle of the screw. Another famous discovery was made in the bath, the ‘Archimedes Principle’, which concluded that the weight lost by a body in water equals the weight of the water the body displaces. Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806-1859) British Civil Engineer. He was an engineer of the Great Western Railway, built the ocean liners Great Western, Great Britain and Great Eastern, and developed a string of noted tunnels and bridges. Many of his designs revolutionised the civil and modern engineering of the time. Augustus (63 BC - AD 14) First Roman emperor. Born Octavian, he was the nephew and heir of Julius Caesar. He became ruler of the Roman world after defeating his rival, Mark Anthony, and was given the title Augustus (‘Exalted’) by the Senate. His reign was a golden period for the Roman Empire in architecture and literature. Charles Babbage (1801-1871) British Mathematician. He designed an analytical engine that eventually led to more complex computational designs. His work is considered the forerunner of the modern digital computer, and to this end he is often considered a ‘father of the computer’. Eleanor Roosevelt (1882-1962) The wife of President Franklin Roosevelt, she strongly supported civil rights for African Americans and women. After her husband’s death she became a delegate to the newly formed United Nations, and headed the UN Human Rights Commission (1947-1951). Thomas Aquinas (1225-74) Scholastic philosopher and theologian, whose theological system of ‘Thomism’ is still accepted by many in the Catholic Church. He understood Aristotle well and interpreted much of his thought in accordance with Christian teaching. Prince Consort Albert (1819-61) Married Queen Victoria in 1840. He helped the Queen with political duties, campaigned for public causes and projected the international exhibition of 1851. He died of typhoid fever, descending the Queen into a deep mourning that many speculate lasted for the rest of her life. April 2012 Marco Polo (1254-1324) Italian traveler and merchant, Marco Polo worked for Chinese Emperor Kublai Khan for 17 years as a trading and political ambassador traveling throughout China, as well as Tibet and Burma. After journeying to India, Sumatra, Persia and Turkey, he was later jailed in Italy where he dictated the stories of his adventures to a fellow prisoner; the subsequent book becoming widely read. Polo was popularly believed to have introduced spaghetti to Italy. Jimmie H Davis. (1899-2000) Governor of Louisiana for two terms. Combined two careers of country music and politics. Popularised the song ‘You are My Sunshine’. Count Nogi Maresuke (1849-1912) Japanese general who achieved great distinction by his able and successful conduct of the siege of Port Arthur in 1904 against the Russians. Li Li-San (1899-1967) Chinese Communist Party chief associated with organizing labor in China during the late 1920s and early 1930s. He advocated urban uprisings to overthrow the government. His plans proved disastrous, with all his initiatives quelled. He retired in disgrace in Moscow and eventually committed suicide. Aaron Burr (1756-1836) U.S. Vice President, 1801-1805. The first Vice President to not be eventually elected in his own right, Burr was one of the most colorful political figures of his era. While vice president he killed political rival Alexander Hamilton in a duel and later was arrested on charges of treason. Dr Alfred Bernhard Nobel (1833-96) Swedish engineer and chemist and the inventor of dynamite. He amassed an enormous fortune, a great portion of which at his death he set apart as a fund for annual prizes for those who have contributed most materially to the benefit of mankind. Initially five prizes were awarded in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature and peace and each was worth 8000 pounds sterling. Arthur (believed 6th century) Legendary British chieftain and supposed king, who is believed to have lived in the 6th century. He was thought to have led the defense of Britain against Saxon invaders. Around his life many enduring legends have been written, including Lord Tennyson’s Idylls of the King. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (63-12BC) The greatest military commander of Rome after Julius Caesar. Chiefly responsible for the defeat of Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Not burdened by false modesty or self doubt, he was disliked by the Roman aristocracy. Marshall Alexandre Averescu (1859-1938) Romanian statesman and soldier. Chief of the General Staff in the war against Bulgaria in 1913. He was commander of the Romanian army in World War One and was later three times Premier of Romania. Mary Wallstonecraft Godwin (1759-97) One of the pioneers of the women’s emancipation and education movement in Britain, penning A Vindication of the Rights of Women in 1792. Though her proto-feminist views – considering domesticity tantamount to servitude – were considered unorthodox for the time, she nevertheless married William Godwin in 1796, himself a noted radical. Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke (1843-1911) British radical politician whose political career was left in tatters due to his involvement in a scurrilous, high-profile divorce case. Noted for his oratory and his republicanism. Wentworth served as undersecretary for foreign affairs and eventually held a post in the cabinet steering the 1885 Redistribution Bill through the House of Commons. Bernal Diaz del Castillo (1492-1584) Spanish conquistador and historian made most famous for his True History of the Conquest of New Spain, an eyewitness account of the Spanish destruction of the Aztecs. Diaz served with Cortes in Mexico and felt that official accounts did not shed enough light on ordinary soldiers that served under him. William Wilberforce (1759-1833) English politician, reformer and anti-slavery campaigner. Converting to evangelical Christianity he set up the Society for the Reformation of Manners in 1784. He was a political conservative yet established the Abolition Society in 1787 to halt the slave trade. In 1807 he was partially successful in abolishing the trade in the Empire but not slavery itself. Founded the Anti-Slavery Society in 1823 and by the year of his death, slavery was indeed outlawed in Britain and her empire. Ngomo (1560-89) Ruler of the Mwenemutapa Empire in Southern Africa who expanded relations with the Portuguese and accepted Christianity despite violent pressures to oppose foreign innovation and influence. Sir Thomas More (1478-1535) Though more widely known for penning Utopia, the book in which an ideal state is envisaged, More was also a lawyer, politician, scholar and eventually martyr. He contributed to books against Martin Luther and Richard III, and collaborated with Erasmus in The Praise of Folly. He was against the Reformation and was for a time a favorite of Henry VIII. Harboring dislike for Henry’s second wife, Anne Boleyn, he refused to take the Oath of Succession in full and was later executed. Alfonso the Wise (1221-1284) Celebrated King of Leon and Castille and founder of the legal code which became the basis of Spanish jurisprudence. He was a liberal patron of literature and science, especially astronomy. In 1282 he was dethroned by his son Sancho. Frederick the Great (1712-86) On ascending the Prussian throne, Frederick attacked Austria and Silesia during the Silesian Wars, winning military acclaim for Prussia. He also created a thoroughfare by conquering territories of Poland in its first partition. Corresponding with the enlightenment philosopher Voltaire, he was one of the first proponents of enlightened absolutism, encouraging religious tolerance throughout his kingdom and transforming Prussia from a European backwater into a strong, industrialized, if highly militaristic, modern state. Edward III (1312-1377) One of the ablest of English monarchs who, although occupied with the long and bitter wars with France and Scotland, did much for the commercial interests of the nation. He encouraged large numbers of Flemings to immigrate to England, who laid the foundation of English textile manufacturing. He married Philippa of Hainault and was the father of Edward the Black Prince. Martin Niemoller (1892-1984) German clergyman and leader of the protestant opposition during the Third Reich. He served in the German Navy in the First World War. When the Nazis came to power, he attacked pro-Nazi protestant sympathizers. He became part of the Confessing Church, which denied the right of the state to totalitarian control in 1934. He refused to cooperate with the Reich government and was interned in a concentration camp from 1937 until the war’s end. Afterward, he actively opposed West German rearmament and campaigned for peace. Roger Bacon (1214-94) English alchemist and sorcerer, who was believed to have invented gunpowder and the air-pump and experimented with a rudimentary telescope. Lyndon Baines Johnson (1908-1973) Democratic representative, Vice President and President following the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963 in Johnson’s home state of Texas. Known as ‘LBJ’ he was elected in his own right in 1964 and proceeded to create a liberal, ‘Great Society’ in the US passing the Civil Rights bill among legislation to reduce poverty. Controversy followed his supporting a war in Vietnam, and sending in troops during the period of Urban Riots. Johnson argued it was possible to have both ‘guns and butter’. Aeschylus (525-456BC) The father of the Greek Tragic drama. Composed seventy plays and gained the prize for dramatic excellence in Ancient Greece 13 times. He was US Senator Robert F Kennedy’s favorite poet. James Ramsay MacDonald (1866-1937) The first Labor politician to become Prime Minister of Britain in 1924 and was the architect of their first success. The Labor Party under his helm grew to become the largest party in Britain on a disarmament platform that was overshadowed by crippling unemployment. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) German astronomer and discoverer of the laws of planetary motion. A protestant, he drew the ire of Archduke Ferdinand and left for Prague in 1600 to join Tycho Brahe, the celebrated Danish astronomer. The system he formulated became known as ‘Kepler’s Laws’ and paved the way for Newton’s discovery of universal gravitation. John Foster Dulles (1888-1959) United States lawyer, diplomat, statesman and secretary of state from 1953 until 1959. Accompanied his grandfather to the second Hague conference and was a member of the US delegation at the Versailles Peace Conference. He served as Secretary of State under President Eisenhower espousing the containment of Communism in Europe as his major policy thrust. James Clerk-Maxwell (1831-79) Scottish physicist and principal founder of the electromagnetic theory of light and dynamical theory of gases. Both contributions to science were instrumental in the development of 20th century physics and engineering. Muhammad Maulana Ali (1878-1931) Leader of the Khilafat movement in India. Based initially in Calcutta, he became a publisher, writer and agitator for the expression of Pan-Islamic views. Was a tireless fighter for constitutional safeguards for Muslims in pre-partition India. Luis de Ataide (1512-1581) Twice Viceroy of Portugese India. His masterly defense of Goa against the Sultans of Birjapur and Golconda won for him the reputation as a military genius. Lady Nancy Astor (1879-1964) First woman MP of the British House of Commons. Born in America she was a Member of Parliament 26 years. A Christian Scientist and temperance advocate she piloted a bill preventing the sale of liquor to persons under the age of 18. Enormously wealthy she was an active political hostess and supporter of appeasement in foreign affairs. Charles Babbage (1801-1871) British Mathematician who designed an analytical engine that eventually led to more complex computational designs. His work is considered the forerunner of the modern digital computer, and to this end he is often considered a ‘father of the computer’. March 2012 Sir James Ross 1800-1862 British Arctic Explorer who, early in his career, accompanied his uncle Sir John Ross and Captain Perry on their expeditions. He discovered the North Magnetic Pole in 1831. Benjamin Franklin (1706-90) One of the United States’ founding fathers and prolific writer and statesman. Franklin published the Pennsylvania Gazette and Poor Richard’s Almanac, a compendium of useful information. He was elected to the Continental Congress and submitted a draft plan of union in July 1775. In Paris he served as an ambassador of the nascent US country and secured the Franco-American alliance in 1778. Maximilian Robespierre 1758-94 French Revolutionary figure and enthusiastic leader of the Jacobin Party. In the Reign of Terror, as President of the Committee of Public Safety, he sent vast numbers to the guillotine. He was later denounced in the Assembly, and, while trying to escape was shot and subsequently guillotined while in a dying state. Decimus Magnus Ausonius (AD 310-95) Bordeaux poet and politician who became a praetorian prefect of Gaul and consul. His warm and lyrical poetry is seen as an important reflection of contemporary Gallic society. Cleopatra (69-30BC) Queen of Egypt, she became joint ruler with her brother but was expelled by his guardians before winning the valued support of Julius Caesar who restored her to the throne. She married Marc Antony in 37BC giving him support in the civil war spurred by the regicide of Caesar. She committed suicide a few days after Octavian’s capture of Alexandria. James Clerk-Maxwell (1831-79) Scottish physicist and principal founder of the electromagnetic theory of light and dynamical theory of gases. Both contributions to science were instrumental in the development of 20th century physics and engineering. David Livingstone (1813-73) Missionary and explorer who traversed over one-third of the African continent. An advocate for African nationalism and advancement, he crossed the continent from west to east, naming the falls on the Zambezi after Queen Victoria. His most famous encounter was with H. M. Stanley whom uttered the famous line, upon contact, “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?”. King Louis XIV of France (1648-1715) Ascending the throne aged five, Louis XIV was dubbed the Sun King due to his steadfast belief in the greatness of France. He pursued aggrandizing commercial, internal and foreign policies. A great patron of the arts, Louis ensured the cultural life of France flourished and promoted a binding unity of the French state and the papacy. Thomas Alva Edison (1841-1931) Edison was one of the most prodigious inventors of his time, patenting over 1100 inventions many of which are still used today. Edison is credited with creating the phonograph, the incandescent lamp and a means to power it – a central power station with which to generate electricity. Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618) English soldier, courtier, writer and explorer, Raleigh volunteered in the Huguenot armies and after a short expedition became enamored with exploration. A favorite of Queen Elizabeth I he was granted valuable tracts of land and monopolies. He fell out of favor and was subsequently executed for treason. Procopius (c. 500-70) Byzantine historian and chronicler of the wars of conquest under the acclaimed General Belisarius during the reign of the Roman Emperor Justinian. He glorified his achievements (such as the reoccupation of the Italian peninsula) in his capacity as official historian and also acted as his trusted legal adviser. James Stanhope, First Earl of Stanhope (1673-1721) Having served in Spain during the War of the Spanish Succession during 1906-7 he was captured and returned to Whig politics. His skill lay in foreign policy, negotiating the Triple Alliance of 1717 and Quadruple Alliance of 1718 allowing Europe to recover after the wars led by Louis XIV. Simon Bolivar (1783-1830) The revolutionary hero of Latin America during the wars of independence. Seeking to emulate Napoleon, he liberated his homeland from Spanish rule, creating the new nation of Gran Colombia, and was its first president. He had aspirations of confederating the South American nations into a grand coalition much like the United States. Ito Hirobumi (1841-1909) Ito played a pivotal role in shaping modern Japan. Born a low-level Shogun in Choshu, he served as prime minister four times. Ito was assassinated by a Korean nationalist’s bullet in 1909. He was credited with raising Japan from a backward and vulnerable state into a modern industrial Empire. James Ramsay MacDonald (1866-1937) The first Labour politician to become Prime Minister of Britain in 1924 and was the architect of their first success. The Labour Party under his helm grew to become the largest party in Britain on a disarmament platform that was overshadowed by crippling unemployment. Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin (1888-1938) Russian journalist and politician and one of the early members of the Bolshevik party and was the editor of the party organ, Pravda. He clashed with Lenin about ending the war prematurely and backed Stalin over Trotsky after Lenin’s passing. William Tecumseh Sherman (1820-91) One of the highly decorated and revered leaders in the US Civil War, having the command of the entire Western theater of operations. He launched several devastating attacks on the Confederacy, seizing Atlanta and the Carolinas, punishing them with his cruel “scorched earth” policy. Gregory the Great (540-604) Pope Gregory I was born of a patrician of Rome, he was a prefect of the city before he became a monk and converted his family home into the monastery of St. Andrew. He was pivotal in spreading Christianity to the Anglo-Saxons, further cementing his grip on power. Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin (1888-1938) Russian journalist and politician and one of the early members of the Bolshevik party and was the editor of the party organ, Pravda. He clashed with Lenin about ending the war prematurely and backed Stalin over Trotsky after Lenin’s passing. On This Day 649 – King Chindasuinth, at the urging of Bishop Braulio of Zaragoza, crowns his son Recceswinth, as co-ruler of the Visigothic Kingdom. HistoryWow on Omny Personal Radio Short, sharp hits of history in audio format. Got a History Question? Have you an intriguing, fascinating or inspirational history question and answer? Then, we'd love to hear from you. The best ones, ideally with the source provided, will be posted on either the History Question of the Day or History Question of the Week. Last week’s answer: Henri Nestle (1814-1890) HistoryWow’s Highlighted Historical Quotation “I have been sweating blood over the question what is right and feasible to do in Russia. It goes to pieces like quicksilver under my touch.” Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924), US President, writing concerning the fledgling Soviet Union in 1918. Source: The Uses of History by Alexander Dallin HistoryWow’s Featured Historical Figure of Note Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE) Babylonian ruler. King of Babylon in ancient Mesopotamia, he instituted a pioneering “Law Code” that encompassed a variety of reforms and rulings, ranging from the death penalty to regulation of wages. © 2016 HistoryWow and the HistoryWow logo are trademarks. All Rights Reserved. \| Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons \| Legal Disclaimer \| Contact Us	i don't know
Which famous novel, published in 1922 is the main character and protagonist named Leopold Bloom and follows his encounters in Dublin ?	1000+ images about Bloomsday/Bloomsbury Group on Pinterest \| Interwar period, Happy and Irish Forward Bloomsday is an annual commemoration and celebration of the life of Irish writer James Joyce during which the events of his novel Ulysses. The event takes place every year on 16th June since 1954. During this day, local people lunch and dinner on the same way as the characters of the book, or perform various acts linked to the novel. In addition, meetings are held in Dublin to follow the exact path of the story. See More	Ulysses
What is the name of the Bridge in Southern France that opened in 2004, crossing the River Tarn in the Massif Central Mountains and with a height of 984 feet, it is the world’s highest Road bridge ?	Project MUSE - The Irish Schoolboy Novel The Irish Schoolboy Novel Some men never recover from education. Oliver St. John Gogarty 1 In his 1965 autobiography, Vive Moi! Seán O'Faoláin recalled a Sunday morning ritual from his childhood in Cork City. His father, a member of the local Royal Irish Constabulary, would lead Seán and his brothers to Wellington Barracks, where they would join the loyal citizens of Edwardian Cork in saluting the church parade of the local British Army regiment. O'Faoláin remembered a connection he once had made, listening faithfully to "God Save the King" at his father's knee: When the drums rolled and the brass shook the air I could hear the sabre clash, the hoofbeats, the rifle fire of all the adventure books I had read—Mainly Henty's: The Dash for Khartoum, With Kitchener in the Soudan, One of the Twenty-eighth, Under Drake's Flag. 2 [End Page 147] O'Faoláin was not alone among Irish writers in his exposure to G.A. Henty's many empire adventure stories. 3 Generations of Irish boys and girls had by then sat enthralled, reading of the exploits of well-mannered wanderers fresh from public schools, as they colonize and civilize out among the farthest reaches of the British Empire. These adventure stories were the lineal descendants of the "schoolboy novel," a genre that owes its existence to the phenomenal popularity of an 1857 novel by Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown's Schooldays, based on life at the famous English public school in Rugby. The passing of progressive legislation in the 1870s, the Forster Education Act of 1870 in Britain, and the Intermediate Education Act of 1878 in Ireland helped create over one million new places in schools across Britain and Ireland. 4 An increasingly literate youth audience, in turn, was targeted by cheap periodicals, such as The Boy's Own Paper (1879–1967). By the close of the nineteenth century, this genre was firmly established and its formula had altered to reflect the expansionist rhetoric of British society, allowing offshoots based on young adulthood and imperial adventure, such as those contained in the Henty novels of Seán O'Faoláin's youth. For Irish nationalists of the revival period, such as Padraic Pearse and Douglas Hyde, the consumption of these distilled tales of imperial power by Irish youths was at best corrupting and at worst invidious and anti-Irish. Ireland has its own set of much neglected schoolboy novels. Aside from James Joyce's seminal work, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916), few have received any critical attention, due in many cases to small print runs. This article is an attempt to rescue the Irish schoolboy novel from its relative obscurity. Although the quality of some of the novels may well be debatable, they nevertheless provide us with a rare and valuable glimpse at the reality of school life for Irish boys in the nineteenth century. The Irish form of this popular genre experienced three main phases from its birth in 1895 to its decline (along with that of the English schoolboy novel) in the 1930s. The earliest of the schoolboy novels, written while Ireland [End Page 148] was united with Britain, all reveal a distinct British cultural influence, the infamous "West Briton" tendency. 5 In contrast, those written in the first decade of the Irish Free State mark the emergence of Cúchulainn as an important icon of heroic boyhood that provided an apparently ultra-Irish alternative to Tom Brown and his public school politesse. Finally, toward the end of what is considered the heyday of the schoolboy novel, a more critical and radical form emerged in the 1930s, hugely influenced by Joyce's A Portrait and best understood in relation to the Bildungsroman tradition in Ireland. All schoolboy novels are essentially novels of youth, of childhood, and of personal growth—providing authors with something of an ideological clean slate on which to forge a new national identity. As the Irish novels were published in a period often referred to as the "birth" of modern Ireland, it is possible to see them as a forgotten record of that problematic infancy, the childhood of Ireland. "Bildung" The importance of the popularized school story to the imperial project in Great Britain has been the subject of extensive inquiry. 6 Despite its widespread popularity amongst boys of all classes, the genre was an inherently elite one in both subject matter and tone. From the 1860s onward, the Victorian discovery of adolescence produced a wealth of literature for the juvenile market, segregated by sex. 7 The original schoolboy novels concentrate on a very particular type of elite education, that of the English public school. As with Henty's heroes, the boys portrayed in popular periodicals, such as Jack Harkaway of The Boys of England (1866–99), padded along a well-worn path dictated by English social expectations. They typically [End Page 149] attended an established public school such as Eton or Winchester, studied at either Oxford or Cambridge, and often followed this with a career in the military or perhaps empire administration. These school stories therefore reflected not only the imperial ambitions of the society that adored them so but also the central position of education to the success of the Empire. To a certain extent, then, it is possible to align the goals of the English schoolboy novels to those of the English Bildungsroman—where the concept of Bildung, or personal development, became tied to "pragmatic discourses of social recruitment and social mobility," which in turn led to a triumph of social responsibility over personal Bildung—something that is notably absent from the Irish Bildungsroman. 8 This can be explained without much difficulty: the classic route to success in the British Empire was navigated through distinctly Protestant institutions, such as Eton, or Oxford, and Cambridge. For Catholic boys—and the majority of those Irish boys reading The Boys of England were Catholic—the path was less clear. Arguably, for an Irish Catholic to excel in either Ireland or Britain under the Act of Union, a certain amount of colonial mimicry was required. Such mimicry, or mimesis, is a common trait in a colonized society, and there is ample evidence of it in both the schoolboy novels and the educational institutions upon which those novels were based. 9 The Irish schoolboy novels follow a similar plot outline to their English precursors, while incorporating the fundamental elements of "Bildung," defined by Buckley as being inter alia "childhood, the conflict of generations, provinciality, the larger society, self-education, alienation, ordeal by love, the search for love and a working philosophy." 10 The main difference between the Irish and English schoolboy story is that adherence to social convention more or less guarantees upward social mobility for the boy hero in the English novels, whereas the same adherence in the Irish novels results in frustrated ambition and internal struggle. A successful Bildung in [End Page 150] Ireland therefore necessitated either the overthrow of those same social norms that facilitated Bildung in England or a determination to assimilate them, to become more English. The motivation behind the emergence of the Irish schoolboy novel in the 1890s was therefore one of equality of opportunity for Irish boys, and in particular, Irish Catholic boys. For precisely this reason, all but two of the novels discussed in this study describe a Catholic elite education. In 1909, J.S. Sheehy, a priest at the prestigious Castleknock College in Dublin, highlighted the pressing need for an Irish rival to the English boy hero in an article entitled "The Need of an Irish 'Boys' Paper." His concern at the anglicizing effect of popular boy's novels and periodicals was explicit: These books are excellent for English boys, whether they are Catholic or Protestant. They show forth types of healthy-minded, brave, truthful, open-air boys. But they are essentially English. Thus unconsciously, Irish boys, during their plastic years, are being West Britonized. Their heroes are English warriors of the past, or English public school boys of today, or English adventurers and detectives. . . . I am anxious to get the Irish boy to look at home for his models, to see in Irish boys, like himself, examples of bravery, truth, "playing the game," culture, self-respect, also fun and diversion, as well as among English boys. 11 Sheehy correctly identified a gap in the juvenile market. There were no idealized versions of the boy hero for Irish boys to look up to. Could there be an Irish boy hero to rival Tom Brown and Jack Harkaway? Recent work by Elaine Sisson on the revolutionary leader Padraic Pearse and his experimental Irish-Ireland school at Saint Enda's has done much to expose the importance of the boy hero to the cultural nationalism of the period. The figure most often singled out by Pearse and his contemporaries as emblematic of a young Gaelic role model was that of the mythical Cúchulainn, rehabilitated by Gaelic revival writers in the 1880s. In Irish folklore, Cúchulainn was a boy warrior (originally named Setanta) whose abilities in sport and the use of weaponry were unparalleled. Along with Fionn MacCumhaill, [End Page 151] Cúchulainn provided one of the central iconic figures in the Irish nationalist creation of "idealized memories of a golden age . . . of virtue, heroism, beauty, learning, holiness, power and wealth." 12 Pearse took this devotion to Cúchulainn further than most, organizing a pageant dedicated to the story of Setanta-Cúchulainn in 1908 (Pearse's first academic year at Saint Enda's) and deliberately invoking the motto of the boy hero at his school—"I care not though I were to live but one day and one night if only my name and deeds live after me." 13 Cúchulainn, with his sporting prowess, fearlessness, and purity, provided Irish authors with a hero who could rival a Tom Brown or Jack Harkaway in the battle to capture boys' imaginations. Of course, the considerable similarities between these boy heroes points to the prevalence of Victorian expectations of "manliness" and conforms to what Declan Kiberd has rightly identified as a mirror effect in Irish nationalism, where "any valued cultural possessions of the English were shown to have their Gaelic equivalents." 14 Such colonial mimicry was not confined to the boy hero image in literature. It can be traced throughout Irish elite culture in the late nineteenth century and is nowhere as prevalent as in the sphere of education. What then of the educational experience that inspired the Irish schoolboy novel? The Irish genre is an overwhelmingly Catholic and elite one. It is also strikingly southern. All but one of the novels is based on boarding schools for boys, and only two of them on Protestant schools. The majority of the novels arose from personal experience of one of the four most prominent Catholic colleges of the period—Clongowes Wood; Saint Stanislaus, Tullabeg; Black-rock College; and Castleknock College. Many of Ireland's most prominent twentieth-century public figures received their education at these schools. Literary giants such as James Joyce, Oliver St. John [End Page 152] Gogarty, and Brian O'Nolan stand alongside era-defining statesmen such as John Redmond and Éamon de Valera in the lists of their past pupils. The colleges drew sharp criticism from leading nationalists toward the turn of the century for delivering an educational product that differed only slightly from that of English public schools. 15 D.P. Moran openly attacked the schools in the press for providing a "sound English education," believing the adoption of English public school signifiers such as cricket and rugby, Eton suits, Old-Boy Unions, and "school songs" to be a menace to Irish manhood: A "sound English education" is one of the graves of Irish initiative and prosperity. What do the people of Ireland want with a curriculum suitable to the needs of England . . . ? The effect is the very opposite to the aim of true education, for it tends to turn out imitators, shallow despisers of their own nationality, simperers, prigs and bounders instead of men and Irishmen. 16 Moran was, of course, being somewhat disingenuous. If upper- and middle-class Catholic families were to jockey for position in a United Kingdom dominated by Protestant management, the socialization of their sons into a homogenous, recognizably superior group was bound to be of the utmost importance to them. To retain a Catholic emphasis may well have been the top priority at such schools. Beyond that, the benefits to be had from imitation of English public schools were clear, and the schools that opted for this imitation were by far the most influential and successful in Ireland. Such cynical replication of fashionable English public schools is applauded in several of the early Irish schoolboy novels and disparaged in several of the later ones. Significantly, it is an acknowledged presence in all of them. [End Page 153] Confused? Writing Ireland through England The relatively late appearance of the first Irish schoolboy novels in 1895 can perhaps be explained in relation to the development of an Irish literature during the Gaelic revival period. The emergence of mythical figures such as Cúchulainn and Fionn MacCumhaill in the work of revivalists such as Standish O'Grady may have provided rival boy heroes but hardly ones that could be easily inserted into a boarding school context. Instead, Cúchulainn would inspire later schoolboy novels written by men who were exposed to such revival mythology in their formative years. Early treatments of Irish schoolboy life include Percy FitzGerald's Schooldays at Saxonhurst (1867) and William O'Brien's When We Were Boys (1890), though neither could be considered to be a schoolboy novel in its own right. 17 The first novels to draw entirely upon a school experience in Ireland appeared in 1895 and were the work of two novices, Canon P.A. Sheehan and William Patrick Kelly. Sheehan later became one of Ireland's most consistently popular novelists in the first quarter of the twentieth century, his priest-centered novels striking a chord in Catholic Ireland. 18 His first novel, however, was far from a success, with one reviewer dismissing it as "really a 'novel with a purpose,' [that] has none of the atmosphere of a boy's story about it." 19 The book was loosely based on Gayfield College ("Mayfield" in the novel), a short-lived cramming school in Dublin. Parts of the novel seem anti-British in tone, but this has much to do with Sheehan's belief that Anglicization was an "instrument of modernization." 20 The two main characters in the novel, Geoffrey and his friend Charlie Travers, wrestle with the idea of religious vocation throughout. Geoffrey's vocation is confirmed in a sequel, The Triumph of Failure [End Page 154] (1899), but Charlie finds voice here. Through him, Sheehan articulates a damning verdict on Irish society: If ever the day should come that I, lifting up my voice, could wean my young fellow countrymen from their West-British ambition and desires, their Civil Services, and snug Governmental sinecures, and concentrate all their energies in building up a great Catholic nation—Irish in its traditions, Irish in its sympathies . . . then I think I could sing my Nunc dimittis with resignation, ay, even with pleasure. 21 In Sheehan's version of Irish childhood, the dangers of Anglicization, modernity, and greed all combine to threaten Irish purity and morality, something he considers innate and "racy of the soil." For Sheehan, as for Pearse, the greatest dangers to the Irish boy are British cultural influence and the imitation of British cultural norms—from these they ought to be weaned. The book that exceeds all others in West British imitation is Schoolboys Three (1895), inspired by an education at Clongowes Wood in the early 1860s. The most striking curiosity in Schoolboys Three is that of location. Strangely, the author has located an autobiographical account of his education at "Castle Browne" (Clon-gowes) in the north of England rather than in Ireland. 22 The novel opens at Merton Hall, the childhood home of Charley Wynn, on the border between England and Wales. Our first exposure to an Irish character comes early in the narrative in the form of a maid, Nurse Ellen. Her dialogue is the first break from the reserved opening descriptions and sharply introduces an Irish other: "Arrah! What a gomm ya're," she said to the housemaid, who had been complaining of the extra labour; "bekaise ye've had a little work to do for wanst in your life, ye have a nose on ye that wan could hang his hat on. Musha!" 23 [End Page 155] The novel also features another stage-Irish character, Jack Kilgannon, one of Charley's closest friends at Castle Browne. Jack is the novel's most vibrant character: he drinks, smokes, swears, and provides the most memorable dialogue. Thrown from his horse mid-chase at a local hunt, Jack emerges from the drain, dusts himself down, and declares, "I feel as right as a trivet, bedad; and if I could only take it out of that brute . . . I'd be as happy as a Tipperary boy at a faction fight." 24 Jack's accent and phrasing is far from uniform, however, and entirely contingent upon situation. When the occasion demands it, Jack uses distinct English public school expressions. When a teacher is sympathetic to his cause, Jack resorts to a stock phrase in this genre, exclaiming that the teacher in question is a "regular brick." This suggests that Jack could suppress the comical regional dialect without difficulty and that he could imitate his classmates with relative ease. In contrast, Charley's assimilation into Castle Browne was somewhat problematic, despite the author making his protagonist at least nominally English. Charley's father is a widowed landowner, a local judge, and one of very few Catholics in the locality. Charley's only sibling is a younger sister, Mary. Before leaving Charley in the care of the Jesuits at Castle Browne, his father warns him of the need to act in a gentlemanly manner, appealing to his Christian conscience in the moral dilemmas that he will face at school. Here, Kelly echoes a very famous scene in Tom Brown's Schooldays, when Tom's father articulates his wish that Tom will turn out "a brave, truth-telling Englishman, and a gentleman, and a Christian." 25 Charley's initial encounter with his schoolmates is traumatic. His code of honor, so important in novels of this type, is called into question early, as is his social status: "What's your name?" asked one of them then, a small boy with a sharp face. "Wynn," I answered. "Oh!" he ejaculated "Mr.Wynn, I suppose?" he further inquired. "No," said I, "Charles Wynn." [End Page 156] "Oh!" he said again "Charles Wynn; only that! Why we're all misters here," he went on; "and 'tis pleasant to know that you are only a Charley . . ." Here the others began to laugh, and I began to get angry. Class identification is a feature in any schoolyard, but it is Charley's contested identity that adds spice to this scene. In 1905, the author provided a key to the novel for his old school magazine, The Clongownian, and we can be quite sure that Charley's character is auto-biographical and that Mary's is based on the author's sister. 26 When Charley's tormentors move into the realm of sexual innuendo, the scene becomes all the more significant: "Have you any sisters?" asked, with an appearance of great interest, another boy, who had a puffed-out, unwholesome-looking face. "Yes," I answered, "I have one;" and my angry feelings died out, as I thought of my dear Mary who was so far away, and amongst strangers as I was myself. "What's her name?" . . . "What's that to you?" I said indignantly "you don't know her." "No?" he replied, with an affected look of surprise. "I think I saw her at Margate last summer, just at the corner, you know, where she was eating oysters out of the shells, the big fat ones, you know, at eightpence a dozen. I'm sure twas' her," he continued; "What's her name, and I'll know for certain . . . send her my love when you write home next." And here he laughed, apparently at his own wit; and the others laughed also. 27 This scene preempts a much more famous schooldays scene, also based on school life at Clongowes, in Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. In A Portrait, Stephen Dedalus is asked whether or not his father is a magistrate; later, he is quizzed as to whether he kisses his mother goodnight. 28 At first, he denies that he does, and then admits to it, only to be ridiculed each time. Tracy Teets Schwarze has argued that Stephen's inability to give the right answer [End Page 157] is a mimetic failure. 29 Charley, in Schoolboys Three, suffers a similar ritual humiliation. In reflecting at that moment on his sister Mary who was, as Charley says, "amongst strangers as I was," the modern reader is tempted to interpret the scene as a colonial reenactment. Mary, in effect, embodies Hibernia, the feminized image of Ireland. Her integrity is questioned by English scoundrels with "unwholesome faces" and is protected by a young, virtuous Irishman, who is both outnumbered and outgunned. Kelly's schoolboy novel can hardly be deemed successful in its attempt to portray either an Irish or an English school. Nonetheless, it was at least a material success and was reprinted three times, twice in Ireland. His subsequent novels, somewhat appropriately, were written in the empire adventure mold. Other than A Portrait, only two novels based upon school life in Ireland appeared before 1920: Helen Elrington's Schoolboy Out-laws (1904) and Shan Bullock's The Cubs (1906). Both are based on small Protestant schools and are for the most part unremarkable and written in the classic British tradition. Mathias McDonnell Bodkin's When Youth Meets Youth (1920) is based on school life at Raglan College (Tullabeg) in the 1870s and has much in common with Schoolboys Three. 30 His study of an Irish childhood is a simple one, and a contemporary reviewer praised it for its "quiet beauty." 31 Of all the Irish schools in the 1870s, Tullabeg had perhaps most deliberately modeled itself on the fashionable English public schools. The rector prioritized cricket and boating, having first copied word-for-word the rules of Eton College. 32 Such overt simulation was common to many middle-class schools across the United Kingdom in the late nineteenth century. The explosion of organized sport coincided with the publication of the findings of the Clarendon Report on the English public schools in the 1860s. Clarendon revealed much in the way of trade secrets to the general [End Page 158] public, and the social ambitions of the burgeoning middle classes on both islands can be judged from the demand for the customs and norms of public school education to be incorporated into schools that were previously considered to cater for a lower social cachet. 33 The effect of such imitation at Tullabeg is reflected in Bodkin's schoolboy novel. The main character, Gerald Burke, is a star pupil and a decent cricketer. Gerald's evolution is seen in his natural progression from the wild "native" games to the more sophisticated game of choice in Britain: "Gradually I learned that a cricket bat was not a hurley. . . . I climbed to the second eleven. I was spoken of for the first." 34 As in Schoolboys Three, the terminology used in the novel would be familiar to any reader of Henty. The boys at Raglan College are "chums," and if they prove themselves "awfully decent" they may well be described as a "regular brick." These early schoolboy novels are based on schooldays in the 1860s and 1870s, and therefore prior to the Gaelic revival—the idea that the nature of the education described was elitist was not something the authors felt obliged to address. As with the English schoolboy novel, an apparently natural order prevails. In fact, both Charley Wynn and Gerald Burke are seen as privileged to be somehow different from their fellow Catholics, and similar to Sheehan's Geoffrey Austin, they have highly anglicized names. The novels owed a great deal to their English precursors, such as Tom Brown's Schooldays or Henty's adventure stories. Such a framework could hardly suffice post-independence. In an Ireland much less forgiving of that which could be labeled (whether fairly or not) West British, Irish boys would need a new hero, a more recognizably Irish invention. [End Page 159] Cúchulainn: Irish Boy Hero The early years of Irish independence were marked by a notable conservatism. With the long-fought campaign for cultural and political severance from Britain at an end, it seemed obvious that the infant Free State would instead focus on the creation of a new and somewhat more Irish Ireland. Such expectations proved unfounded; this newer Ireland was in no way radically different from the old. Perhaps it is fitting, then, that the new heroic figure of the Irish schoolboy novel in the 1920s was Cúchulainn, who was in no way radically different from those who preceded him. Three schoolboy novels appeared between 1925 and 1930, written in such a way as to appeal to a young readership. Two were written by prominent Jesuits. Fergal McGrath, S.J., published a schooldays novel called The Last Lap (1925) and Matthias Bodkin, S.J., produced another two years later entitled Floodtide: A Story of Cluan College (1927). Both are loosely based on Clongowes Wood and follow a similar pattern. Although they are novels with a distinctly Catholic and, indeed, vocational message, this message is delivered much more subtly than in Geoffrey Austin. McGrath's novel, The Last Lap, is set between 1920 and 1922, with the War of Independence as a background. Centering on a young, athletic Irish boy called Alec Russell, its early pages establish him as a blond-haired, sporty boy. Alec is a gifted hurler and much more likely to be found at play than at his studies. In effect, he is an amalgamation of the Tom Brown–type athletic schoolboy and Cúchulainn, whose prowess in the Gaelic sport of hurling was an integral part of his legend. As such, the author uses Alec to personify an Ireland emerging from English political and cultural influence. Throughout the novel, Alec is confronted with five moral dilemmas and becomes increasingly conscientious and devout as a result. Alec's friend, Moriarty, is a committed republican, and McGrath peppers the text with references to influential printed works, such as Henry Mitchell's The Evolution of Sinn Féin (1920), presumably in order to highlight Alec's slow conversion to republicanism. At the beginning of the novel, Alec is ambivalent to both religion and nationalism, something that is common to all protagonists in the Irish schoolboy novels. The reader notes this ambivalence when Alec argues with his sister, Una, over [End Page 160] the correct term for Dun Laoghaire (Dunleary), an Irish port town known as Kingstown before Irish independence: I can't understand why people lose their hair over things like that. What on earth does it matter whether we call the blooming place Kingstown or Dunleary? It's a four-penny fare anyway. 35 By the novel's end, Alec is a committed Catholic and has developed a love of country. In one telling scene, he and Moriarty visit an elderly woman named Old Bridget in a cottage in the west of Ireland while on vacation. Moriarty converses with the woman in the Irish language. The inference is clear here, and the "Shan Van Vocht" image of the literary revival a familiar one. McGrath's ideal Irish boy is manly and devout, with a real love of Ireland—a Catholic nationalist. Both The Last Lap and Floodtide idealized Irish childhood in the recent past with a heavy emphasis on character, Christian morals, and the need for a healthy and active childhood, and in this sense they are quite similar to the English schoolboy novels of the late nineteenth century. It is therefore significant that these ideas reappear in the Irish schoolboy novels of the nascent Irish Free State, especially when we consider that the English novels upon which they were based were originally vilified by nationalists as pro Empire and West British. This dichotomy is further enunciated in The Boys of Ben Eadar: A School Story of 1950 (1930) by Father Michael Gaffney, O.P. Unlike the other novels, The Boys of Ben Eadar is set in the near future, thus allowing the author to project an "ideal" Ireland to his contemporary youth readership. Gaffney's novel is full of boyish thrills. For example, each student at the Irish-speaking college, Ben Eadar, owns his own airplane, and hurling and swimming are the principal sports. 36 The protagonist is Frank Irwin (nicknamed "Son"), holder of the prestigious "Cúchulainn shield," a national swimming award. Where possible, Gaffney names places and things in the Irish language and the repetition of the image of Cúchulainn is very deliberate. Despite this, traces of Tom [End Page 161] Brown's influence remain: for example, the stock phrase "that boy is a brick" appears, as does the trope of the "old school-tie." When Son leaves Ben Eadar for University College Dublin, his professor is a Ben Eadar old boy and former winner of the Cúchulainn shield. 37 Though clearly Catholic in sympathy (Son is at one point greatly affected by a Pedro Calderón play, almost certainly Devotion to the Cross), Gaffney's novel was more obviously concerned with the creation of an Irish boy hero than any that preceded it. The Ireland of 1950 that he projects draws firmly from the nationalist myths of his youth and is perhaps an indication of the extent to which Irish nationalism had by then become intertwined with the dominant faith in the Irish Free State to create an identity best described as Catholic nationalist. For a group of later lay authors, creating the Irish boyhood as "national" involved a conscious rejection of the influence of both Tom Brown and Catholic devotion. In relation to these novels, James Joyce's A Portrait must be considered the dominant influence. In A Portrait, Joyce created an anti–Tom Brown, Stephen Dedalus, one that follows that proscribed path of Bildungsroman, of "mobility and interiority." 38 Stephen is restless, sensitive, and eventually dismissive of the claims of the external forces seeking to control him: church and state. The impact of the book cannot be overstated. It made clear the potential for radical criticism in an Irish novel of youth and had an immediate impact on younger writers. Two books by such writers appeared in 1919 and 1920 that show rather clearly the influence of A Portrait, though neither concentrates entirely on schooldays. Eimar O'Duffy's TheWasted Island (1919) and Conal O'Riordan's Adam of Dublin (1920) both feature sensitive and tortured boys in a Bildungsroman narrative based for the most part in Dublin city. O'Riordan's hero, Adam Macfadden, even studies at Belvedere College briefly, as did Dedalus in A Portrait. This critical tradition in Irish Bildungsroman continued for much of the twentieth century, with novels such as Kate O'Brien's The Land of Spices [End Page 162] (1941) and John McGahern's The Dark (1961). That it suffered a brief hiatus in the first decade of the Free State is perhaps indicative of an optimistic belief that the "new Ireland" of the future would evolve differently from the old. Regardless, the critical tradition returned with a vengeance to the Irish schoolboy novel in the 1930s. Stripping the Ivy from the Tree Many of the revival writers were at pains to situate the Irish child as a subject of a colony, a starting point that allowed the colonized child to emerge as Irish in opposition to the colonizer and that facilitated a favorable comparison for the fledgling Irish nation. 39 Consistent with that trend, the 1930s introduced a new breed of schoolboy novel, one that rewrote not only the Irish boy hero but also Irish history as seen through the boy hero. Francis Hackett's The Green Lion and Kathleen Pawle's We in Captivity, both published in 1936, are the best examples of novels that reject the influence of Anglicization and simultaneously reclaim the middle-class boy from a corrupting and antinational Catholic education. The transformation from colorless and apathetic adolescent to nationalist boy hero is made possible through involvement in the two major national factions in the south: Parnellism and the Volunteer movement. Francis Hackett attended Clongowes Wood between 1897 and 1900 before leaving Ireland for America and embarking on a career as a journalist in Chicago and New York. Hackett returned to a very different Ireland in 1926, and his schoolboy novel is a peculiar mix of familiar nationalist rhetoric and genuine, astute observations of a childhood in what is often referred to as the revival era. The novel is set against the backdrop of the fall of Parnell in the early 1890s, as seen through the eyes of Jerry Coyne, an illegitimate child abandoned by his parents. His father, a failed seminarian, has fled to Australia. His mother, daughter of a local farmer, opted for that other traditional Irish destination—America. Jerry's fractured childhood is split between two very different families inhabiting two very different Irelands. He first experiences a simple rural life in the care of his Uncle Matt in Knock, eight miles outside Kilkenny City. Here [End Page 163] Jerry learns his love of Gaelic Ireland. He watches hurling, and sitting in Matt Coyne's kitchen, Jerry "says the rosary and reads Freeney the Robber." 40 When circumstances dictate that he must move to Kilkenny and live with his Aunt Agnes and her Parnellite husband Humphrey Laracy, Jerry is exposed for the first time to a more cosmopolitan Ireland. Here the reading material is recognizably English; he reads The Boy's Own Annual, Sir Walter Scott's Ivanhoe, and Charles Reade's historical novel, The Cloister and the Hearth. References to Parnell abound in The Green Lion, presumably in order to strengthen Jerry's nationalist credentials. Should the reader doubt the veracity of Jerry's nationalism, the narrative voice points out that having been "brought up by two uncles, one who read Zola with passion, the other the salt of the earth," Jerry was a "demi-peasant by origin, he saw in the cause of Ireland only the disinterested cause of an oppressed people." 41 Two separate father figures have therefore contributed to Jerry's ideas of Irishness. By the time he departs for Saint Ignatius (Clongowes) at age fourteen, he has developed a more mature and settled nationalism. At Saint Ignatius, he finds yet another Ireland, "a strange, mad school . . . anchored out from the community, separate as a ship." Jerry, whose name briefly but symbolically changes to Gerald in the narrative, observes that boys are sent to Saint Ignatius for a distinct purpose: To be polished for a particular world, and in that world, where the cricket crease and the tennis court were of sumptuary importance . . . it was indispensable for the Jesuits to prepare their boys along current class lines, to send them into the Indian Civil Service, the British Civil Service, the army, the navy. 42 Jerry's budding nationalism is out of place at Clongowes. Even hitting twenty runs in a game of cricket does not win him the acceptance he desires, his technique being judged uncouth by his peers. Revenge comes in the form of a school debate on "English [End Page 164] Rule in India." Jerry, though nervous and isolated, delivers a violent critique of English colonial governance, describing those who dared defend it as "footlickers at the English throne." 43 Although jeered by his schoolmates, he has now publicly identified himself as a nationalist and is accepted by what is a very small minority of sympathizers within the school. From here on, Jerry successfully negotiates his time at Saint Ignatius and emerges untainted. Disillusioned with the state of Irish nationalism in the vacuum left by Parnell and filled with outright hostility toward the Catholic Church, our hero emigrates to America at the novel's close. By virtue of his illegitimacy, Jerry is unacceptable in Catholic, rural Ireland, and his nationalism precludes him from upward mobility among his educated peers. Within Jerry Coyne, there are competing definitions of Irishness. One could be a hurler among peasant stock, read Zola in a Kilkenny drawing room, and reject an "English" education all within a thirty-mile radius. Ignatius Proudfoot, hero of Kathleen Pawle's schoolboy novel, We in Captivity, also flees to America. Before doing so, he plays a surprisingly central role in the Easter Rebellion of 1916. Pawle was English born. Her book, published only in America, was remarkable in that it was written with the aid of testimony from a past pupil of Blackrock College, identified as Dermot Darby in the dedication. 44 Ignatius ticks all the right boxes: at the beginning of the novel, he is entirely without patriotic feeling. He is a devoted follower of the adventure stories of Marryat and Henty and cares little for Irish nationalist rhetoric, deciding to forsake Irish Ireland for a life as captain of a cargo ship, "briny and hoary and filled with strange oaths, gorgeously drunk in Boston or Liverpool." 45 Pawle divides her novel into three parts, in which both Ireland and Ignatius experience the same awakening under recognizable and symbolic headings: "The Old Woman Shams Sleep," "Do not Sigh, Do not [End Page 165] Weep!" and best of all, "A Brave New Cloak of Irish Green." Revival images such as the Shan Van Vocht and Cathleen Ní Houlihan pepper the text, and as with Jerry in The Green Lion, or indeed Alec Russell in The Last Lap, the conversion of Ignatius Proudfoot to the noble cause of republicanism is a gradual one. Through a series of unlikely coincidences, Ignatius and some of his schoolmates at Blackrock College (Rochenoir in the novel) become involved in the inner circle of the Irish Republican Brotherhood. Pawle includes republican luminaries such as Pearse and Countess Markievicz in a recreated Easter rebellion. In Pawle's schoolboy novel, Ignatius (and indeed, Ireland itself) has transformed from Parnellite to Republican in one generation, achieved through the synergy of images from the revival era and popular memory of the Easter Rebellion. Both novels are much more progressive than those discussed earlier. In We in Captivity and The Green Lion, both Ignatius and Jerry confront the grittier aspects of schoolboy life, such as masturbation, sex, and homosexual experimentation. The Green Lion was banned by the Irish Censorship Board, presumably as a direct result of such content. 46 Both We in Captivity and The Green Lion are set up in a remarkably similar way. The personal development, or Bildung, of both characters is more directly associated with the emergence of the state than in the early schoolboy novels. Both novels engage with the contemporary climate of censorship and are highly critical of the claustrophobic influence of the Catholic Church in the "new" Ireland, and both end with the main characters exiled from the country of their birth. In an effort to explain this exile, Hackett includes a scene toward the end of The Green Lion where young Jerry Coyne walks alongside his older cousin, Seán Gernon, a young man who has emigrated to London to work as a clerk. Seán's prediction for the future of Ireland, once free from the British army, is far from positive: But when it's out, what'll we have?We'll be like a tree when the heavy ivy is stripped off it, with the scars in it where the big stems were. We'll be weak and maimed, and then the new ivy will want to climb up into us. The church will suck the life out of us. 47 [End Page 166] For Pawle and Hackett, a Catholic Ireland is a limited Ireland. One must leave it in order to reach full maturity. Conclusion Seán Gernon's bleak prophesy highlights an important aspect of the Irish schoolboy novel: that it is didactic. All the books discussed here were written with the intent to influence a youth audience and, in the cases of A Portrait and The Green Lion, to appeal to an adult audience also. When Hackett predicted in The Green Lion that Ireland would be weak and vulnerable post-independence, he was in fact directly critiquing the "new" Ireland and knowingly comparing the stunted growth of his protagonist with that of the fledgling state. Consequently, the schoolboy genre is best seen as connected to the Irish Bildungsroman. They have much in common: both attempt to appropriate symbols of youth to create Irish heroes emerging in opposition to English ones, and to establish a superior Irish culture with its roots in ancient history. For precisely this reason the useful revival figures of Cúchulainn and Fionn were utilized in the development of the Irish schoolboy novel. It was convenient for Seán O'Faoláin to recall the Henty tales of his youth in his autobiography, or for that other writer of revolutionary memoir, Ernie O'Malley, to remember that in his schooldays both he and his brother had attempted to tell their "school chums" tales of Fionn and Cúchulainn, to no great avail: "They had read the latest Buff Bill . . . of split-up-the-back Eton suits and that other public school life of the Magnet and Gem." 48 The binary of Irish boy hero and English boy hero is significant; whether or not it eluded authors such as O'Malley is not. The early imitation of Tom Brown in Schoolboys Three gave way gradually to the creation of a modern Cúchulainn in the later books, such as The Last Lap and The Boys of Ben Eadar. In frustration, both prototypes would later be dismantled by authors perhaps perturbed by the lack of movement toward the Ireland that the popular myths of their childhood had promised. Such a trajectory allows the obvious comparison with the emerging Irish Free State. Despite the best [End Page 167] intentions of authors such as Hackett and Gaffney, there is not all that much difference between the heroes they created and the imperial boy heroes of their own childhood reading. Although the majority of the novels were published in a post-independence Ireland, they were written by authors educated before that event—and at schools that were both pro–status quo and resolutely Catholic. We must then view the Irish schoolboy novel as an exercise in manipulation. A successful and popular English model was hijacked in order to recreate an Irish childhood as national and heroic. By blending Tom Brown and Cúchulainn with increasing confidence, the authors admitted a desire to purge Ireland of English cultural influence but still remained firmly in thrall to it. Nevertheless, they have left us with something very valuable indeed, and very rare. The dichotomies evident in the Irish schoolboy novels result from the peculiar position occupied by middle-class Irish Catholics while under the aegis of Union and in the decades that followed political independence—a complex position that remains somewhat elusive. These novels were not the work of an underclass. Instead, they were written by a group that straddled Ireland and England and balanced nationalism with imperial impulse. As such, they offer an insight into a childhood now long forgotten. [End Page 168] Ciaran O'Neill Ciaran O'Neill is a Ph.D. candidate at the Institute of Irish Studies, University of Liverpool, working under the supervision of Professor Marianne Elliott. In 2007 he was awarded funding from the National University of Ireland (Traveling Studentship) and from the British Association of Irish Studies (Postgraduate Bursary Scheme) for doctoral research on the subject of elite Catholic education in Britain and Ireland. Research interests include Protestant identity in Ireland, children's literature, and the development of elite culture in modern Ireland. Acknowledgment *This research was funded by the National University of Ireland (NUI Traveling Studentship 2007). Footnotes 1. Oliver St. John Gogarty, It Isn't This Time of Year at All: An Unpremeditated Autobiography (New York: Country Life Press, 1954), 83. 2. Seán O'Faoláin, Vive Moi! An Autobiography (London: Rupert Hart Davis, 1965), 30. 3. George Alfred Henty (1832-1902) was a prolific writer of juvenile fiction, often historical and always pro-Empire. 4. Don Randall, Kipling's Imperial Boy: Adolescence and Cultural Hybridity (New York: Palgrave, 2000), 53. 5. West Briton, Castle Catholic, and Shoneen were all contemporary and derogatory terms used to denote those Catholics in Ireland who were seen to be pro-Union and pro-Empire. 6. For an overview, see Jacqueline S. Bratton, The Impact of Victorian Children's Fiction (London: Croom Helm, 1981); Kelly Boyd, Manliness and the Boys' Story Paper in Britain: A Cultural History (Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan, 2003). 7. Patrick A. Dunae, "New Grub Street for Boys," in Imperialism and Juvenile Literature, ed. Jeffrey Richards (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989), 13-14. 8. Gregory Castle, Reading the Modernist Bildungsroman (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2006), 30. 9. See Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994), 121-45. 10. Jerome H. Buckley, Season ofYouth: The Bildungsroman from Dickens to Golding (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), 18. 11. J.S. Sheehy, "The Need of an Irish 'Boys' Paper", The College Chronicle, Castleknock 2, no. 24 (June 1909): 32. Italics are the author's. 12. Anthony D. Smith, LSE Centennial Lecture: "The Resurgence of Nationalism? Myth and Memory in the Renewal of Nations," The British Journal of Sociology 47, no. 4 (Dec., 1996): 583. 13. Elaine Sisson, Pearse's Patriots: St. Enda's and the Cult of Boyhood (Cork: Cork University Press, 2004), 79. Such ideas were, of course, prevalent across Europe, with a "cult of boyhood" evident particularly in the work of Wagner. Irish boys, however, were much more likely to be reading the popular English versions in magazines such as The Magnet or The Gem. 14. Declan Kiberd, Inventing Ireland: The Literature of a Modern Nation (London: Jonathan Cape, 1995), 151. 15. See Senia Paseta, Before the Revolution: Nationalism, Social Change and Ireland Catholic Elite, 1879-1922 (Cork: Cork University Press, 1999), especially 36-44. 16. The Leader, 1 September 1900, 7. 17. It is interesting, in light of Joyce's Bildungsroman, that O'Brien's book When We Were Boys should be one of the volumes to appear on the bookshelf at Leopold Bloom's residence in Ulysses. 18. Catherine Candy, Priestly Fictions: Popular Novelists of the Early 20th Century (Dublin: Wolfhound Press, 1995), 132. 19. J.S. Sheehy, "Fiction and the Irish Boy," The Leader, 10 March 1923, 105. The implication is that the "purpose" of Sheehan's novel is to encourage young Irish boys to enter the priesthood. My thanks to Ríona Nic Congáil for this reference. 20. James H. Murphy, Catholic Fiction and Social Reality, 1873-1922 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1997), 120. 21. Canon P.A. Sheehan, Geoffrey Austin, Student (Dublin: M.H. Gill, 1895), 154. Nunc Dimittis is the prayer recited by Simeon at the presentation of Jesus at the temple (Luke 2:29 31). 22. The author (living in Harrogate at the time) may have been conscious of the greater profit to be derived from the much larger English schoolboy market. In any case, the authorities at Clongowes Wood were not offended—the school magazine gave the novel a glorious review on publication. 23. William Patrick Kelly, Schoolboys Three: A Story (London: Downey & Co., 1895), 7. 24. Kelly, Schoolboys Three, 138. 25. Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown's Schooldays (London: Juvenile Productions, 1954), 78. 26. The Clongownian, June 1905 (issue no. 1, vol. 4), 63. 27. Kelly, Schoolboys Three, 23. Italics are the author's. 28. James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (London: Dover, 1994; originally published 1916), 6. 29. Tracey Teets Schwarze, "Silencing Stephen: Colonial Pathologies in Victorian Dublin," in Twentieth Century Literature 43, no. 3 (Autumn, 1997): 243-63. 30. Bodkin's novel proved unpopular with Irish boys, however, and the Talbot Press lost a significant sum of money as a result. W.E. Lyons to Aodh de Blacam (4 Feb. 1921), Talbot Press Papers, Irish National Archives, 1048/1/64. 31. Irish Book Lover 12 (May-July 1921): 135. 32. "School Rules of Tullabeg," Clongowes Wood Archives. 33. This simulation is obvious in prosperous middle-class schools such as Radley, Lancing, and Cheltenham. See J.R. De S. Honey, Tom Brown's Universe: The Development of the Public School in the 19th Century (London: Millington Press, 1977), 47-103. 34. M. McDonnell Bodkin, When Youth Meets Youth (Dublin: Talbot Press, 1920), 94. 35. Fergal McGrath, The Last Lap (New York: Benziger Brothers, 1925), 70 36. "Beann Éadair" is present-day Howth in North County Dublin. Significantly, the name features in the Cúchulainn sagas. 37. M.H. Gaffney, O.P., The Boys of Ben Eadar:A School Story of 1950 (Dublin: The Talbot Press, 1930), 223. 38. Franco Moretti, The Way of the World: The Bildungsroman in European Culture (London: Verso, 2000), 4. 39. See Kiberd, Inventing Ireland, 104. 40. Francis Hackett, The Green Lion (New York: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1936), 3. 41. Hackett, The Green Lion, 231. 42. Hackett, The Green Lion, 228-29. 43. Hackett, The Green Lion, 271. 44. The student registers at Blackrock College show that a William J. Darby attended the school between 1897 and 1906; this is almost certainly the man who provided Pawle with her information. Ledger of Student Accounts (K), Blackrock College Archives. 45. Kathleen Pawle, We in Captivity: A Novel (New York: Dodd, Mead and Co., 1936), 30. 46. "Banned Books," The Irish Times, 10 June 1936, 5. 47. Hackett, The Green Lion, 336. 48. Ernie O'Malley, On Another Man's Wound (Dublin: Anvil Books, 1994, originally published 1936), 18. Copyright © 2009 Irish American Cultural Institute	i don't know
Which renowned public school is situated in Godalming in Surrey ?	Home \| Charterhouse Charterhouse Charterhouse, Godalming, Surrey, GU7 2DX Switchboard: +44 (0)1483 291500 \| [email protected] Accessibility About Us Headmaster's Welcome Welcome to the Charterhouse website: I hope that you find it informative. A Charterhouse education is busy, purposeful and ambitious but – and I hope that you will see this too – it is also great fun. Charterhouse, Godalming, Surrey, GU7 2DX Tel: +44 (0)1483 291500	Charterhouse
Which renowned independent school is situated in Elgin in Moray ?	Godalming : Wikis (The Full Wiki) The Full Wiki Note: Many of our articles have direct quotes from sources you can cite, within the Wikipedia article! This article doesn't yet, but we're working on it! See more info or our list of citable articles . Related top topics The Pepperpot, Godalming's former town hall Godalming List of places: UK • England • Surrey Godalming (pronounced /ˈɡɒdəlmiŋ/) is a town and civil parish in the Waverley district of the county of Surrey , England , 7 kilometres (4 mi) south of Guildford . It is built on the banks of the River Wey and is a prosperous part of the London commuter belt . Godalming shares a three-way twinning arrangement with the towns of Joigny in France and Mayen in Germany . Friendship links are in place with the state of Georgia in the United States and the city of Moscow in Russia . James Oglethorpe , of Godalming and educated at Charterhouse School , was the founder of the colony of Georgia. Contents Advertisements Pre-1300 The town has existed since Saxon times (see also Godalming (hundred) ), and probably earlier. It is mentioned in the will of King Alfred the Great , and the name itself has Saxon origins, 'Godhelms Ingus' roughly translated as “the family of godhelm”, and probably referring to one of the first lords of the manor . Godalming grew in size because its location is roughly half-way between Portsmouth and London , which encouraged traders to set up stalls and inns for travellers to buy from and rest in. Godalming appears in Domesday Book of 1086 as Godelminge. It was held by William the Conqueror . Its domesday assets were: 2 churches (both held by Ranulf Flambard) worth 12s, 3 mills worth £2 1s 8d, 25 ploughs , 40 acres of meadow , woodland worth 103 hogs . It rendered £34. [1] Its population was roughly 400 people. At the time, its manor belonged to the King, but a few hundred years later, ownership transferred to the Bishop of Salisbury , under a charter granted by King Edward I of England . 1300–1800 In the year 1300, the town was granted the right to hold a weekly market and an annual fair . Its major industry at the time was woollen cloth , which contributed to Godalming’s prosperity over the next few centuries, until a sudden decline in the 17th century. Instead, its people applied their skills to the latest knitting and weaving technology and began producing stockings in a variety of materials, and later to leatherwork . A willingness to adapt, and move from one industry to another meant that Godalming continued to thrive. For example, papermaking was adopted in the 17th century, and paper was still manufactured there in the 20th century. The quarrying of Bargate stone also provided an important source of income, as did passing trade - Godalming was a popular stopping point for stagecoaches and the Mail coach between Portsmouth and London . In 1764, trade received an additional boost when early canalisation of the river took place, linking the town to Guildford , and from there to the River Thames and London on the Wey and Godalming Navigations . In 1726 a Godalming maidservant called Mary Toft hoaxed the town into believing that she had given birth to rabbits. The foremost doctors of the day came to witness the freak event and for a brief time the story caused a national sensation. Eventually Mary was found out after a porter was caught smuggling a dead rabbit into her chamber, she confessed to inserting at least 16 rabbits into herself and faking their birth. From 1800 So successful was Godalming, that in the early 19th century it was considerably larger than today’s county town of Guildford , and by 1851 the population had passed 6,500. Already, it was becoming a popular residence for commuters, for it was connected to London by railway two years earlier, in 1849, and to Portsmouth in 1859. Today the town is served by Godalming railway station on the Portsmouth Direct Line . The first mayor of Godalming was Henry Marshall who also founded the firm of Marshalls Solicitors in 1831. On 14 August 1818, the town was the site a dual public hanging of George Chennell and William Chalcraft, convicted of murdering George Chennell the elder (father of one prisoner, and master of Chalcraft) and Elizabeth Wilson, his housekeeper. [2] Architecture Godalming Parish Church The town has around 230 listed buildings , including Tudor timber framing and 17th century brickwork . Godalming Parish Church has an early Saxon chancel and Norman tower. The 19th century town hall , nicknamed 'the Pepperpot' due to its cupola , is a distinctive octagonal building situated on the High Street. Due to its unique design, it has become the defacto 'logo' of the town today. The current building dates back to 1814 and replaced the medieval "Old Market House" that had occupied the site since the early Middle Ages . It was in this Market House (and its predecessors) that the local Hundred Court met and discussed matters of local importance for more than a thousand years. The upstairs rooms continued to be used for civic gatherings until 1908. The Pepperpot later housed the town museum, and continues to be used as a public function room. The arched area beneath the building, at street level, has been used as a marketplace. [3] Other significant buildings in the town include Edwin Lutyens 's Red House, and a significant English public school , Charterhouse stands about a mile from the town, on the top of Charterhouse Hill. Charterhouse won the FA Cup as the Old Carthusians in 1880 and 1881. Winkworth Arboretum , with its collection of rare trees and shrubs , is situated a few miles to the south. Public electricity supply Godalming came to world attention in September 1881, when it became the first town in the world to have installed a public electricity supply, which made electricity available to consumers. It was Calder & Barnet who installed a Siemens AC Alternator and dynamo which were powered by a waterwheel, located at Westbrook Mill, on the river Wey. There were a number of supply cables that fed seven arc lights and 34 Swan incandescent lights , some of which were laid in the gutters. Floods in late 1881 caused problems and in the end Calder & Barnet withdrew from the contract. It was taken over by Siemens. Under Siemens the supply system grew and a number of technical problems were solved. But later on in 1884 the whole town reverted back to gas lighting as Siemens failed to tender for a contract to light the town. This was due to a survey he undertook in the town that failed to provide adequate support to make the business viable, and Siemens had lost money on the scheme in the early years, but was prepared to stay on to gain experience. Electricity returned to the town in 1904. Transport The National Trust Wey & Godalming Navigations Rail Godalming railway station is on the Portsmouth Direct Line between London (Waterloo) and Portsmouth , and is served by South West Trains . [4] The station has been recognised for its floral decorations including 10 hanging baskets. [5] The next stations up and down the line are at Farncombe and Milford which in many respects (for example transport and education) are effectively suburbs of Godalming. The town is also served by a bus network connecting the town centre with the main residential areas. Road A286 - main road Milford to Birdham just beyond Chichester A3100 - local main road Guildford to Milford, runs through Godalming B2130 - local road Godalming to Cranleigh B3000 - local road Farncombe to Compton , the A3 and then to the A31 just beyond Puttenham B3001 - local road Milford to Farnham A community transport service is provided by " Hoppa ". Chaired through its difficult early days by Brian Richards, [8] Waverley Hoppa has burgeoned into a low priced provider of minibus and MPV personalised transport for the elderly, the disabled, the young and others for whom simply getting from where they are to where they want to be is a problem. Air Godalming lies approximately equidistant (50 kilometres) from Heathrow and Gatwick , the two major commercial international airports in South East England . Water The Wey and Godalming Navigations terminates at the United Church . [9] Residential People live in the town centre and various suburbs ; to the east there is Catteshall; to the west there is Aaron's Hill and Ockford Ridge; to the north there is Farncombe , Charterhouse and Frith Hill; and to the south there is Holloway Hill, Busbridge and Crownpits. Sometimes Milford is classed as a suburb of Godalming. Education Educational establishments in or near Godalming area include: Universities The University of Surrey is just outside Godalming (in Guildford ). Private schools Charterhouse School is a famous public boarding school founded in 1611 and located in Godalming from 1872. [10] Although the 6th form is mixed (2:1 boys:girls), lower forms are boys only. Exam results in 2006 at B grade or higher were GCSE 96%, AS level 81%, A level 88%. [11] King Edward's School, Witley is an independent co-educational boarding and day school located in nearby Wormley . Founded in 1553 in the London area of St Bride's Church , Fleet Street (formerly Bridewell Palace ), the school moved to its current location in 1867. Ages 11 – 18 with a strongly international Sixth Form. Prior's Field School is an independent private girls boarding school founded at the beginning of the 20th century by Julia Huxley . [12] Exam results in 2006 at B grade or better were: A levels 57%, GCSE 86%. [13] [14] There are 333 pupils of which about 40% are boarders (weekly or termly); St Hilary's School is an independent preparatory school for boys 2.5 - 7 (around 90) and girls 2.5 - 11 (around 200). [15] Boys mainly go on to Aldro (74% 2006) and girls mainly to Prior's Field (36%), St Catherine's School Bramley (19%) and Tormead School Guildford (13%). Scholarships were gained by 17% of girls in 2006. [16] State 6th form colleges Godalming College is in the Holloway Hill area of Godalming. Founded in 1975 on the campus of Godalming Grammar School, it caters for sixteen to nineteen years olds. [17] Awarded Beacon status in 2006, it was the best performing state school for AS/A levels in the Surrey area in 2004; its Ofsted report for 2005 graded the college as "outstanding" in six of the seven key areas ("good" in the 7th). [18] State secondary schools Numbers in brackets indicate the % of pupils achieving 5 A-C GCSEs in total and then including the key subjects of maths and English . [19] Broadwater School is in the Farncombe area of Godalming, caters for young people from 11 to 16 and has no 6th form. (42, 29) Rodborough Technology College is in the village of Milford on the outskirts of Godalming, Rake Lane. It caters for young people from 11 to 16 and has no 6th form.(64, 59). State primary schools (includes grant aided) All primary schools in Godalming are coeducational. Infant schools cover the age range 4–7, junior schools cover 8–11. The figures shown in brackets are VA value added a measure of how pupils' performance has improved, and AGG aggregate score the sum of the percentages of pupils achieving the expected levels in English, maths and science (thus the maximum possible is 300). [20] Loseley Fields Primary School (VA 98.9, AGG 195) is in the village of Binscombe, on the outskirts of the Farncombe side of Godalming. Busbridge C of E Aided Junior School was built over 100 years ago by members of nearby Busbridge Church and extensive links between the two have continued to this day. It admits 60 children each year with preference being given to Christians and in particular to children of Busbridge/Hambledon church members. (VA 100.9, AGG 279) Busbridge County Infants School is in Hambledon Road Godalming. It caters for around 150 children (2007) [21] Chandler C of E Junior School is in the Witley area and caters for around 330 children Godalming Junior School is in the Farncombe area of Godalming. [22] It has 230 children in 8 classes (four per year). The Ofsted report for 2005 graded the school as at least satisfactory in all four of the new categories. [23] (VA 100.6, AGG 275) Milford School is an infant school situated in the centre of the village of Milford, on the outskirts of Godalming. [28] Moss Lane School [24] St Edmunds Catholic Primary School is a voluntary aided parish school covering both primary and junior age ranges (4–11); it is linked to both St Edmund's Church in Godalming and to St Joseph's Church in Milford. The 2005 Ofsted report described it as "a good school with a well deserved reputation of providing a good standard of education". [25] (VA 100.1, AGG 282) Green Oak C of E Primary School, formally St Mark's, currently covers just the first two year groups but will expand by a year group annually. [26] Witley C of E Infant School [27] Previous schools Community Sport Godalming Angling Society [28] founded in 1881, with fishing rights to 6 lakes and the River Wey from Lower Eashing to Guildford. Godalming Town F. C. currently play in the Ryman Division One South, level 8 of English football. [29] They were formed in 1971 and play their home games at Wey Court, Meadrow. Cricket has been played in Godalming since at least 1767; Godalming Cricket Club now plays at the Holloway Hill Recreation Ground. Guildford Rugby Club (formed in 2002 following the merger of Guildford & Godalming RFC and Old Guildfordians RFC) plays in the London 2 South West league at the Broadwater Sports Club in Godalming. Godalming Bowls Club play at the Holloway Recreation Ground. Contract Bridge is played at several venues: Busbridge Duplicate Bridge Club [29] meets at the Busbridge Village Hall on three evenings a week Godalming Bridge Club meets on Monday afternoons at the Milford Village Hall Waverley Bridge Partnership (owned by Brian Richards and Rosemary Bayley) has two clubs: Holloway Hill Bridge Club meets on Tuesday afternoons at the Holloway Hill Recreation Ground pavilion Chapel Lane Bridge Club meets at the Clocktower, Milford on three evenings a week: Tuesdays and Thursdays for duplicate and Wednesdays as a workshop Bridge lessons, on behalf of the partnership, are given by Iain Ure at the Holloway Hill pavilion on Mondays Theatre Godalming Theatre Group is an amateur theatre company in Godalming. It performs three productions a year at the Ben Travers Theatre, Charterhouse School , Godalming: a spring musical, autumn drama or comedy, and a Christmas pantomime or show. It also runs a youth theatre group. [30] Community centres The "Wilfrid Noyce Community Centre" in Godalming is named after Wilfrid Noyce (1917–1962), a master at Charterhouse and a mountaineer who was on the expedition that made the first ascent of Mount Everest in 1953. [31] The Clocktower, or Milford and Villages Day Centre, is a day centre for people over 50. The money to build it in 1997 was raised entirely from charitable donations and local fundraising. [32] Town lottery The Godalming Town Lottery "GOLO" was launched in Godalming on the 1st November 2008, by the Go-Godalming Association, a member of the Lotteries Council. Tickets, sold at local shops and pubs, cost £1 and the draw takes place on the last Saturday of every month. The first one was on Godalming Town Day, 29 November 2008, at the Pepperpot. It is considered to be the first town lottery of its kind. There are 17 prizes, ranging from £500 to £10. Profits are donated to local causes, beginning with the Bandstand roof fund. GOLO is a community lottery for the Godalming Community. [33] Shopping In a charter dated 7 June 1300, King Edward I granted the Bishop of Salisbury the right to hold a weekly market and an annual fair in the town. Godalming remains a typical English market town, with a market every Friday and a selection of independent and national retailers selling clothing for all ages, shoes, watches, jewellery, fine art, books, gifts, stationery, music, guitars, computers, photography, pine furniture, antiques, flowers, hardware, food of all sorts, and household goods. In addition there are the ubiquitous banks, building societies, estate agents, travel agents, solicitors, accountants, employment agencies and charity shops. There are several pubs, restaurants and cafes, occasional visiting French and Italian markets, and an annual Godalming Food Festival. Media The comic novel The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin , by David Nobbs , contains the following footnote: "Note: It is believed that this book mentions Godalming more than any other book ever written, including A Social, Artistic and Economic History of Godalming by E. Phipps-Blythburgh." The novel was the second in a trilogy, adapted to become a hit TV series: The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin . Due to its typically English appearance, attractive shop fronts and cobbled streets, the town has often been used as a backdrop for the shooting of various films and television programmes. In February 2006, High Street and Church Street, which runs from the Pepperpot to the parish church , was used in the production of The Holiday . Notable people See also alumini of Godalming Grammar School and List of notable Old Carthusians Numerous notable people were born in the town including: James Oglethorpe (born 1696) founder of the colony of Georgia; Julius Caesar (born 1830), cricketer; Aldous Huxley (born 1894), writer; Nick Clarke (born 1948), radio journalist and presenter; and Mick Mills (born 1949), footballer. The radio operator of RMS Titanic , Jack Phillips , was born and lived in Godalming. He is famed for remaining at his post, sending a distress call, until the ship sank completely. [34] There are several articles of remembrance around the town, including a section of Godalming Museum, a memorial fountain, cloister and garden walk near the church (the largest Titanic memorial in the world), and a Wetherspoons pub named in his honour. The architect, Sir Edwin Lutyens , began work in 1896 on a house at Munstead Wood, Godalming for the garden designer, Gertrude Jekyll . She died in 1932 and is buried in the churchyard of St. John the Baptist, Busbridge, Godalming next to her brother. In the 1800s judge James Wilde, 1st Baron Penzance lived at Eashing Park, Godalming. In the 1900's George Mallory,The man who almost went to the peak of everest lived here after marriage ,before the fatal accident on the everest during his third expedition to the mountain. In the late twentieth century, actor Terry-Thomas , comedic actor Terry Scott , actor Christopher Timothy , comedian Billy Dainty and the singer Alvin Stardust resided in the town. Dainty died at his house, "Cobblers", in the village on 19 November 1986. The band Genesis was formed in 1967 by Peter Gabriel and Tony Banks while students at Charterhouse School . Significant people currently living in the town include the actress Rachel Hurd-Wood , Chelsea footballer Ashley Cole and football pundit Alan Hansen . Paul Merrett , a famous chef who has appeared several times on British TV, was a pupil at Rodborough. [35] References Eat Godalming is an ancient English market town sitting on the River Wey, in Surrey , England . Godalming has existed since Saxon times. It was a wool manufacturing and trading center in medieval times, later followed by a substantial pioneering phase in tanning, leatherworking and related industries. There are still a number of light industries in the town, which also houses the UK headquarters of the World Wide Fund for Nature, formerly the World Wildlife Fund. Get in Godalming is served by South-West Trains on the London (Waterloo) to Portsmouth Line. There is a relatively frequent service throughout the day. Journey time is around 45 minutes to Waterloo on the stopping service. Godalming is two stations from Guildford, where you can get an express to Waterloo in around 30 minutes. You can check connections and fares on thetrainline.com From Guildford - 2 stations away - you can get a direct train to Gatwick airport in about 50 min. From Woking - 4 stations away - you can get a bus to Heathrow (50 min), and a direct train to Southampton Airport Parkway station (50 min). Charterhouse, famed private boarding school. Pupils have included: Robert Baden-Powell (founder of the scout movement), William Beveridge (economist and social reformer), Anthony Caro (sculptor), David Dimbleby (TV presenter)' Peter Gabriel (rock musician, Genesis), Robert Graves (poet), Robert Banks Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool (Prime Minister), William Makepeace Thackeray (novelist), Ralph Vaughan Williams (composer), John Wesley (founder of the Methodist church) Eat There are various small restaurants in around the High Street. Heath House, Alldens Lane, Godalming GU8 4AP (www.heathhouse.eu), ☎ 01483-416961. Situated in a quiet lane, surrounded by beautiful countryside, Heath House offers spacious and comfortable accommodation in a tranquil setting. Individually decorated bedrooms are provided with en suite or private bathrooms. Freeview TV and complimentary WiFi access. Our breakfast menu is varied and interesting & all dishes are freshly prepared using locally grown organic produce wherever possible. Breakfast is served in the Garden Room overlooking attractive grounds. Here you can relax, enjoy the garden and help yourselves to tea, coffee and other light refreshments. ROOMS: 2 doubles, 1 twin. Rated 5 stars. From £40. edit This article is an outline and needs more content. It has a template, but there is not enough information present. Please plunge forward and help it grow!	i don't know
Which Austrian far right leader was killed in a car crash in October 2008 ?	Austrian far-right leader Jörg Haider dies in car crash \| World news \| The Guardian Austrian far-right leader Jörg Haider dies in car crash Austrian president says death of controversial politician is a 'human tragedy' Police at the scene of the crash near Klagenfurt in which Jörg Haider died. Photograph: Daniel Raunig/Getty Images Saturday 11 October 2008 04.38 EDT First published on Saturday 11 October 2008 04.38 EDT Close This article is 8 years old The controversial Austrian far-right leader Jörg Haider was killed in a car accident today, two weeks after staging a comeback in national elections. His car veered off the road near the southern city of Klagenfurt and overturned while trying to overtake another vehicle, according to police officials. There was no sign of foul play. Haider, who was 58, suffered severe injuries to his head and chest and was taken to hospital where he was pronounced dead. Haider was alone in the car at the time of the accident. Jörg Haider. Photograph: Dieter Nagl/AFP/Getty The populist Haider was governor of the province of Carinthia and leader of the far-right Alliance for the Future of Austria . "For us, it's like the end of the world," Haider's spokesman, Stefan Petzner, told the Austria Press Agency. The Austrian president, Heinz Fischer, described Haider's death as a "human tragedy." In 1999, Haider received 27% of the vote in national elections as leader of the Freedom party. The party's subsequent inclusion in the government led to months of European Union sanctions as Haider's statements were seen as anti-Semitic. Haider significantly toned down his rhetoric and in 2005 broke away from the Freedom party to form the new alliance, which was meant to reflect a turn toward relative moderation. Last month Austria's far right took almost 30% of the vote in a parliamentary election, exploiting national discontent about immigration and squabbling mainstream governing parties. Haider sought to distance himself from his right-wing past, which included a comment in 1991 that the Third Reich had an "orderly employment policy" and a 1995 reference to concentration camps as "the punishment camps of National Socialism". He is survived by his wife, two daughters and his mother, whose 90th birthday he and his family had planned to celebrate over the weekend.	Jörg Haider
The song ‘ Have Yourself A Merry Little Christmas comes from which musical ?	Leader of Austrian Right Dies in Crash - The New York Times The New York Times Europe \|Leader of Austrian Right Dies in Crash Search Leader of Austrian Right Dies in Crash By REUTERS Continue reading the main story VIENNA -- Jörg Haider , the leader of Austria ’s far right, was killed in a car accident on Saturday, the national news agency APA reported. The agency quoted the police as saying Mr. Haider died after suffering severe head and chest injuries when a car he was driving went out of control and rolled over several times outside the southern city of Klagenfurt. APA said he was alone in the car. Rightist groups surged to a combined 30 percent of the vote in a national parliamentary election last month, with Mr. Haider’s smaller Alliance for Austria’s Future tripling its support to around 12 percent. Mr. Haider, born in 1950, became a full-time politician in 1977 for the right-wing Freedom Party. He caused an international stir when the Freedom Party formed a coalition government with the conservative People’s Party in 2000, setting off widespread condemnation and European Union sanctions. Mr. Haider made headlines by campaigning on an anti- immigration ticket. A version of this article appears in print on , on Page A7 of the New York edition with the headline: Leader of Austrian Right Dies in Crash. Order Reprints \| Today's Paper \| Subscribe	i don't know
Which was the first English football club that Liverpool legend Bill Shankly managed ?	Bill Shankly Bill Shankly Date of Birth: 02 Sep 1913 Birthplace: Glenbuck, Scotland First Division champions 1964, 1966, 1973 Second Division champions 1962 FA Charity Shield 1964 (shared), 1965 (shared) 1966 PROFILE: Bill Shankly is arguably the most famous figure in Liverpool Football Club's illustrious history. A charismatic man who realised his dream of turning us into English football's most dominant force, the Scot's spirit has quite rightly been immortalised in the very foundations of our club. His name is synonymous with the very meaning of the 'Liverpool way' and it is his legacy that has seen us go on and conquer Europe on no fewer than five occasions, while monopolising the domestic game for over two decades. And yet, such glory was way beyond even the most optimistic Kopites' dreams when Shanks was appointed Liverpool's ninth manager on December 1, 1959. As the final whistle blew on his first match in charge 18 days later the prospect of Shankly's Liverpool side, languishing in 10th place in Division Two, going on to one day boast a record of three First Division titles, one Division Two title, two FA Cups and One UEFA Cup must have seemed little more than a pipedream. A 4-0 hammering at home to Cardiff City left a man who was already notorious for his outspoken comments and memorable quotes searching for the words to explain what he had just witnessed and what he must do to rectify the current state of affairs. But mighty oaks from little acorns grow... Shanks knew the side needed an injection of spirit, determination and desire to match his own and he would go on to mould a team to mirror the very same winning mentality and hunger for silverware he had had from an early age. Born into a family of 10 in the Ayrshire mining village of Glenbuck, where conditions were harsh, Shankly had found solace in his ultimate passion and would inevitably go on to realise his dream of becoming a professional footballer. For him football in Glenbuck was the elixir of life, a blessed relief from the toil of the mineshaft. It set him on a path that would see him take leave from the town of his roots and in 1932 he signed forms with Carlisle United. Within a year, he had moved onwards and upwards to Deepdale, home of Preston North End as he carved out a distinguished playing career at wing-half that brought seven caps for Scotland. Unfortunately the prime of his playing life would be disrupted by war in 1939 and when the 1946-47 season kick-started organised professional football again in England, Shankly was 33. It was time to decide what he would do with the rest of his life and it was no surprise that his addiction to the beautiful game would see him set his sights - in true Shankly style - on becoming the greatest football manager of all time. He had already grown accustomed to what seemed like an obligatory boardroom battle as his 10-year managerial career prior to taking over in the Anfield hot-seat saw him earn his spurs with the likes of Carlisle United, Grimsby, Workington and finally Huddersfield Town. His time with the Terriers also saw him grant a debut to an up and coming 16-year-old by the name of Denis Law. At each club he grew frustrated by the board's inability to match his own ambition and it was this single-minded approach and a lack of financial backing that saw him walk out on both Carlisle United, the club who had given him his chance as a young player, and Grimsby. This devotion to winning led T V Williams to take a keen interest in the man who had at that point been more recognised for his quick wit and acid tongue than for his success on the pitch. Shankly's ambition had been obvious when he interviewed for the Reds job in 1951 and although Liverpool felt he was not the right man at the time, he had made enough of an impression to ensure that when the job came up again, he would be the only candidate. And so to his first few months in charge of Liverpool, a time from which it is hard to understate the ordinariness of our position. Languishing in the old second division, with a crumbling stadium, poor training facilities and a large unwieldy playing staff, the challenge facing Shankly was enormous. But typically, it was one he would relish, and after realising the need to dramatically transform the club from head-to-toe he dispensed with the services of 24 members of the playing staff. However, it wasn't just the presence of Shanks that would help sow the seeds for a future of glory. He had the good fortune to inherit an experienced and resourceful backroom staff in the shape of Bob Paisley, Joe Fagan, and Reuben Bennett - a group that would form the famous bootroom. With this in his armoury, slowly but surely, Shankly's Liverpool began to move forward. The Anfield crowd sensed the change. Gates regularly topped 40,000 and promotion to the first division was imminent. The initial stage of Shankly's rebuilding programme had taken shape, thanks in large part, to the signing of two key players in Ron Yeats and Ian St John. Both were Scottish warriors, men who embodied the type of spirit and desire that would become symbolic of Liverpool under Shankly and the example by which all future recruits would be measured. The foundations were now in place and the Reds romped away with the Second Division title in 1961-62, finishing eight points clear of their nearest rivals and amassing an impressive 62 point. All this was accomplished in the days when two points were awarded for a win and perhaps more significantly, they would achieve it all with real attacking verve - scoring 99 goals in the process. Having realised his initial target of leading Liverpool back into the topflight, Shankly set about addressing an issue much closer to home - Everton. The Blues were firmly established as the number one side in the city of Liverpool at the time and the Scottish messiah was not content to let the Toffees sustain the bragging rights for much longer. Most sides would be content with consolidation in their first season back in the topflight - but not Liverpool. The word was an unknown quantity in the Bill Shankly dictionary and by the end of the campaign he had led the Reds to the title - savouring the moment as reigning champions Everton were forced to hand over the trophy. It set the tone for the rest of Shankly's reign and led to him famously claim: "There are only two sides in Liverpool. Liverpool and Liverpool reserves." The title was just reward for years of hard work behind the scenes, where Shanks introduced the five-a-side games that so defined his football thinking at a completely revamped Melwood. Pass and move, keep it simple, a creed taken from the daily matches played by the miners of Glenbuck all those years ago. His success was built upon a new routine whereby the players would meet and change for training at Anfield and then board the team bus for the short trip to Melwood. After the session they would all bus back to Anfield together and perhaps get a bite to eat. This way Shankly ensured all his players had warmed down correctly and he would keep his players free from injury. It was also a routine that instilled a tremendous team spirit. In the 1965-66 season Liverpool finished as champions using just 14 players and two of those only played a handful of games. The first FA Cup win in 1965 was followed by some magical European exploits across the continent as the Reds established a passing style that became the envy of the watching world. Amidst all this, stood Shankly, a man who had found his spiritual home. He was perfectly in tune with the Kopites, knowing and understanding how they felt about football and the pride a successful team gave them. His love affair with the Liverpool people is best summed up by the great man himself when he declared: "I'm just one of the people on the Kop..." While all good things must come to an end, the decline of the great 60s team was not the end for Shankly, who set about constructing his second great Liverpool side. Out went Hunt, St John, Yeats and Lawrence, and in came Keegan, Heighway, Lloyd and Clemence. Success followed success as the football world was given a taste of Liverpool as a relentless winning machine. The first European trophy arrived in 1973, in the form of the UEFA cup, a much heralded success that was won in tandem with the club's eighth league title. In 1974 the FA Cup returned to Anfield after a breathtaking Wembley performance against a hapless Newcastle United. Shankly had reached for the stars and made his dreams a reality. He was at the pinnacle of his profession - a man exuding charisma and a manager who was deservedly worshipped by his loyal followers in the stand. And so the events that transpired on a warm July day back in 1974 would rock not just the very foundations of the club but the entire football world. The great Bill Shankly, a name interwoven into the very fabric of our club, had tendered his shock resignation, citing the reason that, at the age of 60, he wanted to spend more time with his wife Ness and their family. The fact he left the club on a high and in such capable hands speaks volumes for the man. But how do you follow Bill Shankly? The answer would be found within the mythical walls of his famous Bootroom, with the modest figure of Bob Paisley providing an almost seamless transition from coach to boss. There is no doubt that Paisley's era as manager would prove more fruitful than Shankly's in terms of trophies won. Some may also suggest that much of what Shankly achieved would not have been possible without Bob Paisley's calm influence and knowledge of the game. But it is equally likely that without the driving force and sheer charisma of Shankly, Liverpool's spell in the doldrums in the 1950s would have reached long into the 60s. And perhaps Bob Paisley would never have become manager at all. The fact the club contrived to bring them together at all in those dark post war days, is something the fans will be forever grateful for. Shanks may have left the club all those years ago, but his spirit will always live on, and when he died unexpectedly in September 1981 after suffering a heart attack, his loss was greatly mourned by both Liverpool and the football family. In fact his good friend Sir Matt Busby was so upset when he heard the news that he couldn't even answer the telephone that morning. In the years following his resignation, to the disbelief of the fans, relations between him and the club he so loved had become somewhat strained. But there was no such problem on the terraces. In the first game at Anfield following his funeral, a huge banner was unfurled on the Kop which read 'Shankly Lives Forever'. Indeed, his spirit is just as strong at Anfield to this day, where a statue to the great man stands before his beloved Kop and the Shankly Gates bear the immortal words "You'll never walk alone".	Carlisle United F.C.
Which actor played the role of Milton Arbogast, the detective who is killed on the stairs in the Hitchcock thriller Psycho ?	Timeline - Shankly.com - This website is a part of LFCHistory.net 02.09.1913 - William Shankly is born in Glenbuck, Scotland. 1931 - Plays for local team, Cronberry Eglinton, in Ayrshire. 1932 - Shankly moves south of the border where he joins Carlisle United in Third Division North. July 1933 - After an impressive season for Carlisle Shankly signs for 2nd division Preston North End. Preston were soon promoted as Shankly's career blossomed. 09.04.1938 - Shankly was first selected to play for his country against auld enemy England in a 1-0 win at Wembley. 30.04.1938 - Shankly's highlight as player when Preston wins the FA Cup by beating Huddersfield. 29.06.1944 - Bill marries Agnes "Nessie" Fisher 22.03.1949 - 35-year-old Shankly felt he had much more to offer as a player, but took the manager's job at Carlisle United. June 1951 - Grimsby's board felt Shankly was the right man to resurrect the club that had dropped from Division 1 to regional football in Division 3. 1951 - Liverpool interview Shankly for the vacant manager's job at Liverpool. 06.01.1954 - Shankly moves down the ladder in Third Division North, but saving Workington from extinction is a worthy challenge. 05.11.1956 - Takes over as manager of Huddersfield after coaching their reserves for 11 months. 01.12.1959 - Liverpool appoint Bill Shankly as Phil Taylor's successor in the managerial seat. 14.12.1959 - Shankly takes officially over at Liverpool after finishing his tenure at Huddersfield. 19.12.1959 - Shankly is in charge of his first Liverpool game, but it's far from an ideal start as Liverpool lose 0-4 to Cardiff. 21.04.1962 - After seven years in the 2nd division, Liverpool are promoted with five League games remaining! 18.04.1964 - Liverpool win the championship for the sixth time in their history after a 17 year wait with an impressive 5-0 win vs Arsenal at Anfield. 01.05.1965 - Liverpool win the FA Cup for the first time in the club's history. Shankly said it was his finest moment at Liverpool. 12.05.1965 - Liverpool knocked out of the semi-finals in the club's inaugural season in the European Cup. After a sensational 3-1 win at Anfield in the first leg, Inter beat the Reds 0-3 in Italy after bribing the referee! 30.04.1966 - Liverpool seal their second League title under Shankly by beating Chelsea 2-1 at Anfield. 08.05.1971 - Liverpool lose 1-2 to Arsenal in the FA Cup - Shankly delivers the famous Chairman Mao speech. 08.07.1971 - Shankly agrees a new three-year contract with Liverpool which proved to be his last. 23.04.1973 - After 7 years without a title, Liverpool win the championship by beating Leeds 2-0 at Anfield. Bill Shankly was relieved after the team's barren spell: "I think we can call ourselves champions now. I'm delighted for the players, for the club, and especially for the fans, who have again proved themselves the greatest in the world." 23.05.1973 - Liverpool beat Gladbach 3-2 on aggregrate in the two-legged UEFA Cup final, almost surrendering their 3-0 lead from Anfield. 1973 - Bill voted Manager of the year, the only time in his career! 04.05.1974 - One of the most one-sided FA Cup finals in history when Liverpool tear Newcastle to pieces 3-0 at Wembley. 12.07.1974 - The football world and the whole of Liverpool are astounded when Bill Shankly announces that he is retiring as Liverpool's manager. 10.08.1974 - Shankly is given the distinction of leading Liverpool out at Wembley vs Leeds in the Charity Shield despite retiring in the summer. 12.08.1974 - Bill Shankly officially ends his 'reign' as manager of the Reds in Billy McNeill's testimonial in front of 60,000 people at Celtic Park. 29.04.1975 - Shankly's testimonial against a Don Revie Select XI - an emotional night at Anfield. 25.05.1977 - Shankly was present in Rome when Liverpool won its first ever European Cup. "This is the greatest night in Liverpool's history. This is the result of planning, of simplicity, of how to play the game in a simple manner. I think the whole world realises that it's the way to play." 29.09.1981 - Shankly passes away. The front page of Echo read: SHANKLY IS DEAD. It recorded the official hospital statement: "Mr Shankly suffered a cardiac arrest at 12.30 am and was certified dead at 1.20." Shanks had been battling for life since he suffered a heart attack early on Saturday morning. He had been making good progress until his condition deteriorated yesterday morning and he was transferred to the Intensive Care Unit. His wife Nessie was by his side when he died." 30.09.1981 - Liverpool face Finnish European Cup opponents, Oulu Palloseura, at Anfield. Reds won 7-0 and for the whole of second half the Kop sang Shankly's name to the tune of Amazing Grace. A banner in the middle of the crowd summed up the feelings of thousands "King Shankly lives". 03.10.1981 - An emotional Bob Paisley and John Toshack lead out their teams at Anfield in the league. Tosh, who was now the manager of Swansea, created quite a stir among the Swansea faithful when he revealed a Liverpool shirt underneath his Swansea tracksuit when Shankly was remembered before the game. 22.11.1981 - "A Service of Thanksgiving for the life of Bill Shankly" held at Liverpool Cathedral. Here you can download and listen to Bill Shankly‘s memorial service (play with Real Player ) that was broadcast on BBC Radio Merseyside from Liverpool's Cathedral. 26.08.1982 - Shankly Gates unlocked by Bill's widow, Nessie. 27.04.1997 - The Shankly memorial is erected - a fitting tribute to Shanks in his hometown, Glenbuck. 04.12.1997 - The statue of Shankly in front of the Kop is unveiled. June 1998 - The former Spion Kop end at Preston North's End ground was replaced by a new stand named the "Bill Shankly Kop", designed with different coloured seats providing an image of the great man's head and shoulders. 18.12.1999 - A mosaic on the Kop to celebrate the 40th Anniversary of Bill Shankly's arrival at Anfield. Across the top of the stand was spelt the word 'SHANKS'. Below were two images of Shanks' face flanking the Cross of St Andrew. 02.08.2002 - Nessie Shankly passes away, 82 years of age. 2002 - Bill Shankly made an inaugural inductee of the English Football Hall of Fame in recognition of his impact on the English game as a manager. 08.11.2004 - Bill is one of the original inductees into the Scottish Football Association's Hall of Fame. 01.12.2009 - 50 years since the Scottish legend signed his contract to become manager of Liverpool Football Club. 16.12.2009 - Anfield was the stage for an emotional parade of legends along with nine members of Shankly’s family. The sounds of ‘Amazing Grace’ – Shankly’s favourite hymn reverberated at half-time during the game vs Wigan Athletic. A "SHANKS LEGEND" mosaic was unveiled on the Kop prior to kick off. 17.12.2009 - Shankly is awarded an Honorary Citizenship of Liverpool in recognition of the 50th anniversary of his arrival as manager of Liverpool FC and his dedication to the region. The award was presented by Lord Mayor Mike Storey on stage during the Shankly Show at the BT Convention Centre in Liverpool. Shanks quote "We were getting beat 2-1 and laying siege to the Hammers' goal in the closing minutes. Bill Shankly clearly thought we were not going to score and headed from the stand down towards the dressing room, anticipating the final whistle. Then Kevin Keegan scored, literally with the last kick of the match. The boss heard the roar, but assumed it was the referee calling a halt to the proceedings. We all trooped into the dressing room, delighted to have secured a last-gap point. Shanks was already in there and looking exceedingly annoyed. He looked at the bubbly mood of the lads and started to have a go. He must have thought: 'Bastards! They've lost and they're all smiling.' He started to say: 'You should never lose to a team like this.' Bob started to interrupt him and he looked even angrier. Then he heard Bob say: 'Bill, we've equalized in the last second. It was a draw.' Shanks' face went as red as the colour of the red tie he was wearing. He immediately said: 'Great result, lads. Fantastic. You deserved it.' We all started laughing but he couldn't see the funny side." PHIL THOMPSON - (Shankly was not too happy with his lot in April 1974 when The Reds drew West Ham 2-2 at Upton Park). All rights reserved - © LFCHistory.net - [email protected] This site is in no way endorsed by or affiliated to Liverpool Football Club	i don't know
What name is given in canoeing to a complete roll through 360 degrees to recover after cap-sizing ?	survival_guide:print [Graduate Student Board] About Originally this guide was targeted at new Purdue Computer Science graduate students. Since its creation, it has expanded to also be helpful for returning graduate students and perspective students. The guide provides information about the department, Purdue, the Lafayette area, Indiana, and surrounding states. Be warned that the information in this guide is not complete and not guaranteed to be correct. If you are not sure about something, do not be afraid to ask a fellow student or to e-mail the CS Graduate Student Board ([email protected]). If you would like something added or changed in the Guide, please e-mail the GSB . This document is not intended to describe departmental and school policies and is not a publication of the Department of Computer Sciences nor the School of Science. As the regulations constantly change, it is always best to check with the Graduate School Office (YONG 170), the Computer Science Graduate Office ( LWSN 1137), and the Dean of Students Office (SCHL 230). History This guide has a long and distinguished history, dating back to 1979 when a CS Graduate Guide was founded by Dave Schrader, Eric Dittert, and Bob Brown. Through hard research, diligent work, and ideas stolen from similar guides at other schools, they created an impressively useful document for generations of new students. For a time, it was shared with the EE department, who made additional improvements. Since then, the Graduate Guide has survived countless ordeals, including conversion from the old CDC machines to VAXen and Sequents, departments moving to new buildings, major surgery (both additions and removals) to all sections, and finally, in 1993, conversion to LaTeX. In the Summer of 2007, the guide was ported to the GSB wiki. The list of people who have helped over the years is far too long to list in its entirety, but includes many students, professors, and department secretaries. Some of the people who have contributed the most in recent years include: Nate Andrysco Housing If you do not have any housing by the first week of the semester, run, do not walk, to the Dean of Students Office in Schleman Hall to obtain the Off Campus Housing listing and advice on obtaining a place to live. They have a copy that you can look at in the office, or you can buy a copy to take with you for a small sum. If you have access to a computer, then you can also search for off campus housing through Purdue's Student Services INFOrmation online. To access SSINFO, visit http://www.ssinfo.purdue.edu/ . The Off Campus Housing section is located in the “General” part of the main menu. Also check the Exponent, the Journal and Courier, and http://www.boilerapartments.com for housing ads and roommate classifieds. If you're an international student, you may want to contact ISS and/or your country's student organization for help. Assuming that you already have obtained housing for your first term but are interested in other options for the future, we can make the following observations on the housing situation: The on-campus housing problem is quite acute. The dorms are always filled. Grad students often live in one of the Grad Houses or in Purdue Village. Despite their labels, the Young and Hawkins Grad Houses contain both undergraduates and grad students. The only requirement to be a resident is to be 21 years of age or older. If you wish to live in Purdue Village (PV), you should apply ASAP . Purdue Village, which used to be only for married students (and sometimes is still called Married Student Housing), does allow single students. Spots in PV tend to fill up fast. There are a numerous student apartment complexes all around campus and many old houses that have been divided into multiple living units. The apartments right around campus tend to be leased in January and February for the following fall semester, so start your search early in the spring for your fall housing. In addition, if you have a group of friends that you can live with, you can usually find an older house for rent if you check the classifieds. One other resource available to grad students is the Purdue Research Foundation (PRF), which has many old houses around campus for rent. Unfortunately for undergrads, PRF will only rent to faculty and grad students. Apartments within walking distance of campus tend to be quite expensive but if you have transportation, there are numerous apartment complexes all over the Lafayette area that are quite reasonable. If you don't have a car, you can see if the bus line runs nearby. Of course, you always run a risk if you depend heavily on the buses. One more thing to consider when deciding on off-campus housing is related to restrictions on obtaining parking permits. The University will not sell you a parking permit if you live too close to campus. If you plan on driving to campus, make sure you live far enough away to get a university parking permit. Utilities If you are moving into an apartment or house, you will probably need to hook up some utilities. When you sign a lease, check with the landlord to see what utilities are not included in the rent. Then a few days before you move in to your new domicile, call the utility companies to hook up the necessary utilities. Many of the utility companies will demand a deposit for new service if you did not have an account with them previously. Utility 463-5531 742-8404 The City of West Lafayette provides curb-side service for recycling and garbage pickup only for houses with four units or less. If you live in a complex or house with more than four units then a private contractor must be hired for garbage disposal. Labeled bins are provided for anyone wishing to drop-off recyclable materials at 705 S. River Road. There are also bins for recyclable materials around Purdue Village. For more information please call the Street Department at 775-5242. Books There are a number of bookstores around campus that will be happy to take your life savings in exchange for a text book. University Book Store's main location is across the street from the Union at 360 W. State Street. University Bookstore is the original home of Purdue Pete. The Book Store used Purdue Pete for their logo, and the University later adopted him as the Purdue Mascot. University Book Store also has a smaller branch across from Mackey Arena at 720 Northwestern Avenue. Follett's Bookstore has three locations, 1400 W. State Street in Purdue West, 308 W. State Street in The Village, and 714 Northwestern Avenue across from Lambert Fieldhouse. Name Northwestern Ave 743-9432 Text books are sometimes held on reserve in the Undergrad Library or the Math Library. A few CS text books are also available in the ACM/ UPE CS Student Library located in the Undergraduate Resource Center, CS G14. Also check the newsgroup purdue.forsale.books for text books. Parking Parking at Purdue can be a nightmare. Public parking near campus is in very short supply, and permit parking isn't much better. The largest public parking lot is behind the Stadium, quite a hike from the CS building. A, B, and C parking permits allow you to park on campus. A and B parking permits are for faculty and three-quarter time staff only, so students are normally limited to C parking permits. A C parking permit allows you to park in C parking places, which are marked by red signs. Unfortunately, the C parking places are generally not close to the CS building with most of the C parking in a lot off State Street by the dorms. To obtain a C parking permit, you must prove that you live more than 1.5 miles from campus (what they call walking distance). A C permit costs roughly $60. C Garage permits are also availible. These allow you to park at the top of a specific parking garage. Wood St., Marsteller St., and Grant St. garages have CG permits availible. The cost for one is $200. Parking permit stickers are are sold at the Campus Visitor's Center on the first floor of the Northwestern Avenue Parking Garage, which is across the street from the MSEE Building. You need to take your driver's license and a copy of your lease with you. If you drive but don't buy a permit, there is public street parking near the building on some of the side streets. However, these spaces are generally all gone by 8:30 am daily and most have a 3 hour time limit, for two reasons: Many folks forget about this time limit, and their vehicles become easy prey for West Lafayette police who roam about with ticket pads armed and ready. The pointless shuffling of vehicles from one parking spot to another amuses the neighborhood children. Note that cars are time-stamped with a swatch of chalk on one of the rear tires so that the time they've been parked in one spot is known, and, therefore, the time that they're eligible for ticketing is known. Also note that the chalk comes off rather easily (especially when water is applied from a spray bottle, hint, hint). Parking at night is no problem. All A, B, and C spots are open after 5 pm and on weekends. Also, never park in a 24 hour reserved spot; you will be ticketed and towed. Residence hall parking permits are available to people living in Grad Houses or the Dorms. Stop by the Grad House or Dorm main office to inquire about permits, and check early since the number of residence hall permits is limited. One final note for students living in Purdue Village, you should stop by the PV office on Nimitz Drive after obtaining your Purdue permit in order to get a PV permit. It's free and allows you to park your car near your apartment. Arriving on Campus This section presents, roughly, a day-by-day outline of some of what you should do in your first week on campus. See the sections following for more detailed information. Day 1-2 Select courses you want to take if you have not already done so. Fill out a registration form (available in LWSN 1137) and get your advisor's signature on it. Ask Amy Ingram ( LWSN 1137) to check it. Take your completed form to the Registrar's Office (basement of Hovde). Day 3 Go to Room 130 in the Purdue Memorial Union to get your student ID card. You might want to start a Boiler Express account. This account makes your PUID a campus debit card. Boiler Express is accepted at most eateries and other places on campus. Sometime During First Week If you are athletic, go to the Recreational Sports Center and get a locker (see the section on the RSC later in this guide). If you have a Purdue University or department assistantship or a fellowship, get to know Candace Walters in LWSN 2116H by picking up your keys. Then wait for your staff I.D. card to appear in your mailbox with your first pay stub. This card is not the same as your student I.D., and it is good for a 10% discount at the bookstores. If you can't wait for the I.D. card, ask for a letter of authentication from Amy Ingram in LWSN 1137, and take it to the University Bookstore on the corner of State and Grant to get a book discount card. Pick up free documents about various things around Purdue, available in the police station (on traffic regulations), from the Dean of Students Office in Schleman Hall 207, on the shelves in the middle of the main hallway of Stewart Center, and at the information desk in the main entrance of the Memorial Union (of particular interest here may be the CityBus schedules, if you plan to use public transportation). If you are an International Student, you should have gone through the orientation for International Students. If not, report to the ISS in Schleman Hall 136 as soon as possible. If you dont have a career account yet, visit http://www.purdue.edu/securepurdue/careeraccount/ for information on how to get one. You need this account for access to Information Technology at Purdue's Computer Labs and for your @purdue.edu email address, and hence you should get it as soon as possible. Acronyms During your first few weeks here at Purdue, you'll encounter many new acronyms and buzzwords. Here is a list of those used most frequently. ACM - Association for Computing Machinery. An international organization for computer scientists. Locally, ACM refers to the student ACM chapter which performs numerous services for the students. BOSO - Business Office for Student Organizations. This is the office that handles the money and some other matters related to official student organizations such as ACM and UPE . Hopefully, you will not have to deal with them unless you are an officer in a student organization in campus. Co-Rec - See RSC. ECN - Engineering Computer Network. ECN is the name given to the extensive network of machines maintained by the engineering school. ITaP - Information Technology at Purdue; this is the university group that operates and maintains the main university computer system. LAEB - Liberal Arts and Education Building. This is an old name for the large building to the south of the CS building, which is now called Beering Hall. Many people still call it LAEB, which can be confusing as this is not somthing you will find on any map. All buildings in the Purdue Campus have esoteric acronyms assigned to them, and by which they are referred to. Consult the map and list at the end of this guide for the complete reference. PMU - Purdue Memorial Union. The building next to Stewart Center. See the section about it on page . PUCC - Purdue University Computing Center. PUCC is the former name for ITaP; again, you will still see this acronym in use from time to time. RSC - Recreational Sports Center. This is one of Purdue's main sports facilities, where you can go practice a large number of sports and physical activities. In 1998 it was officially renamed the Recreational Sports Center, but many people still call it the Co-Rec. UPE - Upsilon Pi Epsilon. It is the international Computer Sciences Honor organization, whose objectives are to recognize and promote scholastic achievement and original investigation in the computer sciences. There is a UPE chapter at Purdue. Membership is by invitation only. Using Campus Phones During the 1996-1997 school term, General Telephone (GTE) installed a new, modern telephone system. That is what the building across University Ave. from Beering was built for. The new phone system is all digital, and allows computers to attach to the campus backbone from any office. The new system officially went on-line during the 1996 spring semester. To call another number on campus, dial just the last 5 digits. To call an off-campus number, dial 7, then dial the number. If you want to place a long distance call , you first dial 7 + 0 + area code + number. You will be given an opportunity to enter a calling card number. If you want to make a collect call or bill the call to a third party, hit 0 to get an AT&T operator. Toll-free calls can be made from any phone on campus by dialing 7-1-800-xxx-xxxx or 7-1-888-xxx-xxxx. Should you need information, you can talk to Purdue information by dialing 0. From off-campus, Purdue information is 494-4600. For emergencies, dial 911 from any campus phone. To place a three-way call, briefly touch the cradle switch on your phone (hanging up the phone for under a second) or press the flash button if your phone has one. You can then dial your third party and touch the cradle switch again to have all three parties on the line. Due to this, when hanging up the phone between calls, you must hang it up for at least two seconds. Important Phone Numbers Call 911 for all emergencies. Medical Services 427-RAPE (7273) (Available 24 hours) Additional Links History In case you didn't know, Purdue's CS department is the oldest in the country, formally authorized in October 1962. Dr. Sam Conte was the first department head, serving until July 1979, when Dr. Peter Denning took over. Dr. Denning took a position with NASA in June, 1983 at which point Dr. John Rice became department head. After 13 years of distinguished service, Dr. Rice stepped down and returned to teaching. He was succeeded by Dr. Ahmed Sameh who came aboard during the 1996-1997 academic school year. Dr. Susanne Hambrusch, was appointed in the year 2002 and held the position until the summer of 2007. At that point in time Aditya Mathur took over as department head. We are also one of the largest and most highly-rated departments in the country. This year the department has about 150 graduate students, about 45 faculty, and more than 600 undergraduate majors. The CS department was originally located in the Math building. In 1985, the CS department moved into a building all to itself. This building was formerly the Memorial Gymnasium. (The Memorial is to a group of Purdue students and alumni who died in a train wreck while traveling to a game). It has been completely renovated to hold us. During the renovation it was rumored that a swimming pool would be left in the basement, but this idea was apparently dropped. Finally, in the fall of 2006, the department moved into our new location, the Lawson Computer Science Building. On March 28, 2003, we celebrated the 40th anniversary of the Purdue Computer Science Department. It was a wonderful event, from recounting the early history of computing and the Computer Science Department, to recollections of people and the good times we had, to a look into what the future holds. For more details and interesting facts please refer to http://www2.cs.purdue.edu/40th/default.htm . Current Research Part of the reason that the department is highly-regarded is that the faculty are active in research, publication, and service to the CS community. It would take pages to describe all the current research projects. Therefore, for reference, the department Annual Reports (which can be found online at http://www.cs.purdue.edu/AnnualReports/ ) contain a summary of current projects. There is a research project for anyone here. There are research centers and institutes specializing in particular topics, a complete list of which is given at http://www.cs.purdue.edu/research/centers/ . A brief decription of the centers is given as follows: The Center for Education and Research in Information Assurance and Security (CERIAS) is currently viewed as one of the world's leading centers for research and education in areas of information security that are crucial to the protection of critical computing and communication infrastructure. CERIAS is unique among such national centers in its multidisciplinary approach to the problems, ranging from purely technical issues (e.g., intrusion detection, network security, etc) to ethical, legal, educational, communicational, linguistic, and economic issues, and the subtle interactions and dependencies among them. CERIAS evolved from the COAST (Computer Operations, Audit, and Security Technologies) lab in 1999, which was a multiple project computer security research laboratory in Purdue's computer science department. For more information please refer to http://www.cerias.purdue.edu/ . Software Engineering Research Center (SERC) is part of the National Science Foundation's Industry/University Cooperative Research Center program. SERC is devoted to software technology, more specifically, investigating the development and assessment of tools and methods for improving productivity and software quality throughout the life cycle. The SERC research program has been structured to improve the management of the software engineering process, the productivity of software engineers, and the quality of software engineering products. SERC began operation in October, 1986. For more information please refer to http://www.cs.purdue.edu/research/serc.html The Indiana Center for Database Systems (ICDS) takes an interdisciplinary approach to solving practical problems in a wide variety of database systems and their applications. Research activities and projects in the center include multimedia databases, data mining, data streaming and sensors, database security and privacy, knowledge bases and web services. The research is applied to areas in digital government, life sciences, healthcare, and defense. A characteristic of the research in the center is that it is practical research, system oriented and high quality. Resources in the center include powerful computing and storage servers. The center infrastructure was enhanced through many grants from several agencies to build a database research infrastructure. For more information please refer to http://www.cs.purdue.edu/icds/ . A complete list of all projects and their areas is given at http://www.cs.purdue.edu/graduate_program/projects.htm . Some of them are as follows: The SoftLab project focuses on the creation of environments, tools and infrastructure needed for building virtual laboratories for Computational Science and Engineering. The Computer Graphics and Visualization Lab located in CS 151 and CS 115 specializes in 3d reconstructions from 2d images, model camera, simulation of September 11 attacks, distance learning and related work The goal of the Network Algorithms and Analysis Laboratory (NAAL) at Purdue is to identify and solve key modeling and algorithmic problems arising in real-world networks including ad hoc networks (especially sensor and P2P networks), the Internet and WWW , biological networks, and social networks. Current research projects include random graph-theoretic approach for protein structure determination, random geometric graph models and algorithms with applications to sensor networks, local distributed algorithms for resource-constrained networks, and models and algorithms for problems arising in Internet and WWW . For more information please refer to http://www.cs.purdue.edu/naal/ . You can find detailed information about research going on in the department at http://www.cs.purdue.edu/research.html . Courses What Should I Take? First, look at the list of courses being offered on the CS Department web site, http://www.cs.purdue.edu/academic_programs/courses/ . If you are a first-year masters students, you will face many choices of classes. The choices for a first-year Ph.D. student are somewhat restricted. Talk to second or third year graduate students. The best place to get information about a course and a professor is from someone who has taken the course, and not neccessarily your advisor or professors in the department. This is probably the most important step in the registration process. Most people find it best to select courses so that their workload is balanced among various types of work: reading, programming, theory, mathematics (calculus, real analysis, linear algebra), etc. Taking two heavy programming courses together is a lot of work, three can be suicidal. There is also the number of course hours to consider. Typical and maximum course loads are shown below. Keep in mind that what is said to be “typical” below may be a lighter or heavier load than what is right for you. If you are a masters candidate, how much of a rush you are in to complete your degree will also be a factor. Taking the maximum number of credit hours in your first semester, however, is probably a recipe for disaster. fellowship or self-supported 9 - 12 hours typical, 18 hours maximum quarter-time assistantship 6 - 12 hours typical, 15 hours maximum half-time assistantship (most TAs) 6 - 9 hours typical, 12 hours maximum half-time research assistantship (most RAs) less than 18 hours, at least 6 hours thesis work full-time research assistantship less than 18 hours, at least 12 hours thesis work A graduate student is classified as a full-time student if he or she is registered for 6 credit hours when funded by an assistantship or 9 credit hours when funded by a fellowship. Masters students need (eventually) to complete 10 three-credit courses, or 8 three-credit courses with a thesis, for their degrees. One of CS 502 or CS 565, one of CS 503 or CS 536, and one of CS 580 or CS 584 are required; the others are chosen by the student. You should get an idea of the courses you might like to take now, but don't bother trying to work out a schedule more than a semester in advance–the actual scheduling of courses (regardless of what the course descriptions say) is quite variable. There are also “topics” courses that are offered each semester, some of which you might find interesting. A 590 topics course is directed study for students who wish to undertake individual reading and study on approved topics. A general topics course is worth three credit hours and at most 2 three-credit 590 courses can be used towards satisfying MS degree requirements. It usually takes three to four semesters to complete the work for a Masters degree. Ph.D. students should schedule carefully to be sure that, by the end of the third semester in the department, they will have passed at least one Qualifying Course Examination in each of these four boxes: Area Software Engineering 510 Course Advice: plan on taking three courses in each of your first two semesters, chosen from the required list above. Taking three (rather than four) courses a semester will allow you to concentrate on passing the four qualifiers. Also remember to try and balance the types of course work for each semester, as we described earlier. Qualifier Advice: even MS students should plan on taking qualifying exams. Should you later decide to switch the the Ph.D. program, having the qualifiers completed will make the transition much easier. Financial Advice: note that late registration or late fee remission can result in a hefty financial penalty (about $200). Make sure to get some sort of schedule in place and your fees paid by the time the first scheduling deadline comes around (typically right at the beginning of the semester). This fine can be assessed even if you don't actually owe money if your schedule is not confirmed, so make sure you finalize your schedule on SSINFO. More information on the courses can be found at http://www.cs.purdue.edu/graduate_program/curriculum/ Course Descriptions About The Different Courses… The following section contains descriptions of CS courses that are offered on the graduate level in our department. It does not include courses offered by other departments (i.e. MATH, EE, STAT, MGMT) that are also available to obtain graduate credit in the M.S. and Ph.D. programs in CS. For transferring credit check with your academic advisor, or with Dr. Gorman. As there are substantial differences among the courses offered in regard to the amount and type of work for assignments, projects, in-class presentations, term papers, and exams, we are presenting a table that shows the major differences among these courses. The info given is mostly drawn from a survey among grad students in our department in Spring 1993, although some additions have been made for courses which were not included in the 1993 survey. Although some of the courses have changed over the years, this list will give you a rough idea of the type of workload to expect. However, course contents and workload depend considerably on the professor who teaches the course. The same number of programming assignments for two courses does not necessarily indicate a comparable effort in writing the code. Therefore, nothing presented here should be taken literally, only as an outline. Do not be afraid to talk to the professor who will teach the course and ask him more detailed information. Not all courses are offered every semester. Check with the bulletin board across from CS 172, or http://www.cs.purdue.edu/acad-info/ . Furthermore, it is not our purpose to show you a way to a degree at Purdue with the least possible effort, but to give you the chance to balance your course load for each semester according to your interests and degree program requirements. The official prerequisites listed on the course pages are not completely accurate in terms of what you really need. The survey disclosed that unstated prerequisites for nearly every course, except theory courses, are a good understanding of the C programming language, the UNIX Operating System, and the X Window System. It is not absolutely necessary to know these to do well in every course, but knowing them can greatly increase your efficiency. A comment nearly everyone made at some point was: ``The course is hard and requires lots of work…but in the end it's worth it.'' So, you can look forward to a lot of pain during the semester, and a very good feeling afterwards. Course Multimedia Networking and Operating Systems written(7), project(3), presentation(3) Registering The course-request forms are on the table in front of Amy Ingram in LWSN 1137, along with some instructions for filling out the top portion. Add the courses you want, get the form signed by your advisor, and take the form back to LWSN 1137. Amy Ingram will either keep of all it and take care of your registration (this happens before semester begins), or keep the yellow copy and instruct you to take the white copy to the registrar (This happens during the semester). Dr. Gorman sends reminders regarding important scheduling dates and process every semester. The Registrar’s Office is in the lowest level of Hovde Hall, Room 45. Take your white copy and wait in line, doing what the signs tell you to do. Your requests will be typed into the University’s computer system on the spot, but the actual registration is an overnight batch job. Your course schedule and invoice can be picked up the next day at the same place. Once you have your invoice, you can pay (in cash) at the Bursar’s Office teller windows, or (by check) at the Bursar’s drop box. The schedule you pick up may not have all the courses you requested. Over-full courses and other problems may not be detected when your request is typed in, but only when the overnight registration job runs. If you are requesting very popular courses, it can be a good idea to include second choices on your original course request. If you didn’t do that, you can submit another request form to add other classes. You will have another overnight wait to get your revised schedule and invoice. If you decide to add or drop a course after your registration, you must fill out an “ADD/DROP” form (the very same form you used to register), available in room LWSN 1137. Depending on when you do this, you may need your advisor’s signature and/or instructor’s signature. Directions are on the back of the form. If you are paying for your education with some loan money, there is an additional step or two to the process, at least involving the infamous Window M in Hovde. This is where you sign your loan check(s) and have your account with the University credited. You may now be able to arrange direct deposit and avoid standing in line for checks. Ask questions at the information desk in the lower level of Hovde if things aren’t obvious when it comes time to show the money Ph.D. The basic requirements for getting a Ph.D. at Purdue are fairly straightforward. This section is a quick overview of what needs to be done to satisfy those requirements. For more information, we suggest talking to older grad students (we've all been through at least part of this stuff) and professors. In a nutshell, you begin by satisfying the English proficiency requirements if you are not a native speaker of English. You do the requisite number of courses, taking care to do the proper core courses. You pass the quals, find an advisor, dream up a problem, take a prelim, solve the problem, undergo a public defense, wear a black robe with a blue hood, have your photograph taken with assorted luminaries at the Hall of Music, and then ride into the blue yonder. Allow us to elaborate… Core Courses The phrase “core courses” used to refer to seven specific courses every Ph.D. candidate was required to take. Starting with the Fall of 1999, you get some latitude in choosing those seven courses. They will be the four you choose for your qualifying course examinations, which already cover four different areas, plus three more eligible courses that you choose. At least one of these must be in another area, so that your seven core courses represent at least five areas. The only official list of eligible courses is the one at http://www.cs.purdue.edu/grad-info/gradinfo/qual.html . You should try to take these courses as early in your grad student career as possible, to prepare for the qualifying exams. Qualifiers These are the exams that decide if you are capable of doing a Ph.D., or at least so the department claims. The format has recently been revised, so some older graduate students may not be completely familiar with the new process. Dr. Gorman is a definitive source for information. The Qualifying Exams (usually known as Qual 1s) are tests taken in addition to a core course's final examination (it may be a separate exam, or additional problems on the final examination). You must pass these exams in four courses, in the first three semesters of your graduate work (so at least four of the courses you take in your first three semesters must be qual courses). The exams are usually graded within two weeks. The Graduate Committee then meets in a smoke-filled room, studies the entrails of a farm herbivore (or uses another equally scientific, inscrutable, and never really disclosed method) and decides who passes. The last step is sometimes delayed, resulting in extra secretion of HCl in the duodenum of the candidates. Usually, a student will pass or fail outright, but sometimes students are asked to take an additional oral or written exam in one of the areas they were weak in. There is no set percentage of students that pass. The key to passing Qual 1s is studying. Hard. The best way to study is to do lots of problems, and then do some more. When you get tired of this and want to take a break, do some MORE problems. Repeat this the last two months of a course. The best source of problems is old qualifiers, copies of which (back to about 1987) can be obtained from Amy Ingram (CS 102) and in the Math Library on the 3rd floor of Math Building. Some old grad students have pre-worked sets of old qualifiers and other tests (midterms and finals). There are now reading lists available for all of the classes; see Amy Ingram for these. Following the Qual 1s, you will have two semesters to pass the second stage Qualifying Exam, or Qual 2. The Qual 2 is currently an oral examination, for which you will be asked to read a number of important papers in your chosen area of research and then discuss their finer points with a committee of examining professors. Qual 2s seem to be a widely varying and often unique experience, so you might want to talk to a few post-Qual students and your advisor to get a feel for what to expect in your area. If you pass quals, you've leaped the highest hurdle on the way to that coveted sheepskin. Advisor and Plan of Study After passing Quals, get a thesis advisor (if you don't already have one). This will be the person overseeing your research while you work on your dissertation. In other words, a thesis advisor is a combination friend, co-worker, guru, and mother/father figure. He or she will therefore be one of the more important people in your life for the next couple of years, so choose carefully. Desirable traits in an advisor include: Easy for you to get along with Interested in the same area(s) you are Will not be leaving in the next couple of years (that you can tell) Can supervise your work closely (if you like that) Won't pressure you (if you want it that way) (Optional) Has grant money to support you Usually, you talk to several professors in your area before making a decision. It is possible to change advisors after making your decision, but it is not generally recommended because it tends to add a year to the time you spend here. Once you have an advisor, your next job is to form the rest of your advisory committee. These will be the people who read your thesis, point out flaws, and eventually decide whether you have done Ph.D.-caliber work. As such, they are important people in your education. You and your advisor find (at least) two other professors interested in your area to be on this committee, one of which should be a senior faculty member. About the time you are doing this, you should also file a Plan of Study, an official document telling the administration what classes you have taken, what courses you plan to take, your area of interest, and other vital information. See Amy Ingram for the form. Normally, you should find an advisor and file the plan of study by the end of the semester after you pass Quals. The plan must include at least five more courses (in addition to the core seven) that are not independent studies or seminars. Thesis Now that you've demonstrated your aptitude at passing hard tests, and thus qualified yourself for research work, you have to thrash about, reading landmark papers from your area, trying to find a thesis topic. This is probably the second most difficult step in the process (the most difficult is, of course, passing Quals). Remember that your goal at this point is to find a topic that you can learn to do research on; that's what the degree process is about. The topic doesn't have to be earth-shattering; in fact, you'll probably get out much more quickly if it isn't. Save the good stuff for when you're on your own trying to get grants and such. Also, consider that by the time you get done with your thesis, you will be eating, sleeping, living and breathing your topic. Try to pick something that you can survive becoming incredibly intimate with for 12 to 24 months; also, by the time you're done, you'll probably be burned out on the topic, so pick something you won't regret not working on for some time after you've graduated. Once you've figured out exactly what it is that you're going to research, take your Preliminary Examination (usually known as Prelims). The party line on this exam is that it tests the student's competence in a research area and readiness for research on some specific problem. In practice, it is a public thesis proposal, given so that your committee can see what you've been up to, where you're headed, and give constructive criticism. The Graduate Committee will appoint one extra member to your advisory committee for this exam, presumably to keep everyone honest. Usually, this is given about one year after Quals, after you get your first results on your thesis topic. Note, however, that the official rule is that Prelims must be taken by the end of the third semester following the one in which the student passes the qualifying exam and at least two semesters before the examination on the dissertation. Now, work like crazy, trying to prove whatever it is that you're trying to prove. Build, measure, tear down, read, build some more, and conclude. Write it all down in a nice form; we'll call that your dissertation. Hope no one else is doing exactly the same thing at another university; if they are, and manage to publish their results before you, even by one week, you're probably out of luck, and have to start all over again on a new topic. Get your committee to agree that they like your dissertation. Then you have to make it satisfy the department's rules for Thesis Format, which define what a CS dissertation must look like, dealing with margins, figures, captions, etc. This used to be set by the University, but recently control has been given to each department. You can find the rules in http://www.cs.purdue.edu/acad-info/thesis.format . Fortunately, there are macro packages for LATEX (the most-used typesetting system in the department) that do most of the nitty-gritty stuff for you. There may also be a format file for Word for Windows, if for some incomprehensible reason you want to subject yourself to that. Finally, schedule a final defense. This is a public oral exam before your committee and anyone else that cares to come; it is where you present what you've done for the past few years. It's also the last chance for people to pick your work apart and point out flaws; if there are some major ones, you may have to go back and cover them and schedule another defense (ouch). Hopefully, your committee will have pointed them out before the defense, so you have all the answers right at your fingertips. If you've done all your work, this should be a breeze. Types Most people are funded by either a Teaching Assistantship (TA), a Research Assistantship (RA), or a Fellowship. Some people have sources of funding outside of these three types, but it is uncommon. To be considered a “full-time” student, you must register a certain amount of hours depending on your type of funding. TAs and RAs need to have 6 credit hours, while Fellows need 9. Being considered a full-time student has many benefits that include your ability to receive student health insurance, government loans, etc. Teaching Assistantship Most students enter the department with this type of funding. If you are going to be a teaching assistant, you are probably wondering just what your duties will be. Your teaching assignment will probably fit into one of the following three categories: A recitation instructor teaches recitation sections which normally consist of 20-30 students. The class will also have other lecture sections that are taught by the professor in charge of the course. A lab instructor teaches lab sections which normally consist of 15-25 students. The class will also have other lecture sections that are taught by the professor in charge of the course. A grader grades assignments, projects, and possibly exams for a course that is taught by a professor or another TA. It is very rare that a teaching assistant is the sole instructor for a course, but it has happened in the past. Teaching assignments are often not finalized until the week before classes begin. If you did not receive your teaching assignment before arriving at Purdue, see Amy Ingram or Dr. Gorman in LWSN 1137 to pick up your teaching assistant packet. Once you have learned your assignment, contact the supervisor of the course as soon as possible. Also, all new teaching assistants must attend ``training sessions'' during the week before classes. These sessions will explain nearly everything you need to know about being a TA. As a TA, you will be responsible for holding office hours, usually at least three hours a week. If your office hours schedule looks like a typical class schedule (e.g., MWF 1:30-2:30), you risk shutting out students who happen to have a class in that slot. It is much better to make your office hours schedule somewhat irregular. You also will be responsible for maintaining your grades. Most people use Doug Comer's grader program, which is available on the CS network. If you are financially supported by the department (TA, RA, grader) and need supplies for your work, they can be obtained in the mail room, LWSN 1151. The secretaries maintain a supply of paper, transparencies, manila folders, tape, pens, and pencils for instructors' and researchers' use. You may also get a copy of the text for the course that you are teaching from Amy Ingram in LWSN 1137. Depending on your temperament, teaching can either be great fun or a terrible burden. On the positive side, you get paid for the work, you get to meet a lot of new people, and you get to see your students learning and share in their learning process. On the negative side, your students constantly pester you for information and answers, especially before an exam or the due date of a big project. Also, be assured that students will not confine requests for assistance to your office hours. If you have any problems with your assignment, see the course supervisor or Dr. Gorman. Research Assistantship These are given to you by a professor who has procurred funding from, typically, an outside source such as a government agency (e.g. NSF) or a corporation. Ideally, your RA will support work that interests you and work that will contribute toward your Master's or Ph.D. thesis. Fellowship Computer Science Department The Computer Sciences Department has lots of machines; most of them you cannot and will not be using, unless you are involved with a particular project or with the facilities staff. In general, undergrad accounts are on lore, grad students’ and secretaries’ accounts are on ector, while faculty accounts are on arthur. Accounts on the main CS machines are available to faculty, Ph.D. students who have passed qualifiers and are doing research, and students engaged in writing software for the CS machines (often as a CS590 or CS690 independent study course). Because the machines all run NFS (Network File System), files on any machine can be read from any other, so accounts on all machines are roughly equivalent except for response times. The exception to this is the ugrad (undergrad) group which is all accounts on lore and the machines in CS G56, which can only access each other. All graduate students get accounts on ector.cs. Workstations are divided among the various research project labs and faculty offices. In general, a workstation in a lab belongs to the project there and is not available to students not connected with the project. (Workstations in the XINU lab are used for CS503 and CS636 classes.) If you’re interested in finding out more, talk to Ron Castongia (the computing facilities manager). If you’re interested in actually working with the hardware, your best bet is probably to get involved with the project that owns the machine. For more information regarding the facilities please efer to http://www.cs.purdue.edu/help/CSWelcome/ . The Facilities Staff is responsible for the continued smooth operation of the Department’s equipment. This includes just about anything and everything; it certainly deals with software problems and administrative details. Ron Castongia, the computing facilities manager, is the fearless leader of this merry band. His office is in CS 207. There are two real systems administrators (that is to say, they are full-time University staff): Dan Trinkle and Steve Plite. Dan and Steve live in room 264 of the CS building when they’re not running around putting out fires. Candace Walters is in charge of creating accounts. We also have two full-time hardware technicians, who fix hardware not supported by ITaP or a vendor. They go by the names of Mike Matuliak and Brian Board. They do not get involved with software support, but they are always available for questions and problems concerning machines and printers in the CS department. They inhabit Room 279. There is also a group of people in charge of maintaining non-Unix (Windows and Macintosh) machines. The full time windows care takers are Kip Granson and Nathan Heck, who live in Room 271 and Room 275. Finally, Nick Hirschberg is the department’s web master. He is also in Room 264. The staff will do all they can to help you use the system more efficiently, but sometimes you won’t be able to find any of them! In this case, your best bet is to try to find a fellow student who’s been around for a while, or just ask the person at the terminal next to you. If this doesn’t help, just type trouble at a UNIX prompt to file a trouble report (which can be used for any system related problem or question). In general, everyone tries to be as helpful as possible; it’s just that some people are better informed than others. ITaP ITaP (Information Technology at Purdue) serves the entire university community (excluding administration). This includes Krannert (business school), CPT (computer technology), Computer Sciences, and other divisions of the University. ITaP provides many varieties of computer systems, and administers several public computer labs. You might also have access to mentor.cc, a SparcServer for doing course work in CS courses. The other SparcServer, expert.cc, is now reserved for personal accounts. For more in-depth information, check the schedule of ITaP short courses. These courses are taught by ITaP staff members and run one to six sessions. Usually they are given in the evening to avoid conflicts with classes or other activities. These courses give you a chance to ask specific questions and increase your knowledge about certain topics. Schedules appear in the ITaP Newsletter and are posted on various bulletin boards. For more information about courses, please visit http://http://www.itap.purdue.edu/training/index.cfm . Another very important computing resource at Purdue is the Engineering Computing Network (ECN). The ECN serves the Schools of Engineering with computing facilities. Since a lot of collaboration occurs between CS and the Engineering departments, you will probably at some point work with machines that belong to the ECN. GSB The Computer Science Graduate Student Board is the liason between the department administration and its graduate students. The Graduate Student Board (aka GSB ) is also affiliated with the Purdue Graduate Student Government. The board organizes technical talks, pizza parties, summer picnics, bowling nights, movie nights, participates in the graduate and undergraduate committees, and the faculty search process. To learn more about the Graduate Student Board, visit http://www.cs.purdue.edu/gsb . ACM The International Association for Computing Machinery is an international professional and educational organization dedicated to advancing the art, science, engineering, and application of information technology. The local chapter is open to all Purdue students interested in the field of Computer Science. The goal of the local student chapter is to aid and support student academic, professional, and social development. ACM supports a number of developmental activities as well as social events throughout the year. ACM sponsors the orientation program for graduate students, the Computer Science fall picnic, programming contests, monthly pizza parties, and guest lecturers. ACM also compiles and distributes the Computer Science Resume Book. 2004 TopCoder Open winner Tomek Czajka, volunteered to teach undergraduate students the tricks of winning programming contests. Tomek opened his bag of programming secrets Thursday, February 24, 2005 to anyone who wanted to join. He will continue to teach undergraduates how to code under time constraints, with the long term goal of these training sessions being to have fun and to train a team of two for the ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest. Be sure to catch a training session to learn from a champ. Email [email protected] to receive an account to be added to the mailing list. Early in the fall semester, ACM invites Computer Science students to submit resumes which are compiled into a book. The Resume Book is distributed to any company willing to donate a nominal sum. Last year over 100 students participated and over 60 companies donated. The Resume Book sale is ACM's main fund raiser and a great way for students to distribute their resumes to potential employers. Dr. Tim Korb is the ACM faculty advisor, and the joint ACM/ UPE office is located in CS G47. ACM is always looking for new members with new ideas. Stop by the Fall ACM Callout to see what is planned for the school year or drop by the office. To learn more about Purdue ACM, visit http://www.cs.purdue.edu/acm . CSWN The Computer Science Women's Network (CSWN) is an organization at Purdue University consisting of people (both students and staff) who are dedicated to helping women in the field of computer science. The leadership team that organizes most activities is made up of female students who want to reach out and help all of the women in CS. CSWN organizes different activities meant to encourage young women to meet one another and also learn more about their chosen field of study. These activities range from picnics to technical talks to helping students find tutors if they are needed. Their goal is to encourage women in computer science to stay in the field and prosper. For information, contact the faculty advisor, Barbara Clark ([email protected]) or look at the CSWN web site ( http://www.cs.purdue.edu/cswn ). Upsilon Pi Epsilon Upsilon Pi Epsilon is an honor society founded in 1967 to recognize scholarship and professionalism in the Computing Sciences. The Purdue chapter of UPE was established in 1992. The local chapter of UPE sponsors a number of activites, including the annual CS Awards Banquet. One of the goals of the local chapter of UPE is to foster communication and the exchange of information within the Computer Science community at Purdue. Membership is by invitation only, based on scholarly and professional accomplishments in the Computer Sciences. Candidates for membership must also meet minimum GPA and course hours requirements. In the spring semester, qualified juniors, seniors, and graduate students are invited to join. Receiving an offer of membership is quite an honor. Dr. Samuel Wagstaff is the UPE faculty advisor, and the joint ACM/ UPE office is located in CS G47. To learn more about the local UPE chapter, visit http://www.cs.purdue.edu/upe . USB The undergraduate student board is the liason between undergraduate students and the department administration. For more information, visit http://www.cs.purdue.edu/usb . Top Coder Purdue is the home of Tomek Czajka - the top coder. Tomek has started training classes for ACM regional programming contests. Traditionally, our team has done fairly well at this contest. Top teams at the Regional Contest are invited to compete in the Nationals. Since the Nationals started around 1980, Purdue has been there eight times, taking second place three times. The team is made up of three programmers, plus an alternate, and usually consists of both graduate and undergraduate students. The object of the game is to write programs which solve some number of problems (correctly) as quickly as possible. Programming languages are limited to a subset of FORTRAN, Pascal, and C/C++. Rules and format vary from year to year. If you love writing quick-and-dirty code, working under unrealistic deadlines, and tearing your hair out, this is your kind of contest. Please mail Tomek at czajkat@cs for more information. Colloquia & Speakers Some of the biggest names in computing will visit Purdue while you are here. Some of the visitors are big-names-to-be. When they visit, you want to attend these talks. Some will be boring, some will be incomprehensible, but they will give you a view of computing and current research that you probably can't get any other way. You might even get an idea for a research topic from the talk. The current faculty sometimes give talks, including CS590 and CS690 seminars. Again, this is a good way to get exposure to some interesting research and faculty here at Purdue. Although you may wonder about it sometimes, the CS faculty here at Purdue is one of the best in the country. Take advantage of your time here to hear what they think is interesting. If you are planning on getting a Ph.D. here, you probably also want to attend Ph.D. prelim and defense talks by other students. This is the best way to find out what is expected for a Ph.D. degree, and to see what kinds of topics are of current interest. It is also a good way to get some insight into potential advisors. If a faculty search is on for the year, there will be lots of faculty candidate talks in the spring semester. Attendance at these talks is beneficial both to you and the department. The department takes into consideration feedback from students when making a hiring decision, so please attend these talks and give your feedback to a GSB representative after candidate-student meetings which will be announced at least a week in advance. Departmental Social Events In approximate order of appearance, the big departmental social functions are: Deparment BBQ - In the beginning of the fall semester the department organizes a barbecue on the CS lawns in front of the CS building to welcome and socialize with old and new CS faculty, graduate students, and staff. There is a variety of food and games like frisbee and badminton. For date and time please refer to the CS calendar at http://www.cs.purdue.edu/calendar/ . Employee Appreciation Social - a semi-formal affair not to be missed, although it does not happen every year. This is about the only time that you can see faculty members swinging to the music. There is general merriment, and yes, dinner! Awards Banquet - held in April for recognizing the many achievements and contributions of members of the CS Department. The Outstanding Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, and Senior Awards and the Outstanding Instructor, Teaching Assistant and Staff Member Awards are presented and a great buffet is consumed. An invited distinguished speaker completes the evening with a (usually) very interesting talk. Starting with the 2006-2007 school year, the department funded a weekly social hour. Each week a new host, either a an organization, research lab, or CS administrative office, bought food and beverage for everybody to enjoy while they mingled. These occur on Friday at 3 PM. GSB Events The GSB hosts numerous events for graduate students each year. These include pizza socials, bowling, BBQs, and Q&As with faculty (over topics like getting an academic job, whats going on in the department, etc.). link to gsb events page Introduction The following article, “Look at Purdue” by Arthur Utay, appeared several years back in the Exponent and is reprinted with the Exponent's and the author's permission. Purdue University, located in West Lafayette, 60 miles northwest of Indianapolis, is a school renowned for its academics - and conservatism. The academics of this “land-grant”, public institution are well-known, with strong departments in engineering, agriculture, pharmacy and veterinary science. Especially respected are the engineering schools, which are continually highly ranked and heavily recruited by industry; and the agriculture school which advises and consults numerous agencies in government and industry, in addition to performing basic research to improve farm technology. Courses at the upper class levels in most curricula are taught by professors. Freshman lectures are led by professors and are often accompanied by smaller “recitations” taught by teaching assistants. The campus is ideally suited for half the student population of 30,000 it now supports. The strain on facilities necessitates the class day to stretch from 7:30 a.m. to 5:20 p.m. during the week, with Saturday classes from 7:30 a.m. to 12:20 p.m. Night classes also exist for some courses as do night exams for freshman and some upper class courses. The student body is 75 percent “home-grown” Hoosiers, with the remainder composed of students representing all 50 states and 37 foreign countries. The ratio of guys to girls has been approaching unity in recent years with a current proportion of about 1.5:1. With all the diversity of the student body, however, the attitude here is one of general apathy towards campus, national, and international issues. Almost half the student body lives off campus, with the dorms housing about 12,000 students, and the Greek and Co-Op systems sheltering under 5000 students. Of the three housing options, the residence halls are the least admired. Purdue still has restricted visitation hours for men and women in its dorm system, with men allowed in women's living areas (and vice versa) only between the hours of 12:30 to 11:30 p.m. Monday through Thursday. The weekend hours are extended to 1:30 a.m. on Friday and Saturday, with a corresponding rollback of the morning hours to 10:30 a.m. on Saturday and Sunday. Visitation is heavily enforced on the female side by matrons who guard the entrances after hours, and by the counseling staff which “writes up” offenders. Sanctions against the offenders by the dorm or Dean of Students may result. Seven of the thirteen dorms are co-ed; however, this means only that meals are eaten with members of the opposite sex. Living areas for males and females are in separate buildings. The administration has fought successfully against open-visitation proposals, claiming alumni support and academic integrity as reasons to maintain the status quo. Greek life is big on campus - at least for Greeks. Many sororities are as strict as the dorms, but fraternities are largely unsupervised. Forty seven frats and twenty five sororities have houses here, and a general animosity between dormies and Greeks exists, as can be evidenced by the annual scuffles on the opinion page of the Purdue Exponent. Off-campus housing is popular, although some of the older sections of West Lafayette have been termed ``slums'' by locals. Even with declining (sic) enrollments, off-campus housing is tight, and apartment hunting season begins around spring break. Usually the lease goes for 12 months starting from June or August. If you don't plan on being on campus during summer time, subleasing apartments is a popular trend. No “college town” atmosphere exists here, as the land around the University is almost exclusively residential with only a few eateries at opposite ends of the campus. About six miles away, on the U.S. 52 bypass, almost every national franchise is available, as are a few places a half mile east of the campus on the “Levee.” There are a few bars and alcohol stores in West Lafayette area, though a recent crackdown on underage drinking has resulted in the only under-21 drinkers being those with false IDs. Parties are mostly off-campus or at frats since restrictions against alcohol consumption are rarely, if ever, enforced. Some parties happen in dorms, but only behind closed doors so as not to attract the attention of the counseling staff. Drug busts occur whenever authorities are aware of their (sic) presence, regardless of location. Dormies are especially vulnerable due to the presence of counselors. Frequent concert appearances by top name groups draw many students, as do numerous films shown on campus each week. Students are fanatical supporters of Boilermaker football and basketball teams, selling out almost every home game. Grand Prix, an annual go-cart race is a popular student attraction, as are the evangelists who entertain students on the malls when the weather becomes warm. Editor's note: Total enrollment on the West Lafayette campus, as of fall 2003, is close to 39,000, with 59 percent male and 41 percent female students, who come from 50 states and 126 foreign countries. 59 percent of undergraduates in West Lafayette campus are from Indiana. 35 percent of all students live in the 15 on-campus housing units; 18 percent of the undergraduate students are members of the 50 fraternities and 28 sororities on campus. The visiting hours in the dorms have been extended to more reasonable times. Apartment hunting season now starts in winter, right at the beginning of the spring semester. Tidbits As the story goes, when other college teams met the Purdue football squad they were in awe of the size of the Purdue players. Believing that no man of academic ability could be so enormous, rivals were sure that the Purdue team was made up of workers from the old Lafayette Boiler Factory. Hence, Purdue was the victim of many insulting names, one of which was “Boilermakers.” Other tellers of this tale (probably Purdue opponents) state that the team members actually were boilermakers and not students. Do not believe them. Purdue, being a famous agricultural school, attracted many farm boys who were typically large, healthy, and powerful. Many Boilermaker alumni have distinguished themselves in one way or another. A few of them are Neil Armstrong, Birch Bayh, Earl Butz, Eugene Cernan, Len Dawson, Bob Griese, Durwood Kirby, Chris Schenkel, Orville Reddenbacher, Roger Chaffee, Virgil Grissom, Abe Gibron, John Wooden, Hank Stram, and Herbert Brown. Sports have always been big at Purdue, gaining the support of students and nearby residents alike. As a member of the Big Ten football league, Purdue went to the Rose Bowl in 1967 and beat Southern California 14-13. In 1978 the Boilermakers went to the Peach Bowl and beat Georgia Tech 41-21. In 1979 they went to the Astro-Bluebonnet Bowl and beat Tennessee 27-22. The 1980 Liberty Bowl saw Purdue squeak by Missouri, 28-25. Then Purdue suffered three straight losing seasons, before an impressive 1984 season, which ended in a 27-24 loss to Virginia in the Peach Bowl. The team then languished in obscurity until the arrival of coach Joe Tiller. Tiller's Boilermakers have now played–and won–the Alamo Bowl two years running, returning pride to the hearts of fans everywhere. As of 1999, the men's basketball team has shared six Big Ten championships in the last 16 seasons. Three of them came from 1994, 1995, and 1996! The 1987-88 season was the sixth straight year the team won 20 or more games and qualified for NCAA tournament action. Not to be left behind, the women's basketball team was national champion in 1998! If you want current Boilermaker sports info, visit http://www.purduesports.com . Although Purdue offers no music performance degrees, 650 students participate in various band ensembles for credit each year. The “All-American” Marching Band is one of the largest university bands in the Big 10 and the nation with 320 members. Highlights of that band include the World's Largest Drum (Built in 1921) and the Golden Girl (A tradition since 1954). The Department of Bands also boasts two to four concert bands each semester and three jazz bands, as well as a 100-member symphony orchestra and the university's pep bands. The present Purdue seal was adopted in 1974. The griffin head sits on a 3-sectioned shield which represents the 3 educational thrusts of Purdue: science, technology, and agriculture. The lines representing the griffin's mane are for the 5 campuses: West Lafayette, IUPU Fort Wayne, North Central, Calumet, and IUPU Indianapolis. The Purdue Mascot is the Boilermaker Special V, the locomotive which can be seen around campus primarily before home football games. Purdue is one of 68 land-grant colleges established with the Morrill Act, an act signed by President Abe Lincoln by which the federal government offered to turn over public lands to any state which would use the land to maintain a college for the study of agriculture and the mechanical arts. The Indiana General Assembly accepted $150,000 from John Purdue and $50,000 from Tippecanoe County. In 1874 classes began at Purdue University with 6 instructors and 39 students. The West Lafayette campus, including housing areas, recreation areas, the airport, and service areas, covers 2,307 acres. Additional lands away from West Lafayette are used for agriculture and recreation. The Edward C. Elliott Hall of Music (seating 6,077, it is considered the largest and best-equipped theatre of any educational institution in the world), the Loeb Playhouse (seating 1,052), the Experimental Theatre, the Memorial Union, Stewart Center, Slayter Center, Ross-Ade Stadium (capacity 67,861), and Mackey Arena (seats 14,123) make Purdue a cultural and recreational center for northwestern Indiana. The Purdue Radio Station is WBAA 920AM or 101.3FM, “The Fine Arts & Information Center on Your Radio Dial;” available online at www.wbaa.org . The Purdue Airport, established in 1930, was the first university-owned airport in the country. The Tippecanoe County morgue is in Lynn Hall on the south edge of campus. The School of Veterinary Medicine provides veterinary services to the public and has even treated the lions at the zoo. They will care for injured strays when people bring them in. Lawson Computer Science Building Where most faculty, students, and research labs are located. The adminstrative staff for the CS department is located here. The basement houses the TA offices and computer labs for students. Including the basement, there are 5 floors (though most people will never enter the top floor). The 3rd floor has a balcony that overlooks University St. and 3rd St. Felix Haas Hall The main computer science building until Lawson was completed in Fall 2006. Even though other departments have taken over much of the space, a few labs and faculty still remain in this building. Mathematical Sciences Building With the addition of the Computer Science building, very little of our department remains in good ol' “Math-Sci.” A brief tour of the building, starting from the basement (remember, there are two basements, but the elevators are only on the south side) and moving skyward, follows: Basement: There are graduate student offices and, more importantly, there is an ITaP lab which is open 24 hours. The lab has Windows boxes, Mac computers, and Sun workstations. Additionally, the basement floor has machines which dispense milk, pop, coffee, candy (beware, the chocolate bars are often gooey) and various munchies. Ground: More student offices. Main Floor: There's a mailbox in the south (elevator) side of the building. MATH 175 on the other side is often used for colloquia. Basically, the main floor is a large wind-tunnel, called the “breezeway.” 2nd Floor: This has mostly offices that deal with undergrads (in particular, counseling). 3rd Floor: Math Library. It is accessible only from the elevator (south) side of the building. This can be a good place to hide, as there are numerous study carrels and desks. It is sometimes a good place to go for meetings on projects. Additionally, the library has a couple of copy machines (5 cents per sheet). 4th Floor: The fourth floor hosts the Indiana Center for Database Systems (ICDS) with faculty and student offices. 5th Floor: Presently inhabited by statisticians and mathematicians. 8th Floor: Main math offices. Sometimes you also need to go there to obtain a key to your office. 9th Floor: Offices of the Dean of the School of Science, his staff, and Women in Science Program (WISP) staff. 10th Floor: Reachable only through the stairs, this is a mysterious place to which few venture. Recitation Building Until a few years ago, the Recitation (REC) building, directly east of MATH, was only of interest if you had a class there. Starting from the Fall of 1999, however, the second floor of REC is home to the Center for Education and Research in Information Assurance and Security (CERIAS, pronounced like “serious”). CERIAS grew out of the COAST laboratory in Computer Science, but with its current Center status is able to have a much larger multidisciplinary reach, although it still has very strong connections with CS. Several CS faculty and staff members as well as grad students have offices there. So if you are interested in matters related to security, healthy paranoia and being a white hat, make sure you visit there. Adminstrative Offices Schleman and Hovde Halls are the main student services and administration buildings. There are a number of major administrative attractions in these two buildings including: The Registrar's Office - Hovde The Dean of Students Office - Schleman The Admissions Office - Schleman International Student Services - Schleman Business Office of Student Organizations - Schleman Office of Space Management and Academic Scheduling - 4th floor of the Engineering Administration Building (ENAD 402) Purdue Memorial Union The Memorial Union (in memory of Purdue alums killed in wars) was built back when it was stylish and economically feasible to incorporate a good deal of wood in finishing the interior of a building. The varnished woodwork, solid wood tables and chairs, and stone and wood floors are a refreshing change from the plastic, concrete, veneer and linoleum which surrounds you in most places. Also featured are lots of old moldy plaques commemorating people who would otherwise be forgotten, and a 3-D model of the campus (a must for visiting parents). Functionally, the predominant features of the Union are eating places, meeting places (various ballrooms and lounges), and sleeping places (the “Union Club” hotel rooms for convention attendees, visiting parents, etc.). For details about the eating places, see the section about on-campus dining. Other useful facilities in the PMU include: The Student ID Card Office - west end of the main floor, room 130. They also handle BoilerExpress in that office. Check Cashing Service - east end of the main floor; $50.00 limit and $.100 charge per check. BoilerCopyMaker - a pretty well-equipped copy center is in Room 157 of the Union. Purdue has an agreement with Microsoft that allows Purdue students, faculty and staff to buy Microsoft software for $5. See http://www.purdue.edu/MSCA/ for more information. PEFCU Branch - a branch of Purdue Employees Federal Credit Union is located in the west wing of the main floor. STA Travel Office - west wing of the building, on the ground floor, where you may find discount student tickets for domestic and international travel. The Purdue Memorial Union also possesses facilities for a number of entertainment and recreation activities: television lounges on the ground and first floors an art gallery on the first floor bowling lanes in the basement pool tables underground between PMU and Stewart Center video arcade on the ground floor Stewart Center From here it is possible to walk through tunnels and buildings all the way to either Grad House without going outside, as well as to either of the three parking garages, Marsteller Street (across from Hawkins Grad House), Wood Street (across from Young Grad House), or Grant Street (across from the Union). The main attractions of the Stewart Center are: Fowler Hall, on the first floor, an auditorium equipped for movie screenings Loeb Playhouse, the Purdue Experimental Theatre An Art Gallery, off the west foyer on the first floor HSSE library, on the first floor, see the section on libraries for details An ITaP Lab, first floor, often very crowded ITaP Customer Service Center, on the ground floor, room G68, phone 49-44000; a first and single point of contact for support with many ITaP services Audio-Visual Center, ground floor Candy Stand, main floor, sells candy to rot your teeth, paperbacks to rot your mind, and practically every magazine you've ever heard of plus hundreds more that you've never heard of Envision Center, on the ground floor level between Steward Center and PMU, the center for data perceptualization, see also http://www.envision.purdue.edu The Center for Career Opportunities is located on the main floor on the east side of the north end of the east hall of the Stewart Center (and you thought directions had to be clear!). They provide helpful advice free of charge to everyone regardless of their career interests or visa status. You can register with CCO on CCO Express at https://www.cco.purdue.edu/student/CCOExpress.shtml . Details relating to corporate interviewing on campus and job vacancy postings are found there along with some pretty good job search help videos. More than 600 companies show up at the CCO every year to hire both internship candidates and graduating students. They also conduct quite a few workshops including ones that target graduate students. Purdue Libraries The Purdue Library System is dispersed throughout many buildings on campus which can make locating a particular book very difficult. Fortunately, their web-based catalog can direct you to the right location if you remember to check it before you leave home. There are over a dozen different libraries spread around campus including: HSSE Library in Stewart Center Undergraduate Library adjacent to Stewart Center Mathematical Sciences Library in the Math Building Potter Engineering Library in Potter Center Chemistry Library in Brown Laboratory Krannert Management Library in the Krannert Building Notable items in the Humanities, Social Sciences, and Education (HSSE) Library include the complete, out-of-date card catalog for all the university's libraries, the Interlibrary Loan Service, several photocopiers, and a complete collection of all Masters and Ph.D. theses written at Purdue. The latter are kept in a steel vault 700 feet underground, guarded by rabid reference librarians. At the reference desk you may obtain in-library use of one (a dissertation, not a reference librarian) by posting your life as security for its return. There is also a lab, called Digital Learning Collaboratory, at the lower level of the library from which you can check out nice digital equipment, including digital cameras and video cameras and laptops, with a student ID. Information about the lab is also available online at http://dlc.purdue.edu . The Undergraduate Library, just south of Stewart Center, is oriented toward freshman and sophomore students but there are useful items for all students. You may want to check out the comfortable vending lounge. Notable items in ``Undergrad'' are Purdue's film library, a 24 hour lounge/study room, and the Independent Study Center. One can also find popular reading materials (i.e. paperbacks, magazines, American and foreign newspapers) and a lot more photocopy machines in this building. Also, in recent years, the undergraduate library has been open 24 hours during dead and finals week, so it is a good place to hide/study/sleep during that period. The Mathematical Sciences Library occupies the third floor of the Math Science building and serves the Mathematics, Statistics, and Computer Sciences departments. One large room is a reading room for Math graduate students and faculty and has a fair amount of blackboard space, as well as coffee and cookies every day from 3-4 pm (though rumor has it, this is for math majors only). There are several smaller study rooms in the back with smaller amounts of blackboard space. There are two photocopy machines near the main desk. As for holdings, the collection of CS journals is quite good and includes Computing Reviews, many conference proceedings are available but may be hard to find, and copies of most Math, Stat, and CS dissertations from Purdue are kept in the grad/faculty room. Many CS books must be requested at the desk because they have been prone to mysterious disappearance. The organization of this library is usually not obvious to the uninitiated, but the staff are quite friendly, so don't hesitate to ask at the desk for help in locating materials. The Engineering Library is housed in the Potter Engineering Center, which is just east of the building with the big smokestack. It features numerous copies of all the IEEE Transactions, MIT PhD dissertations, and a sensor which beeps at you if you try to exit with an unchecked-out book. The Krannert Library takes up the second and third floors of the Krannert Building. In the Corporate Records Room you can read all about how your favorite corporation is doing. It is also a great place to learn more about companies before interviews. Purdue University Libraries online provides access to the Purdue Libraries' on-line catalog, media catalog, bibliographic databases, and access to Indiana and Big 10 catalogs. You can access it at http://www.lib.purdue.edu . In addition, Purdue has university-wide online subscription to the ACM and IEEE digital libraries ( http://www.acm.org/dl and http://ieeexpert.ieee.org , respectively), and also recently subscribed to the LNCS digital archive ( www.springer.de/comp/lncs/ ). Publications from all of these digital archives are accessible from the purdue.edu domain. Cultural Centers Yes, all of African-Americans, Hispanic, and International Students have found homes near or on campus which they have made into cultural centers. The Black Cultural Center is a place where the Black Experience in America can be explored, celebrated, and shared. Located on 3rd Street, about a block west from the CS building. The BCC sponsors: a combination sitting and African Art Exhibit room with background music from the black station in Chicago several Performing Arts Ensembles which consist of students and community members, including The Black Voices of Inspiration a library focusing on African-American poetry, fiction, and the social sciences prominent scholars, speakers, performing artists, and Purdue alumni who are brought to Purdue to enhance cultural diversity cultural sensitivity workshops The BCC also offers a number of interesting courses related to African American studies. To learn more about the BCC, visit http://www.purdue.edu/BCC . The International Center was founded in 1971 to enrich the cultural diversity in the Greater Lafayette area. The center is located at 523 Russell Street. The Center provides free ESL classes, foreign language instruction and conversation groups, meeting facilities for foreign student organizations, cultural presentations, and international dinner series. For more information about the center, visit the International Students Association's web page at http://www.intlctr.org or call 743-4353. The Latino Cultural Center was established in 2003, is a place to gather, learn, share, and support Latino cultures. The LCC serves as the home base for Latino students, faculty and staff members, and student organizations, fostering a welcoming environment for all Purdue students. The center hosts a variety of educational and social events throughout the year, which include lectures, picnics, and dances. The center is located at South Campus Courts Complex. Additional information about the center can be obtained on their website http://www.purdue.edu/LCC/ or by phone 49-42530. International Student Services The Office of International Students and Scholars in located in Schleman Hall. ISS is a division of International Programs and offers many services that are useful to foreign students. ISS is the expert resource for the University in the areas of F-1, J-1, and H-1B rules and regulations. The office, SCHL 136, is open between 8:00 am and 5:00 pm each weekday, and if you are an international student, you will be visiting every now and then. They are nice folks, even though they may appear a bit harried when you first encounter them around orientation time. To learn more about ISS, visit http://www.iss.purdue.edu . The ISS has assembled a handbook for international students which contains a lot of useful information about getting along here at Purdue. The 2002 edition can be found at http://www.iss.purdue.edu/resources/docs/Immigration/ISSHandbook2002.pdf Student Health Care PUSH The Purdue University Student Health Center (PUSH) is where the folks with white coats, stethoscopes, and benign smiles are simply waiting to have a look at your innards. They provide the health services to full and part-time students and their spouses, and in certain cases to Purdue employees and visitors. The hours of operation below are for the regular semesters; while the appointment desk is stays on the same schedule during the summer, some other offices have somewhat reduced hours during summer session and between sessions. The following services are available without charge. Many of the doctors will accept appointments and a walk-in service is always provided during clinic hours. Walk-ins are first-come-first-serve and you should expect a 15 to 40 minute wait. Routine clinical care, i.e., anything a General Practitioner would take care of during an office visit. The Appointment Desk is open Monday through Friday 8:00am-4:30pm, the Medical Clinic is open 8:00am-5:00pm. To contact the Appointment Desk, dial 49-46504; general information is available by dialing 49-41700. Routine gynecological services, including the prescription of birth control materials (same as Medical Clinic hours). To make an appointment with the Women's Clinic, call 49-46504. Other services such as nutrition consultation, health education services, and a limited number of consultations with staff in their Counseling and Psychological Services unit. Fees are collected for the following (in many cases, with Purdue student insurance you will be charged only a $10 deductible): Services provided by the Allergy and Immunization Clinic. Lab work, physical therapy, and X-rays as prescribed by physicians at the Health Center. Prescriptions which can be filled at the University Pharmacy right next door to PUSH. Urgent care services, from 8am to 9pm pm Monday-Friday, 10am-6pm on Saturday and Sunday. Their number is 49-41724. All of the Allergy Clinic, Immunization Clinic, Laboratory, Radiology unit, and Physical Therapy have different hours, which you can find at http://www.purdue.edu/PUSH or by calling 49-41700. Exact rates for any of these services are available on request from the Health Center Business Office - call 49-41677. CAPS If you can hang on until the end of the semester and get out of Lafayette, you will probably recover without assistance. If, however, you find yourself trying to wrench open one of the windows on the top floor to escape, there are two professionally-staffed mental-health facilities on campus. Counseling and Psychological Services (CAPS) offers consultations to full and part-time students. Included in your student fees are eight free hours of individual consultation or treatment; otherwise, a fee applies (part-time students are eligible only to one free consultation). They offer same-day initial appointments with counselors on a first-come, first-served basis, Monday through Friday 8am-5pm. The center has two main offices (PSYC 1120 and PUSH 246), as well as three satellite offices at Purdue Village, Vawter Residence Hall, and School of Veterinary Medicine. For more information call 49-46995 or visit http://www.purdue.edu/caps/ . Another place to go is Purdue Counseling and Guidance Center located in Beering Hall, Room 3202. They assist everyone with a variety of career and personal concerns at no charge; staff members are qualified graduate counseling students. For an appointment and information call 49-49738 or visit http://www.edst.purdue.edu/cd/pcgc/ . Purdue Individual, Couple and Family Therapy Clinic (PICFTC) is run by the Department of Child Development and Family Studies. The clinic is staffed by supervised graduate student therapists who assist with personal and family-related problems and is located in Fowler Hall. Their fees are reasonable and depend on the income and family size. For appointments and information call 49-42939 or visit http://www.cfs.purdue.edu/mft/clinic.html . Additionally, for immediate and/or short term help, the Lafayette Crisis Center provides 24-hour, confidential, crisis counseling. This service is free and available on a walk-in basis at 1244 North 15th Street (in Lafayette) or over the phone at 742-0244 or toll free (877) 419-1632. If you need to talk to someone about anything, they invite you to call or stop by. Their website is at http://www.lafayettecrisiscenter.org . Music Unfortunately, the choices for finding a music room on campus are more limited now than they were a number of years ago. Here is what Purdue currently has available: Both Hawkins and Young have music rooms, but you must live there to check out the key (or know someone who lives there). Hawkins has a moderately large room with a servicable baby grand, while Young has a smaller room with a small upright piano and an organ inside. Both rooms can be checked out for two hours. The South Tower in the PMU (accessible from the top floor, in the middle of the building just where the campus map is) also has a piano, but only student organizations are permitted to book that room. In addition, that piano is not in the greatest condition. Campus Food If you live in one of the dorms or one of the grad houses, you have a cafeteria available for all your eating needs. The Lawson Computer Science Building, The Purdue Memorial Union, and Stone Hall also have cafeterias which are available to the general public. The Port - Located in the Lawson Building. You immediately see it when you enter the front door. Breakfast items, fruit, sandwiches, mini-pizzas, soup, salad, coffee, and smoothies can be found here. HTM Cafe - The HTM Cafe is located in Stone Hall and serves breakfast and lunch at good prices. Soup, sandwiches, and hot lunches are the normal fare. Purdue Memorial Union - The Union offers a wide range of food for breakfast, lunch, and dinner at reasonable prices. There is a cafeteria with a variety of cafeteria foods. Purdue students are tax exempt at the cafeteria, so be sure to bring along your Student ID. The Union also serves pizza, ice cream, burgers, and other munchies on the ground floor. Restaurants surround the campus on every side. Some of the more popular eating establishments are located in Purdue West, The Village and Chauncey Hill Mall, and the area north-east of campus. Produce In the fall, you can buy one-gallon jugs of apple cider and ten-pound bags of apples (many varieties) at the Purdue Farm. Prices are comparable to those in local grocery stores, but the quality is much higher. Sometimes they also sell pumpkins, squash, and other fall vegetables. The farm is located about 3 miles west on State Road 26 from the Purdue West Shopping Plaza. Watch carefully for signs on the left. Turn off (left) after passing the orchard. The farm is about 1/4 mile on the right. University Meat Market Purdue offers classes in butchery, and where there's a butcher, there's raw meat. The fruits of the aspiring butchers' labors are sold each Wednesday from 3:00 to 5:30pm and Friday from 12:00 am to 4:30 pm in Smith Hall, room 170. (Smith Hall is on the south side of State St., nearly due south of Matthews Hall. Room 170 is in the west wing of the building.) Most of the common cuts of beef and pork are produced, though not all cuts are available every week. Occasionally, turkey and lamb are also available. As with produce, the prices are comparable to those in local supermarkets, but the quality is outstanding (which is what you will be if you don't get there early and beat the rush). If you need more information about the Boilermaker Butcher Block, call them at 49-48285. various symphony orchestras and ballet troupes theatrical companies doing musical plays and revues individual performers as diverse as Rich Little and Marcel Marceau Many of the events have ``big names,'' and most are worthwhile. However, boring convocations are not unknown. Near the beginning of fall semester, slick brochures appear around campus describing the coming year's slate of convocations and the season ticket options available (these are usually cheaper; amounting to getting one or two of the tickets free when compared to the single ticket price). If you are buying season tickets, you must decide upon the series you want to buy (there are several and they sometimes change over time) or commit to a number of performances of your own choice. The brochures describing the coming events state which series contains which convocations. Also, several weeks before each event, ads appear in the Exponent (campus newspaper) stating when individual tickets will be sold. With a student ID, you can buy Convocations tickets at the (lower) student rate. This also applies to season tickets. For further information, go to http://www.purdue.edu/convos or to the ticket office at the north end of the lobby in the Hall of Music or to the ticket windows in Stewart Center, located at the south end of the lobby with the mural. SCC books popular musical groups as their tour schedules become known during the year. Copious, full-page advertising in the Exponent serves to notify the campus community of each concert as it is scheduled. For more information, contact the SCC at 49-62913 or visit them online at http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~scc . For those of you who plan to be at Purdue in the summer, the Summer Theatre is highly recommended entertainment. Brochures are available at Loeb Playhouse box office. Purdue Theatre offers a number of performances throughout the school year, both mainstage and studio plays. The brochures which list plays of the season are normally available by the ticket offices. You can obtain more information about the plays by phone 49-43933 (Loeb box office) or on the web www.cla.purdue.edu/theatre . Purdue Repertory Dance Company performs Winter Works and Spring Works concerts at the end of fall and spring semesters, respectively. Tickets can also be purchased in the Loeb box office in Stewart Center (49-43939). Information about other events may be found in Purdue Arts and Entertainment online calendar (available from the calendars web page http://calendar.purdue.edu ). In addition, Purdue Student Union Board (PSUB) organizes student events on campus (sign up for the PSUB email events list at http://www.union.purdue.edu/PSUB/ ). Sports Purdue is part of the Big 10 conference and as such people around here go crazy for football and basketball. However, non-revenue sports events at Purdue are rather poorly attended. University fees include an activity fee which entitles students to reduced tickets for sporting events such as football, basketball, and volleyball. With a student ID, you get reduced price season football tickets (for Fall 2005, the prices is $84 for all 6 home games). Single game tickets are also available, but in most cases they cannot be purchased at discounted price and run as high as over $40 per game. So unless you plan on attending just one game, you save by purchasing a season pass. For ticket information or to place an order, call 49-43194 or 800-49-SPORT, stop by the Athletic Ticket Office (in the athletic facility between Mackey Arena and the stadium) between 9 AM and 5 PM Monday through Friday, or do it online at http://www.purduesports.com . Women's Basketball - As of fall 2005, student season pass is available for $42 (based on 14 games). Individual student tickets are $10 each. Women's Volleyball - Purdue has an excellent women's volleyball team. Students can buy a season ticket for fall 2005 for $33.00 (covers 14 games) or single tickets for $5.00 each. Movies The Purdue Student Union Board (PSUB) regularly schedules film series each semester. The movies are shown on Friday and Saturday evenings in Fowler Hall (which is part of the Stewart Center) for $3.00 with a Purdue Student ID (and it is $5.00 for general public). Show times are usually at 7:00 and 9:30 PM. For PSUB calendar of events, see http://www.union.purdue.edu/PSUB/ . General Description The greater Lafayette area has a population of over 85,000, with approximately one-third of that number residing on this side of the river. This population increases about 30 percent when Purdue is in session. The Wabash River separates the cities of West Lafayette and Lafayette. West Lafayette and Lafayette are two distinct cities connected by a number of bridges. If a resident hears you say that West Lafayette is a part of Lafayette or that Purdue is in Lafayette you should immediately fear for your well-being. Remember, Purdue is in West Lafayette. Lafayette was founded in 1825 by William Digby who named the town after French General Marquis de Lafayette on Lafayette's visit to America that year. Lafayette became a thriving commercial center because of its location on the Wabash River and its proximity to the Old Wabash and Erie Canal. West Lafayette was created in 1866 with the name of Chauncey when the town of Chauncey merged with the town north of it, Kingston. Plans for Purdue were set in 1869 and classes began in 1874. In 1888, Chauncey was renamed West Lafayette. Purdue is the largest employer in Tippecanoe County. (Tippecanoe is an Indian name for buffalo fish.) Many other industries have been attracted to this area including Alcoa Aluminum, Duncan Electric, Eli Lilly Pharmaceuticals, Fairfield Manufacturing, Landis & Gyr, National Homes, Ralston Purina, Great Lakes Chemical, Subaru-Isuzu, and Caterpillar Tractor. A great source of further information on the greater Lafayette area is Lafayette Online, an electronic source of information about our community. The web address for Lafayette Online is http://www.lafayette-online.com/ , and the site contains information regarding coming attractions, lodging, dining, and other community resources. You can also get information about events and attractions in the Lafayette area from http://www.qklink.com . Weather The weather in Lafayette is a constant source of conversation. Summers tend to be hot and winters tend to be cold but the weather is never predictable. One day you may be wearing shorts, and the next day you may be bundled in your warmest winter clothes. Most winters include snow with heavy snowfall at times. The wind-chill factor will occasionally drive the temperature down to or below (Celsius or Fahrenheit, at it really doesn't matter). Spring weather is windy with wide temperature ranges. Some days are very pleasant and others very rainy. Summers bring big thunderstorms and high humidity. Indiana has one of the highest tornado-hit rates in the nation, and Tippecanoe County enjoys the distinction of having the most tornadoes of any county in Indiana. Sometimes flooding occurs in the low-lying areas near the Wabash. The city golf course, many cornfields, and occasionally roads are flooded for weeks at a time. Fall is perhaps the nicest time of the year, with two months of perfect weather for football games and camping. Weather forecasts for Lafayette are invariably wrong, especially in the Spring when the winds cause weather changes by the hour, but if you insist on calling, the number is 447-0550. Online weather information is also available at http://weather.unisys.com , which uses WXP, a Weather Processor originally developed by the Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Department at Purdue. Statistics Note that these numbers are somewhat outdated since the greater Lafayette area has grown quite a bit since the last census (the national census figures are collected once every 10 years). Populations Civic Theater and Monon Art Gallery 5th and North Streets, Lafayette, 463-1669 The Civic Theater provides five productions each season with children's programs in the historic Monon Depot. Clegg Botanical Gardens 1782 North 400 East, Lafayette Clegg Botanical Gardens features many interesting wild flowers, lush green trees, and rugged terrain for hiking. Columbian Water Park & Zoo Main Street (SR 38), Lafayette, 447-9351 Columbian Park has many attractions including a water park, a zoo, and the baseball field where the Lafayette Leopards, a minor league baseball team, play. Columbian Water Park is located a few miles south of downtown Lafayette on Main Street. The picnic and playground areas are open year round but the water park is only open during the summer months. The Columbian Park Zoo is home to llamas, cougars, snow leopards, flamingos, lemurs, eagles, and many other animals. Highlights of the zoo include Monkey Island, the summer home of the monkey troupe, the petting zoo, and the Kinkajous. The zoo has one of the few breeding Kinkajou colonies in existence. Fort Ouiatenon Historic Park and Museum South River Road, West Lafayette, 742-8411 Fort Ouiatenon Park is located on the banks of the Wabash River on South River Road four miles south of the State Street/River Road intersection. The park has a boat launch, fishing access, picnic shelters, and swimming. Fort Ouiatenon was the site of the first European settlement in Indiana. The current blockhouse was built in 1930 on the site where the original fort was thought to have been. Archaeologists later discovered in 1968 that the original fort was actually located a mile downstream. The park features a Blockhouse Trading Post and Museum and is also the the setting of Lafayette's yearly Feast of the Hunter's Moon, a recreation of an 18th Century French and Indian encampment on the banks of the Wabash River, which is held in October. Fowler House 909 South Street, Lafayette, 742-8411 An English Gothic house built in 1851 is now home to the Tippecanoe County Historical Museum. Greater Lafayette Museum of Art 101 S 9th Street, Lafayette, 742-1128 The Museum of Art is a contemporary art center housing permanent art collections and national traveling exhibitions. Long Center for the Performing Arts 111 N 6th Street, Lafayette, 742-6463 Located in the heart of downtown Lafayette, the theater is home to the Lafayette Symphony Orchestra. Prophet's Rock Prophet's Rock Road, Battle Ground Prophet's Rock, though small, is of historic value and is good for rock-climbing and picnicing. In addition, it provides a scenic overlook of the Wabash Valley. You can see the Tippecanoe Battlefield Monument from there. To find it, look for a stone marker on the left side of the road as you are driving out Prophet's Rock Road. See directions to Wolf Park below. Riehle Plaza and the Pedestrian Bridge Main Street Bridge and North 2nd Street, Lafayette Riehle Plaza is home of the historic Big Four Railroad Depot and host to many fun activities and events. It is also home to Amtrak and CityBus services and facilities. The Main Street Pedestrian Bridge spans the Wabash River and joins Riehle Plaza and Tapawingo Park. The bridge used to be the main bridge spanning the two cities, and now it provides walkers and bicyclist a great way to cross between Lafayette and West Lafayette. Tippecanoe Battlefield Canal Road, 7 miles north of Lafayette off SR 43, 567-2147 This is the site of the defeat of Tecumseh and The Prophet by the General William Henry Harrison during the Battle of Tippecanoe. The site is a national historic landmark and a State memorial with a 112-acre park, museum, picnic area, and scenic trails. The Tippecanoe Battlefield is also home of the Indiana Fiddlers Gathering held in July. This regional festival attracts traditional, folk, and country musicians from across the United States. Tippecanoe County Amphitheater SR 43 North, Lafayette, 463-2211 This state-of-the-art amphitheater includes a main stage, side stages, a rain shelter, and more within it's 166 acres. Tippecanoe County Courthouse Courthouse Square, Lafayette, 423-9326 Listed on the National Register of Historic Places, this courthouse is the architectural focal point of the center of Lafayette. Wolf Park Two miles north of Battle Ground, 567-2265 Wolf Park is a research wildlife park that is home to twenty wolves and a herd of bison, as well as foxes and coyotes. Visitors can observe the behavior of wolves up close as well as wolf-bison interaction. Howl Nights occur Saturdays at 7:30 PM year round and Fridays at 7:30 PM May through December. Wolf-Bison Demonstrations occur Sundays (weather permitting) at 1:00 PM May through November. Both demonstrations have admission fees. Visit Wolf Park's web site at http://www.wolfpark.org/ for additional info. To get to Wolf Park, go north on North River Road. About 5 miles past the State Street/River Road intersection, you'll get to a right turn on Burnett Rd (if you get to I-65 you have gone too far), followed by a quick left turn onto Prophet's Rock Road. Take Prophet's Rock Road and continue to the town of Battle Ground. In Battle Ground, stay on Prophet's Rock Road until it ends, then turn left on Railroad Street. When you get to North Street, turn right and cross the tracks where North Street takes you into Main Street. Continue on Main to Jefferson and turn left on to Jefferson. One mile on Jefferson, out of town on a gravel road, is the entrance to Wolf Park. Movies There are a number of movie theaters in Lafayette, as well as the Wabash Landing 9 on the Levee by the river. A variety of groups sponsor movie series on campus, and there are a number of video rental stores around campus. Von's Video 317 W State Street, West Lafayette, 743-1974 The Von's series of stores is located in the village by Chauncey Hill and provides one of the most interesting shopping areas within walking distance of campus. Video Update 1251 Sagamore Parkway (WL), 15 Creasy Lane (Laf), 228 Teal Road (Laf), 220 Elmwood Avenue (Laf), 224 Teal Road (Laf) A nation-wide chain of video stores. Blockbuster Video 3525 McCarthy Lane, Lafayette, 447-3446 PSUB Films Fowler Hall, Stewart Center, Purdue University The Purdue Student Union Board (PSUB) sponsors second run movies which are shown on the weekends in Fowler Hall at Stewart Center. Check the Exponent or Stewart Center display cases for show times. More information on the web at http://www.union.purdue.edu/HTML/PSUB/committees/Films.html Cinema Now Fowler Hall, Stewart Center, Purdue University The Department of Convocations sponsors the Cinema Now series of international and independent films. Call 494-3933 for more information. Music A number of local bars have dance floors and a few even bring in live music on occasion. The Boiler Room across from Chauncey Hill Mall is one bar that has featured live music in the past. One thing to be aware of is that the bar scene around campus is in constant flux with the bars changing names, management, and decor. So don't be surprised if your favorite campus music spot suddenly becomes a restaurant or the location of the newest set of student apartments. The Knickerbocker Saloon, the oldest bar in the Hoosier state, has jazz or blues bands playing live almost every weekend. Usually, bands from Indianapolis and Cincinnati come into town and perform on Fridays and Saturdays. If you like import beer, they also hold the largest collection of import beer in Lafayette. The Knickerbocker is located at 113 N 5th Street in downtown Lafayette. Each year the Department of Convocations brings a wide variety of musical entertainment to Purdue. Past performances have included operas and Broadway musicals. Several big-name entertainers (pop, rock, and jazz) appear in concert each semester under the sponsorship of the Student Concert Committee and the Department of Convocations. Check out their website at ( http://www.purdue.edu/convos/ ) or the box office in Stewart Center for information on upcoming events. Some of the coffee shops near campus, notably Cafe Vienna in the Village, host live music from time to time. Bach Chorale Singers - http://www.bachchorale.org/ The Village and Chauncey Hill Mall East of the Memorial Union on State Street The shops and restaurants on State Street east of campus to Chauncey Street at the bottom of State Street hill are collectively know as The Village. This includes the stores in Chauncey Hill Mall. The stores tend to be expensive because of their proximity to campus. Most of the campus bars are located in this area along with two of the academic bookstores, University Bookstore and Follet's Bookstore. Purdue West Shopping Center West of campus on the corner of State Street and Airport Road Purdue West is the closest shopping center to most of the dorms. It is located just west of McCutcheon Hall north of State Street. It includes a Dairy Queen, several restaurants (including Subway and Pizza Hut), ATMs, and even a branch of Follet's Bookstore. Brown Street Levee Plaza East of campus on Brown Street near the Wabash River Often called simply The Levee, this area near the Wabash has seen a lot of growth in the past few years. It is now home to a Borders Books & Music, Panera Bread Company, Starbucks Cafe, Buffalo Wild Wings, a health club, a gaming store (actually two; one for the board variety and one for the electronic variety!), a movie theater, and any number of other restaurants and shops. Stadium Square Shopping Center North of campus at the corner of Northwestern and Stadium Streets Stadium Square, just east of Lambert Field House and Mackey Arena, has a few fast food restaurants, a couple of academic bookstores, a store with Purdue clothes and gifts, and a florist. There are also a number of small shopping centers on Sagamore Parkway (US 52) in northern West Lafayette. There is a Walmart along with a couple of grocery stores and some nice novelty/gift shops. Be sure to check out The Mole Hole in the University Square Shopping Center if you are shopping for gifts. The West Lafayette Post Office is located in northern West Lafayette at 610 W Navajo Street. Proceed up Salisbury Street from campus and make a left on Navajo Street. If you reach Sagamore Parkway (US 52), then you have gone a little too far. The post office will be on your right, located across from the police station and next door to the license bureau. Lafayette The Basics As with the rest of the country, the minimum drinking age is 21. To verify age bring your driver's license or passport with you. To make sure fake IDs are not used by people underage, many places around campus require you to bring two forms of identification. The first form will be your driver's license or passport. The second form can be anything issued to you that has your name on it. This includes a credit card, student ID, pay-stub (though I have never seen anyone actually try this), etc. Bars are open until 3 AM Monday through Saturday. Some bars may be open on Sunday, but most are closed due to lack of business. You can buy alcohol at grocery stores (hard liquor included) or liquor stores. However, alcohol sale is prohibited at these places on Sunday. Beer @ CS If you want to join a group that goes to various bars and restaurants each week, join the “beer” mailing list. Although the name suggests drinking, you are welcome to join and just enjoy the food. Beer @ CS typically meets every Thursday around 6 PM. Campus Most campus bars are located on top of Chauncey Hill. A few can also be found if you go down to Wabash Landing. These are most frequented by undergraduates, so if you are tired of that scene you may wish to go to Downtown Lafayette (see below). However, the cheapest alcohol is found here. Bars One of two places to go dancing. $0.25 pitchers on Wednesday ($3 cover). Wabash Yatch Club (aka Stacks) Considered a frat bar. Boiler Market Good food. Every day special of a pitcher (any beer you want) and 12 wings for ~$10. Pitcher and one-topping pizza for ~$13. Closes early. Wabash Landing Neon Cactus Home of the piano bar and the largest dance floor in the area (seperate areas of the same bar). The piano bar is very popular and worth going to at least once while you are at Purdue. The Cactus is very popular on Thursdays due to its drink specials. Buy a 32 oz. mug (~$3, or bring a mug that you bought previously from the bar) and fill it up with beer ($0.10) or well mixers ($1.50). The other nights they are open, Friday and Saturday, also have good specials. There is a $5 cover each night. Pete's A popular place years ago and was recently re-opened Spring 2007. The owner has good food and drink specials to try and attract students. Scotty's Good food, but do not recommend going there. The last time Beer @ CS went there, two people's credit card numbers were stolen. Even though it was not proven that the numbers were stolen there, comparing the credit card statements basically points a finger at this place. BW3s Like any typical BW3s. Thursday is $0.50 boneless wings and $3.00 cheeseburgers. Nine Irish Brothers The only Irish pub in the area. They have live music on most Fridays and often show soccer or rugby on their TVs. A nice patio area that has space warmers for nights that get a little chilly. Attracts a more upscale crowd, most likely due to the price of their food and beer. Breakfast Club Purdue has a tradition known as Breakfast club. This means that students hit the campus bars at Chauncey Hill around 7 AM. This happens on football game day Saturdays during the Fall, and once during the Spring, Purdue Grand Prix. If you plan to go (and you should go at least once while you are at Purdue), wear a costume. If you do not, you will be one of the very few who did not, and will be heckled. On campus you will often see shirts that say “Go Ugly Early”. Going “ugly” refers to getting drunk, with the slogan orginating from Harry's. Harry's rival, Jake's, countered that slogan with their own popular t-shirt slogan of “No Uglies Allowed”. Late Night Snack Many places stay open to get that closing-time food rush. Taco Bell, Arby's, and Qdoba (burrito place) stay open. If you want breakfast type food, or generally hate your body, go to Triple XxX. Downtown Lafayette Located right across the Wabash river is the Downtown Lafayette area. There are numerous bars and restaurants, most of which are more upscale than the campus bars. Since it often requires a short drive for students, few undergraduates make their way over the river. Bars As the name suggests, the bar is located underground. Chumley's By far the largest beer menu selection. 50 different beers on tap plus 50+ others from the bottle. Thursday is schooner night. Buy the schooner (32 oz glass) and get a discount on your alcohol purcahse. You can keep and bring back the schooner. Sergent Preston's They brew their own beer. Some people are obsessed with it. Spurlock's Newspapers A number of different newspapers are available in the Lafayette area. The Lafayette Journal and Courier is Lafayette's number one newspaper, and it is considered to be politically moderate. It covers some national, a smattering of world, and most of the local news, and it has good sports coverage. The Lafayette Leader is a little weekly newspaper handling primarily local news from nearby small towns. USA Today is a popular national newspaper. The Indianapolis Star is also available in the Lafayette area. Circulation Department Indianapolis Star 448-9919 The New York Times has a cheap subscription rate for students during the semester, and subscription forms are available from Von's Bookstore. Subscribers can pick up their paper in the Math Building during the week or at Von's Bookstore on Saturdays. The student ACM chapter subscribes to the New York Times, and their copies may be read in the ACM/ UPE office (CS G77) on weekdays. The Purdue Exponent is the campus paper that is printed Monday through Friday during the school year. It is a typical college newspaper and has good campus coverage, and it also features a crossword puzzle and a couple of comic strips. The Exponent is distributed to pick-up points throughout campus, including the first floor of the CS building near the mailboxes, and it is usually available until mid-morning. Of course, the best thing about the Exponent is that it's free. The bad side of this is that you get what you pay for. Books There are two public libraries in the greater Lafayette area to satisfy your appetite for leisure reading. The newly rebuilt West Lafayette Public Library ( http://www.wlaf.lib.in.us/ ) is located a few blocks from campus at 208 W Columbia in West Lafayette. The Tippecanoe County Public Library ( http://www.tcpl.lib.in.us/ ) is located in the heart of downtown Lafayette at 627 South Street. A driver's license is usually required to get a library card. There are also a number of good bookstores in town. There are, of course, the academic bookstores around campus, which are great for technical references, but there are also some bookstores with more diverse selections of leisure reading. Von's Books is located just east of campus at 315 W State Street by Chauncey Hill. There is also a Borders Books & Music on the Levee, and a Barnes and Noble store near the Tippecanoe Mall. These are good places not only to buy books and CDs, but also to read, have coffee, and play board games (available from the coffee counter at Barnes and Noble). Check the local yellow pages for other bookstores around town. West Lafayette Public Library - 743-2261 Tippecanoe County Public Library - 429-0100 Von's Books - 743-1915 Excercise Purdue Recreational Sports Center (RSC) The building that houses basketball courts, swimming pools, weight room, running track, indoor soccer field, etc. Membership is free if you are a student, and you can get discounted memberships for non-student family members. The place may seem large for people coming from smaller Universities, but the place is too small to accomodate the student population at Purdue. Parking can be found in the back. The two rows nearest the back enterance are for “A” parking permits until 6 PM. After 6, anyone can park there. The rest of the parking spots are reserved for “C” permits until 3 PM. After 3, anything goes… and it gets fills up fast. Other Venues Swimming There are a number of swimming pools around town that are open to the public. Many of the larger apartment complexes off campus also have swimming pools. So dig out your bathing suit and sunscreen and have some fun getting wet. West Lafayette Municipal Swimming Pool N Salisbury Street, West Lafayette, 743-3334 The West Lafayette Municipal Pool is open Memorial Day weekend through Labor Day 1-8pm daily. The pool is behind West Lafayette Junior High and Kingston Elementary School on the corner of Salisbury Street and Leslie/Kingston Avenue. Columbian Water Park See the Columbian Park description in the Parks section for directions. Edgelea Swimming Pool 1800 Manitou Drive, Lafayette, 772-7300 Edgelea Pool is located at the corner of South 18th Street and Manitou Drive, south of Teal Tennis Purdue has many courts around campus with a large contingent right around the RSC. Tapawingo and Tommy Johnston parks both have tennis facilities. See the parks section for directions to the parks. In addition, Burtsfield School at 1800 N. Salisbury Street, West Lafayette has tennis courts open to the public. Call 463-3571 for reservations. In the Fall of 2006, Purdue opened an indoor tennis facility (the last school in the Big Ten to do so). Students receive a discount on court fees. Basketball It's Indiana, and as such, people want to play basketball. Outdoor courts can be found around campus and in the Lafayette area. Golf There are a number of golf courses around town that are open to the public but be careful around the rainy season since some of the courses along the Wabash have a tendency to flood. Purdue University Golf Courses Cherry Lane, West Lafayette, 494-3139 Purdue University has two 18 hole golf courses and a driving range off of Cherry Lane just north of campus. The course entrances are about a 1/4 mile west of Northwestern Avenue on Cherry Lane. Edwood Glen Country Club 1601 E 650 N, West Lafayette, 463-1100 Edwood Glen Country Club has an 18 hole course that is open to the public. It is located off of SR 43, 6 miles north of West Lafayette. SR 43 is River Road in West Lafayette. Lafayette Municipal Golf Course 800 Golfview Drive, Lafayette, 448-1099 The Lafayette Municipal Golf Course is an 18 hole course located on the Wabash River bank. It also has a lighted driving range. To get to the course, go east on Wiggins Street from campus over the Harrison Bridge and take a left on to Canal Road. Go north on Canal Road and the course will be on your left after a couple of miles. Par View Golf Course 3121 SR 26 W, West Lafayette, 743-9912 Par View is a small 18-hole par 3 course two miles west of Purdue West Shopping Center on State Street (SR 26). Cycling The Wabash River Cycling Club has club rides several times a week, with various levels of difficulty. Riders of all abilities are invited to join. Members get 10% discounts at most of the bike shops in town. Contact Hodson's Bay on the Brown Street Levee at 743-3506 for details. What is a Hoosier? As the legend goes, the sparsely populated Indiana Territory, before statehood in 1816, bordered on the “Great Unknown”. Whenever an early settler heard noises around his cabin, he knew the sounds could be made by anything from Enemy Indians to Grizzly Bears to Wild Outlaws to Space Aliens. As the nearest neighbor was miles away, he generally picked up his loaded rifle and yelled, “Who's there?” which, through his drawl, was usually incomprehensible and came out as “Whoshier?” So, the Indianans became known as the “Whosier People” or the “Hoosiers”. There are other tales. Once there was a company of hussars who drew the objections of Kentuckians because of their drinking and rowdiness. Kentuckians came to call any objectionable outsiders “hussars” or Hoosiers. Some think hoosier is derived from the word “hoose,” a disease of calves which causes their hair to stand on end and puts a wild, staring look in their eyes, the same way a man from the Indiana wilderness may have appeared. And then, in 1825, there was said to have been a contractor named Sam Hoosier who preferred Indiana men as laborers on his projects. Hoosier's men became known as Hoosiers. Another claim is that Hoosier came from the old Saxon word “Hoozer” meaning “Hill Dweller,” but no one really knows. The most believable legend suggests that Hoosier was derived from the question asked at the end of a bloody saloon fight. One of the participants pulled a chunk of skin out of his clenched teeth and asked: “Whose Ear?” Indiana got its name from the many Indians who came here to live when their lands were taken over by white men. “Hoosier Hysteria” is basketball. Indiana consists of many small towns with fewer than 100 teenagers but much community pride. Part of that pride is the hope of getting together their able high school boys and sending a basketball team to the State Basketball Tournament. Hoosiers have fought against classification of high schools by size because they know the smallest school in Indiana can go to Indianapolis and beat the largest school. Don't laugh, it's been done. (The movie Hoosiers was based on a real Indiana high school, filmed on location near here.) For those who insist that Hoosiers are relatively illiterate and intellectually backward, Indiana authors rank second only to New York's in the number of books on best seller lists. Lew Wallace, author of Ben Hur, James Whitcomb Riley, who became a millionaire with his poetry, and Kurt Vonnegut are all Hoosiers. Additionally, Reverend Jim “Koolaid” Jones sports an Indiana background. The state song is On the Banks of the Wabash by Paul Dresser: Round my Indiana homestead wave the cornfields, In the distance loom the woodlands clear and cool, Oftentimes my thoughts revert to scenes of childhood, Where I first received my lessons - nature's school. Oh, the moonlight's fair tonight along the Wabash, From the fields there comes the breath of new-mown hay. Through the sycamores the candlelights are gleaming, On the banks of the Wabash, far away. State Facts The state flower is the Peony. The state bird is the Cardinal. The state tree is the Yellow Poplar, also called the Tulip tree. The state motto is “The Crossroads of America.” Indiana ranks first nationally in the harvest of popcorn. Time Zones As of Fall 2005, most of Indiana (including Lafayette) is on Eastern Standard Time (New York time). There are few areas Northwest that are in the Central Time Zone (Chicago time). Previously, most of Indiana had not participated in Daylight Savings Time during the summer. That meant when most of the country set their clocks forward or backward an hour for Daylight Savings, Indiana did nothing. Indiana shared time with New York in the winter and shared time with Chicago during the Summer. Camping Not in front of the Union. The University Police frown on it. Besides the idea is to get away from Lafayette. One pleasant way to spend a weekend is to pack up some gear and head for the woods. Fortunately, there are a number of recreational areas not too far away which offer good camping and hiking opportunities. There are also cabins available for around thirty dollars a night if you prefer a more stable roof over your head. Turkey Run is about an hour's drive from West Lafayette and offers many camping opportunities. If you are more adventurous, or have more time on your hands, Mammoth Cabes in Kentucky is worth the drive. There is a lot of information on the state parks in Indiana at http://www.in.gov/dnr/parklake/ . Mississinewa, Salamonie, and Huntington Lakes Recreational Areas These three lakes are about 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 hours northeast of Purdue and are actually reservoirs created by the Army Corps of Engineers in the late sixties. The lakes serve to control the flood stage of the Wabash River. The Indiana Department of Natural Resources maintains a recreational area around each lake that includes campgrounds, boat launches, hunting regions, swimming areas, and hiking trails. Each lake has a small, man-made beach, and the lakes are popular local motor-boating and fishing spots. Campgrounds at the beaches are not among trees, but each lake has a camping area separate from the beach region. Salamonie State Forest has especially nice campsites; each is separated from its neighbors by a stand of trees. The best way to get to the lakes is to take SR 25 northeast out of Lafayette to Logansport. Then pick up US 24 and take it to Peru. In Peru, turn left on SR 19. Cross the bridge, then turn left (east) on SR 124. SR 124 passes just north of Mississinewa and just south of Salamonie. Watch for the signs to the lakes. Warning: Heavy doses of viewing corn may be hazardous to your health. Mississinewa Lake info can be found at http://www.in.gov/dnr/parklake/properties/res_mississinewa.html , Slamonie Lake is at http://www.in.gov/dnr/parklake/properties/res_salamonie.html , and Huntington Lake (also known as Roush Lake) has information at http://www.in.gov/dnr/parklake/properties/res_huntington.html . Turkey Run State Park and Shades State Park These parks, both within an hour south of Lafayette, are well-maintained, and are not too crowded in early spring and late fall. Both have many miles of beautiful trails, some of which run through gorges and quite rugged (and perpetually wet - wear your boots!) terrain. Sometimes you forget that you are in the heart of the corn belt! Try to get into Turkey Run, if possible, because it has better trails. If it is full, you can almost always camp at the Shades. To get to both, take 231 south to Crawfordsville, then head south on 47. Watch for signs for the turnoff to the Shades (about 10 miles). If you want to go on to Turkey Run, just stay on 47. There are two entrances: the first one you encounter is the main entrance, and the second leads to a campground. There is also a trail riding barn if you wish to view the beauty of Turkey Run from the back of a horse. For camping reservations or additional information about Turkey Run State Park, call 765-597-2635 or visit their web site at http://www.in.gov/dnr/parklake/properties/park_turkeyrun.html . Brown County State Park Located in the beautiful hills of Brown County near Bloomington, this park is bursting with color when the leaves turn in the fall. It has excellent hiking and bridle trails. It takes about 3 hours or so to get to the park, which is 15 miles east of Bloomington. If you have problems getting into Brown County, you might consider going to nearby McCormick's Creek State Park, which, although smaller, is just as nice. For those of you who enjoy horseback riding, there is a trail ride barn which offers rides close to the park (call 812-988-8166). For camping reservations or additional information about Brown County State Park, call 812-988-6406 or visit their web site at http://www.in.gov/dnr/parklake/properties/park_browncounty.html . While you are in the area, be sure to visit the little town of Nashville, Indiana, which is an artists' colony. On nice days you can spend hours poking around in the quaint specialty shops, visiting the small art galleries, and viewing historic homes. Nashville is also known for its ``Little Nashville Opry.'' Local restaurants and accommodations are very good should you desire a brief respite from the hard camping life. Hoosier National Forest Also near Bloomington, this area offers 182,000 acres of rolling hills, hiking trails, lakes, and streams. The best place for camping is at the Hardin Ridge Recreation Area. The campsites are very nice and spacious. Since this area is right on Lake Monroe, there is a beach for swimming. To get to Hardin Ridge, take 46 east out of Bloomington, then go south on 446. Within several miles is the Hickory Ridge Hiking Trail. Being about 15 miles long, this trail can be used for both day hiking and backpacking. Indiana Dunes and Warren Dunes Located on the shores of Lake Michigan, these areas each have nice, large, sandy beaches for sunning and swimming, and good camping facilities. Also, there are hiking trails, and, at Indiana Dunes, a bicycle trail. But watch out for Trail #2 at Indiana Dunes. To get through alive you need wading boots and several cans of mosquito repellent per person. Over the years, the dunes have slowly moved inland and as they do so, more and more stable vegetation is able to grow on them. It is interesting to see how the type of plant life is related to the distance from the beach. To get to these fine spots, take I-65 north to I-94 (near Gary), then go east on I-94. For Indiana Dunes, follow the signs from I-94. For Warren Dunes, continue northeast on I-94 into Michigan to New Buffalo and take the Red Arrow Highway. From New Buffalo, go north on the Red Arrow Highway and then follow the signs. It is about 2 hours to Indiana Dunes and 2 1/2 hours to Warren Dunes. For camping reservations or additional information about Indiana Dunes, call 219-926-1952 or or visit http://www.in.gov/dnr/parklake/properties/park_dunes.html . For camping reservations or additional information about Warren Dunes, call 800-5432-YES. Kentucky Mammoth Cave Kentucky Mammoth Cave National Park is next to Cave City (what else!) in the heart of Kentucky. The park provides camping and hotel accommodations. Mammoth Cave is the world's largest cave system; the name comes from the size, not from the mammals. Total length of connected caves is over 215 miles, but “only” some 25 miles are open for tourists. You can't enter the cave by yourself for obvious reasons, but park rangers lead groups on many different tours. The easiest ones are only a few miles long in developed caves with paved walkways, and the most difficult is an all day “wild tour” (helmets and headlights provided by the park; you need just old clothes and boots). The wild tour is offered only in the summertime, and you should make reservations for it weeks or months in advance. There is usually room in the other tours, but we recommend making a reservation. Also reservations for a campsite are a must. The park is open year-round (a few holidays excluded), and the temperature in the cave is a constant cool 55-57 degrees. To get there you follow I-65 south for 5 hours. Turn right at the Cave City exit (about 30 miles before Bowling Green) and just follow the signs. There are other caves in that area too (they may be connected to Mammoth Cave), but you really want to go to the official Mammoth Cave National Park. For more info call (270)758-2180 or check out http://www.nps.gov/maca/ . Canoeing You have three choices when it comes to canoeing (assuming you don't own your own canoe): you can either rent a canoe and take it anywhere you want to, or you can get in on a packaged trip, or you can get in touch with the folks in the Purdue Canoe Club. The state of Indiana provides an extensive list of local canoe liveries at http://www.ai.org/dnr/outdoor/canoegui/liver.htm . If you dare put a canoe on the top of your car, and you know of a good stretch of river to take it on, you can rent a canoe from Burnham's (743-2136, on the Levee) or from Midwest Rentals (423-5541, Brown Street on the east side). Monitor Canoe Rental (589-3506) offers canoe trips on Wildcat Creek. They are located about 10 miles east of campus on SR 26. A little further from home, you can canoe on Sugar Creek at either Turkey Run or the Shades. Turkey Run Canoe Rental (phone: 569-6705 or 597-2456), located about an hour and a quarter south of Lafayette, is probably your best bet. It is located near Turkey Run State Park, about a half mile north of the junction of 41 and 47 on the east side of the road. They have approximately 600 canoes (some of which float) and offer you a choice of 5 trips lasting from 4 hours to 2 days. Usually, we go on their `A' (gentle) or `B' (Indiana whitewater which is the same as 'A') trips which last 4 to 6 hours and cost $13 for 2 people for all equipment and transportation. The rental corporation will pick you up downstream (`A' trip) or take you upstream (`B' trip). Clements also offers similar canoe trips on Sugar Creek near the Shades. They have a launch site at Deer's Mill near the entrance to the Shades, and another in Crawfordsville. The phone number is 362-9864. Additionally, Clements rents kayaks for those with an adventurous spirit. Don't attempt to eskimo roll in Sugar Creek, though; it isn't deep enough in most places, and you're liable to be run over by crazed canoeists while upside-down. Besides which, the kayaks don't come with a spray skirt, so the boat will just fill up with water and you'll be embarrassed. If you're really into whitewater, there's an artificial whitewater slalom course in South Bend; contact them at (219) 233-6121. It's usually open on weekends in the summer, and is benign enough for beginners. The Purdue Canoe Club holds callouts early each semester, and “roll sessions” in the RSC pool most Friday evenings. The Friday evening sessions are a good time to meet club members (and join up yourself; all you have to do is pass a pretty simple swimming test) and to work on your kayak/decked canoe roll, if you like. The club has a good selection of kayaks and canoes, including some nice Perception boats. They also take several trips each semester, involving streams of varying difficulty. If you'd like to progress beyond the “bambi whitewater” found in Indiana, these are the people to learn from. Some tips on your float trip: Wear old clothes and tennis shoes. Pack your lunch and camera in waterproof bags. Bring along a change of clothes in the car. Leave your wallet in your car and your car keys with the rental people. Bring along sunscreen and plenty of fluids to drink. Beer is allowed, but make sure you don't leave any cans in the river; just because some locals occasionally think it's a trash can doesn't mean that you have to reinforce the idea. Reservations may be a good idea if you are planning a weekend jaunt. Start early in the day; some canoe liveries won't let you start any later than 10 a.m. (to ensure that you'll get back in time to return the canoe). Don't run over kayakers - some of them edit survival guides and would like to be around for next year's edition. Tubing Tubing can be done on Wildcat Creek and Tippecanoe River. The Wildcat Creek is narrower and faster flowing than the Tippecanoe, but at certain times of the year the Tippecanoe is the only waterway around (besides the Wabash) with enough water in it. Be careful about blocking the road when you park. The local police have been known to tow as many as ten cars from near the creek on a Summer's afternoon. There are numerous access points to Wildcat Creek which have sufficient space to park your car. Wildcat Creek Park (Eisenhower Road, near 5200 East). This is where the north and south fork of the Wildcat join. Tippecanoe/Carroll county line (also 900 East and 650 East) - just go out State Road 26 East until you come to the aforementioned road, turn left and keep going until you reach the Wildcat. Topographical Maps of the area can be obtained at Hodson's Bay Company on the Levee (limited selection) or at Blue Print Specialty (1500 Union, Lafayette). Highway Engineering Dept. in the Courthouse Annex downtown Lafayette also sells a large-size county map for 50 cents. You will probably want to get a truck or tractor tube as opposed to a car tube. The tractor tubes are preferable because they generally don't have a long, possibly painful stem in them. One of the best places to buy tubes is McCord's Tire Store on Sagamore Parkway near the intersection with Main Street, or at their Levee Plaza location. Fishing Fishing opportunities are limited, but not nonexistent. Although there are no large lakes in the immediate vicinity, there are several rivers that contain bass, bream, and catfish. The Wabash always has people fishing for catfish (watch for them when you cross the bridge), but if you've ever looked at the water at the end of the summer, you may have second thoughts. The Tippecanoe River and Sugar Creek have smallmouth bass and catfish. It is best if you have access to a boat or canoe if you're interested in bass. There are 2 man-made lakes near Monticello (45 minute drive). The lakes themselves are overrun with speedboats, but the fishing below the dams can be quite good. It can also be terrible. Some of the best fishing can be found on small local ponds. Be careful where you fish - you might get more than you bargained for if you pick a pond on private property. You also need to have a valid state fishing license. Horseback Riding Deer Creek Stable, just south of Delphi, Indiana offers hourly trail rides when the weather is nice. The stable is a little grungy but the trails are great. The stable also offers longer trail rides on occasion with a stop at one of the local bars. Deer Creek Stable is located about 1/2 hour north of West Lafayette on SR 25. To get to the stables, take Sagamore Parkway east and turn left on to SR 25. After a half hour or so, the stables will be on your right. If you hit Delphi, then you have gone a little too far. It is usually a good idea to call ahead to make sure the trails are in working order. Phone number is 765-564-6350. Lake Freeman For a somewhat different summer Saturday night experience, you might try driving to Monticello (45 minute drive North) for a nighttime cruise on a sternwheeler on Lake Freeman. The cruises leave every two hours or so (beginning around 7:30) from the dock on the East side of the bridge in Monticello. The admission price ($7) buys you a ride for all evening (as many trips as you wish until 2 AM) and a free drink. The boat holds about 200 people and usually has a dance band. It is probably best to call ahead for information and reservation. Skiing Unfortunately, all ski areas lie some distance from Lafayette. There is one place in southwestern Michigan that's pretty popular called Swiss Valley, sometimes known as Swiss Ditch, and two places in Indiana, one near Greencastle, and one down by Bloomington, may satisfy your needs. In any case, don't forget to take along old gloves for the rope tows, sunglasses, and extra socks and jeans. Swiss Valley is a good place for beginners, with reasonable rates, but it's about three hours away from Lafayette near Jones, Michigan. SV has three rope tows, a T-bar, a J-bar, and triple and quad chair lifts serving about 13 runs, most of which are ideal for beginning skiers. Runs are short, to be expected in the Midwest. The highest “peak” at SV appears to have been man-made, judging by the gravel pit next to it. Vertical drop is 210 feet. Lift lines are not bad (5-10 minutes max on weekends.) For more info call (616) 244-5635 To get to Swiss Valley, take Rt. 25 to Logansport. Stay on 25 until it intersects with 31 near Rochester. Drive north on 31 to South Bend and Michigan, bypassing the city. 31 merges with 33 near South Bend; continue north to Niles, Michigan. Follow signs as though you were going to Three Rivers, and get on Michigan 60 east. After passing through Cassopolis, and before getting to Jones, there'll be a Swiss Valley sign on your left. Turn immediately after the sign (Patterson Mill Road) and go north three miles to the resort. Ski World is a new skiing resort in Nashville near Brown County State Park. To get there, go south on I-65 past Indianapolis until you get to Columbus. Then go west on 46 until you get to Nashville. About A little over an hour away down I-65 (or highway 52 to get away from traffic) lies Indianapolis. Indy is certainly not the culture capital of the world, but it does have some things to do not offered in Lafayette, and is much closer than Chicago. Here are a few ideas from those who have ventured to the heart of Indiana. For more info on what to do in Indy check out http://www.circlecity.com/ . Museums, Zoos & Shopping RCA Dome - Home of the Colts, just west of downtown. http://www.colts.com/ Market Square Arena - home of the Pacers. They have been a resurgent team of late, making it to the post-season for the last few years. Just east of downtown. Check out http://www.nba.com/pacers/ Shopping Triangle - consists of Keystone at the Crossing which has the Fashion Mall which is one of Indy's nicer shopping places. Located at I-465 and Keystone Rd. Next is Castleton which is a large shopping area and shopping center just down the road at I-465 and Allisonville Rd. On 62nd Street near Keystone is the third leg - Glendale Mall. Children's Museum - a fun spot especially if you have some kids along. Even big kids like us can enjoy it. It's just off of Meridian Street (actually Illinois Street) at 30th Street. There is some really funky art. You'll love it. Call them at (317) 924-5437 Broad Ripple - a section of Indy centered on Broad Ripple Avenue (alias for 62nd Street is this area) east of Meridian with a few art shops and lots of restaurants and night life spots. Castleton Square - You can hardly go wrong for food and shopping along 86th Street from the Westside to the far-east area called Castleton. Castleton Square Mall area is Indiana's most congested shopping area. No wonder. It boasts several shops exclusive to the city, such as Designer Shoe Warehouse, 8510 Center Run Dr., with enough shoes to please Imelda Marcos, all at discount prices. The mall houses 125 speciality stores and six department stores, Lazarus, Sears, JCPenney, Kohl's, L.S. Ayres and Montgomery Ward. Circle Center - Indy's newest shopping area, this lavish Downtown mall opened Sept. 7, 1995. It houses more than 100 specialty stores (including such favorites as FAO Schwarz and Godiva Chocolatier) and features anchor stores Nordstrom and Parisian. A third-floor food court encompasses nearly a dozen restaurants, and a nine-screen movie theater dominates the top floor. Corner of Washington and Illinois streets (317) 236-1940 Indianapolis Zoo - The Indianapolis Zoo is located at 1200 West Washington Street. Admission is $11.50 for adults and $7.00 for children. For additional information, phone (317) 630-2001 or visit http://www.indyzoo.com/ . Kids love this place. It includes a new butterfly house, has elephant rides, and features a dolphin show. There are also gardens that you can visit, the admission price is only one dollar extra if you purchase a zoo admission. Racing The INDY 500, the event that made Indianapolis famous, is less than 70 miles from Purdue. The race is held every year on Sunday of Memorial Day weekend beginning at 11:00 am. Tickets for next year's race go on sale the day following this year's race. You can't see the race too well from the infield but you can party. Race? What race? The partying begins several days before race day and continues until the approximately 300,000 fans and workers finally leave. On race day, scenes of happy people lounging in their recently-constructed beercan lawn furniture in front of their campers with recently-constructed beercan fences outlining their campsites give an indication to newcomers just what they may have missed. Everybody's got a homepage so for additional info, check out http://www.brickyard.com Besides the race, various “500” Festival events take place throughout the month of May. Many fans say that the time trials, which take place the weekend prior, are better than the race itself. The two-and-a-half mile oval track sits on 559 acres of ground located seven miles northwest of the center of the Hoosier capital. Besides the annual “500”, the Brickyard 400 is also held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. The Speedway Hall of Fame Museum (located inside the track between the No. 1 and No. 2 turns) is open 9am to 5pm year-round. Admission for adults is $2.00. Bus rides around the track are available for 50 cents, whenever the course is not being used for competition or test purposes. The 18-hole golf course outside the track and the 9-hole infield course are open April to October. About If you begin to feel like a corn stalk, Chicago is the nearest oasis of civilization (Indy does not count). To get to downtown, take I-65 North almost to Gary/Hammond. Then get on I-80/94 going west. Then stay on I-94 going north. Chicago, in case you haven’t heard, is a very large town, so it would probably be best to track down a native to find out the real scoop. Museums, Art Galleries, Aquariums & Zoos Museum of Science and Industry - in Jackson Park at 57th and Lakeshore. Free, invites participation in the exhibits (push buttons, etc.). Don't miss the coal mine, the Submarine, or the OmniMax theater. Free Thursday. (312)684-1414, Adults $6; Seniors $5; Children 5 - 12 $2.50; Under 5 free Combination Museum admission and Omnimax: Adults $10; Seniors $8; Children 5 - 12 $5.50 Field Museum of Natural History - in Grant Park (1200 Lakeshore). Free Wednesday. Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr. (312)922-9410 Adults $5; Seniors, students, and children 3 - 17 $3 Daily 9 a.m. - 5 p.m. Adler Planetarium - just east of Lakeshore (1300 Lakeshore). (312)922-STAR, Adults: $3, Children (4-17) $2; Seniors $2; Sky Show $2 Monday - Thursday: 9 a.m.- 5 p.m.; Friday: 9 a.m.- 9 p.m.; Weekends: 9 a.m. - 6 p.m. Shedds Aquarium & Oceanarium - (in Grant Park (1200 Lakeshore). 10,000 fish and sea creatures. They have a coral reef exhibit with Caribbean fish that are fed by scuba divers. The Oceanarium, added in 1990, features marine life rarely seen outside of the major coastal aquariums. Adults $8; Seniors and Children over 3 $6; Children under 2 free Daily 9 a.m. - 6 p.m.; Thursday evenings open until 9 p.m. Art Institute - Michigan Avenue at Adams Street. Minimal charge; a good collection especially of French 19th and 20th century paintings. Free Tuesday 111 S. Michigan Ave. (312)443-3600 Chicago Historical Society, Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago Academy of Sciences - museums also worthy of mention. Lincoln Park Zoo - Lincoln Park ( 2200 N. Cannon Dr. (312)742-2000 Daily 9 a.m. - 5 p.m., is downtown. http://www.lpzoo.com/ Brookfield Zoo - 1st Avenue and 31st St. in Brookfield, (708) 485-0263. is bigger and expanding. To get to Brookfield Zoo, take I-290 or I-55 and get off at First Avenue. $2 charge. Rush Street - is the night-life center of Chicago. Lots of bars and restaurants. Sears Tower - Adams St. and Wacker Dr. (you can't miss it). Tallest building in the world by some measures. For best results, pick a clear day. John Hancock Center Observatory - 875 N. Michigan Ave. (312)751-3681 Adults $5.75; Children 5 - 17 $3.25; Children under 5 Free Open everyday 9 a.m. - 12 a.m. Water Tower Place North side of the loop. Full of exotic shops (by local standards). You have to see it to believe it. Music There are many interesting clubs and bars all over Chicago. A good source of information on music, clubs, bars, theater, etc. in Chicago is http://centerstage.net/chicago/ . Chicago is famous for its Blues music. B.L.U.E.S. - 2519 N. Halsted, (312) 528-1012 B.L.U.E.S. Etcetera - 1124 W. Belmont, (312) 525-8989 Blue Chicago - 736 N. Clark, (312) 642-6261 Buddy Guy's Legends - 754 S. Wabash, (312) 427-0333 Checkerboard Lounge - 423 E. 43rd St., (312) 624-3240 For more info on Chicago Blues bars, check out http://nitescape.com/chicago/blues/ . Sports If you like sports, Chicago is the place to be. Chicago is home to a NFL football team, two major league baseball teams, an NBA basketball team, and a NHL hockey team. Baseball - Chicago White Socks and Chicago Cubs Chicago's two major league baseball teams are the White Socks and the Chicago Cubs. The White Socks home turf is Comiskey Park located at 333 West 35th Street, and the Cubs home turf is Wrigley Field located at 1060 West Addison Street and, no, that is not where Elwood Blues lives. For White Socks info, call (312) 924-1000 or visit http://www.chisox.com . For Cubbies info, call (312) 831-CUBS. Basketball - Chicago Bulls You want basketball? There's only one place to go. DA-BULLS. Don't even try to get tickets. For more Bulls info, visit http://www.nba.com/bulls . Football - Chicago Bears	Kayak roll
Deborah Kerr played the female lead in the film version of which musical ?	Kimberley Kayak Expedition 1 (part 1) – Canoeing, Kayaking & Other Adventures Kimberley Kayak Expedition 1 (part 1) Kimberley Kayak Expedition 1 I have completed six different paddles around the Kimberley Coast. This is a short story of just one of them. The Kimberley is one of the most spectacular and amazing places in the world. It has huge 10 metre tides, giant whirlpools, menacing boils, super fast currents, crocodiles, sharks, snakes, the heat, the isolation, rich culture, Aboriginal paintings and a lot of amazing country. To face different dangers every day makes the journey that much more special. To date I don’t know anyone who has paddled the region as extensively has I have. My six trips to the Kimberley are: •Broome to Mitchell Plateau 100 days solo. 1982 •Lake Argyle, Wyndham to Mitchell Plateau 54 days solo. 1983 •Drysdale River Expedition. 1985 •Derby to Prince Regent River and return to Broome 65 days. (With Ken Cornish) 1987 •Around the Kimberley Expedition, (kayak, mountain bike, run 3500kms) 91 days. With Ewen MacGregor. 1988 • Return to the Kimberley. With 5 friends. 2002 Kimberley Kayak Expedition 1 Kimberley Kayak Expedition 1982 100 days solo – Broome To Mitchell Plateau It struck me, with the power of a bull. My kayak was lifted and I was thrown off balance. I quickly regained my composure and turned to see the large shark that had just rammed my rear left side. I was horrified, the shark was at least 3 1/2 to 4 feet across, but I couldn’t determine its great length as it faded under the ocean. Oh no, there were two! A six footer, looking like a midget compared with the other that was directly behind my rudder. I stopped. The closest land was about 3 km away. I needed to get there but dashing off could make my position worse. As I powered forward again a large shape suddenly came into view. The big beast was leading the field so I braced myself for the worst, another hit, but nothing happened. The waiting game was nerve wracking. I knew the shark could overturn me like a matchstick and my chances of doing the Eskimo roll before it started chewing at me were pretty slim. I imagined them going into a complete frenzy and tearing my head off as I capsized. I couldn’t bear it, the thought made me shudder and I immediately stopped to put my helmet on! I attempted fastening the buckle with one shaking hand, my other was firmly grasping on the paddle keeping my kayak stable and ready or any action that might evolve. My trembling hands failed to do the strap up, so risking a capsize, I let go of my paddle and used two hands. I didn’t know what good the helmet was going to do, but somehow it felt safer! For 98 days I had been solo paddling and exploring the hostile environment of the Kimberley coast, where the unfriendly land gave little respite from the dangerous tides and ever present crocodiles and sharks. I still had 2 more days to go before the finish. I’d worked in the Kimberley region a few years previously. It’s wild beauty, isolation and challenging, potentially dangerous environment had attracted me to the idea of exploring the coastline by kayak. In 1898 Frank Hann, a pioneer pastoralists, reported no one without seeing, would believe that such a place exists in Australia. This country is a perfect revelation, especially to those who believe that Western Australia consists mainly of sandy deserts, treeless spinifex, plains and salt swamps. It is astounding. Rivers, creeks and lagoons intersect the whole country”. The jagged coastline, with steep rugged cliffs and many deep inlets and bays, is dotted with hundreds of islands and is as beautiful as any in Australia. Because no one else would go with me, I went alone. The route of the early coastal Explorer’s were roughly the itinerary followed. The kayak I used was a Nordkapp, especially designed for sea conditions and used for demanding sea expeditions throughout the world. My dream of paddling the Kimberley coastline came to me in 1980 so I had been preparing myself since then. The day of departure was getting close, I had organised a lift up to Broome with Robin Butcher who had a trucking company. Then before I was truly ready Robin rang me to say that he was driving his truck up to Broome in 1 ½ days time. My dream had suddenly become reality. Not having a lot of money to spare to drive my battered car 2300 km to Broome and back, Robin had kindly volunteered to give me a lift. As I placed the telephone back on the hook, my wife Jennifer looked stunned.” We only have one and a half days left together,” she said with great sadness in her voice. “Yes, I replied, trying to hide my own emotions. It was unbelievable, after 14 months of planning and training, we now had so little time to say goodbye. But I’m not going to see you for four months and I won’t know if you’re in trouble, she cried. As I cuddled her I also broke down. The reality of the dangers and the fact that I might not return suddenly hit me like a ton of bricks. At that time being close and cuddling seemed the only important thing in life. When I thought about it I was really going into the unknown and to a place that no-one that I knew had kayaked before. I was going to face crocodiles, sharks, huge tides, the second highest in the world, isolation and an area so remote no one would know if I got into trouble. And with no communications I will really be alone and have to rely on my own mental and physical toughness to get me through. The next day Jenny drove me to Robin’s place, where we stood in the middle of the water-logged yard, hugging in silence and finally saying our emotional farewells. Robin was a veteran of long distance hauls and once we had gathered momentum, he only had two short sleep stops on the way up to Broome. On the last stretch between Sandfire Roadhouse and Broome, which was notorious for straying cattle, I’d looked death in the eye for the first time. Robin was fresh from our stop at Sandfire. Bushes lining the gravel verges were just a blur as we rattled on. Like a ghost in the night, two bleary eyes of a steer came thundering from out of the bushes on the left. Robin had no chance to stop as we rumbled along at high speed. Robin quickly swerved from its path but it was destined to collide with us and then crunch. It hit the left mud guard hard, which was inches away from my legs. As we left the road the gravel verges flashed in front of my eyes as Robin tried to regain control of the truck. The truck started ploughing through the low scrub and bushes and was being shook by the ruts in the dirt. The steering wheel vibrated, but there was nothing I could do but to hope. Like a rally driver, Robin steered us out of the scrub and back onto the bitumen road and calmly said, phew that was close. We motored on as if nothing had happened but it was hard for me to relax and sleep. My kayak is tied on the top trailer When I arrived in Australia in 1973, my first real job was working on an irrigation project at Camballin, 80 kms east of Derby on the Fitzroy River. Five of my friends who I had worked with in Camballin now lived in Broome, so on arrival at least I knew a few people there. Bob and Mary Kirby had a small market garden 12 miles out of town. Mary was also an artist and sketched people and places of the Kimberley as well as having a small picture framing business. My other friends living in town were Bill Grogan, a school teacher and Gary and Kathy Robinson, who owned Tropical motors a mechanical business. With Bob and Mary living out of town, Gary and Cathy were delighted to accommodate me until my final departure date. With several minor jobs needing completing, and in no real hurry to leave I expected to be in town for 7 to 10 days. Everything took time. I had to go through my gear again, study my maps, acclimatise and inform the Coastwatch, the Customs, and the police in Broome, Derby and Koolan Island. Letting the Broome police know created a real problem as the police sergeant there didn’t take too kindly to my proposed expedition. The fact that I was a pom took the brunt of his criticism. How long have you been in Australia? Have you experienced the heat? What do you know about the country? Can you paddle? “You poms are all the same, you come over here and get lost in the desert and perish. Poms do all sorts of stupid things without preparing themselves,” he said. My 14 months of training and preparations didn’t help to change the sergeant’s mind. I had worked in the Kimberley, I held a 24 hour world kayaking distance record, I had achieved second and third places in the Avon Descent, but that didn’t matter and it even seemed to make him more and more aggressive and determined that he was going to stop me from leaving. The foul language he used to belittle me was quite disgusting, especially for a police officer. I made it clear that I was going to leave and I would let him know when, at a later date. As I left the police station my ears were ringing from the language and angry comments. It hadn’t helped to boost my confidence but I just knew I had to wipe his remarks out of my mind. Did he really hate poms or would he be like that to an Australian doing the same journey. There was one thing for sure, I would be pleased to see the back of him. I had been continually warned by people in Perth that I was mad doing this trip and the locals in Broome had similar opinions and estimated that I wouldn’t get passed the 200km mark, or my first obstacle, the carpets of sea snakes that swim along the coast. In the 10 days that I was in Broome I heard enough crocodile, shark and snake stories to last me a life time. I started to ask myself, could they be true? Was I mad? Should I throw in the towel and quietly return to Perth? No way was I going to put off a trip of a life time. I had confidence in my kayaking ability, myself, my will to survive and my preparation. Cathy’s parents who were holidaying in Broome at the time nicely pointed out to me that it would be an idea to make out my will. Although I wasn’t expecting to die, it was a good idea. The following day I visited the newsagent and returned with my Will papers, which Cathy’s parents witnessed me signing. I leave all my worldly goods to my wife, Jennifer Bolland. Signed Terence Edward Ronald Bolland. The Will was then left with Cathy until my safe return! The police sergeant still hadn’t finished with me. Two policeman came to the house to check my safety gear, my distress beacon, flares, etc. They went away confused about the frequencies of my distress beacon, so two more policeman returned the following day to see if they thought it was legal. Distress beacons were relatively new and they weren’t totally reliable. As the days passed my preparations were nearing completion and the time spent in Broome had given me a chance to acclimatise, as in Perth it was winter, but in Broome the temperatures were in the 30s. In that same period my friend Bill Grogan sent my food parcels to school teachers he knew at One Arm Point, Koolan Island and Kalumburu, as well as to the mining camp at Mitchell Plateau. Other food packs and spare equipment were given to John Woodman at Pearls Pty Ltd, who would send my food and gear to Kuri Bay. It had been a hectic 10 days and I was eager to leave the comforts of Broome to find out if I could cope with such a hazardous journey. For Gary’s and Cathy’s young son, it meant that he could have his bed back, for me though, it was hard pillows for the next 3 months. On July 14th 1982, my friend Bill Grogan drove me to the town beach. I had a mountain of gear to pack into the kayak compartments so Bill left me to start the long and tedious job of packing. Every item had its own place and trying to cram in those last minute luxuries that I bought, just wasn’t possible. Packing for the first time turned out being pretty daunting. If I didn’t have it in the kayak when I left I wasn’t going to be able to get it on the way. The tourists walking along the beach asked the inevitable, “what are you doing,” “where are you going?” Wyndham, I replied. There was a pause, I could see them trying to work out where Wyndham was in relation to Broome and if I was actually being serious. ‘You’re mad,’ the bigger man with the beer gut said. What’s new I thought. Sally Alston from the local paper arrived. We had already talked about my trip, but now she wanted several photos for the article. As I posed for photographs the police sergeant drew up. I was expecting him to come over and tell me again that I couldn’t go, but instead he just sat there in the comfort of his car and watched me. As I finished packing there was a slight wind blowing across the brilliant turquoise water which created small waves that pounded the beach. At last I dragged my kayak into the water and with a couple of paddle strokes the kayak sliced through the small waves. A sense of relief came over me. I was away at last and everything I needed was stored in my kayak. Now I could witness for myself the carpets of sea snakes, the attacking crocodiles, and those wondrous whirlpools that I had heard about. It was nearly time to leave. Ahead 3 months or more paddling around the Kimberley coast alone. I was paddling a Nordkapp Kayak. Waving a final farewell to my well-wishers, I paddled out into Roebuck Bay, named by another Englishman William Dampier in 1699. His explorations certainly out shadowed my own but as I moved across the bay that once had 300 pearling luggers working out of the nearby Dampier Creek, I felt my own small expedition had similarities. My kayak had little freeboard due to all the weight I carried One hundred years ago the thriving town of Broome also boasted six hotels and had people from Malaya, China, Koepan, Manila, West Indians, as well as Aboriginal and Europeans that all worked in the pearling industry. Pearling had soon become Western Australia’s most important industry but the plastic button caused the industry to decline and was finally overtaken by gold. In 1942, Japanese Zeroes attacked the defenseless town, destroying sixteen flying boats and several other planes on the aerodrome including two American Liberators. Many passengers occupying the flying boats died. Today, only memories and museum pieces reflect the past, the 300 old luggers have dwindled to half a dozen and instead of workers, the tourists have started to invade the tropical coast. I passed a lugger that was washed up on the beach near the golf course and it brought back memories of my time in Broome in 1973-74. It could have been the same lugger that I was aboard when it took part in the annual Shiju Matsuri festival lugger race back then. Today tourists come from miles to experience the festival’s atmosphere. As I passed under the high stilts of the 882 metre Broome jetty, I dodged several fishing lines before moving around the coast towards Gantheaume Point and the place of the 130 million-year-old dinosaur prints. The dinosaur prints are only visible at low tide, some 30 metres from the high tide mark, but there was a concrete cast of them above the high tide mark. I carried on paddling around the coast to the southern part of the deserted Cable Beach, where I stopped for my first night’s camp. I only saw two or three figures on the beach in the far distance. A washed-up lugger Cable beach, the town’s favourite tourist attraction, was still deserted when I paddled beyond it and into the unknown, with my hopeful destination being Wyndham, an estimated 2000kms and 3 or 4 month paddle away. There was little of interest along this long stretch of beautiful beach line so when I saw a vehicle burning along the beach I waved enthusiastically, but they didn’t see me. I was just a speck in the ocean and of no important and it seemed as if I didn’t even exist. Camped next to Barred Creek Two days later I could see a lone walker striding it out along the beach. Soon after a landrover roared over the white soft sand but again it was oblivious to me being out alone on the ocean. The isolated beaches stretched into the far distance and my only companions now were scattered jellyfish and 2 dolphins slicing through the water beside me. The silence was broken by a mysterious noise. I scanned the sky for signs of a plane, but the cloudless sky revealed nothing. Everything was calm; a ship on the horizon, another turtle and a dugong passed by. The noise became louder, it was eerie, and then I realised that the sound was a small surf wave hitting some rock ledges in the distance. With the mystery over, I passed the next point and spotted another vehicle but it vanished within minutes. I now entered into an arena of reefs, and all around me the surf kept rearing and breaking. I had to find a way through, but as I challenged the next wave, it broke smothering me with whitewater and hurtling me backwards. After the wave subsided, my second attempt was more successful. The excitement was soon over, however my adrenalin was still pumping. My camp at Carnet Bay was marked by a large red buoy that had been washed up on the beach. The bay had a bit of history so as I focused on the exposed sand flats, I wondered if any of the $500,000 worth of diamonds was still buried out there. In March 1942, Japanese Zeros, returning from a bombing raid off Broome, chanced upon a DC3 plane piloted by a naturalised Dutchman and former Russian, Ivan Smirnoff. The plane was hit and the engine burst into flames and although wounded Smirnoff made a perfect pancake landing on the sand flats, close to breaking waves that put out the fire. Smirnoff had been given a package before leaving Java, which unbeknown to him contained diamonds. Soon after the accident one of the crew members returned for the mail and the mystery package from the plane. In the process a wave knocked him over, scattering the items in the water. Some of the things were rescued but not the package of diamonds. A mystery surrounds who eventually found them, but the authorities were only able to track down some of them. It is said that a few were buried in a petrol can near an Aborigine’s hut, a drunken beachcomber was seen giving diamonds away, and a Chinese shopkeeper claimed he had stones worth $20,000 given to him in exchange for goods. I didn’t think it worth my while to go searching. The coastline was quite varied With the tide being fairly high this morning it covered all the sand bar that I had seen the previous day. I dragged the kayak through several dumping waves and with the use of my paddle as support I hopped into my small cockpit. A few minutes later a dugong, looking like a large sea cow, swam by with no concern of me at all. I had dived with them at Coral Bay several years earlier and at that time it was a beautiful experience. A little further as two dolphins came by I heard a strange noise. At first I thought I was imagining it, but I kept listening and it was real. I thought it was some strange noise coming from the deep but it was a coast-watch plane in the distance. I thought they had failed to see me yet again but then the plane turned around and dived towards me. It circled and then flew off towards the Lacepede Islands, leaving me to my own thoughts. Cliffs and beaches Having rounded Red Bluff I felt the tidal influences and the wind blowing directly towards me. The boys on the custom vessel had told me that it was all uphill against the tide, after I rounded Red Bluff. They also told me to watch out for the masses of sea snakes that were so thick they formed large carpets in the ocean. I hadn’t seen a snake so far. Halfway across the bay to Low Sandy Point I saw my first crocodile. Those nobly eyes and craggy nostrils gave me the shudders but as I looked closer it turned out being a stick, which made me much happier. Then I saw two dolphins leap high out of the water. I hadn’t seen them jump so high before so it was a new experience, one of many I expected to witness on my trip north. I caught up with them and there were four, playing about and snorting. They were in no hurry as they mingled and circled me, two of them even slid underneath my kayak. Cliffs and beaches I eventually came to my resting place and dragged my kayak up above the falling tide. The hard day had taken its toll, I needed to wash and freshen up straight away. With the absence of crocodiles in this area I was able to lay in the magical northern waters, relaxing and soothing away my aches and pains. Being no restriction on nude bathing out here I was naked as a jay bird but my white backside and the inquisitive flies soon reduced my bodies exposure time in the sun. I didn’t really relish sitting in the kayak for hours with a sore, red bum. I lifted the kayak on my shoulder and walked. The 35kg weight was killing me and once I hit the soft sand I dropped it and dragged it the rest of the way. There was no doubt, I needed a lighter boat if I was to carry it or I was going to break my back. Along this sandy section of coastline I used a mosquito mesh tent but the smoke from my fire was often a real nuisance as it wafted through the mesh. The view from inside though was brilliant. I had a panoramic view of the stars and the lighthouse on Lacepede Island was flickering away. Several bright stars were being lost every few minutes as the earth slowly revolved. I could see bodies of water on the sand flats that had been left behind by the falling tide and the stars above were being mirrored in them. In the far distance white foaming waves reflected as they broke continually in the shallows. When I crept out of my mosquito proofed tent two oyster catchers were searching the beach for food and a kestrel was perched on a log on the sand hills. The heavy dew had saturated everything. The surf was dumping as I waded out with my kayak waiting for the big ones to pass. The backwash was playing havoc, dragging the kayak back and forth up the sand. A rogue wave pushed the kayak sideways. I tried to straighten it out but another wave smashed into it forcing it sideways up the beach and slamming it against my legs. I trotted back quickly but eventually the surf beat me. It bowled me flat on my back with the kayak hurtling towards me. As the wave subsided the kayak was sucked back into the trough leaving me with bruised legs. After bailing the water out, my second attempt was more successful. Passing Camp Inlet I focused on the breakers that were slamming into a low point off Beagle Bay 2 kms ahead. Here three dolphins passed me and numerous turtles surfaced gasping for air. I was told of a pearling hut in Beagle Bay where I could obtain water. The bay was 20kms deep and 8 kms wide. In the distance haze I noticed a shape in the bay which soon turned out being a yacht which was opposite a hut on the mainland. I felt excited as I was going to talk to people. I paddled over to the hut and saw people walking around. I pulled in beside an inflatable boat as a man walked towards me. Nearby a couple and two children were running over the sand dunes. I asked if I could camp there the night and Steve who owned the shed, said no problem. It took four of us to lift the heavy kayak onto dry land without unloading it, so we could go for a coffee. Dennis and Annette Ford and their two children were from the yacht in the bay. They were on their way to Darwin. It had taken them 6 months to get here from Perth. Beagle Bay Pearl Farm The shed was part of Steve’s Pearling operations in the bay. He had pontoons out in the bay and a cray boat anchored around the corner. Later on that afternoon when the tide was out Steve and I walked along the mud flats to his crayboat to drain the bilge which was listed over in the mud. On our return Dennis and young Russell were catching mud crabs in the mangroves and soon after we were heading across to the yacht in their rubber duck for an evening meal. Annette welcomed me aboard and within 30 minutes we were eating the crab for entrée followed by lobster and salad and fruit salad for sweets. It was a hard life for yachties! Soon after breakfast Steve and I went to the cray boat. Not only did it have bilge pump problems but it had generator problems as well, but it eventually started. We moved to a pontoon anchored in the bay and Steve started sorting out some of the dead shells that were in the hanging wire baskets beneath the pontoon. Annette watching Steve sort the shells The pontoon was made of tree saplings, bound by rope and 44 gallon drums which were keeping it afloat. To balance on the saplings which were a few feet apart, was hazardous to say the least. It would have been less dangerous to be a tight rope walker. Steve said he had fallen off them several times. The dead shells from the baskets were sold but the ones that the pearl had taken were left for 18-24 months to develop the pearl. All the dead shells were later being cleaned by Steve while Dennis, Annette and myself did a spot of fishing, but without success. Steve sorting shells Later Steve cruised up a creek to show me the Norman’s Lugger Camp and old boat building yard. In the early days Beagle Bay was a busy place with many boats being built there. We could see old water tanks, anchors, keels and other assorted bits and pieces. For dinner Steve cooked fish balls and we had a great discussion about the Falklands war. Cloud cover had made the temperature too hot to sleep in. My mind was very active thinking about the rest of the trip, improvements to my gear and the hardships ahead. Finally when I did sleep, I awoke after having a nightmare. Jenny was having a baby. After cooking Steve’s breakfast of fish balls, I washed my clothes in freshwater, checked through all my gear and added a strip of fiberglass along the hull at the stern of the kayak. This was to prevent the kayak from wearing out along that section as I would be dragging the kayak up the beach all the time. Although I had been away for 8 days, two of my collapsible water bottles, made in Canada had already split at the seams. Not very encouraging so I was pleased I had bought several different water bottles with me. Dennis, Annette and their two children had left in the early hours of the morning in their yacht Spindrift 111. It was sad to see them sail out of the bay. At lunch time Steve’s sister Judy and an Aboriginal friend Nan arrived with a load of coconut palm trees to plant around the shed. That afternoon Steve made the decision to go into Broome with his sister and friend to conduct some business. He started showing me how to use the power plant so I had electricity when it got dark but I quickly decided to go as well. I had 30 seconds to gather my gear and jump in the back of his ute. After running to the ute I threw my swag into the spare wheel, jammed in my back side and wedged my feet on the tailgate and away we went. The high powered engine sped us off along the rough sandy track, across a flood plain and back again through the bush, with only just enough room between the trees for the ute to fit through. Over every bump the three 44 gallon drums sharing the ute tray with me jumped around quite dangerously. As the dust flew and branches whizzed passed my ears, the fast bumpy ride was quite exciting. After about 20 miles we came to the main gravel track to Broome, but that didn’t mean the road improved, in fact in places it was worse. At one stage one of the drums tried to jump into my lap as we criss-crossed the road avoiding the pot holes. Moments later the 4 wheel drive slid sideways off the road and into the bush. Steve regained control and stopped. “Are you alright,” he asked, threw me an orange and took off at full sped again. Within two hours we were in Broome and Steve dropped me off at Bill’s place. Unfortunately Bill wasn’t in, so I bought an ice cream and queued up at the telephone. The telephone system in Broome was awful as there was no direct dialing system and all calls had to go through the operator on a ring back system. There were too many waiting so I walked to Gary’s place to find that Gary and Kathy were at Mary’s art exhibition opening night. It was about 2kms to the library so I picked up my pack and ran there. I knew it was Mary’s art exhibition opening night, but it was so lucky that Steve had decided to come to town on that night. By the time I arrived I was dripping wet with perspiration. As I walked through the door, Mary’s face lit up, she was so happy to see me, especially on this night. We met with open arms. In the few years I had known her she had always been like a mum to me. When I left Broome no one ever believed that they would ever see me again, well not so soon at least. But that’s what life is all about, being full of surprises. You can’t imagine how much it meant to me, walking in as I did. The timing was perfect. The other fantastic thing about the night was that Mary sold 30 of her 40 sketches, at an average price of $150.00 so she was very pleased. She also got more orders to do copies. Mary started sketching in Camballin, east of Derby although she had been a commercial artist in New Zealand. After saying my farewells to Mary, Bob and friends I telephoned Jenny. She seemed very relaxed and was coping well without me. By 5.00pm the following day Steve and I left Indian Ocean Pearls in Chinatown and headed back to Beagle Bay. The ute had a full load and we were pulling a trailer which got a flat tyre 30 minutes down the track. We left it there and headed for the Beagle Bay Community where Steve robbed a tyre from an abandoned car. Steve decided to go back to his camp instead of fetching the trailer and by the time we got there it was 10.00pm. At midnight Steve and I went out in the bay to move his boat on the high tide so it didn’t get stranded on the mud flats as he needed to use it the following day. Steve went back to fetch the trailer in the morning so I decided to take a paddle on high tide to Alligator Creek to where the old Norman’s Lugger Camp and boat building yard was. I had arrived too soon as the tide had covered most of the derelict pieces so I paddled up and down Alligator Creek trolling a lure in the hope of catching a fish. I was pretty proud when I caught my first fish, looking similar to a barracuda, then I caught another and another. I was on fire and I had teeth and hooks flying in all directions. Being wedged into my unstable kayak, it wasn’t the most ideal place to land such an aggressive fish. When enough was enough I gutted them next to the Lugger Camp. The site of the old Norman’s Lugger Camp By the time Steve had returned to the shed from fetching the trailer that morning I had fried the fish, but Steve wasn’t as enthusiastic as I was about them, he said they were Wolf Herring and were shit fish and full of bones. He was right, they were riddled with bones, but to me they didn’t taste too bad. I had written for permission to visit the Beagle Bay community so I decided that today was the day to take off. I needed to have a high tide to get right up the creek to where I could get out close to the settlement, so I left on the incoming tide in the hope the tide would be big enough to get me right up the creek. When I left the pearling shed it was impossible to see the creek at the far end of the huge bay so I took a compass reading before leaving. From a distance, two pelicans standing at the creek entrance looked enormous, but were a shadow of them-selves when I got up close. With the help of the current I quickly passed them and entered the domain of curlews and other marsh birds that waded on the sandbars and creek edges. There were also majestic Brahminy kites perched on trees every few hundred metres along the creek as well as fish that leapt from the shallow water and often startling me. Ibis called out as they flocked from the mangroves and white herons darted in front of me. It was a real bird sanctuary so at times I stopped paddling, relaxed and enjoyed my dried fruit lunch as the swift current hurried me along the creek for kilometres. Spectacular clouds of birds circled overhead and a pelican became agitated as a bank of water, created by the swift tidal current upsurge, raced towards it. Eventually I lost the mangroves and the creek narrowed to a 1 – 2 metre wide ditch that cut through the bare mud flats which crawled with crabs. A large flock of black cockatoos, oblivious of my presence, squabbled and screeched in the trees on the edge of the salt pan a few hundred metres away. The creek eventually became too shallow to paddle so I dragged the kayak onto the mud and over to the trees where the cockatoos were and where I was to share the night with hoards of mosquitoes. Near the end of the creek. Beagle Bay that way. After a pancake breakfast I headed across the salt pan and found a track leading towards the mission. The 4km track was firm and great walking but the sun was hot although trees started to appear and gave some shade. Amongst the trees several different birds were whistling, crowing and cooing and the sky was noisy with screeching black cockatoos. Cattle and dingo tracks were spread across the sand patches and when the track turned into thick bulldust, walking suddenly became a little more difficult, but luckily it didn’t last long. The country was becoming more and more beautiful as the gum trees and pandanas palms thickened. At last I sighted the church. Cattle charged across the track in front of me and horses grazed inside a paddock contained by a buckled wire fence. They fled when I approached. As the church bells tolled midday, I met Mathew Cox, the community’s headman, who I had earlier obtained permission from to visit the community. I took refuge in the shade of a cool white wall and ate nuts and sultanas. I was approached by father Francis, who was 79 years old and had been in the Kimberley for 52 years. A few minutes later brother Joseph, another pioneer of the Kimberley came across and invited me over for lunch. This kind 80 plus year old clergy man said he had been kicked out of Germany many years ago. Then, as we were preparing to eat, a younger brother William walked in and joined us for lunch. Sacred Heart Church, Beagle Bay They have mass here on a Saturday rather on a Sunday because most of the Aboriginals go fishing on Sunday. Father Francis had a busy afternoon as he had to conduct a funeral, so I moved over to the church to take some pictures before it started. The church was built with local materials in 1916-18 and is decorated throughout with pearl shells. The Pearl Shell altar was extremely stunning. While the mother of pearl has been used to decorate the main altar, the interior of the church is decorated with shells, including mother of pearl, cowries, volutes and olives. As I was changing film an Aboriginal man came up to me and introduced himself as Butcher Joe. He was an artist and writer and his works have appeared in several books. He was very sad and lonely, as his wife had just died and it was her funeral. A few minutes later a ute drew up to the church and the coffin was unloaded as Butcher Joe walked silently across to the father’s house. At 3.45pm the church bells rang out. People had come from miles around and although I didn’t know if it was my place to be there, I followed and sat at the back of the church. The church soon echoed with noises as kids, dogs and adults screamed and talked. A dogfight broke out in the doorway and the loser came yelping into the church, but after receiving a swift slap on the backside from a sister it soon darted out again. Like myself many people didn’t know the prayers or hymns so stood in silence. I was surprised to hear the Aboriginals sing and pray in Latin. They had a beautiful tone. Butcher Joes grand daughter, who was about 30 read out a piece and the emotion of the whole affair made her breakdown in tears. When the service was over the ute returned for the coffin and the crowd grew larger as the procession moved through the township. The sun was going down behind the pandanus palms and gum trees and the white crosses shone brilliantly behind the large crowd that had gathered. As four men lowered the coffin, children and relatives threw handfuls of dirt onto it. As the father prayed and the coffin was buried, Butcher Joe, who was embracing a friend, broke down. I hadn’t been to a funeral before and what a moving experience it was. I had to rub a few tears from my eyes and try to hide my own emotions. When the prayers were over, Father Francis hugged Butcher Joe and as people began to filter away a dog approached one of the crosses and urinated on it. As I moved back towards the church the beautiful red westward skies, associated with the massive dark clouds, turned the brilliant white church a tinge of pink. Father Francis invited me to stay in their guestroom for the night and join them for meals, and use a toilet that three friendly frogs had made their home. It had been such an interesting but sad day and I had leant so much about the Catholic Church and the Aboriginal community. I slept extremely well with my head cushioned in a soft pillow. The church bells rang out at 6.00am. I didn’t really want to get out of bed as I was so comfortable but I promised myself that I would go to church. It was before sunrise and mist lingered over the nearby fields and apart from a crow squawking the mission was still and quiet. I walked over to the white church that contrasted with the darker skies. Inside Father Francis, brother Joseph and William were meditating. After 3 sisters entered, mass was conducted and concluded in 30 minutes. I left the still and silent mission grounds and walked briskly back to my kayak hoping the sun would rise to warm my icy hands. After 40 minutes I could see my kayak under the shade of a tree on the edge of the mud flat. There was no water in the creek that I came up so to get back to the water I had to drag the kayak along it for some 500 metres before I found water coming out of another creek. It wasn’t enough water to float the kayak so I tried dragging my kayak across the creek. The mud was deep and it was like a big suction pad making it impossible to move. To add frustration my feet wouldn’t grip so I had to unload the kayak before being able to cross two other small creeks. I should have waited for the tide, but I was too impatience to get going. It was extremely hard work to reach deep enough water to float the kayak and by that time I was panting and my heart was beating like I had done a 20 kilometre sprint. I returned for my gear and by the time I was ready to load the kayak my whole body was muddied. I loaded and slipped off the muddy bank and into the channel and immediately barged through a bush in my way. I paddled for several kilometers but then the channel widened and became shallow with sand bars which made me exit the kayak again and drag it across them. The birds that had greeted me on the way up were now silent. They just watched me glide passed them heading towards the creek entrance and into the deeper lake. As I left the creek and started my journey across the lake I rigged up a lure and although there were several jumping fish, none of them fancied my lure. A large manta ray joined in and leapt through the air beside me and slapped down on the water putting on a great show. I was now feeling much better in the deeper water after such a hard portage. When I reached Steve’s Camp it was deserted so I prepared myself to leave on the morning tide. At sunset I walked over to a bunch of pandanas palms as I had been told that if I dug down beside a pandanas palm I would find water. I dug down with a shovel for over a metre and didn’t even find a damp patch. Close by I noticed that Steve had dug down about 2 metres and had lined it with two 44 gallon drums and still no water. Although I lost a lot of sweat by digging, I gained a beautiful picture of the sun setting through the palms. Sunset through the pandanas palms With the wind howling across the 10km wide bay I wasn’t looking forward to the paddle ahead. I had been spoiled over the last few days and now I had to face the elements again. On the other side of the bay I landed on a lovely sheltered beach surrounded by pandanas palms and healthy looking trees. I dived into my hatch and retrieved some rice pudding that I had cooked up the previous night. It was beautiful. I strolled along the beach eating it and thought about my friend Steve Pilton who would be racing in the Avon Descent today. We had paddled the Avon as pairs twice and had come second and third. I wanted a photo of my beach, but for some reason my expensive Nikonos V underwater camera wouldn’t work. I had no one to share my trip so photos were a big part of recording it. I still had my trusty Minolta SRT 101 that I generally used on land. It had been stolen once when I was in Senegal, West Africa, but I managed to get it back after the thief was caught. Once around Emerian Point and Chimney Rocks the fight against the wind was more strained but the coastline became very scenic, sandstone cliffs that had formed strange shapes and figures in the rock. As I landed close to Perpendicular Head a sea eagle took off from a nearby tree and hovered over me. Joined by a number of hawks they peered down upon the impressive crumbling cliffs that I was walking beneath on my afternoon stroll. Crabs and cockroaches by their thousands darted around the reefs. Added to the fascination of the sandstone shapes and figures there were caves with assorted sizes of chimneys that were eroded in their roofs, which you would expect to be featured in fantasy books. Interesting formations I returned to camp by the cliff top, being aware of the unstable edges and gathering burrs on my trousers as I pushed through the bush. Once I had collected firewood I stripped off to air my body and have a good wash. Before leaving Broome, Bob Kirby had given me a large chunk of salted meat and after having a portion of it every day for two weeks it was getting low. I will miss it when it’s gone. As the days passed I became more confident in the things I did. Soon I had a routine worked out and was always busy. My own priority was my own safety. My lifejacket and survival vest were always worn whilst canoeing. Even if I had to survive by myself without the boat, the survival jacket contained water, food Eltar distress beacon, flares, compass, heliograph mirror, fishing lines, mask, snorkel and every conceivable safety device. Small things, habits practiced, pleased me. I washed several times a day and attended to any cuts so they didn’t become infected. The cliffs were so varied At the same time as I was heading north New Zealander Paul Caffyn was paddling around Australia and was in the area. I was hoping to meet up with him, but with all my detours we missed each other. Only the eagles and hawks acknowledged my leaving across the very chopper Pender Bay. The waves hitting my bow splashed into my face leaving a mixture of salt spray and blockout cream to creep into my eyes. The irritation and blinding effect made me squint uncomfortably towards the sun. As well as chafing under my arms and around my waist the crossing was far from enjoyable. Most of the chaffing was caused by the salt spray drying on my clothes, which in turn felt like cardboard. It became very important to change clothes every day and wash the salt from them regularly. As the tide receded, the bay became shallower causing reefs with breaking waves to appear. I suddenly became trapped inside them and had no alternative to head out to sea trying to escape the shallowing waters. My fear was to be trapped on a sandbar in the middle of the huge bay. As I cut through the breaking waves other reefs ahead were appearing at an alarming rate. The tide was going out in front of my eyes. I continued paddling over several more breaking waves towards Cape Borda landing about 400 metres from the beach. I unloaded the kayak and dragged it on the sand flats and walked to an old stock yard. After finding two fresh water soaks I returned to watch the tide creep up pushing my kayak towards the beach. It looked quite funny as it moved closer to my camp on its own. My spare split paddles were used as tent poles I woke early to a moon on the horizon reflecting its light and its shape in the shallow water that created a multitude of moons across the bay, similar to the Stairway to the moon in Broome. Once through the breakers I headed towards Tilbata Creek and Shag Rocks. Vapour clouds screened the sun, the glare forcing me to squint and fall into a trance. My limbs felt heavy after two hard days of paddling but within two hours the breaking waves around shag rock forced me to liven up and be more alert. The coastline became rugged, the rocky cliffs being battered by the pounding surf and the increasing wind ruffled the weedy sea. I continued along the coast half asleep and when I saw two figures in a tiny flat bottom dingy in the ocean opposite a creek I thought I was losing my mind. The dingy was so small I didn’t believe it was on the ocean. As I drew closer I realised that there was an Aboriginal man and a white man in the boat. I eventually pulled up to boat and met Sandy an Aborigine and Paul, from the WA Museum, who were fishing. We talked and as I was interested in what they were doing, they invited me to spend some time with them, so I jumped at the idea. I met up with Paul and Min from the museum and an Aboriginal family On shore I met Min who was also from the Perth museum, and Aboriginals Ester, Sandy’s partner, Aunty and younger Aboriginals Peter and Burnadet. They were teaching Min and Paul the traditional ways of fishing and hunting. Sandy and Peter had caught a turtle earlier, so in the afternoon I watched it being dissected and later that day we had turtle, fresh fish and beautiful oysters for dinner. When morning arrived I went spearing crabs with Peter and Burnadet. We devoured fish and crabs for lunch and then caught 12 reasonable sized fish in 1 ½ hours, mostly blue bone and rock cod, and had a feast for our evening meal. Going for a fish For my next valuable lesson Sandy was going to show Paul and I how to make a spear so we walked out to a wattle tree forest to find a slim but straight sapling. On the way Sandy spotted several native bees entering a small hole in a tree branch. The bees were black and smaller than the common fly and apparently unable to sting. To get to the honey though, Sandy had to chop at the limb of the tree with his tomahawk to get to the nest and collect the honey. The honey tasted superb mixed in my rice pudding that night. After selecting three of the straightest saplings from the forest, Sandy took his tomahawk and cut them down before trimming their branches. We returned to camp and lit a fire. As soon as it was giving out a hot constant heat Sandy put his 8 foot sapling in the fire at the point where it needed straightening. The spear was heated at that point and then taken out of the fire and placed between a fork in a tree and then Sandy put pressure on the part needing straightening and held it there to cool. Every time it cooled it got a little straighter. Sandy repeated this over and over again until the spear was straight. When the spear was perfect, a steel rod was bound to the end but first the rod was made hot and a ridge was burnt into the end of the spear for the rod to fit perfectly and firmly. Before steel rods the Aboriginals just heated up the end of the spear to harden it. Things have changed. Sandy also used his bare feet to bend the heated spear. He didn’t seem to be effected by the heat, but I wasn’t game to try it on my tender feet. Sandy straightening a wattle to make a spear It was a slow process but it worked well. Having seen Sandy make a spear it inspired me to give it a go but first I had to walk back to the small wattle tree forest, which was over an hours walk away. When I started looking for a sapling I soon realised that Sandy had taken the straightest ones so my choice was a little more limited, nevertheless I cut two wattles just in case one went wrong. Paul making his own spear Back at camp I made a fire but my first attempt to straighten a sapling failed as I left my first wattle in the fire too long and it started to roast. My second attempt turned out to be quite professional for a novice, and I was quite proud. It took several hours to make it though as the bark had to be taken off with my pocket knife, it had to be fired and straightened several times and then a groove along the point had to be shaped with my knife and then the steel rod had to be heated to burn a better seat into the spear. To finish off I wrapped copper wire around the metal rod to keep it in place. Hey presto – my own spear. How clever was that. From then on I carried the spear along the outside of my kayak and when I went bush I carried it at all times. It became a friend, a protector, a walking stick and whenever it was close by I felt more secure. My survival course continued. Our next lesson was to watch Sandy do a spot of fishing, but this time he wouldn’t be using a fishing line, he would be doing it the traditional way and spearing a fish from a tree. Paul and I sat in a dingy in the creek about 20 metres from where Sandy had perched himself on a mangrove limb. He sat there several metres above the rising tide with spear in hand just waiting for the tide to rise and the fish to arrive. For over an hour he waited, and we waited and watched as the tide flowed up the creek and crept higher and higher. Sandy’s eyes were glued to the water which eventually started to cover the mangrove limb and then reach his waist. We couldn’t believe how patient he was. We could see fish swimming below him, but Sandy made no attempt to spear them. By this time I was getting a little bored as there was nothing happening and we had been waiting a long time. Then when the tide was full, Sandy’s left hand started to guide the spear underwater and his right hand slowly stretched to the top of the spear. Suddenly – wham! He plunged the spear beneath the water and fell in after it. For several seconds Sandy was under the water and the surface was a mass of bubbles. We didn’t know if Sandy had speared a fish, or if Sandy was drowning? Suddenly Sandy’s head broke the surface. He had a large grin on his face and to our surprise he still had his thick spectacles still in place. Moments later he raised his spear and on the end he had a large Trevally fish. Because his spear was barbless, he had no choice but to dive in and place his hand over the end of the spear to prevent losing the fish. Keeping one hand over the spear though made it difficult for Sandy to swim to the dingy. It had taken him nearly two patient hours to spear the fish, it was a big one and he didn’t want to lose it. We didn’t realise until later that Sandy was only after the Trevally fish and not the other fish that had swam beneath him. For generations Sandy’s relatives have stood on that particular mangrove bough to spear Trevally fish. We returned to camp for another fish lunch and then Paul mentioned he had a special task for us to do. There was ancient old fish trap at Karrakacka Bay, near Swan Point, which he wanted to survey before it fell into worse shape than what it was at the moment. They were hoping to build a scale model later back at the Perth museum. Our drive took us over a rough bush track over a salt plain, a dry billabong and finally over sand dunes, where we came to an abrupt halt. At the dunes we had to let the tires down to give the vehicle more traction, but as the vehicle climbed the sand dune, a branch from one of the scrappy trees became lodged under the 4 wheel drive and ripped a hole in the fuel pipe on the reserve tank allowing the fuel to drain away. Paul’s surveyors tape saved the day as it was lashed repeatedly around the gash to seal it up. Sandy and Ester had brought their dogs which had lost a large amount of hair and were scratching most of the time. This didn’t seem to worry Sandy and Ester as they were their companions and they slept close to them at night as well as finishing off any scrap food or fish heads that were left over. The tide was in so I spent the morning crabbing, trying to shoot fish with my compound bow without luck and I explored a beautiful area around the billabong. It would have been a great place for Aborigines to live. By the afternoon the tide was out so it gave us our first chance to survey the fish trap. The trap was a wall and made completely of stone that spanned between two rocky islands. When the tide came in, fish would swim over the wall and when the tide went out the ones that got trapped by the wall were just picked up. Pretty simple really. When the trap wasn’t in use, a hole was made in the wall to allow fish to move in and out freely. Fishtrap Paul brought his surveyors level so I held the staff and he took levels of the trap at different points along the wall and the surrounding area so he could build a scale model once back in Perth. We just managed to take all the levels he needed just before the tide started to rise again. There was another trap at One Arm Point, which is in better condition and it occasionally gets used. That evening Sandy caught us an octopus and stingray which we had for our evening meal. The stingray took a bit of preparing because it had to be soaked in sea water and then in vinegar to get rid of the mercury in its body. Fried in the wok and accompanied by some vegetables it became a magnificent meal. We returned to our camp near Lombadina and by now I was pretty confident that if I ever became stranded along the coast I had a better chance of surviving. With all the things I had learnt over the last week I thought it was time for me to go out in the bush and look for honey. For an hour I paced along the edge of the salt flat checking every paper bark tree, but finally, weary as I was, I detected a very small hole, not much bigger than a ball point pen with a type of black volcano funnel entrance and with tiny bees entering and leaving. I must admit I didn’t expect the hole to be as small as it was. The branch was about ten inches in diameter, a large portion of it being bark or hollow so it only left me with 3 inches to chop through. It wasn’t something I would do everyday but knowing what to do and how to find a bees nest may be important if ever I found myself in a survival situation. The honey was very tasty in the rice pudding for supper. I was now pretty pleased with myself as a honey hunter, a spear maker, a fisherman and having learnt so much about living off the ocean so I was full of confidence and ready to move on with my journey north. I think being brought up on a farm, having worked with farm animals and in the fields, helped me to be a more practical person. Only last year I worked in a butchers shop for a few days skinning sheep as part of my preparation. To leave my gang of museum friends and Bardi Elders, who had taught me so much and who I respected enormously, was a sad affair, but I knew I couldn’t be sheltered from my daunting task that lay ahead for ever. It was time to move on and face the wild, and the wilderness ahead of me. When I was back on the water it seemed strange to be paddling again after being shore bound for over a week. My day’s destination was Cape Leveque. It wasn’t long before I could see a high structure, which at first looked very much like a water tower, but suddenly it turned into the Cape Leveque lighthouse. I pressed on struggling against the tide, before stopping for a few minutes to eat dried fruit and have a drink, which acted as a pick-me-up, and allowing me to develop a racing speed towards the beach at the south end of the cliffs. Securing my helmet I raced towards the beach on the back of a wave. The wave dumped heavily on the beach a few metres ahead of my bow as I rode the rising waters to shore. The backwash dragged the kayak sideways down the steep beach before I had a chance to get out. Within seconds the next wave hurtled me back up to the safety of the beach and to where I camped beneath the orche coloured cliffs. The surf at Cape Leveque The dumping surf of the rising tide awoke me to a new morning. The light from the lighthouse had been skimming the ocean all night warning ships off the rocky reefs along the coast. Walking from my hidden camp behind the cliffs, I moved towards the oasis that surrounded the lighthouse. Coconut palms, deep green grass and vegetation, watered by a powerful sprinkler system. The green vegetation contrasted with the dry local bush. I found the lighthouse keeper and he allowed me to have a look around the lighthouse and fill my water bottles before heading back to my kayak and moving off again. I was a little concerned about the dumping surf. It was the worst that I had come across so far. As the waves broke in quick succession, I couldn’t imagine getting through them without being bowled over. I fastened my helmet and counted the larger waves. There was a pattern and in-between each pattern there were one or two smaller waves. When I noticed a flat section, I quickly dragged the kayak down the beach into the shallow water. The water slop between the waves hampered my efforts to enter my small cockpit, but with no time to lose I paddled like fury punching through a wave towards the calmer waters. I was safe. The lighthouse stood proudly on shore as I passed through the gap between it and Leveque Island. I left the stunning colourful cliffs and crossed the bay with the coastline being sandy. For some reason my wrists started to ache as I closed up on Swan Island but the sight of a dugong, some turtles and a dolphin took my mind off it. The surf was dumping furiously along the coast so I had no intention of stopping before entering the King Sound some 15 kilometres away. As I approached Swan Island standing waves formed a barrier across the passage between the island and the mainland. It looked pretty scary at first although it was calmer close to the exposed rocks near the shoreline but the current was still rushing at a terrific pace. I had paddled a lot of white water rivers, so I found it quite easy although being way out here, it still got the adrenalin pumping. As I paddled out of the current and into the King Sound it was like entering a forbidden world. The massive tides in front of me would now control my movements and the crocodiles would certainly keep me alert. It was like closing one door and opening another. The current running by Swan Island With the tide pushing into the King Sound at a terrific pace I took advantage of its power and paddled on to One Arm Point where my food parcel was waiting at Ron and Margaret Peason’s home. Ron and Margaret were working in Camballin when I worked there and Ron being a teacher was also friends of Bill Grogan. I left my gear on the beach and walked into the community and found Ron’s home. Ron and Margaret warmly invited me to stay for a few days. As I walked around the community to get my bearings and to find out where everything was, I came across two girls fishing near the point. The tide was racing through the gap between the mainland and some islands at a terrific speed. I arrived to find they had their lines snagged and one of the girls wading out in the water up to her ankles to retrieve it. It looked a little dangerous and I didn’t really want to act the hero and volunteer to wade in and untangle it, so I suggested they cut their lines. They didn’t like that idea so I moved into the water next to her. As we both waded further a school of fish suddenly came jumping up over the rocks towards us with four white tipped reef sharks following close behind. We leaped out of the water instantly as the sharks physically bounced over the rocks determined either to catch the fish or us. It was a frightening and unforgettable experience and just to see the terrifying look on the girls faces was equally as frightening. I left them to it and returned to the community and met Eric Hunter one the most respected Aborigines in the community. Eric invited me to go out onto the reefs to collect trochus shells. I was not only keen to go trochus collecting but I was also keen to view the famous and formidable tidal rapids of the King Sound before I attempted to cross it by kayak. I met Eric down at the beach near where his powerboat was anchored. The trouble was it was a anchored 100 metres from the beach, because of the high tide. The situation was simple; take off your shirt and swim. With huge sharks around and the possibility of a huge crocodile, I was pleased when Eric volunteered to swim and fetch it. The morning was still and the sea was like glass as we sped through Pancake Passage hitting turbulence’s that shook the boat. With a powerful motor and Eric’s skill he was able to keep the boat in full control as we crossed over the currents. He slowed when we entered shallow water and at the same time he saw a turtle. Being short of meat, he cut the engine, picked up his spear and waited for the perfect shot at the turtle, but it never came; the turtle was too smart. (Only Aboriginals are allowed to hunt turtles.) We moved through Meda Passage with the vertical cliffs of Sunday Island to the east and Roe Islands to the west. There used to be a mission on Sunday Island and a lot of sacred ground, so the elders asked me not to go there when I’m paddling through the area. The fast ride and the fun of turtle hunting was over when the tide was at the right level for us to work, so we moved to the northern corner of East Roe Island, the last island before Sunday Strait. Approaching the point I saw the frightening tidal power. Huge rapids were created across the Sunday Strait as far as the eye could see. Standing waves were more than 2 metres high and frequently a wave would explode even higher. The speed and force of the water was incredible and I knew after seeing this, that all the unbelievable stories I’d heard about the area were true. Tides in the area vary by more than ten metres. With the enormous volume of water flowing into the King Sound which is strewn with islands and rocky outcrops, no wonder the currents exceed fifteen knots. The King Sound has the second highest tides in the world, the highest being in the bay of Funday in Canada. The huge tidal rapids Once landed on the reef, we had to work quickly before the tide changed. Eric issued me with a bucket to collect the trochus shells that were scattered amongst the rocks and reefs. The shell is cone shaped and is used to make jewellery and buttons. In the late 1980s the Indonesians hit the news for poaching them in Australian waters. The meat from the shell can be eaten, although the ones I tasted were pretty chewy, but I’m sure they would taste delicious in a survival situation. The tide ripping out. We wait until it returns to float the boat Foraging in the pools and under ledges for the shell was a worrying business as blue ringed octopuses and other little deadly creatures waited patiently in the shadows. But being out here on the reefs watching the tide change by the minute and trying to avoid being stung or bitten was quite exciting. Our buckets, then bags soon became full and Eric was pleased with our few hours work, bagging approximately $180.00 worth of shell. On our way home we checked the trochus population on Hunt, Sunday and many other islands which would be collected on another day. Later that day we boiled the trochus shells to extract the animal inside. Eric Hunter collecting trochus shells Back at Ron’s and Margaret I was fed and given great hospitality. Ron was the local headmaster and up here the school started early and finished early giving Ron lots of time to go fishing. Ron is a very successful and respected fisherman. I remember in 1973 when I worked in Camballin, 80 kilometres east of Derby Ron was also the headmaster there and there weren’t many days when he didn’t come home, from going fishing, without a huge barramundi. School had finished so it was time to go for a ride with Ron. We hopped into his dingy and he adjusted the throttle and powered across to Swan Island, about 9 kilometres from One Arm Point. He wasted no time rigging up. “Get your camera ready”, he shouted above the roar of the engine. Within minutes he had caught two big mackerel, but the sharks had a feast of them before Ron could reel them in. I never imagined that fishing could be so exciting. Ron latched onto a large mackerel that leaped repeatedly out of the water. The 30lb mackerel looked like a helicopter in my camera lens. After Ron had reeled it into the boat, I waited for his next leaping torpedo. My wait was short; he soon hooked another mackerel that rocketed towards the cloudless sky, with a shark in full pursuit. The water was boiling as the shark was determined to steel Ron’s prized catch. Ron had already lost two mackerel so he was quick to gaff the fish only moments before the shark approached the dingy. The excitement kept on coming and I just couldn’t believe what was going on. No wonder he loved fishing and being in the Kimberley. Soon after the rich red sunset on the horizon stopped our fun and signalled our speedy return to One Arm Point. Ron Pearson with his prize mackeral Ron was keen to try different kinds of fishing so the next day we took out my compound bow to see if he could shoot a fish with a bow and arrow. This time we headed for some islands across from One Arm Point and floated around the shallows. Ron stood on the bow of the boat and I steered us through the mangroves. Ron saw a fish, he aimed and shot, but he missed. We soon found out that it wasn’t easy to shoot a fish under water with an arrow. Ron tried several times, but with no luck. The arrow didn’t seem to penetrate in the water far enough or it was because he just couldn’t judge the refraction. But it still felt good being a hunter even though we returned home being unsuccessful. Finally as neap tides approached (the slowest of the tides) it became time for me to move on. Before leaving the hospitality of One Arm Point I gave my thanks and appreciation to Ron and Margaret who had looked after me a for a few days and to the members of the Bardi community who had been extremely friendly and helpful to me whilst I stayed there. It was again sad to leave but I still had a long way to go and a lot of isolated wilderness country to explore. As I left One Arm Point I paddled over to a fish trap in the nearby bay. It was much larger than the one we surveyed off Swan Point and it was still used by the Aboriginals on occasions. On the way I met Lou a traditional raft builder. The rafts he made were used to stand on and spear dugong from them. He was proud that he was the chief raft builder. He said his father used to make at least 3 rafts a year for museums around the world. Lou was at that moment heading to Dugong Bay on the other side of the King Sound to cut some more timber to build his next raft. I left him and moved across the violent currents that ripped through the islands between One Arm Point and Sunday Island. I was steering for East Sunday Island a little further and closer to the exposed waters of the King Sound where I would make a 15 kilometre crossing of the Sunday Strait to Mermaid Island. To thread my way through the islands to East Sunday everything I’d learnt from white water paddling had to be put into practice here on the ocean as the currents were amazingly fast as I had found out when I went out with Eric. One slip of concentration could have resulted in being washed out to sea, where there were no islands to hide behind. I fought my way across the fast currents ferry gliding from one island to another where I was able to find an eddy behind them. Although I knew that other people in boats had been this way I felt like an early kayaking explorer and it was highly possible that a kayak hadn’t been this way before. Once in the lee of Sunday Island the sea calmed and there were turtles and more turtles swimming around me and not in the least stressed about me being there. I paddled slowly in a buoyant mood just watching. I was now in no rush as I crept closer to my campsite on the south-eastern end of East Sunday Island and to the place where Eric Hunter said he often used. When I landed I thought I was alone but soon after a dingy came into view. It had an Aboriginal poised on its bow, with a spear in his hand and ready to lunge into the water. Suddenly he leapt and with a big splash he came up holding the shell of the turtle. The spear had inserted a flute into the shell and was attached to a line so it couldn’t get away. I was a little sad to see the turtle being dragged on board but I had to realise that for the Aboriginals it was their way, their right and what they had been doing for years. They had already speared one other turtle. Camp at East Sunday Island A wooden frame, used as shade by the locals was standing on the beach. I looked out across the water to see my next land fall 15 to 20 kilometres away. It wasn’t really that far but it was the feared currents of the King Sound that were the real concern. I was just getting used to being alone when Martin Shafford and his friend Francis powered into the bay, with Martin shouting to me, how would you like turtle steak for supper. Within minutes they unloaded a heap of firewood from the dingy which was going to be used for cooking the turtle and boiling the trochus shells that they had collected. Martin soon started butchering and preparing the turtle for supper. With the fried turtle he also knocked up a damper, considerably better than my own. I pulled up a seat, some sand from behind me and Martin dished up. My taste buds were keen to taste something so different from what I was used to. Martin had cooked it beautifully. It was so tender and tasted similar to chicken but much better than any other meat I had eaten for some time. I loved it. At that moment three more Aboriginals arrived in a dingy. They had brought Martin and Francis some tobacco and were on their way to do some turtle hunting themselves. The moon was fairly bright for their hunt but first they stayed for supper, as there was enough turtle and damper for a dozen people. After a bit of chit chat and a good feed they were on their way motoring steadily across the still waters hoping to catch their own turtle to feast on. As I busily scribbled the daily events in my diary by the light of the fire, Martin caught a nice big snapper from the beach. “That’s breakfast,” he said. Martin couldn’t sleep so he cooked the fish in the early hours of the morning. We ended up having fish and damper for breakfast which was somewhat better than my cereal. Francis was also in charge of cooking the trochus shells, which had to be cooked for a certain length of time so the meat would come out of the shell with ease. He said if they were under cooked the tails would break inside the shell and it would be hard to get the meat out. After our big meal I walked across to Martin who was wearing rubber boots and now busily collecting shells off the reef. I soon realised how sensible it was to wear them as the coral was very crunchy underfoot. Any cuts to the feet by the coral would soon get infected. At the edge of the reef, where there were rocks and boulders covered with jagged oysters and slime, several blue spotted fantail stingrays glided around me in the shallow water. As I had a few hours to spare before I paddled off into the unknown I decided to walk across to the channel, which lay between East Sunday Island and Sunday Island. As I trod the waters I could see several dorsal fins of sharks criss-crossing the shallows. I wasn’t at all concerned but suddenly I got a fright as I disturbed a large dark spotted fish which dashed from near my feet and into the deeper water. With my heart rate back down I started following another large fish with spear in hand at the ready, but it was too smart and hid itself amongst the mangroves. As I chased another the water became very cloudy as the mud underfoot started to engulf my legs, sometimes up to my knees. Trying to spear a fish Stingray after stingray lifted up from the mud and fled my advance as I shuffled my way through the shallow murky water. To stand on one could be fatal. Another stingray passed, I tried to spear it but I missed and then it turned towards me and darted between my legs with its spiked tail at the ready. My heart thumped as it fled in the mud cloud that I had created. The near miss encouraged me to stop spearing fish and leave the waters and find firm ground. As I stumbled through the thick mud to get out I stepped between hundreds of long cone snails littering the mangroves. Although not poisonous or dangerous they looked menacing. I eventually managed to get out of the oozing mud and came to a line of overhanging sandstone rocks that lined the edge of the mangrove thicket. I walked along the edge of the rocks near the mangroves and then as luck should have it, I spotted a giant mud crab, which with my new fishing skills managed to get it out of its burrow and into my fish bag. Dinner time was now catered for. My route back to the camp by land wasn’t an easy one as I had to stumble across sandstone rocks, crevices and thick bush. For dinner that night we had crab, octopus and turtle and being under the stars in the middle of the King Sound, it can’t get much better than that. This time the turtle was boiled, but it didn’t taste as scrumptious as the fried turtle we had the night before. It was now time to move off, get away from people, become independent and fend for myself and find a true wilderness and be alone. Frightening as it may seem I was looking forward to it. Martin and Francis were up with the birds and left well before I started to pack up my camp and load my kayak for my journey across the King Sound. Although the crossing was perceived to be treacherous I wasn’t expecting it to give me a lot of trouble as the tides were on neap which is when there is the least water movement. As soon as I left the East Sunday Island shores and the lee of the island there was a brisk current but I was able to make headway as I headed for Mermaid Island 15 kilometres away. The ocean was calm so I was able to focus on Mermaid Island which I could just see the outline of in the distant haze. The water currents seemed to ease the further I paddled away from shore but then by the half way mark it started to move again. I knew it would only get faster, so I didn’t dawdle. This was my first big crossing in such a formidable place and although I knew that there was a community of One Arm Point only 25 kilometres away it still felt very remote. Swirls started to appear, running by me as if they were on a mission to get somewhere. Then as I looked towards the trees on Mermaid Island I could see that the current was causing me to drift and I could no longer head straight towards the island without crabbing along. It was time to make haste. Within 5 kilometres of the island I felt more secure as I now knew, if the currents were to liven, I would still be able to ferry glide to one of the islands around Mermaid. The ocean then started to ruffle further and sea birds dived out of the sky and into the water in the hope of getting a fish feed. Within minutes the birds went into a frenzy, but a few minutes later they moved away following the large school of fish that was creating a great feast. I could now see beaches on Mermaid Island which I believe was named after Captain King’s ship. King explored this area in 1820 and on my way north I would retrace much of his journey. The current had now become quite fast but it didn’t matter I could see my landing spot, although I did nearly get swept passed it. I pulled ashore on a nice sandy beach quite proud of myself. I had done my first big crossing. It had been much easier than I had imagined, only because I crossed over when the tide was on neaps and at it slackest. With neap tides there is less vertical rise and fall in the tide creating less water movement but with spring tides there is a greater rise and fall up to 10 metres. Tides change every six hours. I was now safe on an island in the middle of King Sound but there wasn’t any one close by to help if a snake or crocodile decided to have a go at me. I had no communications with the outside world either, only a few flares and a New Zealand distress beacon that was said not to be fully reliable. When activated it locked on to radio frequencies of a passing aircraft. The trouble was there appeared to be few aircraft that came over this region, but I wasn’t too concerned as I didn’t expect to get into trouble. I was now enjoying my own company so when I had all my gear ashore I was keen to continue my crusade to find water under pandanas palms and in creek beds. I took off and soon found a gully with palms which had freshly experienced a bush fire. I dug down beside a palm and within less than a metre I found water. I was pretty proud, but unfortunately the water was black from the fire and although fresh, I didn’t bother taking any, but I was happy with my find. After successfully crossing the treacherous Sunday Strait I felt more relaxed about what lay ahead. Although I knew the currents were getting faster as the spring tides and full moon approached, it was a relief to know the islands were much closer together and I didn’t have another long crossing for a few days. Leaving Mermaid Island I started to feel the full force of the current pushing through Fantome Passage. Although the tide was coming in and I was riding a current deeper into King Sound, I couldn’t believe it when there was another current only metres away, running out and in the opposite direction to which I was going. I concluded that it must have been the tail end of the out-going tide. It was a strange experience. The fast current helped me through the gap between Pascoe and Long Islands but hours later as I approached my destination for the night I started to lose the brilliant blue ocean to find some receding murky water of the low tide in Cascade Bay. Overhead a flurry of chestnut feathers drifted down to the sand flat as two magnificent Brahminy Kites flying above me pursued a third one. It was quite a display. My heavy kayak came to a halt in the shallows several metres before the tidal sand flat. In the distance I could see a small beach fronted by a few pandanus palms. It looked inviting but I didn’t relish the long walk, so I decided to paddle along the shallows in the hope of finding a closer spot to get out. The sand and mud was interspersed with patches of sharp coral, which at times scraped my hull. A shark patrolling the shallows moved across my path, it looked quite small so I decided to give it a scare and accelerated towards it. Unexpectedly the shallow water forced the shark to the surface and I suddenly became aware of its frightening size. A moment of panic struck me as the 2-3 metre shark turned my way. My heart pumped as I thought an attack was inevitable but as it powered past my paddle I could see it was as panic-stricken as I was. Stingrays darted off in all directions as I shuffled my feet apprehensively through the murky shallows trying not to stand on one. With a few reef sharks skirting the shallows it was a very active piece of water. The light was fading quickly and on my first journey towards camp I counted 800 paces. My luggage weighed heavily on my shoulders and my feet sank deep in the soft sand and patches of mud. I was oblivious of the spectacular scenery and setting sun. My back was at breaking point as I staggered on my fourth and final run with my 35 kilogram kayak on my shoulder. I hadn’t taken every bit of gear out so it was so heavy. After nearly 5 kilometres of walking my strength eventually faded dropping the kayak to the ground only 20 metres from my campsite. I was buggered and I could do nothing but to drag the kayak those last few metres. It was only now I was able to look at the spectacular scenery and setting sun. I grouped all my gear on the beach and by now it was virtually dark and only thirty metres away there was a mangrove lined creek that lurked in the shadows. It looked a good crocodile habitat so my priority was to light a fire, a big one, to ensure they didn’t come into my camp! With the fire blazing I tied my hammock between two pandanas palms and started cooking my evening meal. Sweat ran down my face as the fire radiated its heat on an already hot night. Noises in the bush surrounding me started to develop and increase. There was something out there scurrying in the dry vegetation and I imagined it being snakes. I lit two more small fires to protect me from all sides. I needed more wood so I moved out of my fire zone and dragged a large log back to fuel my fire. A spark drifted into the air and dropped in the nearby dry grass and unexpectedly set the grass alight which then lit up the leaves on the pandanus palms. Giving me no time to rescue my hammock from the blazing inferno, I desperately grabbed my spare paddle and started to shovel sand onto the fire. The dry palm fronds on the two palm trees holding my hammock flashed in flames, lighting up the sky like two beacons. The fire had soon got out of hand and all I could think about was being responsible for lighting a fire that would probably destroy half of the Kimberley. Although I had a way out, the fire was burning from three sides but my efforts to control the fire were fruitless, as it grew bigger and I became overheated among the circle of flames. Helped by a barrage of green bushes the flames started to fade and I was finally able to smoother them as the dry vegetation had virtually dried up. Exhausted and with an overwhelming thirst I sat beside my gear and stared into the charred undergrowth. As the wind spiralled into a little whirlwind, small burnt particles were sucked up into the air and then fell down like confetti. I was amazed to find my hammock still hanging and had somehow been miraculously spared. I was relived that the nightmare was over, but the rustle in the bush was nearly as loud as it was before. Being brave, and with my torch in hand I tiptoed to the burnt vegetation to find an army of hermit crabs advancing towards the ocean. I watched them march through my camp. My imaginary snakes were no where to be seen!!! At 6.00am I slid out of my hammock and had breakfast with the smell of fire and the blackened surrounds. Last night’s drama just showed me how things can easily get out of hand. My camp was nestled between two high ridges and cliffs so I just had to take the opportunity to explore the area and see what was around. This just wasn’t a kayaking trip, it was also a trip for exploration. Not far from my charred camp I found water dripping from a rock crevice with a shallow pool of fresh water beneath it. It was only a slow drip but I decided to put a water bottle under it to at least catch a little water while I was away. I was intrigued to see if there were any monster crocodiles hiding in the mangrove creek nearby but there didn’t appear to be, however there were several large fish. The tide was out so the fish were trapped in the pools. It presented easy fishing but I was more interested in exploring the area so I left them to swim free. To get to the top of the cliff at that point meant pushing through a jungle of vegetation which I felt too hard to attempt so I moved along the coast trying desperately to find an easier way to the top. As soon as I started my zig-zagging climb it was hard, hot and steep but upon reaching the top I was blessed to find a magnificent panorama. I could see for miles over the ocean and the land. The blue ocean of the King Sound was dotted with large and small islands and had a coastline that zig-zagged in all directions. I hopped from rock to rock following the cliff top stopping in the shade of a boab tree on the cliff edge that overlooked the finest of views. A beach in Cascade Bay There were no traces of water in the gullies at the top of the ridge and as the undergrowth became thicker and harder to walk, I quenched my thirst regularly. One hour exploring on top was all I could spare as I needed to leave with the high tide at 11.30am. I descended a lot quicker than I went up and when I reached my water bottle under the drip of water, it was overflowing, so I soon changed it for another. To help replenish all my empty water bottles I started filling them from the shallow pool beneath it. There were a lot of particles and algae in the pool so I filtered it through a cloth, which soon became thick with dirt. Water was precious so I had to take the opportunity to collect it whenever possible. It took me 1 ½ hours to completely pack my kayak and in that time I continued to change my water bottles and ended up with more water than I anticipated. The tide was high and was on the turn so unlike the previous day I had much less walking to do to get to the water’s edge. Sharks and fish patrolled the beach shallows and I thought they would be easy targets for my spear, but when I did throw it, I always missed. It turned out that I wasn’t as good at spearing as I thought I was! My busy tasks in the mid-day sun created such thirst and perspiration that a lot of the water I collected I had been drunk by the time I left. By 12.40pm I was floating away amongst the sharks that still occupied the shallows. The mud-sand flats hidden by the high tide certainly changed the un-hospitable and fearful appearance of the previous night as it now looked quite beautiful. I looked back at the charred pandanas palms and undergrowth and left my unforgettable camp with the outgoing tide, which enabled me to make a swift exit. I was soon passing steep cliffs on my right, which were so impressive, even Albany with all its beauty couldn’t compare with them. The speed of the water increased as I moved between Pecked and Pack Islands where boils and cross currents had formed. It wasn’t long before I was nearing a patch of serious white water and unbeknown to me I was heading into an area the locals of Derby called ‘Hells Gate’! Fast, furious currents, standing waves, small whirlpools and boils were being forced through the narrow channel. The walls and rocks closed in as the boils swirled me in all directions. It reminded me of our wild water championship course at Harvey, although there, I paddled a 13 kilogram slalom kayak that is designed to turn, unlike my fully laden 140kg, 17 foot sea kayak. The sound of the tidal rapids were loud but I managed to take an easier chicken route around them closer to shore. At last I cleared the racing tide of Hells Gate and moved around a point where I made camp and where I could still hear the rumble of the Hell’s Gate rapids. My beach was littered with firewood so I eagerly boiled the billy, washed and tended my cuts and grazes, whilst tuna fish were leaping crazily in the bay. I wondered if sharks were after them or were they after smaller fish! Currents at Hells Gate As I checked the shoreline on the low tide many prickly black chitons were tightly suckered onto the rocks. That wasn’t unusual but I actually saw them move, which I think it must have been the first time I had seen them do that. My camp was also surrounded by wallaby and several other animal tracks. Surprisingly after sleeping high on an uneven rocky ledge, I had one hell of a good night’s sleep. As I left my swag I could see a crocodile swimming lazily up and down, one hundred metres from my beach. It was pretty creepy. By the time I was ready to leave the croc was two hundred metres away and my eyes were peeled on it as I cautiously paddled across the still, hot and beautiful Crawford Bay towards Cone Bay. A big splash slapped behind me. I presumed it was a large fish or it could have been a shark rather than the crocodile but whatever it was it was close. The rock wasn’t flat as a bed but you don’t grumble when you are trying to sleep away from the crocs. I was helped into the beautiful, peaceful, cliff lined Cone Bay by an obliging current and my objective here was to find the camp of a hermit called Xenex, who has lived in the bay for a number of years. As I paddled along the cliffs the bay came alive. A light aircraft flew over, heading towards Koolan or Cockatoo Islands and then the Coastal Surveillance plane buzzed over me. Minutes later I noticed a power boat anchored. Eager to find out where Xenex’s camp was I merrily pulled into this little oasis that had a fresh water stream cascading from the cliffs. Two boys and a girl were playing near the boat and a couple who were on the beach could hardly believe their eyes when they saw me paddle towards them. Kevin Johnson introduced himself, his wife Robin, sons David and Nigel and his daughter Stephanie. They were holidaying there. They’d come by boat from Derby, 150 kms away and this had been their paradise holiday destination for several years. They had even made a toilet, had fresh running water, shade of the trees and their own bathing pool. Apart from knowing that crocs were around, it was a paradise. Paddling into Cone Bay As soon as I had unloaded Kevin asked if I wanted to go with them fishing, crabbing and sight seeing at the bottom of the bay. I jumped at the idea. When everyone was aboard Kevin opened up the throttle and powered towards the bottom of the bay. Within 600 metres we passed Xenex’s camp and cove, his green boat was anchored away from the rocky shore. He had no beach so landing looked difficult. It was beautiful to sit back admiring the spectacular scenery, the hot wind blowing in my face, a cold can of Coke in my hand and Kevin giving me a personal sight seeing tour. As the bay narrowed we were joined by another family, camping on the other side of the bay. The contrast between the northern and southern sides of the bay was quite impressive. On one side, there were large boulders with many boab trees growing in the darker soil and on the other side, a redder soil and rocks with a fairly barren landscape and no boabs at all. The bay turned into a creek which meandered upstream protected by a fortress of mangroves lining its shores where we spotted a crocodile that looked some-what bigger than my kayak. It was enough to send shivers along my spine. Eventually the muddy shallow water halted our progress and forced us to turn around and head back towards deeper water where both boats stopped to fish. Catfish and shark seemed to be the only fish biting and a momentarily a lack of concentration from one of the guys on the other boat saw a shark take off, with his rod, line, hook and sinker. Although the adults failed to catch anything worth while the kids were having a ball virtually hand feeding the garfish. Two kilometres from our fishing spot we passed a huge set of crocodile tracks that climbed up a very steep muddy bank and were lost among the mangroves. My stomach fluttered once again as this crocodile must have been extremely large. We hadn’t spotted the tracks on the way down. Our ride home was much less enjoyable as the wind had whipped up in the bay creating choppy waves that the boat continually slammed into. Back at the cove I was given the honor of having the first bath in the crystal clear rocky pool. The water temperature was perfect and soon my salty, sweaty body and my hair was rejuvenated. I laid back content with my guest bathroom surrounded by lush vegetation of a small pocket of rainforest. Looking down Cone Bay from the ridge top Our friends across the bay had invited us to join them for an evening meal, so later Kevin powered us 10kms across the bay to our bush restaurant in no time. We passed the incredibly thin and sharp spectacular Razor Island as the sun was setting. With the tide out, Kevin had no alternative but to leave the boat several hundred metres from the shore, which meant that we had to slip in the mud and walk to it. As we headed towards our host’s camp we met Rick from Derby Toyota. No sooner had we arrived, cheese and pickles were handed out, followed a few minutes later by some huge cooked oysters in batter or garlic sauce. The camp and BBQ overlooked the whole bay. I was surprised to see what went on way out here as we were 80 kilometres by boat from Derby and I really expected to see no one in this vast unspoiled wilderness. To be invited out to a meal unequalled in the city was just a fantasy, but it wasn’t. We cooked our fresh fish in the cool breeze under a canopy of bright stars and drank beer and cool drinks. Inside the room of tarps, our forth course was being served. Cream cakes, fruit salad, whole paw-paw in wine juice followed by chocolate and sweet coffee. This was certainly a demanding trip! Dressing up for such an occasion in the Kimberley when transported by a boat is not very practicable. With no jetties to anchor to, the craft can only wait in deeper water for its occupants to walk over the mud flats and reefs often up to their backsides in water. So as we clambered aboard to go home we shouted thank you and zoomed into a brisk wind and choppy waves back to our own piece of paradise. Toast and honey, baked beans, jaffles and some weetbix brought a civilized touch to my breakfast. The short rest here allowed me to wash my clothes in freshwater and fiberglass the rear section of the hull, where after dragging the kayak had started to wear away. When it was dry David and Nigel had a paddle in my kayak. After digesting my fish lunch I climbed up the thick undergrowth of the gulley to the cliff top where the scenery was absolutely beautiful. I was making my way to Xenex’s hide out in a rainforest gully about 600 metres away. As I reached his cove and descended a gully through the thick foliage I was greeted by a growling dog. I stopped in my tracks, not wanting to become an enemy of the dog and admired the make shift home that was made of corrugated iron, wood, concrete, tarps, stone, bottles and was surrounded by a wire fence. The house that Xenex built I called out and a guy called John answered. I asked if he had seen a white elephant running this way. Sure have, he replied, it went that way. Xenex wasn’t there but two of his friends were. John asked me in. You are just in time for coffee he said. His shelves were stocked full of foods, herbs and spices. Eujene, John’s friend, also sporting long hair and a beard came in from the garden. I wasn’t expecting to see two people, in fact I was only expecting Xenex who apparently was in Derby at that moment. John had been living there for four years but Eujene was a new-comer only living there for a few months. They were both from NSW, although Eujene was born in Croyden, England. John and Eujene Apparently a number of crocodiles and snakes lived in and around their camp. John said that two crocodiles were living close to their cove and a few months ago it managed to climb the rocky gully and made its temporary home in their back garden. They often get a deadly venomous snake that lived under their fridge and had two harmless pet pythons that visited them regularly. They had a kitten once but it didn’t last long, the snakes saw to that. A few metres away there was an uncompleted shack that they were building of local stone and it had bottles cemented between the stones and into the walls. They wanted a building that was more substantial and would stand up to a cyclone. It wasn’t the best place to be in a cyclone, they said. Paw-paw, bananas trees, veges and other fruits were growing in-between and around the terraced gardens. A lovely sweet clear running stream cascaded over small rock ledges through the middle of their small estate. Steps made from flat rocks led to a flat slab area towards the stream. The water was 2 – 3 feet deep and 8 to 9 feet long and a perfect bathroom if you don’t mind sharing it with snakes, lizards and frogs. About twice a year they make a trip to Derby in their small dingy to buy supplies. John said, “it was a dangerous task motoring their overweight small dingy back over the unpredictable and often rough King Sound.” I was a little disappointed that I hadn’t met the famous Xenex but maybe next time as I knew there would be a next time. I left the contented pair to live what seemed like an idyllic life. Their oasis was certainly an isolated paradise. Back at the Johnson camp I was hot and sweaty so I slipped into the amazing bathing pool for my last wash before heading out the following day. For my last meal in this civilized world, Kevin and Robin cooked giant oysters, fish, baked potatoes and damper and of course that was complimented with a beautiful cold beer. I didn’t really drink, but sometimes one has to go with the flow. It was a shame I had to leave! I left my friends at 10.00am aiming to cross Cone Bay and paddle through the passage of Sir Richard Island and the mainland at high tide as Kevin said there was reef in the passage that could be a problem. He also said that the currents around Datum Bay before the passage get very nasty. Before going through the islands I took no chances, I stopped on a beach and climbed the ridge to check out the tidal movements. It was worth the climb just to see the scenery from the top although the currents didn’t look too bad. A hot steep climb to see the view I descended and paddled through the channel and islands at the change of high tide and it didn’t pose a problem at all. Paddling at the peak of high tide was usually the best time to go through tricky areas especially on neap tides because there was less water movement. But on spring tides the change of tide doesn’t last long and the water is often going out when the incoming tide is coming in. My aim was to camp on Mary Island, a few kilometres after the passage, but its vertical cliffs gave me no alternative but to move across the choppy bay towards Whirlpool Pass. I stopped before the pass and landed on Dunvert Island and immediately carried my gear above the high water and climbed the ridge to get a higher view of my route ahead. I was trying to get as much of an idea of the currents through the pass as I could. The view again was outstanding. When I returned back to camp I stretched my hammock between two pandanas palms. As the breeze cooled my heated and tired body, and the dry leaves rustled in the wind, I watched the sun disappearing over the ridge. I was very comfortable and contented in my hammock as I was stretched out naked and drifted into deep thought. I was extremely happy with my trip so far as I had learnt so much, seen so many beautiful places and met lots of friendly genuine people. Nothing seemed to worry me any more and every day I gained more and more confident. Perfect evening for relaxing As darkness crept in, the full moon lifted from the ocean throwing a dramatic reflection across the water and lighting up my world around me. I had a few hours to kill before I could attempt the paddle through Whirlpool Pass. The tide was low so with spear in hand I walked along the shallows before collecting my survival kit and pack for a walk along the high ridge to check the tidal patterns and currents below. To the north-east I could see Strickland Bay and tucked in between the islands there was the bay called the Graveyard. Apparently many pearl divers had lost their lives there. I spotted a 3-4 foot snake which demanded the right of way, so I detoured around it. Where was the safest place to be! Was it kayaking with sharks and crocodiles or walking amongst the snakes. They were all deadly. A snake bite out here would be fatal for me and that was another reason why I always carried my survival kit with my first aid kit, bandages, distress beacon, flares, signaling mirror etc. By 12.30pm I was ready to tackle the notorious Whirlpool Pass. I left nothing to chance as I timed my passage so I would be in the pass on high tide and with the least tidal movements. With spring tides upon me, by all my readings of the pass, I couldn’t afford to get it wrong. The words of Captain Stokes rang through my mind…..Stokes’ Diary, 1837 -1838. We experienced violent whirlpools, the first of which from want of experience handled us very roughly, suddenly wrenching the oars out of the men’s hands and whirling the boat around with alarming rapidly – and shot down a fall several feet, the boats bow being fairly buried in the boiling current…………………….. It was yet another beautiful channel with a U bend near the centre. Reaching there I had the assistance of the current, but when I reached the north-east end of the channel the current really accelerated me along and within minutes was throwing me out into very choppy waves of the open sea. I could see no beach, but as I passed a high point with cliffs on my right I noticed one that would adequately suit my needs. By stopping here it would also give me the opportunity to check out a water hole that Eric Hunter had told me about, which was two kilometres away, on the other end of the island. By the time I had unloaded the tide had started to rip out creating bigger boils and whirlpools as the current increased. I pottered around camp and climbed the high peak and watched the water stream out of the pass. It was an extraordinary feeling sitting on the high peak thinking and watching the world go by! This is living. It was truly an amazing experience in one of the most amazing and beautiful parts of the world. As I awoke from my nights sleep the moon was just disappearing over a ridge as the sun was rising over the islands. My task for today was to search for the water hole I had been told about and hopefully return with replenished supplies. I liked to have my supply of water topped up at all times even if I knew another water source was nearby. I never knew if I was going to be stranded for days on an island, so it was important to have good supplies. I would try to carry up to 50 litres of water which equated to 50 kilograms. North end of Hidden Island and Whirlpool Pass I packed my survival kit and empty water bladders for my walk. I climbed a ridge to find several large mineral stained slabs in a line a few metres apart along the island and pointing up around 160 degrees. They were strikingly stunning and quite remarkable, but looked very un-natural. The north narrow neck of Hidden Island As I walked along the ridge of the narrow neck of the island I could see a school of large mullet swimming beneath me and further along there was a 15 foot crocodile swimming in the shallows next to the rocky shore and only 500 metres from my camp. Its tail swayed, propelling it along at a slow leisurely pace. I started to film it but it was too far away to get a really close up shot. I crept down the cliff face and moved within 15 metres of it. Mullet started swimming towards it and I expected they were its next meal but as they passed within inches, the croc never blinked an eye lid. Hearing my presence the crocodile quickly sank its body leaving only its head out of the water to investigate its surrounds. It spotted me and it dived at once and sped off under water at a terrific speed. The north narrow neck of Hidden Island A croc cruising near my camp North end of Whirlpool Pass I left the croc to float in the sun further out in the pass and followed numerous kangaroo trails up and over a small ridge to a dry watercourse below. A few metres after descending into the gulley, hey presto, I saw the water hole that Eric had told me about. A big lizard sunning itself nearby took off as I approached. The water hole was a round hole about 5 foot in diametre and at that time about a metre deep. In the wet season it would have been deeper. It looked clean, it tasted clean and it was extremely cold, which was a surprise. I filled all my 4 litre wine casks before stripping off my sweaty clothes and teeming the nice cold water all over me. It was lovely and refreshing. I sat naked in the sun, eating my lunch, relaxing and watching about 15 finches hop closer and closer to the water, but if I gave the slightest movement they flew off again. They say where you find finches, water is always close by. There were also hornets and flies and they were much braver and insisted that I shared the water hole with them. As I walked back to the camp, this time around the coastline I was soon deafened by the tremendous noise of a large rapid that was created by the incoming tide racing through a narrow channel. It was a perfect place to play if in a white water kayak, although the thought of crocs would make it just that little more dangerous. As I looked on I heard rustling in the dry grass and as I turned to look a large goanna lizard slowly crept towards me. The goanna was harmless, although some people say they have been known to run up you, thinking that you are a tree. I moved on and then a wallaby hopped away disappearing over the hill. It was the first wallaby that I had seen on an island but I’m sure they are all over the place. On my return I noticed old man crocodile lazing out in Whirlpool Pass only 200 metres away from my camp. A tidal rapid between Hidden Island and the jagged mainland When-ever possible I tied my hammock from trees, palms and today a boab tree. I felt more secure being up in the air, but in reality a croc could easily get to me if it wanted to as I was only two or three feet off the ground. My excursion had taken me 4 hours so at 1.00pm I left against the wind and tide heading through several islands with my destination being Margaret Island. I had time to paddle to Cockatoo Island, but the wind and tide were still against me, so I beached near Margaret Island. Stopping didn’t mean rest time as I had about 2 hours of unloading and making camp, as well as cooking my own dinner, washing up, and stringing my hammock half way up the hill. What happen to servants! The moon’s bright light assisted me to pack in the early morning. It was 5.00am and I needed an early start or the falling tide would expose the reef and leave me to carry my gear for several hundred metres. Only minutes out into the calm waters something hit my stern. I glanced behind but saw nothing. It was a mystery, although I imagined it would have been a shark checking me out. As I neared Cockatoo Island I could see an ugly scar all along the island. Cockatoo Island was a mine site. It was soul destroying seeing such destruction which was once a beautiful island. They were mining for iron ore and much of the island had been dug away and sent to Japan, although this open cut mine has produced work for many Australians and boosted the Australian economy. For hundreds and hundreds of miles the spectacular wilderness is virtually untouched so it was so sad to see so much destruction taking place here. A part of my heart slumped into the deep dark ocean. A reef lay between me and the iron ore littered beach, so I waited out from the island for the tide to rise, until I was able to go ashore. Two canoes with outriggers were being brought down to the water. I couldn’t imagine who would be mad enough to use canoes up in the Kimberley apart from myself. I landed and walked over to the two men. “Malcolm Douglas,” the man said as he shook my hand. “Sean Dixon,” the other replied. I recognised Malcolm from all his books and films and Sean from a canoeing magazine. Sean told me they had just come down one of the rivers in Walcot Inlet and went out to the Montgomery reef and now they were heading for Derby. Malcolm Douglas and Sean Dixon The canoes were fitted with outriggers, a sail and a small petrol motor that they used most of the time on the ocean. Malcolm was making another film for the TV and he said his schedule was tight. I watched them pack their gear and leave having a few problems with a motor that had been swamped the previous day. I would have loved to have a few hours with these intrepid explorers, someday we may cross paths again. They left and the canoes became smaller to my eyes as I unloaded, but soon after the buzz of a motor started to get louder. Malcolm was back. He had forgotten his dog. He whistled and his dog came running down the beach and jumped into the canoe and off they went again. Malcolm loading the canoes As soon as I had unloaded I went to see the island manager and asked him if I could stay a night. He said I could and organized a tour of the island for me. Huge machines were working in the extremely deep open pit mine. It was interesting to see the mining operation but it wasn’t a pretty picture. With the iron ore beach being close to the houses the locals used it as a sun bathing platform rather than swimming. A lady and her kids were enjoying the peace and quiet and relaxation. Another had the same idea, but she brought her dogs and they were running riot. The beach at the back of the island was much more pleasant as it was sand. At 6.40am in the quiet of the morning and when most people were getting ready to go to work I moved off kayaking parallel to the open cut mine and the whole length of the island. It was low tide, there was a slight wind as I paddled towards Koolan Island. I passed an amazing geological art form and layered rock that created a wave pattern at Nares Point. As I paddled through the ‘Canal’ and then the ‘Drain’ and came closer to Koolan Island mine site, iron ore dust clouded the skies and the noise of haul packs and machinery echoed down the channel. With the tide in my favour I passed the wharf, a couple of tug boats and other assorted boats. A large mountain of iron ore tailings formed an unnatural hillside which was slowly taking over the mangroves. At that point I couldn’t imagine what it was like to have a 7 to 4 job. My life now consisted of all Sundays. I was pleased that the current heading towards the ‘Gutter,’ a narrow entrance separating the mainland from Koolan Island, was going my way. The closer I got to the ‘Gap’ the more turbulence, small whirlpools and boils were created. I flew through the ‘Gap’ and then the current eased as I followed the shoreline around to the landing area on the east end of the island where I could land. A local offered me a lift up to the settlement where I called on Bart Northam my main contact on Koolan Island. He was a mate of my friend Bill Grogan. I had never met Bart or his wife Marie before, but it didn’t seem to matter as they were very friendly and opened up their house, their larder and their hearts to me. During the next two days my aim was to collect as much information about my route ahead. In the main site office I met Mr’s Brown who invited me home for tea and meet her husband Ivan, who knew a lot about the area. When I arrived Ivan’s friend was also there, so they both studied my maps, writing snippets of information over them. They only listed one waterhole along the next section of coastline and that would take me two weeks to reach. It was also way up a mangrove lined river and too dangerous for me to go up. So my prospects of finding water looked grim, however I still felt confident that I would find water in one of the other notable creeks on my map. Ivan soon solved my water problem for a week or more at least by saying he had planned to go boating to Walcot Inlet the following Sunday and said he would meet me on a beach on the west side of Fletcher Island, near the entrance to Walcot Inlet and bring me water. When we sat down for the meal I savoured the delicious roast lamb and drinks. A view from the Koolan Island Rubbish tip From the open shutters of Bart and Marie’s house there was a magnificent view of the Indian Ocean and the wilderness islands of the Buccaneer Archipelago. Their garden also attracted snakes some harmless, many deadly, lizards, and birds. The minor birds were encouraged into the house, through the open shutters, by the temptation of feeding on honey off a spoon. The island was a haven for naturalists and wilderness lovers. Miner birds were very friendly Beneath our window, as the heat scorched the dry grass, a miner bird suddenly played dead as a pigeon swooped down towards it. The miner bird rolled on its back, spread its wings flat on the ground and laid perfectly still. The pigeon touched down, walked around the area of the miner bird, but the miner bird stayed frozen. Another miner bird flew down and tackled the pigeon but the frozen miner bird still didn’t move. The pigeon took off and the miner bird suddenly came alive, ruffled its wings and flew off in the opposite direction. The wildlife around here was pretty friendly and that included a tick that had attached to my left testicle. Although it was funny, it wasn’t funny and the local remedies of getting it off didn’t appeal. You can burn it off with a cigarette, or pour mentholated spirits over it, or prise it out with a knife, they said. At 31 and for someone who hasn’t yet produced a child, these options seemed a little too severe for my tender loving very necessary parts. I telephoned the medical centre and asked the lady if she knew the best way to remove a tick from ones testicle. She advised me to come into the medical centre to get it removed, so I did. The receptionist asked me what was wrong and I was a little embarrassed to say, so I said it in a soft voice as not to alarm other patience’s. I had a tick on my testicle. Luckily a male nurse attended to me. When he managed to get it off, he said the tick wasn’t as dangerous or infectious as if it had been a kangaroo tick. My mind wasn’t truly convinced, what if it does get infected as I’m paddling along the remote coast. Rob Sherwood was another keen boater who also invited me to dinner. He had a half finished yacht in his back yard. Rob kindly agreed to make me a tripod for my 16mm movie camera so I could take footage of myself as I found it was difficult to do that without one. Rob talked about the ‘Gaps’, the Horizontal Waterfalls which I was going to visit and he said he was taking his friends there in two days time and he would probably see me there. Bart and Marie had been tremendous hosts, but were at school when I departed the township with my supplies on my back. I had a 20 minute walk down the steep hill back to my kayak. It was extremely hot and my pack was really too heavy, so I took it easy along the gravelly slope. I had over 20 days of food and 26 litres of water and all the rest of my gear that I somehow packed into my craft. I was disappointed to leave my new friends, but it had to be done. As I paddled away I was alone again. I was told of a skeleton and skull on the nearby Iron Island, a short distance away, so I stopped to have a look. I climbed a rock ledge to where the human skeleton lay. I took a photo of the bones, the flashed dazzled the poor fellow and I saw him blink. I said sorry and good bye and chased the tide southwards into Talbot Bay. At the extreme south end of Talbot Bay are two narrow gaps, which open into two smaller bays. The tide rushes through the gaps with such force that it creates a spectacular waterfall and giant rapids. It’s now called the Horizontal Waterfalls. The area was once the site for a proposed tidal power station, plans for which have since been shelved. My aim was to kayak through the gaps. Talbot and Dugong bays have excellent reefs, and Aborigines once used this area as a major hunting ground for dugong and turtles. The local mangrove timber was also used for making their traditional rafts which Lou told me about at One Arm Point. I reached a dot on my map that Rod Sherwood had placed on my map. It was a beach but it wasn’t as I imagined, so I paddled further to make sure it was the right one. There were no others so the dot must have been in the right place. The beach was stony and a boat’s engine was scattered near the mangroves and beer bottles in their hundreds were scattered all over the place. Pieces of steel, a bed with a foam mattress were further up. Another camp to the right contained a bbq plate, more beer bottles and turtle shells. I checked the trees to see if my hammock would swing between them but they seemed to be too spindly and a sanitary towel on the ground soon chased me away. I couldn’t believe I was in the wilderness and people actually came picnicking at this dump, but I suppose that is why it is a dump. It was depressing to have to unload at such a rubbish tip but I was told there wasn’t another beach for miles. Because I was unsure with my water supplies ahead I decided to try cooking in salt water, but not only did my meal taste salty, flavourless, I hadn’t cooked my soya beans long enough so they were still crunchy. I was unhappy with my campsite, now I was unhappy with my meal, so I didn’t bother making damper. With my hammock erected between two trees and away from the sanitary towel I relaxed as darkness moved in. I started to hear rustling in the undergrowth and it turned out being rats foraging in the rubbish a few metres away undercover of a moonless night. Within minutes they were all around my camp. Rats are one animal I don’t particularly like, although the older I get the more tolerant I have become. I had issues with them whilst growing up on a farm. Snakes and spiders are much nicer. I heard a larger animal running in the bush a few metres a way. I thought it might be a dingo or a wallaby but no matter how much I shone my torch I couldn’t see it. My fires flickering flames soon ceased to glow leaving me with pitch black darkness and rustles and noises of rats and other critters running around me in circles. I kept cursing the place and shining my torch whenever I heard one come near. It was really one of the worst campsites I have ever had. I managed to sleep and had nightmares that couldn’t be forgotten. I dreamt that someone had bought a front end loader, dug a hole and buried my kayak but my next dream was much worse. I dreamt the tide had risen and my kayak was floating away. Two crocodiles came onto the scene and I run beside them and then run out into the water to retrieve the kayak, but another croc started chasing me. I stabbed it with my spear but it was like jelly, I stabbed it again and although it was like jelly my spear bent and the croc changed into a bull nosed ape with four legs. I then awoke thank God. What a night. I laid in my hammock day dreaming and then I noticed that my kayak was still there. I was packing up when I heard a roar of an engine. It was Rob who was on his way to the gaps to show his two friends Trevor and Clair how spectacular they were. Rob suggested throwing my kayak on to his boat and ride the few kilometres to the gaps. I was happy to leave the rat heaven. It didn’t take us long to reach the gaps. The first gap was the widest, the second was only about 9 metres wide both with sheer vertical cliffs. It was a magical place to be. We motored through the second gap and Rob cut the boat’s engine out in the deep water. Here I slid the kayak in over the stern of the boat, crawled in and sat in an eddy close to the second gap and under the high cliff, whilst Rob and friends fished. I went for a paddle through the two gaps as the tide was on the turn and there wasn’t much water movement. It was magic. Approaching the Twin Gaps (Horizontal Waterfalls) When I arrived back the water was starting to move into the bay and was squeezing through the last gap and starting to create turbulence. I returned to the eddy. The boys had caught a couple of garfish to use as bait to catch a bigger fish. Rob soon latched onto a large turum which nearly dragged him over the side of the boat. As the fish swam in all directions and around the boat it was giving Rob a fantastic fight only his leather gloves prevented his hands from being sliced open by the hand line. The strength of the fish dragged the boat towards the shore and the crafty fish tangled the line around the oyster laden mangroves and snapped the line. The second Gap My spraydeck had created a sauna inside my cockpit and being sheltered by the high cliffs it was extremely hot. Rob suggested I did an Eskimo roll to cool down. I wasn’t at all keen, with all the crocodiles and sharks around, but I didn’t want to be a chicken either. Over I went. As the daylight faded I was hoping that I wouldn’t mess up the roll. I came up relieved and went down again. After doing a few rolls, I quit whilst I was ahead. Cool and with clear nasal passages my stage show came to an abrupt halt when a shark started to mill around. Paddling through the second Gap With the tide filling the bay and now racing out it was the time to give the rapids a go. I knew I had to approach the first section of the drop perfectly because the water was being deflected from the canyon walls with great force, making the sides of the canyon a dangerous area. The excitement started as soon as my fully laden Nordkapp kayak slid down the drop through the large stopper, standing waves and then into the whirlpools and boils, which pushed me from side to side like a cork. I found myself bracing, trying to remain upright and facing the right way. My rudder helped me to keep a straighter course and to avoid being spun 360 degrees. Paddling the second Gap with the outgoing tide It was impossible for me to paddle back up the rapid, but I wanted more film of paddling in the turbulence so I started creeping along the cliff walls using the eddies where possible to creep higher. After several attempts to canoe up the rapid and having fun ferry gliding, a boil suddenly took control of the kayak and spun me around and towards the rock face, narrowly missing it. The boils and whirlpools moved all over the place, with many of the whirlpools opening up and creating a hole, two to three feet across. Even Rob’s power boat with the big engine found it too hard and too dangerous to get back up the rapid so we moved down to the easier gap. With it being a lot less turbulent Rob and his friends were eager to power back up it. I watched on. His boat was pushed from side to side and his bow sank deep causing a wave of water to flow over the deck into his cockpit. He continued with full power up the chute at a crawling pace finally managing to win the struggle to the top. The rate of flow started to ease as low tide approached. It was time to say goodbye to Rob and his friends and carry on with my journey. I only had about 4kms to go to a campsite on an island but as the wind funelled down Talbot Bay the water spray shot over my bows drenching my body and leaving me salt encrusted. I arrived at the rocky shale beach as a burst of activity was happening in the water nearby. Mantarays leapt out of the water creating a heavy slap when it landed. Dolphins cruised the bay and turtles gasped for air as they surfaced. As the light faded the glow of red eyes were captured in my torch light. A croc was close to my beach and kept a continual watch over my movements. I too was watching it, its presence encouraged me to heighten my hammock. Behind me a bird started to flap in the trees and the crescendo of crickets became louder and my fire became bigger and crackled as I stoked it up. Those red piecing eyes staring at me presented less concern than my encounter with multitude of rats the previous evening, but I couldn’t be too complacent and there was no way I was going down to wash or wash my dishes at the water’s edge tonight. I survived the night without a croc biting my bum through my hammock. As I dragged the kayak to the water’s edge I used driftwood placed under my kayak to prevent the hull from being ripped apart by the rock shale. I hadn’t forgotten about the crocodile so I kept my spear and bow close by, although they would do little to stop a hungry crocodile and once in the water I would be at the mercy of the Gods. As I paddled on towards Turtle Reef in Talbot Bay it was calm and hot and the morning was still young. Turtle Reef, named by the local Aboriginals was a large reef on the eastern side of the bay and at low tide it came exposed. I dipped my hat into the water to let it drip over me to cool me off. With temperatures in the high 30s, my hope of cooler weather in the weeks to come was very slim. For the next 2 ½ hours I paddled in a north-westerly direction but eventually after reaching the open ocean, I left Talbot Bay and headed in a south-easterly direction towards Walcot Inlet. As I didn’t have much information about the rocky steep coastline ahead of me, I decided to stop when I found a beach a few kilometres along the coastline. I stopped early in the day so the afternoon gave me time to clean my cameras, sew my cloths, do my washing, do small repairs and check out the maps and the terrain ahead of me. With crocodiles being sighted on a near daily basis I decided to sleep on a rock ledge a few metres above sea level, in the hope that crocs couldn’t climb! My sleep was disturbed by a squealing noise near my kayak. I shone my torch to find a native cat checking out my equipment that was lying over the kayak. As long as it didn’t want to share my bed I didn’t mind. Thirty minutes later I started hearing faint sounds in the night. I panned the area with my torch expecting to see red eyes emerging from the deep but then noticed a set of armored vehicle tracks. In fact they were fresh turtle tracks. I jumped out of my swag and followed them up the beach to find a turtle had just finished laying her eggs and was busily hurling sand in a large area around her with her flippers to cover them up. It reminded me of my four nights in Malaysia watching massive leatherback turtles lay dozens of eggs on the beach each night. Poachers often raided their nests using steel rods to stab the sand and find the eggs. Government workers were also employed to collect the eggs but they were taken to hatcheries in the hope of increasing the population. I watched the turtle return to the water. The night was warm and the mosquitoes annoyed me. I awoke to find several fresh turtle tracks. One turtle had circled my kayak, walked passed my paddle, realised the rock had formed a barrier, turned and crawled back towards the water. Two other sets of tracks also led to the beach. It had been a busy night. Next to me were fresh animal droppings from the native cat that must have checked me out during the night and was starting to dry in the morning heat. A turtle left its tracks during the night I watched a turtle laying her eggs Extracting myself from the safety of my sheet, sandflies were really bad forcing me to wear long pants and it wasn’t until I was ready to leave that I could quickly slip into my shorts. The rush to load the kayak and get away quickly had caused me to place too much weighty gear to one side of the kayak and making it have a permanent tilt. Once in the choppy conditions, the kayak became awkward and unmanageable so at the first suitable site I decided to restructure the weight. I landed on a rocky beach with small lapping surf. I didn’t think it was going to be a problem however, trying to rearrange gear when the surf continually pushed a fully loaded kayak against the rocks was much more of a nuisance than you can imagine. By the time I was ready to leave, my cockpit was half full of water. My best chance to prevent the kayak from being holed by the rocks was to enter the kayak and pump the water out with my foot pump away from the surf zone. It didn’t take me long. With the tide in my favour I enjoyed the extra speed that I was doing along the coast. The coast was indented with several small coves and points. Near a string of small islands, spread in a line for about 4 km, I rounded a point that gave me a view along the coast for about 11 kms. Twenty metres away I noticed an object close to the point moving up and down with each swell of the wave. For a moment I imagined it as a log, but suddenly it started moving towards me. Oh shit, a crocodile. Cold shivers ran through my body as the croc closed in. I had no chance to beach along the rocky shoreline and knowing that the crocodile could easily tear me to pieces before I could get out of the kayak, I had to make sure it didn’t catch me. Crocodiles can also run fast, so even if I did beach, my chances of escaping was probably more remote. Talk about remote. I was now kilometres away from Koolan Island and with hardly anyone ever coming this way I couldn’t expect any help or person to come along. If I was attacked by a crocodile just the remoteness shattered all chances of being helped. I could only rely on my own resources to keep myself alive. I decided to veer off out to sea in the hope that the croc wouldn’t follow. It did. The speed with which the crocodile reacted closed the gap very quickly. I paddled like hell changing direction but the crocodile followed and gained on me. The extra speed I manage to find from somewhere was no match as it came within 5 metres. I was praying that it wouldn’t dive as I had seen their incredible speed underwater at Whirlpool Pass. As I paddled further out it began to slow down but it still kept a steady pace behind me. As my heart and arms pumped at an enormous rate it started to lose interest enabling me to pull away. I didn’t stop until I was a safe distance away. After about half a kilometre I had to have drink, as my thirst overpowered my will to get away from the crocodile. My heart was still pounding. My mind was full of thoughts. I now decided to keep further out from the coastline in the hope there would be less crocodiles out there. I would rather have sharks than crocodiles. It seemed that the crocodile was just seeing me out of its territory, well that was my theory. For the next 45 minutes or more by mind was focused on the crocodile chase, and no matter what other thoughts I had, the chase always came back to mind. After stopping again, a large splash behind me attracted my attention. Within six metres of my stern a shark was moving away so I powered off looking in all directions over my shoulders. I could feel it was going to be one of those days. As I looked over to Traverse Island three fins broke the surface. I immediately became tense but my fear was soon dispelled as dolphins leapt out of the water. Passing between Helipad Islands and the mainland the wind picked up causing some horrible wave patterns that buffeted me from all directions. Still a little on edge I had 8kms of sloppy seas to negotiate before reaching the safety of an island north of shoal bay. I had paddled 33 km in 5 1/2 hours. The tide was now going out which allowed me to leave the kayak on the beach without the fear of it being swamped or swept away. I brewed coffee & sat watching a turtle float around my cove. Suddenly a shadow blocked out the sun. My heart missed a beat as I expected something to happen. I looked up and saw a large eagle soaring over head. My camp was close to 2 pockets of mangroves. The South part of the island was virtually surrounded by several hundred metres of thick mangroves and across on the mainland the mangroves stretched about 20 km along the indented coastline. I just knew, after being chased by a crocodile on a rocky coastline there were bound to be many more around the mangroves in their favourite habitat. By 12.30pm my longing to explore the island had begun. My first attempt to go overland was soon shattered as the bush was too thick for me to penetrate. I retreated along the coastline passing boulder holes that were shaped like a funnel and looked as if they were man made. For a moment my spirits lifted when I found pools of water high above the rocks on a ledge. The water however was salty, so my hopes soon faded. The islands were spectacular The rock gave way to muddy mangroves that prevented my progress. Below me five large angel fish cruised slowly in the shallows. At a quicker pace mullet passed them by several times. Back at camp I change into my canoeing booties and shorts so as to walk across the mud flats to a cave on the other side of the cove. It was interesting watching large mud skippers shuffling over the mud. I walked towards them sinking down to my knees and I soon decided that their progress was quicker than mine. I tried adding a small amount of salt water to my macaroni as I was cooking it, but it still tasted too salty so I gave up the idea. I was trying to save my fresh water, but it was destroying my evening meals so I couldn’t wait to find fresh water again. I was told there was fresh water about 7 kms across from my camp on the mainland, but it was 5 kms up a long and narrow creek lined with mangroves. It meant that I would have to paddle up the creek on high tide to reach the water, but after my brush with the crocodile, I thought it more sensible to forget about it. I relaxed staring into the sky admiring those millions of stars making up the universe. I had my own names for all the star patterns around me, the hockey stick, the dragon, blah blah My father came to mind. He had been dead for three years and being 12,000kms away at the time I was unable to attend his funeral. I remember the good times when we owned a farm and we as kids had so much fun and freedom. At the age of seven I used to help him in the fields, drive tractors, many times with my dad steering an implement at the rear of it. I earned two shillings an hour and I soon saved enough money to buy my own pony. I felt sad. It had been a long time since I really thought about him. My parents split when I was 10 years old and reunited again when I was 13. This was probably the saddest part of my life as my mum, who wanted to start a new life elsewhere, convinced dad to sell the farm in Lincolnshire and buy a grocery shop in Shirebrook, a small coalmining village in the midlands. This devastated me as I had so much freedom and enjoyment on the farm, now we were townies. Within a month my mum left us again leaving my older sister Janet to manage the shop. Dad couldn’t read or write so it was hard for him to manage it. My brother was back and forth from mum and dad. Two years later with falling sales, the shop went bankrupt and all the money we had from the sale of the farm was lost. As you can imagine my sister and I were not very pleased with my mum for dragging us away from the farm. When I was 15 I returned to the country and lived with my aunty. Four years later I was hitch hiking to Australia. The morning greeted me with a sky full of birds. Noisy white cockatoos flew overhead as well as honey eaters and an array of other birds including one with a red breast and black wings. A coucal pheasant also took off from out of the dry grass. For there to be so many birds there must have been water close by unless they got it from the heavy dew that saturated everything in the early morning. I started putting plastic bags over my cockpit to collect condensation. My kayak also collected condensation but I had to remember to wipe the salt off the kayak the night before. I only collected a few spoons full that way. The two and half hour trip across to the ‘Funnel’ at the head of Secure Bay was uneventful, no sharks, no crocodiles, nothing. It was one of my small ambitions on this trip to paddle through the entrance of Secure Bay and the Walcott Inlet. The ‘Funnel’ was roughly 50 metres across and a kilometre or so long before it opened out into Secure Bay where it widened considerable. Arriving at Secure Bay close to high tide meant the water movements would be slower as I paddled through the channel. As I moved through and into the bay it was lined for kilometers and kilometers with mangroves. Being really in crocodile country and having so many mangroves around me I didn’t fancy staying inside the bay for too long so I turned and made a fast exit with the out-going tide. Tidal currents at The ‘Funnel’ entrance to Secure Bay Three hundred metres from the entrance I found a nice beach, where there was plenty of firewood, a small boab tree to hang my hammock and a great view of the entrance and the tidal currents. With several day light hours left in the day I headed out on a walk to a creek a couple of kilometers away. I took my survival kit, cameras and water bottles. As usual the terrain was difficult. Boulders were hidden under the spinifex and grasses which were one of the best defenses for intruders on foot. The Kimberley terrain was like no other in WA. Sandstone boulders, deep spinifex, gullies, ravines and waist deep grasses with boulders underfoot made walking extremely difficult. Walking boots that are made to last for years in normal conditions, only last for weeks here in the Kimberley. I could see the creek in sight, but even with an increased walking speed it would still take me an hour to reach it. Then as I stepped on a boulder I slipped and in a split second I was on my back looking up at the cloudy skies. I fell on my back and bum but luckily my pack cushioned the fall so I was okay. At this point in time the creek looked too far away, so I retreated back to camp. Boab trees were handy to string my hammock in The tide was now racing out of the ‘Funnel’ creating some amazing and fascinating water movements, including big whirlpools. I headed to a high point on the cliff 300 metres away to get a better view and some film footage before darkness crept in. It was a special scene. Outgoing tidal currents at the ‘Funnel’ My next stop was the dangerous Yule Entrance, which was an entrance 10kms further along the coast that opened up into Walcott Entrance. I was told that there were big boils and large whirlpools in the entrance capable of spinning large boats in circles and sucking down smaller ones. It didn’t seem believable, so I knew I had to find out for myself. It was important though to go through the entrance as close to the high tide as possible, when there was less water movement just in case. My route along the cliff took me between Fletcher Island and Beer’s Ridge which was on the mainland. Driftwood that was being moved by the tidal currents was thick in the milky brown water of the channel. It made crocodile spotting difficult because every piece of driftwood looked like a crocodile. Mangroves were only 500 metres away at the best of times and the thought of crocodiles lurking certainly quickened my progress. I arrived at Yule Entrance an hour or so before the turn of the tide as it was still streaming into the entrance at a terrific speed. For a while I waited several hundred metres away, but I felt vulnerable sitting there waiting in crocodile country for the slack tide to arrive, so I started easing myself towards the 600 metre wide entrance. The current was getting faster, but I felt in no immediate danger so I moved in a little further. I could now see rapids to my right so I paddled over to my left and further into the centre of the channel to keep clear of them. Tidal currents going into ‘Yule Entrance’ of Walcot Inlet Suddenly I was being swept into the entrance and beyond. My eyes focused on the cliffs, which gauged my speed. I started to accelerate and I wasn’t even paddling, and then I realised I had been caught in a large tidal water slide. It didn’t matter, I would just ferry glide across to the slack water behind the north wall entrance. Well that’s what I thought, but another rapid and a whirlpool prevented any chance of that. I was now committed to go right through the entrance as my paddling skills and strength couldn’t help me to back track against the current, it was too powerful. The current was now running much faster than I could imagine and although I noticed the spectacular high cliffs to my right I had no time to take in their true beauty. Drops and rapids were also being created by rocky islands and reefs close to the cliffs which were being smothered by the rapid rising tide. I avoided them but suddenly I saw whirlpools, boils and whitewater spread across the channel a few hundred metres ahead. Tidal currents going into ‘Yule Entrance’ of Walcot Inlet As the channel narrowed, my kayak slid sideways and increased its speed. I was at mercy of the swift current and as I desperately tried to avoid the rapids and the biggest of the boils and whirlpools I could do nothing but dodge them and go with the flow. Tidal currents going into ‘Yule Entrance’ of Walcot Inlet Tidal currents rebounding off the rocky shoreline Walcot Inlet Although I could see the big whirlpools well ahead I felt at that moment I was sliding in safer waters as the channel widened and was less disturbed so I tried to get some film footage with my 16mm camera which was mounted on my front deck. I drifted, but I realized I was going faster than I normally paddled. A 16mm camera had to be wound up to take film so I had to reach forward to wind it up which compromised my stability. My camera was certainly different from todays’ technology. As I concentrated in getting the camera going I drifted towards a developing whirlpool over to my right. I then desperately tried moving over to the left, but because the water was being deflected from the rocky shoreline it pushed me back towards it again. I avoided it and some rapid water but then I noticed the whirlpools ahead were huge and full of boils that erupted a metre or more like miniature volcanos. The whirlpools were alive with whitewater, boils and smaller whirlpools. It was something that I had never seen before and it looked terrifying. Although I was nearly pooing my pants I was calm, I had to be. I paddled hard to gather extra speed so to sneak to the right of the big turbulences to avoid possible disaster. About 3 kilometres from the entrance the coastline abruptly turned east and having enough of a wild ride and seeing a good opportunity to get out of the current and to safety I turned and tried desperately to paddle towards a massive eddy behind the corner cliff wall, but as I tried the swift current being deflected from the wall pushed me back into the main current. Now drifting backwards, I shuddered with fear as I heard an almighty roar behind me. As I glanced over my shoulder I couldn’t believe my eyes, the giant whirlpool several hundred metres wide, was swirling, boiling, erupting and forming several different water levels. Like a scared rabbit I paddled furiously towards the eddy but it was no good, I was being sucked backwards towards the whirlpool. It was a terrifying feeling, especially after knowing that my whitewater experience didn’t seem to be helping me get away from the two metre turbulent surges and spiraling water forces. Giant whirlpools and boils in Walcot Inlet The thunder of the eruptions became louder as the boiling volcano of whitewater closed in. I strained to turn my heavy kayak to face forward and confront the whirlpool head on. With several almighty forward and reverse sweep strokes I managed to get the kayak turned. Now facing forward again I could see what I was up against. This was not like the smaller whirlpools like I had just passed, it was a giant that spun around converging with smaller ones that just popped up from nowhere. My only hope was to try and paddle around it, using the outer whirl. I was ready to go for it when I noticed another huge, but smaller whirlpool to the left of it. Its raging currents looked less severe and seemingly swirling in the opposite direction of that of the big one. I paddled towards it and somehow managed to keep upright and use its current to get away from the big one. I had somehow miraculously crossed over its raging turbulence, at times using my paddle as support to stop me from capsizing. Using all my strength and whitewater skills I finally paddled out of its powerful hold and into calmer waters. It was hard to believe, but I was safe. My mouth was dry and I was nearly choking with thirst. I ferry glided to the safety of the eddy, to wait nervously next to a near rock wall for the tide to ease. I was in crocodile country but I was happy to sit there for several minutes watching the huge whirlpools, swirl, and erupt like a boiling volcano. Now I believed all those stories. I remember Steve, who worked on the customs boat tell me that if I paddled into Walcot Inlet I would never get out. Again I didn’t believe such a tale, if the current takes you in, it must take you out, but seeing a gradient in the water level with my own eyes and the current still running in at an amazing speed, when the tide had supposed to have turned, I started to think that he could be right. Shit, now I was starting to doubt myself? I had paddled into the inlet on the highest of the spring tides, which in turn produces the fastest water currents. Now I was waiting in an eddy 3 1/2 kilometres from the open sea, surrounded by mangrove forests and suicidal currents, and you could say it was a little unsettling. I started paddling back towards the entrance close to the cliffs, but it was still a struggle. A boil, come whirlpool 30 metres on was in my way of escape, but I had a slim possibility of paddling between it and the cliff so I had to give it ago. In between the eruptions and whirls it became calm, giving me enough time to clear it and position myself behind a boulder before it started erupting again. When it erupted the current moved out from the centre and started pushing me towards the rock face. I fended myself from the wall with my paddle and hands. The current pushed me backwards jamming my rudder under a rock ledge and as the boil rose my rudder crunched and it sank my stern in the water compromising my balance. Time after time I was at the mercy of the upsurges until my rudder was free. The water was too powerful to paddle against and a whirlpool was still to my right. Hell knows what I would have done if a crocodile came. I waited. I was eager to get to the inlet entrance as soon as I could, but it was impossible to paddle against the current, I really needed to wait for the tide to turn. Eventually the current eased to a manageable speed so I fought my way along the edge of the shoreline trying to use the slack water behind the rocks and boulders. I passed over many small whirlpools and boils and climbed several fast running chutes, skirted mangroves and continually scanned the water for crocodiles. With one kilometre to go, an outgoing current helped me out of the entrance but the meeting of the current and the wind waves made for an exploding ocean. I had thought that all my fighting had ceased for the day, but now I was paddling against an ocean of steep high waves which were angered by the swift out flowing current. The steep waves slapped against my bow and I had no time to recover before the next one hit. At times I was feeling a little unstable when the bow was caught on one wave and my stern on top of another and I had no water underneath me. Then my whole cockpit disappeared under water. I had 5 ½ kms of this slop before I was safe on Fletcher Island. Waves of saltwater smacked me in the face increasing my unbearable thirst. As I turned to the west side of Fletcher Island the waves hit me broadside, making paddling really uncomfortable so I was pleased when I landed on the beach and was welcomed by two ducks and two oyster catchers. It felt good to have survived such a harrowing and dangerous ordeal especially after experiencing it on one of the biggest tides (10.1m) of the year with the fastest tidal currents. The two ducks flew off to the other end of the beach leaving their large chick under a driftwood pile that stretched the full length of the beach. The 300m beach was littered with numerous turtle tracks. I managed to get rid of the salt water taste in my mouth after making a beautiful cup of coffee. The simple things in life, like a cup of coffee and some dried fruits were heavenly. I tied my hammock between two gum trees up on the ridge over-looking my beach, the mainland and its outlying islands. I relaxed next to my kayak on the beach and when I returned to my hammock for the night I heard a hissing noise coming from near my feet, but I couldn’t see anything. Shit, a snake, I thought. I stepped back and it continued to hiss so without delay I jumped in my hammock to get off the ground and sleep. I woke to a day more important than Christmas. Santa Clause, alias Ivan Brown planned to visit me on the island and bring water to top up my dwindling supplies. He said, if he wasn’t able to reach me on Sunday, because of a storm or something he would try again on Monday night after work. Toilet time was usually very stressful and sometimes a painful affair when the sandflies viciously attacked my private parts once I had dropped my pants. It wasn’t very funny so the quicker I did it, the less traumatic it was, but sometimes toilet time just couldn’t be hurried. Two boats, one yellow, one white came screaming through the heat haze towards my beach. Ivan had arrived. With the tide out I trudged into knee deep mud and into the water walking towards his boat. A cold beer and a soda water were waiting for me. Although I didn’t usually drink, I chose a cold beer instead of a soda water as it was celebration time. I had been dreaming of a cold drink all week. Six men, Ivan and a dog made up the team. The second boat was given the job of making breakfast so I had bacon, eggs sausages and chops. I didn’t even have that at home. A 3 metre crocodile noticed our presence and dropped in for breakfast. With all the chops eaten one man threw a hunk of bread over the side and instantly the croc leapt forward opening his mouth wide and grasped it in his jaws. For several minutes the croc made no attempt to eat it and then finally let it float away. As it was circling the boat with 7 men on board, it probably had a different meal in mind! With the rising tide now covering the sand, Ivan powered his boat up the beach. This gave everyone a chance to stretch their legs and look with amazement at my slender kayak. In the rush to get to me, Ivan had forgotten to bring enough drinking water to top up my supplies, so I used the melting ice that was keeping the beer cold in the esky. By 11.00am, lunch time was declared so we all climbed back aboard Ivan’s boat for some chicken, tomatoes, cucumber, asparagus, cheese, bread, and all the nice things in life. The men were in fine spirits after drinking since arriving and they talked about the mishaps that they have had along the coast and when their power boat was nearly sucked down by the whirlpools in Walcot Inlet. I could now relate to their stories. After lunch it was time for them to slice back through the choppy waters to Koolan Island 70 kms away. All the food not eaten, mainly chips and biscuits were left with me so I finished up feeling very queasy by the end of the day. I was very grateful for their visit and hospitality. It was strange and very quiet when they left. I wanted to go back to Walcot Inlet and look at the whirlpools, but this time from the land. I needed to see them from another perspective and see how dangerous they really were, so I left my beach on Fletcher Island and paddled over to the mainland. I had noticed a rocky landing when I passed by two days previously so I headed for that. It was hot and humid and I could hear the coast-watch plane in the far distance, but as usual it never spotted me. My choice of landing spots between the mangroves didn’t seem at all wise, but some would say that doing this trip in a kayak wasn’t wise, although I always took as many precautions as I could. I came across a prehistoric looking piece of driftwood along my route and there is nothing more sinister and chilling than paddling towards logs that look like crocodiles. However time and experience had now conditioned me to the sudden daily dangers that I faced. Ahead of me were rocky shores and mangrove fields, some being two and half kilometres long. The low tide mud had recently been covered leaving driftwood, branches and logs languishing. One log looked real and it wasn’t a mirage as it was moving. I still had 500 metres to go before landing on the boulders so I quickened my pace keeping a watchful eye on the crocodile’s position. I soon passed between the mangroves and hit the large boulders and jumped out. I had lost sight of the croc when I entered the mangroves so I didn’t know where it was. They say a crocodile you can see is of no danger, when you can’t see it, start worrying. I started worrying! My front compartment was unloaded first, to reduce the weight of the kayak and be-able to pull it ashore and out of the water. With the rising tide I couldn’t leave the kayak to be pounded against the rocks so I had to unload it quickly. Being close to the water’s edge and knowing a croc was out there, was pretty traumatic. Safe in camp I now planned to spend two days exploring the country behind me and watch the whirlpools form from the shoreline. The whirlpools were one of my own natural wonders of the world. Trying to hang in my hammock from a boab tree full of green ants wasn’t easy, but it was either that or sleep on the rocks. My main concern was their tight rope walking ability, I could imagine them crawling along the ropes and attack me in the night. Camp near Walcot Inlet I tried to keep cool by washing my body regularly as I couldn’t swim in the ocean in fear of crocs, so I filled my cooking pot with water and poured water over me instead. It certainly wasn’t quite the same as taking a dip but it was safer. It was also important to wash my clothes regularly especially my socks, underpants, and canoeing gear because if I didn’t they would become crusty with salt. With salt encrusted clothes, chafing was more likely to happen, causing rashes and sores. If I got a sores or scratches they would be very hard to heal in this tropical heat and become infected. Hospitals were too far away to be careless so to help prevent cuts, scratches and bites I always wore my shirt and long pants when walking. The boys from Koolan Island told me that the weather was approaching the suicide season, that is the time before the wet, when the clouds and humidity buildup and it gets steamy, but the clouds don’t give any rain. Last night, when the clouds blocked out the moon and the temperature was far too hot to sleep, I counted 18 droplets of rain that fell on my overheated body. For several days now the clouds have been trying to open up, but as yet no rain. I watched an electrical storm to my south-west but it didn’t develop into anything. Since I started using my hammock my sleep has been solid apart from a night or two. I thought about my younger travelling days when it was common for me to sleep in the silo bins, in uncompleted houses, on building sites, in bus shelters, in fact anywhere that was dry and safe. But back then I only had people to worry about. A slight breeze blew through the mangroves which gave a little relief from the heat. It was too hot to have a sheet on so I had no protection from mosquitoes. I read through a letter from Jenny again that Ivan had brought from my Koolan contact. It amused me to hear that Chris Young from Channel Seven had used some of my film footage, edited it and when signing off, said, this is Chris Young reporting from Broome, but he had never left the studio. For some reason I started thinking about my wedding night and the contrast in temperature, it was so cold then. Everybody at our wedding must have thought that we were going to a hotel somewhere luxurious, but what a surprise when they found out that we had camped on the sea marsh on a cold late October night, only 3 kms from the church. I wasn’t one for luxuries, I had been camping and cheap travelling for the last few years and somehow I managed to convince Jenny that we should have our wedding night in a tent. When we arrived and walked to the top of the sea bank it was pitch black, and the only light we had to put our tent up was from the car headlights. There was no moon because of the clouds. We were both dressed in our wedding clothes, Jenny in a wedding dress, me in my suit. The small tent was rolled out on the wet grass and with hammer in hand I hit the pegs into the ground. We spread the thin mattress on the floor of the tent, threw down our sleeping bags and crawled inside. We were at last snuggled into our sleeping bags, which were full of rice, courteous of my best man Fred. It was cold, so sleeping was difficult. A pumping station nearby, which pumped water from the dykes over the sea bank automatically started up several times in the night also waking us. Well that was back in 1977. My thoughts were then disturbed by a creature rustling in the grass. It was another quoll. After my very near miss with the whirlpools it was exciting to have the chance to see the whirlpools and strong tidal movements from the safety of shore, so I soon donned my pack and climbed the hill behind my camp and walked to the inlet. Within minutes I was walking over some difficult terrain, long dry grass, hidden rocks, vines, overhanging branches, spiderwebs, gullies, holes, you name it, it was there. I followed the coast around and moved along the cliff line watching the tide coming in. I was gripped with the awe-inspiring sight and the enormous power of the water which changed with each five minutes that past. Logs with no ability to get out the current were swept away. Occasionally I would notice a couple of dolphins in the water, and rock wallabies that fled from the ridges when I neared. My binoculars brought me closer to the eagles that soared overhead, closer to the honey eaters, swallows and the far distant wilderness, but more importantly I was able to get closer to the whirlpools. Spindly trees were bent over as the winds whipped across the inlet. I approached a rock cliff face amphitheatre made up of vibrant ochre colours facing towards a clearing and a creek beyond. With the rapids, the cliffs and steep inlet the view was just stunning. More-so because I was alone in this unforgiving wilderness. I left the amphitheatre, descended the ridge, followed the mangroves and crossed over a salt water creek. Doves hidden behind the mangroves fluttered off beneath my feet. I was surprised by their flight and for a moment I failed to recognize that they were drinking fresh water between the slimy weed. The grass around the gully was green, the soil was moist and a stagnant pool of water circled by mangroves, which I thought was salt, was actually fresh. The water became cleaner upstream and a faint trace of flowing water was moving small particles of algae along. I tasted the water and my lips were quenched by the sweet warm freshwater. I found freshwater Daring doves swooped down beside me, filling their stomachs for the evening flight to roost somewhere. Butterflies hovered above my head and displayed their delicate patterns of colour. Water was life and like the doves, I cannot live without it. If only I had known that this precious creek was here, it would have saved Ivan and his friends the 140 km trip. I filled my water bags carefully trying to keep the slime and algae out. Once all my bags were full, I moved away from the mangroves and headed home. (I checked the stream on later expeditions to find the creek dry.) I didn’t bother following the coast back to camp I took the direct route and climbed the ridge, wrestling with my weighty pack. It is often a big effort to find water in this country but I had to collect it whenever I could. Water is life. As I struggled up the ridge perspiration was pouring off me, it was as if I was in a sauna bath. To make matters worse there were cobwebs stretching from the trees which stuck to my clammy flesh like chewing gum on the sole of a shoe. As if walking wasn’t hard enough, there were holes in the ground that unexpectedly caved in under my weight and jarred my legs. I soon had a slight strain develop in my right leg, which encouraged me to take more care. I could just imagine the headlines in the West Australian newspaper, saying a kayaker who has been chased by crocs and sharks, breaks his leg after falling down a rat hole. Nothing is easy in the Kimberley! Due to the fact that I might have an accident I always left a note on my kayak with my plans and which direction I was headed. It still might have taken weeks for people to realise I was missing but I felt it was a necessary precaution. As another precaution I sometimes left pieces of driftwood on my beach pointing in the direction that I was headed. With no communication with the outside world I had to devise and improvise for the unexpected. At the top of the ridge I had an amazing view of the inlet but more importantly a view of the whirlpools. They had now increased in size and it was interesting to see them grow. It was equally interesting to be able to see the route I had taken when I paddled into the inlet and how I avoided the centre of the whirlpools and possible death. I also noted that if I would have paddled well over to the right hand side after the first set of rapids I could have paddled safely in the calmer waters of the south-west shoreline. For next time now I know what to do, but it was fun the way I did it. I returned to camp to reflect on the last few days. It had been a real adventure. Watching the giant whirlpools and boils Walking at Walcot Inlet After two days of walking and studying the inlet it was time to move on. A departure on high tide was necessary but because I took too long to load the kayak the tide had gone out about 50 metres by the time I was ready. I now had to drag the kayak down the boulders and on to the slippery mudflats by using driftwood. Thirty five kilos of weight in the kayak was made up with water. Camp near Walcot Inlet. The tide out for a few hundred metres My journey north continued………………. End of part 1. Kimberley Challenge $12.00 from Canoeing Down Under Short stories of five expeditions around the Kimberley Coast	i don't know
In which European country are the head-quarters of the telecommunications company Nokia ?	Nokia buys Alcatel to take on Ericsson in telecom equipment \| Reuters Wed Apr 15, 2015 \| 4:24 PM EDT Nokia buys Alcatel to take on Ericsson in telecom equipment By Jussi Rosendahl and Leila Abboud \| HELSINKI/PARIS HELSINKI/PARIS Nokia is to buy Alcatel-Lucent in an all-share deal that values its smaller French rival at 15.6 billion euros ($16.6 billion), building up its telecom equipment business to compete with market leader Ericsson. The deal will redefine a sector suffering weak growth prospects and pressure from low-cost Chinese players Huawei and ZTE. With about 114,000 employees and sales of around 26 billion euros, the combined company will rank a strong second in mobile equipment, with global market share of 35 percent, behind Ericsson at 40 percent and ahead of Huawei's 20 percent, according to Bernstein Research. The new Nokia will have stronger exposure to the important North American market, with major AT&T and Verizon contracts. It will also fill gaps in its product portfolio with Alcatel-Lucent's technology in optical transmission and Internet routers, which help telecom operators handle the ever-increasing volume of data brought on by users surfing the web on their smartphones and watching Netflix at home. While Huawei does have a complete product line across both fixed and mobile, Ericsson does not and may have to react with deal-making or partnerships, executives said. Nokia will give Alcatel-Lucent shareholders 0.55 shares in the combined company for each of their old shares, putting 33.5 percent of the entity in Alcatel shareholders' hands if the tender offer is fully taken up. The deal will be finalised in the first half of 2016 and is expected to result in 900 million euros of operating cost savings by the end of 2019, the companies said on Wednesday. Nokia shares fell 1.5 percent, adding to Tuesday's 3.6 percent fall, while Alcatel-Lucent fell 15.5 percent, giving up most of the gains it made on Tuesday when the talks were first acknowledged by the companies. Nokia initially approached Alcatel-Lucent about buying only the wireless business but was rebuffed, leading to the broader deal, Alcatel boss Michel Combes told Reuters in an interview. The deal carries significant risks, however. The track record of mergers in the sector - including the two that gave birth to Nokia and Alcatel-Lucent a decade ago - has been poor. Prior deals were plagued by the difficulty of cutting costs in an R&D intensive business, rivals stealing contracts while the companies were distracted by their integrations, and struggles over power within the married firms. Nokia CEO Rajeev Suri sought to reassure. "This is not a joint venture, so there will be no governance issues," he said on a call with investors. "We will take a no politics, no nonsense approach to running the business, and have learned from past mistakes." FRENCH JOBS PLEDGE Nokia pledged to keep France as "a vibrant center of the combined company" and not to cut jobs beyond what Alcatel had already planned, especially protecting research and development sites at Villarceaux and Lannion. Economy Minister Emanuel Macron said in a statement late on Wednesday that the overall jobs pledge would hold for two years after the deal closes. He and Alcatel's Combes also announced an extra 500 research jobs in France, adding to the existing 2,000. Alcatel has 6,000 employees in France. France made maintaining jobs a condition for its backing the deal, raising concerns over job cuts in Finland where Nokia employs about 6,900. "At first the deal sounded like very good news. But given that there will likely be job cuts, and the fact that it is much more expensive to lay off people in France than in Finland, the outlook is not that bright anymore," the head of the Finnish engineers' union, Pertti Porokari, said. "I truly hope that Finnish politicians would also show some patriotism here." The Finnish government did not demand that jobs be protected but underlined the Nordic country's know-how in technology. Nokia sold its once-dominant mobile handset business to Microsoft last year after struggling to compete with smartphones by Apple and Samsung. That deal left it with the network unit, a smaller map unit and a portfolio of technology patents. Nokia said its growth profile would be improved by the deal and predicted a sales growth rate of about 3.5 percent for 2014 to 2019. Nevertheless some investors remained concerned. "The integration will be a difficult task, it will easily take a year or two, and the management group must focus on it heavily. For an investor seeking returns this year, it is clear that Nokia looks less interesting after this move," said Juha Varis, a fund manager at Danske Capital whose fund owned 0.06 percent of Nokia shares as of end-March. He also said that leaving France out of the cost-cutting program must have a negative impact on the corporate culture. Other analysts, however, said that Nokia and CEO Suri had a good record on restructuring. "There is no reason to doubt that this deal too wouldn't increase shareholder value... We know that there are risks related to France and the cost cuts, but I believe that Nokia has calculated a margin of safety to the deal price," Nordnet brokerage strategist, Jukka Oksaharju, said. Separately, Nokia confirmed it was exploring the sale of its HERE mapping unit, which some analysts value at up to 6.9 billion euros. It also said further asset sales could be undertaken once the deal was completed. JPMorgan advised Nokia on the takeover, and boutique investment bank Zaoui & Co. advised Alcatel-Lucent. (Editing by Louise Ireland) ADVERTISEMENT 1/3 From L: Nokia's chairman Risto Siilasmaa, Nokia's President and Chief Executive Rajeev Suri, Telecom equipment maker Alcatel-Lucent's Chief Executive Officer Michel Combes and Alcatel-Lucent's chairman of the supervisory board Philippe Camus pose before a news conference in Paris April 15, 2015. Reuters/Charles Platiau + 2/3 Michel Combes (R), Telecom equipment maker Alcatel-Lucent Chief Executive Officer, poses with Nokia's President and Chief Executive Rajeev Suri (L) after a news conference in Paris April 15, 2015. Reuters/Charles Platiau + 3/3 The logo of Alcatel-Lucent is pictured at the company headquarters in Boulogne-Billancourt near Paris April 14, 2015. Reuters/Gonzalo Fuentes +	Finland
In Greek mythology, whose wife was Clytemnestra ?	Engineering and Technology Jobs - IEEE Job Site Member Sign-In The War For Talent Continues For Engineers In Europe A low graduation rate and aging workforce is causing a ï¿½severeï¿½ shortage of technical professionals By Ron Schneiderman / March 2013 There’s still a strong demand in Europe for engineers, despite high unemployment in the overall workforce, and ongoing economic uncertainties globally. And while there appears to be fewer job openings posted this year than in the past for American companies with facilities in Europe, human resource professionals of European-based companies complain that there’s not enough “talent” to go around. If anything, the need for qualified engineers and computer professionals may never have been greater than it is now. Europe isn’t alone. The Development Dimensions International (DDI)’s Global Selection Forecast 2012 reported that the competition for tech talent has increased steadily and rapidly over the past five years. The “war for talent,” as the report describes it, is coming at a critical time, when organizations are “relying more than ever on talent with special skills to differentiate themselves from their competitors.” But EURES, the European jobs and mobility portal set up for job seekers in the European Union (EU), which provides job vacancy information in 31 European countries (the EU’s 27 member states and Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland), reports that the list of new vacancies for “high-skilled” labor increased significantly in 2012 compared to the previous year, from 18.6 to 24.3 percent. “There are shortages everywhere,” says Bill Parsons, executive vice president of human resources at chip designer and intellectual property vendor ARM Holdings in the U.K. “We’re seeing our numbers dropping now.” “SEVERE” IN GERMANY The shortage of electrical engineers (EEs) in Germany is “severe,” according to the Association of Germany Engineers (VDI). At last count in September 2012, there were 18 700 EE vacancies in Germany. Part of the problem is time. On average, German companies need 114 days to fill positions for EEs. And more German engineers are retiring, or nearing retirement, than in any other EU member country. Schools aren’t keeping up with demand, in part because the dropout rate among EE students in Germany is 50 percent. There’s also a strong demand in Germany for academics in engineering and informatics. A survey conducted by BITKOM (www.bitcom.de) , the federal association for IT, telecommunications and new media, found that German companies can’t always find the people they need in Germany, resulting in an increase in job vacancies, not only for engineers, but also for IT specialists. This has been particularly difficult for Germany, which claims that its information technology and telecommunications (ITC) market is the world’s fourth largest. Efforts to promote careers in engineering for German women also don’t seem to have been very successful. With around a million engineers across several disciplines, only about 13 percent of them are women—a small increase from 10 percent a decade ago. (Hoping to expand its recruiting opportunities, EADS, the European Aeronautics, Defense & Space group, has developed a special mentoring program for women, and hosted 250 women engineering students from Germany’s top universities—all members of Femtec, a German organization of women in engineering— at the ILA Air Show in Berlin in September 2012.) Rainer Schmidt-Rudloff, a human relations executive with Munich-based Infineon Technologies AG who focuses on university relations, says Infineon is doing “selective hiring” in 2013, and has been successful in filling its open positions for technical personnel. “However, due to the still uncertain economic outlook, an exact forecast is difficult.” Rohde & Schwarz, the German test and measurement company, is recruiting about 30 hardware and software development engineers for its home facility in Munich, and it’s looking for a systems engineer and system architect/software developer for the U.K. PLENTY OF U.K. OPENINGS The numbers are not quite as dramatic in the U.K., but one job site lists more than 1700 EE job openings. “Tech professionals are far more concerned about the length of time a vacancy’s been advertised than the rest of the U.K. workforce,” says Mike Beresford, managing director of Randstad Technologies, an IT and technology recruiter. “Recruiting for a tech post is like trying to sell your house. Leave it on the market too long and, for whatever reason, people start to think there is something wrong with it. That leads to fewer applications.” ARM’s Parsons identifies two critical issues in developing a growing corps of engineers in Europe: Fewer engineering graduates are coming out of European universities, with “about half” of those going directly into presumably better paying non-engineering jobs, mainly banking and management consulting. Of the just under 500 engineers ARM hired in 2012, only 130 were new graduates. U.K. officials are also projecting a decline in the number of people studying computer science, a problem ARM’s Parsons says is partly the result of some universities keeping their software curriculum separate from their engineering programs. Facebook opened its first engineering office outside the U.S. in London in 2012, focusing on mobile products, initially recruiting about 25 developers for the facility. In February, Facebook listed job openings in London on its website for a manager of software engineering, a product security engineer, and a security engineer/software tools. Google says it hired “hundreds” of software engineers in 2012, but it hasn’t disclosed its plans for 2013. Google also seems to sharply define the work of its larger European offices. Engineers and other tech professionals in the Google office in Munich have spent much of their time working on Chrome, the V8 Java Script Engine, and Google Dashboard. In Zurich, the focus has been on Maps, Gmail, and YouTube. In London, much of Google’s work has been on developing Google Maps and AdSense. But the company is building a new U.K. headquarters in central London. It’s not clear how many new hires might be involved, but the plan calls for a one million square foot office on a 2.4-acre plot in London’s King’s Cross Central development. Construction is scheduled to begin in late 2013, and Google expects to relocate its staff in the area to the new facility in 2016. Ireland says it currently has 4500 openings for skilled technical professionals. Ireland also hopes to create 1300 new jobs over the next three years through Midas Ireland, an industry initiative aimed at promoting the country’s microelectronics industry. Hittite Microwave’s new International Operations Centre in Cork, Analog Devices, Microsemi, Xilinx, ZMDI, and M/A-COM Technology Solutions all have announced plans to increase hiring in 2013 in their facilities in Ireland. The Microelectronic Circuits Centre Ireland, working with 18 industry partners, has been recruiting researchers at all levels with experience in analog mixed-signal and RF integrated circuit research. Denmark will be 14 000 engineers short of its requirements in 2020. Huawei, the Chinese mobile communications company, plans to establish an R&D center in Helsinki, Finland that Kenneth Fredriksen, vice president of Huawei Central, Eastern and Nordic Europe, says will serve as one of the company’s core centers for device R&D. Initially, Huawei plans to recruit 30 employees for the Helsinki center, boosting that to more than 100 employees over five years. Initially, the Helsinki facility will focus on software development for smartphones, tablets, and other media-rich devices. In September 2012, Huawei announced a US $2 billion investment in R&D, local procurement and other initiatives in the U.K. Currently, Huawei employs more than 7000 people across Europe. ARM is looking for more than 100 people in Europe, mostly for its Cambridge headquarters, but also in Norway, Sweden and France. The openings range from graduate software applications engineers, graphic hardware verification engineers, and principal design engineer/memory systems to at least two positions in the research department with “Internet of Things” in the job title. Cisco is looking for at least 10 software engineers and seven IT specialists in the U.K., and a product marketing manager for software in Belgium. Dell says it needs a storage solutions architect for a remote field satellite office in Denmark with advanced IT infrastructure architecture planning and design implementation skills and that can speak both Danish and English. Angela Romei, the global employment public relations manager for Microsoft, says that while the company is hiring in all countries across Europe, there’s a specific focus on staffing up its development centers in Ireland, Norway, and Denmark. Sweden reported 16 000 vacancies for computer professionals at the end of 2012. While not facing the same numbers as other European countries, France also is having trouble replacing retiring engineers with equally skilled EEs. The National Institute for Research in Computer Science and Control (INRIA) in France says it is launching a round of competitions to recruit 20 young graduate scientists, with two each to be based at its Bordeaux, Grenoble, Rennes, and Saclay R&D centers, and three each at the Lille, Nancy, Sophia, and Rocquencourt centers. It’s also hiring nine senior researchers to be based throughout France. In addition, INRIA is offering several post-doctoral Fellow positions, each lasting 16 months, in a variety of very narrow computer science-related study areas. “We will need talented and creative researchers,” says Michel Cosnard, chairman and CEO of INRIA, “particularly women, who are still under-represented in our disciplines.” There’s also a strong demand for IT professionals, including IT freelancers, in Germany, France, and Switzerland. Google, Microsoft, Oracle, Facebook, and Intel are recruiting IT specialists through a new initiative called MakeITin Ireland. THE MIGRATION PATH The VDI says the shortage of qualified people will require Germany to more aggressively recruit skilled workers from other countries to fill its skill gaps. But getting people to move from one country to another in Europe has always been a challenge for would-be employers. New EU immigration rules may help fill many EU job vacancies. The VDI, together with FEANI, the European engineering organization, created the EU Blue Card to smooth the way for “highly educated” non-EU nationals to obtain work permits in EU countries, except the U.K., Denmark, and Ireland. (Information on how this works in Germany is available at www.make-it-in-germany.com .) “It is vital for the German economy to allow for the migration of highly skilled workers,” says Ina Kayser, who manages labor market analysis and advises the VDI on engineering profession issues. “This applies today, but much more in the future as we face demographic changes [across Europe], which will affect Germany quite badly.” To help ease the way for “foreign” engineers, some German companies are offering programs that include information on living in Germany, mentoring, and language classes. “Apart from methodological and specialist knowledge, soft skills and language skills are very important in Germany,” says Kayser. INRIA has adopted policies to facilitate the integration and training of its mostly Ph.D.-level recruits, many of them from outside of France. “Mobility is essential in the dynamic and highly competitive world of computational science,” says Bruno Wierzbicki, the research institute’s director of human resources. ARM has been working this issue for some time. Parsons says many nationalities are represented in its facilities in the U.K. and Norway, and among the 100 interns currently on its engineer staff. ENTREPRENEURSHIP ANYONE? Start-ups have always been a key driver of new job creation and there are success stories across Europe. (Skype and Angry Birds are two high profile examples.) The Shoreditch district in East London has gained a reputation as the place to be for new tech ventures, and several were launched in Ireland in 2012, many of them in the Dublin neighborhood now known as the Silicon Docks. Enterprise Ireland is a government-sponsored organization with the largest venture fund in Europe. But by most standards, Europe doesn’t have a particularly strong record of success in entrepreneurship. European investors are more risk-averse than American venture capitalists. Only about a third of EU member states have rules dedicated to VC funding, with the rest relying on general rules or corporate laws. And, unlike the U.S., where many academics have become highly successful as entrepreneurs outside the classroom, university faculty members aren’t allowed to participate in commercial activities in some European countries. The International Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, held in January, seems indicative of the problem. Of the more than 140 companies in a special TechZone exhibit space set aside for young start-up companies, the Consumer Electronics Association, which organizes the event, said it could identify only eight companies that are EU-based. Several private concerns have been working to encourage European technical and business professionals to start their own businesses. The European Association of Communications Agencies, a trade group, launched an advertising campaign in Brussels in 2012 aimed at encouraging young Europeans to start businesses. The campaign was scheduled to expand to Germany, Italy, Spain, Poland, and the U.K. in March 2013. Four European groups—Silicon Saxony in Germany, DSP Valley in Belgium, Minilogic in France, and Point One in The Netherlands—have formed a Silicon Europe alliance to promote investment in technology. U.K.-based Cambridge Consultants, which mostly designs products for others, has published a free guide to help start-ups get their products successfully to market. ABOUT THOSE LAYOFFS Will layoffs in Europe announced by Alcatel-Lucent, Nokia, Nokia Siemens, Philips Electronics, and others over the past several months help fill vacancies where there are shortages? Maybe. “Mechanical and electrical engineers are the most wanted disciplines here in Germany,” says the VDI’s Kayser. “Young graduates are often happy for opportunities involving living in a different country. But it depends on if the people are willing to relocate, willing to do a different job, willing to engage in further education that may be required for a certain position.” Nokia, anticipating layoffs in the middle of 2012, boosted its stock-option program in an effort to retain key senior level employees. Ericsson, after reporting in November 2012 that it planned a 9 percent cut of its Swedish staff, said in January that it intended to acquire Devoteam Telecom & Media operations in France—a deal that would add 400 skilled, France-based, IT professionals to theEricsson technical staff. The deal includes the acquisition of Devoteam’s TV SmartVision operations. In February, press reports indicated the French government and private equity funds had offered to buy about a quarter of Alcatel-Lucent’s 29 000 wireless patents to help boost the company’s revenue. But the most overwhelming issue across Europe continues to be the shortage of engineers. ARM is taking the long view. To help press its point about the need for more engineers and other technologists in the U.K., ARM in February committed to funding the establishment of up to 1000 after-school clubs, enabling more than 15 000 U.K. primary school children, aged 9-11, to learn the basics of writing computer programs. ARM’s commitment represents the first round of corporate funding of the Code Club, a volunteer group that runs the program. With ARM’s support, the Code Club can now double the number of after school clubs it supports to 1000. To date, the schools have been funded by awards and private donations. About Ron Schneiderman: Ron Schneiderman is a contributing editor for Electronic Design and It Is Innovation (i3), and a regular contributor to IEEE Signal Processing Magazine. He's the author of seven books, including "Technology Lost -- Hype and Reality in the Digital Age."	i don't know
Which Doctor Who actor did David Bradley play in the recent TV drama An Adventure In Space and Time ?	An Adventure in Space and Time (TV Movie 2013) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error An Adventure in Space and Time ( 2013 ) 1h 30min A dramatisation of the early years of Doctor Who (1963), with the story revolving around BBC executive Sydney Newman , novice producer Verity Lambert and actor William Hartnell . Director: a list of 30 titles created 20 Mar 2012 a list of 47 titles created 01 Jan 2013 a list of 27 titles created 01 Nov 2013 a list of 37 titles created 6 months ago a list of 45 titles created 1 week ago Title: An Adventure in Space and Time (TV Movie 2013) 8.3/10 Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. 1 win & 8 nominations. See more awards » Photos With the 50th anniversary of Doctor Who (1963) approaching, former Doctors Peter Davison , Colin Baker and Sylvester McCoy try to sneak onto the set of the anniversary special. Director: Peter Davison Doctor Who (TV Movie 1996) Adventure \| Drama \| Sci-Fi The newly-regenerated Doctor takes on the Master on the turn of the millennium, 31 December 1999. Director: Geoffrey Sax Prequel to series seven of Doctor Who (2005); five short films show the home life of Amy and Rory, while The Doctor has a few adventures of his own. Stars: Arthur Darvill, Karen Gillan, Matt Smith British physicist Brian Cox lectures on the nature of time and space, black holes, time dilation and the possibility of time travel a la Doctor Who by using experiments featuring celebrity ... See full summary » Directors: Steve Smith, Ashley Way Stars: Brian Cox, Matt Smith, Jim Al-Khalili This series takes place in the TARDIS asks the question "what does the doctor do when his companions are asleep"? Stars: Matt Smith, Karen Gillan, Alex Kingston The Doctor, Amy, and Rory get stuck in a time paradox within the T.A.R.D.I.S. Director: Richard Senior Amy reminds The Doctor he needs to have an adventure once in a while, the Doctor complies and sets the TARDIS to its "adventure setting". After a series of malfunctions, the ship lands in ... See full summary » Stars: Elliot Barnes-Worrell, Karen Gillan, Sarah Louise Madison A series of documentaries celebrating the 50th anniversary of Doctor Who (1963), each focusing on a different incarnation of the Doctor. Stars: Gareth Pierce, Steven Moffat, Marcus Wilson Highlights from the third Doctor Who Prom, hosted by Matt Smith and Jenna-Louise Coleman, which featured music from the series - performed by the BBC Philharmonic and London Philharmonic Choir. Director: Richard Senior Behind the scenes of the making of Doctor Who with the cast, crew and directors. Stars: Russell T. Davies, David Tennant, Steven Moffat Before the Doctor can settle down to married life, he must face one last confrontation with his deadly enemy of certain death - the Master. Director: John Henderson Doctor Who: Dreamland (TV Mini-Series 2009) Animation \| Adventure \| Sci-Fi While visiting a local diner, The Doctor finds an alien artifact and ends up on a mission to save the Rivesh Mantilax from the danger of the Viperox and the U.S. Military. Stars: David Tennant, Georgia Moffett, Tim Howar Edit Storyline In 1963 Sydney Newman, progressive head of BBC TV's drama department, wants to fill a Saturday tea-time slot with a show with youth appeal and hits on the idea of an august figure, like a doctor, leading a group of companions on time travel adventures. He engages inexperienced young producer Verity Lambert to expand the idea. Fighting sexist and racial bigotry Verity and young Indian director Waris Hussein persuade crusty character actor William Hartnell to play the doctor figure and, despite technical hiccups and competition with coverage of the Kennedy assassination, the first episode of 'Doctor Who' is born. As the show becomes a success Hartnell displays an obsession with his character but, after three years, ill health catches up with him and he starts to forget lines. Newman tells him that Doctor Who will 'regenerate' and he will be replaced by younger actor Patrick Troughton. Though attached to the part and reluctant to give it up Hartnell wishes every success to Troughton, the... Written by don @ minifie-1 22 November 2013 (USA) See more » Also Known As: Ein Abenteuer in Raum und Zeit See more » Filming Locations: Did You Know? Trivia William Hartnell -era stars William Russell , Carole Ann Ford , and Anneke Wills have cameo roles. Jean Marsh , who appeared in two Hartnell era stories as Joanna (The Crusade) and Sara Kingdom (The Daleks' Master Plan) also cameos during Verity Lambert 's leaving party. Jean Marsh was once married to Jon Pertwee , known for playing the Third Doctor from 1970 to 1974. Marsh also appeared in the McCoy era story Battlefield as Morgaine and has reprised her role as Sara Kingdom in several Big Finish audio's. See more » Goofs Claudia Grant playing Carol Ann Ford/Susan Foreman explains that TARDIS stands for Time and Relative Dimensions in Space whereas in both the un-aired pilot and pilot of an Unearthly Child she says Time and Relative Dimension in Space - no 's' at the end of Dimension. See more » Quotes (Isle Of Bute , Scotland) – See all my reviews Is it too much to state how much that DOCTOR WHO has shaped British popular culture ? Nearly everyone loves the show in all of its variable and diverse eras . That said if you're going to make a drama about the origins of the show then there's a very real danger that you're going to overstate everything and tell the story with embellished hindsight . To quote the late John Nathan Turner " The memory cheats " and if there's a problem with An Adventure In Space And Time it's that it's written with the view that the future of television itself is at stake . This is patently untrue and everything I've read on the origins of the show indicates no one had any inkling of the genie they'd released from the bottle and thought of it as a disposable children's television show that probably wouldn't last . That said the programme begins with a disclaimer - though be it in a pretentious manner - that some artistic licence has been taken by the storytelling Sydney Newman a bold and brash Canadian newly arrived from ITV comes up with the idea of an educational children's show for the BBC that will fire their interest in both science in history . He decides to call it Doctor Who and delegates the task of producer to a young production associate called Verity Lambert . What the drama does very well is paint the picture of early 1960s Britain as being a million miles away from what it is today . Lambert being a woman - and a Jewish one at that - is an absolute anachronism in this world . Women in those days didn't have careers only jobs and often low paid menial ones at that because they were expected to be baby factories and housewives . She is joined on the debut story by her assigned director a young Indian man called Waris Hussein who is a closeted homosexual and young Jewish woman and closeted Indian homosexual have to fight tooth and nail to get the show off the ground usually against the creator of Doctor Who itself Sydney Newman . One can understand the point Mark Gattis is making here that a show featuring an outsider in the role of the Doctor has a subtext all of its own in that it's being also being made by cultural outsiders who are about to change the face of television but again is true or is it merely shoehorned history after the fact ? It's interesting that Terry Nation gets name checked but it's a well documented fact of history that Nation only took the writing gig because he'd lost his job writing for Tony Hancock and Nation would always state with great relish he only wrote the Dalek story with the thinking of " Take the money and run " . To him writing the Dalek debut meant paying the rent as a struggling and jobbing writer and nothing more which again indicates that the BBC had little idea or faith as to how popular the show may have become . There's also an unforgiving airbrushing out of script editor David Whitaker from the show's history and Whitaker was probably more responsible than anyone else of shaping the character of the Doctor and bringing him to life and of giving the early show an ethos and unique feel of its own that made it more than mere disposable children's entertainment Whitaker not getting as much as a namecheck is unforgivable That said the cast of the drama are more than adequate and we get some post modernism by casting William Russell and Carole Ann Ford in cameos as walk on characters . Pride of place goes to David Bradley as William Hartnell who you genuinely believe has somehow miraculously been reincarnated as himself . Unless they were movie stars actors in those days were berefit of the celebrity status where every movement was publicized by the tabloids and remained relatively unknown to the general public . From what we know of William Hartnell he could be very difficult and tiring to work with but at the same time he loved the show and the people he worked with and this comes across very well on screen . The only contentious point about the acting is Brian Cox gives a painfully over emphatic performance as Sydney Newman who seems to be a parody of a Jewish Hollywood movie mogul . This may or may not have been true in real life but Cox is still somewhat overdone In summary this is an affectionate tribute to both the show itself and the people who created Doctor Who . It's a much better tribute than the much expected noisy mess of The Day Of The Doctor but at the same time many of the " facts " should be taken with a pinch of salt , if not the whole salt packet . It's a drama based on fact but isn't a fly on the wall documentary . Remember that while you're watching 18 of 24 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you? Yes	William Hartnell
Hansen's disease is another name for which bacterial infection ?	BBC AMERICA to Premiere ‘An Adventure in Space and Time’ for ‘Doctor Who’ 50th \| Anglophenia \| BBC America BBC AMERICA to Premiere ‘An Adventure in Space and Time’ for ‘Doctor Who’ 50th Anglophenia BBC AMERICA has announced casting for 'An Adventure of Space and Time,' a film dramatization of the creation of 'Doctor Who,' which premiered November 23, 1963. David Bradley will play actor William Hartnell, Jessica Raine will play producer Verity Lambert, and Brian Cox has been cast as BBC Head of Drama Sydney Newman. (Photos: AP) Copy the link below By Kevin Wicks \| 4 years ago BBC AMERICA has announced casting for ‘An Adventure of Space and Time,’ a film dramatization of the creation of ‘Doctor Who,’ which premiered November 23, 1963. David Bradley will play actor William Hartnell, Jessica Raine will play producer Verity Lambert, and Brian Cox has been cast as BBC Head of Drama Sydney Newman. (Photos: AP) BBC AMERICA is set to premiere An Adventure in Space and Time, a film drama about the creation of Doctor Who, as part of the channel’s celebration of the long-running sci-fi series’ 50th anniversary. Frequent Who scriptwriter Mark Gatiss has already been announced as writer, and he’s also serving as executive producer alongside current Doctor Who execs Steven Moffat and Caroline Skinner. The film is a co-production between BBC AMERICA and BBC Cymru Wales and will air later in 2013. Doctor Who first hit the BBC airwaves on November 23, 1963, and an impressive cast has been assembled to play the personalities behind the show’s earliest days. David Bradley, best known as Argus Filch in the Harry Potter movies, has taken on the role as actor William Hartnell, who played the series’ very first Doctor. Call the Midwife star Jessica Raine, already cast in the Season 7, Part 2 premiere of Doctor Who , is set to play producer Verity Lambert, and the great Brian Cox (The Bourne Supremacy, Adaptation.) is on board as Sydney Newman, BBC’s then-Head of Drama. The real-life William Hartnell and Verity Lambert (Hartnell photo: BBC; Lambert photo: Press Association via AP Images) Meanwhile, The History Boys‘ Sacha Dhawan will play Waris Hussein , director of Doctor Who‘s premiere episode, “An Unearthly Child.” Bradley says he’s “absolutely thrilled” about playing William Hartnell, and adds, “I first heard about this role from Mark [Gatiss] while watching the Diamond Jubilee flotilla from the roof of the National Theatre. When he asked if I would be interested, I almost bit his hand off! Mark has written such a wonderful script not only about the birth of a cultural phenomenon, but a moment in television’s history. William Hartnell was one of the finest character actors of our time and as a fan I want to make sure that I do him justice. I’m so looking forward to getting started.” Filming begins in London next month at BBC’s Television Centre before transferring to Wimbledon Studios. Matt Strevens (Misfits, Skins) is producing, with Terry McDonough (Breaking Bad, The Street) directing. Thoughts? Tell us below:	i don't know
What was the name of the street on which President Kennedy's limousine was travelling at the time of his assassination in 1963 ?	John F. Kennedy Assassination Fast Facts - CNN.com John F. Kennedy Assassination Fast Facts CNN Library Updated 4:44 PM ET, Thu November 10, 2016 Chat with us in Facebook Messenger. Find out what's happening in the world as it unfolds. Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – President John F. Kennedy greets supporters during his visit to Fort Worth, Texas, on Friday, November 22, 1963. This year marks 51 years since his assassination in Dallas, an event that jarred the nation and fueled a multitude of conspiracy theories about whether Kennedy was killed by a single gunman acting alone in the Texas School Book Depository. Here are some images from that fateful day as it unfolded. Hide Caption 1 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – First lady Jacqueline Kennedy at a breakfast held by the Chamber of Commerce in Fort Worth with Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, left, and Kennedy. Hide Caption 2 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – The Kennedys arrive at Love Field in Dallas on a trip to advance the upcoming 1964 campaign. Hide Caption 3 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – About 11:45 a.m., Texas Gov. John B. Connally Jr., waving to the crowd, and the Kennedys depart Love Field for a 10-mile tour of Dallas. The President asked about the weather earlier in the day and opted not to have a top on the limousine. Hide Caption 4 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – The Kennedys and Connallys leave Love Field with Secret Service Agent Bill Greer driving the presidential limousine. The motorcade is on the way to the Trade Mart, where Kennedy is to speak at a sold-out luncheon. Hide Caption 5 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – Crowds line the street as Kennedy's motorcade heads toward downtown Dallas. A group of White House staffers follows the motorcade in a bus several vehicles behind the presidential limousine. Hide Caption 6 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – Dallas Police Officer Bobby Hargis, background, is one of four motorcycle officers assigned to Kennedy's car, which reaches Houston Street shortly before 12:30 p.m. "I thought, 'Well, we've got it made now,' " Hargis said. "And then bam! It happens." Hide Caption Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – Kennedy is seen approximately one minute before he is shot. Hide Caption 8 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – Seen through the limousine's windshield as it proceeds along Elm Street past the Texas School Book Depository, Kennedy appears to raise his hand toward his head after being shot. The first lady holds Kennedy's forearm in an effort to aid him. Hide Caption 9 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – Kennedy slumps against his wife as the bullet strikes him in the head. Connally, who is wounded in the attack, begins to turn around just to the left of Jackie Kennedy. Hide Caption 10 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – Kennedy slumps in the back seat of the car and his wife leans over to him as Secret Service Agent Clinton Hill rides on the back of the car. Hide Caption 11 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – The limousine carrying the mortally wounded President races toward the hospital seconds after three shots are fired. Two bullets hit Kennedy and one hit Connally. Hill rides on the back of the car as the wives cover their stricken husbands. Hide Caption 12 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – The limousine speeds along Elm Street toward the Stemmons Freeway overpass moments after shots are fired at Dealey Plaza. Hide Caption Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – Photographers are seen running shortly after the shooting. Hide Caption 14 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – Hurchel Jacks, Vice President Johnson's driver in the motorcade, listens with others to news accounts on the car radio outside the Parkland Hospital emergency entrance. After the shots were fired, Jacks had rerouted the vice president's car to safety. The ABC radio network broadcast the first nationwide news bulletin reporting that shots have been fired at the Kennedy motorcade. Hide Caption 15 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – Before 1 p.m., Dr. Tom Shires, with Parkland public relations director Steve Landregan, rear, describes the President's wounds to the press. Four doctors worked on the stricken Kennedy in the emergency room. Hide Caption 16 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – American broadcast journalist and anchorman Walter Cronkite removes his glasses and prepares to announce Kennedy's death. CBS broadcast the first nationwide TV news bulletin reporting on the shooting. Hide Caption 17 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – A photographer captures a New Yorker's expression of shock upon hearing the news. At 1 p.m. the 46-year-old President of the United States is declared dead, becoming the fourth U.S. president killed in office. Hide Caption 18 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – After 2 p.m., Jacqueline Kennedy leaves Parkland Hospital with her slain husband's body. She would ride in the back with the bronze casket. "I had a feeling that if somebody had literally fired a pistol in front of her face that she would just have blinked," said Dallas Police Officer James Jennings, who helped put the casket in the hearse. Hide Caption 19 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – The hearse carrying Kennedy's body pulls away from Parkland Hospital en route to the airport. Hide Caption 20 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – Lee Harvey Oswald, a 24-year-old ex-Marine, is arrested in the back of a movie theater where he fled after shooting Dallas Police Patrolman J.D. Tippit. That incident occurred approximately 45 minutes after the assassination. Hide Caption 21 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – Vice President Lyndon Johnson takes the oath of office to become the 36th president of the United States. He is sworn in by U.S. Federal Judge Sarah T. Hughes, left, with Jacqueline Kennedy by his side on Air Force One. Hide Caption 22 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – The casket containing the body of President Kennedy is moved to a Navy ambulance from the presidential plane. Jacqueline Kennedy and Attorney General Robert Kennedy stand behind on the elevator. Hide Caption 23 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – Jacqueline and Robert Kennedy get into the Navy ambulance with the president's body at Andrews Air Force Base, just outside Washington. The body of the president is taken to Bethesda Naval Hospital for an immediate autopsy. Hide Caption 24 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – Police mug shot of Lee Harvey Oswald. He is arraigned in the slaying of Officer Tippit on November 22 and/or the murder of the president the next day. As Oswald is being transferred from the Dallas city jail to the county jail, nightclub owner Jack Ruby shoots and kills him, an event captured live on TV. Ruby is arrested immediately. Hide Caption 25 of 26 Photos: John F. Kennedy: The day John F. Kennedy: The day – A man holds up a copy of the New York World-Telegram featuring the news of the assassination. Major television and radio networks devote continuous news coverage to the events of the day, canceling all entertainment and all commercials. Many theaters, stores and businesses, including stock exchanges and government offices, are closed. Hide Caption	Elm Street
Which member of Monty Python, who have announced they are planning a new stage show, was born in America ?	5 things you might not know about JFK's assassination - CNN.com 5 things you might not know about JFK's assassination By Tricia Escobedo, CNN updated 9:35 AM EDT, Mon March 31, 2014 President John F. Kennedy greets supporters during his visit to Fort Worth, Texas, on Friday, November 22, 1963. This year marks 51 years since his assassination in Dallas, an event that jarred the nation and fueled a multitude of conspiracy theories about whether Kennedy was killed by a single gunman acting alone in the Texas School Book Depository. Here are some images from that fateful day as it unfolded. First lady Jacqueline Kennedy at a breakfast held by the Chamber of Commerce in Fort Worth with Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, left, and Kennedy. The Kennedys arrive at Love Field in Dallas on a trip to advance the upcoming 1964 campaign. About 11:45 a.m., Texas Gov. John B. Connally Jr., waving to the crowd, and the Kennedys depart Love Field for a 10-mile tour of Dallas. The President asked about the weather earlier in the day and opted not to have a top on the limousine. The Kennedys and Connallys leave Love Field with Secret Service Agent Bill Greer driving the presidential limousine. The motorcade is on the way to the Trade Mart, where Kennedy is to speak at a sold-out luncheon. Crowds line the street as Kennedy's motorcade heads toward downtown Dallas. A group of White House staffers follows the motorcade in a bus several vehicles behind the presidential limousine. Dallas Police Officer Bobby Hargis, background, is one of four motorcycle officers assigned to Kennedy's car, which reaches Houston Street shortly before 12:30 p.m. "I thought, 'Well, we've got it made now,' " Hargis said. "And then bam! It happens." Kennedy is seen approximately one minute before he is shot. Seen through the limousine's windshield as it proceeds along Elm Street past the Texas School Book Depository, Kennedy appears to raise his hand toward his head after being shot. The first lady holds Kennedy's forearm in an effort to aid him. Kennedy slumps against his wife as the bullet strikes him in the head. Connally, who is wounded in the attack, begins to turn around just to the left of Jackie Kennedy. Kennedy slumps in the back seat of the car and his wife leans over to him as Secret Service Agent Clinton Hill rides on the back of the car. The limousine carrying the mortally wounded President races toward the hospital seconds after three shots are fired. Two bullets hit Kennedy and one hit Connally. Hill rides on the back of the car as the wives cover their stricken husbands. The limousine speeds along Elm Street toward the Stemmons Freeway overpass moments after shots are fired at Dealey Plaza. Photographers are seen running shortly after the shooting. Hurchel Jacks, Vice President Johnson's driver in the motorcade, listens with others to news accounts on the car radio outside the Parkland Hospital emergency entrance. After the shots were fired, Jacks had rerouted the vice president's car to safety. The ABC radio network broadcast the first nationwide news bulletin reporting that shots have been fired at the Kennedy motorcade. Before 1 p.m., Dr. Tom Shires, with Parkland public relations director Steve Landregan, rear, describes the President's wounds to the press. Four doctors worked on the stricken Kennedy in the emergency room. American broadcast journalist and anchorman Walter Cronkite removes his glasses and prepares to announce Kennedy's death. CBS broadcast the first nationwide TV news bulletin reporting on the shooting. A photographer captures a New Yorker's expression of shock upon hearing the news. At 1 p.m. the 46-year-old President of the United States is declared dead, becoming the fourth U.S. president killed in office. After 2 p.m., Jacqueline Kennedy leaves Parkland Hospital with her slain husband's body. She would ride in the back with the bronze casket. "I had a feeling that if somebody had literally fired a pistol in front of her face that she would just have blinked," said Dallas Police Officer James Jennings, who helped put the casket in the hearse. The hearse carrying Kennedy's body pulls away from Parkland Hospital en route to the airport. Lee Harvey Oswald, a 24-year-old ex-Marine, is arrested in the back of a movie theater where he fled after shooting Dallas Police Patrolman J.D. Tippit. That incident occurred approximately 45 minutes after the assassination. Vice President Lyndon Johnson takes the oath of office to become the 36th president of the United States. He is sworn in by U.S. Federal Judge Sarah T. Hughes, left, with Jacqueline Kennedy by his side on Air Force One. The casket containing the body of President Kennedy is moved to a Navy ambulance from the presidential plane. Jacqueline Kennedy and Attorney General Robert Kennedy stand behind on the elevator. Jacqueline and Robert Kennedy get into the Navy ambulance with the president's body at Andrews Air Force Base, just outside Washington. The body of the president is taken to Bethesda Naval Hospital for an immediate autopsy. Police mug shot of Lee Harvey Oswald. He is arraigned in the slaying of Officer Tippit on November 22 and/or the murder of the president the next day. As Oswald is being transferred from the Dallas city jail to the county jail, nightclub owner Jack Ruby shoots and kills him, an event captured live on TV. Ruby is arrested immediately. A man holds up a copy of the New York World-Telegram featuring the news of the assassination. Major television and radio networks devote continuous news coverage to the events of the day, canceling all entertainment and all commercials. Many theaters, stores and businesses, including stock exchanges and government offices, are closed. HIDE CAPTION	i don't know
Which term was coined to denote the followers of the 14th-century churchman John Wycliffe ?	more words Predating the Council of Nicea (325 AD). antiminsion (also antimension) In Eastern Orthodoxy, the portable altar that consists of a silk or linen cloth decorated with scenes from the Passion and containing relics. Its use began around the beginning of the 9th century. Antiochene School (also Antiochene theology) Modern designation for the school of thought associated with the city of Antioch in Syria, as contrasted with the Alexandrian School . Antiochene theology was influenced by Aristotelian philosophy, emphasized the humanity of Christ, and interpreted scripture in light of its historical context. Its most famous teachers are Diodore of Tarsus, John Chrysostom, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Nestorius, and Theodoret of Cyrrhus. apocatastasis (Greek apokath'istemi, "to restore"). Doctrine that every creature, including the devil, will be reconciled with God in the end. Most notably taught by Origen of Alexandria . Also known as universalism. Apocrypha (Lit. Greek "out of the writings"). Books not included in the Hebrew canon of the Old Testament, but included in the Greek Septuagint. Catholic and Orthodox Christans include the Apocrypha in the canon of scripture; Protestant Christians do not. Apocryphal books are Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, Song of the Three Children, Susanna, Bel and the Drago, The Prayer of Manasseh, 1 and 2 Maccabees, and additions to Esther. apologetics (Latin apologia, "defense"). Branch of Christian scholarship focused on defending the faith against its critics and demonstrating its reasonableness. Examples of apologetic works include Justin Martyr's Apology, Augustine's City of God, Calvin's Institutes, and, in modern times, C.S. Lewis' Mere Christianity and Josh McDowell's Evidence that Demands a Verdict. Apologists (Latin apologia, "defense"). Early church fathers writing from about 120 to 220 AD who sought to defend Christianity against its critics, usually by explaining misunderstood Christian practice and showing the harmony of Christianity with Greek philosophy. Among this group are Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Tatian and Tertullian. apostle (Greek apostolos, "one sent out"). Missionaries sent out by Jesus, including the disciples and Paul. Apostolic Fathers Group of Christian leaders and writers from the late first and early second centuries A.D. These authors were not apostles themselves, but had close proximity to the apostles, either by personal relationship or close connection with apostolic teaching. Examples include Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Polycarp, Papias, Pseudo-Barnabas, the Didache, the Second Epistle of Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and The Apostle's Creed. apostolic succession Doctrine that the authority of ordained clergy (to perform valid sacraments and teach right doctrine) derives from an unbroken succession of valid ordinations beginning with the apostles. Arianism Belief, taught by Arius in the 4th century, that Christ was created by the Father, and although greater than man he is inferior to the Father. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, wrote and campaigned against Arianism. It was delcared a heresy at the Council of Nicea in 325. archbishop In Catholicism and Anglicanism, a bishop who oversees the other bishops in the province. In the Episcopal Church, the archbishop is called the Presiding Bishop. (See Who's Who in Anglicanism .) baptism The rite of admission to membership in Christian churches that involves immersing, sprinkling or anointing with water. Regarded as a sacrament by Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant Christians. Most denominations practice infant baptism; some only baptize adult believers. Baptists One of the largest Protestant denominations, with 40 million members (and many more non-member adherents) worldwide and 26.7 million in the United States. The Baptist tradition has its roots in the Anabaptist movement of the Reformation and English Puritan John Smyth (1554-1612). Its most notable distinction is its rejection of infant baptism. Today, most Baptists in American belong either to the Southern Baptist Convention or the American Baptist Convention. See Comparison Charts of Christian Denominations for more information. The priest and spiritual leader of a diocese . Breviary Book containing the Divine Office (liturgy) of the Roman Catholic Church. BVM Blessed Virgin Mary. canon (Greek kanon, "rule" or "reference point"). A fixed group of writings considered inspired and authoritative. The New Testament canon consists of 37 books. Roman Catholics also consider the books of the Apocrypha to be canonical. canonical Belonging to the accepted body of scriptures. For example, the Gospel of John is canonical but the Gospel of Thomas is not. canonization Process of determining the New Testament canon and declaring a person to be a saint. canonize To officially declare a deceased Christian to be a "saint." In the Catholic church, saints are canonized by the pope (since the 13th cent.) and must have performed at least two miracles. In the Orthodox church, saints are canonized by synods of regional bishops. Protestants do not canonize. canon (Greek kanon, "rule" or "reference point"). (1) The body of scriptures accepted as authoritative. (2) A priest who serves on the staff of a catehdral. canon law Body of law related to the organization, discipline, and belief of the church and enforced by church authority. Cappadocian Fathers Three theologians from the region of Cappadocia in modern-day Turkey - Basil of Caesarea (c. 330-379), Gregory of Nazianzus (329-389) and Gregory of Nyssa (330-395) - whose development of Trinitarian doctrine remains highly influential in Orthodox Christianity. cassock Ankle-length garment worn by clergy. catechism (Greek katecheo, "instruct"). A class or manual on the basics of Christian doctrine and practice, usually as a precursor to confirmation or baptism. Catechisms normally include lessons on the creeds, the Lord's Prayer and the Ten Commandments, as well as the Hail Mary in Roman Catholicism. catechumen (Greek katachesis, "instruction). One who is being instructed in the basics of Christian doctrine, usually in preparation for confirmation or baptism. Cathari (or Cathars) (Greek katharoi, "pure ones"). Heretical sect influential in southern France and nothern Italy in the 13 and 14th centuries. It was characterized by a dualistic worldview and strict asceticism. catholic Universal. A term used by the early Christians to designate the universal Christian faith. When the eastern church split from the western in 1054 AD, the West retained this term and became known as Roman Catholic. Churches in the East are known as Greek, Eastern or Russian Orthodox. celebrant Priest or minister who presides over a service including the Eucharist. Compare with "officiant." chasuble Outermost garment worn by bishops and priests in celebrating the Eucharist. In Eastern Orthdoxy, it is often also worn at solemn celebrations of the morning and evening offices and on other occasions. The Lutheran Church retained the chasuble for some time after the Reformation and the Scandinavian Churches still use it. Christ (Greek christos, "messiah" or "anointed one"). Title applied to Jesus identifying him as the figure predicted by the Hebrew prophets. Christmas See Christmas . Christology Area of theology dealing with the person of Christ. Treats such topics as the relation between Christ's human and divine natures, and the meaning of his sacrificial death (atonement). The vast majority of Christological doctrine was developed in the period leading up to the Council of Nicea in 325. For an overview of this doctrine, see Beliefs: Christ . church (Greek kuriakon, "belonging to the Lord"). The worldwide body of Christian believers, a particular denomination or congregation, or the building in which they meet. The study of the nature of the church is ecclesiology . class meeting A meeting of a small part of a Methodist congregation, usually held weekly, in which collections are taken and inquiries are made into the conduct and spiritual progress of the group's members. The class leader is appointed by the minister of the congregation. The institution dates from 1742. confession 1. A profession of faith (e.g. by the martyrs) or statement of doctrine (e.g. Augsburg Confession). 2. Admission of sin, either directly to God in prayer, generally to the congregation, or privately to a priest. confirmation One of the seven Catholic sacraments, and a practice in some Protestant churches, in which a baptized young adult (usually aged 13) confirms his or her continuing commitment to the Christian faith. Confirmation is usually preceded by a period of education called catechism . consubstantiation A doctrine of the Eucharist associated especially with Martin Luther, according to which the bread and wine and the body and blood of Christ coexist in the elements. Consubstantiation was formulated in opposition to the medieval Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation . Coptic Catholic Church Catholic church in Egypt, in communion with the Roman Catholic Church since 1741. Coptic Orthodox Church The principal Christian church in Egypt. Coptic language Language spoken in Egypt from about the second century AD until the middle ages. Regarded as the last stage of the ancient Egyptian language, it replaced hieroglypics with the Greek alphabet and included religious terms borrowed from Greek. Council of Trent The 19th ecumenical council of the Catholic Church, which took place over the period 1545-63. A very important council in that it reformed numerous aspects of church practice (e.g., abolished the sale of indulgences) and clarified Catholic doctrine in response to the challenges by Reformers. crucifer ("cross-bearer"). Acolyte who carries the cross in a church procession before the service. The crucifer is followed by the choir, the acolytes, the lay ministers, and then the clergy in order of rank (highest last). Crusades (Lat. cruciata, "cross-marked") Wars fought against enemies of the Christian faith, primarily the Muslim Turks in the period 1095 to 1291, but later against other infidels and heretics. cult of the saints The body of religious beliefs and practices pertaining to the veneration of saints and their relics. Prayers are addressed to the saints in the hope that they will intercede with God on the behalf of believers. Saints are believed to have accumulated a "treasury of merit" which can be used for the benefit of believers. curate In Anglicanism, assistant pastor whose duties commonly include visiting the sick and shut-ins. Deus volt! (Latin "God wills it"). The battle cry of the Crusaders. diocese A geographical region headed by a bishop, which usually includes several congregations. In Orthodoxy, a diocese is called an eparchy. docetism (Greek "to seem"). The belief that Christ only appeared to have a human body. Associated with Gnosticism and based on the dualistic belief that matter is evil and only spirit is good. Domine quo vadis? (Latin, "Lord, where are you going?"). According to a legend found in the Acts of St. Peter, Peter was fleeing persecution in Rome when he met Christ on the Appian Way and asked him this question. Christ replied, "I am coming to be crucified again." Peter took this to mean that Christ would suffer again in him, so Peter turned back to Rome, where he was crucified. The small church of Santa Maria delle Piante on the Appian Way, commonly called Domine Quo Vadis, commemorates this event. Donatists Fourth century North African Christian faction, named for Bishop Donatus. The Donatists believed the church should be pure, and therefore church leaders who had handed over scripture during persecution (traditores) should not retain their positions. They were opposed most notably by Augustine, the prominent North African bishop. Augustine's influential doctrine of the church developed primarily in response to the Donatist controversy. doxology (Greek doxa, "glory"). A short hymn glorifying God. Dynamic Monarchianism Form of Monarchianism in which Jesus was a man who was adopted as the Son of God, or given the "power" (Gk. dynamos) of God, at his baptism or after his resurrection. Essentially synonymous with Adoptionism. Ebionites (Hebrew ebionim, "poor men"). An ascetic sect of Jewish Christians that taught Jesus was only a human prophet who had received the Holy Spirit at his baptism. Rejected Paul, and held that the law of Moses must be obeyed by Christians. ecclesiology (Greek ekklesia, "church"). Branch of theology dealing with the doctrine of the church. ecumenical council A council of the Christian church at which representatives from several regions are present. To be distinguished from a "synod," which is a meeting of the local church. ELCA Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. The largest Lutheran church body in the U.S. and more liberal than the LCMS. eschatology Branch of theology dealing with end times or last things. Includes such subjects as the afterlife, the Day of Judgment, the Second Coming, and the end of the world. Eucharist A sacrament recognized by all branches of Christianity. Commemorates the Last Supper of Christ with the sharing of bread and wine. See also transubstantiation and Real Presence . excommunication A penalty imposed by the Catholic Church prohibiting a person from receiving or administering sacraments or holding church office. ex cathedra (Latin "from the throne.") Authoritative statements made by the Pope in Roman Catholicism. Fall, the Disobedience of Adam and Eve (chronicled in Genesis 3) that resulted in ill effects for the remainder of humanity. See Christian Beliefs: Human Nature . Franciscans Monastic order founded by Francis of Assisi in 1210 AD. Gnosticism Not a unified belief system, but a complex of religious movements that predate Christianity and have roots in both paganism and Judaism. By about the second century AD, Gnostic Christianity had developed and was labeled a heresy by the established church. Distinctive Gnostic beliefs include: two separate divine beings (the unknowable supreme deity and an inferior, evil creator god); the inherent goodness of spirit and evil of matter; the importance of gnosis, or special knowledge, for salvation; and a view of Christ as a messenger of the supreme deity who only appeared to take on a body. Major Gnostic teachers include Valentinus, Basilides, and Marcion. gospel (Greek evangelion; Old English godspel, "good news"). The content of Christian preaching; that is, that Christ died to save humans from the penalty of sin and reunite them with God. When capitalized, the word usually refers to one of the first four books of the New Testament, which relate the life of Christ. grace The undeserved gift of divine favor in the justification and then sanctification of sinners. The Greek term charis, usually translated in English as "grace," is about 150 times in the New Testament, mostly in the Pauline epistles. Grayfriars Name given to the Franciscans in England because of their gray robes. hagiography A biography of a saint, usually written from an admiring and idealized perspective. halo In Christian art and symbolism, a circle or disc of light around the head. It was used in the Hellenistic period for gods and demi-gods and later for Roman emperors, and was not adopted by Christians until the 3rd or 4th centuries. In modern Catholicism, a halo is permitted only for saints. hell The word used in English translations of the Bible for both the Hebrew Sheol (the place of the departed) and the Greek Gehenna (the place of punishment for the wicked after death). In Christian theology, hell is generally believed to be the place or state into which unrepentant sinners pass after this life. The popular idea of Hell as a place of punishment and fire derives from such NT passages as Matthew 13:42 and 25:30, Revelation 2:11, 20:14, 21:8 and others. See Christian Beliefs on the Afterlife . homily A message delivered to lay Christians for their edification; sermon. homoousios (Greek, "one substance" or "one in being"). The Christological doctrine introduced by Athanasius and accepted as orthodox at the Council of Nicea in 325. The doctrine arose in the context of the heresy of Arius, who contented that Christ was created by the Father and was thus not fully divine. Immaculate Conception Roman Catholic doctrine that the Virgin Mary was born without original sin. impassibility of God Philosophical idea, influenced by Platonism, that God cannot suffer. imprimatur (Latin, "let it be printed"). Official authorization to print a book or other work, usually granted by a bishop for Catholic publications. Incarnation In general, to take on a bodily form. In Christianity, the historical event in which God became a man in Jesus of Nazareth. According to the gospel of John: "The Word became flesh (Lat. carne) and dwelt among us." indulgences In Roman Catholicism, a partial remission of temporal (non-eternal) punishment for sin after the guilt of sin has been forgiven through penance. The concept of indulgences grew out of the beliefs that (1) divine justice demanded the sinner pay for his or her misdeeds even though they have been forgiven, either in this life or in Purgatory; (2) giving alms to the church is a penitential work; and (3) the church possessed a treasury of merit earned by the saints that could be applied to sinners. By the late Middle Ages, the system of indulgences was rampantly abused, and greedy ecclesiastics and hired salesmen sold tickets to heaven in order to fund expensive building projects and line their own pockets. The abuses were stopped at the reforming Council of Trent in 1562, and today one must do good works, not pay money, to earn indulgences. Johannine Pertaining to the apostle John. justification The act by which God moves a sinner from a state of sin to a state of grace or, especially in Protestantism, the act by which God declares a sinner righteous. kerygma (Gk.) Term coined by Rudolf Bultmann to indicate the essential message (or gospel) of the New Testament church. Lollards Originally, followers of John Wycliffe (14th cent.), who emphasized personal faith, predestination and the Bible. The word was later applied to anyone seriously critical of the Church. Luther, Martin (1483-1546) German monk and professor whose questioning of church practices led to the Protestant Reformation. See Martin Luther . mitre (Greek mitra, "turban"). Liturgical headdress of a bishop. In the Eastern Church it resembles a crown similar in form to that worn by Byzantine Emperors. In the Western Church it is shield-shaped and made of embroidered satin, which is often jewelled. Two fringed pieces hang down in the back. modalism Heretical belief system in which God consists of a single person who reveals himself in different modes. Thus the Son is divine, but the same person the Father. Closely related to patripassianism and Sabellianism. monarchianism General term for those heretical systems that focused on safeguarded the oneness of God by denying the Trinity. In dynamic monarchianism, Jesus was a man who was given the power of God. In modalist monarchianism, Jesus was the Father incarnate. N Nantes, Edict of Edict signed by Henry IV at Nantes on April 13, 1598, after the end of the French wars of religion. It granted extensive rights to the Huguenots (French Calvinists). The edict was revoked by Louis XIV n the Edict of Fontainebleau on October 18, 1685. neophyte In the early church, a recently baptized Christian. nepotism The practice of bestowing an office or patronage on one's relatives. It was especially rampant among 16th-century popes, and was condemned by Pope Pius V in the bull "Admonet Nos" (1567). Nestorianism The doctrine, named for Nestorius (d. c. 451), Patriarch of Constantinople, that there were two separate persons in the incarnate Christ, one divine and the other human. Nestorius preached against Apollinarianism and objected to the term Theotokos ("God-Bearer") as a title for the Virgin Mary, and was opposed by St. Cyril of Alexandria. New Rome A name for the city of Constantinople, which may have been coined by Constantine himself. The Council of Constantinople (381) declared that "the Bishop of Constantinople is to have honorary pre-eminence after the Bishop of Rome, because Constantinople is the new Rome." nimbus Another word for halo . Ninevah, Fast of Pre-Lenten fast of three or four days kept in the Church of the East, the Syrian Orthdox Church, the Coptic Orthodox Church, and the Armenian Orthodox Church. officiant Minister who presides over a worship service that does not include the Eucharist. orthodox (Greek orthos, "correct"). The correct or majority view. Orthodox The branch of Christianity prevalent in Greece, Russia and Eastern Europe. Originates as a separate body when the Eastern (Orthodox) church split from the Western (Catholic) church in 1054 AD. Orthodox Christians do not recognize the authority of the Pope, but rather the Patriarch of Constantinople. The Seven Ecumenical Councils are also of special authoritative importance. Orthodox Christianity is characterized by emphasis on icons. Pantocrator, Christ Christ depicted as "Ruler of the Universe," a common image in Orthodox iconography. Passion (Latin passio, "suffering"). The crucifixion of Jesus and the events leading up to it. patriarch (Gk. "father ruler") Generally, an early biblical figure such as Abraham or one of the "church fathers" of the early Christian church. Specifically, the spiritual leader of a major city in Eastern Orthodoxy (the Patriarch of Constantinople is the Pope's Eastern counterpart). Patristics (Lat. pater, "father") Branch of Christian theology and history concerned with the church "fathers" (patres), usually understood to refer to the period from the later first century to the mid-fifth century. patripassianism The heretical view, associated with Praxeas, Noetus and Sabbellius, that God the Father can suffer. A consequence of modalist monarchianism, in which the Son is the same person as the Father. Pelagianism Belief system, attacked by Augustine and declared a heresy in , which denies original sin and asserts the ability of humans to choose good over evil with only external assistance from God. pope (Lat. papa, "father") The bishop of Rome, who became the recognized leader of the entire Western church. See History: Development of the Papacy. "Q" The hypothetical source that many biblical critics suggest was used by the authors of the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. It consists of all passages Matthew and Luke have in common that are not found in Mark. Quartodecimanism ("14-ism"). The early Christian custom, especially common in Asia Minor, of observing Easter on the 14th of the Jewish month of Nisan, whether or not it fell on a Sunday. Towards the end of the second century, Pope Victor suppressed Quartodecimanism and excommunicated the Bishop of Ephesus, who refused to comply. This action was rebuked by St. Irenaeus and most churches in Asia Minor retained the practice. It died out by the fifth century. See Easter . Quietism 17th-century movement emphasizing complete passivity and the "prayer of quiet" before God. The ideal is to abandon all desires, even for virtue, love of Christ, or salvation, as well as all outward acts of devotion, and simply rest in the presence of God. Notable Quietist writers include de Molinos, Guyon, and Archbishop Fenelon. Pope Innocent XI condemned Quietism and Molinos on November 19, 1687. Quinque Viae The "five ways" or arguments by which St. Thomas Aquinas sought to prove the existence of God. Quinquagesima The Sunday before Ash Wednesday. The word gets its name from its previous usage, which was for the 50-day period between that Sunday and Easter. Quo Vadis? R Real Presence In Catholic and some Protestant churches, the physical and spiritual presence of the body and blood of Christ in the bread and wine of the Eucharist . rector In Anglicanism, the elected pastor of a financially self-supported congregation. If there are several clergy in the congregation, the rector has primary responsibility for directing worship. rosary Catholic devotional practice in which 15 sets of ten Hail Marys are recited, each set preceded by the Lord's Prayer and followed by the Gloria Patri. A string of beads is used to count the prayers. The number of sets represents the 15 "mysteries" (five joyful, five sorrowful, five glorious), which are events in the lives of Jesus and Mary. S Sabellianism Modalist belief system attributed to Sabellius, in which God consists of a single person who reveals himself in different modes. Thus the Son is divine and the same as the Father. Essentially synonymous with patripassianism and modalist monarchianism. sacrament A solemn Christian ritual believed to be a means of grace, a sign of faith, or obedience to Christ's commands. The Anglican catechism defines a sacrament as "an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace...ordained by Christ himself." In the Catholic and Orthodox churches, there are seven sacraments: baptism, confirmation, the eucharist (communion), penance, extreme untion, ordination and marriage. In Protestant churches, only baptism and the eucharist are regarded as sacraments. Son of Man Title used 81 times by Jesus to refer to himself in the Gospels, but never by anyone else. The term may derive from the eschatological figure of Daniel 7 or may have been used by Jesus to refer to his humanity. Branch of Christian theology dealing with salvation. Stations of the Cross Series of fourteen events in the passion of Christ, beginning with Jesus' condemnation and ending with his body being laid in the tomb (for list, see Christianity by the Numbers ). The stations are a subject of public and private devotion in Catholicism, especially during Lent. (Greek synopsis, "single view "). The NT books of Matthew, Mark and Luke, which offer similar views of the life of Christ (compared with the unique perspective of the Gospel of John). T (Greek, "wonder-working"). Title given to saints who have worked many miracles. Theotokos (Greek, "God-bearer"). Title of the Virgin Mary in the Orthodox tradition, used from the time of Origen (early 3rd century) onwards as an affirmation of Christ's divinity. thurible transubstantiation The doctrine that the bread and wine of the Eucharist actually becomes the body and blood of Christ, although it continues to have the appearance of bread and wine. Transubstantiation was rejected in different degrees by the Reformers. See also Real Presence . Doctrinal basis for the sale of indulgences, in which certain saints performed more good works than was necessary to save them, and that this surplus can be applied to other believers in order to shorten purgatory. Trinity The Christian doctrine of the unity of Father, Son and Holy Spirit as three persons in one Godhead. U Unitarianism Religious movement connected to Christianity but that rejects the Trinitarian understanding of God. In 1961, Unitarians jointed with the Univeralists to form the Unitarian Universalist Association. The belief that all souls will be saved by God in the end. Hell either does not exist or is temporary. V Distinctive clothing worn by clergy when performing liturgical and other services of the church. vestry In Anglicanism, the board of directors of a church. The vestry elects the rector and oversees the church's secular affairs. Vicar of Christ Title for the Pope since the 8th century, which replaced the older title "Vicar of St. Peter." It expresses the Pope's claim to be the appointed representative of Christ on earth (based on, e.g., "Feed my sheep" in John 21:15). Virgin Birth Belief that Jesus Christ had no human father, but was conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit coming upon the Blessed Virgin Mary. It is based on Matthew 1 and Luke 1 in the New Testament and is implied in the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds. W Wolsey, Thomas (c.1472-1530) English cardinal. More a statesman than a churchman, Wolsey was active in foreign policy in a bold attempt to make England preeminent in Europe and was involved in King Henry VIII's attempts to secure a papal dispensation for divorce. World Council of Churches The "fellowship of Churches which accept our Lord Jesus Christ as God and Savior" that was formally founded at Amsterdam on August 23, 1948. Wounds, Five Sacred The five wounds of Christ suffered during the Passion: the piercing of his hands, feet and side. Devotion to the Five Wounds developed in the Middle Ages. Wycliffe, John (c.1328-84) English philosopher, theologian and reformer. He is known for his English translation of the Bible and has been called the "Morning Star of the Reformation." See John Wycliffe . X Xmas Abbreviation for Christmas , replacing "Christ" with the first letter in the Greek for Christ, chi ("X"). Y YMCA ("Young Men's Christian Association"). Association founded in London in 1844 by George Williams (1821-1905) out of his prayer and Bible-reading meetings. Its goals are to develop young people in mind, body and spirit and foster a world-wide fellowship based on mutual tolerance and respect. Non-Christians are admitted to membership, but in some local associations they have less say in policymaking than Christian members. The YMCA is active in over 100 countries. Z Zwingli, Ulrich (1484-1531) Swiss reformer and humanist. He taught a purely symbolic interpretation of the Eucharist (as opposed to both transubstantiation and consubstantiation), accepted state action in religious matters, and died on the battlefield at Cappel, Switzerland (near Zurich).	Lollardy
In physics , which Greek letter is commonly used to denote torque ?	��ࡱ�>�� 68��/012345�� @ ��a�bjbj�� "�؝؝��LLLLLLL`��T8��`1�2�^^�^�^�^�9��5��1�H�J�J�J�J�J�J�$c�R��Nn�}L�9�9��n�LL^�^��}�}�}��L^�L^�H�}��H�}�}�R ��LL��^�� 01�2�� j�<��``LLLL��L\|�H1��@� &.}��L�$�q< 1�1�1�n�n�``��s� ``�AP Review Sheet Middle Ages Black Death- the black death was an epidemic of the bubonic plague that devastated Europe In the mid 14th century Hundred Years War-1337-1453 this was a disastrous conflict between England and France, ended with the English loss of their territorial holdings in France. The war weakened the authority of the monarchy in France and England. Joan of Arc- French woman who rallied troops in the Hundred Years war, boosted spirits. English Peasant Revolt, 1381- revolt to the Statute of Laborers, 1351 which limited wages to pre-plague levels and restricted the ability of peasants to leave their masters land. John Wycliffe- insisted that the Bible was the only source of the Christian Doctrine, rejected the authority of the papacy and the hierarchy of the church, saying they were unscriptural and unnecessary. His followers were called the Lollards. John Hus- he embraced Wycliffe�s ideas, his followers and himself represented both a religious and national revolt, winning support among the Czechs of Bohemia, who objected to German domination of their homeland. Wycliffe and Hus foreshadowed the ideas of the Protestant reformers of the sixteenth century. Babylonian Captivity- 1305-1378 popes were subject to a substantial degree of control by the French monarchy. While not noted for the quality of its spiritual leadership, the Avignon papacy was marked by considerable administrative and financial efficiency. Great Schism- 1370-1378 the election of Clement VII began the Great Schism. For the next four decades, 1378-1417, there were two popes, one at Rome and the other at Avignon, each claiming to be the true vicar of Christ on earth. Conciliar movement- argument that General Councils were superior in authority to the pope and represented the whole body of the faithful Vernacular- the everyday language spoken by the people as opposed to Latin Byzantine Empire- was the continuation of the�Roman Empire during the�Middle Ages centered on its capital of Constantinople. Fall of Constantinople- defeated by Emperor Constantine XI 1443-1553, when the city fell to the Ottomans. The event marked the end of the political independence of the millennium-old� HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" \o "Byzantine Empire" Byzantine Empire, which was by then already fragmented into several� HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks" \o "Greeks" Greek�monarchies. Ottoman Empire- the imperial Turkish state centered in Constantinople that ruled large parts of the Balkans, North Africa, and the Middle East until 1918 Dante Alighieri- wrote the Divine Comedy which is an epic poem written in Italian, divided into 3 parts it tells the story of Dante�s journey through the Inferno (hell), Purgatory, and Paradise (heaven). Geooffrey Chaucer- wrote Canterbury Tales a collection of stories presented in poetic form, supposedly told by a diverse group of pilgrims journeying to the shrine of St. Thomas a Becketin Canterbury. They reveal his profound insight into human nature. He revealed foibles and corruption of members of the clergy. Francois Vilon- wrote Grand Testament they are poems Thomas Aquinas- came up with Scholasticism it means �that which belongs to school� he studied Greek philosophies and the Christian Doctrine. New Monarchs New Monarchs- consulate power and created the foundation for Europe�s first Modern Nation States in France, England, and Spain Valois line of French Monarchs- Louis XI was the first Valois king Louis XI �spider king�- spun webs of deceit, increased taxes, exuded power over clergy, dealt ruthlessly with nobles. Francis I- King of France, first Renaissance monarch Concordat of Bologna, 1516- King of France now had power to appoint bishops to the French Church Taille- form of direct tax on everything you own, heavy on peasants, headtax War of Roses- Two noble family houses of York and Lancaster fought to gain the crown. York�s won. Tudor Dynasty- Henry VII started this line Henry VII- reduced influence of nobility through the star of chamber (secret trails) Star Chamber- nobles were not allowed to have private armies with their own protection Ferdinand and Isabella- unified Spain Reconquista- goal was to remove the last of the Muslims and Jews and Chritianize Spain. The loss of Jews and Muslims resulted in a significant decline of the middle class Hermandades- Spanish Inquisition- limits movement in reformation, a monarchy in forces the authority of Catholic Church. Questioned Jews who converted to Christianity but were now suspected of backsliding. Tomas de Torquemanda- oversaw inquisition Conversos- Hapsburg- royal family of the Holy Roman Empire Holy Roman Empire- consisted of 300 semi-autonomous Roman states Maximilian I- gained territory in Eastern France due to his marriage of Mary of Burgandy. Sparked a fierce dynastic struggle between France Valios and Hapsburgs. Charles V-most powerful ruler during this period. He controlled Austrian Hapsburg lands while ruling Spanish empire at his height of power, sacked Rome in 1527, sought to prevent spread of reformation Commercial Revolution- population growth, price revolution, big powers wanted to increase economic power, and the raise of capitalism. Middle class=bourgeoisie Antwerp- becomes the banking commercial center in the 16th century, built stock market Hanseatic League- evolved within the German states in the Middle ages that eventually controlled trade and much of Northern Europe (monopolies) Joint-stock companies- investors pulled resources for a common purpose Bourse- Place in Antwerp where the Stock Market emerged Mercantilism-export more than import �Price Revolution�- increased food prices, increase volume of money, influx of gold and silver. Martin Behaim- creater of the spherical globe of the earth Prince Henry the Navigator- Financed numerous expeditions along west Africa looking for gold Bartholomew Dias, Portuguese - pioneered the eastern Portuguese Empire after safely rounding the Cape of Good Hope at the tip of Africa in 1487 Vasco de Gama, Portugal- completed all water expedition to India Amerigo Vespucci, Portugal- explored Brazil, probably the first European o realize that he had discovered a new continent. America is named after him Christopher Columbus, Spain- reached the Bahamas believing he had reached the Indies, somewhere out of India Bartolome de las Casas, Spain- Public ally criticized the ruthless nature in which Columbus and his successors treated the Amerindians (enslave them) Treaty of Tordesillas- the New World divided between Spain and Portugal, North South line drawn down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. West is Spain�s East is Portugal�s. Basco Nunez de Balboa- He is best known for having crossed the� HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panama" \o "Isthmus of Panama" Isthmus of Panama�to the� HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" \o "Pacific Ocean" Pacific Ocean�in 1513, Ferdinand Magellan, Spain- First to Circumnavigate around the world Conquistadores- created empires by conquering Indians Hernan Cortes, Spain - conquered the Aztecs in Mesoamerica Franscisco Pizarro, Spain- conquered the Inca empire in modern day Peru �Golden Age of Spain�- Settling in new continents gave Spain new land and precious medals. Encomienda System- Amerindians worked for an owner for a certain number of days per week but retained other partial of land to world for themselves (sharecropping)- made Spain not get African slaves Mestizos- Spaniards + Native women Creoles- Spaniards born in the new world to Spanish parents �Old Imperialism�- characterized by establishing posts and forts on coastal regions but not penetrating inland to conquer the region Alphonse de Albuqerque- established a strategy to make coastal regions a base to control the Indian Oceans and Portuguese Imperialism in the 16th and 17th centuries Francis Xavier- leads Jesuit missionaries to Asia where they converted thousands of natives (forced conversion) Dutch East India Company- founded in 1602 and by 1650 began to challenge Spain and the New World and controlled much of American and African trade Smallpox- biggest killer for the Indians Syphilis- transmitted from Indians to Europe Potato- most important new crop in Europe �Long 16th-Century�- Witch hunts- middle age unmarried women were suspected to be Witches for unlogical reasons because of little scientific knowledge Renaissance Italian Renaissance-pagan" humanism �� -- revival of interest in the Greek and Roman classics. �� -- enjoyment of worldly pleasures. �� -- vernacular literature --> Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, etc. Jacob Burkhart- claimed the Renaissance stood in distinct contrast to the middle ages City-states- section of Italy, kept Italy from unifying and leads to the downfall in 1500. Signori- despot, absolute ruler Oligarchies- rich merchant Commenda system- contract between a merchant and merchant adventurer (historical truck driver who earned 1/3rd of proceeds) Condotierri- Mercenary Armies (hired) Republic of Florence- the heart of Italian Renaissance culture. Medici family- dominated Renaissance ideas, despots of Florence Cosimo de� Medici- allied with other political families in Florence and became the unofficial ruler of the republic Lorenzo de� Medici (the magnificent)- significant patron of the arts in Florence Duchy of Milan- ruled by the Sfortza Family after 1450 Republic of Venice- Longest lasting republic of Italian States (lasts �til 1800�s), one of the greatest naval and trading powers in the world Papal States- pope served as both religious and political leaders, controlled central Italy Naples, Kingdom of Two Sicily- includes south Italian island of Sicily and Naples, only Italian city-state to officially have a king. Charles VIII- King of France who invades Naples, this starts foreign invasions all throughout the Italian Peninsula Girolama Savonarola- became the unofficial ruler of Florence from 1494-1498 Machiavelli, The Prince- the quintessential political document of the 16th century; politically, the end justifies the means, for rulers it is better to be feared than to be loved, rulers had to be practical and cunning in addition to being aggressive and ruthless. Cesare borgia- Machiavelli observed his political leadership, he had ambitions of unifying Italy under his control Sack of Rome 1527- by the armies of Holy Roman emperor Charles V, end of the Renaissance. Charles V- Holy Roman Emperor who Sacks Rome. Humanism- study of the Latin and Greek classics and the Church Fathers both their own sake and to promote a rebirth of ancient norms and values. Civil Humanism- education designed to promote humanist leadership of political and cultural life Petrarch, father of Humanism- first modern writer not connected to the church, claimed middle ages were the dark ages, critical of ancient text, and wrote his poetry in the Italian Vernacular. Bocaccio, Decameron- consisted of 100 earthly tales that comprise a social commentary on Italy, impact wisdom of human character and behavior Leonardo Bruni- first to use humanism, wrote history of Florence, perhaps first modern history and wrote with a division of history Lorenzo Valla, Elegances of the Latin Language; On the False Donation of Constatnine- exposed the donation as a fraud, church had claimed it was declared vass territories by Constantine. Pointed out errors in the Latin Vulgate. Latin Vulgate- Latin Bible Marsilio Ficino- founded the Platonic Academy with the support of Cosomo de Medici, 1460. Translated Plato�s works into Latin. Pico Della Mirandola, Oration on the Dignity of Man- Humans were created by God and therefore could attain Union with him if desired and threw neglect could chose a negative course therefore humans had free will. Most famous Renaissance work on the nature of mankind. Baldassare Castiglione, Book of the Courtier- most important Renaissance work on education, specified qualities necessary to be a true gentleman; a Renaissance man. Virtu- Johann Gutenberg, printing press and moveable type- one of the most important inventions in human history, spread of the Reformation quattrocentro=1400�s Giorgio Vasari, the Lives of the Artists- first to use the word Renaissance in print, showed how artists lived in the Renaissance cinquecento= 1500�s Pope Alexander VI-most notorious of the Renaissance popes Perspective- 3D effects on a 2 demintional surface Chiaroscuro- the use of dark and light colors to create the illusion of depth. Stylized faces- more expressive than any other previous art Sfumato- developed by Leonardo Divinci, technique of blurring or softening harsh outlines Contrapposto-human figure standing with most of its weight on one foot so that its shoulders and arms twist off-axis from the hips and legs. This gives the figure a more dynamic, or alternatively relaxed appearance Greek temple architecture- simplicity, symmetry, and balance, contrasted sharply with highly ornamented Gothic style of the middle ages Giotto- considered perhaps the first Renaissance painter, used chiaroscuro Brunelleschi, Ill Duomo- atop of the Santa Maria Del Fiore (church), considered the father of perspective Lorenzo Ghilberti, �gates of paradise�- won contest against Brunelleschi in 1403 that earned him the commission to sculpt the bronze doors for the Florentine Baptistery. Donatello, David- first since antiquity, first Renaissance artist to utilize a huge figure (in sculpture) Masaccio, Expulsion of Adam and Eve-shows tremendous emotion and both figures are nude Sandro Botticelli, Birth of Venus- example of humanism, she stands in contrapposto. �High Remaissance�- centered in Rome Bramante, Architect- his tempietto marked the beginning of the high Renaissance in Rome, 1502. He also rebuilt St. Peters Leonardo da Vinci Mona Lisa-considered one of the greatest masterpieces in art history, used sufmato. Raphael, School of Athens- quintessential example of humanism, Greco-Roman architecture is prominent Michelangelo, David; ceiling of Sistine Chapel; dome on St. Peter�s basilica, Pieta- divide is a humanistic sculpture of marble and glorifies the human body, contrapposto. Pieta is Mary holding limp body of Christ Titian- Mannerism- reaction against Renaissance ideals of balance, symmetry, and realistic use of color. Works often-unnatural colors white shapes were elongated. El Greco- Greek artist who did most of the greatest work in Spain, perhaps the greatest mannerist painter. Northern Renaissance- emphasis on early church writing that provided answers on how to improve society and reform the church. Christian humanism- Erasmus- Most famous and clebrated of all northern humanists, master of the Greek language and criticized the church. In Praise of Folly-criticized the immortality and hypocrisy of the church leaders. Thomas More, Utopia- mixes civic humanism with religious ideals to describe a perfect Utopian society Jacques Lefevre d�Etables- leading French humanist and is a good example of how northern Christian humanists focused on early church writings. Produced 5 versions of Psalms, challenged Bibles authority. Francesco Ximenes de Cisneros- Reformed Spanish Clergy and Church so that many church abuses were highlighted during the reformation, invented the Polyglot Bible. Francois Rabelais, Gargantua and Pantagruel- attacked clerical education and monastic orders Michel de Montaigne, skepticism and essay- doubt that true knowledge could be attained and the skeptic must be cautious, critical, and suspend judgment. Invented the essay William Shakespere- greatest English Renaissances author, works reflected Renaissance ideas of classic Greek and Roman culture. Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote- critical of excessive religious idealism and chivalric romance Flemish Style-Heavily influenced by Italian Renaissance, more detail throughout paintings, more emotional than Italian Style, and preoccupied with death. Jan val Eyck- most famous Flemish Painter, perfected oil paintings, incredible detail in his works. Arnolfini and his wife is the most famous Bosch- master of symbolism and Fantasy, art often looked surreal and focused on death and the torments of Hell. Peter Brueghel, the Elder- not influenced by Italian Renaissance, focused on lives of ordinary people. Albrecht Durer- most famous northern Renaissance artist, mastered woodcut, painted numerous self portraits Hans Holbein the Younger- encompasses major themes of the era, specifically religious discord and preoccupation with death. Painted Erasmus, Thomas More, and King Henry VIII Fugger Family- patronized art in Northern Renaissance, Bankers. Christine de Pisan- came up with a Renaissance women�s survival guide, Europe�s first feminist Isabella d�Este- formed a school for young women to further their education and wrote over 2,000 letters that provide a window into courtly and political life. Set an example for women to break away from traditional roles Artemesia Gentilleschi- perhaps the first female artist to gain recognition in the post Renaissance era, painted historical and religious scenes. Reformation Simony - paying for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_office" \o "Holy office" holy offices or positions in the hierarchy of a church Pluralism - diversity of views Nepotism - hiring or appointing one�� "! s family to high offices on no basis of merit or aptitude Absenteeism - neglecting duties Sale of indulgences - selling of pardons from god of one�� "!s sins Clerical ignorance - being appointed to church offices without proper education Erasmus, In Praise of Folly - Book that critiqued Catholic Church and its excesses Martin Luther - leader of protestant movement Johann Tetzel -� famous preacher who traveled and sold indulgences for Catholic Church 95 Thesis- written by Martin Luther; outlined main complaints against Catholic Church Johann Eck - defended Catholic Church during reformation Priesthood of all believers passages from New Testament that upheld and became foundation for Protestantism Diet of Worms - assembly held by the Holy Roman Empire that addressed Martin Luther and the reformation Confessions of Augsburg -traditional statement of the Lutheran Philip Melanchton - Wrote the confes sions of Augsburg Charles V �� (1500-1558) ruler of Holy Roman Empire during reformation; pro-catholic Peasants War-� a series of both economic and religious revolts in which HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasant" \o "Peasant" peasants, townsfolk and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobility" \o "Nobility" nobles all participated; approx. 100,000 died League of Schmalkalden - defensive HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_alliance" \o "Military alliance" alliance of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheranism" \o "Lutheranism" Lutheran princes within the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" \o "Holy Roman Empire" Holy Roman Empire during the mid-16th century Habsburg-Valois Wars -( 1494-559) series of struggles between the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_city-states" \o "Italian city-states" city-states of Italy, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_States" \o "Papal States" Papal States, the major states of Western Europe as well as the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" \o "Ottoman Empire" Ottoman Empire over the Duchy of Milan and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" \o "Kingdom of Naples" Kingdom of Naples Peace of Augsburg, 1555 - treaty between Charles V (catholic) and league of Schmalkalden (Lutheran); officially ended their religious struggle Anabaptists - Radical Reformers in the 16th century John of Leyden - Anabaptist leader Mennonites �� sect of Anabaptists (not radicals); persecute d by both Catholics and reformists Quakers �� denomination founded due to dissatisfaction with catholic and protestant sects of 17th century; based on peaceful and nonviolent theologies Unitarians �� a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology" \o "Theology" theology is the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief" \o "Belief" belief in the single personality of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God" \o "God" God, in contrast to the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrine" \o "Doctrine" doctrine of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity" \o "Trinity" Trinity Ulrich Zwingli, Zurich �� leader of reformation in Switzerland Colloquy at Marburg �� a meeting which attempted to solve a dispute between HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther" \o "Martin Luther" Martin Luther and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" \o "Huldrych Zwingli" Ulrich Zwingli over the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_Presence" \o "Real Presence" Real Presence of Christ in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%27s_Supper" \o "Lord's Supper" Lord's Supper John Calvin �� founder of Calvinism; believed in predestination Institutes of the Christian Religion �� HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Calvin" \o "John Calvin" John Calvin's seminal work on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant" \o "Protestant" Protestant HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_theology" \o "Systematic theology" systematic theology Predestination - belief that life is planned by god; you are destined to go to hell or heaven from birth despite actions Geneva - powerful city in Switzerland Michael Servetus - European doctor; came up with pulmonary circulation Protestant work ethic - religious emphasis on hard work John Knox - founder of Presbyterianism Presbyterianism - evolved from Calvinism in Scottish reformation Huguenots - denominations evolving from the French protestant reformation Dutch Reformed Church - protestant sect based in the Netherlands Puritans - felt that the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation" \o "English Reformation" English Reformation had not gone far enough, and that the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England" \o "Church of England" Church of England was tolerant of practices which they associated with the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" \o "Roman Catholicism" Church of Rome; they felt the church needed to be further purified�� "! English Reformation - series of events that broke England away from Catholicism William Tyndale -translated bible into the modern English of his day (16th cent) Henry VIII - separated England from Catholic Church (because he wanted a divorce so he could remarry) In Defense of the seven sacraments - written by Henry VIII; defended Catholicism Catherine of Aragon- first wife of Henry VIII Anne Boleyn- second wife of Henry VIII Thomas Wolsey- English statesman and cardinal of the Roman Catholic church; worked for Henry VIII Thomas Cranmer -leader of reformation Church of England -result of King Henry VIIIs separation from Catholic Church; mix of catholic practices and protestant doctrines Act of supremacy -grants king as supreme government official Pilgrimage of grace - a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_revolt_in_late_medieval_Europe" \o "Popular revolt in late medieval Europe" popular rising in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/York" \o "York" York, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yorkshire" \o "Yorkshire" Yorkshire during 1536, in protest against HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" England's break with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" \o "Roman Catholic Church" Rome and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Monasteries" \o "Dissolution of the Monasteries" Dissolution of the Monasteries Edward VI -crowned when 9 years old; country ruled by council; time marked by economic, social, and political struggle Mary Tudor- Bloody Mary- known for restoring England to Catholicism Marian exiles -Protestants fled or were exiled from England during Mary Tudors reign Elizabeth I - (1533-1603) known for political moves that appeased both Protestants and Catholics in England; protestant Politique - a ruler who puts political matters before religious preference for the benefit of their country Elizabethan settlement - re-established Anglican Church; response to political division in England during reigns of her predecessors Thirty-nine articles - established in 1563 and are the historic defining statements of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican" \o "Anglican" Anglican doctrine in relation to the controversies of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation" \o "English Reformation" English Reformation Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots- queen of Spain for a few years before widowed Katerina Von Bora - a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" \o "Germany" German HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic" \o "Catholic" Catholic HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nun" \o "Nun" nun who became the wife of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther" \o "Martin Luther" Martin Luther Angela Merici, ursuline order of nuns - a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" \o "Roman Catholic Church" Roman Catholic HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_order" \o "Religious order" religious order founded at HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brescia" \o "Brescia" Brescia, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" \o "Italy" Italy, by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_Merici" \o "Angela Merici" Saint Angela de Merici in November 1535, primarily for the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_of_girls" \o "Education of girls" education of girls and the care of the sick and needy Teresa de Avila- prominent HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_mystics" \o "Spanish mystics" Spanish mystic, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmelites" \o "Carmelites" Carmelite HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nun" \o "Nun" nun, and writer of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter_Reformation" \o "Counter Reformation" Counter Reformation Catholic reformation- Counter reformation, movement to restore Catholicism; compensate for damage done during reformation Pope Paul III - pope during Counter Reformation Council of Trent- council that condemned protestant heresies and defined Catholic Church teachings Index of prohibited books �� list of books that were considered evil by Catholic Church; ex: in praise of follies, etc. Jesuits -religious order of Catholic Church Ignatius Loyola -founder of the Jesuits Spanish and Italian inquisitions - attempts by catholic church to fix church practices in Spain and Italy; many people of differing religious beliefs were alienated, exiled, persecuted, etc; esp. Jews and Muslims Baroque art - usually depicts catholic religious scenes (saints, stories, etc); often dark with dramatic contrast and lighting, intended to invoke emotion Bernini- baroque sculptor Caravaggio baroque painter Peter Paul Rubens �Fle-mish baroque painter Wars of Religion Hapsburg-Valois Wars - France had kept the H.R.E. from gaining unity in Germany while inadvertently helping Lutheranism. These wars were largely political as both France and the HRE were Catholic. Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis,1559- Ended the Hapsburg/Valois Wars, this marked the last of the Dynasty wars in the 16th Century. Philip II- King of Spain who sought to re-impose Catholicism, like his father (CharlesV) in Europe. Spain became a dominant power under his reign. Escorial � the Spanish Royal Palace, with its grill-like architecture was made to celebrate the martyrdom of Saint Lawrence. Battle of Lepanto, 1571� marked the Turks by the Spaniards which ended the Ottoman threat in the Mediterranean. Dutch Revolt- In the North, 17 Dutch Provinces that were Calvinists revolted against the Spanish Inquistion. William of Orange- led the Dutch Revolt United Provinces of the Netherlands- Spain had regained 10 of the rebel Dutch Provinces in the South , the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium), the other Calvinist 7 formed the Treaty of Utrecht continuing to struggle against Spain. Spain finally recognized the UP of the N with the Treaty of Westphalia. Spanish Netherlands � the southern provinces Spain was able to regain from the Dutch Revolt. It is now modern day Belgium. Mary Tudor(�Bloody Mary�)- wife of cousin Phillip II , she sought to re-institute Catholicism in England. She persecuted Protestants, earning her the nickname � Bloody Mary.� Elizabeth I � Queen of England who sought to find a medium as a Politique for Catholics and Protestants alike to coexist peacefully. She repealed many pro-Catholic legislations with her Act of Supremacy and defined the teachings of the Protestant faith with the 39 Articles. Spanish Armada � After the death of Queen Mary, Phillip II sought to takeover England and make it Catholic. The invasion failed and England emerged as a Naval Power. French Civil Wars � After the death of Henry II, the Valois hold on the crown was weakened by a power struggle among Noble famalies (Guis, Bourbon, Valois). Catherine de Medici- Mother of three future French Kings who fought hard to maintain Catholic control of France. St. Bartholomew Day Massacre � Catherine de�Medici�s ordered killing of Hugenots in Paris which disrupted a wedding between a Valois and a Bourbon to reconcile Catholics. War of the Three Henry�s- conflict between Henry of Navarre (Bourbon), King Henry III ( Valois) and Henry Duke of Guise for the French crown. Henry IV- Henry of Navarre won the War of the Three Henry�s and became the first Bourbon King. Politique- leaders who seek practical solutions to compromise. Edict of Nantes- made by Henry IV, it granted Hugenots religious toleration. Thirty Years War- began because of the failure of the Peace of Augsburg which granted German Princes the choice between Catholicism and Lutheranism. The Peace only lasted 60 years until divisions led by the HRE exploded in War. Bohemian Phase- One of the Four Phases of the War that describes the ardent support for Catholicism in Bohemia led by Ferdinand of Styria, a Hapsburg. Defenestration of Prague- HRE officials were thrown out a window onto manure which resulted in heavy restrictions on Protestants. Protestants were eventually defeated and disappeared from Bohemia. Danish Phase- Second Phase of the War that marked the height of Catholic power during the War. Albrecht von Wallenstein � Mercenary Gen. who was paid by Emperor Ferdinand II to fight for the HRE. Edict of Restitution- Emp.Ferdinand declared all church territories that had been secularized in 1552 to be restored to the Catholic Church. Protestants lost religious and political rights. Swedish Phase- Third Phase of the War where Protestants liberated territory lost in the previous Danish Phase. Gustavus Adolphus- King of Sweden who�s Army pushed back HRE forces to Bohemia and invaded the HRE. He ended all HRE hopes of uniting Germany under Catholicism. The HRE then annulled the Edict of Restitution. French Phase- a.k.a. The International Phase Cardinal Richelieu- had France ally with the Protestant forces to defeat the HRE even though the HRE was Catholic. France did not want a HRE ruled Germany on their Eastern Border. Treaty of Westphalia, 1648 � Ended the Reformation in Germany, renewed the Peace of Augsburg now including Calvinism, and Netherlands and Switzerland gain independence from Spain. 300+ German states gained sovereignty and the Pope was not allowed to interfere in HRE affairs. The Hapsburgs were weakened. English Civil War- power struggle between the King and Parliament over taxation and civil liberties. James I- Stuart Monarch who strongly advocated the Anglican Church. He believed in Divine Right and Absolute rule. Charles I � King of England who dissolved Parliament twice ad raised money through forced taxation. He believed in divine right and ruled Absolute. He was later beheaded. �Divine Right� of Kings- Belief that Monarchs had received from God the right to rule absolutely. Cavaliers- supporters of the King Roundheads- opposed the King, usually Calvinist. Oliver Cromwell � Puritan idependent military leader of the Roundheads who eventually led his army to victory in 1649. New Model Army- Cromwell�s Army Pride�s Purge- 1648, without Cromwell�s knowledge, elements of his army removed all non-Puritan and Presbyterians from Parliament. �Rump Parliament�- The Parliament that was left of Pride�s Purge(1/5) Levellers � Radical Religious revolutionaries who sought a more equalitarian society. Diggers- Denied Parliament�s authority and rejected private ownership of land. Quakers- Believed in an inner-light or a divine spark that existed in each person. Interregnum- (1649-1660) Rule without a King, a Commonwealth The Protectorate- New Republic ruled by Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell Charles II- The Stuarts were restored in 1660 with Charles II after Oliver�s successor, his son Richard was ineffective. Absolutism Western Europe Absolutism was the form of government in which kings believed in the divine right to be king. Jean Bodin argued against religious conflict during the Reformation. Thomas Hobbes wrote Leviathan, a book that advocated the belief that humans cannot govern themselves. Bishop Bossuet advocated divine right and absolute rule. The divine right of kings is the belief that kings are chosen by God to rule their respective countries. The First Estate is the French nobles. The Second Estate is the French clergy. The Third Estate is everyone else in France. Henry IV was the first Bourbon king. The Bourbon dynasty took over France after the Valois dynasty. The nobility of the sword were the nobles who have been around since the medieval times. The nobility of the robe were new nobles who became noble by merit or money. The Duke of Sully was the French finance minister during Henry IV�s reign. Louis XIII ruled France from 1610 to 1643 and intervened in the Thirty Years� War. Cardinal Richelieu assisted Louis XIII in his foreign policy regarding the Thirty Years� War. A politique is a leader who rules based on what is good for the good of the group, and not for the good of him or her. The Intendant System installed intendants in each province of France, which helped Louis XIV maintain absolute power. The Peace of Alais confirmed the Edict of Nantes, except Huguenots could no longer have political rights and were required to relinquish all cities and forts. Louis XIV was the �Sun King,� and ruled during France�s height. �L� etat, c�est moi� means �I think, therefore I am.� The Fronde was the French Civil War that occurred in 1635. Cardinal Mazarin assisted Louis XIV during his rule. The Corvee is the law stating that all members of the third estate have to do three months of forced labor per year. The Versailles Palace was built for Louis XIV to live in and keep the nobles in. The Edict of Fountainbleu revoked the Edict of Nantes. Jansenists were Catholics that believed in pre-destination. Mercantilism was an economic ideology that exalted a favorable balance of trade. Bullionism was an economic ideology that urged countries to collect as much gold and silver as possible. Jean-Baptiste Colbert was the French Finance Minister to Louis XIV. Most European countries believed in a balance of power, where one country could not overpower the others. The War of the league of Augsburg was one of Louis XIV�s wars in the Netherlands. The War of Spanish Succession was fought between France and Austria over the house that would take the Spanish throne. The Treaty of Utrecht ended the War of Spanish Succession. Phillip II was the king of Spain in mid-1500. The Escorial is the royal residence in Spain. The price revolution caused inflation because of an influx of gold during the age of Exploration. The Spanish Armada was a large Spanish naval fleet that was defeated by England. The Treaty of the Pyrenees officially ended the Thirty Years� War between France and Spain in 1659. The Baroque style was ornate, decorative, and pro-Catholic. Bernini was a baroque sculptor and architect of 17th-century Rome. The Versailles Palace was used by French kings during and after Louis XIV to live in. Schonbrunn palace is the royal residence in Vienna, Austria. The Winter Palace was built in St. Petersburg, Russia under Peter the Great as the royal residence in Russia. Carvaggio was the first great representative of the Baroque school of painting, and was active in Italy in the late 1500s and early 1600s. Peter Paul Rubens is a painter famous for his controversial nudes. Diego Velazquez was the painter in the court of King Phillip IV. Artemisia Gentileschi is one of the first female painters to move beyond painting only portraits. The Dutch Style focused on the lives of ordinary people. Rembrandt was a painter of the Dutch style. Jan Vermeer was a Dutch Baroque painter who portrayed ordinary life as exquisite. French Classicism began a movement of state control of the arts under Richelieu. Nicolas Poussin was a French Classical painter who later would inspire David. Jean Baptiste Racine was a 17th century dramatist that would go on to influence Blaise Pascal. Moliere was a French Playwright and Actor. He is one of the most prominent comedy writers in literature. J.S. Bach was probably the most prominent Baroque composer. Absolutism in Eastern Europe Holy Roman Empire- A union of territories in Central Europe between 962-1806. Ottoman Empire- Also known as Turkey, an Empire that existed from 1299-1923. Suleiman the Magnificent- Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from 1520 until his death in 1566. Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies to conquer the Christian strongholds at Belgrade, Rhodes, and most of Hungary before his conquests were checked at the Siege of Vienna in 1529. Janissary Corps- Infantry troops which were the backbone of the Turkish Sultan's army and bodyguards. Poland-Lithuania- A union between Poland and Lithuania, sometimes called the United Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania. Estonia- A completely irrelevant country that is not even in the history books, nor will it show up on the AP test. Liberum Veto- A parliamentary device within Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth which allowed any member of the legislation to call an immediate end to the session and nullify all legislation passed at it, simply by shouting in Polish, �I do not allow!�. Serfdom- Basically a form of modified slavery, in which peasants under feudalism were tied to the land and forced to work in return for rights to use the land and for protection from their lords. Robot- a labor rent abolished by Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, who had carried out a register of all land with a division between peasant and noble holdings. Hapsburg Empire (Austrian Empire)- Empire, ruled by the House of Habsburgs, lasting from 1278-1867. Bohemia- Historical region of central Europe, which now occupies much of Czechoslovakia. Austria proper- Territory of the Austrian Empire, ruled by and Archduchy. Hungary- A landlocked country in Central Europe, bordering Austria. Leopold I- (1640-1705) Holy Roman Emperor, King of Hungary, and of Bohemia, reigning from 1685 until his death. Siege of Vienna, 1683- Battle which broke the advance of the Ottoman Empire, ending Turkish expansion in Central Europe. Pragmatic Sanction- a sovereign's solemn decree on a matter of primary importance and has the force of fundamental law. In the late history of the� HYPERLINK "/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire"Holy Roman Empire�it referred more specifically to an edict issued by the Emperor. Prussia- A historical nation which once occupied more than half of all Germany and the major part of North Germany. Hohenzollerns- A noble and royal family of kings and emperors from Prussia and Germany. Frederick William, the �Great Elector�- Duke of Prussia from 1640 until his death in 1688, belonged to the family of Hohenzollerns. He possessed amazing military skills. Junkers- Nobility of Prussia and Eastern Germany, usually involved in the military. �king of Prussia�- A ruler of the former Prussian state. Frederick William I- King of Prussia from 1713 until 1740. Popularly known as the �Soldier King�. He was fascinated with acquiring tall men for his army. �Sparta of the North�- A nickname given to Prussia for its outstanding army. Muscovy- A historical European term for the principality of Moscow and the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Boyars- A member of the highest rank of feudal Russian society. Ivan III (�the Great�)- Reigned as the Grand Prince of Russia from 1462 until his death in 1505. He tripled the territory of Russia and was one of the longest reigning rulers in Russian history. �Third Rome�- The term Third Rome describes the idea that some European city, state, or country is the successor to the legacy of the Roman Empire, with Byzantine being the "second Rome." Ivan IV (�the Terrible�)- Grand Prince of Russia, reigning from 1533 until his death in 1584. Known for his fits of rage and inhumane cruelty towards animals. One of his fits resulted in the death of his son, who was to be heir. He significantly increased the size of Russia. Cossacks- Militaristic communities of Southern Russia during the 14th Century. �Time of Troubles�- A period of Russian history from 1598 until 1613 in which Russia suffered Civil uprisings, impostors, and occupation by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Romanov Dynasty- The 2nd and last Imperial dynasty of Russia. Ruled from 1613 until 1917. Michael Romanov- 1st Russian Czar of the House of Romanov. �Old Believers�- Continued practice of the Russian Orthodox Church after new reforms were passed. Peter the Great- Ruled the Russian empire from 1682 until 1725. Carried out a policy of Westernization and increased the size of Russia. The Great Northern War- was a war in which the so-called Northern Alliance composed of Russia, Denmark-Norway, Poland-Lithuania and Saxony engaged Sweden to challenge them for the supremacy in the Baltic Sea. The war ended with a defeat for Sweden in 1721, leaving Russia as the new major power in the Baltic Sea and a new important player in European politics. The war began as a coordinated attack on Sweden by the coalition in 1700 and ended in 1721 with the Treaty of Nystad and the Stockholm treaties. Table of Ranks- a formal list of positions and ranks in the military, government, and court of Imperial Russia. It was introduced in 1722, during the reign of Peter the Great, while he engaged in a struggle with the existing hereditary nobility, or boyars. St. Petersburg- Founded by Tsar Peter I of Russia on 27 May, 1703, it was the capital of the Russian Empire for more than two hundred years. Winter Palace- Russia's version of France's Versailles Palace, it was built by Peter the Great. Scientific Revolution/ Enlightenment Scientific Revolution- the sweeping change in the scientific view of the universe that occurred in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. He new scientific concepts and the method of thief construction became the standard for assessing the validity of knowledge in the west. Copernicus, heliocentric view- argued that the Earth revolved around the sun and the sun is the center of the universe Tyco Brahe- built the best observatory in Europe and collected massive data on his observations. His data later proved Copernicus� theory. Johannes Kepler-mathematically proved Copernicus� theory 3 laws of planetary motion- orbits of the planets are elliptical, planets don�t move at uniform speed around their orbits, the time it takes for the planet to orbit the sun is related to it�s distance from the sun Galileo-developed the laws of motion and used the experimental method Laws of motion- Newton used them to explain and investigate the motion of many physical objects and systems. For example, in the third volume of the text, Newton showed that these laws of motion, combined with his law of universal gravitation explained�Kepler�s law of planetary motion. Telescope- Galileo was the first to use a telescope as a scientific instrument and he used it to validate Copernicus� heliocentric view Francis Bacon-formulized the empirical method that had been used by Brahe and Galileo. Empiricism- is a theory of�knowledge, which asserts that knowledge arises from�experience. Empiricism emphasizes the role of�experience and�evidence, especially�sensory perception, in the formation of ideas,� Inductive method- begins with inductive observation, then you form a hypothesis, conduct experiments, and formulate a theory. Rene Descartes- Discorse on method advocated the use of deductive reasoning. His proof was on logic alone. �I think therefore I am�. Developed geometry Deductive reasoning- Deductive arguments are said to be�valid or invalid, never true or false. A deductive argument is valid�if and only if the truth of the conclusion actually does follow necessarily (or is indeed a�logical consequence of) the premises and (consequently) its�corresponding conditional is a necessary truth.� Cogito ergo sum=�I think therefore I am� (Descartes) Cartesian dualism- divided all existence into spiritual and material. Spiritual can only be examined through deductive reasoning/logic. The material is subject to the experimental method. Scientific method- inductive method (Bacon) in addition to the deductive method (Descartes) Isaac Newton- incorporated the astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the Physics of Galileo into a theory of explaining order and design to the universe. Principle of universal gravitation- detailed in the Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Natural laws of motion and gravitation are evident in the movement of heavenly bodies and earthly objects. This directly challenged medieval beliefs, became Deism Principia, 1687- without question the most important book on natural philosophy published in the early modern period. It presents a new dynamic mathematical physics which is able to account for the motions of celestial and terrestrial bodies Vesalius- wrote a book called the Structure of the Hunan Body renewed and modernized the study of human anatomy. 1543 William Harvey- On the Movement of the Heart and Blood 1628. explained how the blood was pumped by the heart and circulated by the heart and body. Anton van Leeuwenhoek- developed powerful microscopes, he was also the first to see and write about bacteria, living organisms in water, and the circulation of blood through capillaries. Royal Society- England was most successful and prestigious. Government/ monarchs encouraged scientific inquiries as a means to further the prestige of the state and remain on the cutting edge. Scientific societies created a means by which scientists could communicate with each other internally. John Harrison, chronometer- a long-sought and critically-needed key piece in solving the problem of accurately establishing the East-West position Enlightenment- the 18th century movement led by philosophes that held the change and reform were both desirable through the application of reason and science. Deism-religious arm of the Enlightenment. God was rational explanation of the universe and it�s form, cosmic clockmaker John Locke, Two Treaises of Civil Government- phylisophical defense for the Glorious Revolution in England. State of Nature, humans were basically good but lack protection. Purpose of government is to protect the natural rights of the people Essay Concerning Human Understanding 1690- stressed the importance of education and environment on human development Tabula Rasa- human mind was born as a blank state and registered input from the senses passively (daily interaction) Philosophes- 18th century writers and critics who forged the new attitudes of favorable change. They sought to apply reason and common sense to the institutions and societies of their day Voltaire- challenged traditional Catholic theology. He advocated enlightened despotism believing that people were incapable of governing themselves. �Cruse the infamous thing�-hated injustice �ecracsez l�infame�- crush the infamous thing Baron de Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws- called for separation of the government into 3 branches. This would prevent tyranny and promote liberty. Checks and balances- ensure that no branch of government would become too powerful Jean-Jacques Rousseau- wrote the Social Contract. General will Social Contract, 1792- believed that too much of an emphasis on property and not enough on consideration of people; causes injustice. GENERAL WILL General Will- majority of the people should control a nation (democracy) �Noble savage�-Rousseau believed that man in a simpler state of nature was good and was corrupted by a materialism to become a �noble savage� Denis Diderot, The Encyclopedia, 1765-emphasized science, reason, and education while criticizing religion, intolerance, and injustice. Sought to teach people to think critically and objectively. Was banned in France and put on the forbidden books from the Pope. Marquis de Beccaria- sought to humanize criminal law braised on Enlightened concepts (equality) On Crimes and Punishment, 1764 Francois Quesnay-sought to reform the existing agrarian system by instituting Laissez Faire ideas in agriculture. French govt/ nobility had too much control over the land and stifled production. Physiocrats-18th century French thinkers who attacked the mercantilist regulation of the economy, advocated a limited economic role for the government, and believed that all economic production depended on sound agriculture. Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations-expanded the Laissez Faire philosophy of the physiocrats. Invisible hand of the markets controlled by the natural laws of supply and demand Salon movement- many of the brightest minds of the Enlightenment assembled in salons to discuss major issues Mary Wollstonecraft- promoted political and education equality for women Baron Paul d�Holbach- was a French- German aurthor,�philosopher,�encyclopedias, and a prominent figure in the�French Enlightenment. David Hume- argued against faith through natural law. Undermind the Enlightenments emphasis on reason because reason couldn�t go beyond experience Jean de Condorcet- Progress of the Human Mind, 10 levels of the brain. Utopian ideas undermined the legitimacy f the Enlightenment ideas Immanuel Kant-separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge. Science could describe nature but couldn�t provide a guide for morality. Classical liberalism-Belief in liberty of the individual and equality before the law. Natural rights of the philosophy played a huge role in the American and French Revolutions. General will German pietism- argued for spiritual conversion and religious experience Methodism- Taught a need for spiritualism regeneration and moral life demonstrated through being born again John Wesley- founded Methodism Jansenism- Catholic sect in France that argued against the idea of an evolved God (Deism) Enlightened Despotism- rulers who ruled for the good of their country Frederick the Great- one of the greatest rulers in German History, strong military education. Profoundly influenced by the Enlightenment War of Austrian Succession- Frederick invaded and annexed Silesia. Prussia defeated Austria and gained Silesia this doubled their population and established them as a great power. Silesia- won by Prussia in the War of Austrian Succession and doubled their population Seven Years� War- Maria Theresa sought to regain Silesia from Prussia and had Russia and France as allies. This was the Bloodiest war in Europe since the 30 years war. �Diplomatic Revolution of 1756�- France and Austria are traditional enemies are allies against Prussia. Britain who is a traditional ally of Russia supported Prussia. Treaty of Paris, 1763- Treaty of Paris 1763, Prussia permanently retained Silecia, France lost all of it�s colonies in North America to Great Britain, gained more territory in India (trading ports) �First servant of the state�- Frederick claimed himself this. The destruction of war encouraged Frederick to help improve society. Reforms were mostly intended to increase the power of the state Catherine the Great- lover of French culture and considered herself a child of the Enlightenment. One of the greatest rulers in European history, she was a German princess but became Russian Queen when her husband was assassinated. Is she Enlightened or not? It�s a mystery.. Pugachev Rebellion- demanded the end of serfdom, taxes, and army service. Landlords and officers were murdered all over southwestern Russia. Eventually he was captured and executed Polish Partitions-Poland was being split up between all of Europe (mostly) Liberum veto- all laws had to have unanimously vote, destroyed Poland.. nothing got passed. Maria Theresa- assumed the Hapsburg Empire from her father, Charles VI. She is not enlightened, didn�t go as far as others in allowing religious toleration. She did help the serfs more than any other previous ruler. Pragmatic Sanction of 1713- issued by Leopold ensured the Hapsburg empire would remain in tact under Maria Joseph II- perhaps the greatest Enlightened despot in terms of reforms, but was the least effective. He abolished serfdom and feudal dues, freedom of religion (freedom to protestants and Jews), abolished death penalty, expanded state schools, established hospitals, insane asylums, and orphanages. 18th Century Society Agricultural Revolution - 80% of Western Europe�s population were farmers, % is higher in Eastern Europe.� Features included increased production of food, new mothods of cultivation and selective breeding of livestock. Open field system - Fields were farmed as a community; common lands were open and land was not divided by fences or hedges Cornelius Vermuyden - Dutch engineer who introduced Dutch reclamation methods to Britain Charles �Turnip� Townsend - Pioneered crop rotation of turnips, peas, beans, clovers, and potatoes. Crop Rotation - Rotation of planting crops to balance the nutrients in the soil. Jethro Tull - Invented seed drill Seed drill - Seed drill allowed for sewing of crops in a straight line rather by hand. Robert Bakewell -�Pioneered selective breeding of livestock, resulted in increased availability of larger and healthier animals, wool, leather, soap, and candles Columbian exchange - describe the enormous widespread exchange of plants, animals, foods, human populations (including slaves), communicable diseases, and ideas between the Eastern and Western hemispheres Enclosure movement - Enclosed fields and commercialized agriculture.� Owners invested in technology.� Corn Laws - 1850; Benefited land owners by placing high tariffs on foreign grains, and increasing the price on English grains Population Explosion - It was caused by new foods such as potatoes becoming staple crops, improved food transportation due to roads and canals, better diet, and improved sanitation. Proto-Industrialization - The cottage industry; Rural industry became a pillar of Europe�s growing economy.�� Countryside labor was cheaper than those in guilds, causing early industrial production to be put out in the countryside. Cottage industry (�putting out� system) - Merchants provided raw materials (wool, cloth) to a family to produce a finished product and sent it back to the merchants for payment.� This led to searching for more efficient methods of production resulting in growth in factories in the industrial revolution Flying shuttle � invented by John Kay in 1733; it enabled a weaver to throw a shuttle back and forth between threads with one hand Spinning jenny � invented by James Hargreaves; a multi-spool spinning wheel Water Frame � 1769, developed by Richard Arkwright; It improved thread spinning by using steam to power lumes. Some marks this as the beginning of the industrial revolution. Spinning mule � 1779, By Samuel Crompton perfected a spinning machine; it is a machine for spinning textile fibers into yarn. Mercantilism - An economic theory that holds that the prosperity of a nation is dependent upon its supply of capital. Capital is best gained through a positive balance of trade; exports > imports. Atlantic Economy � Atlantic slave trade; see Triangular Trade Sugar � Popular in Britain, heavily imported in Triangular trade Bullionism - an economic theory that defines wealth by the amount of precious metals owned. Bullionism is an early or primitive form of mercantilism. Bank of England � Central Bank in England; strong bank promoted industry Act of Union , 1717 � Parliaments of England and Scotland joined together under the United Kingdom of Britain. They were previously separate states, with separate parliaments, but under the same monarchy. Navigation Acts � Series of laws that restricted foreign shipping for England and its colonies. Triangular trade - weapons (Euro � Africa) � slaves (Africa to Amer) - cotton, sugar, tobacco, molasses and rum (Amer � Euro). Dutch Republic � European republic in the same general area as modern day Netherlands Anglo-Dutch Wars - England and dutch fought over seas and trade routes Slave Trade � (see triangular trade) �Middle Passage� � middle leg of triangular trade where slaves were traded South Sea Bubble � Speculation of the South Sea company�s stock that traded South America which led to financial ruin for many Mississippi Bubble � short version: Speculation led to rise in stock in the Mississippi Company. Investors traded stock for cash, which they wanted to trade cash for gold. John Law�s bank didn�t have gold, which led to financial ruin. detailed: The Mississippi Company was a monopoly with trading privileges within the French colony of Louisiana in North America. The Mississippi Company took over the management of the French national debt. The company issued shares of its own stock in exchange for government bonds, which had fallen sharply in value. To redeem large quantities of bonds, John Law (who managed the finances of the kingdom) encouraged speculation in the Mississippi Company stock. The price rose highly and smart investors took profits by selling stock in exchange for paper money from Law�s bank, which they sought to exchange for gold. The bank lacked enough gold to redeem all of the paper money. War of Spanish Succession - was a war fought in 1701-1714, in which several European powers combined to stop a possible unification of the Kingdoms of Spain and France under a single Bourbon monarch. Charles II died and left the Spanish crown to Philip of Anjou, the grandson of Louis XIV. Treaty of Utrecht � 1713 ended War of Spanish Succession; King Philip V was recognized as ruler of Spain Seven Years War �Frederick the Great of Prussia invaded Austria�s ally, the kingdom of Saxony. He confronted the powerful alliance of Austria, France, Russia, and Saxony. Britain assisted Prussia through financial support; Britain wanted to divert France�s colonial resources away with the war. It ended when Russia�s new tsar, Peter III dropped out of the war. American Revolution � The colonies broke away from Britain, 1783 America gained sovereignty Creoles � A term used for locally born people with foreign ancestry. Mestizos - a Spanish term that was used in the Spanish Empire to refer to people of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry in Latin America. �Spare the rod and spoil the child� � Daniel Defoe; emphasized better treatment of children Edward Jenner � 1749 � 1823; Created a smallpox vaccine, considered the father of immunology. Pietism � A type of religion that reaffirmed the significance of faith, emotional religious experience, and personal devotion to Jesus Christ. John Wesley � An Anglican priest who founded the Methodist movement Methodism � The opposition of the formalism of the established Church of England and emphasized the development of personal piety, evangelism, and salvation through faith in Jesus Christ alone. Rococo � 18th century French art and interior design. Many great rococo churches were built in Austria and southern Germany. Neoclassicism � sought the return of the artistic style of ancient rome/greece & renaissance Jacques-Louis David � 1748-1825, Most important artist in the Neoclassical movement; painting numerous works glorifying French revolution Classical style (music) � influenced by art with balance, symmetry and restraint Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart � 1756-1791; one of the three masters of classical style Franz Joseph Haydn � 1732-1809; one of the three masters of classical style Ludwig van Beethoven � 1770-1826; one of the three masters of classical style French Revolution Main Themes: 1.� The French Revolution passed through distinct stages, each of which can be found in every major revolution� 2.� Old regimes overthrown by revolution are not only corrupt and bankrupt, but incapable of defending themselves. 3.� Revolutions occur in societies in which poverty is a factor, but not always extreme poverty. 4.� A revolution will continue until the needs of all segments of society are met. 5.� The French Revolution was a collision between a decadent aristocracy and a rising middle class. � I. Causes of the Revolution: �� A.� Failure of Enlightenment despots in France to satisfy all social classes. �� B.� Dissatisfaction with the Ancien Regime. �� C.� High taxation of the poor to support the luxurious lifestyle at Versailles and of the upper clergy. �� D.� Social class unrest --> vast social inequality (Three Estates);� no real social mobility. �� E.� The government isolates itself from the problems of the poor. �� F.� War debts --> eventual financial collapse. �� G.� Ideas of the Enlightenment. II.� Phases of the Revolution: �� A.� absolutism --> Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. �� B.� limited constitutional monarchy --> Legislative Assembly (middle class is in charge). �� -- Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. �� -- Civil Constitution of the Clergy. �� -- Constitution of 1791. �� C.� First French Republic --> National Convention �� -- king and queen executed. �� -- France engaged in foreign wars against the First Coalition. �� D.� radical phase --> "Reign of Terror" under Robespierre �� -- Committee of Public Safety. �� -- Jacobins. �� -- Sans-culotte (revolt of the lower classes in the cities). �� E.� Thermidorean Reaction --> Directory �� -- weak, with little support outside of the military. �� -- government in the hands of the property owners who did nothing to relieve the problems of �� the lower classes (conservative reaction to the radicalism of the Terror). �� F.� The Consulate --> "enlightened" despotism of Napoleon Bonaparte III.� Results of the French Revolution: �� A.� Democratic ideals established --> Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite! �� B.� Intensified French nationalism. �� C.� The French Revolution influenced peoples throughout the world. �� D.� A society and a political structure based on rank and birth had given way to one based on civil �� equality. �� E.� Representation was established as a principle of practical politics. �� F.� Eliminated feudal obligations of peasants, destroyed guilds, and other obstacles to the growth of �� French industry and agriculture. Napoleonic Era Terms to Know-Napoleonic Era� Napoleon Bonaparte- successful militant who used his military skills to climb to power in France, becoming France's first consul under the consulate of 1799 in France's first emperor in 1804.� Consulate Period- French government dominated by Napoleon from 1799 to 1804. � First Consul- Head consul, one in charge.� Napoleonic Code- New code of civil law by Napoleon that reinstated revolutionary ideas of equality for all citizens and privileges based on birth terminated.� Careers open to talent- Receiving a good job was based on skill and merit, not by birth.� Concordat of 1801- Made a reconciliation with Pope Pius VII and governed relations between French state and Roman Catholic Church.� Bank of France- Set up to help and stabilize French economy.� Duke of Enghievl- Bourbon Duke who was accused by Napoleon to have participated in the Royalist Plot.� War of the second Coalition- War in which England, Russia, Austria, Ottoman Empire, Portugal, and Naples allianced together against France and weakened the government of the Directory.� Treaty of Luneville- Treaty that took Austria out of the war of the second Coalition.� Jacques-Louis David- Foremost French neoclassical painter.� Empire Period- Time in which Napoleon ruled as Emperor in France.� Grand Empire- All the lands Napoleon acquired during his Imperial period.� War of the Third Coalition- War that was renewed against France in 1803 by England, then joined in 1805 by Austria and Russia.� Battle of Trafalgar- Battle where British Lord Nelson destroyed the combined French and Spanish fleets.� Lord Horatio Nelson- English Admiral who destroyed the combined French and Spanish fleet in Trafalgar.� Battle of Austerlitz- Battle in which Napoleon defeated the combined forces of Russia and Austria in 1805.� Arc de Triomphe- Made in honor of Napoleons victory in the battle of Austerlitz.� Treaty of Tilsit- Treaty that gave half of Prussia's lands to Napoleon and made Russia and Prussia France's allies after the battle of Austerlitz.� Confederation of the Rhine- German states put together by Napoleon to reorganize it.� Continental System- Set up by Napoleon to close off ports on Continental Europe to British ships.� Berlin Decree- Made by Napoleon stating to starve Britain out by closing ports on Continental Europe to British ships.� Order in Council- Issued by England in response to the Berlin Decree stating that neutral ships could only enter Continental ports if they first stopped in England.� Milan Decree- By Napoleon in response to England to further stop neutral nations from trading with England.� Peninsular War- First great revolt against Napoleon's power that occurred in Spain in 1808.� Russian Campaign- Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812 because Russia withdrew from the Continental System.� Battle of Borodino- A draw between France and the Russian's, with Russia retreating, and caused France to become overextended.� War of the Fourth Coalition- War in which the Quadruple Alliance of England, Russia, Austria, Prussia who were teamed together against France in 1814.� Battle of Leipzig- Battle in which Napoleon was finally defeated.� Frankfurt Proposal- Terms to reduce the size of France after their defeat; made by Mettrnich.� Quadruple Alliance- Alliance between England, Russia, Austria, and Prussia against France in 1814.� Louis XVIII- Bourbon King who was restored to power in France after Napoleon's rule and was a Constitutional monarchy.� Charter of 1814- Provided for a hereditary monarchy and a bicameral legislator.� �First� Treaty of Paris, 1814- France surrendered all territory gained since the revolution had begun.� Congress of Vienna- representatives of major powers in Europe that redrew territorial lines to restore order after the Napoleonic Era� Klemens Von Metternich- Prince of Austria and head of the Congress of Vienna who epitomized conservative reaction and opposed the ideas of liberals and reformers� Legitimacy- Returning the power to the ruling families disposed at war� Compensation-territorially removing those states who made considerable sacrifices to defeat Napoleon� Balance of power- arrange the map of Europe so that never again could one state upset international power.� German Confederation- Unity of all German states� Hundred Days- Napoleon's march with popular support to Paris to gain back power in 1815� Battle of Waterloo- Last battle of the Napoleonic wars and Napoleon was defeated and exiled to St. Helena.� Duke of Wellington- Title of Sir Arthur Wellesley, British man who helped the Spanish rise up in revolt against French domination.� Concert of Europe- Group of European major powers who wanted to make arrangements to guarantee the enforcement of the status quo as defined by the Vienna settlement.� �Holy Alliance�- idea of� Russian tsar Alexander I; signed by Russia, Prussia, and Austria that pledged to observe Christian principles in both domestic and international affairs.� Alexander I - Tsar of Russia from 1801 to 1825 who showed some interest in reform and gained territorial expansion for Russia.� 19th Cent. Society Second industrial revolution- 4 major aspects, steel, coal, electricity and chemical Urbanization- people moved into the cities Public health movement- sought to remedy the high disease mortality rate Edwin Chadwick- most important reformer of the living conditions in the cities. Came up with the sanitary idea Sanitary idea- the belief that disease could be prevented by cleaning up the environment Georges von Haussam- Redeveloped Paris created wide boulevards better middle class housing demolition of the slums and creation of parks and open spaces Fin de Siede- life in the end of the century Belle �poque-the good old days Louis Pasteur, Germ theory- he discovered that most infectious diseases are caused by germs Pasteurization- fermentation caused by the growth of living organisms Joseph Lister- Devolved the Antiseptic principal in performing surgery which results in fewer deaths Dmitri Mendeleyev- organized the rules of chemistry by devising the periodic table Michael Faraday, Electro magnetism- came up with the first dynamo/ generator August Comte- father of sociology Positivism- all intellectual activity progress is through predictable stages thus humans would soon discover the eternal laws of human relations through the study of sociology Charles Darwin, the origin of species- came up with the theory of evolution Thomas Huxley-one of the first adherents to Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, and did more than anyone else to advance its acceptance among scientists and the public alike. Herbert Spencer, social Darwinism- Spencer applied Darwin�s ideas to human society Sigmund Freud thought people were irrational, emphasized sexuality and founded psychoanalysis Marie Curie discovered the first radioactive element Ernest Rutherford- postulated the structure of the atom Max Planck he is the originator of the quantum theory. Albert Einstein- came up with the theory of relativity Theory of relativity- this united an infinite universe with the incredibly small fast moving subatomic world Rerum Novarum issued by the pope this addressed the conditions of the working class Realism- the belief that literature should depict life as it really was Honore de Balzac- �The Human Comedy� depicts urban society as brutal and characterized by a Darwinian struggle for wealth and power Gustave Flaubert-portrayed life realistically through his writings. Emile Zola-portrayed and animalistic view of the working class George Eliot-real name is Mary Anne Evans. She examined the ways in which people are shaped by their class and moral choices Leo Tolstoy- his biggest accomplishment was War and Peace. He wrote with a fatalistic view of history but regarded love, trust, and family as enduring values. Henrik Ibsen- is called the father of modern drama. His plays examine the conditions of life and issues of mortality Gustav Courbet- coined the term realism. His most famous painting is The Storm Breakers Francois Millet, The Gleaners-depicts women clearing the fields Honore Daumier, Third-Class Carriage-depicts three generations (a grandmother, her daughter, and her grandchild) traveling together on a railroad. Edgar Degas-The Laundry Girls depicts unskilled Labor Edouard Manet, Le Dejeuner sur I�herb; Olympia- Manet is considered the 1st modern painter. He bridged realism and impressionism Impressionism- artists moved away from getting perfect images and instead focused on the use of light and emotion. There was a focus on landscapes and brushstrokes were clearly visible. Claude Monet, Impression Sunrise- The foremost Impressionist painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Le Moulin de la Galette-famous impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh, Starry Night- this painting was the night as he imagined it instead of as it really was Paul Gauguin- pioneered expressionist techniques Paul Cezanne-attempted to bring form and solidity back into his paintings of still life and landscape. Henri Matisse, les fauves- He is the most important French artist of the century, critiques called him and his group of expressionist painters wild beasts Pablo Picasso, Les Madamoselle d�Avignon- He founded cubism Cubism-concentrated on zigzag lines overlapping planes. Expressionism-became the ultimate stage in development of the abstract and nonrepresentational art Wassily Kandinsky- turned away from nature and used bold colors to express emotion and symbolism. Industrial Revolution Commercial Revolution: spurred the great economic growth of Europe and brought the Age of Exploration through stimulated prices, rise of capitalism, science, and population growth. Proto-industrialization: centered in the Cottage Industry and of technology that helped industry evolve like the flying shuttle, spinning jenny, and the water frame which eventually leads to power looms with steam starting the Industrial Revolution. Cottage industry/�putting out system�: rural families who produced a finished product of wool cloth for merchants who provided the raw materials. Flying shuttle: invented in 1733 by John Kay (1704-1764) which enabled a weaver to throw a shuttle back and forth between threads with one hand. Spinning jenny: invented in 1764 by James Hargreaves which made it possible for a weaver to spin a number of threads simultaneously. Water frame: invented in 1769 by Richard Arkwright (1732-1792) which improved thread spinning. He eventually uses steam to power looms which some consider the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. Spinning mule: invented in1779 by Samuel Crompton which is a machine that spins textile fibers into yarn. Agricultural Revolution: vital to the Industrial Revolution where there is a supply of cheap and abundant labor emerged as the Encloser Movement sent many farmers to towns and cities. Bank of England: established in 1694 which became England�s central bank Bubble Act: in 1720 was passed by Parliament that forbade all joint-stoke companies not authorised by royal charter. Lowes Act, limited liability: 1856 passes in Parliament and the concept of limited liability becomes law. Navigation Acts: a series of laws which restricted the use of foreign shipping for trade between England and its colonies. Corn Laws: in 1815 benefited land owners by placing high tariffs on foreign grain which drove up the price of English grain and hurt the poor because they couldn�t afford the increase for food. James Watt: in 1769 invented and patented the first efficient steam engine which radically transformed manufacturing and transportation. Steam engine: James Watt invented and patented the first steam engine in 1769 Power loom: patented in 1785 by Edmund Cartwright Heavy industry: the iron industry was transformed by the steam engine which rose due to rising supplies of coal. Henry Cort: (1740 �1800) was an English iron master. He refined iron from pig iron to wrought iron (or bar iron) using innovative production systems. Puddling furnace: a metalmaking technology used to create wrought iron or steel from the pig iron produced in a blast furnace. Transportation revolution: made possible by steam power, had new canals, and railroads. Duke of Bridgewater, canals: John McAdam, hard-surfaced roads: (1756-1836) he pioneered hard surface roads which helped the Transportation Revolution. Robert Fulton, steamboat: 1807 his steamboat the Clermont traveled up the Hudson River from New York City t Albany. He used an imported Boulton and Watt steam engine and made two way river travel possible and traveling on the seas faster. George Stephenson, Rocket: in 1825 he made railway locomotive commercially successful, by 1829 the locomotive was widely used in England. In 1830 his locomotive �the Rocket� traveled at 16mph, the world�s first important railroad. Crystal Palace: a cast-iron and glass building originally erected in Hyde Park, London, England, to house the Great Exhibition of 1851. More than 14,000 exhibitors from around the world gathered in the Palace's 990,000�square feet of exhibition space to display examples of the latest technology developed in the Industrial Revolution. Credit Mobilier: in Paris was the most famous company in helping build railroads with bank funds. Zollverein: 1834 a German tariff on non German imports established a free trade zone amongst member states. �Petite bourgeoisie�: a new class of factory owners emerged Proletariat: factory workers emerged as a new group in society and the fastest growing social class Friedrich Engels: (1820-1895) he lashed out at the middle class in �The Condition of the Working Class in England�. He is a future revolutionary and colleague of Carl Marx who believed the capitalist middles class was ruthless and exploited the Proletariat. Poorhouses: emerged to provide work for those who were unemployed and were often oppressive, and the major goal was to persuade workers to leave. Luddites: a violent group of irate workers who blamed Industrialism for threatening their jobs. Beginning in 1812 and continuing there after they attacked factories destroying new machines they believed were putting them out in northern England. Combination Acts: in 1799 parliament prohibited labor unions, this is a reaction to the fear of radicalism in the French Revolution, it was repealed in 1824. Robert Owen: (1771-1858) he organized the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union Chartists: a union movement that sought political democracy. They organized in the face of Owen�s National Trade Unions collapse and demanded that all men had the right to vote. Saddler Commission: investigation of working conditions to help improve conditions in factories. Factory Act of 1833: limited the work day for children 9-13 to 8 hours per day, 14-18 were limited to 12 hours per day, and prohibited hiring children under the age of 9, factory owners had to established schools. Child employment declines. Mines Act of 1842: women were forbidden to work in mines and children under 10 could not work there either. Manchester: center for textile manufacturing Irish Potato Famine: in 1845, 1846, 1848, and 1851 the potato crop failed in Ireland. Disease in the potato crop increased along with fever epidemics. At least 1.5 million people died. Age of Realpolitik Crimean War-failure of Concert of Europe because it was undermined by failure to cooperate during the Revolution of 1848 Florence Nightingale- "The Lady With the Lamp" for her tireless nursing of British soldiers during the Crimean War Second French Republic-established universal male suffrage Second French Empire-Napoleon III took control of government in coup d�Estat and became emperor in 1852 and restored universal suffrage Napoleon III- was emperor of France from 1852 to 1870. Elected president of the Second French Republic in 1848, he staged a coup d'etat in 1851 and reestablished the Empire Falloux Law- act granting legal status to independent secondary schools in France Liberal Empire- growing opposition after 1859 encouraged Napoleon III to make concessions to liberalism. In 1860-1861 he gave the legislature additional freedom and authority, and in 1868 he granted freedom of press and assembly Syllabus of Errors 1864- was a document issued by Holy See under Pope Pius IX on December 8, 1864, Feast of the Immaculate Conception Sardinia-Piedmont- name given to the possessions of the house of Savoy, when the island of Sardinia was awarded (by the Treaty of London) to Duke Victor Amadeus II of Savoy to compensate him for the loss of Sicily to Austria King Victor Emmanuel- was king of Italy from 1900 to 1946. He contributed to the liquidation of the Italian monarchy Count Cavour- was a leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification Il Risorgimento- was a liberal, nationalist newspaper founded in Turin 15 December 1847 by Count Camillo Benso di Cavour and Cesare Balbo Plombieres 1859-Cavour gained promise from Napoleon III that France would support a Sardinia Piedmont war with Austria Giuseppe Garibaldi, Red Shirts- Italian revolutionary and irregular general. Garibaldi began his long and varied career as a revolutionary striving for the liberation and unification of Italy by joining in Giuseppe Mazzini's unsuccessful insurrection at Genoa in 1834 Humiliation of Olmutz-1849 Austria blocked attempt of Frederick William IV of Prussia to unify Germany from above Zollverein-biggest source of tension between Prussia and Austria Kleindeutsh plan-united Germany with out Austria Otto von Bismarck- Iron Chancellor�, Prussian statesman, architect of German unity, and eventual elder statesman of Europe Gap theory-gained Bismarck favor with the king Blood and iron-only things could get done Prussian-Danish War, 1863-Germany and Austria defeat Denmark and take control of two provinces Austro-Prussian War, 1866-Bismark sought to localize war and make diplomatic preparations by negotiating non-interference with France, Italy, Russia Reichstag- House of Representatives, of the German empire Bundestag-lower house had republic elected by universal male suffrage Franco-Prussian War, 1870-71-Bismark boosted French diplomat that had been kicked out of Germany after asking William I not to intervene with succession to Spanish throne Em�s Dispatch-Bismarck sought to provoke war with France in order to unify Germany and annex Alsace and Lorraine Austro-Hungarian Empire-after Austro-Prussian was Austro government had to address national aspirations of ethnic groups Ausgleich, 1867-officially created Austro-Hungarian Empire Magyars-government not integrated due to differences among ethnic groups Age of Mass Politics "Age of Mass Politics�- Europe was transformed by several economic developments, including technological advancements in industrialization and the globalization of production, trade, and consumption. These developments affected Europe's demographics and further aggravated social tensions. German Empire - Established in 1871. Disrupted the balance of power. Kaiser Wilhelm I -served as the first German Emperor. Under the his leadership and Otto von Bismarck, Prussia achieved the unification of Germany and the establishment of the German Empire. Otto von Bismarck - Oversaw the unification of Germany. He practiced Realpolitik, which gained him the nickname "The Iron Chancellor". Bismarck held an important role in the German government and greatly influenced German and international politics both during and after his time of service. Reichstag - Lower house of the German Parliament elected by universal manhood suffrage, a concession to the liberals. Its consent was necessary for legislation. Bundestag - The parliament of Germany. Budesrat - Upper house of the German Parliament whose members were appointed by the rulers of the German states. Highly conservative. Junkers - The landed nobility of Prussia and eastern Germany. Kulturkampf - A campaign against the Roman Catholics of Germany. Catholic Center Party - Comprised of German Catholics. Anti-Bismarck. Social Democratic Party (S.D.P.) - Advocated both socialism and the establishment of a republic. Appealed to industrial workers. Wilhelm II - Succeeded the throne after the death of Frederick III. He dismissed Bismarck. Third French Republic - Established by French radicals Paris Commune - a government that briefly ruled Paris. It existed before the split between anarchists and socialists and is hailed by both groups as the first assumption of power by the working class. Adolphe Thiers - Urged early peace negotiations between France and Prussia during the Franco-Prussian war. He helped start the Revolution of 1830. Chamber of Deputies - the legislative assembly of the French Parliament, elected by universal suffrage. Jules Ferry - associated with the non-clerical organization of public education and the beginning of the colonial expansion of France. Boulanger Crisis - A popular minister of war, General Georges Boulanger was involved in a scandal involving a plot about overthrowing the French government. He later killed himself over his mistress's grave. Dreyfus Affair - Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jew, was accused of sending secret information to the Germans. It was revealed some key documents used by the prosecution against Dreyfus were forgeries. A conflict developed between the Dreyfusards, who supported Dreyfus and the anti-Dreyfusards, who insisted Dreyfus was guilty. Emile Zola, �J�accuse!� - A Dreyfusard who published a newspaper article entitled "J'Accuse". Zola charged the army with forging the evidence that convicted Dreyfus and deliberately suppressing evidence that would vindicate him. Jean Juar�s - a French Socialist leader. Lord Palmerston - Interventionalist best remembered for his direction of British foreign policy through a period when Britain was at the height of its power, serving terms as both Foreign Secretary and Prime Minister. Conservative Party - Comprised of Tories. Benjamin Disraeli - Conservative party leader in the House of Commons. He decided to push for the adoption of a new reform bill before the liberals did. Liberal Party - Comprised of Whigs. William Gladstone - Liberal part leader in the House of Commons. He supported laissez-faire and opposed state intervention in economic affairs. Reform Bill of 1867, �Leap in the dark� - Redistributed seats in the House of Commons. Also established almost universal male suffrage. Reform Act of 1884 - Extended the right to vote to most farm workers. Fabian Society - Advocated general approach to socialism, with the ultimate objective of establishing public ownership of the means of production and distribution. Kier Hardie - Led the Independent Labor Party. Independent Labor Party - a socialist political party in Britain. Parliament Act of 1911 - Called for a budget calling for tax increases to support the new programs of social insurance and naval expansion. Also advocated less power of the House of Lords. Millicent Garrett Fawcett - campaigned to improve women's opportunities for higher education. She later became president of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (the NUWSS). Emmeline Pankhurst - Advocated suffrage for women. Representation of the People Act, 1918 - This act was the first to lead to an inclusion of women in the political system. It is also known as the Qualification of Women Act �Irish Question� - A phrase used by members of the British parliament used to describe Irish nationalism and the calls for Irish independence. Young Ireland - a movement which revolutionized the way Irish nationalism was perceived as a political force in Irish society. Irish Home Rule - The Irish demand their own parliament. Ulster - Protestant counties of Northern Ireland. Easter Rebellion - Armed uprising of Irish nationalists against the rule of Great Britain in Ireland. �Eastern Question� - encompasses the diplomatic and political problems posed by the decay of the Ottoman Empire. �Sick Man of Europe� - a nickname associated with a European country experiencing a time of economic difficulty and/or poverty. Pan-Slavism - grew from the sense of unity and Russian nationalism. Jingoism - extreme patriotism in the form of aggressive foreign policy. Congress of Berlin, 1878 - a meeting of the European Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire. In the Russo-Turkish War, the meeting's aim was to reorganize the countries of the Balkans. Socialist Revisionism - used to refer to various ideas, principles and theories that are based on a significant revision of fundamental Marxist premises. Eduard Bernstein - the founder of evolutionary socialism or reformism. Anarchy - Spun off from the socialist movement. Sought to destroy the centralized state. Mikhail Bakunin - Russia's most influential anarchist. Alexander II- Passes the Emancipation Act of 1861. He initialized industrialization in Russia. Later killed by radicals who blew up his carriage in St. Petersburg. Emancipation Act, 1861 - Abolishes serfdom. Mirs - Communes that housed most Russians after the Emancipation Act of 1861. They were regulated with collective ownership, paving the way towards communism in Russia. Zemstvos - Russia's first experiment in representative government. A system of elected rural assemblies issued in 1864 after the emancipation of the serfs. Intelligentsia - well-educated members of the population who lead the people as scholars, teachers, clergy, engineers, and who guide for the reason of higher enlightenment. Count Sergei Witte - highly influential policy-maker who presided over extensive industrialization in the Russian Empire. Alexander III - Tsar of Russia. German sympathizer who advocated anti-Semitism. Pogroms - A socialist movement which encouraged anti-Semitism. It involved a severe persecution of Jews. Theodore Herzl, Zionism - Advocated a Jewish homeland in the holy land as a solution to Jewish persecution. Nicholas II - His reign saw Russia go from being one of the foremost great powers of the world to an economic and military disaster. Critics nicknamed him Bloody Nicholas. Russo-Japanese War - After the Russians established influence in Manchuria, they sought influence in Korea. Russia's humiliating defeat led to a refocus on the Balkans. �Bloody Sunday� - In January 1905, Russian peasants marched to the winter palace. The local army fires at the peasants in cold blood. Revolution of 1905 - The poor economy brought on by the Russo-Japanese War led to a demand for reform. Duma - A representative assembly in Russia. Gregorii Vasputin - Discredit the tsarist government which led to the fall of the Romanov dynasty in Russia Imperialism �Old Imperialism�: seizing land and settling it with the conqueror�s people or establishing trading centers to exploit the resources of the dominated area �New Imperialism�: investing capital in a less industrialized nation to develop it�s industries and employ many natives transforming the local economy and culture Dr. David Livingston: believed that the British government should act to eliminate the slave trade in Africa H. M. Stanley: a journalist and explorer who made an expedition into the Congo on behalf of Leopold II of Belgium; made �treaties� with the local rulers who were ignorant of the documents meaning Social Darwinism: life is a struggle with the stronger surviving at the expense of the weaker �White Man�s Burden�: belief of Social Darwinists that the advanced white race had an obligation to civilize the less developed peoples of the world Rudyard Kipling: �Scramble for Africa�: 1870-1900; European powers sought to maximize their control of African territory Belgian Congo: land drained by the Congo River that was taken under control by Leopold II of Belgium under false �humanitarian� pretenses Leopold II: constitutional monarch of Belgium who wished to expand Belgium�s economic might through colonization; specifically in the Congo Egypt protectorate: by trying to modernize the country Egypt fell into national debt to European creditors; Egypt went bankrupt and Britain bought up most of it�s debt and established Egypt as a protectorate Berlin Conference: 1884-1885; Sudan: object of Anglo-French colonial dispute in 1898 Battle of Omdurman: Muslims led by Mahdi were defeated by Horatio Kitchener in Sudan General Horatio H. Kitchener: advanced an army into Sudan and defeated Muslim armies there Fashoda Incident: high tensions on the verge of war between France and Britain when armies encountered each other at Fashoda on the Nile; France yielded to Britain Cecil Rhodes: central figure of British imperialism in South Africa Cape Colony: fertile land rich in resources that Britain gained from the Netherlands after the Napoleonic Wars; a segregated land in which �colored� people were oppressed and denied the right to vote for decades Boer War: a rebellion in South Africa by farmers that was crushed by Britain but ultimately embarrassed them Kruger Telegram: Emperor William II of Germany congratulated President Paul Kruger on his success in turning back the Jameson Raid Algeria: land in Northern Africa conquered by France Ethiopia: an abortive attempt by Italy to establish a colony led to Ethiopia maintaining it�s independence Opium Wars: China resisted British importation of opium into China; Britain went to war with China and annexed Hong Kong and forced them to open ports to foreign trade Treaty of Nanking: ended the first Opium War �Spheres of Influence�: special commercial and legal privileges without direct political involvement Sino-Japanese War: 1894-1895; Japan attacked China and easily defeated them, China ceded Taiwan to Japan and recognized independence or Korea and allowing Japan access to Manchuria British East India Company: joint stock company in England that gained military and political influence Robert Clive: established the military and political supremacy of the British East India Company; secure India Sepoy Mutiny: 1857-1858; India rebellion against Britain that led to Britain�s reorganization of the Indian economy and government Indian National Congress: founded by Hindu Indians with the goals of modernizing Indian life and liberalizing British policy Indochina: Southeastern Asia which was the target of imperialist colonialization Boxer Rebellion: intensifying anti-foreign feeling in China led to a rebellion which killed nearly two hundred foreign missionaries and civilians Russo-Japanese War: Japan easily defeated Russia who had been creating �spheres of influence� in northern Manchuria Karl Marx, Das Kapital: points out Marx�s views on the inadequacies of capitalism J. A. Hobson: �Imperialism is the monopoly stage of capitalism�� competition leads to monopoly; powerful industrial and financial capitalists soon run out of profitable areas of investment in their own countries and thus attempt to gain �less developed� countries World War 1 TRIPLE ALLIANCE- A military alliance between Germany Austria and Italy That lasted from 1882 until 1914 (start of WW1) RUSSIAN-GERMAN REINSURANCE TREATY- Bismarck�� "!s attempt to keep the rally with Russian after the league of the three emperors broke down. Germany and Russia- agree to be neutral if the other should be a war with a third country. (t have to be neutral if Germany attacks France or Russia attacks Austria-Hungary. SPLENDID ISOLATION�� S- Foreign policy pursued by Britain in the 19th century under conservative Benjamin Disraeli and the Marquees de Salisbury. Historians debate whether the policy was intentional or if Britain just fell victim to its surroundings. ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE- Declaration of neutrality if either Japan or Britain went to war. And a promise of support if either Japan or Britain becomes involved in a war with more than one front. ENTENTE CORDIAL- A series of agreements signed between France and the United Kingdom. This marked the end of many years of conflict between the two. ANGLO-GERMAN ARMS RACE- the naval race between Britain and Germany. Both went to battleship building programs. TRIPLE ENTENTE- Loose alignment between Britain, France and Russia.� BERTHA VON SUTTNER, LAY OWN YOUR ARMS- Austrian Novelist and pacifist. She is the first woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize. DREADNOUGHTS- Predominate 20th century battleship. KRUGER TELEGRAM- A message sent from Germany meant to start a raid. It was meant to trigger an uprising by British workers. 65 raiders were killed. ALGECIRAS CONFERENCE- Meant to find an issue to the First Moroccan Crisis between France and Germany. SECOND MOROCCAN CRISIS, 1911- Germany wanted to Break up the Triple Entente and take a piece of Morocco for themselves. SICK MAN OF EUROPE- Ottoman Empire. Tsar Nicholas I of Russia. PAN-SLAVISM- movement in the mid 19th century aimed at unifying Slavic peoples. YOUNG TURKS- A coalition of various groups favoring reformation of the administration of the Ottoman Empire. FIRST BALKAN CRISIS (BOSNIAN CRISIS)- Bulgaria declared its independence on Oct 5th. 1908. Hungary announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In April 1909 the Treaty of Berlin was accepted and the crisis was over. SECOND BALKAN WAR, 1912- June 16th 1913 when Bulgaria attacked its allies Serbia and Greece. ARCHDUKE FRANZ FERDINAND- Prince Imperial of� Austria and Royal Prince of Hungary. PRINCIP, BLACK HAND- Unification or Death. Founded in the Kingdom of Serbia. A Pan-Slavist movement with the intention of uniting all South Slav countries annexed by Austria-Hungary. KAISER WILHELM II- Ruled both German Empire and Kingdom of Prussia. From June 15th 1888 to Nov. 9th 1918. CENTRAL POWERS ALLIES- Germany , Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey: one of the sides in WWI WESTERN FRONT- Contested armed frontier. Between lands controlled by Germany to the East and allies to the West. SCHIEFFEN PLAN- The goal was to Defeat France before Russia was ready to use al of its forces. (6 weeks) BATTLE OF THE MARNE, 1914- The First Battle of the Marne was conducted between 6-12 September 1914, with the outcome bringing to an end the war of movement that had dominated the First World War since the beginning of August. TRENCH WARFARE- a form of warfare where both combatants have fortified positions and fighting lines are static. BATTLE OF VERDUN, 1916- Critical Battle in WWI on the western front. Fought between German and French armies. French won. BATTLE OF THE SOMME, 1916- also known as the Somme Offensive, fought from July to November in 1916, was one of the biggest battles in WW1. More than 1.5 million casualties, very bloody. The Allied forces tried to break through the German lines. One purpose of the battle was to draw German forces away from the Battle of Verdun; however, by its end, the losses on the Somme had exceeded those at Verdun. By the end of the war, the Allied losses proved replaceable, the German losses less so. ERICH REMARQUE, ALL QUIET ON THE FRONT, 1929- One of the most influential war books ever published. From the point of view of a young infantry soldier. NEW WEAPONS- Bayonets Chiefly used as a psychological weapon �Flamethrowers How 'sheets of flame' terrorized the British in 1915 �Grenades Mills Bombs and Jam Pots: both forms of grenades �Machine Guns How the German Army saw its potential before 1914 �Pistols The officer's weapon �Poison Gas First used by the French and popularized by the Germans �Rifles Still the infantry's greatest asset �Tanks The design and use of tanks during wartime �Trench Mortars An ancient weapon given fresh life in the trenches EASTERN FRONT- The stage for the war on primarily the EASTERN FRONT. IT is a contrast to Europe�� "!s western front in WW1. GENERALS HINDERBURG AND LUDENDORFF- HINDERBURG- German field marshal and statesman. LUDENDORFF-� A talented military strategist, Ludendorff's early success in World War One were obscured by Germany's defeat TREATY OF BREST-LITOVSK,1917- A peace treaty between Russia and The Central Powers. Marked Russia�� "!s exit of WW1. GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN, 1915- took place at Gallipoli peninsula in Turkey from 25 April 1915 to 9 January 1916, during WW1. A joint British Empire and French operation was mounted to capture the Ottoman capital of Istanbul and secure a sea route to Russia. The attempt failed and lots of people died. T.E.LAWRENCE (LAWRENCE OF ARABIA)- British Military liaison to the Arab Revolt during the First World War. U-BOATS- undersea boat LUSITANIA- RMS Lusitania was a Lusitania-Class British luxury ocean liner owned by the Cunard Line and built by John Brown and Company UNRESTRICTED SUBMARINE WARFARE- naval warfare in which submarines sink merchant ships without warning, as opposed to attacks per prize regulations ARCHANGEL EXPEDITION, 1918- Joint Allied operation 1918�� 19 to stabilize the Eastern Front following the Russian Revolution and safeguard the large concentration of military stores which had been sent to Archangel and other Western military interests in the area. TOTAL WAR GEORGES CLEMENCEAU- Prime minister of France from 1906-1909 a d again in 1917-1920 He led France in the final year in WW1. He was one of the major voices behind the Treaty of Versailles. ITALIA IRREDENTA (UNREDEEMED ITALY)- Italian nationalist Irredentist movement that aimed to complete the unification of all ethnically Italian peoples. ZIMMERMAN TELEGRAM-� secret communication from German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmerman to the German Minister to Mexico, von Eckhart. It contained an offer of US territory for Mexico, if it joined the German cause. BALFOUR NOTE, 1917- was a letter from British Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour, addressed November 2, 1917, that outlined the British policy for partitioning the Ottoman Empire. WOODROW WILSON- 28th President of the United States. FOURTEEN POINTS- 14 Points 1.Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view. 2.Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants. 3.The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance. 4.Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety. 5.A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined. 6.The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and freest cooperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the independent determination of her own political development and national policy and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their good will, of their comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their own interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy. 7.Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as this will serve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set and determined for the government of their relations with one another. Without this healing act the whole structure and validity of international law is forever impaired. 8.All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored, and the wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years, should be righted, in order that peace may once more be made secure in the interest of all. 9.A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality. 10.The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development. 11.Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea; and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determined by friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegiance and nationality; and international guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan states should be entered into. 12.The Turkish portion of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce of all nations under international guarantees. 13.An independent Polish state should be erected which should include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international covenant. 14.A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike. SELF-DETERMINATION- Woodrow Wilson revived the American commitment to self-determination, at least for European states, during World War I. When the Bolsheviks came to power in Russia in November 1917, they called for Russia�� "!s immediate withdrawal as a member of the Allies of World War I. They also supported the right of all nations, including colonies, to self-determination. MEUSE-ARGONNE OFFENSIVE, 1918- a part of the final Allied offensive of World War I that stretched along the entire western front. The whole offensive was planned by Marshall Ferdinand Foch to breach the Hindenburg line and ultimately force the opposing German forces to capitulate. PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE, 1919-� The Paris Peace Conference was the meeting of the Allied victors in World War I to set the peace terms for Germany and other defeated nations, and to deal with the empires of the defeated powers following the Armistice of 1918. It took place in Paris in 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 30 countries. They met in an attempt to form a lasting peace throughout the world FOUR- Woodrow Wilson of the United States, David Lloyd George of Britain, Vittorio Orlando of Italy, and Georges Clemenceau of France. VERSAILLES TREATY- one of the peace treaties at the end of WW1. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, ARTICLE 231- Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (1919) is commonly known as the Guilt Clause or the "War Guilt Clause", in which Germany was forced to take complete responsibility for starting World War I. �"The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies." LEAGUE OF NATIONS- an inter-governmental organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919�� 1920. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The League's goals included upholding the new found Rights of Man, disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving global quality of life. JOHN MAYNARD KENYES, THE ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF THE PEACE, 1919- published by John Maynard Keynes. Keynes attended the Versailles Conference as a delegate of the British Treasury and argued for a much more generous peace. It was a best seller throughout the world and was critical in establishing a general opinion that the Versailles Treaty was a "Carthaginian peace". EASTER REBELLION, 1916- republican insurrection in Ireland against British government there, which began on Easter Monday, April 24, 1916, in Dublin Russian Revolution Alexander I of Russia(1777 � 1825), also known as Alexander the Blessed served as Emperor of Russia from 1801 to 1825 and Ruler of Poland from 1815 to 1825, as well as the first Russian Grand Duke of Finland. Holy Alliance was a coalition of Russia, Austria and Prussia created in 1815 at the behest of Tsar Alexander I of Russia, signed by the three powers in Vienna on September 26, 1815. Decembrist uprising took place in Imperial Russia on 14 December (26 December New Style),�1825. Russian army officers led about 3,000 soldiers in a protest against Nicholas I's assumption of the throne after his elder brother Constantine removed himself from the line of succession. Nicholas I ( 1796 �1855), was the Emperor of Russia from 1825 until 1855, known as one of the most reactionary of the Russian monarchs. On the eve of his death, the Russian Empire reached its historical zenith spanning over 20 million square kilometres. He was also King of Poland until his deposition in 1831. Slavophilia is an intellectual movement originating from 19th century that wanted the Russian Empire to be developed upon values and institutions derived from its early history. Slavophiles were especially opposed to Western European culture and its influences in Russia. Westernizers were a group of 19th century intellectuals who believed that Russia's development depended upon the adoption of Western European technology and liberal government. In their view, western Ideas such as industrialisation needed to be implemented throughout Russia in order to make it a more successful country. In Russian such people were known as the Zapadniks. Alexander II (1818�1881 in St. Petersburg), also known as Alexander the Liberator was the Emperor of the Russian Empire from 3 March 1855 until his assassination in 1881. He was also the Grand Duke of Finland and the King of Poland . The Emancipation Act was issued by the Russian Emperor Alexander II on March 3, 1861. By this act all peasants, or serfs, were set free from personal dependence on their landlords, acquired civil rights, and were granted participation in social and economic activities as free citizens. Mir was a Soviet (and later Russian) orbital station. Mir was the world's first consistently inhabited long-term research station in space, and the first 'third generation' type space station, constructed over a number of years with a modular design. Zemstvo (Russian: 5<AB2>) was a form of local government instituted during the great liberal reforms performed in Imperial Russia by Alexander II of Russia. The idea of zemstvo was elaborated by Nikolay Milyutin, and the first zemstvo laws were promulgated in 1864. After the October Revolution of 1917, the zemstvo system was shut down. Anarchy "No rulership or enforced authority." Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin (1814 - 1876) was a well-known Russian revolutionary and theorist of collectivist anarchism Alexander III Alexandrovich (1845 �1894), also known as Alexander the Peacemaker reigned as Emperor of Russia from 13 March 1881 until his death in 1894. Orthodoxy, Autocracy and Nationality was the guiding principle of public education in the Russian Empire, proposed by Russian Minister of Education Count Sergey Uvarov in his report to Nicholas I of Russia. The policy was adopted by Nicholas I in 1833. Critics of the policy saw this principle as a call for Russification. pogrom is a form of riot directed against a particular group, whether ethnic, religious, or other, and characterized by the killing and destruction of their homes, businesses, and religious centers. The term was originally used to denote extensive violence against Jews Theodor Herzl (1860�-1904) was an Austro-Hungarian journalist and the father of modern political Zionism. Count Sergei Yulyevich Witte (1849 - 1915), also known as Sergius Witte, was a highly influential policy-maker who presided over extensive industrialization within the Russian Empire. He served under the last two emperors of Russia. He was also the author of the October Manifesto of 1905, a precursor to Russia's first constitution, and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) of the Russian Empire. Nicholas II (1868 �1918) was the last Tsar of Russia, Grand Duke of Finland, and claimed the title of King of Poland.His official title was Nicholas II, Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russiasand he is currently regarded as Saint Nicholas the Passion Bearer by the Russian Orthodox Church. Russo-Japanese (1904 �1905) or the Manchurian Campaign in some English sources, was a conflict that grew out of the imperialist goals of the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan over Korea, as well as the Chinese province of Manchuria . The major theatres of operations were Southern Manchuria, specifically the area around the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden, and the seas around Korea, Japan, and the Yellow Sea The Treaty of Portsmouth formally ended the 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War. It was signed on September 5, 1905 after negotiations at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard near Portsmouth, New Hampshire in the United States. Bloody Sunday is the term used to describe an incident in Derry,Northern Ireland, on 30 January 1972 in which 27 civil rights protesters were shot by members of the 1st Battalion of the British Parachute Regiment during a Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association march in the Bogside area of the city.Thirteen people, seven of whom were teenagers, died immediately, while the death of another person 4� months later has been attributed to the injuries he received on the day. Two protesters were injured when they were run down by army vehicles.Many witnesses, including bystanders and journalists, testify that all those shot were unarmed. Five of those wounded were shot in the back. The 1905 Russian Revolution was a wave of mass political unrest through vast areas of the Russian Empire. Some of it was directed against the government, while some was undirected. It included terrorism, worker strikes, peasant unrests, and military mutinies. It led to the establishment of the limited constitutional monarchy, the establishment of State Duma of the Russian Empire, the multi-party system and the Russian Constitution of 1906. October Manifesto was issued on October 17, 1905 (October 30 in the Gregorian calendar) by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia under the influence of Count Sergei Witte as a response to the Russian Revolution of 1905. Duma is any of various representative assemblies in modern Russia and Russian history. The State Duma in the Russian Empire and Russian Federation corresponds to the lower house of the parliament. Simply it is a form of Russian governmental institution, that was formed after the last Czar, Nicholas II. It is also the term for a council to early Russian rulers ('Boyar Duma'), as well as for city councils in Imperial Russia ('Municipal dumas'), and city and regional legislative bodies in the Russian Federation. Pyotr Arkadyevich Stolypin (1862��1911) served as Nicholas II's Chairman of the Council of Ministers�the Prime Minister of Russia�from 1906 to 1911. His tenure was marked by efforts to repress revolutionary groups, as well as for the institution of noteworthy agrarian reforms. Stolypin hoped, through his reforms, to stem peasant unrest by creating a class of market-oriented smallholding landowners. He is often cited as one of the last major statesmen of Imperial Russia with a clearly defined political programme and determination to undertake major reforms. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870 - 1924), born Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov and commonly known by the names V.I. Lenin or simply Lenin, was a Russian revolutionary, Bolshevik communist politician, principal leader of the October Revolution and the first head of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, better known as the Soviet Union. In 1998, he was named by Time magazine as one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century.His contributions to Marxist theory are commonly referred to as Leninism. Mensheviks (Minority) were a faction of the Russian revolutionary movement that emerged in 1903 after a dispute between Vladimir Lenin and Julius Martov, both members of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party. Bolsheviks, originally alsoBolshevists were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903 and ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Leon Trotsky (1879 �1940), born Lev Davidovich Bronstein was a Bolshevik revolutionary and Marxist theorist. He was one of the leaders of the Russian October Revolution, second only to Lenin. During the early days of the Soviet Union, he served first as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and later as the founder and commander of the Red Army and People's Commissar of War. He was also among the first members of the Politburo. February Revolution of 1917 was the first of two revolutions in Russia in 1917. It occurred March 8�12 (February 24�28 Old Style) and its immediate result was the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II, the collapse of Imperial Russia and the end of the Romanov dynasty. The non-Communist Russian Provisional Government under Prince Georgy Lvov replaced the Tsar. After the tumult of the July Days, Lvov was succeeded by Alexander Kerensky. The Provisional Government was an alliance between liberals and socialists who wanted to instigate political reform, creating a democratically-elected executive and constituent assembly. Rasputin 1869��1916) was a Russian mystic who is perceived as having influenced the later days of the Russian Tsar Nicholas II, his wife the Tsaritsa Alexandra, and their only son the Tsarevich Alexei. Rasputin had often been called the "Mad Monk",while others considered him a "strannik" (or religious pilgrim) and even a starets (AB0@5F, "elder", a title usually reserved for monk-confessors), believing him to be a psychic and faith healer. Provisional Government was the short-lived administrative body which sought to govern Russia immediately following the abdication of Czar Nicholas II in February 1917. It is also sometimes known as the "Kerensky Government" after its most prominent leader. It lasted approximately eight months, and ceased to exist after power in Russia was seized by the Bolsheviks in October of 1917. Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky 1881��1970) served as the second Prime Minister of the Russian Provisional Government until Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, known commonly as Lenin, was elected by the All-Russian Congress of Soviets following the October Revolution. Petrograd Soviet, was the soviet (workers' council) in Petrograd (Saint Petersburg), Russia established in March 1917 after the February Revolution as the representative body of the city's workers.The Petrograd Soviet became important during the Russian Revolution leading up to the October Revolution as a rival power center to the Provisional Government. Order Number 1 was issued March 1, 1917 (O.S.) and was the first official decree of The Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. April were a series of directives by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin issued upon his return to Petrograd (Saint Petersburg), Russia from his exile in Switzerland. The Theses were mostly aimed at fellow Bolsheviks in Russia and returning to Russia from exile. He called for soviets (workers' councils) to take power (as seen in the slogan "all power to the soviets"), denounced liberals and social democrats in the Provisional Government, called for Bolsheviks not to cooperate with the government, and called for new communist policies. The April Theses influenced the July Days and October Revolution in the next months and are identified with Leninism. Kornilov Affair was a struggle between the Commander-in-Chief of the Russian army, General Lavr Kornilov, and Aleksandr Kerensky in August and September of 1917 between the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the October Revolution. Kerensky was later to claim that the affair was a turning point in the revolution in the sudden revival--and eventual triumph--of the Bolsheviks October Revolution also known as the Soviet Revolution or Bolshevik Revolution, was a revolution and a part of the Russian Revolution�that began with an armed insurrection in Petrograd traditionally dated to 25 October 1917 Julian calendar (7 November 1917 Gregorian calendar). It was the second phase of the overall Russian Revolution of 1917, after the February Revolution of the same year. The October Revolution overthrew the Russian Provisional Government and gave the power to the Soviets dominated by Bolsheviks. It was followed by the Russian Civil War (1917�1922) and the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922. Politburo, from German Politb�ro, short for Political Bureau, Russian Politicheskoye Buro, is the executive committee for a number of political parties, most notably those of communists The Red Army was the armed force first organized by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War in 1918 and, in 1922, became the army of the Soviet Union. Cheka was the first of a succession of Soviet state security organizations. It was created by a decree issued on December 20, 1917, by Vladimir Lenin and subsequently led by an aristocrat turned communist Felix Dzerzhinsky. communist party includes those that advocate the application of the social principles of communism through a communist form of government. 1922, the Cheka underwent a series of reorganizations. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918, at Brest-Litovsk (now Brest, Belarus) between the Russian SFSR and the Central Powers, marking Russia's exit from World War I. Russian Civil War (1917�1921) was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed and the Bolshevik party assumed power in Petrograd (St. Petersburg).The Bolshevik party later became known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR). Reds is the Bolsheviks Whites is the Mensheviks War communism was the economic and political system that existed in the Soviet Russia during the Russian Civil War, from 1918 to 1921. According to Soviet historiography, this policy was adopted by the Bolsheviks with the aim of keeping towns and the Red Army supplied with weapons and food, in conditions when all normal economic mechanisms and relations were being destroyed by the war. "War communism", which began in June 1918, was enforced by the Supreme Economic Council, known as the Vesenkha. It ended on March 21, 1921 with the beginning of the NEP (New Economic Policy), which lasted until 1928. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. Age of Anxiety Terms to Know � Age of Anxiety Friedrich Nietzsche - a nineteenth-century German philosopher and classical philologist Henri Bergson - a major French philosopher, influential in the first half of the 20th century Georges Sorel, syndicalism - a French philosopher and theorist of revolutionary syndicalism, a type of economic system proposed as a replacement for capitalism and state socialism which utilizes federations of collectivist trade unions Sigmund Freud, �ID� - an Austrian psychiatrist who founded the psychoanalytic school of psychology, Freud was an early user and proponent of cocaine Paul Valery - a French poet, essayist, and philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein - an Austrian-British philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language Logical empiricism (logical positivism) - a school of philosophy that combines empiricism, the idea that observational evidence is indispensable for knowledge of the world, with a version of rationalism incorporating mathematical and logico-linguistic constructs and deductions in epistemology Oswald Spenger, Decline of the West - The book includes the idea of Muslims, Jews and Christians, as well as their Persian and Semitic forebears, the modern Westerners being Faustian, His description of the Faustian civilization is where the populace constantly strives for the unattainable�making the western man a proud but tragic figure, for while he strives and creates he secretly knows the actual goal will never be reached. T. S. Eliot, �The Waste Land� - a revolutionary, highly influential 434-line modernist poem by T. S. Eliot - despite the alleged obscurity of the poem � its shifts between satire and prophecy Erich Maria Remarque: All Quiet on the Western Front - a novel written by Erich Maria Remarque, a German veteran of World War I. The book shows the war's horrors and also the deep detachment from German civilian life felt by many men returning from the front Franz Kafka - one of the major fiction writers of the 20th century, His unique body of writing�much of which is incomplete and which was mainly published posthumously�is considered to be among the most influential in Western literature existentialism - a term that has been applied to the work of a number of nineteenth and twentieth century philosophers who took the human subject as a starting point for philosophical thought John-Paul Sartre - a French existentialist philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary critic, one of the leading figures in 20th century French philosophy Albert Camus - a French Algerian author, philosopher, and journalist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1957 George Orwell, 1984 - an English author, his work is marked by a profound consciousness of social injustice, an intense opposition to totalitarianism �New Physics� - ? Max Planck - a German physicist. He is considered to be the founder of the quantum theory, and one of the most important physicists of the twentieth century Albert Einstein, theory of relativity - two theories of Albert Einstein: 1. Special relativity is a theory of the structure of spacetime, in Albert Einstein's 1905 paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies�, 2. General relativity is a theory of gravitation Ernest Rutherford - a New Zealand chemist who became known as the father of nuclear physics Werner Heisenberg - a German theoretical physicist who made foundational contributions to quantum mechanics and is best known for asserting the uncertainty principle of quantum theory Bauhaus movement, Walter Gropius - Students were taught to use modern and innovative materials and mass-produced fittings, often originally intended for industrial settings, to create original furniture and buildings Pablo Picasso, Guernica - depicting the bombing of Guernica, Spain, by twenty-eight German bombers, on April 26, 1937 during the Spanish Civil War Wassily Kandinsky - a Russian painter, printmaker and art theorist. One of the most famous 20th-century artists, he is credited with painting the first modern abstract works Dadaism - a cultural movement that began in Z�rich, Switzerland, during World War I and peaked from 1916 to 1922. The movement primarily involved visual arts, literature�poetry, art manifestoes, art theory�theater, and graphic design, and concentrated its anti-war politics Surrealism - a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s, and is best known for the visual artworks and writings of the group members Salvador Dali - a Spanish Catalan surrealist painter born in Figueres, a skilled draftsman, best known for the striking and bizarre images in his surrealist work Igor Stravinsky - a Russian-born composer, pianist, and conductor, considered by many to be one of the most important and influential composers of 20th century music Arnold Schonberg - an Austrian and later American composer, associated with the expressionist movement in German poetry and art, and leader of the Second Viennese School Democratic Politics 1920�s Weimar Republic - Democratic and republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933. Social Democratic Party (S.D.P.) - Germany's oldest political party, founded in 1863. Spartacists - Left-wing Marxist revolutionary movement organized in Germany during and just after the politically volatile years of World War I. Freikorps - originally applied to voluntary armies formed in German lands from the middle of 18th century onwards. After World War I the term was used for the paramilitary organizations that sprang up around Weimar Germany and fought against enemies of the state, both internal and external. Treaty of Versailles - One of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers, signed on 28 June 1919. Article 231- The �Guilt Clause� or the "War Guilt Clause", in which Germany was forced to take complete responsibility for starting World War I. John Maynard Keynes - British economist whose ideas have had a major impact on modern economic and political theory as well as on many governments' fiscal policies. He advocated interventionist government policy, by which the government would use fiscal and monetary measures to mitigate the adverse effects of economic recessions, depressions and booms. His ideas are the basis for the school of thought known as Keynesian economics. �Stab in the back�; �diktat� � People used to war to further their own goals from a weakened Germany. Ruhr Crisis (1923) - He Occupation of the Ruhr between 1923 and 1924, by troops from France and Belgium, was a response to the failure of the German Weimar Republic under Cuno to pay reparations in the aftermath of World War I. Reparations � Money Germany was to pay to the allied forces for the cost of the WW1. Raymond Poincare - French conservative statesman who served as Prime Minister of France on five separate occasions and as President of France from 1913 to 1920. Gustave Stresemann - German liberal politician and statesman who served as Chancellor and Foreign Minister during the Weimar Republic. Beer Hall Putsch (1923) - failed attempt at revolution that occurred between the evening of Thursday, November 8, and the early afternoon of Friday, November 9, 1923, when Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler, Generalquartiermeister Erich Ludendorff, and other heads of the Kampfbund unsuccessfully tried to gain power in Munich, Bavaria, and Germany. Dawes Plan - was an attempt following World War I for the Allies to collect war reparations debt from Germany. Locarno Pact - ere seven agreements negotiated at Locarno, Switzerland on 5 October � 16 October 1925 and formally signed in London on December 1, in which the World War I Western European Allied powers and the new states of central and Eastern Europe sought to secure the post-war territorial settlement, in return normalizing relations with defeated Germany. Kellogg-Briand pact (1928) - Multilateral pact against war open for all nations to become signatories. Representation of the People Act (1928) - Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. This act expanded on the act of the same name of a decade earlier. It widened suffrage by giving women electoral equality with men - women were now able to vote from the age of 21. Prior to this act only women over 30 who met minimum property qualifications could vote. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kellogg-briand_pact" \l "cite_note-0" \o "" General Strike (1926) - lasted ten days, from 3 May 1926 to 13 May 1926. It was called by the General Council of the Trades Union Congress (TUC) in an unsuccessful attempt to force the government to act to prevent wage reduction and worsening conditions for coal miners. Labor Party - grew out of the trade union movement and socialist political parties of the 19th century. �Irish Question� � Who should rule over Ireland, Ireland of the British. Sinn Fein - major party of Irish republicanism and its political ideology is left wing. Irish Republican Army - Irish republican revolutionary military organization descended from the Irish Volunteers, established 25 November 1913 and who in April 1916 staged the Easter Rising. Stock market crash (1929) � Led to the Great Depression. Great Depression - Worldwide economic downturn starting in most places in 1929 and ending at different times in the 1930s or early 1940s for different countries. New Deal - the name that United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave to a complex package of economic programs he initiated between 1933 and 1935 with the goal of giving relief to the unemployed, reform of business and financial practices, and promoting recovery of the economy during The Great Depression. Keynsian Economics - a macroeconomic theory based on the ideas of 20th-century British economist John Maynard Keynes. Keynesian economics argues that private sector decisions sometimes lead to inefficient macroeconomic outcomes and therefore advocates active policy responses by the public sector, including monetary policy actions by the central bank and fiscal policy actions by the government to stabilize output over the business cycle. Popular Front - in response to the growing threat of fascism in the 1930s, Communist parties that were members of the Comintern (then largely under the control of Joseph Stalin) adopted a policy of forming broad alliances with almost any political party willing to oppose the fascists. Totalitarianism � 1. Totalitarianism- concept used to describe HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_systems" \o "Political systems" political systems whereby a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state" \o "Sovereign state" state regulates nearly every aspect of public and private life. Totalitarian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regimes" \o "Regimes" regimes or movements maintain themselves in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_power" \o "Political power" political power by means of an official all-embracing HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideology" \o "Ideology" ideology and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda" \o "Propaganda" propaganda disseminated through the state-controlled HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media" \o "Mass media" mass media, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-party_state" \o "Single-party state" a single party that controls the state, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_cult" \o "Personality cult" personality cults, control over the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy" \o "Economy" economy, regulation and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restriction" \o "Restriction" restriction of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" \o "Freedom of speech" free discussion and criticism, the use of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_surveillance" \o "Mass surveillance" mass surveillance, and widespread use of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_terrorism" \o "State terrorism" state terrorism. 2. Conservative authoritarianism- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_of_government" \o "Form of government" form of government characterized by an emphasis on the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority" \o "Authority" authority of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State" \o "State" state in a republic or union. It is a political system controlled by nonelected rulers who usually permit some degree of individual freedom. With conservative views. 3. communism- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioeconomic" \o "Socioeconomic" socioeconomic structure and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_ideologies" \o "List of political ideologies" political ideology that promotes the establishment of an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianism" \o "Egalitarianism" egalitarian, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classlessness" \o "Classlessness" classless, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stateless_society" \o "Stateless society" stateless society based on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_ownership" \o "Common ownership" common ownership and control of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Means_of_production" \o "Means of production" means of production and property in general. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism" \l "cite_note-0#cite_note-0" \o "" [1] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism" \l "cite_note-columbia-1#cite_note-columbia-1" \o "" [2] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism" \l "cite_note-encarta-2#cite_note-encarta-2" \o "" [3] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx" \o "Karl Marx" Karl Marx posited that communism would be the final stage in human society, which would be achieved through a proletarian revolution. "Pure communism" in the Marxian sense refers to a classless, stateless and oppression-free society where decisions on what to produce and what policies to pursue are made HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy" \o "Direct democracy" democratically, allowing every member of society to participate in the decision-making process in both the political and economic spheres of life. 4. Fascism- a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_radicalism" \o "Political radicalism" radical and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarianism" \o "Authoritarianism" authoritarian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalism" \o "Nationalism" nationalist political ideology.Fascism is also a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporatism" \o "Corporatism" corporatist economic ideology Fascists advocate the creation of a state. Fascists believe that nations and races are in perpetual conflict whereby only the strong can survive by being healthy, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism" \o "Vitalism" vital, and by asserting themselves in combat against the weak. Fascist governments forbid and suppress criticism and opposition to the government and the fascist movement Fascism opposes HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_conflict" \o "Class conflict" class conflict and blames HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism" \o "Capitalism" capitalist HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_democracy" \o "Liberal democracy" liberal democracies for creating class conflict and in turn blames HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism" \o "Communism" communists for exploiting class conflict. No common and concise definition exists for fascism and historians and political scientists often disagree on what a concise definition would consist of. 5. Vladimir Lenin- a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians" \o "Russians" Russian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary" \o "Revolutionary" revolutionary, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik" \o "Bolshevik" Bolshevik HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism" \o "Communism" communist politician, principal leader of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_Revolution" \o "October Revolution" October Revolution and the first head of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, better known as the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" \o "Soviet Union" Soviet Union 6. Marxist-Leninist philosophy- a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist" \o "Communist" communist HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideology" \o "Ideology" ideological stream that emerged as the mainstream tendency among the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_parties" \o "Communist parties" Communist parties in the 1920s as it was adopted as the ideological foundation of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_International" \o "Communist International" Communist International during HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalin" \o "Stalin" Stalin's era. 7. Comintern- was an international HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism" \o "Communism" Communist organization founded in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow" \o "Moscow" Moscow in March 1919. The International intended to fight "by all available means, including armed force, for the overthrow of the international bourgeoisie and for the creation of an international Soviet republic as a transition stage to the complete abolition of the State." The Comintern was founded after the dissolution of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_International" \o "Second International" Second International in 1916, following the 1915 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimmerwald_Conference" \o "Zimmerwald Conference" Zimmerwald Conference in which HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" \o "Vladimir Lenin" Vladimir Lenin had led the " HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimmerwald_Left" \o "Zimmerwald Left" Zimmerwald Left" against those who supported the " HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_government" \o "National government" national union" governments in war with each other. 8. War communism- was the economic and political system that existed in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Russia" \o "Soviet Russia" Soviet Russia during the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" \o "Russian Civil War" Russian Civil War, from 1918 to 1921. According to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_historiography" \o "Soviet historiography" Soviet historiography, this policy was adopted by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik" \o "Bolshevik" Bolsheviks with the aim of keeping HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town" \o "Town" towns and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army" \o "Red Army" Red Army supplied with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weapon" \o "Weapon" weapons and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food" \o "Food" food, in conditions when all normal economic mechanisms and relations were being destroyed by the war. "War communism", which began in June 1918, was enforced by the Supreme Economic Council, known as the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesenkha" \o "Vesenkha" Vesenkha. It ended on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_21" \o "March 21" March 21, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1921" \o "1921" 1921 with the beginning of the NEP ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" \o "New Economic Policy" New Economic Policy), which lasted until 1928. 9. Cheka- was the first of a succession of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" \o "Soviet Union" Soviet HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_security" \o "State security" state security organizations. It was created by a decree issued on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_20" \o "December 20" December 20, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1917" \o "1917" 1917, by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" \o "Vladimir Lenin" Vladimir Lenin and subsequently led by an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocrat" \o "Aristocrat" aristocrat turned HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist" \o "Communist" communist HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_Dzerzhinsky" \o "Felix Dzerzhinsky" Felix Dzerzhinsky. After 1922, the Cheka underwent HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_Soviet_secret_police_agencies" \o "Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies" a series of reorganizations. From its founding, the Cheka was an important military and security arm of the Bolshevik communist government. In 1921 the Troops for the Internal Defense of the Republic (a branch of the Cheka) numbered 200,000. These troops policed HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_camps" \o "Labor camps" labor camps, ran the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" \o "Gulag" Gulag system, conducted HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodrazvyorstka" \o "Prodrazvyorstka" requisitions of food, liquidated political opponents (on both the right and the left), put down peasant rebellions, riots by workers, and mutinies in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army" \o "Red Army" Red Army, which was plagued by desertions 10.Kronstadt rebellion- was an unsuccessful HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebellion" \o "Rebellion" uprising of Soviet sailors, soldiers and civilians led by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepan_Petrichenko" \o "Stepan Petrichenko" Stepan Petrichenko against the government of the early HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_SFSR" \o "Russian SFSR" Russian SFSR in March 1921 during a period of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left-wing_uprisings_against_the_Bolsheviks" \o "Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks" left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks. 11. New economic policy (NEP)- was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_policy" \o "Economic policy" economic policy proposed by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" \o "Vladimir Lenin" Vladimir Lenin to prevent the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_economy" \o "Russian economy" Russian economy from collapsing. Allowing some private ventures, the NEP allowed HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_businesses" \o "Small businesses" small businesses to reopen for private profit while the state continued to control banks, foreign trade, and large industries. It was officially decided in the course of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10th_Congress_of_the_RCP(b)" \o "10th Congress of the RCP(b)" 10th Congress of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" \o "Communist Party of the Soviet Union" All-Russian Communist Party. It was promulgated by decree on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_21" \o "March 21" March 21, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1921" \o "1921" 1921, "On the Replacement of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodrazvyorstka" \o "Prodrazvyorstka" Prodrazvyorstka by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodnalog" \o "Prodnalog" Prodnalog" (i.e., on the replacement of foodstuffs requisitions by fixed foodstuffs HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax" \o "Tax" tax). In essence, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decree" \o "Decree" decree required the farmers to give the government a specified amount of raw agricultural product as a tax in kind. Further HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decrees" \o "Decrees" decrees refined the policy and expanded it to include some industries 12. USSR- was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" \o "Constitution of the Soviet Union" constitutionally HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_state" \o "Socialist state" socialist state that existed in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasia" \o "Eurasia" Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language" \o "Russian language" Russian 13. Joseph Stalin- was of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" \o "General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union" General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" \o "Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union" Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. In the years following HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" \o "Vladimir Lenin" Lenin's death in 1924, he rose to become the leader the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" \o "Soviet Union" Soviet Union. 14. Socialism in one country- was a thesis developed by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Bukharin" \o "Nikolai Bukharin" Nikolai Bukharin in 1925 and adopted as state policy by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" \o "Joseph Stalin" Joseph Stalin. The thesis held that given the defeat of all HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_revolution" \o "Communist revolution" communist revolutions in Europe from 1917�1921 except HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_Revolution" \o "October Revolution" in Russia, the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" \o "Soviet Union" Soviet Union should begin to strengthen itself internally. Though promoted at the time as an ideology of necessity, not core belief, the theory came to define the course of political construction within the Soviet Union throughout its history 15. Leon Trotsky- was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik" \o "Bolshevik" Bolshevik revolutionary and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism" \o "Marxism" Marxist theorist. He was one of the leaders of the Russian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_Revolution" \o "October Revolution" October Revolution, second only to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenin" \o "Lenin" Lenin. During the early days of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" \o "Soviet Union" Soviet Union, he served first as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Commissar" \o "People's Commissar" People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and later as the founder and commander of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army" \o "Red Army" Red Army and People's Commissar of War. He was also among the first members of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politburo_of_the_CPSU_Central_Committee" \o "Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee" Politburo 16. Five year plans- were a series of nation-wide centralized exercises in rapid HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_development" \o "Economic development" economic development in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" \o "Soviet Union" Soviet Union. The plans were developed by the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gosplan" \o "Gosplan" Gosplan based on the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Productive_Forces" \o "Theory of Productive Forces" Theory of Productive Forces that was part of the general guidelines of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" \o "Communist Party of the Soviet Union" Communist Party for economic development. Fulfilling the plan became the watchword of Soviet HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureaucracy" \o "Bureaucracy" bureaucracy 17. Collectivization- Collective farming was sweepingly introduced in the 12 core republics of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" \o "Soviet Union" Soviet Union between 1928 and 1933. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_states" \o "Baltic states" Baltic states and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe" \o "Eastern Europe" East European countries adopted collective farming after HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" \o "World War II" World War II, with the accession of communist regimes to power. In Asia (People's Republic of China, North Korea, North and South Vietnam) the adoption of collective farming was also driven by communist government policies. In all communist countries, the transition to collective farming involved an element of persuasion by force, and the collective farms in these countries, lacking the principle of voluntary membership, can be regarded at best as pseudo-cooperatives 18. Kulaks- were a category of relatively affluent peasants in the later HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire" \o "Russian Empire" Russian Empire, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Russia" \o "Soviet Russia" Soviet Russia, and early HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" \o "Soviet Union" Soviet Union. The word kulak originally referred to independent farmers in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire" \o "Russian Empire" Russian Empire who emerged as a result of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stolypin_reform" \o "Stolypin reform" Stolypin reform which began in 1906. The Stolypin reform created a new class of landowners who were allowed to acquire for credit a plot of land from the large estate owners, and the credit (a kind of mortgage loan) was to be repaid from farm work. In 1912, 16% of peasants (up from 11% in 1903) had relatively large endowments of over 8 acres (3.2 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hectare" \o "Hectare" hectares) per male family member (a threshold used in statistics to distinguish between middle-class and prosperous farmers, i.e., kulaks). At that time an average farmer's family had 6 to 10 children 19. Central Committee- most commonly refers to the central executive unit of a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leninist" \o "Leninist" Leninist (commonly also HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trotskyist" \o "Trotskyist" Trotskyist) or HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_party" \o "Communist party" Communist party, whether ruling or non-ruling. In a Communist party, the Central Committee is made up of delegates elected at a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_Congress" \o "Party Congress" Party Congress. In those Communist parties historically ruling around a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist-Leninist" \o "Marxist-Leninist" Marxist-Leninist HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_state" \o "Socialist state" state, the Central Committee makes decisions for the party between congresses, and usually is responsible for electing the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politburo" \o "Politburo" Politburo. In non-ruling Communist parties, the Central Committee is usually understood by the party membership to be the ultimate decision-making HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority" \o "Authority" authority between Congresses once the process of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_centralism" \o "Democratic centralism" democratic centralism has led to an agreed-upon position 20. Politburo- from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language" \o "German language" German Politb�ro, short for Political Bureau, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language" \o "Russian language" Russian Politicheskoye Buro, is the executive committee for a number of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_parties" \o "Political parties" political parties, most notably those of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party" \o "Communist Party" communists 21. General secretary- The official title of the de-facto leader of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" \o "Soviet Union" Soviet Union was the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" \o "General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union" General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" \o "Joseph Stalin" Joseph Stalin is known to be the first to elevate the position from the former meaning to the latter. For a time the position was known as the First Secretary. See HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" \o "List of leaders of the Soviet Union" List of leaders of the Soviet Union for other bearers of these titles 22. Great terror- was a series of campaigns of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_repression" \o "Political repression" political repression and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution" \o "Persecution" persecution in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" \o "Soviet Union" Soviet Union orchestrated by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" \o "Joseph Stalin" Joseph Stalin in 1936-1938. Also described as a "Soviet holocaust" by several authors it involved the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purge_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" \o "Purge of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union" purge of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, repression of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulaks" \o "Kulaks" peasants, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army" \o "Red Army" Red Army leadership, and the persecution of unaffiliated persons, characterized by widespread police surveillance, widespread suspicion of "saboteurs", imprisonment, and executions. According to the archive data in 1937-38 the number of death sentences was 681,692 and many more died in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GULAG" \o "GULAG" GULAG labour camps 23. Show trials- are a pejorative description of a type of highly HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_trial" \o "Public trial" public trial. The term was first recorded in the 1930s. There is a strong connotation that the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judicial" \o "Judicial" judicial authorities have already determined the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guilt" \o "Guilt" guilt of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defendant" \o "Defendant" defendant and that the actual trial has as its only goal to present the accusation and the verdict to the public as an impressive example and as a warning. Show trials tend to be HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retributive_justice" \o "Retributive justice" retributive rather than HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrections" \o "Corrections" correctional HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice" \o "Justice" justice 24. Old Bolsheviks- is an unofficial designation for members of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik" \o "Bolshevik" Bolshevik party before the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917" \o "Russian Revolution of 1917" Russian Revolution of 1917, many of whom were either tried and executed by the NKVD during Stalin's purges or died under suspicious circumstances 25. Purges- were a series of campaigns of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_repression" \o "Political repression" political repression and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution" \o "Persecution" persecution in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" \o "Soviet Union" Soviet Union orchestrated by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" \o "Joseph Stalin" Joseph Stalin in 1936-1938. Also described as a "Soviet holocaust" by several authors, it involved the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purge_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" \o "Purge of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union" purge of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, repression of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulaks" \o "Kulaks" peasants, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army" \o "Red Army" Red Army leadership, and the persecution of unaffiliated persons, characterized by widespread police surveillance, widespread suspicion of "saboteurs", imprisonment, and executions. According to the archive data in 1937-38 the number of death sentences was 681,692 and many more died in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GULAG" \o "GULAG" GULAG labour camps 26. Gulag- The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labour camps of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" \o "Soviet Union" Soviet Union. Gulag is the Russian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acronym" \o "Acronym" acronym for The Chief Administration of Corrective Labor Camps and Colonies 27. Benito Mussolini- was an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" \o "Italy" Italian HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politician" \o "Politician" politician who led the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Fascist_Party" \o "National Fascist Party" National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism" \o "Fascism" Fascism. He became the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" \o "Prime Minister of Italy" Prime Minister of Italy in 1922 and began using the title HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duce" \o "Duce" Il Duce by 1925. After 1936, his official title was "His Excellency Benito Mussolini, Head of Government, Duce of Fascism, and Founder of the Empire" Mussolini also created and held the supreme military rank of First Marshal of the Empire along with King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, which gave him and the King joint supreme control over the military of Italy. Mussolini remained in power until he was replaced in 1943; for a short period after this until his death he was the leader of the Italian Social Republic 28. Fascist party- was an Italian party, created by Benito Mussolini as the political expression of fascism. The party ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under an authoritarian system Black Shirts -- Fascist paramilitary groups in Italy during the period immediately following World War I and until the end of World War II. � March on Rome -- a coup d'etat by which Italian dictator Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party came to power in the Kingdom of Italy. The march took place from October 27 to October 29, 1922.� Corporate State -- a political culture which is a form of corporatism whose adherents hold that the corporate group which is the basis of society is the state. most commonly manifests itself as a ruling party acting as a mediator between the workers.� Lateran Pact -- concordat between the Holy See and the kingdom of Italy signed in 1929 � � Vatican -- city-state that came into existence in 1929� Weimar Republic -- the democratic and republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933. 1933 is usually seen as the end of the Weimar Republic and the beginning of Hitler's "Third Reich"� Nazism -- the ideology and practices of the National Socialist German Workers� Party under Adolf Hitler. combination of various ideologies and philosophys which centered around nationalism, anti-communism, traditionalism and the importance of the ethnostate.� Aryan Race -- The Aryan race is a concept in European culture that was influential in the period of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. National Socialist German Worker Party -- group associated with the holocaust. Led by Adolf Hitler.� Beer Hall Putsch-- failed attempt at revolution� Mein Kampf, 1923 -- book by Adolf Hitler began the dictation of the book while imprisoned.� Lebensraum -- major motivation for Nazi Germany's territorial aggression.� Fuhrer -- leader or guide in the German language� Great Depression -- Unemployment soared. Hitler's Nazi Party came to power in January 1933.� Third Reich -- Germany between 1933 and 1945. refers to the state as the successor to the Holy Roman Empire of the Middle Ages and the German Empire of 1871�1918.� Reichstag Fire -- arson attack on the Reichstag building in Berlin on February 27 1933. fire started in the Session Chamber.� Josheph Goebbels -- German politician and Reich Minister of Propaganda in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. Adolf Hitler's closest associates and most devout followers.� Leni Riefenstal, Triumph of the Will -- a propaganda film made at the 1934 Nuremberg congress of the Nazi Party.� �Night of Long Knives� -- a series of political executions Attacked members of the S.A.� S.S. -- Nazi paramilitary force.� Heinrich Himmler -- German politician head of the SS. � Gestapo -- Secret State Police. sister organisation organization of the Sicherheitsdienst.� Hitler Youth -- Organization set up by Adolf Hitler in 1933 for educating and training male youths aged 13 � 18 in Nazi principles. Under the leadership of Baldur von Schirach.� � Nuremberg Laws -- racist and antisemitic laws in Nazi Germany.� Kristallnacht -- the Night of Broken Glass. anti-Jewish pogrom in Nazi Germany on November 9�10, 1938. Holocaust, �Final Solution� -- the genocide of approximately six million European Jews during World War II. state-sponsored extermination planned and executed by Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler. World War II Treaty of Versailles- The peace settlement with Germany under which the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine are given back to France, Germany lost two minor territories of Belgium and Denmark in addition to losing much of its eastern territory to the newly formed Poland. Article 231- Subsection of the Treaty of Versailles stating that Germany and its allies accepted the responsibility for causing the war thus giving justification for requiring Germany to pay reparations to the Allies. League of Nations- An association of states that would replace traditional power politics with a commitment to use peaceful means in the resolution of international disputes. Locarno Pact, 1925- Agreement between France, Germany, and Great Britain under which Germany and France promised to respect their mutual frontiers, and in addition, the Germans agreed to accept the permanent demilitarization of Rhineland. Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928- Treaty signed by some sixty nations pledging to renounce war as an instrument of national policy. Manchuria, 1931- Event occurring in September of 1931 in which Japan invaded Manchuria and China appealed to the League of Nations who then condemned Japan. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations and eventually took over Manchuria proving the League of Nation�s lack of ability to take action against aggression. Ethiopia, 1935- On October, 1935 Mussolini invaded Ethiopia looking for revenge for its defeat in the Battle of the Adowa in 1896. The League of Nations once again showed its weakness to ensue effective action against aggression. Spanish Civil War- In July 1936, a civil war broke out in Spain caused by a Left-Right Conflict. Francisco Franco- Leader of the rebel Nationalists who led a revolt in the Spanish Civil War against the Republic. Rome-Berlin Axis- a study of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_Powers" \o "Axis Powers" Axis alliance of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)" \o "Kingdom of Italy (1861�1946)" Fascist Italy and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany" \o "Nazi Germany" Nazi Germany with particular emphasis on the relationship between HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" \o "Benito Mussolini" Benito Mussolini and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" \o "Adolf Hitler" Adolf Hitler. Rhineland, 1935- In March 1935, Hitler flouted the disarmament clause of the Treaty of Versailles when he reintroduced military conscription and proclaimed the existence of a German air force in Rhineland. Appeasement- The Anglo-French policy of making concessions to Germany in the 1930s to avoid a crisis that would lead to war. Pacifism- The belief that disputes between nations should and can be settled peacefully. Anschluss, 1938- the 1938 incorporation of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria" \o "Austria" Austria into HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fdeutschland" \o "Gro�deutschland" Greater Germany by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany" \o "Nazi Germany" Nazi Germany. Sudetenland- In April 1938, the pro-Nazi Sudeten German party, led by Konrad Henlein, issued the Karlsbad Program, demanding autonomy for Sudetenland. Munich Conference- Meeting of many powerful nations in Munich, Germany which included France and Britain who faced the choice of either sacrificing Czechoslovakia or risking war. They decided to sacrifice Czechoslovakia to avoid war with Germany that happened inevitably later. 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7h5�h4-5�BCJOJQJ\�^JaJmH phsH h5�h4-CJOJQJ^JaJ,h5�h4-0JCJOJQJ^JaJmH sH (h5�h4-CJOJQJ^JaJmH sH 1jh5�h4-CJOJQJU^JaJmH sH 1h5�h4-BCJOJQJ^JaJmH phsH D�E�J�K�m�p��ڕە���+�5�6�C�D��?�@�G�H�X�Y��Зї��Ƕǝ�h��h��h��h��h�,h5�h4-0JCJOJQJ^JaJmH sH :jh5�h4-BCJOJQJU^JaJmH phsH 1h5�h4-BCJOJQJ^JaJmH phsH h5�h4-CJOJQJ^JaJ4h5�h4-BCJOJQJ]�^JaJmH phsH :h5�h4-5�BCJOJQJ\�]�^JaJmH phsH '��.�/�6�7�e�Ę5�6�P�W�j�z��Ԛ��w��<�O��ߩߐÐ�j�j�jQ�j�???#h5�h4-5�CJOJQJ^JaJ1h5�h BCJOJQJ^JaJmH phsH (h5�h4-CJOJQJ^JaJmH sH h5�h4-CJOJQJ^JaJ1h5�h4-BCJOJQJ^JaJmH phsH 2h5�h4-0J6�CJOJQJ]�^JaJmH sH 7h5�h4-6�BCJOJQJ]�^JaJmH phsH @jh5�h4-6�BCJOJQJU]�^JaJmH phsH O�8�H��˝ޝ�� !�K��ˠ�!�^�i��%��ʣ��+�E��ޤ�:�J��.�=��W�X�d�e��ݴ��ݠ�&h5�h4-5�>CJOJQJ^JaJ&h5�h 5�>CJOJQJ^JaJ)h5�h4-5�6�CJOJQJ]�^JaJ&h5�h4-5�CJOJQJ\�^JaJ#h5�h4-5�CJOJQJ^JaJ h5�h4-CJOJQJ^JaJ6��ˠ��!�^�i�� %�{��+�E�f��gd4- ��̤ޤ��:�J��.�?�Z��X�e�r�L��g��]�� & F gd $a$gd gd4-e�o�~��ƮǮԮծٮڮK�L�Y�Z�_�`��?�@�P�Q�V�W��S�e��ǲȲβϲ#�$�3�4�8�9��ĵ��)h5�h BCJOJQJ^JaJph8h5�h 0J>BCJOJQJ^JaJmH ph�sH 1jh5�h CJOJQJU^JaJmH sH (h5�h CJOJQJ^JaJmH sH h5�h CJOJQJ^JaJ7��~��T��)�?�ĵô�� l��K��+�{�4�˿s��2�� & F gd Polish Corridor, Danzig- In April of 1939 Hitler began to make preparations for an attack on Poland. He made demands he believed Poland would not accept to in order to sperm the outbreak of war. German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact- A secret agreement under which in the event of war between Germany and Poland, the soviets would receive eastern Poland and a sphere of influence in Eastern Europe in return for their neutrality. Invasion of Poland- On September 1, 1939 Germany invades Poland starting World War II. Blitzkrieg- The German tactic early in World War II of employing fast-moving, massed armored columns supported by airpower to overwhelm the enemy. Fall of France- On June 5, the battle of France begins and they are forced to sign a armistice with Germany on June 22. Vichy France- New government established under the terms of the armistice signed with Germany. Charles de Gaulle- French general, who on the eve of the French surrender, went to London where he established the Free French Movement. Tripartite Pact, 1940- was a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pact" \o "Pact" pact signed in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin" \o "Berlin" Berlin, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" \o "Germany" Germany on September 27, 1940 by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saburo_Kurusu" \o "Saburo Kurusu" Saburo Kurusu of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japan" \o "Imperial Japan" Japan, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" \o "Adolf Hitler" Adolf Hitler of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany" \o "Nazi Germany" Germany, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galeazzo_Ciano" \o "Galeazzo Ciano" Galeazzo Ciano (foreign minister) of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)" \o "Kingdom of Italy (1861�1946)" Italy entering as a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_alliance" \o "Military alliance" military alliance and officially founding the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_Powers" \o "Axis Powers" Axis Powers. Battle of Britain: RAF vs. Luftwaffe- Air Battle between the German Air Force and the British Royal Air Force over possession of the air space over the English Channel. Radar- A method used for detecting distant objects and determining their position, velocity, or other characteristics by analysis of very high frequency radio waves reflected from their surfaces. �Lebensraum�- The Nazi plan to colonize and exploit the Slavic areas of Eastern Europe for the benefit of Germany. �Great Patriotic War of the Fatherland�- Another name for the Russo-German War. Atlantic Charter- Agreement between Britain and America that set broad principles in the spirit of Wilson�s Fourteen Points that provided a theoretical basis for the peace they sought. Lend-Lease- Authorization for the President to provide aid to any country whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States. Pearl Harbor- Event on December 7 1941, where the Japanese attacked the American naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, thus bringing the United States into World War II. Grand Alliance- Alliance of the United States, the Soviet Union, and Great Britain on the Eastern Front. Holocaust- The Nazi extermination of millions of European Jews between 1940 and 1945. Jewish Ghettos- Quarter of a city that where the Jews where kept in harsh conditions by the Nazis. Wannsee Conference- a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meeting" \o "Meeting" meeting of senior officials of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany" \o "Nazi Germany" Nazi German regime, held in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin" \o "Berlin" Berlin suburb of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wannsee" \o "Wannsee" Wannsee on 20 January 1942 to inform administrative leaders of Departments responsible for various policies relating to Jews. �Final Solution�- Another name for the Holocaust. Auschwitz- Concentration Camp in Austria known for killing more Jews than any other camp. El Alamein- Site of two major battles of WWII where the allied troops stopped the Germans from outflanking their position. Stalingrad- One of the Bloodiest battles of World War II that happened between Russia and Germany. D-Day- June 6, 1944, where American, British, and Canadian troops landed on Normandy commanded by General Eisenhower in which the second front was opened. Battle of the Bulge- Battle where the Americans are pushed back by the Germans in the Ardennes Forest. Hiroshima, Nagasaki- Site of the dropping of the Atomic Bomb on Japan that destroyed the city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. Tehran Conference, 1943- Meeting between Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin to discuss the plans for the Second Front in Western Europe. Yalta Conference, 1945- The most significant wartime conference of which the Soviets agree to enter the war against Japan. 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In Greek mythology, who rejected the nymph Echo who pined away until only her voice was left ?	ECHO (Ekho) - Boeotian Oread Nymph of Greek Mythology Echo (ekhô) Nymph Echo, Athenian red-figure hydria C4th B.C., British Museum EKHO (Echo) was an Oreiad-nymph of Mount Kithairon (Cithaeron) in Boiotia. The goddess Hera cursed her with just an echo for a voice as punishment for distracting her from the affairs of Zeus with her endless chatter. She was loved by the god Pan , and herself became enamoured of the boy Narkissos (Narcissus) . When the youth spurned her advances she wasted away, leaving nothing behind but an echoing voice. In ancient Greek vase painting Ekho was depicted as a winged nymph with her face shrouded in a veil. FAMILY OF ECHO IYNX (Suidas s.v. Iynx) ENCYCLOPEDIA ECHO (Êchô), an Oreade, who when Zeus was playing with the nymphs, used to keep Hera at a distance by incessantly talking to her. In this manner Hera was not able to detect her faithless husband, and the nymphs had time to escape. Hera, however, found out the deception, and she punished Echo by changing her into an echo, that is, a being with no control over its tongue, which is neither able to speak before anybody else has spoken, nor to be silent when somebody else has spoken. Echo in this state fell desperately in love with Narcissus, but as her love was not returned, she pined away in grief, so that in the end there remained of her nothing but her voice. (Ov. Met. iii. 365-401.) There were in Greece certain porticoes, called the Porticoes of Echo, on account of the echo which was heard there; thus, there was one stoa at Hermione with a threefold, and one at Olympia with a sevenfold echo. (Paus. ii. 35. § 6, v. 21. § 7.) Source: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. CLASSICAL LITERATURE QUOTES Echo, Narcissus and Anteros, Greco-Roman mosaic from Daphne C3rd A.D., Hatay Archaeology Museum Homeric Hymn 19 to Pan 1 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C7th to 4th B.C.) : "At evening, as he [Pan] returns from the chase, he sounds his note, playng sweet and low on his pipes of reed . . . At that hour the clear-voiced Nymphai (Nymphs) are with him and move with nimble feet, singing by some spring of dark water, while Ekho (Echo) wails about the mountain-top." Pindar, Olympian Ode 14. 20 ff (trans. Conway) (Greek lyric C5th B.C.) : "Then let Ekho (Echo) speed to Persephone's dark-walled dwelling [i.e. through the caverns of the earth], to his [deceased] father Kleodemos (Cleodemus) bearing the glorious tidings." Aristophanes, Thesmophoriazusae 970 (trans. O'Neill) (Greek comedy C5th to 4th B.C.) : "Bakkhos (Bacchus) [Dionysos], who delightest to mingle with the dear choruses of the Nymphai Oreiai (Mountain Nymphs), and who repeatest, while dancing with them, the sacred hymn, Euios, Euios, Euoi! Ekho (Echo), the Nymphe of Kithairon (Cithaeron), returns thy words, which resound beneath the dark vaults of the thick foliage and in the midst of the rocks of the forest; the ivy enlaces thy brow with its tendrils charged with flowers." Aristophanes, Thesmophoriazusae 1020 ff : "Ekho (Echo), thou who reignest in the inmost recesses of the caves." Aristophanes, Thesmophoriazusae 1060 ff : "I am Ekho (Echo), the Nymphe who repeats all she hears." Pausanias, Description of Greece 2. 35. 10 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) : "To the right of the sanctuary of Khthonia (Chthonia) [i.e. Demeter of the Earth, in the town of Hermione, Argos] is a portico, called by the natives the Portico of Ekho (Echo). It is such that if a man speaks it reverberates at least three times." Orphic Hymn 11 to Pan (trans. Taylor) (Greek hymns C3rd B.C. to 2nd A.D.) : "Thou [Pan] lovest the chase and Ekho's (Echo's) secret voice." Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 2. 11 (trans. Fairbanks) (Greek rhetorician C3rd A.D.) : "[From the description of an ancient Greek painting :] Boukoloi Nymphai (Bucolic Nymphs) have captured Pan. To teach him a lesson they have bound him with ropes and shorn off his beard and they say that they will persuade Ekho (Echo) to scorn him and no longer even to answer his call." Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 2. 17 : "[From a description of the hunt :] Dogs join men in an outcry, so that you might say that Ekho (Echo) herself joins in the revel of the hunt." Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 2. 33 : "[From the description of an ancient Greek painting :] In it [the shrine of Dodona] honour is paid to a bronze Ekho (Echo), whom I think you see placing her hand upon her lips, since a bronze vessel has been dedicated to Zeus at Dodona, that resounds most of the day and is not silent till someone takes hold of it." [N.B. The famous bronze gong of Dodona is personified in this painting as the Nymphe Ekho.] Callistratus, Descriptions 1 (trans. Fairbanks) (Greek rhetorician C4th A.D.) : "[From a description of a sculptural group :] There was a certain cave near Thebes in Egypt which resembled a shepherd's pipe . . . In it was set up an image of a Satyros (Satyr) wrought in marble . . . . [holding] a flute in his hand . . . Pan stood beside him, delighting in the music of the flute and embracing Ekho (Echo), in fear, I suppose, lest the flute set in motion some musical sound and induce the Nymphe to make an echoing response to the Satyros." Callistratus, Descriptions 9 : "There was in Aithiopia (Ethiopia) an image of Memnon, the son of Tithonos, made of marble; however stone though it was, it did not abide within its proper limits nor endure the silence imposed on it by nature, but stone though it was it had the power of speech. For at one time it saluted the rising Hemera (Day), by its voice giving token of its joy and expressing delight at the arrival of its mother; and again, as day declined to night, it uttered piteous and mournful groans in grief at her departure . . . The story runs that Ekho (Echo) answered this Memnon when it spoke, uttering a mournful note in response to its mournful lament and returning a mimicking sound in response to its expressions of joy." Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History Book 6 (summary from Photius, Myriobiblon 190) (trans. Pearse) (Greek mythographer C1st to C2nd A.D.) : "A son of Zeus and the Lamia called Akhilleus (Achilles) was of an irresistable beauty and like others was the object of a competition [with the goddess Aphrodite], he carried it then to the judgement of Pan. Aphrodite was irritated and placed in the heart of Pan the [unrequited] love of Ekho (Echo)." Ovid, Metamorphoses 3. 350 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "Cephisius [Narkissos (Narcissus)] now had reached his sixteenth year and seemed both man and boy; and many a youth and many a girl desired him, but hard pride ruled in that delicate frame, and never a youth and never a girl could touch his haughty heart. Once as he drove to nets the frightened deer a strange-voiced Nymphe observed him, who must speak if any other speak an cannot speak unless another speak, resounding Echo. Echo was still a body, not a voice, but talkative as now, and with the same power of speaking, only to repeat, as best she could, the last of many words, Saturnia [Hera] had made her so; for many a time when the great goddess might have caught the Nymphae (Nymphs) lying with Jove [Zeus] upon the mountainside, Echo discreetly kept her talking till the Nymphae had fled away; and when at last the goddess saw the truth, ‘Your tongue,’ she said, ‘with which you tricked me, now its power shall lose, your voice avail but fro the briefest use.’ The event confirmed the threat: when speaking ends, all she can do is double each last word, and echo back again the voice she's heard. Now when she saw Narcissus wandering in the green byways, Echo's heart was fired; and stealthily she followed, and the more she followed him, the nearer flamed her love. As when a torch is lit and from the tip the leaping sulphur grasps the offered flame. She longed to come to him with winning words, to urge soft please, but nature now opposed; she might not speak the first but--wheat she might--waited for words her voice could say again. It chanced Narcissus, searching for his friends, called ‘Anyone here?’ and Echo answered ‘Here!’ Amazed he looked all round and, raising his voice called ‘Come this way!’ and Echo called ‘This way!’ He looked behind and, no one coming, shouted ‘Why run away?’ and heard his words again. He stopped, and cheated by the answering voice, called ‘Join me here!’ and she, never more glad to give her answer, answered ‘Join me here!’ And graced her words and ran out from the wood to throw her longing arms around his neck. He bolted, shouting ‘Keep your arms from me! Be off! I’ll die before I yield to you.’ And all she answered was ‘I yield to you.’ Shamed and rejected in the woods she hides and has her dwelling in the lonely caves; yet still her love endures and grows on grief, and weeping vigils waste her frame away; her body shrivels, all its moisture dries; only her voice and bones are left; at last only her voice, her bones are turned to stone, so in the woods she hides and hills around, for all to hear, alive, but just a sound. Thus had Narcissus mocked her; others too, Nymphae (Nymphs) of Hill and Water and many a man he mocked; till one scorned youth, with raised hands, prayed, ‘So may he love-- and never win his love!’ And Rhamnusia [Nemesis] approved the righteous prayer . . . [and caused Narcissus to fall in love with his own reflection and waste away in grief.] No longer lasts the body Echo loved. But she, though angry still and unforgetting, grieved for the hapless boy, and when he moaned ‘Alas,’ with answering sob she moaned ‘alas,’ and when he beat his hands upon his breast, she gave again the same sad sound of woe. His latest words, gazing and gazing still, he sighed ‘alas! The boy I loved in vain!’ And these the place repeats, and then ‘farewell,’ and Echo said ‘farewell.’ On the green grass he drooped his weary head, and those bright eyes that loved their master’s beauty closed in death . . . His sister Naides (Naiads) wailed and sheared their locks in mourning for their brother; the Dryades (Dryads) too wailed and sad Echo wailed in answering woe. And then the brandished torches, bier and pyre were ready--but no body anywhere; and in its stead they found a flower--behold, white petals clustered round a cup of gold!" Seneca, Troades 107 ff (trans. Miller) (Roman tragedy C1st A.D.) : "[The Trojan women lament the fall of Troy :] O grief, put forth thy strength. Let the Rhoetean [Trojan] shores resound with our mourning, and let Echo, who dwells in the caves of the mountains, not, after her wont, curtly repeat our final words alone, but give back our full mourning for Troy." Apuleius, The Golden Ass 5. 25 ff (trans. Walsh) (Roman novel C2nd A.D.) : "The rustic god Pan chanced to be sitting at that moment on the brow of the stream, holding the mountain deity Echo in his arms, and teaching her to repeat after him all kinds of songs. Close by the bank nanny-goats were sporting as they grazed and cropped the river-foliage here and there." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 2. 92 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) : "[A laurel-nymphe speaks :] ‘I tremble at your lustful Pan, who will persecute me like Pitys, like Syrinx--I shall be chased myself until I become another Ekho (Echo), to scour the hills and second another's speech.’" Nonnus, Dionysiaca 6. 257 ff : "[During the Great Deluge :] The sea rose until Nereides became Oreiades (Oreads) on the hills over the woodland. O poor thing! Maid Ekho (Echo) had to swim with unpractised hands, and she felt a new fear for that old maiden zone--Pan she had escaped, but she might be caught by Poseidon!" Nonnus, Dionysiaca 8. 15 ff : "[Semele, pregnant with the god Dionysos, wanders across the mountainside :] Some old shepherd made melody with his panspipes, and she heard the tune repeated by countryloving Ekho (Echo) near . . . oft on some hillside pasture she sang with Pan in maddened voice, and played harmonious Ekho to him." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 15. 306 ff : "A pretty thing, your Pan piping the Paphian's [Aphrodite's] tune! Often he chanted Eros (Love), and never became Ekho's (Echo's) bridegroom." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 15. 370 ff : "Maiden Ekho (Echo) who hated marriage whimpered at the lot of [the shepherd] Hymnos perishing [by the hand of the nymphe he loved]." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 16. 356 ff : "[The nymph Nikaia (Nicaia), raped by Dionysos in her sleep, accuses the Nymphs of failing to warn her :] ‘Alas for maidenhead, stolen by that vagabond Bakkhos (Bacchus) [Dionysos]! . . . But Ekho (Echo) herself the enemy of the bed--why did not Ekho tell me the whole scheme?’" Nonnus, Dionysiaca 39. 125 ff : "[The army of Dionysos gathers for the Indian War :] The host-assembling syrinx mingled its piercing tones, and Pan's answering Ekho (Echo) came from the sea with faint warlike whispers instead of her rocky voice." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 42. 255 ff : "Sing first Daphne, sing the erratic course of Ekho (Echo), and the answering note of the goddess who never fails to speak, for these two despised the desire of gods." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 45. 174 ff : "Melodious Pan sat beside herds of goats or sheepcoates playing his tune on the assembled reeds . . . imitating Ekho (Echo) returned the sounds of his pipes . . . prattler as she was [whose] lips which were wont to sound with the pipe of Pan never silent." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 48. 489 ff : "I am like lovelorn Pan, when the girl flees me swift as the wind, and wanders, treading the wilderness with boot more agile than Ekho (Echo) never see! You are happy, Pan, much more than Bromios [Dionysos], for during your search you have found a physic for love in a mindbewitching voice. Ekho follows your tones and returns them, moving from place to place, and utters a sound of speaking like your voice." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 48. 640 ff : "Maiden Ekho (Echo) did not join in the mountain dance, but shamefast hid herself unapproachable under the foundations of the rock, that she might not behold the wedding of womanmad Dionysos." Suidas s.v. Haliplanktos (trans. Suda On Line) (Byzantine Greek lexicon C10th A.D.) : "Pan . . . is in love with Ekho (Echo)." Suidas s.v. Iynx : "Iynx : The daughter of Ekho (Echo) or some say Peitho (Persuasion)." ANCIENT GREEK & ROMAN ART	Narcissus
Which BBC current affairs programme, the longest-running in the world, is 60 years old this year ?	Echo - definition of echo by The Free Dictionary Echo - definition of echo by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/echo (ĕk′ō) n. Greek Mythology A nymph whose unrequited love for Narcissus caused her to pine away until only her voice remained. ech·o a. Repetition of a sound by reflection of sound waves from a surface. b. The sound produced in this manner. 2. A repetition or an imitation: a fashion that is an echo of an earlier style. 3. A remnant or vestige: found echoes of past civilizations while examining artifacts in the Middle East. 4. One who imitates another, as in opinions, speech, or dress. 5. A sympathetic response: Their demand for justice found an echo in communities across the nation. 6. A consequence or repercussion: Her resignation had echoes throughout the department. 7. Repetition of certain sounds or syllables in poetry, as in echo verse. 8. Music Soft repetition of a note or phrase. 9. Electronics A reflected wave received by a radio or radar. 10. An echocardiogram. v. ech·oed, ech·o·ing, ech·oes v.tr. 1. To repeat (a sound) by the reflection of sound waves from a surface. 2. To repeat or imitate: followers echoing the cries of their leader; events that echoed a previous incident in history. v.intr. 1. To be repeated by or as if by an echo: The shout echoed off the wall. The speaker's words echoed in her mind. 2. To resound with or as if with an echo; reverberate: rooms echoing with laughter. [Middle English, from Old French, from Latin ēchō, from Greek ēkhō.] ech′o·er n. ech′o·ey adj. Synonyms: echo, reflect, resound, reverberate These verbs mean to be repeated by the reflection of sound waves: a cry that echoed through the canyon; traffic noise reflecting off the buildings; a loud hammering that resounded through the tunnel; a final chord that reverberated in the concert hall. echo n, pl -oes 1. (General Physics) a. the reflection of sound or other radiation by a reflecting medium, esp a solid object b. the sound so reflected 2. a repetition or imitation, esp an unoriginal reproduction of another's opinions 3. something that evokes memories, esp of a particular style or era 4. (sometimes plural) an effect that continues after the original cause has disappeared; repercussion: the echoes of the French Revolution. 5. a person who copies another, esp one who obsequiously agrees with another's opinions 6. (Electronics) a. the signal reflected by a radar target b. the trace produced by such a signal on a radar screen 7. (Poetry) the repetition of certain sounds or syllables in a verse line 8. (Music, other) the quiet repetition of a musical phrase 9. (Instruments) Also called: echo organ or echo stop a manual or stop on an organ that controls a set of quiet pipes that give the illusion of sounding at a distance 10. (Music, other) an electronic effect in recorded music that adds vibration or resonance vb, -oes, -oing or -oed 11. to resound or cause to resound with an echo: the cave echoed their shouts. 12. (intr) (of sounds) to repeat or resound by echoes; reverberate 13. (tr) (of persons) to repeat (words, opinions, etc), in imitation, agreement, or flattery 14. (tr) (of things) to resemble or imitate (another style, earlier model, etc) 15. (Computer Science) (tr) (of a computer) to display (a character) on the screen of a visual display unit as a response to receiving that character from a keyboard entry [C14: via Latin from Greek ēkhō; related to Greek ēkhē sound] ˈechoing adj (ˈɛkəʊ) n (Astronautics) either of two US passive communications satellites, the first of which was launched in 1960 Echo (ˈɛkəʊ) n (Classical Myth & Legend) Greek myth a nymph who, spurned by Narcissus, pined away until only her voice remained Echo (Telecommunications) communications code word for the letter e ech•o n., pl. ech•oes, v. n. 1. a repetition of sound produced by the reflection of sound waves from a wall, mountain, or other obstructing surface. 2. a sound heard again near its source after being reflected. 3. any repetition or close imitation, as of the ideas or words of another. 4. a person who reflects or imitates another. 5. a sympathetic or identical response, as to sentiments expressed. 6. a lingering trace or effect. 7. (cap.) a mountain nymph who pined away for love of Narcissus until only her voice remained. 8. the reflection of a radio wave, as in radar. v.i. 9. to emit an echo; resound with an echo: The hall echoed with cheers. 10. to be repeated by or as if by an echo. v.t. 11. to repeat by or as if by an echo; emit an echo of. 12. to repeat or imitate the words, sentiments, etc., of (a person). 13. to repeat or imitate (words, sentiments, etc.). [1300–50; Middle English ecco < Latin ēchō < Greek, akin to ēchḗ sound] ech′o•er, n. ech·o (ĕk′ō) 1. A repeated sound that is caused by the reflection of sound waves from a surface. The sound is heard more than once because of the time difference between the initial production of the sound waves and their return from the reflecting surface. 2. A reflected radio wave. Echoes of radio waves are the basis for radar. echo I will have been echoing you will have been echoing he/she/it will have been echoing we will have been echoing you will have been echoing they will have been echoing Past Perfect Continuous Noun 1. echo - the repetition of a sound resulting from reflection of the sound waves; "she could hear echoes of her own footsteps" reflectivity , reflexion , reflection - the ability to reflect beams or rays re-echo - the echo of an echo 2. Echo - (Greek mythology) a nymph who was spurned by Narcissus and pined away until only her voice remained Greek mythology - the mythology of the ancient Greeks nymph - (classical mythology) a minor nature goddess usually depicted as a beautiful maiden; "the ancient Greeks believed that nymphs inhabited forests and bodies of water" 3. echo - a reply that repeats what has just been said reply , response - the speech act of continuing a conversational exchange; "he growled his reply" echolalia - an infant's repetition of sounds uttered by others 4. echo - a reflected television or radio or radar beam reflectivity , reflexion , reflection - the ability to reflect beams or rays electronics - the branch of physics that deals with the emission and effects of electrons and with the use of electronic devices 5. echo - a close parallel of a feeling, idea, style, etc.; "his contention contains more than an echo of Rousseau"; "Napoleon III was an echo of the mighty Emperor but an infinitely better man" analog , analogue , parallel - something having the property of being analogous to something else 6. echo - an imitation or repetition; "the flower arrangement was created as an echo of a client's still life" imitation - copying (or trying to copy) the actions of someone else Verb recite - repeat aloud from memory; "she recited a poem"; "The pupil recited his lesson for the day" cuckoo - repeat monotonously, like a cuckoo repeats his call reecho - repeat back like an echo parrot - repeat mindlessly; "The students parroted the teacher's words" regurgitate , reproduce - repeat after memorization; "For the exam, you must be able to regurgitate the information" let loose , let out , utter , emit - express audibly; utter sounds (not necessarily words); "She let out a big heavy sigh"; "He uttered strange sounds that nobody could understand" 2. sound , go - make a certain noise or sound; "She went `Mmmmm'"; "The gun went `bang'" consonate - sound in sympathy reecho - repeat or return an echo again or repeatedly; send (an echo) back reecho - echo repeatedly, echo again and again bong - ring loudly and deeply; "the big bell bonged" 3. resemble - appear like; be similar or bear a likeness to; "She resembles her mother very much"; "This paper resembles my own work" echo noun 1. reverberation , ringing , repetition , answer , resonance , resounding He heard nothing but the echoes of his own voice in the cave. 3. reminder , suggestion , trace , hint , recollection , vestige , evocation , intimation The accident has echoes of past disasters. verb 1. reverberate , repeat , resound , ring , resonate The distant crash of bombs echoes through the whole city. 2. recall , reflect , copy , mirror , resemble , reproduce , parrot , imitate , reiterate , ape Many phrases in the last chapter echo earlier passages. echo صَدى صَدَى يَرُدُّ الصَّدىيُعيدُ، يُرَدِّدُ eco his footsteps echoed in the street → se oía el eco de sus pasos or sus pasos resonaban en la calle the valley echoed with shouts → resonaban los gritos por el valle D. CPD echo chamber N (Rad, TV) → cámara f de resonancia echo sounder N → sonda f acústica echo to find an echo with sb (= resonate) → faire écho avec qn vt (= repeat) [+ words] → répéter to echo with a sound → retentir d'un son echo n → Echo nt, → Widerhall m; (fig) → Anklang m (→ of an +acc); (Comput: command) → Echo nt; he was cheered to the echo → er bekam brausenden or rauschenden Beifall vi (sounds) → widerhallen ; (room, footsteps) → hallen ; to echo with something → von etw widerhallen ; her words echoed in his ears → ihre Worte hallten ihm in den Ohren echo n → Hallraum m; (for electric guitar) → Nachhallerzeuger m echolocation 2. vi (sound) → echeggiare , riecheggiare the room echoed with their laughter → la stanza riecheggiava delle loro risate 3. vt → fare eco a, ripetere echo (ˈekəu) – plural ˈechoes – noun the repeating of a sound caused by its striking a surface and coming back. The children shouted loudly in the cave so that they could hear the echoes. eggo صَدى отзвук eco ozvěna das Echo ekko; genlyd ηχώ , α ντίλαλος eco kaja پژواک؛ انعکاس صدا kaiku écho הד प्रतिध्वनि jeka visszhang gema bergmál eco 反響 반향, 산울림, 반사파 aidas atbalss gema weerklank ekko , gjenlyd echo ږغ، دكمره پپرى، دپاڼ پپرى eco ecou эхо ozvena odmev odjek eko เสียงก้อง yankı 回聲 луна آواز کی گونج tiếng vang 回声 verb – past tense ˈechoed – 1. to send back an echo or echoes. The cave was echoing with shouts; The hills echoed his shout. weergalm يَرُدُّ الصَّدى ехо ecoar vracet, odrážet hallen ekkoe; give genlyd αντηχώ , αντιλαλώ hacer eco , resonar (vastu) kajama پژواک کردن؛ منعکس کردن صدا kaikua renvoyer לְהַדהֵד प्रतिध्वनि odjekivati visszhangzik menggemakan bergmála echeggiare , fare eco 反響する 반향하다, 울려퍼지다 (at)aidėti, atkartoti aidu atbalsot; atbalsoties bergema weerklinken kaste tilbake , gjenlyde rozbrzmiewać echem ږغ، دكمره پپرى، دپاڼ پپرى ecoar a răsuna отдаваться эхом ozývať sa odmevati odjekivati eka ทำเสียงก้อง yankılanmak 發出回聲 відбивати(ся) луною آواز کی گونج کو واپس کرنا vang lại 发出回声 2. to repeat (a sound or a statement). She always echoes her husband's opinion. weerklank, herhaal يُعيدُ، يُرَدِّدُ повтарям repetir papouškovat nachsprechen gentage επαναλαμβάνω repetir kajana kordama تکرار کردن؛ تقلید کردن toistaa faire écho à לַחֲזוֹר כְּהֵד प्रतिध्वनित करना odzvanjati visszhangoz membeo herma eftir; endurtaka ripetere くり返す 되풀이하다 kartoti atdarināt (skaņu); atkārtot (domu) ulang echoën gjenta , snakke etter munnen powtarzać za بيا ويل، تكرارول: بيا كول له ياده ويل repetir a repeta вторить opakovať ponavljati ponavljati upprepa som ett eko ซ้ำ ๆ tekrarlamak 重複 вторити, повторювати کسی کے قول کو دہرانا lặp lại 重复 echo	i don't know
The dung of which mammal is known as spraint ?	How to identify animal droppings \| Discover Wildlife Local Patch Reporters How to identify animal droppings Mammals are notoriously difficult to see. Often the only signs of their presence are the droppings left on footpaths, your lawn or your bird table. 14th July 2010 Having trouble identifying animal droppings? Download our FREE animal droppings ID guide. March is a good time to look for mammal faeces; new vegetation is yet to come through and many species are actively defending their territories. Identification is often based on smell and/or contents, but either use rubber gloves to handle faeces or small twigs to tease out the contents. Carnivores often use their faeces to mark out their territories, so these are often left in conspicuous places. DROPPINGS TO LOOK OUT FOR: Rabbit and hare Rabbits and hares do not ruminate, and their pellets consist of finely chewed fragments of grasses. Rabbit pellets often in ‘latrines’, where the pellets are generally darker. Hare pellets often difficult to tell from rabbit; generally larger (up to 1cm) and more flattened. More often found away from field edges. Fox Vary depending on what the fox has eaten. Like a small dog dropping, especially in urban areas where they eat a lot of meat, bread and bird seeds. Frequently twisted at one end, especially in rural areas where foxes eat more birds and mammals. When fresh, best distinguished by a very characteristic ‘foxy’ smell. Water vole and rat Water vole droppings are 8mm–12mm long, rounded at both ends, smooth, found near water, generally at latrine sites. Larger rodents produce similar droppings. Rat droppings are larger than those of water voles, average 12mm long, rough in texture, tapering to a point at one or both ends and frequently deposited in groups. Found in a variety of situations, including near water. Badger Faeces can be very variable – soft and even runny when they have been eating worms, or solid and firm, like a large, fat sausage, when eating wheat or fruit. Where badgers are common, these are generally deposited in shallow pits, but are more generally just left on the surface. Easily recognised by sweet, musky smell. Squirrel Droppings are cylindrical or rounded, up to 8mm in diameter, generally deposited at random but can accumulate at favoured feeding site, such as a bird table. Otter Spraints left in conspicuous places on rocks in rivers or ledges under bridges. Dark when fresh, pale and crumbly when dry, varying from a small, tarry smear to faeces several centimetres long. Usually contain fish-bones and scales, occasionally feathers or fur. Deer Deer ruminate, so their food is finely digested and their pellets are generally black and shiny with no obvious contents. Often left in small piles on tracks in woods. Generally separate cylindrical pellets, pointed at one end and indented at the other, but sometimes, especially in summer, a single amorphous lump. Hard to tell species apart. Larger species produce larger pellets (up to 3cm in red deer) but there is considerable overlap between species. Bats Droppings generally found stuck to walls or on the ground under holes where bats enter buildings, or in piles in roost sites. Hard to tell species apart, but in buildings they are most likely to be one of the pipistrelles. Easily told from mouse droppings by rough appearance due to finely chewed insect fragments. Mouse droppings are similar, but are smoother because they are not composed of insect fragments and not found stuck to walls. Hedgehog Droppings cylindrical, up to 5cm long, like a small carnivore. Generally dark, no obvious structure when eating worms but generally studded with shiny fragments of insects. If you would like help to try and ID the droppings you have found, please click here and post the following information on our Forum : A description of the appearance of the animal droppings Where you found the animal droppings (eg. habitat, location, country) What time of year you found the animal droppings A photograph of the animal droppings if you took one We will do our best to answer your query on our Forum .	Otter
Which King of England reigned between the years 978 and 1016, succeeding his father Edgar and his half-brother Edward ?	Spraints - definition of Spraints by The Free Dictionary Spraints - definition of Spraints by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Spraints 1. The dung of an otter. Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: References in periodicals archive ? These sweet-smelling droppings, or spraints as they are known, belong to an otter. No otter animal quite like them; Talk on the wild side with Keith Broomfield Keith's column gives an insight into everyday wildlife and the interesting natural diversity you can expect to see throughout the year in the Aberdeen area as the seasons change The survey's results were based on evidence of the species' distinctive jasmine tea-scented droppings known as spraints, and their five toe footprints. Aqueduct attracts otters with a taste for the high life It's definitely otter spraints,''he proclaims,as the word for the faeces of one of Wales' most elusive mammals enters my vocabulary for the first time. The otter is back; After years on the brink of extinction, this most elusive of mammals can once again be seen in Welsh rivers. ..if you're lucky Much of what we know has been obtained through studying their faeces or spraints.	i don't know
What in physics is the minimum amount of any physical entity involved in an interaction ?	Quantum En fï¿½sica, el tï¿½rmino quanto o quantio (del latï¿½n Quantum, plural Quanta, que representa una cantidad de algo) denotaba en la fï¿½sica cuï¿½ntica primitiva tanto el valor mï¿½nimo que puede tomar una determinada magnitud en un sistema fï¿½sico, como la mï¿½nima variaciï¿½n posible de este parï¿½metro al pasar de un estado discreto a otro. Wikipedia La mecï¿½nica cuï¿½ntica (tambiï¿½n conocida como fï¿½sica quï¿½ntica o teorï¿½a quï¿½ntica) es una de las ramas principales de la fï¿½sica, y uno de los mï¿½s grandes avances del siglo XX para el conocimiento humano, que explica el comportamiento de la materia y de la energï¿½a.	Tailored Access Operations
Where in Florida is the Flag Building, the recently completed 'cathedral' of Scientology ?	quantum - Wikidata quantum the minimum amount of any physical entity involved in an interaction ਕੁਆਂਟਮ Cite this page This page was last modified on 26 September 2016, at 13:45. All structured data from the main and property namespace is available under the Creative Commons CC0 License ; text in the other namespaces is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.	i don't know
Which aromatic herb is traditionally used as a symbol of remembrance ?	Rosemary, the remembrance herb \| Herbalism Rosemary, the remembrance herb / Flora / Leave a comment Rosmarinus officinalis is a woody, perennial herb with fragrant, evergreen, needle-like leaves and white, pink, purple, or blue flowers, native to the Mediterranean region. It is a member of the mint family Lamiaceae, which includes many other herbs. The name “rosemary” derives from the Latin for “dew” (ros) and “sea” (marinus), or “dew of the sea”.[2] The plant is also sometimes called anthos, from the ancient Greek word ἄνθος, meaning “flower”.[3] Rosemary has a fibrous root system. [7]It flourishes in well-drained, alkaline soil. It prefers sunny condition and needs protection shelter from gusty winds. The plant reaches about 1.5-3 meters in height. Its bushy stems and downy young shoots are covered with about 1 inch long, narrow, needle-like aromatic leaves; dark green above and grayish underneath. The plant bears short racemes of small sea blue flowers appearing in early summer. [3] Rosemary contains substances that are useful for stimulating the immune system, increasing circulation, and improving digestion. Rosemary also contains anti-inflammatory compounds that may make it useful for reducing the severity of asthma attacks. In addition, rosemary has been shown to increase the blood flow to the head and brain, improving concentration. [1] Rosemary is rich in carnosic acid, which dilates the cerebral vascular tissues and enhances blood flow. The scent of rosemary can improve memory performance in office workers. Rosemary helps to enhance memory, calm nerves, stimulates the circulatory system, and helps prevent the breakdown of neurotransmitters in the brain. It can be seeped in hot water to make tea just before strenuous work. [2] History & Mythology According to legend, it was draped around the Greek goddess Aphrodite when she rose from the sea, born of Uranus’s semen. The Virgin Mary is said to have spread her blue cloak over a white-blossomed rosemary bush when she was resting, and the flowers turned blue. The shrub then became known as the ‘Rose of Mary’ [7] Although rosemary is native to the Mediterranean, it now grows throughout much of the temperate regions in Europe and America. Rosemary has been a prized seasoning and natural medicine for millennia. Part of rosemary’s popularity came from the widespread belief that rosemary stimulated and strengthened the memory, a quality for which it is still traditionally used. In ancient Greece, students would place rosemary sprigs in their hair when studying for exams, and mourners would also throw the fragrant herb into the grave of the deceased as a symbol of remembrance. In olde England, rosemary’s ability to fortify the memory transformed it into a symbol of fidelity, and it played an important role in the costumes, decorations and gifts used at weddings. Rosemary oil was first extracted in the 14th century, after which it was used to make Queen of Hungary water, a very popular cosmetic used at that time. In the 16th and 17th centuries, rosemary became popular as a digestive aid in apothecaries. Recently, as modern research focuses on the beneficial active components in rosemary, our appreciation for this herb’s therapeutic as well as culinary value has been renewed. [1] It has been referred to from the latter part of the Elizabethan Era to the Early Romantic period as the herb of remembrance. In Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Ophelia says, “There’s rosemary, that’s for remembrance.” (Hamlet, iv. 5.) It has also long been used as a symbol for remembrance during weddings, war commemorations and funerals in Europe and Australia. [1] Mourners in old times would wear it as a buttonhole, burn it as incense or throw it into graves as a symbol of remembrance for the dead. It seems that this tradition of Rosemary may actually far more ancient and have its origins in the Arabic world of medieval times, which was greatly advanced in science: In Henry Lyte’s 1578 “Niewe Herball“, an English version of Rembert Dodoens’ French treatise, it is written “The Arrabians and their successors Physitions, do say that Rosemarie comforteth the brayne, the memory and the inward senses, and that it restoreth speech, especially the conserve made of the flowers, thereof with Sugar, to be received daily.” [2] Because of this seemingly esoteric association, rosemary has at times been made into a sort of herbal-amulet, where it was placed beneath pillowcases, or simply smelt as a bouquet, and it was believed that using rosemary in these ways could protect the sleeper from nightmares, as well as increase their memory. [2] Nutrition & Health benefits Rosemary leaves contain certain phyto-chemical (plant derived) compounds that are known to have disease preventing and health promoting properties. The herb parts, especially flower tops contain phenolic anti-oxidant rosmarinic acid as well as numerous health benefiting volatile essential oils such as cineol, camphene, borneol, bornyl acetate, α-pinene, etc. These compounds are known to have rubefacient (counterirritant), anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, anti-fungal and anti-septic properties. Rosemary leaves provide just 131 calories per 100 g and contain no cholesterol. Apart from nutrients, this humble herb contains many noteworthy non-nutrient components such as dietary fiber (37% of RDA). The herb is exceptionally rich in many B-complex groups of vitamin, such as folic acid, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, riboflavin. It is one of the herbs contain high levels of folates; providing about 109 µg per 100 g (about 27% of RDA). Folates are important in DNA synthesis and when given during the peri-conception period can help prevent neural tube defects in the newborn babies. Rosemary herb contains very good amounts of vitamin A, 2924 IU per 100 g; about 97% of RDA. A few leaves a day in the diet, would contribute enough of this vitamin. Vitamin A is known to have antioxidant properties and is essential for vision. It is also required for maintaining healthy mucus membranes and skin. Consumption of natural foods rich in vitamin A is known to help the body protect from lung and oral cavity cancers. Fresh rosemary leaves are a good source of antioxidant vitamin; vitamin-C containing about 22 mg per 100 g, about 37% of RDA. The vitamin is required for the collagen synthesis in the body. Collagen is the main structural protein in the body required for maintaining the integrity of blood vessels, skin, organs, and bones. Regular consumption of foods rich in vitamin C helps the body protect from scurvy; develop resistance against infectious agents (boosts immunity) and help scavenge harmful, pro-inflammatory free radicals from the body. Rosemary herb parts, whether fresh or dried, are rich source of minerals like potassium, calcium, iron, manganese, copper, and magnesium. Potassium is an important component of cell and body fluids, which helps control heart rate and blood pressure. Manganese is used by the body as a co-factor for the antioxidant enzyme, superoxide dismutase. This herb is an excellent source of iron, contains 6.65 mg/100 g of fresh leaves (about 83% of RDA). Iron, being a component of hemoglobin inside the red blood cells, determines the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. [3] To see an in-depth nutritional profile click here . [1] Picking & Storing Whenever possible, choose fresh rosemary over the dried form of the herb since it is far superior in flavor. The springs of fresh rosemary should look vibrantly fresh and should be deep sage green in color, and free from yellow or dark spots. Fresh rosemary should be stored in the refrigerator either in its original packaging or wrapped in a slightly damp paper towel. You can also place the rosemary sprigs in ice cube trays covered with either water or stock that can be added when preparing soups or stews. Dried rosemary should be kept in a tightly sealed container in a cool, dark and dry place where it will keep fresh for about six months. [1] Preparing & Uses Quickly rinse rosemary under cool running water and pat dry. Most recipes call for rosemary leaves, which can be easily removed from the stem. Alternatively, you can add the whole sprig to season soups, stews and meat dishes, then simply remove it before serving. Rosmarinic acid, a natural polyphenolic antioxidant found in rosemary, has been found to have anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidant functions. Apart from the rosemary, other popular herbs like Sage, peppermint, oregano, thyme herbs also contain appreciable levels of rosmarinic acid. Rosemary oil which is distilled from the flowering tops contains volatile essential oil such as camphene, cineol, borneol, bornyl acetate and other esters. These compounds are known to have tonic, astringent, diaphoretic, and stimulant properties. Its herbal oil is also being used externally as a rubefacient to soothe painful ailments in gout, rheumatism and neuralgic conditions. Rosemary herb extractions when applied over the scalp known to stimulate the hair-bulbs and help prevent premature baldness. It forms an effectual remedy for the prevention of scurf and dandruff. Rosemary tea is a natural remedy for nervous headache, colds, and depression. [3] Rosemary-infused olive oil Perfect for adding to the bath and it is a great help for easing sore muscles or giving yourself a refreshing boost. It can also be consumed, adding flavours to a variety of dishes. Place the finely chopped rosemary leaves into the glass jar. Top up with olive oil. [As a rough rule of thumb, use two cups of oil to one cup of plant material] Put the lid on. Shake a little. Store the jar in a warm, dark place. Leave the oil to infuse for a few days, or until the plant material begins to brown. Take the cap off and sniff – if it is not strong enough for you, strain the liquid, fill the jar with fresh plant material, and pour the oil back over it. Leave for another few days. Keep doping this until the mixture is as aromatic as you want. Strain the oil after two weeks. Pour into a storage container or back into the glass jar. [4] You use the same method for making aromatic vinegar. Choose a good quality wine or apple cider vinegar and pour it over your herb sprigs. Leave for a few days in a warm place and you will have a delicious addition to salad dressings. [6] Sources:	Rosemary
Deciduous dentition, seen in children, is better known by what name ?	Rosemary for Remembrance \| Register of War Memorials in NSW Register of War Memorials in NSW Rosemary for Remembrance Rosemary, an ancient symbol of remembrance, has particular significance for Australians as it can be found growing on the wild slopes of Gallipoli. Sprigs of Rosemary are worn on ANZAC Day, and often on Remembrance Day, by veterans and others attending services and parades. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) is an aromatic herb belonging to the family Labiatae. Its Latin origins indicate "dew of the sea", and the rich oil and perfume derived from the plant have been used for centuries. The ancients believed it strengthened the memory, and on this account it became an emblem of fidelity and a symbol of remembrance. It can thus be associated with the ANZAC tradition of being loyal to one's mates and active in honouring the memory of fallen and departed comrades. Search	i don't know
Which member of the Monty Python team died in 1989 ?	Monty Python reunion: Surviving members to reform for a stage show \| The Independent Monty Python reunion: Surviving members to reform for a stage show The hit 1970s group are expected to formally announce the reunion on Thursday Tuesday 19 November 2013 10:00 BST Click to follow Monty Python reunion: Surviving members to reform for a stage show 1/5 The five remaining members of Monty Python are expected to announce a comeback on Thursday Reuters 2/5 1978: All six members of the Monty Python team on location in Tunisia to film 'Monty Python's Life of Brian' Getty Images 3/5 British comedy group Monty Python are to reunite for a stage show. Terry Jones, has confirmed that he along with all the other remaining members, John Cleese, Eric Idle, Terry Gilliam and Michael Palin will confirm their plans in a press conference in London on Thursday Getty Images 4/5 The Monty Python team imitate journalist and broadcaster Alan Whicker. Left to right: John Cleese, Michael Palin, Eric Idle, Graham Chapman (1941 - 1989) and Terry Jones Getty Images 5/5 British comedy troupe Monty Python lounge about at the site of their filmed live show at the Hollywood Bowl, Hollywood, California, 1982 Getty Images The five remaining members of Monty Python are expected to announce a comeback on Thursday It’s the reunion which John Cleese once dismissed as “absolutely impossible”. But hatchets have been buried and grudges set aside as the surviving members of the ground-breaking comedy troupe confirmed that the Monty Python circus will fly once again. Click here to see more archive pictures of the Monty Python Following months of secret talks, John Cleese, Terry Gilliam, Eric Idle, Terry Jones and Michael Palin will announce their plans at a London press conference on Thursday. The reunion, expected to involve a stage show and a television special, is the first time that the remaining members have worked together on a full-length project since The Meaning Of Life film in 1983. The death of Graham Chapman in 1989 was previously thought to have ended any hopes that their absurdist humour, which revolutionised comedy following the 1969 television debut of Monty Python's Flying Circus, could be recreated. Previous attempts to engineer a reunion tour, usually driven by Idle, 70, creator of the £100 million-grossing Spamalot musical, have fallen foul of internal squabbles over business issues. Cleese, 74, said sitting the Pythons down in one room to perform comedy was a geographical impossibility. But the Python parrot was not dead, just resting for 30 years, it transpires. Jones, 71, told the BBC. “We’re getting together and putting on a show – it’s real. I’m quite excited about it. I hope it makes us a lot of money. I hope to be able to pay off my mortgage!” Idle tweeted: “Python meeting this morning. Can't wait.” A world tour, re-enacting Python’s “greatest hits” such as the famous “Dead Parrot” sketch, would prove hugely lucrative. The film and television legacy left by the “Beatles of comedy” retains huge popularity in North America. The Pythons hinted that they could revisit previously unreleased sketches. Palin, 70, said: “There was much more material written for the Meaning of Life and not used - probably as much as three times as much as we put in.” Cleese added: "Maybe we should do a Meaning of Life 2?" Palin and Jones have recently re-filmed lost material from their 1969 ITV sketch show The Complete And Utter History Of Britain, which helped form the Flying Circus template, for a DVD release next Spring. Fans will hope that the long-awaited reunion was prompted by a desire to create fresh mirth worthy of the brand, rather than financial motivations. Earlier this year, the surviving members were ordered to pay extra royalties to Mark Forstater, a producer of the 1975 film Monty Python and The Holy Grail, who won a High Court case over Spamalot profits. This year, Cleese sold off his art collection and completed an Alimony live tour, to help pay for his divorce from his third wife, American psychotherapist Alyce Faye Eichelberger. The five remaining members of the comedy group appeared together in 1998 at the Aspen Comedy Festival in the US. They almost agreed to a 1999 US tour but Palin pulled out at the last minute. “At which point Eric became very cross,” recalled Cleese, who also disappointed Idle when he decided not to take part in a mooted sequel to the Holy Grail. Idle once joked: “We would only do a reunion if Chapman came back from the dead. So we're negotiating with his agent.” The first episode of Monty Python's Flying Circus was broadcast on October 5, 1969. It ran for four series and spawned spin-off records, books and even German-language specials. The comedy group made their successful film Monty Python and the Holy Grail on a small budget in between filming the third and fourth series of of the TV show. Monty Python’s Life Of Brian, released in 1979, telling the story of a man mistaken for Jesus, was attacked by Christian groups and banned in some areas but has since been named the greatest comedy film of all time. After The Meaning Of Life, another financial and critical success, the Pythons went on to forge successful solo careers. Cleese, who had previously co-created the classic Fawlty Towers sitcom in 1975 went on write the hit film A Fish Called Wanda in 1988, which he starred in with Palin. Gilliam, whose unique animation style became a key element of the Flying Circus, became a successful film director, with credits including the ambitious sci-fi fantasy Brazil and The Fisher King. Palin made hit travel shows, including Around The World In 80 Days and won a Bafta Academy Fellowship Award this year. Idle wrote the global hit musical Spamalot and enjoyed a 1991 hit song with "Always Look On The Bright Side Of Life" from the Life Of Brian soundtrack. Jones directed an adaptation of The Wind in the Willows and has written books and hosted television history documentaries. Chapman, who played the lead in Holy Grail and Life Of Brian died, after developing tonsil cancer and secondary spinal cancer, aged 48 in 1989. The first episode of Monty Python's Flying Circus was broadcast on October 5, 1969. The zany series, featured open-ended sketches, which dispensed with traditional punchlines, Its 45 episodes spawned a host of memorable sketches including Dead Parrot, Spam, The Lumberjack Song and The Spanish Inquisition. Python’s surreal humour influenced generations of comedians including Vic Reeves and Eddie Izzard. More about:	Graham Chapman
Nellie Forbush is the female protagonist of which musical ?	Graham Chapman, 48, Comedy Troupe Founder - NYTimes.com Graham Chapman, 48, Comedy Troupe Founder By CONSTANCE L. HAYS Published: October 5, 1989 Graham Chapman, a Cambridge-educated physician who decided to specialize in comedy and who helped to found Monty Python's Flying Circus, died of throat cancer yesterday at a hospital near his home in England. He was 48 years old. Mr. Chapman, the originator of such characters as the Colonel and skits including ''Spam'' and ''The Ministry for Silly Walks,'' was rushed to the hospital on Tuesday in Maidstone, Kent, said Mr. Chapman's manager, Don Epstein. Several Monty Python members were at Mr. Chapman's bedside when he died. The members of the group had gone their separate ways in 1983, but they had reunited last month to participate in a television special for the 20th anniversary of their first half-hour appearance on British television, on Oct. 5, 1969. The final original episode of ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' was broadcast in December 1974. Earlier that year, a public-television station in Dallas became the first American station to show the series. Other public-television stations around the country quickly followed suit. The group's anniversary show is to be broadcast this year by television stations around the world, Mr. Epstein said. The group, whose other members were John Cleese, Michael Palin, Terry Gilliam, Eric Idle and Terry Jones, was an instant hit in the United States. All but Mr. Gilliam, a native of Minneapolis, were English and were educated at Cambridge and Oxford. The founders of the troupe said the name Monty Python's Flying Circus was not supposed to mean anything. ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' was called a ''bizarre, unpredictable show'' by Alan Brien in The New York Times in 1969. ''Childlike yet sophisticated, surrealist and simple-minded,'' he wrote, ''it provides an outlet for the team's personal obsessions, group fantasies and nightmarish anecdotes.'' 'A Free Hand' ''The BBC didn't quite know what to do with us,'' Mr. Chapman recalled in a 1976 interview, ''and so they rather nervously gave us a free hand to create our own program.'' At the end of a skit, a narrator might say, ''The part of David Hemmings was played by a piece of wood.'' In the ''Spam'' skit, people seem to subsist on canned meat, and a crew of Vikings chants ''Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam'' at regular intervals. Another classic, ''The Hospital for Overacting,'' showed the Richard the III ward, where patients were eased out of their affliction with therapy that involved reciting, ''My horse, my horse, my kingdom for a horse.'' Mr. Chapman performed the lead roles in two of the group's full-length films. He played Arthur in ''Monty Python's Holy Grail,'' released in 1978, and Brian in ''Life of Brian,'' in 1979. The group's last film, ''Monty Python's Meaning of Life,'' was released in 1983. God and a Sense of Humor Not everyone laughed. Religious leaders denounced as blasphemous ''Life of Brian,'' a sort of comedy of errors built around the life of Christ, and the film was briefly banned by a judge in Georgia. Mr. Chapman responded to the criticism by saying he was bothered only by ''everybody thinking that whatever God they believe in doesn't have a sense of humor.'' In 1981, Mr. Chapman wrote a book, ''A Liar's Autobiography,'' which was an enhanced version of his life. He also wrote and starred in the 1983 film ''Yellowbeard,'' a comedic tale of a treasure quest. After the group split up, Mr. Chapman worked in New York City and Los Angeles, writing film and television scripts, his manager said. He was working on several projects at the time of his death. Mr. Chapman is survived by a brother and a son. photo of Graham Chapman	i don't know
Which of the territories of Canada has the city of Yellowknife as its capital ?	Origin of the names of Canada’s provincial and territorial capitals \| Natural Resources Canada Origin of the names of Canada’s provincial and territorial capitals Origin of the names of Canada’s provincial and territorial capitals Whitehorse, Yukon Ottawa, Canada The name Ottawa is derived from the Algonquin word “adawe”, which means “to trade”. The settlement was originally incorporated as Bytown in 1850. The name was changed to Ottawa in 1855. (Sources: Canadian Geographical Names Data Base, Geographical Names Board 18th Report) Find out more: Geographical name search results: Ottawa St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador There is some disagreement regarding the history behind how St. John’s acquired its name. The most widely accepted explanation comes from the Portuguese explorer Gaspar Corte-Real, who recorded the area as Rio de San Johem in 1519. The earliest recording of the modern day spelling came from an English merchant who travelled to Newfoundland in the 1570’s. Geographical name search results: Toronto Winnipeg, Manitoba The Cree named the lake to the north “Win” (muddy) and “nipee” (water). In 1873, Winnipeg was incorporated as a city. (Source: City of Winnipeg ) Find out more: Geographical name search results: Winnipeg Regina, Saskatchewan Cree hunters stacked buffalo bones in the area of Regina, and named it Oskana-Ka-asateki or "the place where bones are piled." Early explorers, fur traders and settlers called the area “Pile of Bones.” It was decided in 1882 when the town began to grow that it required a more regal name. Princess Louise suggested that the town be named Regina in honour of her mother and the reigning monarch, Queen Victoria. Geographical name search results: Iqaluit Yellowknife, Northwest Territories Yellowknife acquired its name from the aboriginal group known as the “T'atsaot'ine”, or “Yellowknives”. It became the capital of the Northwest Territories in 1967. Known for its valuable minerals, it has the traditional name of Smbak'è, which means money place. (Source: Canadian Geographical Names Data Base) Find out more: Geographical name search results: Yellowknife Whitehorse, Yukon Originally called White Horse, the name came from the foam in nearby rapids on the Yukon River which looked similar to the manes on white horses. Whitehorse was incorporated as a city in 1950, and replaced Dawson as the capital of the Yukon in 1953. (Sources: Canadian Geographical Names Data Base) Find out more:	Northwest Territories
The English stately home created for the Earl of Carlisle in 1699 is still owned by his descendents, and still known by the family name. Which stately home is it?	Yellowknife \| Define Yellowknife at Dictionary.com Yellowknife noun 1. a city in and the capital of the Northwest Territories, in N central Canada, on Great Slave Lake. Northwest Territories noun, (used with a singular verb) 1. a territory of Canada lying N of 60 degrees N and extending E from the Yukon Territory to Nunavut. 519,732 sq. mi. (1,346,106 sq. km) Capital: Yellowknife. British Dictionary definitions for Yellowknife Expand noun 1. a city in N Canada, capital of the Northwest Territories on Great Slave Lake. Pop: 16 055 (2001) Northwest Territories plural noun 1. a territory of NW Canada including part of Victoria Island and several other islands of the Arctic; comprised over a third of Canada's total area until Nunavut became a separate territory in 1999: rich mineral resources. Pop: 42 810 (2004 est). Area: 2 082 910 sq km (804 003 sq miles) NWT Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 Expand Northwest Territories definition Territory in northern Canada made up of several administrative districts, which include all the areas to the north of sixty degrees latitude between Hudson Bay and the Yukon and all the islands in Hudson Bay. Very sparsely populated, these territories make up more than one-third of Canada's total area. Note: In 1998, Canada carved a homeland for the Inuit people, known as Nunavut (“Our Land”), from the Northwest Territories. The American Heritage® New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.	i don't know
Ustinov, Van Mildert, and St Cuthbert's Society, are among the colleges which are constituent parts of which British university ?	Durham University, UK - The Study Times The Study Times faizan Durham University (lawfully the University of Durham) is a university research college in Durham, North East England. It was established by an Act of Parliament in 1832 and allowed a Royal Charter in 1837. It was one of the first colleges to begin educational cost in England for over 600 years and cases to be the third most established college in England, and thusly the seventh most established in the UK, in spite of the fact that this is disputed. Durham has a bequest which incorporates 63 recorded structures, running from the eleventh century Castle to a 1930s Art Deco Chapel. The college additionally claims and deals with the Durham World Heritage Site in organization with Durham Cathedral. The college's responsibility for World Heritage Site incorporates Durham Castle (which is a habitation for understudies who are individuals from University College), Palace Green, and the encompassing structures including the noteworthy Cosin's Library. The chancellor of the college is Sir Thomas Allen, who succeeded Bill Bryson in January 2012. As a university college, its fundamental capacities are separated between the scholarly bureaus of the college and 16 schools. When all is said in done, the offices perform investigate and give addresses to understudies, while the schools are in charge of the local courses of action and welfare of college understudies, graduate understudies, post-doctoral scientists and some college staff. The college is an individual from the Russell Group of driving UK universities after already being an individual from the 1994 Group. Durham is likewise subsidiary with a few college bunches including the N8 Research Partnership and the Matariki Network of Universities. Campus Durham University claims a 227.8 hectare (ha) bequest which incorporates some portion of an UNESCO world legacy site,[54] one antiquated landmark, five evaluation one recorded structures and 68 grade two-recorded structures alongside 44.9 ha of woodland. The domain is partitioned crosswise over two separate areas: Durham City and Queen's Campus, Stockton. The two areas are joined by means of a free transport benefit that runs habitually consistently. One of the real open attractions in Durham City is the 7.3 ha Botanic Gardens, set up in 1970, with more than 78,000 guests (2007/08). Durham City Campus Durham City is the principle area of the college and contains 14 of the 16 universities alongside the greater part of the scholastic divisions. The Durham City home is spread over a few distinct destinations. The Science site contains most by far of divisions and extensive address theaters, for example, Appleby, Scarborough, James Duff, Heywood and all the more as of late the Calman Learning Center, alongside the Bill Bryson library. Mountjoy contains the Psychology and Biological and Biomedical schools, alongside different exploration focuses. The Old and New Elvet territories contain various offices in Humanities and Social Sciences including Philosophy, and Sociology. Old Elvet was already the site of the college's organization in Old Shire Hall, which has been housed in the Palatine Center on Stockton Road since September 2012. Queen's Campus Ruler's Campus was set up in 1992 and is situated in the town of Thornaby-on-Tees nearly 30 miles far from Durham City. The Campus is home to around 2,000 full-time understudies, two private schools (John Snow and Stephenson Colleges) and the Wolfson Research Institute. Currently various subjects can be learned at Queen's Campus: Medicine (imparted to Newcastle University), Pharmacy, Accounting, Business and Finance, Applied Psychology and Primary education. In 2007 the college bought a 4-section of land (16,000 m2) site on the North bank of Stockton and has arrangements to add to the scholarly structure at Queens and the likelihood of another college. A transport line interfaces Queen's Campus to Durham City and a restricted adventure as a rule takes 45 minutes. In November 2015 it was reported that the University would not be reestablishing its choice on advancement of the Northshore site and would be holding a "wide and powerful counsel process" on the fate of the Queen's Campus. Libraries The Durham University Library framework holds, more than 1.5 million printed items. The library was established in January 1833 at Palace Green by a 160-volume gift by the then Bishop of Durham, William Van Mildert.The library works four branches: Bill Bryson Library (the fundamental library), Education Library, Queen's Campus Library and the Palace Green Library which holds the uncommon and legacy accumulations. The Bishop Cosin's Library contains medieval original copies and more than 5,000 printed books, numerous early,and the Sudan Archive ("the pre-famous file on the Sudan outside Khartoum") of the focal library were conceded Designation Status in 2005 by the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council. In 2012 the college was a piece of an organization with the British Library and Durham Cathedral to buy Europe's most established in place book, the St Cuthbert Gospel, for the country for £9 million. It is wanted to be in plain view in the Palace Green Library for a period from July 2013. Notwithstanding the focal library framework, every College keeps up its own particular library and perusing rooms, for example, the Bettenson, Brewis, Williams and Fenton Libraries of St Chad's College, which contain more than 38,000 volumes. Many offices likewise keep up a library notwithstanding the subject accumulations in the focal and school libraries. Museums The college deals with various galleries. Manufactured in the 1960s, the college's Oriental Museum became transcendently from the acquisitions of the college's previous School of Oriental Studies Initially housed over the college and utilized as a showing accumulation, the span of the gathering prompted the building of the present gallery to house the material.The gathering to date contains more than 30,000 articles from Asian craftsmanship to artifacts, covering the Orient and Levant to the Far East and the Indian Sub-mainland, with over a 1/3 of the gathering identifying with China.The national significance of the Chinese and Egyptian accumulations can been found in the Designated Status from the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council accomplished in 2008. The Old Fulling Mill is the college's Museum of Archeology. The exhibition hall was opened in 1833 being the second college gallery in England to permit permission to the general public.The historical center spotlights on the legacy of the North East of England with accumulations spreading over the ancient, to Ancient Greek and Roman to the Anglo Saxon periods, despite the fact that the key gathering is that of the Medieval and Post Medieval period. Colleges Durham works a university structure like that of the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, in that every one of the schools at Durham (and the Wesley Study Center) are "recorded bodies" in The Education (Listed Bodies) (England) Order 2013 made under the Education Reform Act, 1988. This implies they are "perceived by the UK powers as having the capacity to offer courses prompting a level of a perceived body" (the "perceived body" being, for this situation, Durham University). Though a large portion of the Durham schools are administered and possessed specifically by the college itself (the exemptions being St John's and St Chad's), the lawful status of the Durham universities is like Oxbridge schools, separating them from those at the colleges of Kent, Lancaster, and York. However, not at all like at Oxford and Cambridge, there is no formal instructing at Durham schools (except for Cranmer Hall philosophical school inside St John's), in spite of the fact that universities are dynamic in research.The universities rule the private, social, wearing, and peaceful capacities inside of the college, and there is substantial understudy inclusion in their operation. Formal meals (known as "formals") are held at each school; outfits are worn to these occasions at simply over portion of the universities. Outfits are not worn for formals at Collingwood, St Aidan's, St Cuthbert's, Hild Bede, Van Mildert, Stephenson or Ustinov.There is a lot of intercollegiate competition, especially in paddling and other donning exercises. There is likewise competition between the more established "Bailey" schools and the more up to date "Slope" colleges. The colleges are:	Durham
The character of Hercule Poirot first appeared in which Agatha Christie story ?	Colleges of Durham University explained Colleges of Durham University Colleges of Durham University explained The Colleges of Durham University are residential colleges which are the primary source of accommodation and support services for undergraduate s and postgraduates at Durham University , as well as providing bursaries and scholarships to students. They also provide funding and/or accommodation for some of the research posts in the University. All students at the University are required to be members of one of the colleges. Durham University has 16 colleges, of which University College is the oldest, founded in 1832. The newest college is Josephine Butler, founded in 2006. The last single sex college, St Mary's, became mixed in 2005 with the admittance of male undergraduates. One college, Ustinov, admits only postgraduates . Colleges Durham operates a collegiate structure similar to that of the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge , in that all the colleges at Durham are "listed bodies" [1] under the Education Reform Act, 1988, "recognised by the UK authorities as being able to offer courses leading to a degree of a recognised body" (the "recognised body" being, in this case, the federal University). Though most of the Durham colleges are governed and owned directly by the University itself, and so do not enjoy the independence of colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, the status of the Durham colleges is similar to those in Oxford and Cambridge, setting Durham colleges apart from those at the universities of Kent , Lancaster , and York . However, unlike at Oxford and Cambridge (and federal universities such as London and the University of the Highlands and Islands , there is no formal teaching at most Durham colleges (although St John's and St Chad's have their own academic and research staff and offer college-based programmes in conjunction with the University). The colleges dominate the residential, social, sporting, and pastoral functions within the university, and there is heavy student involvement in their operation. Formal dinner s (known as "formals") are held at many colleges; gowns are often worn to these events. There is a great deal of intercollegiate rivalry, particularly in rowing and other sporting activities. There is also rivalry between the older colleges of the Bailey and the newer colleges of the Hill. Types of college The University is collegiate in structure. There are four different sorts of college: Maintained Colleges and Societies, Recognised Colleges, Licensed Halls of Residence, and Affiliated Colleges. Maintained Colleges are governed directly by, and are financially dependent on, the University. Their principals and staff are appointed by University Council. The maintained colleges are overseen by the Deputy Warden, who is also a member of the University Executive Committee. Recognised Colleges ( St John's and St Chad's ) are 'recognised' as colleges of the University, but they are actually incorporated as separate institutions. They are in effect accredited, being governed, financed and managed independently of the University and being educational charities in their own right. However, as a condition of their ongoing recognition by the University, the University's Council must approve the appointment of their principals and be notified of changes to their constitutions. [2] Licensed Halls of Residences are, unlike Recognised Colleges, not recognised as colleges of the University, and their principals are only ex officio members of Senate if the hall has 25 or more matriculated students in residence. Under statute 14, Council may recognise any college within County Durham as a licensed hall of residence; at the moment only Ushaw College is recognised in this statute, Neville's Cross College (now merged into New College Durham ) was a licensed hall from 1924 to 1977. [3] The regulations as to the approval of principals and changes to their constitutions apply to licensed halls in the same way as to recognised colleges Affiliated Colleges are treated under statue 39, rather than statutes 14 & 15 like the other colleges. This states that Council may, on the recommendation of Senate, recognised any college as an affiliated college. There are currently no affiliated colleges. Previous affiliated colleges have included Codrington College in Barbados , Fourah Bay College in Sierra Leone (now part of the University of Sierra Leone ), and Sunderland Technical College (now the University of Sunderland ). [4] Affiliated colleges are not generally considered part of the collegiate structure of the University. The University validates degrees at other colleges not recognised under any of the above categories. Current arrangements include the validation of the Church of England 's Common Award at a number of theological colleges. [5] The Royal Academy of Dance also used to teach courses leading to degrees validated by Durham. List of colleges Most of the colleges located in Durham itself can be grouped into two areas of the city. Bailey colleges are those located on the peninsula formed by a meander of the River Wear, and Hill colleges are on Elvet Hill on the other side of the river. Queen's Campus, Stockton, is 23miles south of Durham, in the town of Stockton-on-Tees . The student numbers in the table below are up to date for the 2010/11 year. U = Undergraduates, P = Postgraduates, F = Female, M = Male Shield http://www.durham.ac.uk Heads of Colleges The senior member of each college is an officer known generically as the Head of College. [7] His or her specific title varies from college to college as indicated in the list below, but there is no particular significance to the variation. The heads of the maintained colleges are also part-time members of an academic department. Master: Grey College , Hatfield College , University College †The Principal of St Chad's is also officially known as 'President' (as was the head of Ushaw College). The titual head of that college is known as the 'Rector'. Similarly, the Chair of the St John's College Council is the 'President' of that College. Former Colleges A number of colleges that that have been part of the University of Durham , Durham , England , but have since folded or cancelled their association with the university. Durham University currently recognises sixteen colleges. However, since its foundation in 1832, a number of other colleges have been part of the university. Two of these have become completely defunct; others have ended their association with the university, or left to become independent institutions of their own. Bishop Cosin's Hall Cosin's Hall on Palace Green was opened as the university's third college in 1851. However, a collapse in Student numbers in the late 1850s and 1860s meant the university was unable to sustain three colleges at the time, and it was merged into University College in 1864. [8] University College maintained offices and rooms in the Hall until 2006. The building (which was also the original home of University College before it moved into the castle) is still owned by the university and has been used by the Institute of Advanced Study since January 2007. [9] Former Principals of Bishop Cosin's Hall 1851-1854 John Pedder [10] 1854-1864 James John Hornby [10] Neville's Cross College Neville's Cross College was opened in 1921. It was primarily a teacher-training college; but from 1924 it was also a licensed hall of the University and admitted students to read for both undergraduate courses and postgraduate degrees. The College merged with Durham Technical College in 1977 to form New College Durham , whereupon it ceased to be associated with the University. [3] Ushaw College Ushaw College was a Catholic seminary located in Ushaw Moor , a village to the west of Durham. It was opened in 1808 by scholars who had fled from Douai , France , when English College was forced to close during the French Revolution . It affiliated with Durham as 'Licensed Hall' in 1968, though it retained its role primarily as a seminary. It shut as a seminary in 2011 due to a declining number of vocations in the Catholic Church, but remains recognised as a licensed hall in the University's statutes. Part of the college is now used by Durham Business School , [11] and it is also used for conferences and lectures by the Department of Theology and Religion. [12] [13] Colleges in Newcastle In 1852, the School of Medicine and Surgery (founded in 1834) in Newcastle upon Tyne was absorbed into the University of Durham as the College of Medicine, allowing students to study for the Licence in Medicine in Durham, after which students could practise Medicine and take the degrees of Bachelor and Doctor in Medicine. [14] At the same time, Neville Hall was opened in Newcastle 'for the reception of Students in Medicine'. [15] The Hall closed at the end of the academic year in 1855/56. In 1871, the College of Medicine was joined by the College of Physical Science, later renamed Armstrong College. [16] Relations between the two campus es were often strained. They became two autonomous parts of the same university, with the Newcastle colleges merging to become King's College in 1937. [14] In 1947 a proposal to rename the university as the "University of Durham and Newcastle" was approved by all the governing bodies, but was defeated at convocation by 135 votes to 129 in the spring of 1952. [17] [18] This defeat led to King's College eventually leaving the university, to create the new University of Newcastle upon Tyne in 1963. [16] Development of the Newcastle Colleges of Durham University School of Medicine and Surgery 1834 1951-1963 Charles Bosanquet (first Vice-Chancellor of Newcastle University ) [26] Sunderland Technical College Sunderland Technical College was affiliated to Durham from 1930 to 1963 in the Faculty of Applied Science, and was thus associated with the Newcastle division of the University. When the Newcastle division became Newcastle University in 1963, Sunderland's affiliation with Durham ended. In 1969 the Technical College merged with Sunderland Teacher Training College and the Sunderland School of Art to form Sunderland Polytechnic (now the University of Sunderland ). [27] [28] University College Stockton Originally established in 1992 as the Joint University College On Teesside (JUCOT), a limited company established as a joint venture between Durham and the University of Teesside operating under the name of University College Stockton, this became a teaching and residential college of Durham in 1994 as University College Stockton (UCS), the JUCOT company being wound up. In 1998 the teaching and residential aspects were separated, with teaching becoming the responsibility of the University of Durham, Stockton Campus. In 2001 UCS was replaced by two new colleges, Stephenson and John Snow . [29] [30] Principals of University College Stockton 1992 – 1994 Robert Parfitt 1994 – 2001 John Hayward Colleges abroad Durham University has had two affiliated colleges outside England. Of these, Fourah Bay College is a former part of the university, having ended its affiliation in 1967. It became a constituent college of the University of Sierra Leone on that date. [31] The other affiliate, Codrington College , remained listed as an affiliated college until removed in the revision of the University's statutes approved by the Queen in Council on 13 July 2011. [32] Renamed and merged colleges The College of St Hild and St Bede was formed from the merger of two separate colleges in 1975. The College of the Venerable Bede (usually known as Bede College) had been an all male college formed in 1838, with St Hild's College formed as an all female college in 1858. The merged College continued as a recognised college until 1979, when it was taken over by the University and became a maintained college. Prior to this, the two colleges had specialised in the teaching of education ; [33] on becoming a maintained college the teaching part of Hild Bede was separated from the College to become the University's School of Education. The Graduate Society became a full college in 2003 and was subsequently renamed Ustinov College . The Home Students Association (for non-collegiate women) became St Aidan's Society in 1947 and subsequently St Aidan's College in 1961. Hatfield College was originally established as Bishop Hatfield's Hall, taking on its current name in 1919. St Mary's College was founded as the Women's Hostel, becoming a college and taking its current name in 1920. Stephenson College (originally George Stephenson College) and John Snow College were created in 2001. They replaced the original University College Stockton andare located on the Queen's Campus at Stockton-on-Tees . [34] Fictitious colleges Jesus College and Coverdale Hall are the settings for the events in Angels and Men, Durham alumna Catherine Fox's first novel (published by Hamish Hamilton in 1996). The location is nowhere stated explicitly, but it is obvious to anyone familiar with the city and the university that it takes place in Durham; Jesus and Coverdale are modelled (very closely) on St John's College and Cranmer Hall. That Hideous Strength (1943) by C. S. Lewis is set in a fictional university town, whose resemblance to Durham is close enough to require Lewis to insist in the book's preface that it is not so. [35] See also	i don't know
When Lord Salisbury left office as Prime Minister in 1902, he was succeeded by his nephew. Who was that ?	The Retirement of Lord Salisbury \| History Today The Retirement of Lord Salisbury The Marquess of Salisbury The last PM to run Britain from the House of Lords resigned on July 11th, 1902. The third Marquess of Salisbury was the last prime minister to run Britain from the House of Lords, for most of the period between June 1885 and his retirement in 1902. He held the office altogether for close to fourteen years, which outdid Gladstone, and for most of that time he was his own foreign secretary. Salisbury was an imperialist, who presided over a massive expansion of the British Empire and who believed and did not hesitate to say that European, preferably British, rule was essential for the development of the world’s ‘backward’ peoples to a point where they were fit to govern themselves. He viewed Continental Europe with a wary eye and avoided long-term alliances and commitments. Whether his ‘splendid isolation’ policy, as his critics called it, could have kept Britain out of the First World War is a moot point, but if he had been in charge in 1914 matters would have been handled differently. At home, Salisbury was a devout supporter of the Church of England and an opponent of Irish Home Rule. He was not rigidly opposed to change and his government laid the foundations of the welfare state in the 1890s, but he distrusted emotionalism, theorists and phrase-mongers, and his administrations were sparing with new legislation. His principles gained widespread popular support, won him general elections with thumping majorities in 1895 and 1900 and made the Conservative Party the dominant force in British politics for twenty years. They also helped to put a damper on the progress of the revolutionary Left in Britain. Civilised, humorous, cynical and likeable, the Victorian Titan, as his biographer Andrew Roberts calls him, was born Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil in 1830 at Hatfield House, his family’s stately home in Hertfordshire. He was MP for Stamford in his twenties and thirties as Lord Robert Cecil (pronounced ‘Sissle’ by those in the know), succeeded as marquess in 1868 and was foreign secretary under Disraeli in 1878-80. He owned Hatfield House, a London house in Arlington Street and some 20,000 acres in Hertfordshire and other counties. In his later years his income was close to £60,000 a year, equivalent to perhaps £3.5 million now. His wealth, social position and intellectual brilliance sustained his political independence and natural authority, and a happy marriage in 1857 to a middle-class wife, Georgina Alderson, produced eight children. He was a great reader, with a special interest in science. Hunting, shooting and fishing were a closed book to him along with horse-racing, cricket and sport of any kind, but he would play an occasional game of billiards. For his health in his last years he rode a tricycle, with a footman along to push him up hills. The prime minister tricycling through St James’s Park in a purple velvet poncho must have been a memorable sight. Salisbury’s beloved wife died in 1899 and by November 1900 his burdens were telling on him. He was seventy, his health was failing and both his doctors and his colleagues pressed him to give up the foreign office. Lord Lansdowne took over while Salisbury soldiered on as prime minister. Queen Victoria died in 1901, the Boer War was concluded in May 1902 and the experience of almost falling asleep in a cabinet meeting convinced Salisbury that enough was enough. He resigned in July, recommending his nephew Arthur Balfour as his successor. Balfour duly took office, but he did not inspire the respect that his uncle had commanded. Unable to keep his party together, he lost the election of 1906. Salisbury, meanwhile, had died at Hatfield in 1903. He was buried next to his wife, and his statue by Sir George Frampton sits majestically outside the gates of Hatfield House today, contemplating a quite singularly uninspiring railway station.	Arthur Balfour
Which Austrian composer's works are given K numbers according to the 19th century Kochel catalogue ?	‘Unelected’ Prime Ministers: THE FACTS ‘Unelected’ Prime Ministers: THE FACTS Published on by Ian Gillies Bell Ex Cabinet Minister Lord Adonis once defended the possibility of having a new Labour Prime Minister insisting that it was “quite common” to have ‘unelected’ Prime Ministers in Britain. Lets cast our eye back to the start of the twentieth century to see how common ‘unelected’ Prime Ministers have been in British history. Analysis Since 1900 Britain has had 22 different Prime Ministers. The list below shows that in that period there have been 14 occasions on which 13 different Prime Ministers have come to power other than through a general election. Year Arthur Balfour Conservative In some instances, the Prime Minister went to the country almost immediately to secure a mandate, as was the case with Sir Anthony Eden in 1955. However, there were many occasions when a Prime Minister who came to power midway through a parliamentary term led the country for a prolonged period without having won a general election as leader of their party. In the post-war period, John Major served for almost two years during the recession of the early 1990s before winning the 1992 general election. James Callaghan succeeded Harold Wilson as leader of the Labour party in 1976 and served as Prime Minister for three years and 29 days before being defeated by Margaret Thatcher and the Conservatives in 1979. It now appears that Gordon Brown will join Mr Callaghan and Sir Alec Douglas-Home, who was in charge in 1963-64, as post-war British Prime Ministers who have never secured the mandate of the British public to lead the country. However, the constitutional position is clear. Under Britain’s parliamentary system we do not directly elect Prime Ministers but choose to elect individual MPs from particular parties. It is the parties that decide their leader. It is the Queen who invites the individual best able to command the confidence of the House of Commons to be Prime Minister, usually the leader of the largest party. There is no constitutional requirement for the Prime Minister to have led his party through a general election to remain in office. Pre-war period A potted history of the period between 1900 and 1945 shows that having a change of Prime Minister without a general election was the norm, rather than the exception. In 1902, Arthur Balfour became Conservative Prime Minister after the retirement of his uncle Lord Salisbury. He served as Prime Minister for three years and 145 days before his resignation and left office without ever leading his party to victory in a general election. In 1905, Liberal leader Henry Campbell-Bannerman was asked to form a government following Balfour’s resignation. He went to the country in 1906 and the Liberals won a landslide victory. However, Herbert Asquith succeeded Mr Campbell-Bannerman as Prime Minister in 1908. The election in 1910 returned a hung Parliament and Asquith, sitting in the House of Lords, remained Prime Minister until 1916. He was succeeded by fellow Liberal David Lloyd George who led a coalition government to victory in the First World War. After this, Mr Lloyd George went to the country and his coalition government won a huge majority in 1918. The election victory of the Conservatives in 1923 and the installation of Andrew Bonar-Law as Prime Minister ended a sequence of four Prime Ministers who came to power without a general election. However, the pattern quickly re-emerged. Mr Bonar-Law resigned after just 209 days in office and Stanley Baldwin then took over, the first of three stints in office. In the summer of 1935 Mr Baldwin became Prime Minister again at the head of the National Government after the resignation of Ramsey MacDonald. He went to the country in a general election just months later, winning a mandate. But Mr Baldwin did not stay in post for long. He was followed by Neville Chamberlain and then Winston Churchill. From 1937 to 1945, Britain was guided through the tumultuous period of global crisis and war by leaders who had not been elected by the British people as Prime Minister. Mr Churchill did later win a popular mandate from the British people when he returned as Prime Minister in 1951; however this was 11 years after he first entered 10 Downing Street. Conclusion Lord Adonis was right to assert that it is quite common for Prime Ministers to come to power without having led their party through a general election. Recent British history shows that it is, in fact, remarkably common. Constitutionally there is nothing to prevent such a move happening. Whether it is seen as acceptable or legitimate by the British people is a judgement that the electorate will have to make themselves. Share this:	i don't know
In 1860, which Englishman invented an electric lamp some time before Edison registered his patent for the same device ?	Inventors & Inventions Inventors & Inventions Tweet The Direct Action Committee, a group pushing for nuclear disarmament, invented the peace symbol in 1958. The forked symbol is actually a composite of the semaphore signals "N" and "D," to stand for nuclear disarmament. Ivory bar soap floating was a mistake. They had been over mixing the soap formula causing excess air bubbles that made it float.Customers wrote and told how much they loved that it floated,and it has floated ever since. [It floats in gasoline, too.] Fortune cookies were invented in San Fransisco around 1914. In 1983 a judge decided that the modern fortune cookie came from San Fransisco. Source The Frisbee originated in the 1950s, when Yale students started the practice of playing catch with the pie-tins put out by the Frisbie Baking Company of Bridgeport, Connecticut. The company went out of business in 1957, but a few of their "5 cent deposit"pie-tins remain and are being hoarded by avid Frisbee collectors. Diet Coke was only invented in 1982. Naugahyde, plastic "leather" was created in Naugatuck, Connecticut. As of 1940, total of ninety patents had been taken out on shaving mugs. A teenager invented a quick-release ratchet and offered the patent to Sears. Sears told him the patent was valueless and gave him $10,000, then went on to make $44 million selling the ratchets. Source It took three years of constant printing to complete Johann Gutenberg's famous Bible, which appeared in 1455 in two volumes, and had 1,284 pages. He reportedly printed 200 Bibles, of which 47 still exist. Madame Alexander dolls were the creation of Beatrice Alexander Behrman, the daughter of Russian immigrants. Mrs. Behrman, whose father operated New York's first doll "hospital," started making dolls in 1923, and her creations soon became famous for their molded heads and limbs, lifelike eyes, rooted hair and elaborate costumes. Mrs. Behrman sold the company to several New York investors in 1988, two years before she died at age 95. But America's first and only remaining doll manufacturer has not compromised her high standard of quality and unique craftsmanship. Today, most of the company's manufacturing is still done in Harlem, New York, and more than 500,000 dolls a year are sold. Dr. Samuel Langley was able to get many model airplanes to fly, but on December 8, 1903, Langley's "human carrying flying machine", the aerodrome plunged into the Potomac River near Washington D.C., in front of photographers who were assembled to witness the event. Reporters around the country made fun of the idea that people could fly and nine days later, Wilbur and Orville Wright proved them wrong. The first product Motorola started to develop was a record player for automobiles. At that time the most known player on the market was the Victrola, so they called themselves Motorola. Self-made millionaire Cyrus Field championed the idea of a telegraph from England to Newfoundland. Britain quickly agreed to subsidize. Congress went along by a one-vote margin. That was in 1856. Laying cable was tough. It kept breaking. The first line - two years later - died almost immediately. But 10 years later, there were two working lines. Communications changed forever. The first lightweight luggage designed for air travel was conceived by aviation pioneer Amelia Earhart. Donald F. Duncan, the man who made the yo-yo an American tradition, is also credited with popularizing the parking meter and introducing Good Humor "ice cream on a stick. {googleAds} {/googleAds} Eastman Kodak's Brownie camera cost $1.00 when it was introduced in 1900. Sylvan N. Goldman of Humpty Dumpty Stores and Standard Food Markets developed the shopping cart so that people could buy more in a single visit to the grocery store. He unveiled his creation in Oklahoma City on June 4, 1937. Frederick Winthrop Thayer of Massachusetts and the captain of the Harvard University Baseball Club received a patent for his baseball catcher's mask on February 12, 1878. The first coin operated machine ever designed was a holy-water dispenser that required a five-drachma piece to operate. It was the brainchild of the Greek scientist Hero in the first century AD. Ornithologists often use Scotch tape to cover cracks in the soft shells of fertilized pigeon eggs, allowing the eggs to hatch. Scotch tape has also been used as an anti-corrosive shield on the Goodyear Blimp. The power lawn mower was invented by Ransom E. Olds (of Oldsmobile fame) in 1915. The shoestring was invented in England in 1790, Prior to this time all shoes were fastened with buckles. The single blade window cleaning squeegee was invented in 1936 by Ettore Sceccone and is still the most common form of commercial window cleaning today. The 'spot' on 7UP comes from its inventor who had red eyes. He was albino. Edison improved the incandescent lamp in 1879, but he didn't actually invent it. Sir Humphrey Davy is reputed to be the true inventor of the electric light. He passed electricity through a platinum wire and caused an arc lamp to glow as early as 1802. However, Davy did not pursue the discovery. By the time Edison entered the scene, arc lamps had been burning for several decades, but were limited by short life spans. Edison developed a long-lasting filament light in 1877, and in 1879 produced the first long-lasting light bulb. The man who invented shorthand, John Gregg, was deaf. Because he felt such an important tool should be public property, English chemist John Walker never patented his invention — matches. The hypodermic needle was invented in 1853. It was initially used for giving injections of morphine as a painkiller. Physicians mistakenly believed that morphine would not be addictive if it by-passed the digestive tract. Thomas Edison’s first major invention was the quadruplex telegraph. Unlike other telegraphs at the time, it could send four messages at the same time over one wire. Inventor Gail Borden, Jr. invented condensed milk in the 1850's. After his death in 1937, Guglielmo Marconi, inventor of the wireless telegraph was honored by broadcasters worldwide as they let the airwaves fall silent for two minutes in his memory. Pez was invented in 1927 by Eduard Haas, an Austrian anti-smoking fanatic, who marketed peppermint-flavored PEZ as a cigarette substitute. The candy gets its name from the German word for peppermint, Pfefferminze. Haas brought the candy to the U.S. in 1952. It bombed, so he reintroduced it as a children's toy, complete with cartoon heads and fruity flavors. One of the most secretive companies in the U.S., PEZ won't even disclose who currently owns the company. The Nobel Prize resulted from a late change in the will of Alfred Nobel, who did not want to be remembered after his death as a propagator of violence - he invented dynamite. Alfred Nobel us ed a cellulose adhesive (nitrocellulose) as the chemical binder for nitroglycerin, which he used in his invention of dynamite. Germany holds the title for most independent inventors to apply for patents. Noxema, the skin cream invented in 1914 by Baltimore pharmacist George Bunting, was originally sold as "Dr. Bunting's Sunburn Remedy." Mr. Bunting changed the name to Noxema after a customer enthusiastically told him the cream had "knocked out his eczema." Thus, the cream that "knocks eczema" became "Noxema". George Eastman, inventor of the Kodak camera, hated having his picture taken. Root Beer was invented in Biloxi, Mississippi, in 1898 by Edward Adolf Barq, Sr. Because Napoleon believed that armies marched on their stomachs, he offered a prize in 1795 for a practical way of preserving food. The prize was won by a French inventor, Nicholas Appert. What he devised was canning. It was the beginning of the canned food industry of today. Bavarian immigrant Charles August Fey invented the first three-reel automatic payout slot machine, the Liberty Bell, in San Francisco in 1899. More than 5,000 years ago, the Chinese discovered how to make silk from silkworm cocoons. For about 3,000 years, the Chinese kept this discovery a secret. Because poor people could not afford real silk, they tried to make other cloth look silky. Women would beat on cotton with sticks to soften the fibers. Then they rubbed it against a big stone to make it shiny. The shiny cotton was called "chintz." Because chintz was a cheaper copy of silk, calling something "chintzy" means it is cheap and not of good quality. Incan soldiers invented the process of freeze-drying food. The process was primitive but effective — potatoes would be left outside to freeze overnight, then thawed and stomped on to remove excess water. The first wooden shoe comes from the Netherlands. The Netherlands have many seas so people wanted a shoe that kept their feet dry while working outside. The shoes were called klompen and they had been cut of one single piece of wood. Today the klompen are the favorite souvenir for people who visit the Netherlands. When airplanes were still a novel invention, seat belts for pilots were installed only after the consequence of their absence was observed to be fatal - several pilots fell to their deaths while flying upside down. The first Bowie knife was forged at Washington, Arkansas. The supersonic Concorde jet made its first trial flight on January 1, 1969. Duffel bags are named after a town of Duffel, Belgium, where they were first made. The commercial wireless phone was first introduced in Chicago in 1982 by Ameritech. The safety pin was patented in 1849 by Walter Hunt. He sold the patent rights for $400. The first Fords used Dodge engines. Many ford vehicles now use Nissan engines, especially in Mini-vans. The first portable calculator placed on sale by Texas Instruments weighed only 2-1/2 pounds and cost a mere $150. (1971) In 1937 the emergency 999 telephone service was established in London. More than 13,000 genuine calls were made in the first month. In 1889, the 1st coin-operated telephone, patented by Hartford, Connecticut inventor William Gray, was installed in the Hartford Bank. In 1977, according to the American Telephone and Telegraph Company, there were 14.5 telephone calls made for every 100 people in the entire world. Humphrey O'Sullivan invented the rubber heel because he was tired of pounding the pavements of Boston looking for a job. Hungarian brothers George and L"szlo Biro invented the ball point pen in 1938. Seating on the first scheduled inter-city commuter airplane flight consisted of moveable wicker chairs. There were 11 of them on the first Ford Tri-Motors. After several years, Ford replaced them with aluminum framed leather chairs. The first man-made item to exceed the speed of sound is the bull whip or leather whip. When the whip is snapped, the knotted end makes a "crack" or popping noise. It is actually causing a mini sonic boom as it exceeds the speed of sound. Cornelius van Drebel, a Dutch physician, built and successfully demonstrated the first submarine in 1620. It was a wooden framework covered with greased leather. The propulsion was provided by oars worked from the inside. It was tested in the Thames River in London. Venetian blinds were invented in Japan. Henry Waterman, of New York, invented the elevator in 1850. He intended it to transport barrels of flour. John Greenwood, also of New York invented the dental drill in 1790. The corkscrew was invented by M.L. Bryn, also of New York, in 1860. Electrical hearing aids were invented in 1901 by Miller R. Hutchinson, who was (you guessed it) from New York. Dr. Jonas Salk developed the vaccine for polio in 1952, in New York. The first words that Thomas A. Edison spoke into the phonograph were, "Mary had a little lamb." In the early 1800s, a French silk weaver called Joseph-Marie Jacquard invented a way of automatically controlling the warp and weft threads on a silk loom by recording patterns of holes in a string of cards. Gutenburg invented the printing press in the 1450's, and the first book to ever be printed was the Bible. It was, however, in Latin rather than English. The toothbrush was invented in 1498. The waffle iron was invented August 24, 1869. The alarm clock was not invented by the Marquis de Sade, as some suspect, but rather by a man named Levi Hutchins of Concord, New Hampshire, in 1787. Perversity, though, characterized his invention from the beginning. The alarm on his clock could ring only at 4 am. Rumor has it that Hutchins was murdered by his wife at 4:05 am on a very dark and deeply cold New England morning. Craven Walker invented the lava lamp, and its contents are colored wax and water. In 1916, Jones Wister of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania invented a rifle for shooting around corners. It had a curved barrel and periscopic sights. The same man who led the attack on the Alamo, Mexican Military General, Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, is also credited with the invention of chewing gum. The parachute was invented by Leonardo da Vinci in 1515. Leonardo Da Vinci invented the scissors. Lazy Susans are named after Thomas Edison's daughter. He invented it to impress a gathering of industrialists and inventors. Cyano-acrylate glues (super glue) were invented by accident. The researcher was trying to make optical materials, and would test their properties by putting them between two prisms and shining light through them. When he tried the cyano-acrylate, he couldn't get the prisms apart. A device invented as a primitive steam engine by the Greek engineer Hero, about the time of the birth of Christ, is used today as a rotating lawn sprinkler. A machine has been invented that can read printed English books aloud to the blind, and it can do so at speed half again as fast as normal speech. Games Slayter, a Purdue graduate, invented fiberglass. Teflon was discovered in 1938. Alfred Nobel used a cellulose adhesive (nitrocellulose) as the chemical binder for nitroglycerin, which he used in his invention of dynamite. At the St. Louis World's Fair in 1904, Richard Blechyden, and Englishman, had a tea concession. On a very hot day, none of the fairgoers were interested in hot tea. Blechyden served the tea cold—and invented iced tea. The first known item made from aluminum was a rattle—made for Napoleon III in the 1850s. Napoleon also provided his most honored guests with knives and forks made of pure aluminum. At the time the newly discovered metal was so rare, it was considered more valuable than gold. Hale's 100 inch lens built in the early 1900s was the largest solid piece of glass made until then. The lens was made by a French specialist who poured the equivalent of ten thousand melted champagne bottles into a mold packed with heat maintaining manure so that the glass would cool slowly and not crack. When Alexander Graham Bell Was working on the telephone in 1876, he spilled battery acid on his pants and called out to his assistant, "Watson, please come here. I want you." Watson, who was on another floor, heard the call through the instrument he was hooking up, and ran to Bell's room. Bell's words became the first ever successfully communicated using a telephone. Dutch engineers have developed a computerized machine that allows a cow to milk itself. Each cow in the herd has a computer chip in its collar. If the computer senses that the cow has not been milked in a given period of time, the milk-laden animal is allowed to enter the stall. The robot sensors locate the teats, apply the vacuum devices, and the cow is milked. The machine costs a mere $250,000 and is said to boost milk production by 15%. Out of the 11 original patents made by Nikola Tessla, for the generation of hydroelectric energy, 9 are still in use, (unchanged) today. The windmill originated in Iran in AD 644. It was used to grind grain. Russian submarine designers are building military submarines out of concrete. Because concrete becomes stronger under high pressure, (C-subs) could settle down to the bottom in very deep water and wait for enemy ships to pass overhead. Concrete would not show up on sonar displays (it looks just like sand or rocks), so the passing ships would not see the sub lurking below. The first umbrella factory in the U.S. was founded in 1928 in Baltimore, Maryland. In the early 1950's, Denver architect Temple H. Buell, often called the Father of the Mall, conceived of and built one of the first shopping malls in the U.S.: the Cherry Creek Mall. During one four-year period, Thomas Edison obtained 300 patents, or one every five days. The Wright Brothers spent time observing the flight of the buzzard to help them solve the mystery of flight. They realized that the bird retained balance in the air by twisting the tips of it's wings. By creating a wing warping method based upon this observation, the brothers were able to obtain a remarkable degree of maneuverability. In 1832 the Scottish surgeon Neil Arnott devised water beds as a way of improving patients' comfort. In 1769 the British designer Edward Beran enclosed wooden slats in a frame to adjust the amount of light let into a room. These became known as venetian blinds from their early use over Italianate windows. George Seldon received a patent in 1895 - for the automobile. Four years later, George sold the rights for $200,000. Lillian Moller Gilbreth (1878-1972), the mother of 12 children, had good reason to improve the efficiency and convenience of household items. A pioneer in ergonomics, Gilbreth patented many devices, including an electric food mixer, and the trash can with step-on lid-opener that can be found in most households today. Direct-dial, coast-to-coast telephone service began as Mayor M. Leslie Denning of Englewood, New Jersey, called his counterpart in Alameda, California. Kleenex tissues were originally used as filters in gas masks. G.I. Joe was introduced at the annual American International Toy Fair in New York on Feb. 9, 1964. George Hancock invented a new game on November 30, 1887. It was played like baseball, except a broomstick was used for a bat and a boxing glove was the ball. Since the game was played indoors, it was originally called "indoor." Walter Hakanson later renamed it "softball." The City and South London Railway opened the world's first deep-level electric railway on December 18th, 1890, from King William Street in the City of London under the River Thames to Stockwell. Today, the London Underground Limited (LUL) is a major business with 2.5 million passenger journeys a day, nearly 500 trains, serving over 260 stations, around 16,000 staff and vast engineering assets. Dr. Samuel Langley was able to get many model airplanes to fly, but on December 8, 1903, Langley's "human carrying flying machine", the aerodrome plunged into the Potomac River near Washington D.C., in front of photographers who were assembled to witness the event. Reporters around the country made fun of the idea that people could fly and nine days later, Wilbur and Orville Wright proved them wrong. In the year 1886, Herman Hollerith had the idea of using punched cards to keep and transport information, a technology used up to the late 1970's. This device was constructed to allow the 1890 census to be tabulated. In 1896 the Tabulating Machine Company was founded by Hollerith. Twenty-eight years later, in 1924, after several take-overs the company became known as International Business Machines (IBM). Spiral staircases in medieval castles are running clockwise. This is because all knights used to be right-handed. When the intruding army would climb the stairs they would not be able to use their right hand which was holding the sword because of the difficulties of climbing the stairs. Left-handed knights would have had no troubles, except left-handed people could never become knights because it was assumed that they were descendants of the devil. In Japan, Western Electric first sold equipment in 1890, then in 1899 helped form the Nippon Electric Company (NEC). This was Japan's first joint venture with an American firm. Northern Telecom, Alcatel N.V. and NEC all had roots in Western Electric. In 1953, Sony Corporation obtained a transistor license from Western Electric Co. that led to its development of the world's first commercially successful transistor radio. Just like today's computers, early telephones were very confusing to new users. Some became so frustrated with the new technology, they attacked the phone with an ax or ripped it out of the wall. In the early 1880's some well-to-do telephone owners started the unusual trend of paying to have a theatre employee hold a telephone receiver backstage, transmitting live plays and operas into their living rooms. The famous emergency hotline, whereby the President could have immediate contact with the Kremlin wasn't established until 1984. Prior to 1984, the only direct contact to the Kremlin was a cumbersome teleprinter link, supplying text messages that then had to be translated, responses drafted and sent back. William Bourne, a British mathematician, drew plans for a submarine in 1578. But it was only in 1620 that Cornelius van Drebbel, a Dutch inventor, managed to build a submarine. He wrapped a wooden rowboat tightly in waterproofed leather and had air tubes with floats to the surface to provide oxygen. Of course, there were no engines yet, so the oars went through the hull at leather gaskets. He took the first trip with 12 oarsmen in the Thames River. It has been determined that less than one patented invention in a hundred makes any money for the inventor. It was Swiss chemist Jacques Edwin Brandenberger who invented cellophane, back in 1908. James J. Ritty, owner of a tavern in Dayton, Ohio, invented the cash register in 1879 to stop his patrons from pilfering house profits. The monkey wrench is named after its inventor, a London blacksmith named Charles Moncke. The pop top can was invented in Kettering, Ohio by Ermal Fraze. George Seldon received a patent in 1895 - for the automobile. Four years later, George sold the rights for $200,000. You could milk about six cows per hour by hand, but with modern machinery, you can milk up to 100 cows per hour. Direct-dial, coast-to-coast telephone service began as Mayor M. Leslie Denning of Englewood, New Jersey, called his counterpart in Alameda, California. Kleenex tissues were originally used as filters in gas masks. Bryan J. Patrie, a Stanford graduate student invented the Watercolor Intelligent Nightlight, which informs bleary-eyed midnight bathroom-goers whether the toilet seat is up or down... without turning on a blinding light. Patrie introduced the device in the early 1990's. He explained, "When you get within five feet of the dark commode, it will sense your motion. It looks to see if the room is dark. Then it looks upward by sending out an infrared beam. If it gets a reflection, it knows the seat is up. If it is, the red light comes on." On the first neon sign, the word neon was spelled out in red by Dr. Perley G. Nutting, 15 years before neon signs became widely used commercially. Out of the 11 original patents made by Nikola Tessla, for the generation of hydroelectric energy, 9 are still in use, (unchanged) today. The first umbrella factory in the U.S. was founded in 1928 in Baltimore, Maryland. In the early 1950's, Denver architect Temple H. Buell, often called the Father of the Mall, conceived of and built one of the first shopping malls in the U.S.: the Cherry Creek Mall. Month after month, the little Bell Company lived from hand to mouth. No salaries were paid in full. Often, for weeks, they were not paid at all. In Watson's notebook there are such entries during this period as "Lent Bell fifty cents," "Lent Hubbard twenty cents," "Bought one bottle beer—too bad can't have beer every day." When Bell's patent was sixteen months old, there were 778 telephones in use. The first "Hello" badge used to identify guests and hosts at conventions, parties, etc. was traced back to September 1880. It was on that date that the first Telephone Operators Convention was held at Niagara Falls and the "Hello" badge was created for that event. The first underground and underwater rail system in the world, the New York City Subway, began operating in 1904. Almost 8,000 men participated in building the 21-mile (33.6 km) route. The project's chief engineer was William Barclay Parsons. An Englishman invented Scotland's national dress - the kilt. It was developed from the philamore - a massive piece of tartan worn with a belt and draped over the shoulder - by English industrialist Thomas Rawlinson who ran a foundry at Lochaber, Scotland in the early 1700s and thought a detachable garment would make life more comfortable for his workers. It is recorded that the Babylonians were making soap around 2800 B.C. and that it was known to the Phoenicians around 600 B.C. These early references to soap and soap making were for the use of soap in the cleaning of textile fibers such as wool and cotton in preparation for weaving into cloth. Disc Jockey Alan Freed popularized the term "Rock and Roll." The patent number of the telephone is 174465. George Washington Carver invented peanut butter. The Roman civilization invented the arch. King Gilette spent 8 years trying to invent and introduce his safety razor. The Super Ball® was born in 1965, and it became America's most popular plaything that year. By Christmas time, only six months after it was introduced by Wham-O, 7 million balls had been sold at 98 cents apiece. Norman Stingley, a California chemist, invented the bouncing gray ball. In his spare time, he had compressed a synthetic rubber material under 3,500 pounds of pressure per square inch, and eventually created the remarkable ball. It had a resiliency of 92 percent, about three times that of a tennis ball, and could bounce for long periods. It was reported that presidential aide McGeorge Bundy had five dozen Super Balls® shipped to the White House for the amusement of staffers. At a glance, the Celsius scale makes more sense than the Fahrenheit scale for temperature measuring. But its creator, Anders Celsius, was an oddball scientist. When he first developed his scale, he made freezing 100 degrees and boiling 0 degrees, or upside down. No one dared point this out to him, so fellow scientists waited until Celsius died to change the scale. At a jet plane's speed of 1,000 km (620mi) per hour, the length of the plane becomes one atom shorter than its original length. Western Electric successfully brought sound to motion pictures and introduced systems of mobile communications which culminated in the cellular telephone. On December 23, 1947, Bell Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill, N.J., held a secret demonstration of the transistor which marked the foundation of modern electronics. Bavarian immigrant Charles August Fey invented the first three-reel automatic payout slot machine, the Liberty Bell, in San Francisco in 1899. Dr. John Gorrie of Appalachicola, Florida, invented mechanical refrigeration in 1851. He patented his device on May 6, 1851. There is a statue which honors this "Father of Modern Day Air Conditioning" in the Statuary Hall of the Capitol building in Washington, DC. Electrical hearing aids were invented in 1901 by Miller R. Hutchinson. In 1889, the first coin-operated telephone, patented by Hartford, Connecticut inventor William Gray, was installed in the Hartford Bank. Soon, "pay phones" were installed in stores, hotels, saloons, and restaurants, and their use soared. Local calls using a coin-operated phone in the U.S. cost only 5 cents everywhere until 1951. The first commercial vacuum cleaner was so large it was mounted on a wagon. People threw parties in their homes so guests could watch the new device do its job. The parachute was invented by Leonardo da Vinci in 1515. Lazy Susans are named after Thomas Edison's daughter. He invented it to impress a gathering of industrialists and inventors. Cyano-acrylate glues (super glue) were invented by accident. The researcher was trying to make optical materials, and would test their properties by putting them between two prisms and shining light through them. When he tried the cyano-acrylate, he couldn't get the prisms apart. A machine has been invented that can read printed English books aloud to the blind, and it can do so at speed half again as fast as normal speech. The single blade window cleaning squeegee was invented in 1936 by Ettore Sceccone and is still the most common form of commercial window cleaning today. Roulette was invented by the great French mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal. It was a by product of his experiments with perpetual motion. The man who invented shorthand, John Gregg, was deaf. The hypodermic needle was invented in 1853. It was initially used for giving injections of morphine as a painkiller. Physicians mistakenly believed that morphine would not be addictive if it by-passed the digestive tract. Thomas Edison’s first major invention was the quadruplex telegraph. Unlike other telegraphs at the time, it could send four messages at the same time over one wire. Inventor Gail Borden, Jr. invented condensed milk in the 1850's. After his death in 1937, Guglielmo Marconi, inventor of the wireless telegraph was honored by broadcasters worldwide as they let the airwaves fall silent for two minutes in his memory. In the year 1886, Herman Hollerith had the idea of using punched cards to keep and transport information, a technology used up to the late 1970's. This device was constructed to allow the 1890 census to be tabulated. In 1896 the Tabulating Machine Company was founded by Hollerith. Twenty-eight years later, in 1924, after several take-overs the company became known as International Business Machines (IBM). At the turn of the century, most light bulbs were hand-blown, and the cost of one was equivalent to half a day's pay for the average U.S. worker. Camel's-hair brushes are not made of camel's hair. They were invented by a man named Mr. Camel. Western Electric invented the loudspeaker which was initially called "loud-speaking telephone." Phone service was established at the White House one year after its invention. President Rutherford B. Hayes was the first to have phone service (1877-81). Fifteen years after its invention in 1876, there were five million phones in America. Fifteen years after its invention, more than 33 million wireless phones were in the U.S. According to U.S. law, a patent may not be granted on a useless invention, on a method of doing business, on mere printed matter, or on a device or machine that will not operate. Even if an invention is novel or new, a patent may not be obtained if the invention would have been obvious to a person having ordinary skill in the same area at the time of the invention. According to Dennis Changon, spokesman for the International Civil Aviation Organization in Montreal, Canada - if all of the commercial planes in the world were grounded at the same time there wouldn't be space to park them all at gates. In 1931, an industrialist named Robert Ilg built a half-size replica of the Leaning Tower of Pisa outside Chicago and lived in it for several years. The tower is still there. The first manager of the Seattle Space Needle, Hoge Sullivan, was acrophobic - fearful of heights. The 605 foot tall Space Needle is fastened to its foundation with 72 bolts, each 30 feet long. The Space Needle sways approximately 1 inch for every 10 mph of wind. It was built to withstand a wind velocity of 200 miles-per-hour. The first revolving restaurant, The Top of the Needle, was located at the 500-foot level of the 605-foot-high steel-and-glass tower at the Century 21 Exposition in Seattle, Washington. It contained 260 seats and revolved 360 degrees in an hour. The state-of-the-art restaurant was dedicated on May 22, 1961. Henry Waterman, of New York, invented the elevator in 1850. He intended it to transport barrels of flour. John Greenwood, of New York invented the dental drill in 1790. The corkscrew was invented by M.L. Bryn, of New York, in 1860. Electrical hearing aids were invented in 1901 by Miller R. Hutchinson, who was from New York. Dr. Jonas Salk developed the vaccine for polio in 1952, in New York. Four wheel roller skates were invented by James L. Plimpton in 1863. The first words that Thomas A. Edison spoke into the phonograph were, "Mary had a little lamb." In the early 1800s, a French silk weaver called Joseph-Marie Jacquard invented a way of automatically controlling the warp and weft threads on a silk loom by recording patterns of holes in a string of cards. As an advertising gimmick, Carl Meyer, nephew of lunch meat mogul Oscar Meyer, invented the company's "Wienermobile". On July 18, 1936, the first Oscar Mayer "Wienermobile" rolled out of General Body Company's factory in Chicago. The Wienermobile still tours the U.S. today. Germany holds the title for most independent inventors to apply for patents. George Eastman, inventor of the Kodak camera, hated having his picture taken. Because Napoleon believed that armies marched on their stomachs, he offered a prize in 1795 for a practical way of preserving food. The prize was won by a French inventor, Nicholas Appert. What he devised was canning. It was the beginning of the canned food industry of today. Bavarian immigrant Charles August Fey invented the first three-reel automatic payout slot machine, the Liberty Bell, in San Francisco in 1899. Joseph Priestly is credited with discovering oxygen, ammonia, carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride, sulphur dioxide, and nitrous oxide. He was also the first to isolate chlorine. Joseph Swan invented the light bulb in 1879, one year before Thomas Edison did. However, Swan didn't patent the idea and was widely accused of copying Edison who did patent the idea and was therefore recognized as its inventor. Swan continued to be denied recognition until some time later when it was shown that both light bulbs were produced using different processes. Edison and Swan later formed a joint company using the best of both technologies. Miller Reese of New York, patented the first hearing-aid.Unlike the hearing aids that we know today - this original was not portable. Electrical hearing aids were invented in 1901 by Miller R.Hutchinson. John Greenwood invented the dental drill in 1790. The corkscrew was invented by M.L. Bryn in 1860. Four wheel roller skates - James L. Plimpton in 1863.	Joseph Swan
Upminster and Wimbledon are termini of which London Underground line ?	A History Of Electricity And Magnetism \| First4magnets.com Home › Tech Centre › Information and Articles › A History Of Electricity And Magnetism A History Of Electricity And Magnetism Use the links provided below to navigate through our Tech Centre. If you can’t find the information you are looking for please call 01777 874 520. For Free, Friendly Technical Advice CALL THE EXPERTS: 01777 874 520 A HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Magnetism and electricity are intrinsically linked, without one we couldn’t have the other. History is littered with philosophers, physicians, engineers and inventors that have all contributed to our understanding of and the development of electricity and magnetism, many of which are detailed here in our brief history. 600 BC Thales, a Greek philosopher, found that when amber was rubbed with silk, it became electrically charged and attracted other objects. Thales had discovered static electricity. 1175 Alexander Neckam, an English monk, described the workings of a compass 1600 William Gilbert, an English physician and scientist, first spoke of electricity (taken from the term electron, the Greek word for amber) and was the first person to research the properties of the lodestone. Gilbert wrote about the electrification of many substances. He was also the first person to use the terms electric force, magnetic pole, and electric attraction. Controversially he disregarded the common belief that the earth was fixed at the centre of the universe and suggested that magnetism was the soul of the earth. Gilbert published his findings in his book titled De Magnete. 1660 Robert Boyle, an Irish philosopher, chemist and physicist discovered that electric force could be transmitted through a vacuum and observed attraction and repulsion. 1675 Englishman Stephen Gray, a dyer and chemist, distinguished between conductors and non-conductors of electrical charges. 1800 Italian physicist Alessandro Volta invented the first electric battery. The term volt is named in his honour. 1809 Sir Humphry Davy, an English chemist and inventor, created the first electric lamp. The arc lamp was a piece of carbon that glowed when connected by wires to a battery. 1820 Separate experiments by Hans Christian Ørsted (Denmark), Andre-Marie Ampere (France), and Francois Arago (France) confirmed the relationship between electricity and magnetism. Hans Christian Ørsted’s accidental discovery that an electrical current moves a compass needle rocked the scientific world and a spate of experiments followed, immediately leading to the first electromagnet and electric motor. Hans Christian Ørsted – An accidental discovery In the autumn of 1820, Ørsted invited some colleagues over to show them the way metal could conduct an electrical current. When he fired up the current, Ørsted noticed the needle on a nearby compass moved, which he intended to use for a different demonstration. Before, nobody had ever observed a relationship between electricity and magnetism. He kept his findings secret until figured out how and why his demonstration had affected the magnetic field of the compass. Up until this point, only lodestones (naturally occurring stones with a high concentration of iron) and iron itself were known to give off a magnetic field. Ørsted replicated his finding and studied it intently, but couldn't come up with an explanation for the phenomenon on his own. He ended up publishing his discovery with no explanation some three months after his discovery. André-Marie Ampère Over the months following the publication of Ørsted’s discovery the scientific community was frantically trying to explain the phenomenon and over a hundred papers were published on the subject in the following seven years. The most authoritative on the subject was French physicist and professor of mathematics, André-Marie Ampère. Only a week after he learned of Ørsted's work, Ampère presented his own findings demonstrating that when two wires were placed parallel to one another, both carrying an electric current, they'd either be attracted to or repulsed by each other depending on which directions the currents were traveling. If both currents moved in the same direction, the wires would be attracted to one another, conversely, if the currents were moving in opposite directions the wires repelled each other. It now sounds simple, but this finding provided the building blocks for the study of electromagnetism and became one of the foundations of modern physics. Ampère also figured out how to quantify the intensity of the interaction between different electromagnetic currents, and cemented the relationship between electricity and magnetism with an equation known as Ampère's Law. 1821 Michael Faraday, one of the most influential English scientists, discovered the principle of electro-magnetic rotation that would later be the key to developing the electric motor. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices made the electric motor possible. 1826 German physicist and mathematician George Ohm defined the relationship between power, voltage, current and resistance in Ohms Law. 1831 Using his invention the induction ring, Michael Faraday, proved that electricity can be induced by changes in an electromagnetic field. Faraday's experiments about how electric current works led to the understanding of electrical transformers and motors. Faraday wasn’t alone in his endeavours; American scientist Joseph Henry separately discovered the principle of electromagnetic induction but Faraday was first to publish his work. Faraday also described an electric motor and carried out numerous experiments in his attempt to prove that electricity could be generated from magnetism. Within the course of a few weeks, the great experimentalist not only had clearly demonstrated this phenomenon, now known as electromagnetic induction, but also had developed a good conception of the processes involved. One of the experiments performed by Faraday in that important year featured a permanent magnet and a galvanometer connected to a coil of wire wound around a paper cylinder. 1832 The first magneto, an electrical generator that uses permanent magnets to produce periodic pulses of alternating current, is built by French instrument-maker Hippolyte Pixii just one year after Michael Faraday's discovery of the principles of electromagnetic induction. Pixii's hand-crank operated magneto was the first practical generator of electrical current. 1834 Thomas Davenport an American blacksmith and inventor invented the electric motor, an invention that is used in most electrical appliances today. 1860s The mathematical theory of electromagnetic fields was published by Scottish theoretical physicist J.C. Maxwell and created a new era of physics when he unified magnetism, electricity, and light. Maxwell's four laws of electrodynamics (Maxwell's Equations) eventually led to electric power, radios, and television. 1876 American inventor Charles Brush invented the open coil dynamo, or generator, that could produce a steady current of electricity. 1878 English physicist and chemist Joseph Swan invented the first incandescent light bulb (also called an electric lamp). His light bulb burned out quickly. American Thomas Edison was also working to develop the same device and founded the Edison Electric Light Co. in New York City. He bought a number of patents related to electric lighting and began experiments to develop a practical, long-lasting light bulb. Charles Brush (United States) developed an arc lamp that could be powered by a generator. 1879 After many experiments, Thomas Edison (United States) invented an incandescent light bulb that could be used for about 40 hours without burning out. By 1880, his bulbs could be used for 1,200 hours. 1882 Thomas Edison opened the Pearl Street power station in New York city. The power station was one of the world's first central electric power plants and could power 5,000 lights. It used a direct current (DC) power system, unlike the power systems that we use today which use alternating current (AC). The first hydroelectric station opened in Wisconsin. 1883 Nikola Tesla an American immigrant from the Austrian Empire invented the Tesla coil, a transformer that changed electricity from low voltage to high voltage, making it easier to transport over long distances. 1884 Nikola Tesla invented the electric alternator for producing alternating current (AC). Until this time, electricity had been generated using direct current (DC) from batteries. Sir Charles Algernon Parsons, an English engineer, invented a steam turbine generator, capable of generating huge amounts of electricity. 1888 Nikola Tesla demonstrated the first polyphase alternating current (AC) electrical system. His AC system included all units needed for electricity production and use: generator, transformers, transmission system, motor (used in appliances) and lights. George Westinghouse, the head of Westinghouse Electric Company, bought the patent rights to the AC system. Also in 1888, Charles Brush was the first to use a large windmill to generate electricity. He used the windmill to charge batteries in the cellar of his home in Cleveland, Ohio. 1895 The Niagara Falls hydropower station opened. It originally provided electricity to the local area. One year later, when a new alternating current (AC) powerline was opened, electric power from Niagara Falls was sent to customers over 20 miles away in Buffalo, New York. 1897	i don't know
In which year did Argentina's Maradona score his infamous 'hand of God' goal?	Maradona 'Hand of God' Goal 1986 World Cup - YouTube Maradona 'Hand of God' Goal 1986 World Cup Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Apr 27, 2012 Unforgettable England Moments - 5 of 10 Category	1986
Alcuin, Goodricke, Halifax, and Vanbrugh are among the colleges which are constituent parts of which British university ?	June 22 flashback - Diego Maradona's Hand of God' in 1986 June 22 flashback - Diego Maradona's Hand of God' in 1986 Yahoo Sports June 22, 2015 On June 22 in World Cup history: Diego Maradona's "Hand of God" helps Argentina beat England in Mexico City in 1986. Emotions at the World Cup have rarely been so conflicted as they were on this day in Azteca Stadium. In their first match since the Falklands War, Argentina and England met in a quarterfinal. This was the day of the "Hand of God," when Maradona, one of the most gifted footballers of all time, used his left fist to knock in a ball past England goalkeeper Peter Shilton. It's arguably the most infamous goal in World Cup history. Later in the game, Maradona scored one of the best. Picking up the ball around the halfway line, he toyed with the English and through a myriad of dribbles, feints and sheer body strength scored what many consider the greatest individual goal of all time. Despite a late fightback from England, Argentina held on to win 2-1 to make the semifinals and went on to win the tournament. — Associated Press	i don't know
The radio telescope at Jodrell Bank is named after which physicist and astronomer ?	Jodrell Bank: Science facts and science fiction \| Science \| The Guardian The Lovell Telescope: Facts & Figures Mass of the telescope: 3,200 tonnes Mass of bowl: 1,500 tonnes Diameter of bowl: 76.2 metres Surface area of bowl: 5,270 square metres Amount of paint for three coats: 5,300 litres Maximum height above ground: 89.0 metres Outer diameter of railway track: 107.5 metres When it was built in 1957 it was the largest in the world. It cost £750,000 and was three times over budget. It is now the third largest movable telescope in the world after the Effelsberg Radio Telescope in Germany and the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Green Bank, West Virginia . Both are 100 metres in diameter. The largest fixed telescope is the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico , which is 305 metres across. The Jodrell Bank site is named after a local stream. Jodrell is the family name of an archer at the battle of Agincourt who was rewarded by the crown with land. The Lovell telescope is so sensitive that using mobile phones on the site is forbidden. Even the microwave in the staff tea room is shielded inside a metal box to prevent interference. The e-Merlin upgrade has cost £8m in new hardware (mainly installing fibre optic cables) and will cost £2.5m per year to run. Jodrell Bank in popular culture Tom Baker as Doctor Who in the series Logopolis, 1981. Photograph: BBC In a 1981 episode of Doctor Who , the Doctor's fourth incarnation, played by Tom Baker, fell to his death from a walkway at the Lovell telescope. He regenerated into Peter Davison. In Douglas Adams' Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy , Jodrell Bank scientists missed the alien invasion because they were having a cup of tea. The Lovell telescope won the BBC's "unsung landmark" competition in 2006. In the 1953 sci-fi serial The Quatermass Experiment , the central character – Bernard – is said to have been named after Sir Bernard Lovell, Jodrell Bank's founder. Jodrell's greatest hits In its first year of operation, 1957, the Lovell telescope – or Mark 1 as it was then known – tracked the ballistic missile that had blasted the Soviet Sputnik 1 satellite into space. The Ministry of Defence later secretly used Lovell as a nuclear missile tracking station. Lovell had a major role in the discovery and identification of quasars (QUASi-stellAR radio source). These are thought to be powered by the accretion of dust and other material into super-massive black holes at the centre of distant galaxies. Lovell was instrumental in demonstrating gravitational lensing – the warping of space-time around massive objects. This discovery is a major plank in the evidence for Einstein's general theory of relativity. Astronomers have used the telescope to carry out a detailed investigation of pulsars (pulsating stars). These are thought to be extremely dense remnants of stars left over from supernova explosions. They rotate and emit a beam of radio waves, rather like a lighthouse. Topics Physicist and radio astronomer who helped build one of world's largest telescopes dies aged 98 Published: 7 Aug 2012 Revolutionary project ready to launch just months after radio telescope site escaped closure Published: 1 Feb 2009 Astronomers at the site in Cheshire have processed signals from two of the telescopes in the brand new seven-telescope network Published: 20 Apr 2009 The upgrade to the Merlin telescope array, which includes Jodrell Bank, was threatened last year by funding cuts. It was rescued after an outcry from scientists and the public Published: 1 Feb 2009	Bernard Lovell
Edgeware and Morden are termini of which London Underground line ?	Bernard Lovell dies at 98; conceived Jodrell Bank radio telescope - latimes YOU ARE HERE: LAT Home → Collections → News Bernard Lovell dies at 98; conceived Jodrell Bank radio telescope The radio telescope he got built in England has played a crucial role in tracking satellites, searching for missing lunar probes and revealing the wonders of space. August 12, 2012 \|By Thomas H. Maugh II, Special to The Times Pioneering British physicist and astronomer Bernard Lovell founded England's… (Jon Super / Associated Press ) When the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, into orbit in 1957, its tiny radio transmitter allowed it to be tracked in space. There was only one instrument in the West that could track the intercontinental ballistic missile that launched it, however: the newly opened 250-foot radio telescope at Jodrell Bank in England. And when Sputnik's transmitter died after only 22 days, Jodrell Bank — towering over the English countryside in a small village south of Manchester — was the only instrument that could track it until it fell to Earth three months later. The telescope, which has since played a crucial role in tracking orbiting satellites, searching for missing probes on the moon and revealing the wonders of deep space, was the brainchild of one man, Sir Bernard Lovell. Lovell conceived it, fought vigorously for funds, faced jail when funding fell short and oversaw its use for the rest of his career. Lovell, who had been in ill health for several years, died Monday at his home in Swettenham Village, England, according to the University of Manchester. He was 98. "Sir Bernard leaves a fantastic legacy at the university's Jodrell Bank Observatory, which is a world-class center for astronomy research, an iconic science monument and a center that attracts thousands of visitors and inspires scientists of the future," said Dame Nancy Rothwell, president of the university, where Lovell was a professor emeritus. "He was a towering figure, not just in Manchester or the U.K., but globally." Stellar objects emit radiation at a broad range of frequencies, including radio frequencies. In the 1930s, researchers at Bell Laboratories made the first observation of radio signals emanating from the Milky Way, and a new field of research was born. Over the next decades, researchers used a variety of relatively small radio telescopes — more precisely, radio antennas — to explore the universe. Lovell was convinced that a much larger antenna would be even more useful and single-mindedly set out to build one. After World War II, he had managed to obtain a surplus army mobile radar unit and two trailers full of surplus equipment that he jury-rigged into a small radio observatory at the University of Manchester. Nearby electric trams, however, created electrical signals that interfered with his observations. The university had a small piece of land south of the city that had once been owned by William Jauderell, who had fought with Edward the Black Prince at Poitiers in the Hundred Years War. There, helped by two gardeners from the university's botanical gardens, Lovell set up a primitive radio observatory on a high area of ground, or bank. He soon realized the inadequacy of his facility and began planning a much larger, steerable radio telescope. His initial estimate was that the facility would cost about 60,000 pounds, but that proved wildly optimistic. When groundbreaking began in 1952, the estimated cost had grown to 335,000 pounds, to be shared equally by the British government's Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the Nuffield Foundation, a charitable trust founded by William Morris, Lord Nuffield, the founder of Morris Motors Ltd. The eventual cost proved to be double that, and Lovell struggled to find funds. At one point, he faced jail over an outstanding debt of 1 million pounds. The total debt was finally retired in 1960, when Lovell received a call from Lord Nuffield, who offered to pay the balance of 50,000 pounds. From 1957 to 1981, Lovell headed teams that made powerful new discoveries. In 1960, the radio telescope was the first to sight quasars, mysterious star-like objects that shine with the brilliance of 100 million suns. Almost two-thirds of the known pulsars — rapidly rotating neutron stars that emit radio waves — were discovered at Jodrell Bank. The telescope routinely tracked both Soviet and American spacecraft, providing valuable intelligence. In 1960, it transmitted a signal to the American Pioneer V deep space probe, then 22 million miles away, releasing it from its booster rocket. No other antenna could have done so. It was also used in the search for the Beagle 2 lander on Mars. Alfred Charles Bernard Lovell was born Aug. 31, 1913, at Oldland Common in Gloucestershire. His mother played cricket, and he developed an interest in the sport that he maintained throughout his life. He was also an accomplished musician. Lovell attended Bristol University, receiving his doctorate in physics in 1936, before taking a position at Manchester, where he spent the rest of his academic career. During World War II, he worked on radar systems at Britain's Telecommunications Research Establishment in Dorset and later at Malvern. He was in charge of a team that developed the H2S radar system for airborne, ground-scanning radar. Among other applications, the radar improved the accuracy of bombing missions and allowed aircraft to detect submarines that surfaced at night, a development that dramatically cut shipping losses in the Atlantic Ocean. He was appointed to the Order of the British Empire in 1946 for his wartime work and knighted in 1961 for his work in radio astronomy. Lovell's wife of 56 years, the former Joyce Chesterman, died in 1993. He is survived by four children, 14 grandchildren and 14 great-grandchildren.	i don't know
The design of the Mathematical Bridge at Cambridge University is traditionally credited to which scientist (although he died some 20 years before the bridge was constructed) ?	Free Flashcards about GK 3 Semantics is the branch of logic concerned with what? Meaning Which Northumberland castle, located between Craster and Embleton, is closely associated with the legend of Guy the Seeker? Dunstanburgh Castle Whose poem is "The Quaker Graveyard in Nantucket"? Robert Powell Which poem did Milton write about the drowned fellow poet Edward King? Lycidas What was England's second-largest and second-most commercially important city for the bulk of the 14th century? Norwich Which sea battle was fought on 24 June 1340 as one of the opening salvoes of the 100 Years War? Sluys In which county are Chipchase and Belsay Castles? Northumberland In England, often associated with the wool trade, what European historiography term refers to the entire medieval system of trade and its taxation? Staple The narrator of Anthony Burgess's 'Earthly Powers' is generally held to have been a lampoon or caricature of which real-life author? W Somerset Maugham Maria Edgeworth is a character in which literary work? Castle Rackrent In which play does the line "to thine own self be true" appear? Hamlet In which Graham Greene novel is Scobie a character? The Heart of The Matter Paul Morel is the protagonist of which novel? Sons and Lovers Gerald Crich appears in which DH Lawrence novel? Women In Love Stephen Blackpool is the hero of which Dickens work? Hard Times Which fictitious Northern city is scene of much of the action in 'Hard Times'? Coketown In which novel is Paul Pennyfeather a character? Decline and Fall (Waugh_ In which century was the Sorbonne founded? 13th (1253) Dorothea Brooke appears in which classic novel? Middlemarch In a church, what is the chancel? The space around the altar at the liturgical East end of a church. Give a year in the reign of Philip II (Phillipe Auguste) of France. 1180-1223 Which perfume house introduced the 'Gentleman' brand in 1974? Givenchy Which word can refer to a bomber aircraft, a radio call sign and the Z-Cars code-name? Victor What was Eleanor Thornton the model for in 1911? The Spirit of Ecstasy Liverworts and green leaves are both rich in which vitamin group, including retinol, retinal, retinoic acid? Vitamin A Which Englishman designed the first modern steam turbine in 1884? Parsons Which foodstuff is prepared from Hydrocarbon toluene? Saccharine Which company made the 'Forester' car model? Subaru Which American first used the term 'torpedo' for a naval explosive? Fulton Which element is atomic number 9? Fluorine Highland Dirks and Stilettos are both types of what? Daggers Fish-oils and egg yolk are both rich in which Vitamin? Vitamin D Plasterers and Diggers are both types of what sort of insect? Wasps How long is a vicennial? Every 20 years What name is given to a female badger? Sow If a male cat is a tom, what is a female? Queen A musquash fur comes from which animal? Musk Rat What was unusual about the UK Nobel Prize Winner stamps issued in 2001? Scented What type of animals are cervidae? Deer The first UK self-adhesive stamps depicted what? Cats Gypsum is more correctly known by what chemical name? Hydrated calcium sulphate What is the chemical symbol of promethium? Pm Which Miletus-born Presocratic philosopher is sometimes called 'The Father of Science'? Thales The quagga is a subspecies of which animal? Zebra Which class of subatomic particles is named from the Greek for 'heavy'? Baryons Which Ancient Greek astronomer both discovered the precession of the equinoxes, and may have compiled the first star catalogue? Hipparchus Which kitchen appliance did Denis Papin introduce in 1679? Pressure Cooker Which vitamin deficiency causes beri-beri? B1 Which class of subatomic articles is named from the Greek for 'thick'? Hadrons In which year were self-adhesive stamps introduced to the UK? 2001 Which type of creature has the largest brain relative to body size yet known? Ant Asparagus, leeks and tulips are all part of which plant family? Lily Archangel and Havana Brown are both breeds of what animal? Cat Which mathematician is (possibly fancifully) often credited with inventing roulette wheels? Blaise Pascal Wemmick and Jaggers appear in which Dickens book? Great Expectations a gathered strip or pleated border of a skirt or petticoat What type of window is attached to its frame by one or more hinges? Casement Which palace, demolished and rebuilt in the 1930s, faces the Eiffel Tower across the Seine? Trocadero Which river runs through Bangui? Ubangi Which US author (1900-98) was the only foreign member of the Academie Francaise? Julian Green Which French painter ((3 October 1803 – 8 January 1869) participated in the July 1830 revolution? Paul Huet What was the profession of Jean Henri Riesener, who served the French monarchy in this capacity? Cabinet-maker Baccarat and Saint-Louis are both makers of what? Crystal Herbert Pocket and Mr Pumblechook both appear in which Dickens novel? Great Expectations Mr Brownlow features in which Dickens novel? Oliver Twist Who wrote "A Spy In The House Of Love"? Anais Nin How was Paris known to the Romans? Lutetia Which French poet ((30 October 1762 – 25 July 1794) was guillotined in the Revolution? Chenier A secular vocal music composition Which execrable poet wrote "The Railway Bridge Of The Silvery Tay"? McGonagall Agate is a variety of which mineral? Silica Which female American poet of the imagist school from Brookline, Massachusetts, posthumously won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 1926? Amy Lowell Which poet wrote "Atalanta in Calydon"? Swinburne Whose novel was "The Republic Of Love"? Carol Shields In which novel is Quilty a character? Lolita In which city is the Carnavalet Museum? Paris Who is the male protagonist of Nabokov's "Lolita"? Humbert Humbert What were Hamlet's last four words? "The Rest Is Silence" What were the last recorded words of Steve Jobs? "Oh wow, Oh Wow, Oh Wow" Which US poet's major work "The Bridge" was inspired by Eliot's "The Waste Land"? Hart Crane Elizabeth Bishop and John Berryman attained fame in which field? Poetry Whose work, Revelations of Divine Love, is the first published book in the English language to be written by a woman? Julian of Norwich Which US modernist poet wrote "Anecdote of the Jar", "Disillusionment of Ten O'Clock", "The Emperor of Ice-Cream", "The Idea of Order at Key West", "Sunday Morning", "The Snow Man", and "Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird"? Wallace Stevens What was the adopted name of Jean-Baptiste Poquelin? Moliere Which Pope was brought to Paris as a prisoner in 1810 following Napoleon's invasion of the Papal States? Pius VII The Tuilieres were burned down in an 1871 rising by which French group? Communards Which Christian theologian (1380-1471) wrote "The Imitation Of Christ"? Thomas A Kempis Which French King, who reigned from 1422-61, was the monarch on the throne throughout Joan of Arc's life? Charles VII Which religious order were revived in the late 15th century by Pope Alexander VI for the express purpose of guarding the tomb of Christ? Knights Of The Holy Sepulchre Étienne-Louis Boullée and Claude Nicolas Ledoux were noted in which field? Architecture Who wrote "La Venus D'Ille" in 1837? Prosper Merimee Which French poet (11 September 1524 – 27 December 1585) was called the "prince of poets"? Pierre de Ronsard Albert Lebourg was a French painter belonging to which school? Rouen school Which architect designed the 1910 Steiner House in Vienna? Adolf Loos Sir John Soane's Museum in London is dedicated to what? Architecture King's College Chapel in Cambridge is an example of which specific architectural style? Perpendicular Gothic Which English scholar, born at Colerne, Wiltshire, was a friend of Erasmus? William Grocyn Which humanist scholar and physician (1460-1524) has an Oxford college named for him Thomas Linacre Which English scholar, Renaissance humanist, theologian and educational pioneer became Dean of St Pauls in 1504? Colet What was the name of the Gloucester street where Fred and Rose West lived, where they murdered several young women? Cromwell Street Which Bible was the first English translation to work directly from Hebrew and Greek texts? Tyndale Bible In medieval times gentry who believed that they were men of their local Lord rather than the King were given what name? Retainers Cabot's voyage to Newfoundland took place during which monarch's reign? Henry VIII A swindler or confidence trickster During which years did the Dissolution of the Monasteries take place? 1536-9 In which English county is Berkhamsted castle? Hertfordshire By what collective name were the English figures Cranmer, Latimer, Tyndale and Coverdale known? Cambridge Reformers A group of people brought together for a specific (often ecclesiastical or academic) reason Which English antiquary (1503 – 18 April 1552)'s most famous work was 'Itinerary'? John Leland Which two English martyrs were burned at the stake in Oxford on 16th October 1555? Latimer & Ridley Which Englishman, famous for his Bible translation, was in 1536 convicted of heresy and executed by strangulation, after which his body was burnt at the stake? Tyndale In which year was the Pilgrimage of Grace? 1536 Which public school was founded by the yeoman John Lyon? Harrow In which 1549 uprising in Norfolk were 20,000 sheep slaughtered in protest at the use of land for pasture? Kett's Rising What name is given to the philosophical idea that only one's own mind is sure to exist? Solipsism Roughly how long ago did the hominid Australopithecus live? 4-2 million years ago Where was Giordano Bruno burned in 1600? Rome's Campo Dei Fiori Where is the Pope's summer residence? Castel Gandolfo In which town or city was Copernicus born in 1473? Torun, Poland Which work by Ptolemy contained his famous (but erroneous) geocentric model of the universe? Almagest In which unpublished 1510 manuscript did Copernicus first outline his heliocentric model of the solar system? Commentariolus Which six-volume work of 1543 was Copernicus' published work stating his heliocentric beliefs? De Revolutionibus How is the Arab polymath Ibn Al-Haytham's name usually Anglicised? Alhazen Which seminal work in the history of science was published on 5th July 1687? Newton's 'Principia' Who first measured the Gravitational constant in 1798 using lead balls and a torsion balance? Henry Cavendish The famous 'Blue Marble' photo of Earth was taken on Christmas Eve 1968 by which Apollo mission? Apollo 8 Who said, after Martin Luther King's assassination that it was time to "tame the savageness of man make gentle the life of this world"? Robert Kennedy Name any of the three Apollo 8 astronauts. Lovell, Borman, Anders Which mathematician (1784-1846) systemised eponymous functions which are used in spherical and cylindrical geometry? Friedrich Bessel What name is given to the apparent movement of an object caused by viewing it from two different spatial locations? Parallax Who wrote "The end of our exploring will be to arrive where we started and know the place for the first time"? TS Eliot Name any of the Apollo 7 astronauts. Schirra, Eisele, Cunningham Which Arab (965-1040) mathematician, astronomer and philosopher who made significant contributions to the principles of optics, astronomy, mathematics, meteorology, visual perception and the scientific method? Alhazen Which scientific constant is equal to 6.673×10−11 N·(m/kg)2? Gravitational constant What is 'parsec' short for? Per Arc Second Which space telescope was launched on the 19th December 2013? Gaia Which female American astronomer discovered the relation between the luminosity and the period of Cepheid variable stars? Henrietta Leavitt The Oxford Apartments where Jeffrey Dahmer lived were in which city? Milwaukee Which Canadian-American retired stage magician and scientific sceptic is best known for his challenges to paranormal claims and pseudoscience? James Randi Which term, coined by Paul Geisert, is used for people who have a naturalistic view of the world? Brights What ritual did Barack Obama always perform on the morning of elections he was running in? Play basketball What is the home stadium of the Chicago Cubs? Wrigley Field What was the name of the Coronation Street character, played by Julie Hesmondhalgh, who was the first transsexual to appear on a British serial? Hayley Cropper What was the name of the wheelchair-bound boss in 'The Avengers'? Mother Which TV series about the TA was set in Roker Bridge? Preston Front Who produced the film 'Chariots of Fire'? Puttnam Who said "some women get excited about nothing - and then they marry him"? Cher What was the last Hammer film before 2010' "Let Me In" - it was released in 1976? To The Devil....A Daughter Who played the lead role in the 1960 movie "Curse Of The Werewolf"? Oliver Reed Michael Balcon became the main producer at which film studios in 1937? Ealing At which film studios was the majority of filming for both "Star Wars" and "2001: A Space Odyssey" done? Elstree Which pop star said "I would rather have a cup of tea than go to bed with someone"? Boy George Who took over from Ned Sherrin as the host of "Counterpoint"? Paul Gambaccini Which actress won an Emmy for portraying Carmela in "The Sopranos"? Edie Falco Michael Douglas movie "A Perfect Murder" was a remake of which far-superior film? Dial M For Murder Fay Ripley played Jenny Gifford in which British TV series? Cold Feet Sweet Sue and her Syncopators appear in which film? Some Like It Hot Who played the children's father in "The Sound Of Music"? Christopher Plummer Marilyn Monroe made a breakthrough playing Angela Phinlay in which 1950 film? The Asphalt Jungle The film "2001: A Space Odyssey" was based on which Arthur C Clarke short story? The Sentinel Which British film and TV studios were originally called Neptune Studios? Elstree What is considered to be the first British "talkie" movie? Blackmail Who directed "Blackmail", the first British talkie? Hitchcock Who first hosted "Call My Bluff"? Robin Ray Which actor played Ashley Wilkes in "Gone With The Wind"? Leslie Howard Which actor played the titular role in "Young Mr Lincoln"? Henry Fonda Which Northern UK comedian used the catchphrase "daft as a brush"? Ken Platt Which 'Educating Archie' actress used a catchphrase on the show "My Name Is Monica"? Beryl Reid Which TV production company makes "Harry Hill's TV Burp" and "Russell Howard's Good News"? Avalon What name did the woman born Harlean Carpentier adopt when she became a movie star? Jean Harlow Which TV series starred Maureen Lipman as Jane Lucas? Agony What shape is Ely's Cathedral tower? Octagonal English Heritage was founded in which year? 1983 The Chingford Hunting Lodge, used by Elizabeth I, lies in which forest? Epping In which county is Epsom? Surrey Which sculptor was responsible for the 18 nudes that decorate the British Medical Association building? Epstein In which county is Eton? Berkshire Which Brazilian city is capital of Rio Grande Do Sul, and is home to the Gremio team? Porto Alegre In which state is the Andrews Air Force Base, often used by the US President? Maryland For administration purposes, into which smaller unit are US states divided? Counties Which Northern Irish river rises in the Mountains of Mourne and runs to Lough Neagh, the longest river wholly in Ulster? Bann Hamley's Toy Store is on which London thoroughfare? Regent Street Fort William lies at the North-East end of which loch? Loch Linnhe Which NW Scottish fishing village and ferry port is on Loch Broom? Ullapool Where in Dublin does the Irish National Parliament meet? Leinster House What is London's oldest mainline station? Euston As of 2009-14, how many MEPs does the UK have? 78 The River Lea - which runs through a nation's capital - is a tributary of which larger river? Thames What is the county town of Devon? Exeter Exmoor lies in which two counties? Somerset and Devon What is the highest point of Exmoor? Dunkery Beacon Which three provinces of Ulster are part of the Republic of Ireland? Cavan, Donegal, Monaghan Uppark is in which English county? West Sussex Uppark, West Sussex, is a town amidst which range of hills? South Downs Ickworth in Suffolk is home to which British Earl? Earl of Bristol The German word 'hemweh' is usually translated into English as what? Homesickness Which is the Northernmost of the Great Lakes? Superior Which aviator has Sydney's Airport been named for? Kingsford-Smith What type of structure is the famous Pont Du Gard? Aqueduct The Pont Du Gard crosses which river? Gardon In which English county is Charterhouse school? Surrey Which European country first used Guide Dogs for the Blind? Austria What is the name of Hong Kong's stock exchange? Hang Seng Apart from the Severn, which other major English river has a strong tidal bore? Trent Where is the Henry Watson Music Library? Manchester Dorval Airport was formerly which city's airport? Montreal In which German 'lander' is Aachen? Northern Rhineland-westphalia What are the second and third biggest cities of Denmark? Aarhus, Odense Boston (in England and hence the US) was named for which Saint? Botolph What name is given to the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers that forms part of the Iraq-Iran border? Shatt Al-Arab Aberystywyth sits on which bay? Cardigan Which rivers join at Aberystywth? Ystwyth and Rheidol What Welsh name does Cardiganshire now use? Ceredigion What is the official capital of the Cote D'Ivoire, although Abidjan remains the De Facto capital? Yamoussoukro The Kattegat sea area lies between which two nations? Sweden and Denmark Sukhumi is the capital of which autonomous province? Abkhazia Most of the world, except Russia, recognises Abkhazia as part of which nation? Georgia Which largely unrecognised self-declared state still has a hammer and sickle on its flag? Transdnistria What is the 'capital' of Transnistria? Tiraspol Scene of a famous battle, in which country are the Plains of Abraham? Canada Gran Sasso D'Italia is the highest point of which mountain range? Apennines What is the capital of the UAE? Abu Dhabi The Mumani massacre of 1993 occurred in which disputed area? Abkhazia Before 1971, the UAE was known by what name? Trucial States What is the capital of Nigeria? Abuja Which Japanese architect designed Nigeria's capital Abuja; he also won the Pritzker Prize in 1987? Kenzo Tange Which phenomenon causes the 'dark side of the moon' to face permanently away from Earth? Tidal locking Which Soviet space probe first photographed the dark side of the moon in 1959? Luna 2 The dark side of the moon was first seen by human eyes in real time on which space mission? Apollo 8 The Horsehead Nebula lies in which constellation? Orion Which astrophysicist worked out the galactic position of the sun in 1915, while WW1 raged? Harlow Shapley In which year was Einstein's Theory of General Relativity published? 1916 The Hooker Telescope is located at which US facility? Mount Wilson Observatory Who were the famed participants in an 1860 debate about evolution: one an ardent pro-Darwinist, the other a bishop? Huxley and Wilberforce Who were the two participants in the 1920 'Great Debate' in astronomy, regarding whether there were more galaxies than our own? Shapley and Curtis There are currently believed to be 54 galaxies in which group, of which the Milky Way is a member? Local Group Galileo studied which topic at the University of Pisa? Medicine Which Vatican chapel is separated from the Sistine Chapel by the Sala Regia? Cappella Paolina (Pauline Chapel) How was artist Ludovico Cardi, a close friend of Galileo, better known? Cigoli Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity was published in which year? 1905 The world's largest vacuum chamber is in Plum Brook Station in which US state? Ohio Where did the famed 1860 Huxley-Wilberforce evolution debate take place? Oxford In which US state is Mount Wilson Observatory? California All objects follow straight line paths across space-time that are called what? Geodesics Who produced the famous First Folio engraving of Shakespeare? Martin Droueshot Which piece of laboratory equipment, named after its shape, is used to contain a vacuum? Bell jar What name is given to a stellar remnant (a 'dead star') mainly composed of electron-degenerate matter? White Dwarf What limit, worked out by an American-Indian astrophysicist, describes the upper limit of mass that a white dwarf can possess? Chandrasekhar limit What are the densest type of stars known? Neutron stars Which English monarch succeeded Edward VI? Mary I What name was given to an unsuccessful 1569 attempt by Catholic nobles from Northern England to depose Queen Elizabeth I of England and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots? Rising of the North The Battle of Losecoat Field took place during which conflict? Wars Of The Roses Which 1547 battle was the last pitched battle between the Scots and English, and ended in such a catastrophic defeat for Scotland that it was called 'Black Saturday'? Battle of Pinkie Cleugh Which type of bay window projects from the main wall of a building but does not reach to the ground? Oriel window Who said of Shakespeare 'he was not of an age, but for all time'? Ben Jonson The First Folio contains every known Shakespeare work except which? Pericles The 1547 Battle of pinkie Cleugh took place near which modern-day town or city? Musselburgh A star remnant ('dead star') that exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit does not become a white dwarf, but what other type of celestial body? Neutron star Which English antiquarian wrote 'Britannia' in 1586? William Camden Which Englishman (1566 – 12 February 1630) spent most of the decade of the 1590s travelling on the European continent and the eastern Mediterranean lands, later writing about it in his multi-volume "Itinerary? Fynes Moryson Which footballer first earned £100 a week? Johnny Haynes What is Ian Botham's middle name? Terence Against who did Ian Botham take 100 runs and take 10 wickets in a single Test in 1980? India For which three counties did Ian Botham play? Somerset, Wiltshire, Durham Who was England's main wicketkeeper from 1967 to 1981? Knott Who is the only Zimbabwean bowler, as of 2014, to have taken over 100 Test wickets? Heath Streak Which South African all-rounder scored 9000 runs and 200 wickets in both ODIs and Test cricket match? Jacques Kallis For who was Gary Sobers playing when he scored his famous 6 sixes in an over? Nottinghamshire Who bowled to Gary Sobers when he scored his famous 6 sixes in an over? Nash Who holds the record for being Heavyweight Champion of the World for the longest time, 11 years, 8 months, 8 days? Joe Louis Rugby league has its roots in which town's George Hotel? Huddersfield What trophy is awarded to the winners of Rugby Union's World Cup? William Webb Ellis Trophy In which year did Rugby League's Superleague start? 1996 Which two now defunct teams played in the first Rugby League Superleague game? PSG; Sheffield Eagles What are South Sydney's Rugby League team called? Rabbitohs Which game involves hurling a beer-soaked rag at a ring of competitors? Dwile Flonking Punk poet "Attila the Stockbroker" was behind petitions for a new ground for which football team? Brighton Plough, Cobra, Upward Bow and Downward Dog are all examples of what? Yoga Positions In which sport is the libero exempt from rotating position? Volleyball Which football team, founded in Gelsenkirchen, were the Nazis' favourite team? Schalke 04 Which team share the Allianz Arena with Bayern Munich? 1860 Munich 'Card Counting' led casinos to change the rules of which game? Blackjack In craps, there are 2 possible winning scores - which two? Seven and Eleven In which country does the 'Top 14' rugby union contest take place? France The team of which nation were the last winners of Rugby Union Olympic gold? USA Which was the first Italian venue to stage the Winter Olympics? Cortina Which is the longest of England's horse racing 'classics'? St Leger In which country will the 2019 Rugby Union World Cup be held? Japan At which racecourse was the Derby run during both World Wars? Newmarket In a craps game what name is given to the dice thrower? Shooter In roulette, what is a 'straight up' bet? Bet on a single number In card game 'Hearts' which card carries the maximum penalty? Queen of Spades In card game, 'banco' a 'natural' is a score of what? Nine At which football team's home ground is the Bill Shankly Kop? Preston North End Which piece of sporting equipment has a type called a stumpjumper? Mountain Bike Hank Aaron spent the vast majority of his baseball career in which city? Milwaukee With 15, which county holds the record for most County Cricket Championship wooden spoons? Derbyshire Which three founder members of the Football League also played in the first season of the Premier League? Aston Villa, Blackburn, Everton Which piece of sporting equipment has a 'kicktail'? Skateboard In which pub game do contestants throw sticks at a 'dolly'? Aunt Sally Who, on 26th December 2006, became the oldest football player to score a Premier League goal? Teddy Sheringham Who captained the England cricket team during the 1985 Ashes? Gower In which county is the port of Bideford? Devon Which mysterious and highly virulent disease struck England, and later continental Europe, in a series of epidemics beginning in 1485 - the last outbreak occurred in 1551, after which the disease apparently vanished? Sweating Sickness Who solved Einstein's field equations while serving at the Russian Front in the German Army? Karl Schwarzchild The introduction of which non-existent constant into his equations did Einstein call 'his biggest blunder'? Cosmological constant The Triangulum Galaxy has what alternate name? Pinwheel Galaxy Who proved that the universe was expanding in a 1929 paper? Hubble Discovered by Penzias and Wilson in 1964, what is the CMBR? Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation What is the temperature of the universe as a whole, to the nearest point degree Kelvin? 2.7K What, in mathematics, is the relation of two lines at right angles to one another (perpendicularity), and the generalization of this relation into n dimensions? Orthogonality Having a harmful effect, especially in a gradual or subtle way What was first reported by US pilot Ken Arnold in 1947? Flying Saucer Which Italian astronomer erroneously reported canals on Mars? Giovanni Schaparelli In which US state is the Los Alamos National Laboratory? New Mexico Built in 1942, what was the first artificial nuclear reactor in the world? Chicago Pile-1 Whose paradox describes the apparent contradiction between the high probability of alien civilisation and humanity's lock of evidence for them? Fermi Paradox What does the SETI project stand for? Search For Extra Terrestrial Intelligence Which radio interferometer that is dedicated to astronomical observations and a simultaneous search for extraterrestrial intelligence is named after a Microsoft founder who donated $30m to the project? Allen Array Attendees at the first 1961 SETI conference gave themselves what name? Order of the Dolphin The equation that describes the probability of extra-terrestrial life is called what? Drake equation In quantum physics, which theory is the study of the analytic properties of scattering as a function of angular momentum? Regge theory In 1977 the strongest signal ever received by SETI goes by which colloquial name? Wow! signal What is the nearest star to the famous 1977 Wow! Signal? Tau Sagittarii Which is the only manmade spacecraft that has visited Uranus and Neptune? Voyager 2 What is the most distant man-made object from Earth? Voyager 1 Klapa music originated in which country? Croatia Which king's right upper jaw was accidentally removed during dental work in 1685? Louis XIV of France Who was the wife of George III? Charlotte of Mecklenburg What was the name of the only child of George IV, who died in childbirth in 1817 - she would have been queen? Princess Charlotte (of Wales) Which non-metropolitan district of Cambridgeshire was a historic county of England? Huntingdonshire The Forest of Arden is mainly in which county? Warwickshire What name is given to a planet outwith the Solar System? Exoplanet What name is given to a spinning neutron star? Pulsar A star that is moving away from Earth has its colour shifted to what via the Doppler effect? Red The habitable zone around a star that could potentially support liquid water and thus life? Goldilocks zone The Kepler space observatory was designed to look specifically at what? Earth-like planets orbiting other stars What is the third most abundant element in the universe? Oxygen Which volcano erupted in 1991 was the second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century? Mount Pinatubo What name is given to a scatter graph of stars showing the relationship between the stars' absolute magnitudes or luminosities versus their spectral types or classifications and effective temperatures? Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram All heavy elements on Earth originated in which celestial bodies, created by red giants that have run out of nuclear fuel? Nebula To the nearest half degree, what is the tilt of the Earth's axis? 23.5 In which year was the first exoplanet detected? 1992 Which geologic eon before the Proterozoic Eon, occurred before 2.5 Ga (billion years), or 2,500 million years ago? Archean Eon The oldest known evidence for life on Earth was found in which country? Australia In biology, what is the LUCA? Last Universal Common Ancestor What was the first geologic eon on Earth, representing the first half-billion years after the planet's formation? Hadean Eon What name is given to the earliest known complex multicellular organisms? Ediacara Biota What was the name of Buddy Holly's backing group? The Crickets Which best-selling author also wrote under the name Harry Patterson? Jack Higgins Who is the heroine of Austen's "Northanger Abbey"? Catherine Morland What is the surname of the central sisters in "Sense and Sensibility"? Dashwood What was George Eliot's real name? Mary Ann Evans Which English philosopher and critic of literature and theatre was George Eliot's partner, although they never married? GH Lewes What did the TS in the name of TS Eliot stand for? Thomas Stearns Which poem begins "Let us go then, you and I"? The Love Song of J Alfred Prulock Who wrote the "Strangers and Brothers" series of novels? CP Snow Which Roman poet first used the phrase "carpe diem"? Horace (in his 'Odes') Who wrote "Bhowani Junction", later a successful film? John Masters Which Japanese contemporary artist is behind the 'Superflat' movement and once made backpacks supposedly from the skin of endangered animals? Takashi Murakami What did the CP stand for in CP Snow's name? Charles Perry What did the L stand for in the name of Oz author L Frank Baum? Lyman Who wrote "Death In Venice"? Thomas Mann Who painted "The Triumph of Death" and "Dulle Griet (Mad Meg)"? Pieter Breughel the Elder Who wrote Gothic classic "The Vampyre" in 1816? Polidori Which poet (1752-70) died aged 18 in a possible suicide, or possible self-treatment for VD? Chatterton Who wrote "The Naked And The Dead"? Mailer In which year did Sinclair Lewis win the Nobel Prize for Literature? 1930 Who was born in Russia as Alisa Rosenblaum? Ayn Rand Mrs Malaprop is a character in which work? The Rivals Thomas Chatterton's death in 1770 was due to self-poisoning with what substance? Arsenic Dadaist Tristan Tzara hailed from which country? Romania How was other Frederick Rolfe also known? Baron Colvo Which minister of Henry VIII is the main protagonist in Mantel's "Wolf Hall"? Thomas Cromwell Who wrote the play "Androcles and The Lion"? GB Shaw Who wrote the play "The Wilmslow Boy"? Rattigan Give a year in the life of Peter Paul Rubens. 1577-1640 Who wrote best-selling book "The Time Traveller's Wife"? Audrey Niffenegger Who wrote "Ash Wednesday" in 1930? TS Eliot What was devised by Bell, MacFarquhar and Smellie in 1768? Encyclopaedia Britannica What was Buddy Holly's posthumous UK No 1 called? It Doesn't Matter Anymore In which year did TS Eliot win the Nobel Prize for Literature? 1948 Who edited the 18th century French "Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des metiers"? Diderot What name was given to Jacob Epstein's 1913 sculpture that resembled a torso on a tripod? Rock Drill How did Rupert Brooke die? Of malaris (on board a ship) How did Virginia Woolf die? Suicide by drowning Who is the protagonist of Robert Harris's novel "Imperium"? Cicero When did VS Naipaul win the Nobel Prize for Literature? 2001 Which three authors have won both a Nobel Prize for Literature and a Booker Prize? Golding, Gordimer, Naipaul Which work won the 2014 Nobel Prize? The Narrow Road To The Deep North (Flanagan) Which painter has given his name to both a broad collar and a short, pointed beard? Van Dyke Thomas Hardwick (1752–1829) was famed in which field? Architecture Where is 'Lorna Doone' set - now a national park? Exmoore Which group of exiled French Protestants are associated with the Queen Anne style of art? Huguenots Shaw and Nesfield were often collaborators in the 19th century in which field? Architecture Who wrote both "Coromandel" and "The Deceivers"? Masters There is a museum dedicated to the works of which other in Great Missenden in Buckinghamshire? Roald Dahl Who was Governor-General of Canada from 1930 to 1935? Buchan Chawton in Hampshire is best known for its association with which writer, whose last house can still be visited? Austen Who tried to kill Andy Warhol in 1968? Solaris On which of the Greek islands is Rupert Brooke buried? Skiros At which siege did Byron die? Missolonghi What was the better known alias of Jacopo Robusti? Tintoretto Which half-brother of Æthelred the Unready, and King, was murdered at Corfe Castle? Edward (the Martyr) Æthelred the Unready had which regnal number? The second Which historical 'protection money' was a tax raised to pay tribute to the Viking raiders to save a land from being ravaged? Danegeld What was a 'moot' in Anglo-Saxon England? A court or gathering Who was on the throne during the Great Fire of London? Charles II In which year did Britain join the EEC? 1973 What was established by the Maastricht Treaty? EU (or, arguably, the Euro) Which archaeologist gave the Minoan civilisation their name? Evans Which king expelled the Jews from England in 1289? Edward I Who was the last ruler of an independent Wales? Prince Dafydd ap Gruffydd Prince Dafydd ap Gruffydd was the first prominent figure in history to be executed by what method? Hanging, drawing and quartering In which year was the Maastricht Treaty signed? 1992 Which amending treaty was signed by the EU member states on 13 December 2007, and entered into force on 1 December 2009? Lisbon Treaty Which political party was established in 1971 by Ian Paisley and Desmond Boal? Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) In which year was the Irish Free State established? 1921 What name is given to the process where one organism engulfs another and then both live together for mutual benefit? Endosymbiosis The Z-scheme occurs in which process? Photosynthesis The earliest known eukaryotes appeared on Earth approximately how many billion years ago? 2 Billion Who was the second person to orbit the Earth after Gagarin? Titov Which port city on the Volga river is near where Yuri Gagarin landed on returning from his Vostok 1? Engels Shiro, a homogenous stew whose primary ingredient is powdered chickpeas or broad bean meal, is mainly associated with which country? Ethiopia Glowing or luminous, but lacking heat. What is the only member of the theropithecus genus? Gelada baboon The gelada baboon is found only in which country? Ethiopia What does a gramniverous animal eat? Grass The Laetoli footprints, perhaps the world's oldest, are found in which country? Tanzania The Afar Triangle is a geological depression in which three countries? Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea The Awash River is located entirely within in which country? Ethiopia How is Australopithecus fossil AL 288-1 better known? Lucy Which is the closest Cepheid variable star? Polaris Which ancient astronomer noted the precession of the equinoxes? Hipparchus Whose theory states that periodic movements of the Earth's orbit in space affect its climate? Milankovitch What is the nickname of the southernmost pit of Erta Ale? Gateway To Hell The famous hominid fossil 'Lucy' was found in which country? Ethiopia The famous hominid fossil 'Lucy' was of which species? Australopithecus Afarensis Who were the three crew members on the ill-fated Apollo 13? Swigert, Haise, Lovell The site Petra was built by which people? Nabataeans The slender passageway that leads to the site of Petra is given what name? Siq What is the translation of the building in Petra 'Al-Khazneh'? The Treasure What is the Russian equivalent of NASA? Roscosmos The Story of Sinuhe is a classic from which people's literature? Ancient Egypt What name is given to the earliest period of time in the history of the universe, from zero to approximately 10−43 seconds? Planck Epoch Who released the album 'Unknown Pleasures'? Joy Division Who wrote 'New Atlantis' in 1623? Francis Bacon What are the four first generation particles in the Standard Model of Physics? Up quarks, down quarks, electron, electron neutrino What are the four fundamental forces of nature that are carried by gauge bosons? Strong nuclear force, weak nuclear force, electromagnetism, gravity Which are the only types of particle that feel the strong nuclear force? Quarks The strong nuclear force is carried by which gauge bosons? Gluons The weak nuclear force is mediated by which gauge bosons? W and Z bosons What is the second-most widely spoken language worldwide? Which is the second-most widely spoken language in the world? Spanish What are the monolithic figures on Easter Island called? Moai After Spanish and English, what is the third-most widely spoken language of European origin worldwide? Portuguese What replaced GMT in 1972 as the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time? Coordinated Universal Time (French: temps universel coordonné, UTC) In which year was the Greenwich meridian officially designated as zero degrees longitude? 1884 With what is the website www.xe.com concerned? Foreign Exchange What is the currency of Cuba? Peso What is the currency of Switzerland? Swiss Franc What is the capital of the Spanish region of Asturias? Oviedo What was first developed in 1947 in the USA by Shockley, Brattain and Bardeen? Transistor Chuck Yeager used which rocket-fired aircraft when he became the first man to break the sound barrier? Bell X-1 Which Latin phrase means 'innermost reason'? Intima Causa Who designed the class of locomotives to which the Mallard belonged? Gresley The Mallard broke the speed record for a steam locomotive when travelling between which two cities? London and Newcastle Which English fashion designer is best known for her 1980s political t-shirts including "CHOOSE LIFE"? Katharine Hamnett The Clansman train ran between which two cities? London and Inverness Which German aircraft manufacturer invented the ejector seat? Heinkel What was invented by the Norwegian Ole Evintrude in 1900? Outboard motor Someone who works with precious stones The Flying Scotsman locomotive ran between which two British cities? London and Edinburgh Which group of hydrocarbons are characterised by the incorporation of a halogen in place of a hydrogen ion? Halons Which point on a celestial sphere lies opposite the zenith? Nadir An incorrect urban legend attributes the invention of the cat flap to which prominent scientist? Newton Which chemical element has white, red, violet and black allotropes? Phosphorus Which chemist first isolated sodium? Davy Which chemical element, number 41, was formerly called columbium? Niobium In the 12 days of Christmas, there were exactly 11 what? Pipers piping Which line touches a circle without intersecting it? Tangent Which are the only particles that do not interact with Higgs bosons? Gluons and photons (both massless) What is the formula to calculate a circle's circumference from its radius? 2πr (πd) Which interaction between a scalar field and a Dirac field is named for a Japanese physicist, and can be used to describe the strong nuclear force between nucleons, mediated by pions? Yukawa interaction In which year was the Higgs boson discovered? 2012 In Greek myth, who was the father of Niobe? Tantalus Interaction with a Higgs Boson causes a particle to gain what property? Mass What name is given to a polygon with 11 sides? Hendecagon Construction starting in 1357, in which city is the Charles Bridge? Prague In computing, what does ROM stand for? Read-only memory Which part of a computer allows data items to be read and written in roughly the same amount of time regardless of the order in which data items are accessed? RAM How many sides do all snowflakes have? Six The laws of which sport were first codified on 30th May 1788? Cricket What was first used after the 1905 murders of Thomas and Anne Harrow in order to secure a conviction? Fingerprint evidence Who formulated his laws of planetary motion in the early 17th century? Kepler In computing, what is a VDU? Visual Display Unit How many laws comprise Kepler's laws of planetary motion? Three What did early computer language ALGOL stand for? Algorithmic language Where were the laws of cricket codified on 30th May 1788? Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) In computing, how many bits make up a nibble? Four At what temperature Fahrenheit does water freeze? 32F In computing, what is OCR? Optical Character Recognition Of what vegetable is Romanesco a variety? Broccoli What name is given to a a mathematical function that summarizes the dynamics of a system? Lagrangian What does MIPS stand for in computing? Millions of Instructions Per Second In 1998 Thomas Hales announced that he has discovered a proof of which famous mathematical conundrum? Kepler conjecture The Kepler conjecture describes the packing and density of which bodies? Spheres Which 17th century National Trust property in West Sussex was affected by a devastating fire in 1989, but has since been restored? Uppark Which Australian Prime Minister was dismissed by the Governor-General in 1975? Gough Whitlam Which king was defeated by Simon de Montfort at the Battle of Lewes? Henry III In WW2, what was nicknamed 'the unsinkable aircraft carrier'? Malta Which WPC was shamefully shot dead outside the Libyan embassy in 1984? Yvonne Fletcher PC Trevor Lock was involved in which high-profile event of the 1980s? Iranian embassy siege Which US president did Lynette 'Squeaky' Fromme attempt to assassinate? Ford Where did General Lee surrender to General Grant on April 9 1865, essentially ending the US Civil War? Appomattox (court house) In which US state is the historically-famous Appomattox? Virginia What type of aircraft was the Red Baron flying when he was shot down? Fokker triplane Who were the first Britons to successfully climb Mount Everest? Haston and Scott Which is the newest of the Nobel Prizes? Economics In which year was the Nobel Prize for Economics first awarded? 1969 Of the US presidents depicted on Mount Rushmore, which is the most recent? Theodore Roosevelt Where is the British Tomb of The Unknown Warrior located? Westminister Abbey In which year was the UK's 'Unknown Warrior' interred? 1920 Which organisation was founded by Peter Benenson in 1961? Amnesty International Which PM of the UK became Lord Rievaulx when he was elevated to the peerage? Wilson What was 'Operation Chastise' in WW2? Dambusters Raid Which farm was used as a hideout by the 'Great Train Robbers' of 1963? Leatherslade Who former politician was using the alias Dragan Dabic when he was caught? Radovan Karadzic Which serial killer, jailed in 2008, was nicknamed the 'Suffolk Strangler'? Steve Wright 'Mad' Frankie Fraser was a notorious member of which South London gang? The Richardsons Which King of Norway (reigned 1046-66) was sometimes called 'Thunderbolt of the North'? Harald Hardrada (Harald III) What was codenamed 'Operation Rosario (Rosary)'? Argentine Invasion of the Falklands San Carlos Water, where the British fleet were largely anchored during the Falklands conflict, attracted what ironic nickname among troops? Bomb Alley HMS Antelope was sunk during which battle of the Falklands War? Battle of San Carlos What was the name of the Kray twins' older brother? Charlie Whistler v Ruskin and Addington v Tolstoy are famous examples of what type of legal case? Libel Which monk from Iona became the first Bishop of Lindisfarne? Aidan Which king is notoriously said to have died from 'a surfeit of lampreys'? Henry I Who did Peter Robinson replace as the First Minister of Northern Ireland? Ian Paisley Which daughter of a famous politician appeared in US reality TV show "Life's A Tripp"? Bristol Palin Which town or city was the birthplace of Harold Wilson? Huddersfield Which infamous assassin used the pseudonym Eric S Galt? James Earl Ray Which MP was killed in 1830 by Stephenson's 'Rocket'? Huskisson Which event occurred when 'Fat Man' fell out of 'Bock's Car'? Bombing of Nagasaki Which man first called Thomas More 'A Man For All Seasons'? Robert Whittington Where was James Earl Ray arrested after his murder of Martin Luther King? Heathrow The first act of the US Civil War in 1861 was the bombardment of which fort? Fort Sumner Which former US president died the year after John F Kennedy was assassinated? Hoover What nickname was given to women who knitted by the guillotine in Revolutionary France? Tricoteuses In which year was Julius Caesar assassinated? 44BC The mother of Tiberius, who was seen as the perfect Roman matriarch? Cornelia Of what is bryology the study? Moss The withers are on which part of a horse? Between the shoulders Bauxite is the principal ore of which element? Aluminium What is the chemical formula of nitric acid? HNO3 Cinnabar is the principal ore of which element? Mercury Which Chinese stealth fighter plane first flew on Jan 11, 2011? Chengdu J-20 Where about on a horse's body are the stifles found? Knees of the back legs Which gas mark is equivalent to 350 degrees Fahrenheit? Four How has the Chinese stealth fighter plane Chengdu J-20 been nicknamed? Powerful Dragon What did Jean Henri Dunant found in 1862? Red Cross What does ISDN stand for in communication? Integrated Services Digital Network How many points are there on a traditional sailing compass? 32 How is a rheostat now more commonly known? Potentiometer A rheostat allows what part of an electrical circuit to be varied? Resistance From what is agar made? Algae Who was the captain of the space shuttle Challenger on its ill-fated flight? McCandless What was the name of the school teacher onboard the space shuttle Challenger when it exploded? Christa McAuliffe Richard Feynman demonstrated that the Challenger disaster was due to the failure of which component? O-Ring Which explosive is made from nitrocellulose, wood pulp, nitroglycerine and potassium nitrate? Gelignite Which purple stone was believed to prevent drunkenness by the Ancient Romans? Amethyst Which flower is called the 'Fair Maid of February'? Snowdrop Single-celled organisms that do not contain organelles are called what? Prokaryotes What name is given to an organism's entire store of genetic information? Genome Prokaryotic organisms are divided into which two domains? Archaea, bacteria Creatures are classified by 8 taxonomic ranks - starting with domain, and ending with species, what are these, in order? Domain; Kingdom; Phylum; Class; Order; Family; Genus; Species (Dear King Philip Come Over For Good Spaghetti) What are the four kingdoms in the Eukarya domain of living creatures? Animal, Plants, Fungi, Protists The word 'science' derives from the Latin verb for which word? To know What name is given to non-numeric scientific data? Qualitative Where is DNA located in prokaryotic organisms? Distributed throughout the cell In order, which four elements comprise the greatest percentage of human body weight? Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen Equivalent to an amu, what unit is used to indicate mass on an atomic or subatomic level? Dalton Where is the annual Ideal Home Show held? Earls Court Exhibition Centre Which early 19th century building, with a famed rotunda, was the creation of Frederick Hervey, 4th Earl of Bristol and Bishop of Derry who commissioned the Italian architect Asprucci to design him a classical villa in the Suffolk countryside? Ickworth House Which city, the country's 5th largest, is nicknamed "The Brazilian Venice"? Recife In which Hampshire village is the Jane Austen museum? Chawton Chipping Norton, Banbury and Abington are all in which English county? Oxfordshire The word 'serendipity' derives from an obsolete name for which country? Sri Lanka In pre-Euro Greece, the drachma was divided into 100 of which smaller units of currency? Leptae There are places called 'Toronto' and 'Pity Me' in which English county? Durham What was the Escudo divided into in pre-Euro Portugal? 100 Centavos Which company were the first sponsors of the London Eye? British Airways Which Franco-English word refers to swampy areas or inlets in the Gulf Coast region of the USA? Bayou The city of Chittagong is in which country? Bangladesh The Mekong River drains into which sea? South China Sea Which US state forms Minnesota's southern border? Iowa Which European city formerly went by the name Pressburg? Bratislava Which was the first motorway service station to be open to all traffic in the UK? Newport Pagnell Initially only open to trucks, what was the first motorway service station to open in the UK? Watford Gap What is the English translation of 'Reykjavik'? Bay of Smokes The khamsin wind is most associated with which country, where it usually arrives in April, and is usually called the 'khamaseen'? Egypt Which French port, scene of WW2's "Operation Chariot" sits at the mouth of the Loire? Saint-Nazaire On which date does Waitangi Day fall? February 6th Which institution, based at White Lodge, Richmond, has the motto 'strength and grace'? Royal Ballet School The headquarters of GCHQ are located in which town or city? Cheltenham What nickname is given to the headquarters of the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ)? The Doughnut Which is the oldest rank in the UK peerage? Earl Which lake was created by the building of Hoover Dam? Mead Which shipping forecast area is the only one to border Belgium, England and France? Dover Which country's flag carrying airline is LOT? Poland In which year was the breathalyzer first used in the UK, after a Road Safety Act of the same year? 1967 Which area became Britain's first dedicated national park in 1951? Peak District By tradition, who is the only Briton allowed to command a private army? Duke of Atholl What is the postal address of the building often called 'Canary Wharf'? 1 Canada Square Which group of islands has the motto "Desire The Right"? Falklands With its main peaks of Sant Jeroni (1,236 m), Montgrós (1,120 m) and Miranda de les Agulles (903 m), which mountain outside Barcelona is home to a famed Benedictine monastery? Montserrat The Santa Maria de Montserrat Abbey houses which revered icon or image? Virgin of Montserrat/Black Virgin Antigua and Montserrat belong to which group of Caribbean islands, which range from Puerto Rico to Dominica? Leewards Which Lebanese town was once known as Heliopolis? Balbek Which Lebanese town was once besieged by Alexander the Great, and gives its name to a purple dye? Tyre Which limestone gorge on the border between Notts and Derbyshire contains Europe's oldest known cave art? Creswell Crags Which University city in Thuringia lends its name to an 1806 battle in the Napoleonic Wars? Jena Raasay, Sandray and Westray are islands belonging to which group? Orkneys Which area of reclaimed land in Kent and East Sussex lies between Rye and Hythe? Romney Marsh The Bedford Level is the southernmost portion of which area of reclaimed wetlands? Fens The town of Hythe is in which English county? Kent Lying at the confluence of the Rother, the Tillingham and the Brede, and a former member of the Cinque Ports, in which county is Rye? East Sussex The 'Romney Marsh' is a breed of which animal? Sheep What features on the flags of Kazakhstan, Rwanda and Namibia? A sun with rays Which locks are the highest point of the Grand Union Canal? Foxton Locks Gosport lies opposite and to the West of which city, by which it is connected by ferry? Portsmouth Which of the Orkney islands is nearest to the Scottish mainland? South Ronaldsay Which of the Shetland Islands lies furthest from the Scottish mainland? Unst Which castle, the largest in England, has at times been nicknamed 'the key to England'? Dover Castle Which country is called 'Druk Yul' by its inhabitants? Bhutan Fair Isle belongs to which island group? Shetlands Which small lake lies between Grasmere and Windermere? Rydal Water Which city is served by Deurne Airport? Antwerp Aire Force lies nearest which of the lakes in the Lake District? Ullswater Foxton Locks, the highest point on the Grand Union Canal, are in which English county? Leicestershire Grantley Adams Airport serves which island? Barbados Which Shropshire town did John Betjeman call England's "most perfect"? Ludlow Tours and Orleans both stand on which French river? Loire Which RHS garden, the second most visited paid entry garden in the United Kingdom after the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, is near Woking in Surrey? Wisley Which UK city has both a mathematical bridge, and a Bridge of Sighs? Cambridge The RHS runs 4 gardens in the UK - Wisley is one; name any of the other 3. Harlow Carr, Hyde Hall, Rosemoor Which shingle spit extends from Portland to Abbotsbury in Dorset? Chesil Beach Who coined the phrase "survival of the fittest"? Herbert Spencer The Trobriand islands are part of which country? Papua New Guinea Which Polish-born anthropologist (1884-1942) is sometimes called "the father of social anthropology"? Bronislaw Malinowski In which country is the Omo valley, important as a site of human evolution? Ethiopia In which country did anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski die of a heart attack? Mexico In genetics, what is defined as the composite of an organism's identifiable characteristics or traits? Phenotype How many pairs of chromosomes do chimps possess? 24 How many lumbar vertebrae do humans possess? 5 The first primates to branch off from the evolutionary 'tree' that led to humans, how afe strepsirhini better known? Prosimians What is the scientific name for an expressed genetic characteristic? Trait The infra-order 'platyrrhini' comprise which group of animals? New World monkeys Alive approximately 2 million years ago, which hominids were the first known ones to exhibit the modern form of bipedalism, to have used fire, and to have made complex stone tools? Homo Ergaster The hominid remains found in 2004 in Indonesia dubbed the 'Hobbit' were given what scientific taxonomic name? Homo Floresiensis The animal family 'hylobatidae' comprise which creatures? Siamang and gibbons Which geological period lasted from 24million to 5million years before the present? Miocene Which now-accepted anthropological theory posits a common origin for all human races? Monogenesis Which British geologist and doctor began the study of dinosaurs when he discovered and named a iguanadon specimen in 1822? Gideon Mantell The extinct, fox-terrier sized hyracotherium, fossils of which were found in the London Clay by Richard Owen in the 19th century, was once believed to be a direct ancestor of which modern day animal? Horse Which country has been the world's biggest rubber producer since 1993? Thailand Organisation for Economic Co-Operation & Development Which Celtic goddess was associated with the springs at Bath? Sulis The ancient cult of Mithras is believed to have originated in which state? Persia The Romans associated the local Celtic goddess of Sulis at Bath with which goddess of thir own? Minerva Whose quip was that "America and Britain are 2 countries divided by a common language"? George Bernard Shaw One of his recordings is on the Voyager space probe - which British musician was a successful populariser of early music but committed suicide in 1976 aged just 33? David Munrow "Beta Israel" is a community of Jews, mostly located in Israel, descended from which other nation? Ethiopia Which folk singer's most famous work is arguably the Vietnam protest song "Alice's Restaurant Massacree" (with two 'e's)? Arlo Guthrie Which San Francisco band, formed in 1965, played at the famous concerts at Woodstock, Monterey and Altemont, and headlined the 1968 Isle of Wight festival? Jefferson Airplane Of what disease did Woody Guthrie die in 1967? Huntington's Which conductor once said that "a woman's place is in the kitchen, not in the symphony orchestra"? Herbert von Karajan Which musician famously lived with George Sand? Chopin Which French composer (1857-1944) of The Scarf Dance was the first female composer to be awarded the Legion d'Honneur, in 1913? Cecile Chaminade What name is given to the relative lowlands of southern Nepal? Terai "Symphony on a French Mountain Air" and "Istar" are among the better-known works of which French composer (1851-1931) who was also a noted music teacher and theorist? Vincent D'Indy What name is given to the discritical mark consisting of a straight bar above a letter, usually a vowel, that takes its name from the Greek for 'long'? Macron The sports apparel company Macron is based in which country? Italy Which US composer (1867-1944), born in Henniker, NH, was the first American woman to write popular and successful high-art music? Amy Beach How does "Mahayana", referring to a type of Buddhism translate? Great vehicle Which cyclist was nicknamed "The eternal second"? Raymond Poulidor In Gulliver's Travels, scientists labour fruitlessly to extract sunbeams from which foodstuff? Cucumbers Cyclist Raymond Poulidor was nicknamed "the eternal second" because he always seemed to come second to who? Jacques Anquetil In the sun, which subatomic particles are changed into which others by nuclear fusion? Protons to neutrons As of 2014, which hypothesis is the most widely accepted one for why the expansion of the universe is accelerating? Dark energy Which Roman writer wrote a history of Rome that dated from the city's foundation until 9BC? Livy In which century was the Peloponnesian War? 5th Century BC Who founded the Athenian Academy around 380BC? Plato Who is considered the founder of Birmingham University - it was thanks to his tireless enthusiasm that it was granted a Royal Charter in 1900? Joseph Chamberlain What is sometimes considered the first comprehensive school to open in England and Wales, doing so in 1949? Holyhead County School Which Jewish Russian-born adventurer and secret agent employed by Scotland Yard, the British Secret Service Bureau and later the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), and was nicknamed 'Ace of Spies'?? Sidney Reilly Which two countries joined the EEC at the same time as the UK, on Jan 1st 1973? Denmark, Ireland Which nation joined the EEC on 1st January 1981? Greece Which 1673 Act of UK Parliament compelled all office holders to take Church of England communion? Test Act Beginning in 1651 and ending about 200 years later, which series of laws restricted the use of foreign ships for trade between Britain and its colonies? Navigation Acts Who was the mythical leader of agricultural riots in 1830s England, the name being taken from one appended to some threatening letters? Captain Swing The UK budget is nowadays usually delivered on which day of the week? Wednesday The UK budget is nowadays usually delivered in which month? March Which West End homosexual brothel caused an 1889 scandal when it was strongly rumoured to have had a regular Royal client? Cleveland Street Who was the only man, other than Winston Churchill, to have been in the UK cabinet during both World Wars? Lord Beaverbrook (William Aitken) Historically, which title has been used most often for a cabinet minister who does not have an official function? Lord Privy Seal Who was the first female UK cabinet minister? Margaret Bondfield Which UK Chancellor of the Exchequer was forced to resign after leaking some of his budget to a reporter? Dalton Which great opponent of child labour introduced the 'Ten Hours Act 1833' into the Commons, and was a strong supporter of prohibiting the employment of boys as chimney sweeps? Lord Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury) Which city was the Royalist HQ in the English Civil War? Oxford In which town or city was the UK's first co-operative shop opened? Rochdale What title is given to the British monarch's representative to an English county? Lord Lieutenant Which two cabinet ministers of Britain, a Foreign Minister and War Minister, fought a duel? Canning and Castlereagh Which Prime Minister famously said "You've never had it so good"? MacMillan In which year was the Iranian Embassy siege in the UK? 1980 On August 5 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed which place as England's first overseas colony, under the Royal Charter of Queen Elizabeth I? St John's, Newfoundland The warships of what nation fired upon British fishing vessels in a case of alleged mistaken identity in 1904's Dogger Bank incident? Russia Which forged letter was published by the British press 4 days before the 1924 General Election in an attempt to discredit the Labour Party? Zinoviev Letter Which civil servant was prosecuted for revealing classified information about the sinking of the Belgrano, although a jury acquitted him? Clive Ponting Richard of Cornwall, 1st Earl of Cornwall, and from 1256 King of Germany, was the brother of which English monarch? Henry III In Chinese History, the Han Dynasty moved their capital to Luoyang from where? Xi'an Who shot and paralysed US Presidential hopeful (he was seeking the Democratic nomination) George Wallace in 1972? Arthur Bremer Which Chancellor of Austria was murdered by the Nazis in 1934? Dollfuss Who was pardoned following his execution for murders that John Christie committed? Timothy Evans To what was Oliver Cromwell referring when he said "what should we do with this bauble, take it away"? Long parliament Which British monarch made Leamington Spa 'royal'? Victoria Name any 2 of the 3 nations which joined the EU in 1995? Sweden, Finland, Austria In which city did Lewis & Clark's famous exploratory expedition of America, to the Pacific coast, start? St Louis At what temperature Fahrenheit does water boil? 212 Which element is added to steel to make it stainless? Chromium Cassiterite was the chief ore historically, and is still important as an ore of which metal today? Tin What is the Bessemer process used to produce? Steel Which chemical element, atomic number 51, was first isolated by Vannoccio Biringuccio and described in 1540? Antimony What is the birthstone for February? Amethyst Banting, Best and Macleod are famous for discovering what? Insulin Who is credited with discovering the neutron? Chadwick Soldiers from which country supposedly introduced cigarettes at the 1799 Battle of Acre, although the story is probably apocryphal? Turkey/Ottoman Empire O.A North and Albert J. Parkhouse are both credited with the invention of which everyday item? Clothes hanger What is the chemical name of vinegar? Acetic Acid Mercury(I) chloride or mercurous chloride is also known by which one-word name? Calomel Aqua Fortis is another name for which chemical compound? Nitric Acid Dry ice is which compound in solid form? Carbon dioxide In 2005 Michelin invented which cross between a tyre and a wheel, that has the advantage of being 'burst-proof'? Tweel The youngest of the 12 men to have walked on the moon, how old was Charlie Duke when he did so? 36 The youngest of the 12 men to have walked on the moon, Charlie Duke, did so as part of which Apollo mission? Apollo 16 "Whitey On The Moon", "The Revolution Will Not Be Televised" and "The Subject Was Faggots" were all on whose debut album? Gil Scott-Heron Kill Devils Hill, where the Wright Brothers achieved powered flight, is in which US state? North Carolina Which of the Wright Brothers was the first human being to fly? Orville In the Sun, a proton turns into a neutron with the emission of which two other particles? Positron and electron-neutrino Based at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in Livermore, California, what is the NIF? National Ignition Facility Where is the privately-funded Global Seed Vault? Spitsbergen, Svalbard Archipelago Which German-born conductor, pianist, and composer (1876-62) was one of the major conductors of the 20th Century and helped establish Mahler as part of the repertoire? Bruno Walter Which term is technically given to an exhibition of works rejected by the jury of the official Paris Salon, but the term is most famously used to refer to an exhibition of that name of 1863? Salon des Refusés Which artist painted 'Burial at Ornans', which helped establish Realism by painting an ordinary scene on a vast canvas, where large canvases had previously been used exclusively for historical and mythical scenes? Courbet Which Impressionist painted "Monet Working On His Boat"? Manet In which town or city is Edge Hill University? Ormskirk Which International Airport is located at, and sometimes named after, Schwechat? Vienna Which UK transport secretary allowed Railtrack to go into receivership? Stephen Byers Which organisation has their headquarters at 8-10 Great George Street, having moved from Cowley Street in 2011? Liberal Democrats What is the translation from Danish of the Faroe Islands? Sheep Islands Which shipping forecast area makes up the Western border of Malin? Rockall What do the letters in military group the RHA stand for? Royal Horse Artillery Which port lies at the mouth of the Great Ouse? King's Lynn What was David Cameron's parliamentary seat when he became PM? Witney, Oxfordshire On which canal does the Pontcysllute Aqueduct lie? Llangollen What was the last college at Oxford to be all-female, remaining so until 2008? St Hilda's 53 of the 88 mountains over 14,000 feet in the USA lie in which state? Colorado What was London's Globe Theatre renamed in 1994? Gielgud Theatre Which river runs through Galway? Corrib Florida borders which other 2 US states? Georgia, Alabama In which Irish city is the Mardyke walk? Cork Which two UK universities are based at Milton Keynes? Open, De Montfort Which university replaced Leeds Polytechnic? Leeds Metropolitan University The Gielgud Theatre, previously the Globe, was actually opened under which third, original name? Hicks theatre The Barajas Airport serves which city? Madrid Which New Zealand city has the Maori name 'Utani'? Christchurch What designation appears on a degree from Cambridge? Cantab What name is given to Cambridge University's Honours degree examination? Tripos Where is the RAF's training headquarters? Cranwell The Dead Sea is geologically a submerged part of which valley? Great Rift Europe's longest roller coaster is based where? Lightwater Valley Theme Park The world's deepest cave is in which country - it was discovered in 2001? Georgia In which UK county is the famous Bletchley Park? Buckinghamshire The Murray River forms part of the boundary between which two Australian states? NSW/Victoria The Ebro is which country's second-longest river? Spain Lightwater Valley theme park is in which UK county? North Yorkshire Who had UK number 1s with "Hangin' Tough" and "You Got It (The Right Stuff)"? New Kids On The Block In Wagner's 'Ring Cycle', who dies giving birth to Siegfried? Siegunde How does Brunnhilde die in 'The Ring Cycle'? Throws herself on Siegfried's funeral pyre Octavian and Sophie are characters in which opera? Der Rosenkavalier (Richard Strauss) The 'Can-Can' by Bad Manners was based on which classical piece? Offenbach's "Orpheus In The Underworld" Who composed "Rhapsody In Blue"? Gershwin Black pudding is traditionally made from the blood and fat of which animal? Pig Who composed "Royal Fireworks Music"? Handel What is 'bourride'? Fish stew or soup from Provence Which film score composer is known for his work with the Coen Brothers and also scored the Twilight movies? Carter Burwell Khachaturian's "Sabre Dance" comes from which ballet? Gayane 'Braxellois' is a sauce of butter, eggs and which vegetable? Asparagus Who composed the symphonic suite 'Scherezade'? Rimsky-Korsakov What are the two ingredients in 'Bubble and Squeak'? Cabbage, potatoes Who composed the oratorio "The Seasons" (not the "Four Seasons", which is a set of violin concertos)? Haydn An Australian carpetbag steak is stuffed with what? Oysters In the Bible, who were the tribe of Aaron? Levites On which island was Ariadne deserted, in Greek myth? Naxos Who was the Roman equivalent of Artemis? Diana Who was the ancient Greek God of healing? Aesclepius Who was the Roman equivalent of Athena? Minerva Which Nynph detained Odysseus for seven years, according to Greek myth? Calypso In Greek myth, whose accurate Trojan war predictions were ignored? Cassandra Which town gives its name to a double-sided lamb chop? Barnsley Who were the parents of Cassandra in Greek myth? Priam and Hecuba Which record label was set up by Eminem? Shady Records In myth, whose image was set in the stars by Neptune? Cassiopeia Which musical instrument had a forerunner called the symphonium? Concertina Who was the mother of Castor and Pollux? Leda Which composer introduced Chopin to George Sand? Liszt What was Bob Dylan's first UK Top 40 hit? Times They Are A-Changin' Melvyn Bragg's "Rich" was a biography of who? Richard Burton In Greek myth, the accurate predictions of Cassandra were ignored because of the influence of which God? Apollo Which novel was the inspiration for 1994 novel "Lara's Child"? Dr Zhivago Which play begins "In delivering my son from me, I bury a second husband"? All's Well That Ends Well Which author wrote "Koba the Dread", about Stalin? Martin Amis In poetic metre, what is the term for a foot of 2 long syllables? Spondee Psychiatrist Dick Diver appears in which novel? Tender Is The Night Who wrote the poem 'The Canonisation'? Donne What nationality was 1998 Nobel literature laureate Naguib Mahfouz? Egyptian Which type of novel takes its name from the Spanish for 'rogue'? Picaresque What is the name of Hazel's brother in 'Watership Down'? Fiver JM Barrie bequeathed the proceeds from Peter Pan to which institution? Great Ormond Street Hospital Which book begins "These two very old people are the mother and father of Mr Bucket"? Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Bill Gates bought which of Da Vinci's scientific notebooks? Codex Hammer Which newspaper launched the Ideal Home Exhibition? Daily Mail Who painted "The Origin Of The Milky Way"? Tintoretto Who founded the Illustrated London News? Herbert Ingram Which painting did art historian Goldscheider call "The Mona Lisa Of The North"? Girl With The Pearl Earring What type of painting values character or expression over exact likeness? A tronic What is a 'pendant' in art? Companion Piece Who painted "The Wrightsman Girl"? Vermeer Which novelist wrote "The Girl With The Pearl Earring"? Chevalier Where is Vermeer's "Girl With The Pearl Earring"? Mauritshuis, The Hague "In Quiet Light", poems based on Vermeer works, was written by who? Marilyn Chandler McEntyre Which writer took his pen name from a Birmingham City goalkeeper? James Herriott "I'm not unhappy", with a double negative, is an example of which figure of speech? Litotes Which novel begins "It was a dark and stormy night" - and who wro wrote it? Paul Clifford by Edward Bulwer-Lytton Which aphorism was coined by Edward Bulwer-Lytton? The pen is mightier than the sword Which 1826 poem begins "The Boy Stood On The Burning Deck"? Casabianca What is the full English title of Magritte's "Ceci n'est pas un pipe"? The Treachery of Images: This Is Not A Pipe Who painted "Blue Nude (Souvenir of Biskra)"? Matisse Who painted "Just What Is It That Makes Today's Homes So Different, So Appealing"? Richard Hamilton Leroy's use of the word "impressionsime" that came to define the artistic movement appeared in which magazine? Charivari Announced in December 2014, which James Bond film directly follows 'Skyfall'? SPECTRE Seurat drew on thecolour theory of which French chemist (1786-1889), who lived to be 102, in creating pointillism? Michel Eugene Chevreul Who painted "The Gleaners", "The Sower" and "The Angelus"? Millet Which architect was responsible for the modernisation of Paris, and is often associated with its wide, leafy boulevards? Haussmann What event was held at 35 Boulevard Des Capuchins from 15th April to 15th May 1874? First Impressionist Exhibition Berthe Marie Pauline Morisot was a female member of which artistic group? Impressionists What is generally considered to be the first artistic work of pointillism? Seurat's "Sunday Afternoon On The Grande Jette" Which US physicist (1831-1902), best known for his work in color (sic) theory, wrote "Modern Chromatics With Applications To Art and Industry"? Ogden Rood Roger Fry first used the term "Post-Impressionism" after viewing a 1911 exhibition at which London gallery? Grafton Galleries Who painted expressionist work "The Apparition (The Dance of Salome)"? Moreau Which Roman Emperor succeeded Augustus? Tiberius Which Emperor allegedly appointed his horse to the Senate? Caligula Who succeeded Caligula as Roman Emperor? Claudius The early steam engine, the aelopile, was allegedly invented by who? Hero of Alexandria Which Roman killed herself in 65AD, after involvement in a plot against Nero? Seneca What name was given to the historical dispersal of Jews from Jerusalem? Diaspora King Kanishka (the Great) led which North Indian/Central Asian Empire - originally his coronation was dated to 78AD, but more recent sources suggest 127AD? Kushan In which year did the eruption of Mount Vesuvius destroy Pompeii? 79AD Which Ancient Greek physician wrote "Da Materia Medica"? Dioscorides Who was the first of the five "good" Roman Emperors? Nerva Who were the second, third and fourth (chronologically) of the five "good" Roman Emperors? Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius Who was the last of the five "good" Roman Emperors? Marcus Aurelius Who replaced Nero as Roman Emperor? Galba Zai Lun is said, probably apocryphally, to have invented what? Paper Under which Emperor was Dacia conquered, marking the Roman Empire's greatest extent? Trajan Which Roman Emperor instigated the building of the Pantheon? Hadrian Which religious group believed that secret knowledge gave the path to salvation, and that the world had been created by a being called the 'demiurge'? Gnostics Which Roman Emperor succeeded the last of the five 'good emperors' Marcus Aurelius? Commodus Which 184AD Chinese peasants' revolt was against the Han Dynasty? Yellow Turban Which philosopher (c204-275) is said to have invented Neoplatonism? Plotinus Which Roman Emperor founded a 27-acre bath complex in Rome? Caracalla Which historical era of China began with the collapse of the Han Dynasty? Three Kingdoms In most lineages of kings and queens (ie ignoring Lady Jane Grey) who directly preceded Mary I on the English throne? Edward VI Who was England's first male Royal consort? Philip of Spain Who led a 1554 Kent rebellion against Mary I? Wyatt Who said at execution "we shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out"? Latimer Which overseas possession of England was lost in Queen Mary's reign, never to be regained? Calais At which Suffolk castle was Mary I proclaimed Queen of England? Framingham In 1557, a play called "A Sackful Of Newes" was the first in England known to have suffered which fate? Censorship Luther nailed his famous 95 theses to which town's church door? Wittenberg What was patented by Edgar Hooley in 1900? Tarmac Which British mammal is 'halichoerus grypus'; it is also found in North America? Grey seal 'Common door', 'rounded' and 'garlic' are all species of what? Snail Which two thrush species are winter migrants to the UK? Redwings, Fieldfares Which bird, a member of the thrush family, is 'turdus merula'? Blackbird What is cecidology the study of? Plant galls Where are nature reserves Caerlaverock and Campfield Marsh? Solway Firth What is a plant gall? Abnormal outgrowths of plant tissues (can be caused by various parasites, from fungi and bacteria, to insects and mites) Which name is given to a nose that is turned up at the end? Retroussé In which year were zebra crossings introduced? 1951 What did AM stand for? Amplitude Modulation Amorphous solids are solids that lack the long range order of what type of solids? Crystals (so amorphous solids are by definition, non-crystalline) Amplitude measures a wave, from its maximum value to what other value? Its average What name is given to a newborn animal's first fur? Lanugo What does AMU stand for in chemistry? Atomic Mass Unit What word, in evolutionary biology, means 'having similar structures with different evolutionary origins'? Analogous What is an ion with a positive electrical charge called? Cation Birds that belong to the family gaviidae are better known by what two names? Loons and divers Coulorophobia is the fear of what? Clowns What is the USA's largest trade union? Teamsters In Cockney slang, what is a 'Real Madrid'? Quid Early conservationist Archie Belaney was also known how, when he took on a First Nations identity? Grey Owl Ranidophobia is the fear of what? Frogs Where was the first contraception clinic? Amsterdam Shops that are by appointment to HRH Prince Charles display what symbol? Fleur-de-lis What is the US equivalent of the Office of Fair Trading? Bureau of Consumer Protection How many years must someone be dead before an English Heritage blue plaque can be put up? Twenty What is the purpose of the glow-worm's glow? To attract mates Corncobs are the ears of which cereal? Maize What was painted on the M3 in the year 2000 as an April Fool's prank? A zebra crossing Who made the Picante car model? Kia Which female American composer (1901-53), an ultramodernist, specialised in US folk music, and was the stepmother of a famous folk singer? Ruth Crawford Seeger Which English female composer (1906-83) wrote the operas 'The Numbered' and 'The Linnet And The Leaf' but paid the bills by writing for Hammer horrors? Elisabeth Lutyens Frauenliebe und -leben (A Woman's Love and Life), is the Opus No. 42 of which composer? Schumann Which Buddhist festival which comes at the end of Vassa, is a time for the laity to show appreciation to, and often they buy robes for, monks? Kathina The Agganna Sutta details a creation story in which religion? Buddhism Polonnaruwa is a former capital city of which country? Sri Lanka The Buddha was a member of which clan? Shakya What is the Chinese "Da Xiong Mao" in English? Giant Panda Designated as Mao Zedong's successor, which Chinese general died in mysterious circumstances in a 1971 plane crash, possibly because of a failed coup attempt? He commanded the decisive Liaoshen and Pingjin Campaigns. Lin Biao Kong Qiu is the Chinese name for who? Confucius The Republic of China, preceded by the last Imperial dynasty, was declared in which year of the 20th Century? 1912 In which centuries did Confucius live? 6th and 5th BC (551-479BC) The Oracle bone script is writing on divination bones from which Chinese dynasty? Shang When did China become the People's Republic of China? 1949 The Yellow River enters the sea in which Chinese province? Shandong The Tarim Basin is in which Chinese province? Xinjiang Changsha is the capital of which province? Hunan Xiao Wutaishan (2,882 metres (9,455 ft)) is the principal peak of which mountain range? Taihang Mountains What do 'bei' and 'nan' as in Beijing and Nanjing mean in Chinese? North, South What is a 'shan' in Chinese place names? Mountain What is a 'he' in Chinese place names? River What are the indigenous people of Xinjiang called? Uighurs Who was the nephew of Emile Durkheim, who collaborated with him on many works of sociology and anthropology, including "Primitive Classifications"? Marcel Mauss The Zuni people are native to which country? USA What does the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis state? That the particular language we use shapes how we think Zhang Daoling founded which Chinese religious movement, which reached its height in the 3rd century AD when it controlled a theocratic, independent state in Sichuan - although it still survives today? Way of the Celestial Masters What name is given to the 'energy flow' at the heart of the theory of much Chinese medicine? Qi The Azande people live mainly in which area of the world? Central Africa (DR Congo, South Sudan, CAR) What is a kippa sruga? Knitted Jewish skullcap What name, of Ojibwe origin, is given to a sacred spirit (often an animal), sacred object or symbol that is used as an emblem of a people? Totem Which is the only animal where the larynx is located low in the neck, such that it must be closed when swallowing? Man When damaged or mutated, the FOXP2 gene produces difficulties for humans in which activity? Language Who composed 'Sheep May Safely Graze'? Bach What is the Aramaic name for Calvary? Golgotha What quality makes an opera a 'Grand Opera'? Being sung throughout Which liquor's name translates as "the drink that satisfies"? Drambuie In which country was Katie Melua born? Georgia Johnny McElhone was instrumental in founding which band in 1986? Texas Who is the patron saint of libraries? Jerome Who would wear a chasuble? Priest/clergy How many valves does a bugle have? None What is a 'Blenheim Orange'? Apple Who wrote the song "You Can Leave Your Hat On"? Randy Newman Which singer popularised the Irish folk song "Paddy Mcginty's Goat" in the 1960s and 1970s? Val Doonican Whose first album was called "These Foolish Things"? Bryan Ferry Who first released the song "Why Do Fools Fall In Love"? Frankie Lymon and the Teenagers What is fed to pigs that are used to make "jamon Iberico de bellota"? Acorns Pukka Pies are made near which major UK city? Leicester Who was head chef at elBulli until it closed in 2011, due to making a massive monetary loss every year? Ferran Adria What is 'pan grattato' in Italian cooking? Breadcrumbs Famed restaurant elBulli, which closed in 2011, was located on which Spanish costa? Costa Brava Musician Baaba Maal hails from which country? Senegal According to the Bible story, for how many days was Jonah in the belly of the whale? Three Which distillery makes 'Glenlivet' whisky? George Smith & Son Which Cornish cheese is traditionally wrapped in nettles? Yarg Which fruit is a cross between a grapefruit, and tangerine or orange? Ugli Fruit Which spice comes from the curcuma plant? Turneric Sweetbreads are made from which part of an animal? Pancreas Which British singer won five Grammy Awards in 2008, including Best New Artist, Record of the Year and Song of the Year? Amy Winehouse Which musical is a prequel to the Wizard of Oz? Wicked Which cocktail is made from gin, grenadine, egg whites and cream? Pink lady Which small dish is used to serve crème brulee or a souflee? Ramekin Musk, horned and Santa Claus are all varieties of which fruit? Melon What name is given to South American green fried plantain chips? Tostones In which year did Luther nail his 95 theses to Wittenberg church door? 1517	Isaac Newton
The Santuari de Liuc monastery is considered the most important pilgrimage site on which Mediterranean island ?	Free Flashcards about GK 3 Semantics is the branch of logic concerned with what? Meaning Which Northumberland castle, located between Craster and Embleton, is closely associated with the legend of Guy the Seeker? Dunstanburgh Castle Whose poem is "The Quaker Graveyard in Nantucket"? Robert Powell Which poem did Milton write about the drowned fellow poet Edward King? Lycidas What was England's second-largest and second-most commercially important city for the bulk of the 14th century? Norwich Which sea battle was fought on 24 June 1340 as one of the opening salvoes of the 100 Years War? Sluys In which county are Chipchase and Belsay Castles? Northumberland In England, often associated with the wool trade, what European historiography term refers to the entire medieval system of trade and its taxation? Staple The narrator of Anthony Burgess's 'Earthly Powers' is generally held to have been a lampoon or caricature of which real-life author? W Somerset Maugham Maria Edgeworth is a character in which literary work? Castle Rackrent In which play does the line "to thine own self be true" appear? Hamlet In which Graham Greene novel is Scobie a character? The Heart of The Matter Paul Morel is the protagonist of which novel? Sons and Lovers Gerald Crich appears in which DH Lawrence novel? Women In Love Stephen Blackpool is the hero of which Dickens work? Hard Times Which fictitious Northern city is scene of much of the action in 'Hard Times'? Coketown In which novel is Paul Pennyfeather a character? Decline and Fall (Waugh_ In which century was the Sorbonne founded? 13th (1253) Dorothea Brooke appears in which classic novel? Middlemarch In a church, what is the chancel? The space around the altar at the liturgical East end of a church. Give a year in the reign of Philip II (Phillipe Auguste) of France. 1180-1223 Which perfume house introduced the 'Gentleman' brand in 1974? Givenchy Which word can refer to a bomber aircraft, a radio call sign and the Z-Cars code-name? Victor What was Eleanor Thornton the model for in 1911? The Spirit of Ecstasy Liverworts and green leaves are both rich in which vitamin group, including retinol, retinal, retinoic acid? Vitamin A Which Englishman designed the first modern steam turbine in 1884? Parsons Which foodstuff is prepared from Hydrocarbon toluene? Saccharine Which company made the 'Forester' car model? Subaru Which American first used the term 'torpedo' for a naval explosive? Fulton Which element is atomic number 9? Fluorine Highland Dirks and Stilettos are both types of what? Daggers Fish-oils and egg yolk are both rich in which Vitamin? Vitamin D Plasterers and Diggers are both types of what sort of insect? Wasps How long is a vicennial? Every 20 years What name is given to a female badger? Sow If a male cat is a tom, what is a female? Queen A musquash fur comes from which animal? Musk Rat What was unusual about the UK Nobel Prize Winner stamps issued in 2001? Scented What type of animals are cervidae? Deer The first UK self-adhesive stamps depicted what? Cats Gypsum is more correctly known by what chemical name? Hydrated calcium sulphate What is the chemical symbol of promethium? Pm Which Miletus-born Presocratic philosopher is sometimes called 'The Father of Science'? Thales The quagga is a subspecies of which animal? Zebra Which class of subatomic particles is named from the Greek for 'heavy'? Baryons Which Ancient Greek astronomer both discovered the precession of the equinoxes, and may have compiled the first star catalogue? Hipparchus Which kitchen appliance did Denis Papin introduce in 1679? Pressure Cooker Which vitamin deficiency causes beri-beri? B1 Which class of subatomic articles is named from the Greek for 'thick'? Hadrons In which year were self-adhesive stamps introduced to the UK? 2001 Which type of creature has the largest brain relative to body size yet known? Ant Asparagus, leeks and tulips are all part of which plant family? Lily Archangel and Havana Brown are both breeds of what animal? Cat Which mathematician is (possibly fancifully) often credited with inventing roulette wheels? Blaise Pascal Wemmick and Jaggers appear in which Dickens book? Great Expectations a gathered strip or pleated border of a skirt or petticoat What type of window is attached to its frame by one or more hinges? Casement Which palace, demolished and rebuilt in the 1930s, faces the Eiffel Tower across the Seine? Trocadero Which river runs through Bangui? Ubangi Which US author (1900-98) was the only foreign member of the Academie Francaise? Julian Green Which French painter ((3 October 1803 – 8 January 1869) participated in the July 1830 revolution? Paul Huet What was the profession of Jean Henri Riesener, who served the French monarchy in this capacity? Cabinet-maker Baccarat and Saint-Louis are both makers of what? Crystal Herbert Pocket and Mr Pumblechook both appear in which Dickens novel? Great Expectations Mr Brownlow features in which Dickens novel? Oliver Twist Who wrote "A Spy In The House Of Love"? Anais Nin How was Paris known to the Romans? Lutetia Which French poet ((30 October 1762 – 25 July 1794) was guillotined in the Revolution? Chenier A secular vocal music composition Which execrable poet wrote "The Railway Bridge Of The Silvery Tay"? McGonagall Agate is a variety of which mineral? Silica Which female American poet of the imagist school from Brookline, Massachusetts, posthumously won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 1926? Amy Lowell Which poet wrote "Atalanta in Calydon"? Swinburne Whose novel was "The Republic Of Love"? Carol Shields In which novel is Quilty a character? Lolita In which city is the Carnavalet Museum? Paris Who is the male protagonist of Nabokov's "Lolita"? Humbert Humbert What were Hamlet's last four words? "The Rest Is Silence" What were the last recorded words of Steve Jobs? "Oh wow, Oh Wow, Oh Wow" Which US poet's major work "The Bridge" was inspired by Eliot's "The Waste Land"? Hart Crane Elizabeth Bishop and John Berryman attained fame in which field? Poetry Whose work, Revelations of Divine Love, is the first published book in the English language to be written by a woman? Julian of Norwich Which US modernist poet wrote "Anecdote of the Jar", "Disillusionment of Ten O'Clock", "The Emperor of Ice-Cream", "The Idea of Order at Key West", "Sunday Morning", "The Snow Man", and "Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird"? Wallace Stevens What was the adopted name of Jean-Baptiste Poquelin? Moliere Which Pope was brought to Paris as a prisoner in 1810 following Napoleon's invasion of the Papal States? Pius VII The Tuilieres were burned down in an 1871 rising by which French group? Communards Which Christian theologian (1380-1471) wrote "The Imitation Of Christ"? Thomas A Kempis Which French King, who reigned from 1422-61, was the monarch on the throne throughout Joan of Arc's life? Charles VII Which religious order were revived in the late 15th century by Pope Alexander VI for the express purpose of guarding the tomb of Christ? Knights Of The Holy Sepulchre Étienne-Louis Boullée and Claude Nicolas Ledoux were noted in which field? Architecture Who wrote "La Venus D'Ille" in 1837? Prosper Merimee Which French poet (11 September 1524 – 27 December 1585) was called the "prince of poets"? Pierre de Ronsard Albert Lebourg was a French painter belonging to which school? Rouen school Which architect designed the 1910 Steiner House in Vienna? Adolf Loos Sir John Soane's Museum in London is dedicated to what? Architecture King's College Chapel in Cambridge is an example of which specific architectural style? Perpendicular Gothic Which English scholar, born at Colerne, Wiltshire, was a friend of Erasmus? William Grocyn Which humanist scholar and physician (1460-1524) has an Oxford college named for him Thomas Linacre Which English scholar, Renaissance humanist, theologian and educational pioneer became Dean of St Pauls in 1504? Colet What was the name of the Gloucester street where Fred and Rose West lived, where they murdered several young women? Cromwell Street Which Bible was the first English translation to work directly from Hebrew and Greek texts? Tyndale Bible In medieval times gentry who believed that they were men of their local Lord rather than the King were given what name? Retainers Cabot's voyage to Newfoundland took place during which monarch's reign? Henry VIII A swindler or confidence trickster During which years did the Dissolution of the Monasteries take place? 1536-9 In which English county is Berkhamsted castle? Hertfordshire By what collective name were the English figures Cranmer, Latimer, Tyndale and Coverdale known? Cambridge Reformers A group of people brought together for a specific (often ecclesiastical or academic) reason Which English antiquary (1503 – 18 April 1552)'s most famous work was 'Itinerary'? John Leland Which two English martyrs were burned at the stake in Oxford on 16th October 1555? Latimer & Ridley Which Englishman, famous for his Bible translation, was in 1536 convicted of heresy and executed by strangulation, after which his body was burnt at the stake? Tyndale In which year was the Pilgrimage of Grace? 1536 Which public school was founded by the yeoman John Lyon? Harrow In which 1549 uprising in Norfolk were 20,000 sheep slaughtered in protest at the use of land for pasture? Kett's Rising What name is given to the philosophical idea that only one's own mind is sure to exist? Solipsism Roughly how long ago did the hominid Australopithecus live? 4-2 million years ago Where was Giordano Bruno burned in 1600? Rome's Campo Dei Fiori Where is the Pope's summer residence? Castel Gandolfo In which town or city was Copernicus born in 1473? Torun, Poland Which work by Ptolemy contained his famous (but erroneous) geocentric model of the universe? Almagest In which unpublished 1510 manuscript did Copernicus first outline his heliocentric model of the solar system? Commentariolus Which six-volume work of 1543 was Copernicus' published work stating his heliocentric beliefs? De Revolutionibus How is the Arab polymath Ibn Al-Haytham's name usually Anglicised? Alhazen Which seminal work in the history of science was published on 5th July 1687? Newton's 'Principia' Who first measured the Gravitational constant in 1798 using lead balls and a torsion balance? Henry Cavendish The famous 'Blue Marble' photo of Earth was taken on Christmas Eve 1968 by which Apollo mission? Apollo 8 Who said, after Martin Luther King's assassination that it was time to "tame the savageness of man make gentle the life of this world"? Robert Kennedy Name any of the three Apollo 8 astronauts. Lovell, Borman, Anders Which mathematician (1784-1846) systemised eponymous functions which are used in spherical and cylindrical geometry? Friedrich Bessel What name is given to the apparent movement of an object caused by viewing it from two different spatial locations? Parallax Who wrote "The end of our exploring will be to arrive where we started and know the place for the first time"? TS Eliot Name any of the Apollo 7 astronauts. Schirra, Eisele, Cunningham Which Arab (965-1040) mathematician, astronomer and philosopher who made significant contributions to the principles of optics, astronomy, mathematics, meteorology, visual perception and the scientific method? Alhazen Which scientific constant is equal to 6.673×10−11 N·(m/kg)2? Gravitational constant What is 'parsec' short for? Per Arc Second Which space telescope was launched on the 19th December 2013? Gaia Which female American astronomer discovered the relation between the luminosity and the period of Cepheid variable stars? Henrietta Leavitt The Oxford Apartments where Jeffrey Dahmer lived were in which city? Milwaukee Which Canadian-American retired stage magician and scientific sceptic is best known for his challenges to paranormal claims and pseudoscience? James Randi Which term, coined by Paul Geisert, is used for people who have a naturalistic view of the world? Brights What ritual did Barack Obama always perform on the morning of elections he was running in? Play basketball What is the home stadium of the Chicago Cubs? Wrigley Field What was the name of the Coronation Street character, played by Julie Hesmondhalgh, who was the first transsexual to appear on a British serial? Hayley Cropper What was the name of the wheelchair-bound boss in 'The Avengers'? Mother Which TV series about the TA was set in Roker Bridge? Preston Front Who produced the film 'Chariots of Fire'? Puttnam Who said "some women get excited about nothing - and then they marry him"? Cher What was the last Hammer film before 2010' "Let Me In" - it was released in 1976? To The Devil....A Daughter Who played the lead role in the 1960 movie "Curse Of The Werewolf"? Oliver Reed Michael Balcon became the main producer at which film studios in 1937? Ealing At which film studios was the majority of filming for both "Star Wars" and "2001: A Space Odyssey" done? Elstree Which pop star said "I would rather have a cup of tea than go to bed with someone"? Boy George Who took over from Ned Sherrin as the host of "Counterpoint"? Paul Gambaccini Which actress won an Emmy for portraying Carmela in "The Sopranos"? Edie Falco Michael Douglas movie "A Perfect Murder" was a remake of which far-superior film? Dial M For Murder Fay Ripley played Jenny Gifford in which British TV series? Cold Feet Sweet Sue and her Syncopators appear in which film? Some Like It Hot Who played the children's father in "The Sound Of Music"? Christopher Plummer Marilyn Monroe made a breakthrough playing Angela Phinlay in which 1950 film? The Asphalt Jungle The film "2001: A Space Odyssey" was based on which Arthur C Clarke short story? The Sentinel Which British film and TV studios were originally called Neptune Studios? Elstree What is considered to be the first British "talkie" movie? Blackmail Who directed "Blackmail", the first British talkie? Hitchcock Who first hosted "Call My Bluff"? Robin Ray Which actor played Ashley Wilkes in "Gone With The Wind"? Leslie Howard Which actor played the titular role in "Young Mr Lincoln"? Henry Fonda Which Northern UK comedian used the catchphrase "daft as a brush"? Ken Platt Which 'Educating Archie' actress used a catchphrase on the show "My Name Is Monica"? Beryl Reid Which TV production company makes "Harry Hill's TV Burp" and "Russell Howard's Good News"? Avalon What name did the woman born Harlean Carpentier adopt when she became a movie star? Jean Harlow Which TV series starred Maureen Lipman as Jane Lucas? Agony What shape is Ely's Cathedral tower? Octagonal English Heritage was founded in which year? 1983 The Chingford Hunting Lodge, used by Elizabeth I, lies in which forest? Epping In which county is Epsom? Surrey Which sculptor was responsible for the 18 nudes that decorate the British Medical Association building? Epstein In which county is Eton? Berkshire Which Brazilian city is capital of Rio Grande Do Sul, and is home to the Gremio team? Porto Alegre In which state is the Andrews Air Force Base, often used by the US President? Maryland For administration purposes, into which smaller unit are US states divided? Counties Which Northern Irish river rises in the Mountains of Mourne and runs to Lough Neagh, the longest river wholly in Ulster? Bann Hamley's Toy Store is on which London thoroughfare? Regent Street Fort William lies at the North-East end of which loch? Loch Linnhe Which NW Scottish fishing village and ferry port is on Loch Broom? Ullapool Where in Dublin does the Irish National Parliament meet? Leinster House What is London's oldest mainline station? Euston As of 2009-14, how many MEPs does the UK have? 78 The River Lea - which runs through a nation's capital - is a tributary of which larger river? Thames What is the county town of Devon? Exeter Exmoor lies in which two counties? Somerset and Devon What is the highest point of Exmoor? Dunkery Beacon Which three provinces of Ulster are part of the Republic of Ireland? Cavan, Donegal, Monaghan Uppark is in which English county? West Sussex Uppark, West Sussex, is a town amidst which range of hills? South Downs Ickworth in Suffolk is home to which British Earl? Earl of Bristol The German word 'hemweh' is usually translated into English as what? Homesickness Which is the Northernmost of the Great Lakes? Superior Which aviator has Sydney's Airport been named for? Kingsford-Smith What type of structure is the famous Pont Du Gard? Aqueduct The Pont Du Gard crosses which river? Gardon In which English county is Charterhouse school? Surrey Which European country first used Guide Dogs for the Blind? Austria What is the name of Hong Kong's stock exchange? Hang Seng Apart from the Severn, which other major English river has a strong tidal bore? Trent Where is the Henry Watson Music Library? Manchester Dorval Airport was formerly which city's airport? Montreal In which German 'lander' is Aachen? Northern Rhineland-westphalia What are the second and third biggest cities of Denmark? Aarhus, Odense Boston (in England and hence the US) was named for which Saint? Botolph What name is given to the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers that forms part of the Iraq-Iran border? Shatt Al-Arab Aberystywyth sits on which bay? Cardigan Which rivers join at Aberystywth? Ystwyth and Rheidol What Welsh name does Cardiganshire now use? Ceredigion What is the official capital of the Cote D'Ivoire, although Abidjan remains the De Facto capital? Yamoussoukro The Kattegat sea area lies between which two nations? Sweden and Denmark Sukhumi is the capital of which autonomous province? Abkhazia Most of the world, except Russia, recognises Abkhazia as part of which nation? Georgia Which largely unrecognised self-declared state still has a hammer and sickle on its flag? Transdnistria What is the 'capital' of Transnistria? Tiraspol Scene of a famous battle, in which country are the Plains of Abraham? Canada Gran Sasso D'Italia is the highest point of which mountain range? Apennines What is the capital of the UAE? Abu Dhabi The Mumani massacre of 1993 occurred in which disputed area? Abkhazia Before 1971, the UAE was known by what name? Trucial States What is the capital of Nigeria? Abuja Which Japanese architect designed Nigeria's capital Abuja; he also won the Pritzker Prize in 1987? Kenzo Tange Which phenomenon causes the 'dark side of the moon' to face permanently away from Earth? Tidal locking Which Soviet space probe first photographed the dark side of the moon in 1959? Luna 2 The dark side of the moon was first seen by human eyes in real time on which space mission? Apollo 8 The Horsehead Nebula lies in which constellation? Orion Which astrophysicist worked out the galactic position of the sun in 1915, while WW1 raged? Harlow Shapley In which year was Einstein's Theory of General Relativity published? 1916 The Hooker Telescope is located at which US facility? Mount Wilson Observatory Who were the famed participants in an 1860 debate about evolution: one an ardent pro-Darwinist, the other a bishop? Huxley and Wilberforce Who were the two participants in the 1920 'Great Debate' in astronomy, regarding whether there were more galaxies than our own? Shapley and Curtis There are currently believed to be 54 galaxies in which group, of which the Milky Way is a member? Local Group Galileo studied which topic at the University of Pisa? Medicine Which Vatican chapel is separated from the Sistine Chapel by the Sala Regia? Cappella Paolina (Pauline Chapel) How was artist Ludovico Cardi, a close friend of Galileo, better known? Cigoli Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity was published in which year? 1905 The world's largest vacuum chamber is in Plum Brook Station in which US state? Ohio Where did the famed 1860 Huxley-Wilberforce evolution debate take place? Oxford In which US state is Mount Wilson Observatory? California All objects follow straight line paths across space-time that are called what? Geodesics Who produced the famous First Folio engraving of Shakespeare? Martin Droueshot Which piece of laboratory equipment, named after its shape, is used to contain a vacuum? Bell jar What name is given to a stellar remnant (a 'dead star') mainly composed of electron-degenerate matter? White Dwarf What limit, worked out by an American-Indian astrophysicist, describes the upper limit of mass that a white dwarf can possess? Chandrasekhar limit What are the densest type of stars known? Neutron stars Which English monarch succeeded Edward VI? Mary I What name was given to an unsuccessful 1569 attempt by Catholic nobles from Northern England to depose Queen Elizabeth I of England and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots? Rising of the North The Battle of Losecoat Field took place during which conflict? Wars Of The Roses Which 1547 battle was the last pitched battle between the Scots and English, and ended in such a catastrophic defeat for Scotland that it was called 'Black Saturday'? Battle of Pinkie Cleugh Which type of bay window projects from the main wall of a building but does not reach to the ground? Oriel window Who said of Shakespeare 'he was not of an age, but for all time'? Ben Jonson The First Folio contains every known Shakespeare work except which? Pericles The 1547 Battle of pinkie Cleugh took place near which modern-day town or city? Musselburgh A star remnant ('dead star') that exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit does not become a white dwarf, but what other type of celestial body? Neutron star Which English antiquarian wrote 'Britannia' in 1586? William Camden Which Englishman (1566 – 12 February 1630) spent most of the decade of the 1590s travelling on the European continent and the eastern Mediterranean lands, later writing about it in his multi-volume "Itinerary? Fynes Moryson Which footballer first earned £100 a week? Johnny Haynes What is Ian Botham's middle name? Terence Against who did Ian Botham take 100 runs and take 10 wickets in a single Test in 1980? India For which three counties did Ian Botham play? Somerset, Wiltshire, Durham Who was England's main wicketkeeper from 1967 to 1981? Knott Who is the only Zimbabwean bowler, as of 2014, to have taken over 100 Test wickets? Heath Streak Which South African all-rounder scored 9000 runs and 200 wickets in both ODIs and Test cricket match? Jacques Kallis For who was Gary Sobers playing when he scored his famous 6 sixes in an over? Nottinghamshire Who bowled to Gary Sobers when he scored his famous 6 sixes in an over? Nash Who holds the record for being Heavyweight Champion of the World for the longest time, 11 years, 8 months, 8 days? Joe Louis Rugby league has its roots in which town's George Hotel? Huddersfield What trophy is awarded to the winners of Rugby Union's World Cup? William Webb Ellis Trophy In which year did Rugby League's Superleague start? 1996 Which two now defunct teams played in the first Rugby League Superleague game? PSG; Sheffield Eagles What are South Sydney's Rugby League team called? Rabbitohs Which game involves hurling a beer-soaked rag at a ring of competitors? Dwile Flonking Punk poet "Attila the Stockbroker" was behind petitions for a new ground for which football team? Brighton Plough, Cobra, Upward Bow and Downward Dog are all examples of what? Yoga Positions In which sport is the libero exempt from rotating position? Volleyball Which football team, founded in Gelsenkirchen, were the Nazis' favourite team? Schalke 04 Which team share the Allianz Arena with Bayern Munich? 1860 Munich 'Card Counting' led casinos to change the rules of which game? Blackjack In craps, there are 2 possible winning scores - which two? Seven and Eleven In which country does the 'Top 14' rugby union contest take place? France The team of which nation were the last winners of Rugby Union Olympic gold? USA Which was the first Italian venue to stage the Winter Olympics? Cortina Which is the longest of England's horse racing 'classics'? St Leger In which country will the 2019 Rugby Union World Cup be held? Japan At which racecourse was the Derby run during both World Wars? Newmarket In a craps game what name is given to the dice thrower? Shooter In roulette, what is a 'straight up' bet? Bet on a single number In card game 'Hearts' which card carries the maximum penalty? Queen of Spades In card game, 'banco' a 'natural' is a score of what? Nine At which football team's home ground is the Bill Shankly Kop? Preston North End Which piece of sporting equipment has a type called a stumpjumper? Mountain Bike Hank Aaron spent the vast majority of his baseball career in which city? Milwaukee With 15, which county holds the record for most County Cricket Championship wooden spoons? Derbyshire Which three founder members of the Football League also played in the first season of the Premier League? Aston Villa, Blackburn, Everton Which piece of sporting equipment has a 'kicktail'? Skateboard In which pub game do contestants throw sticks at a 'dolly'? Aunt Sally Who, on 26th December 2006, became the oldest football player to score a Premier League goal? Teddy Sheringham Who captained the England cricket team during the 1985 Ashes? Gower In which county is the port of Bideford? Devon Which mysterious and highly virulent disease struck England, and later continental Europe, in a series of epidemics beginning in 1485 - the last outbreak occurred in 1551, after which the disease apparently vanished? Sweating Sickness Who solved Einstein's field equations while serving at the Russian Front in the German Army? Karl Schwarzchild The introduction of which non-existent constant into his equations did Einstein call 'his biggest blunder'? Cosmological constant The Triangulum Galaxy has what alternate name? Pinwheel Galaxy Who proved that the universe was expanding in a 1929 paper? Hubble Discovered by Penzias and Wilson in 1964, what is the CMBR? Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation What is the temperature of the universe as a whole, to the nearest point degree Kelvin? 2.7K What, in mathematics, is the relation of two lines at right angles to one another (perpendicularity), and the generalization of this relation into n dimensions? Orthogonality Having a harmful effect, especially in a gradual or subtle way What was first reported by US pilot Ken Arnold in 1947? Flying Saucer Which Italian astronomer erroneously reported canals on Mars? Giovanni Schaparelli In which US state is the Los Alamos National Laboratory? New Mexico Built in 1942, what was the first artificial nuclear reactor in the world? Chicago Pile-1 Whose paradox describes the apparent contradiction between the high probability of alien civilisation and humanity's lock of evidence for them? Fermi Paradox What does the SETI project stand for? Search For Extra Terrestrial Intelligence Which radio interferometer that is dedicated to astronomical observations and a simultaneous search for extraterrestrial intelligence is named after a Microsoft founder who donated $30m to the project? Allen Array Attendees at the first 1961 SETI conference gave themselves what name? Order of the Dolphin The equation that describes the probability of extra-terrestrial life is called what? Drake equation In quantum physics, which theory is the study of the analytic properties of scattering as a function of angular momentum? Regge theory In 1977 the strongest signal ever received by SETI goes by which colloquial name? Wow! signal What is the nearest star to the famous 1977 Wow! Signal? Tau Sagittarii Which is the only manmade spacecraft that has visited Uranus and Neptune? Voyager 2 What is the most distant man-made object from Earth? Voyager 1 Klapa music originated in which country? Croatia Which king's right upper jaw was accidentally removed during dental work in 1685? Louis XIV of France Who was the wife of George III? Charlotte of Mecklenburg What was the name of the only child of George IV, who died in childbirth in 1817 - she would have been queen? Princess Charlotte (of Wales) Which non-metropolitan district of Cambridgeshire was a historic county of England? Huntingdonshire The Forest of Arden is mainly in which county? Warwickshire What name is given to a planet outwith the Solar System? Exoplanet What name is given to a spinning neutron star? Pulsar A star that is moving away from Earth has its colour shifted to what via the Doppler effect? Red The habitable zone around a star that could potentially support liquid water and thus life? Goldilocks zone The Kepler space observatory was designed to look specifically at what? Earth-like planets orbiting other stars What is the third most abundant element in the universe? Oxygen Which volcano erupted in 1991 was the second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century? Mount Pinatubo What name is given to a scatter graph of stars showing the relationship between the stars' absolute magnitudes or luminosities versus their spectral types or classifications and effective temperatures? Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram All heavy elements on Earth originated in which celestial bodies, created by red giants that have run out of nuclear fuel? Nebula To the nearest half degree, what is the tilt of the Earth's axis? 23.5 In which year was the first exoplanet detected? 1992 Which geologic eon before the Proterozoic Eon, occurred before 2.5 Ga (billion years), or 2,500 million years ago? Archean Eon The oldest known evidence for life on Earth was found in which country? Australia In biology, what is the LUCA? Last Universal Common Ancestor What was the first geologic eon on Earth, representing the first half-billion years after the planet's formation? Hadean Eon What name is given to the earliest known complex multicellular organisms? Ediacara Biota What was the name of Buddy Holly's backing group? The Crickets Which best-selling author also wrote under the name Harry Patterson? Jack Higgins Who is the heroine of Austen's "Northanger Abbey"? Catherine Morland What is the surname of the central sisters in "Sense and Sensibility"? Dashwood What was George Eliot's real name? Mary Ann Evans Which English philosopher and critic of literature and theatre was George Eliot's partner, although they never married? GH Lewes What did the TS in the name of TS Eliot stand for? Thomas Stearns Which poem begins "Let us go then, you and I"? The Love Song of J Alfred Prulock Who wrote the "Strangers and Brothers" series of novels? CP Snow Which Roman poet first used the phrase "carpe diem"? Horace (in his 'Odes') Who wrote "Bhowani Junction", later a successful film? John Masters Which Japanese contemporary artist is behind the 'Superflat' movement and once made backpacks supposedly from the skin of endangered animals? Takashi Murakami What did the CP stand for in CP Snow's name? Charles Perry What did the L stand for in the name of Oz author L Frank Baum? Lyman Who wrote "Death In Venice"? Thomas Mann Who painted "The Triumph of Death" and "Dulle Griet (Mad Meg)"? Pieter Breughel the Elder Who wrote Gothic classic "The Vampyre" in 1816? Polidori Which poet (1752-70) died aged 18 in a possible suicide, or possible self-treatment for VD? Chatterton Who wrote "The Naked And The Dead"? Mailer In which year did Sinclair Lewis win the Nobel Prize for Literature? 1930 Who was born in Russia as Alisa Rosenblaum? Ayn Rand Mrs Malaprop is a character in which work? The Rivals Thomas Chatterton's death in 1770 was due to self-poisoning with what substance? Arsenic Dadaist Tristan Tzara hailed from which country? Romania How was other Frederick Rolfe also known? Baron Colvo Which minister of Henry VIII is the main protagonist in Mantel's "Wolf Hall"? Thomas Cromwell Who wrote the play "Androcles and The Lion"? GB Shaw Who wrote the play "The Wilmslow Boy"? Rattigan Give a year in the life of Peter Paul Rubens. 1577-1640 Who wrote best-selling book "The Time Traveller's Wife"? Audrey Niffenegger Who wrote "Ash Wednesday" in 1930? TS Eliot What was devised by Bell, MacFarquhar and Smellie in 1768? Encyclopaedia Britannica What was Buddy Holly's posthumous UK No 1 called? It Doesn't Matter Anymore In which year did TS Eliot win the Nobel Prize for Literature? 1948 Who edited the 18th century French "Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des metiers"? Diderot What name was given to Jacob Epstein's 1913 sculpture that resembled a torso on a tripod? Rock Drill How did Rupert Brooke die? Of malaris (on board a ship) How did Virginia Woolf die? Suicide by drowning Who is the protagonist of Robert Harris's novel "Imperium"? Cicero When did VS Naipaul win the Nobel Prize for Literature? 2001 Which three authors have won both a Nobel Prize for Literature and a Booker Prize? Golding, Gordimer, Naipaul Which work won the 2014 Nobel Prize? The Narrow Road To The Deep North (Flanagan) Which painter has given his name to both a broad collar and a short, pointed beard? Van Dyke Thomas Hardwick (1752–1829) was famed in which field? Architecture Where is 'Lorna Doone' set - now a national park? Exmoore Which group of exiled French Protestants are associated with the Queen Anne style of art? Huguenots Shaw and Nesfield were often collaborators in the 19th century in which field? Architecture Who wrote both "Coromandel" and "The Deceivers"? Masters There is a museum dedicated to the works of which other in Great Missenden in Buckinghamshire? Roald Dahl Who was Governor-General of Canada from 1930 to 1935? Buchan Chawton in Hampshire is best known for its association with which writer, whose last house can still be visited? Austen Who tried to kill Andy Warhol in 1968? Solaris On which of the Greek islands is Rupert Brooke buried? Skiros At which siege did Byron die? Missolonghi What was the better known alias of Jacopo Robusti? Tintoretto Which half-brother of Æthelred the Unready, and King, was murdered at Corfe Castle? Edward (the Martyr) Æthelred the Unready had which regnal number? The second Which historical 'protection money' was a tax raised to pay tribute to the Viking raiders to save a land from being ravaged? Danegeld What was a 'moot' in Anglo-Saxon England? A court or gathering Who was on the throne during the Great Fire of London? Charles II In which year did Britain join the EEC? 1973 What was established by the Maastricht Treaty? EU (or, arguably, the Euro) Which archaeologist gave the Minoan civilisation their name? Evans Which king expelled the Jews from England in 1289? Edward I Who was the last ruler of an independent Wales? Prince Dafydd ap Gruffydd Prince Dafydd ap Gruffydd was the first prominent figure in history to be executed by what method? Hanging, drawing and quartering In which year was the Maastricht Treaty signed? 1992 Which amending treaty was signed by the EU member states on 13 December 2007, and entered into force on 1 December 2009? Lisbon Treaty Which political party was established in 1971 by Ian Paisley and Desmond Boal? Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) In which year was the Irish Free State established? 1921 What name is given to the process where one organism engulfs another and then both live together for mutual benefit? Endosymbiosis The Z-scheme occurs in which process? Photosynthesis The earliest known eukaryotes appeared on Earth approximately how many billion years ago? 2 Billion Who was the second person to orbit the Earth after Gagarin? Titov Which port city on the Volga river is near where Yuri Gagarin landed on returning from his Vostok 1? Engels Shiro, a homogenous stew whose primary ingredient is powdered chickpeas or broad bean meal, is mainly associated with which country? Ethiopia Glowing or luminous, but lacking heat. What is the only member of the theropithecus genus? Gelada baboon The gelada baboon is found only in which country? Ethiopia What does a gramniverous animal eat? Grass The Laetoli footprints, perhaps the world's oldest, are found in which country? Tanzania The Afar Triangle is a geological depression in which three countries? Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea The Awash River is located entirely within in which country? Ethiopia How is Australopithecus fossil AL 288-1 better known? Lucy Which is the closest Cepheid variable star? Polaris Which ancient astronomer noted the precession of the equinoxes? Hipparchus Whose theory states that periodic movements of the Earth's orbit in space affect its climate? Milankovitch What is the nickname of the southernmost pit of Erta Ale? Gateway To Hell The famous hominid fossil 'Lucy' was found in which country? Ethiopia The famous hominid fossil 'Lucy' was of which species? Australopithecus Afarensis Who were the three crew members on the ill-fated Apollo 13? Swigert, Haise, Lovell The site Petra was built by which people? Nabataeans The slender passageway that leads to the site of Petra is given what name? Siq What is the translation of the building in Petra 'Al-Khazneh'? The Treasure What is the Russian equivalent of NASA? Roscosmos The Story of Sinuhe is a classic from which people's literature? Ancient Egypt What name is given to the earliest period of time in the history of the universe, from zero to approximately 10−43 seconds? Planck Epoch Who released the album 'Unknown Pleasures'? Joy Division Who wrote 'New Atlantis' in 1623? Francis Bacon What are the four first generation particles in the Standard Model of Physics? Up quarks, down quarks, electron, electron neutrino What are the four fundamental forces of nature that are carried by gauge bosons? Strong nuclear force, weak nuclear force, electromagnetism, gravity Which are the only types of particle that feel the strong nuclear force? Quarks The strong nuclear force is carried by which gauge bosons? Gluons The weak nuclear force is mediated by which gauge bosons? W and Z bosons What is the second-most widely spoken language worldwide? Which is the second-most widely spoken language in the world? Spanish What are the monolithic figures on Easter Island called? Moai After Spanish and English, what is the third-most widely spoken language of European origin worldwide? Portuguese What replaced GMT in 1972 as the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time? Coordinated Universal Time (French: temps universel coordonné, UTC) In which year was the Greenwich meridian officially designated as zero degrees longitude? 1884 With what is the website www.xe.com concerned? Foreign Exchange What is the currency of Cuba? Peso What is the currency of Switzerland? Swiss Franc What is the capital of the Spanish region of Asturias? Oviedo What was first developed in 1947 in the USA by Shockley, Brattain and Bardeen? Transistor Chuck Yeager used which rocket-fired aircraft when he became the first man to break the sound barrier? Bell X-1 Which Latin phrase means 'innermost reason'? Intima Causa Who designed the class of locomotives to which the Mallard belonged? Gresley The Mallard broke the speed record for a steam locomotive when travelling between which two cities? London and Newcastle Which English fashion designer is best known for her 1980s political t-shirts including "CHOOSE LIFE"? Katharine Hamnett The Clansman train ran between which two cities? London and Inverness Which German aircraft manufacturer invented the ejector seat? Heinkel What was invented by the Norwegian Ole Evintrude in 1900? Outboard motor Someone who works with precious stones The Flying Scotsman locomotive ran between which two British cities? London and Edinburgh Which group of hydrocarbons are characterised by the incorporation of a halogen in place of a hydrogen ion? Halons Which point on a celestial sphere lies opposite the zenith? Nadir An incorrect urban legend attributes the invention of the cat flap to which prominent scientist? Newton Which chemical element has white, red, violet and black allotropes? Phosphorus Which chemist first isolated sodium? Davy Which chemical element, number 41, was formerly called columbium? Niobium In the 12 days of Christmas, there were exactly 11 what? Pipers piping Which line touches a circle without intersecting it? Tangent Which are the only particles that do not interact with Higgs bosons? Gluons and photons (both massless) What is the formula to calculate a circle's circumference from its radius? 2πr (πd) Which interaction between a scalar field and a Dirac field is named for a Japanese physicist, and can be used to describe the strong nuclear force between nucleons, mediated by pions? Yukawa interaction In which year was the Higgs boson discovered? 2012 In Greek myth, who was the father of Niobe? Tantalus Interaction with a Higgs Boson causes a particle to gain what property? Mass What name is given to a polygon with 11 sides? Hendecagon Construction starting in 1357, in which city is the Charles Bridge? Prague In computing, what does ROM stand for? Read-only memory Which part of a computer allows data items to be read and written in roughly the same amount of time regardless of the order in which data items are accessed? RAM How many sides do all snowflakes have? Six The laws of which sport were first codified on 30th May 1788? Cricket What was first used after the 1905 murders of Thomas and Anne Harrow in order to secure a conviction? Fingerprint evidence Who formulated his laws of planetary motion in the early 17th century? Kepler In computing, what is a VDU? Visual Display Unit How many laws comprise Kepler's laws of planetary motion? Three What did early computer language ALGOL stand for? Algorithmic language Where were the laws of cricket codified on 30th May 1788? Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) In computing, how many bits make up a nibble? Four At what temperature Fahrenheit does water freeze? 32F In computing, what is OCR? Optical Character Recognition Of what vegetable is Romanesco a variety? Broccoli What name is given to a a mathematical function that summarizes the dynamics of a system? Lagrangian What does MIPS stand for in computing? Millions of Instructions Per Second In 1998 Thomas Hales announced that he has discovered a proof of which famous mathematical conundrum? Kepler conjecture The Kepler conjecture describes the packing and density of which bodies? Spheres Which 17th century National Trust property in West Sussex was affected by a devastating fire in 1989, but has since been restored? Uppark Which Australian Prime Minister was dismissed by the Governor-General in 1975? Gough Whitlam Which king was defeated by Simon de Montfort at the Battle of Lewes? Henry III In WW2, what was nicknamed 'the unsinkable aircraft carrier'? Malta Which WPC was shamefully shot dead outside the Libyan embassy in 1984? Yvonne Fletcher PC Trevor Lock was involved in which high-profile event of the 1980s? Iranian embassy siege Which US president did Lynette 'Squeaky' Fromme attempt to assassinate? Ford Where did General Lee surrender to General Grant on April 9 1865, essentially ending the US Civil War? Appomattox (court house) In which US state is the historically-famous Appomattox? Virginia What type of aircraft was the Red Baron flying when he was shot down? Fokker triplane Who were the first Britons to successfully climb Mount Everest? Haston and Scott Which is the newest of the Nobel Prizes? Economics In which year was the Nobel Prize for Economics first awarded? 1969 Of the US presidents depicted on Mount Rushmore, which is the most recent? Theodore Roosevelt Where is the British Tomb of The Unknown Warrior located? Westminister Abbey In which year was the UK's 'Unknown Warrior' interred? 1920 Which organisation was founded by Peter Benenson in 1961? Amnesty International Which PM of the UK became Lord Rievaulx when he was elevated to the peerage? Wilson What was 'Operation Chastise' in WW2? Dambusters Raid Which farm was used as a hideout by the 'Great Train Robbers' of 1963? Leatherslade Who former politician was using the alias Dragan Dabic when he was caught? Radovan Karadzic Which serial killer, jailed in 2008, was nicknamed the 'Suffolk Strangler'? Steve Wright 'Mad' Frankie Fraser was a notorious member of which South London gang? The Richardsons Which King of Norway (reigned 1046-66) was sometimes called 'Thunderbolt of the North'? Harald Hardrada (Harald III) What was codenamed 'Operation Rosario (Rosary)'? Argentine Invasion of the Falklands San Carlos Water, where the British fleet were largely anchored during the Falklands conflict, attracted what ironic nickname among troops? Bomb Alley HMS Antelope was sunk during which battle of the Falklands War? Battle of San Carlos What was the name of the Kray twins' older brother? Charlie Whistler v Ruskin and Addington v Tolstoy are famous examples of what type of legal case? Libel Which monk from Iona became the first Bishop of Lindisfarne? Aidan Which king is notoriously said to have died from 'a surfeit of lampreys'? Henry I Who did Peter Robinson replace as the First Minister of Northern Ireland? Ian Paisley Which daughter of a famous politician appeared in US reality TV show "Life's A Tripp"? Bristol Palin Which town or city was the birthplace of Harold Wilson? Huddersfield Which infamous assassin used the pseudonym Eric S Galt? James Earl Ray Which MP was killed in 1830 by Stephenson's 'Rocket'? Huskisson Which event occurred when 'Fat Man' fell out of 'Bock's Car'? Bombing of Nagasaki Which man first called Thomas More 'A Man For All Seasons'? Robert Whittington Where was James Earl Ray arrested after his murder of Martin Luther King? Heathrow The first act of the US Civil War in 1861 was the bombardment of which fort? Fort Sumner Which former US president died the year after John F Kennedy was assassinated? Hoover What nickname was given to women who knitted by the guillotine in Revolutionary France? Tricoteuses In which year was Julius Caesar assassinated? 44BC The mother of Tiberius, who was seen as the perfect Roman matriarch? Cornelia Of what is bryology the study? Moss The withers are on which part of a horse? Between the shoulders Bauxite is the principal ore of which element? Aluminium What is the chemical formula of nitric acid? HNO3 Cinnabar is the principal ore of which element? Mercury Which Chinese stealth fighter plane first flew on Jan 11, 2011? Chengdu J-20 Where about on a horse's body are the stifles found? Knees of the back legs Which gas mark is equivalent to 350 degrees Fahrenheit? Four How has the Chinese stealth fighter plane Chengdu J-20 been nicknamed? Powerful Dragon What did Jean Henri Dunant found in 1862? Red Cross What does ISDN stand for in communication? Integrated Services Digital Network How many points are there on a traditional sailing compass? 32 How is a rheostat now more commonly known? Potentiometer A rheostat allows what part of an electrical circuit to be varied? Resistance From what is agar made? Algae Who was the captain of the space shuttle Challenger on its ill-fated flight? McCandless What was the name of the school teacher onboard the space shuttle Challenger when it exploded? Christa McAuliffe Richard Feynman demonstrated that the Challenger disaster was due to the failure of which component? O-Ring Which explosive is made from nitrocellulose, wood pulp, nitroglycerine and potassium nitrate? Gelignite Which purple stone was believed to prevent drunkenness by the Ancient Romans? Amethyst Which flower is called the 'Fair Maid of February'? Snowdrop Single-celled organisms that do not contain organelles are called what? Prokaryotes What name is given to an organism's entire store of genetic information? Genome Prokaryotic organisms are divided into which two domains? Archaea, bacteria Creatures are classified by 8 taxonomic ranks - starting with domain, and ending with species, what are these, in order? Domain; Kingdom; Phylum; Class; Order; Family; Genus; Species (Dear King Philip Come Over For Good Spaghetti) What are the four kingdoms in the Eukarya domain of living creatures? Animal, Plants, Fungi, Protists The word 'science' derives from the Latin verb for which word? To know What name is given to non-numeric scientific data? Qualitative Where is DNA located in prokaryotic organisms? Distributed throughout the cell In order, which four elements comprise the greatest percentage of human body weight? Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen Equivalent to an amu, what unit is used to indicate mass on an atomic or subatomic level? Dalton Where is the annual Ideal Home Show held? Earls Court Exhibition Centre Which early 19th century building, with a famed rotunda, was the creation of Frederick Hervey, 4th Earl of Bristol and Bishop of Derry who commissioned the Italian architect Asprucci to design him a classical villa in the Suffolk countryside? Ickworth House Which city, the country's 5th largest, is nicknamed "The Brazilian Venice"? Recife In which Hampshire village is the Jane Austen museum? Chawton Chipping Norton, Banbury and Abington are all in which English county? Oxfordshire The word 'serendipity' derives from an obsolete name for which country? Sri Lanka In pre-Euro Greece, the drachma was divided into 100 of which smaller units of currency? Leptae There are places called 'Toronto' and 'Pity Me' in which English county? Durham What was the Escudo divided into in pre-Euro Portugal? 100 Centavos Which company were the first sponsors of the London Eye? British Airways Which Franco-English word refers to swampy areas or inlets in the Gulf Coast region of the USA? Bayou The city of Chittagong is in which country? Bangladesh The Mekong River drains into which sea? South China Sea Which US state forms Minnesota's southern border? Iowa Which European city formerly went by the name Pressburg? Bratislava Which was the first motorway service station to be open to all traffic in the UK? Newport Pagnell Initially only open to trucks, what was the first motorway service station to open in the UK? Watford Gap What is the English translation of 'Reykjavik'? Bay of Smokes The khamsin wind is most associated with which country, where it usually arrives in April, and is usually called the 'khamaseen'? Egypt Which French port, scene of WW2's "Operation Chariot" sits at the mouth of the Loire? Saint-Nazaire On which date does Waitangi Day fall? February 6th Which institution, based at White Lodge, Richmond, has the motto 'strength and grace'? Royal Ballet School The headquarters of GCHQ are located in which town or city? Cheltenham What nickname is given to the headquarters of the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ)? The Doughnut Which is the oldest rank in the UK peerage? Earl Which lake was created by the building of Hoover Dam? Mead Which shipping forecast area is the only one to border Belgium, England and France? Dover Which country's flag carrying airline is LOT? Poland In which year was the breathalyzer first used in the UK, after a Road Safety Act of the same year? 1967 Which area became Britain's first dedicated national park in 1951? Peak District By tradition, who is the only Briton allowed to command a private army? Duke of Atholl What is the postal address of the building often called 'Canary Wharf'? 1 Canada Square Which group of islands has the motto "Desire The Right"? Falklands With its main peaks of Sant Jeroni (1,236 m), Montgrós (1,120 m) and Miranda de les Agulles (903 m), which mountain outside Barcelona is home to a famed Benedictine monastery? Montserrat The Santa Maria de Montserrat Abbey houses which revered icon or image? Virgin of Montserrat/Black Virgin Antigua and Montserrat belong to which group of Caribbean islands, which range from Puerto Rico to Dominica? Leewards Which Lebanese town was once known as Heliopolis? Balbek Which Lebanese town was once besieged by Alexander the Great, and gives its name to a purple dye? Tyre Which limestone gorge on the border between Notts and Derbyshire contains Europe's oldest known cave art? Creswell Crags Which University city in Thuringia lends its name to an 1806 battle in the Napoleonic Wars? Jena Raasay, Sandray and Westray are islands belonging to which group? Orkneys Which area of reclaimed land in Kent and East Sussex lies between Rye and Hythe? Romney Marsh The Bedford Level is the southernmost portion of which area of reclaimed wetlands? Fens The town of Hythe is in which English county? Kent Lying at the confluence of the Rother, the Tillingham and the Brede, and a former member of the Cinque Ports, in which county is Rye? East Sussex The 'Romney Marsh' is a breed of which animal? Sheep What features on the flags of Kazakhstan, Rwanda and Namibia? A sun with rays Which locks are the highest point of the Grand Union Canal? Foxton Locks Gosport lies opposite and to the West of which city, by which it is connected by ferry? Portsmouth Which of the Orkney islands is nearest to the Scottish mainland? South Ronaldsay Which of the Shetland Islands lies furthest from the Scottish mainland? Unst Which castle, the largest in England, has at times been nicknamed 'the key to England'? Dover Castle Which country is called 'Druk Yul' by its inhabitants? Bhutan Fair Isle belongs to which island group? Shetlands Which small lake lies between Grasmere and Windermere? Rydal Water Which city is served by Deurne Airport? Antwerp Aire Force lies nearest which of the lakes in the Lake District? Ullswater Foxton Locks, the highest point on the Grand Union Canal, are in which English county? Leicestershire Grantley Adams Airport serves which island? Barbados Which Shropshire town did John Betjeman call England's "most perfect"? Ludlow Tours and Orleans both stand on which French river? Loire Which RHS garden, the second most visited paid entry garden in the United Kingdom after the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, is near Woking in Surrey? Wisley Which UK city has both a mathematical bridge, and a Bridge of Sighs? Cambridge The RHS runs 4 gardens in the UK - Wisley is one; name any of the other 3. Harlow Carr, Hyde Hall, Rosemoor Which shingle spit extends from Portland to Abbotsbury in Dorset? Chesil Beach Who coined the phrase "survival of the fittest"? Herbert Spencer The Trobriand islands are part of which country? Papua New Guinea Which Polish-born anthropologist (1884-1942) is sometimes called "the father of social anthropology"? Bronislaw Malinowski In which country is the Omo valley, important as a site of human evolution? Ethiopia In which country did anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski die of a heart attack? Mexico In genetics, what is defined as the composite of an organism's identifiable characteristics or traits? Phenotype How many pairs of chromosomes do chimps possess? 24 How many lumbar vertebrae do humans possess? 5 The first primates to branch off from the evolutionary 'tree' that led to humans, how afe strepsirhini better known? Prosimians What is the scientific name for an expressed genetic characteristic? Trait The infra-order 'platyrrhini' comprise which group of animals? New World monkeys Alive approximately 2 million years ago, which hominids were the first known ones to exhibit the modern form of bipedalism, to have used fire, and to have made complex stone tools? Homo Ergaster The hominid remains found in 2004 in Indonesia dubbed the 'Hobbit' were given what scientific taxonomic name? Homo Floresiensis The animal family 'hylobatidae' comprise which creatures? Siamang and gibbons Which geological period lasted from 24million to 5million years before the present? Miocene Which now-accepted anthropological theory posits a common origin for all human races? Monogenesis Which British geologist and doctor began the study of dinosaurs when he discovered and named a iguanadon specimen in 1822? Gideon Mantell The extinct, fox-terrier sized hyracotherium, fossils of which were found in the London Clay by Richard Owen in the 19th century, was once believed to be a direct ancestor of which modern day animal? Horse Which country has been the world's biggest rubber producer since 1993? Thailand Organisation for Economic Co-Operation & Development Which Celtic goddess was associated with the springs at Bath? Sulis The ancient cult of Mithras is believed to have originated in which state? Persia The Romans associated the local Celtic goddess of Sulis at Bath with which goddess of thir own? Minerva Whose quip was that "America and Britain are 2 countries divided by a common language"? George Bernard Shaw One of his recordings is on the Voyager space probe - which British musician was a successful populariser of early music but committed suicide in 1976 aged just 33? David Munrow "Beta Israel" is a community of Jews, mostly located in Israel, descended from which other nation? Ethiopia Which folk singer's most famous work is arguably the Vietnam protest song "Alice's Restaurant Massacree" (with two 'e's)? Arlo Guthrie Which San Francisco band, formed in 1965, played at the famous concerts at Woodstock, Monterey and Altemont, and headlined the 1968 Isle of Wight festival? Jefferson Airplane Of what disease did Woody Guthrie die in 1967? Huntington's Which conductor once said that "a woman's place is in the kitchen, not in the symphony orchestra"? Herbert von Karajan Which musician famously lived with George Sand? Chopin Which French composer (1857-1944) of The Scarf Dance was the first female composer to be awarded the Legion d'Honneur, in 1913? Cecile Chaminade What name is given to the relative lowlands of southern Nepal? Terai "Symphony on a French Mountain Air" and "Istar" are among the better-known works of which French composer (1851-1931) who was also a noted music teacher and theorist? Vincent D'Indy What name is given to the discritical mark consisting of a straight bar above a letter, usually a vowel, that takes its name from the Greek for 'long'? Macron The sports apparel company Macron is based in which country? Italy Which US composer (1867-1944), born in Henniker, NH, was the first American woman to write popular and successful high-art music? Amy Beach How does "Mahayana", referring to a type of Buddhism translate? Great vehicle Which cyclist was nicknamed "The eternal second"? Raymond Poulidor In Gulliver's Travels, scientists labour fruitlessly to extract sunbeams from which foodstuff? Cucumbers Cyclist Raymond Poulidor was nicknamed "the eternal second" because he always seemed to come second to who? Jacques Anquetil In the sun, which subatomic particles are changed into which others by nuclear fusion? Protons to neutrons As of 2014, which hypothesis is the most widely accepted one for why the expansion of the universe is accelerating? Dark energy Which Roman writer wrote a history of Rome that dated from the city's foundation until 9BC? Livy In which century was the Peloponnesian War? 5th Century BC Who founded the Athenian Academy around 380BC? Plato Who is considered the founder of Birmingham University - it was thanks to his tireless enthusiasm that it was granted a Royal Charter in 1900? Joseph Chamberlain What is sometimes considered the first comprehensive school to open in England and Wales, doing so in 1949? Holyhead County School Which Jewish Russian-born adventurer and secret agent employed by Scotland Yard, the British Secret Service Bureau and later the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), and was nicknamed 'Ace of Spies'?? Sidney Reilly Which two countries joined the EEC at the same time as the UK, on Jan 1st 1973? Denmark, Ireland Which nation joined the EEC on 1st January 1981? Greece Which 1673 Act of UK Parliament compelled all office holders to take Church of England communion? Test Act Beginning in 1651 and ending about 200 years later, which series of laws restricted the use of foreign ships for trade between Britain and its colonies? Navigation Acts Who was the mythical leader of agricultural riots in 1830s England, the name being taken from one appended to some threatening letters? Captain Swing The UK budget is nowadays usually delivered on which day of the week? Wednesday The UK budget is nowadays usually delivered in which month? March Which West End homosexual brothel caused an 1889 scandal when it was strongly rumoured to have had a regular Royal client? Cleveland Street Who was the only man, other than Winston Churchill, to have been in the UK cabinet during both World Wars? Lord Beaverbrook (William Aitken) Historically, which title has been used most often for a cabinet minister who does not have an official function? Lord Privy Seal Who was the first female UK cabinet minister? Margaret Bondfield Which UK Chancellor of the Exchequer was forced to resign after leaking some of his budget to a reporter? Dalton Which great opponent of child labour introduced the 'Ten Hours Act 1833' into the Commons, and was a strong supporter of prohibiting the employment of boys as chimney sweeps? Lord Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury) Which city was the Royalist HQ in the English Civil War? Oxford In which town or city was the UK's first co-operative shop opened? Rochdale What title is given to the British monarch's representative to an English county? Lord Lieutenant Which two cabinet ministers of Britain, a Foreign Minister and War Minister, fought a duel? Canning and Castlereagh Which Prime Minister famously said "You've never had it so good"? MacMillan In which year was the Iranian Embassy siege in the UK? 1980 On August 5 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed which place as England's first overseas colony, under the Royal Charter of Queen Elizabeth I? St John's, Newfoundland The warships of what nation fired upon British fishing vessels in a case of alleged mistaken identity in 1904's Dogger Bank incident? Russia Which forged letter was published by the British press 4 days before the 1924 General Election in an attempt to discredit the Labour Party? Zinoviev Letter Which civil servant was prosecuted for revealing classified information about the sinking of the Belgrano, although a jury acquitted him? Clive Ponting Richard of Cornwall, 1st Earl of Cornwall, and from 1256 King of Germany, was the brother of which English monarch? Henry III In Chinese History, the Han Dynasty moved their capital to Luoyang from where? Xi'an Who shot and paralysed US Presidential hopeful (he was seeking the Democratic nomination) George Wallace in 1972? Arthur Bremer Which Chancellor of Austria was murdered by the Nazis in 1934? Dollfuss Who was pardoned following his execution for murders that John Christie committed? Timothy Evans To what was Oliver Cromwell referring when he said "what should we do with this bauble, take it away"? Long parliament Which British monarch made Leamington Spa 'royal'? Victoria Name any 2 of the 3 nations which joined the EU in 1995? Sweden, Finland, Austria In which city did Lewis & Clark's famous exploratory expedition of America, to the Pacific coast, start? St Louis At what temperature Fahrenheit does water boil? 212 Which element is added to steel to make it stainless? Chromium Cassiterite was the chief ore historically, and is still important as an ore of which metal today? Tin What is the Bessemer process used to produce? Steel Which chemical element, atomic number 51, was first isolated by Vannoccio Biringuccio and described in 1540? Antimony What is the birthstone for February? Amethyst Banting, Best and Macleod are famous for discovering what? Insulin Who is credited with discovering the neutron? Chadwick Soldiers from which country supposedly introduced cigarettes at the 1799 Battle of Acre, although the story is probably apocryphal? Turkey/Ottoman Empire O.A North and Albert J. Parkhouse are both credited with the invention of which everyday item? Clothes hanger What is the chemical name of vinegar? Acetic Acid Mercury(I) chloride or mercurous chloride is also known by which one-word name? Calomel Aqua Fortis is another name for which chemical compound? Nitric Acid Dry ice is which compound in solid form? Carbon dioxide In 2005 Michelin invented which cross between a tyre and a wheel, that has the advantage of being 'burst-proof'? Tweel The youngest of the 12 men to have walked on the moon, how old was Charlie Duke when he did so? 36 The youngest of the 12 men to have walked on the moon, Charlie Duke, did so as part of which Apollo mission? Apollo 16 "Whitey On The Moon", "The Revolution Will Not Be Televised" and "The Subject Was Faggots" were all on whose debut album? Gil Scott-Heron Kill Devils Hill, where the Wright Brothers achieved powered flight, is in which US state? North Carolina Which of the Wright Brothers was the first human being to fly? Orville In the Sun, a proton turns into a neutron with the emission of which two other particles? Positron and electron-neutrino Based at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in Livermore, California, what is the NIF? National Ignition Facility Where is the privately-funded Global Seed Vault? Spitsbergen, Svalbard Archipelago Which German-born conductor, pianist, and composer (1876-62) was one of the major conductors of the 20th Century and helped establish Mahler as part of the repertoire? Bruno Walter Which term is technically given to an exhibition of works rejected by the jury of the official Paris Salon, but the term is most famously used to refer to an exhibition of that name of 1863? Salon des Refusés Which artist painted 'Burial at Ornans', which helped establish Realism by painting an ordinary scene on a vast canvas, where large canvases had previously been used exclusively for historical and mythical scenes? Courbet Which Impressionist painted "Monet Working On His Boat"? Manet In which town or city is Edge Hill University? Ormskirk Which International Airport is located at, and sometimes named after, Schwechat? Vienna Which UK transport secretary allowed Railtrack to go into receivership? Stephen Byers Which organisation has their headquarters at 8-10 Great George Street, having moved from Cowley Street in 2011? Liberal Democrats What is the translation from Danish of the Faroe Islands? Sheep Islands Which shipping forecast area makes up the Western border of Malin? Rockall What do the letters in military group the RHA stand for? Royal Horse Artillery Which port lies at the mouth of the Great Ouse? King's Lynn What was David Cameron's parliamentary seat when he became PM? Witney, Oxfordshire On which canal does the Pontcysllute Aqueduct lie? Llangollen What was the last college at Oxford to be all-female, remaining so until 2008? St Hilda's 53 of the 88 mountains over 14,000 feet in the USA lie in which state? Colorado What was London's Globe Theatre renamed in 1994? Gielgud Theatre Which river runs through Galway? Corrib Florida borders which other 2 US states? Georgia, Alabama In which Irish city is the Mardyke walk? Cork Which two UK universities are based at Milton Keynes? Open, De Montfort Which university replaced Leeds Polytechnic? Leeds Metropolitan University The Gielgud Theatre, previously the Globe, was actually opened under which third, original name? Hicks theatre The Barajas Airport serves which city? Madrid Which New Zealand city has the Maori name 'Utani'? Christchurch What designation appears on a degree from Cambridge? Cantab What name is given to Cambridge University's Honours degree examination? Tripos Where is the RAF's training headquarters? Cranwell The Dead Sea is geologically a submerged part of which valley? Great Rift Europe's longest roller coaster is based where? Lightwater Valley Theme Park The world's deepest cave is in which country - it was discovered in 2001? Georgia In which UK county is the famous Bletchley Park? Buckinghamshire The Murray River forms part of the boundary between which two Australian states? NSW/Victoria The Ebro is which country's second-longest river? Spain Lightwater Valley theme park is in which UK county? North Yorkshire Who had UK number 1s with "Hangin' Tough" and "You Got It (The Right Stuff)"? New Kids On The Block In Wagner's 'Ring Cycle', who dies giving birth to Siegfried? Siegunde How does Brunnhilde die in 'The Ring Cycle'? Throws herself on Siegfried's funeral pyre Octavian and Sophie are characters in which opera? Der Rosenkavalier (Richard Strauss) The 'Can-Can' by Bad Manners was based on which classical piece? Offenbach's "Orpheus In The Underworld" Who composed "Rhapsody In Blue"? Gershwin Black pudding is traditionally made from the blood and fat of which animal? Pig Who composed "Royal Fireworks Music"? Handel What is 'bourride'? Fish stew or soup from Provence Which film score composer is known for his work with the Coen Brothers and also scored the Twilight movies? Carter Burwell Khachaturian's "Sabre Dance" comes from which ballet? Gayane 'Braxellois' is a sauce of butter, eggs and which vegetable? Asparagus Who composed the symphonic suite 'Scherezade'? Rimsky-Korsakov What are the two ingredients in 'Bubble and Squeak'? Cabbage, potatoes Who composed the oratorio "The Seasons" (not the "Four Seasons", which is a set of violin concertos)? Haydn An Australian carpetbag steak is stuffed with what? Oysters In the Bible, who were the tribe of Aaron? Levites On which island was Ariadne deserted, in Greek myth? Naxos Who was the Roman equivalent of Artemis? Diana Who was the ancient Greek God of healing? Aesclepius Who was the Roman equivalent of Athena? Minerva Which Nynph detained Odysseus for seven years, according to Greek myth? Calypso In Greek myth, whose accurate Trojan war predictions were ignored? Cassandra Which town gives its name to a double-sided lamb chop? Barnsley Who were the parents of Cassandra in Greek myth? Priam and Hecuba Which record label was set up by Eminem? Shady Records In myth, whose image was set in the stars by Neptune? Cassiopeia Which musical instrument had a forerunner called the symphonium? Concertina Who was the mother of Castor and Pollux? Leda Which composer introduced Chopin to George Sand? Liszt What was Bob Dylan's first UK Top 40 hit? Times They Are A-Changin' Melvyn Bragg's "Rich" was a biography of who? Richard Burton In Greek myth, the accurate predictions of Cassandra were ignored because of the influence of which God? Apollo Which novel was the inspiration for 1994 novel "Lara's Child"? Dr Zhivago Which play begins "In delivering my son from me, I bury a second husband"? All's Well That Ends Well Which author wrote "Koba the Dread", about Stalin? Martin Amis In poetic metre, what is the term for a foot of 2 long syllables? Spondee Psychiatrist Dick Diver appears in which novel? Tender Is The Night Who wrote the poem 'The Canonisation'? Donne What nationality was 1998 Nobel literature laureate Naguib Mahfouz? Egyptian Which type of novel takes its name from the Spanish for 'rogue'? Picaresque What is the name of Hazel's brother in 'Watership Down'? Fiver JM Barrie bequeathed the proceeds from Peter Pan to which institution? Great Ormond Street Hospital Which book begins "These two very old people are the mother and father of Mr Bucket"? Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Bill Gates bought which of Da Vinci's scientific notebooks? Codex Hammer Which newspaper launched the Ideal Home Exhibition? Daily Mail Who painted "The Origin Of The Milky Way"? Tintoretto Who founded the Illustrated London News? Herbert Ingram Which painting did art historian Goldscheider call "The Mona Lisa Of The North"? Girl With The Pearl Earring What type of painting values character or expression over exact likeness? A tronic What is a 'pendant' in art? Companion Piece Who painted "The Wrightsman Girl"? Vermeer Which novelist wrote "The Girl With The Pearl Earring"? Chevalier Where is Vermeer's "Girl With The Pearl Earring"? Mauritshuis, The Hague "In Quiet Light", poems based on Vermeer works, was written by who? Marilyn Chandler McEntyre Which writer took his pen name from a Birmingham City goalkeeper? James Herriott "I'm not unhappy", with a double negative, is an example of which figure of speech? Litotes Which novel begins "It was a dark and stormy night" - and who wro wrote it? Paul Clifford by Edward Bulwer-Lytton Which aphorism was coined by Edward Bulwer-Lytton? The pen is mightier than the sword Which 1826 poem begins "The Boy Stood On The Burning Deck"? Casabianca What is the full English title of Magritte's "Ceci n'est pas un pipe"? The Treachery of Images: This Is Not A Pipe Who painted "Blue Nude (Souvenir of Biskra)"? Matisse Who painted "Just What Is It That Makes Today's Homes So Different, So Appealing"? Richard Hamilton Leroy's use of the word "impressionsime" that came to define the artistic movement appeared in which magazine? Charivari Announced in December 2014, which James Bond film directly follows 'Skyfall'? SPECTRE Seurat drew on thecolour theory of which French chemist (1786-1889), who lived to be 102, in creating pointillism? Michel Eugene Chevreul Who painted "The Gleaners", "The Sower" and "The Angelus"? Millet Which architect was responsible for the modernisation of Paris, and is often associated with its wide, leafy boulevards? Haussmann What event was held at 35 Boulevard Des Capuchins from 15th April to 15th May 1874? First Impressionist Exhibition Berthe Marie Pauline Morisot was a female member of which artistic group? Impressionists What is generally considered to be the first artistic work of pointillism? Seurat's "Sunday Afternoon On The Grande Jette" Which US physicist (1831-1902), best known for his work in color (sic) theory, wrote "Modern Chromatics With Applications To Art and Industry"? Ogden Rood Roger Fry first used the term "Post-Impressionism" after viewing a 1911 exhibition at which London gallery? Grafton Galleries Who painted expressionist work "The Apparition (The Dance of Salome)"? Moreau Which Roman Emperor succeeded Augustus? Tiberius Which Emperor allegedly appointed his horse to the Senate? Caligula Who succeeded Caligula as Roman Emperor? Claudius The early steam engine, the aelopile, was allegedly invented by who? Hero of Alexandria Which Roman killed herself in 65AD, after involvement in a plot against Nero? Seneca What name was given to the historical dispersal of Jews from Jerusalem? Diaspora King Kanishka (the Great) led which North Indian/Central Asian Empire - originally his coronation was dated to 78AD, but more recent sources suggest 127AD? Kushan In which year did the eruption of Mount Vesuvius destroy Pompeii? 79AD Which Ancient Greek physician wrote "Da Materia Medica"? Dioscorides Who was the first of the five "good" Roman Emperors? Nerva Who were the second, third and fourth (chronologically) of the five "good" Roman Emperors? Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius Who was the last of the five "good" Roman Emperors? Marcus Aurelius Who replaced Nero as Roman Emperor? Galba Zai Lun is said, probably apocryphally, to have invented what? Paper Under which Emperor was Dacia conquered, marking the Roman Empire's greatest extent? Trajan Which Roman Emperor instigated the building of the Pantheon? Hadrian Which religious group believed that secret knowledge gave the path to salvation, and that the world had been created by a being called the 'demiurge'? Gnostics Which Roman Emperor succeeded the last of the five 'good emperors' Marcus Aurelius? Commodus Which 184AD Chinese peasants' revolt was against the Han Dynasty? Yellow Turban Which philosopher (c204-275) is said to have invented Neoplatonism? Plotinus Which Roman Emperor founded a 27-acre bath complex in Rome? Caracalla Which historical era of China began with the collapse of the Han Dynasty? Three Kingdoms In most lineages of kings and queens (ie ignoring Lady Jane Grey) who directly preceded Mary I on the English throne? Edward VI Who was England's first male Royal consort? Philip of Spain Who led a 1554 Kent rebellion against Mary I? Wyatt Who said at execution "we shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out"? Latimer Which overseas possession of England was lost in Queen Mary's reign, never to be regained? Calais At which Suffolk castle was Mary I proclaimed Queen of England? Framingham In 1557, a play called "A Sackful Of Newes" was the first in England known to have suffered which fate? Censorship Luther nailed his famous 95 theses to which town's church door? Wittenberg What was patented by Edgar Hooley in 1900? Tarmac Which British mammal is 'halichoerus grypus'; it is also found in North America? Grey seal 'Common door', 'rounded' and 'garlic' are all species of what? Snail Which two thrush species are winter migrants to the UK? Redwings, Fieldfares Which bird, a member of the thrush family, is 'turdus merula'? Blackbird What is cecidology the study of? Plant galls Where are nature reserves Caerlaverock and Campfield Marsh? Solway Firth What is a plant gall? Abnormal outgrowths of plant tissues (can be caused by various parasites, from fungi and bacteria, to insects and mites) Which name is given to a nose that is turned up at the end? Retroussé In which year were zebra crossings introduced? 1951 What did AM stand for? Amplitude Modulation Amorphous solids are solids that lack the long range order of what type of solids? Crystals (so amorphous solids are by definition, non-crystalline) Amplitude measures a wave, from its maximum value to what other value? Its average What name is given to a newborn animal's first fur? Lanugo What does AMU stand for in chemistry? Atomic Mass Unit What word, in evolutionary biology, means 'having similar structures with different evolutionary origins'? Analogous What is an ion with a positive electrical charge called? Cation Birds that belong to the family gaviidae are better known by what two names? Loons and divers Coulorophobia is the fear of what? Clowns What is the USA's largest trade union? Teamsters In Cockney slang, what is a 'Real Madrid'? Quid Early conservationist Archie Belaney was also known how, when he took on a First Nations identity? Grey Owl Ranidophobia is the fear of what? Frogs Where was the first contraception clinic? Amsterdam Shops that are by appointment to HRH Prince Charles display what symbol? Fleur-de-lis What is the US equivalent of the Office of Fair Trading? Bureau of Consumer Protection How many years must someone be dead before an English Heritage blue plaque can be put up? Twenty What is the purpose of the glow-worm's glow? To attract mates Corncobs are the ears of which cereal? Maize What was painted on the M3 in the year 2000 as an April Fool's prank? A zebra crossing Who made the Picante car model? Kia Which female American composer (1901-53), an ultramodernist, specialised in US folk music, and was the stepmother of a famous folk singer? Ruth Crawford Seeger Which English female composer (1906-83) wrote the operas 'The Numbered' and 'The Linnet And The Leaf' but paid the bills by writing for Hammer horrors? Elisabeth Lutyens Frauenliebe und -leben (A Woman's Love and Life), is the Opus No. 42 of which composer? Schumann Which Buddhist festival which comes at the end of Vassa, is a time for the laity to show appreciation to, and often they buy robes for, monks? Kathina The Agganna Sutta details a creation story in which religion? Buddhism Polonnaruwa is a former capital city of which country? Sri Lanka The Buddha was a member of which clan? Shakya What is the Chinese "Da Xiong Mao" in English? Giant Panda Designated as Mao Zedong's successor, which Chinese general died in mysterious circumstances in a 1971 plane crash, possibly because of a failed coup attempt? He commanded the decisive Liaoshen and Pingjin Campaigns. Lin Biao Kong Qiu is the Chinese name for who? Confucius The Republic of China, preceded by the last Imperial dynasty, was declared in which year of the 20th Century? 1912 In which centuries did Confucius live? 6th and 5th BC (551-479BC) The Oracle bone script is writing on divination bones from which Chinese dynasty? Shang When did China become the People's Republic of China? 1949 The Yellow River enters the sea in which Chinese province? Shandong The Tarim Basin is in which Chinese province? Xinjiang Changsha is the capital of which province? Hunan Xiao Wutaishan (2,882 metres (9,455 ft)) is the principal peak of which mountain range? Taihang Mountains What do 'bei' and 'nan' as in Beijing and Nanjing mean in Chinese? North, South What is a 'shan' in Chinese place names? Mountain What is a 'he' in Chinese place names? River What are the indigenous people of Xinjiang called? Uighurs Who was the nephew of Emile Durkheim, who collaborated with him on many works of sociology and anthropology, including "Primitive Classifications"? Marcel Mauss The Zuni people are native to which country? USA What does the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis state? That the particular language we use shapes how we think Zhang Daoling founded which Chinese religious movement, which reached its height in the 3rd century AD when it controlled a theocratic, independent state in Sichuan - although it still survives today? Way of the Celestial Masters What name is given to the 'energy flow' at the heart of the theory of much Chinese medicine? Qi The Azande people live mainly in which area of the world? Central Africa (DR Congo, South Sudan, CAR) What is a kippa sruga? Knitted Jewish skullcap What name, of Ojibwe origin, is given to a sacred spirit (often an animal), sacred object or symbol that is used as an emblem of a people? Totem Which is the only animal where the larynx is located low in the neck, such that it must be closed when swallowing? Man When damaged or mutated, the FOXP2 gene produces difficulties for humans in which activity? Language Who composed 'Sheep May Safely Graze'? Bach What is the Aramaic name for Calvary? Golgotha What quality makes an opera a 'Grand Opera'? Being sung throughout Which liquor's name translates as "the drink that satisfies"? Drambuie In which country was Katie Melua born? Georgia Johnny McElhone was instrumental in founding which band in 1986? Texas Who is the patron saint of libraries? Jerome Who would wear a chasuble? Priest/clergy How many valves does a bugle have? None What is a 'Blenheim Orange'? Apple Who wrote the song "You Can Leave Your Hat On"? Randy Newman Which singer popularised the Irish folk song "Paddy Mcginty's Goat" in the 1960s and 1970s? Val Doonican Whose first album was called "These Foolish Things"? Bryan Ferry Who first released the song "Why Do Fools Fall In Love"? Frankie Lymon and the Teenagers What is fed to pigs that are used to make "jamon Iberico de bellota"? Acorns Pukka Pies are made near which major UK city? Leicester Who was head chef at elBulli until it closed in 2011, due to making a massive monetary loss every year? Ferran Adria What is 'pan grattato' in Italian cooking? Breadcrumbs Famed restaurant elBulli, which closed in 2011, was located on which Spanish costa? Costa Brava Musician Baaba Maal hails from which country? Senegal According to the Bible story, for how many days was Jonah in the belly of the whale? Three Which distillery makes 'Glenlivet' whisky? George Smith & Son Which Cornish cheese is traditionally wrapped in nettles? Yarg Which fruit is a cross between a grapefruit, and tangerine or orange? Ugli Fruit Which spice comes from the curcuma plant? Turneric Sweetbreads are made from which part of an animal? Pancreas Which British singer won five Grammy Awards in 2008, including Best New Artist, Record of the Year and Song of the Year? Amy Winehouse Which musical is a prequel to the Wizard of Oz? Wicked Which cocktail is made from gin, grenadine, egg whites and cream? Pink lady Which small dish is used to serve crème brulee or a souflee? Ramekin Musk, horned and Santa Claus are all varieties of which fruit? Melon What name is given to South American green fried plantain chips? Tostones In which year did Luther nail his 95 theses to Wittenberg church door? 1517	i don't know

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